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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..efb294c --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #60145 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/60145) diff --git a/old/60145-8.txt b/old/60145-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 64ad399..0000000 --- a/old/60145-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,14127 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Conquest of a Continent, by Madison Grant - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: The Conquest of a Continent - or, The Expansion of Races in America - -Author: Madison Grant - -Release Date: August 21, 2019 [EBook #60145] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CONQUEST OF A CONTINENT *** - - - - -Produced by Tim Lindell, Graeme Mackreth and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - - - - - - - - - - - THE CONQUEST OF - A CONTINENT - - - - - THE CONQUEST OF - A CONTINENT - - OR - - THE EXPANSION OF RACES IN AMERICA - - BY - - MADISON GRANT - - PRESIDENT, NEW YORK ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY - TRUSTEE, AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY - PRESIDENT, BOONE AND CROCKETT CLUB - COUNCILLOR, AMERICAN GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY - AUTHOR, "PASSING OF THE GREAT RACE" - - WITH AN INTRODUCTION - - BY - - PROF. HENRY FAIRFIELD OSBORN - - CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS - - NEW YORK · LONDON - - MCMXXXIII - - - - - Copyright, 1933, by - - CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS - - Printed in the United States of America - - _All rights reserved. No part of this book - may be reproduced in any form without - the permission of Charles Scribner's Sons_ - -[Illustration] - - - - - To - - MY BROTHER - - DE FOREST GRANT - - - - -INTRODUCTION - - -The character of a country depends upon the racial character of the men -and women who dominate it. I welcome this volume as the first attempt -to give an authentic racial history of our country, based on the -scientific interpretation of race as distinguished from language and -from geographic distribution. - -The most striking induction arising through research into the -prehistory of man is that racial characters and predispositions, -governing racial reactions to certain old and new conditions of life, -extend far back of the most ancient civilizations. For example, -the characteristics which Homer, in the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_, -attributed to his heroes and to his imaginary gods and goddesses -were not the product of the civilization which existed in his time -in Greece; they were the product of creative evolution long prior -even to the beginnings of Greek culture and government. This creative -principle--the most mysterious of the recently discovered phenomena -of evolution, to which I have devoted the researches of nearly half -a century--is that racial preparation for various expressions of -civilization--art, law, government, etc.--is long antecedent to these -institutions. - -Ripley missed this point in his superb researches into the racial -constitution of the peoples of Europe. Grant partly based his _Passing -of the Great Race_ on Ripley's researches, but did not carry out the -purely anatomical analysis to its logical end-point, namely, that -moral, intellectual, and spiritual traits are just as distinctive and -characteristic of different races as are head-form, hair and eye color, -physical stature, and other data of anthropologists. - -In the present volume, which I regard as an entirely original and -essential contribution to the history of the United States of America, -Grant goes much further and in tracing back the racial origins of the -majority of our people he lays the foundation for an understanding -of the peculiar characteristics of American civilization, which, all -agree, is of a very new type, something the world has never before seen. - -Grant supports Ripley in his distinction between three great European -stocks--Nordic, Alpine, Mediterranean. He gives very strong additional -reasons for one of his own earlier inductions, namely, that the Aryan -language was invented by primitive peoples of the Nordic race before -its dispersal, in the third millennium B.C., from the Steppe country in -the southeast of Russia. This superb and flexible language doubtless -aided the Nordic race in its conquest of Europe, in its ever-westward -journey across the Atlantic, in its Anglo-Saxon occupation of our -continent, in its stamping of Anglo-Saxon institutions on American -government and civilization. We all recognize that, like all other -languages, Aryan is purely a linguistic and not a racial term, just as -French is spoken equally by the Norman Nordics of the north of France, -by the Alpines of the center, and by the Mediterraneans of the south. - -My faith is unshaken in the ultimately beneficial recognition of racial -values and in the stimulating and generous emulation aroused by racial -consciousness. Let this stimulation be without prejudice to other -racial values--which should be duly recognized and evaluated--values -we Anglo-Saxons do not naturally possess. Moreover, I set great store -by the great mass of documentary evidence assembled by Grant in the -present volume. I think it explodes the bubble, of the opponents of -racial values, that they are merely myths. The theme of the present -work is that America was made by Protestants of Nordic origin and that -their ideas about what makes true greatness should be perpetuated. That -this is a precious heritage which we should not impair or dilute by -permitting the entrance and dominance of alien values and peoples of -alien minds and hearts. - -Finally I would like to define clearly my own position on these very -important racial questions which arouse so much heat, so much bad -feeling, so much misrepresentation. I object strongly to the assumption -that one race is "superior" or "inferior" to another, just as I -object to the assumption that all races are alike or even equal. Such -assumptions are wholly unwarranted by facts. Equality or inequality, -superiority and inferiority, are all relative terms. For example, -around the Equator the black races and certain of the colored and -tinted races are "superior" to the white races and may be capable under -certain conditions of creating great civilizations. In a torrid climate -and under a burning sun witness the marvellous achievements of the -Mediterranean race in Mesopotamia, Egypt, North Africa, Cambodia, and -India between 4000 B.C. and 1250 A.D. Or, coming nearer home to the -cool mountain regions, witness the great achievements of the Alpine -race in engineering, in mathematics, and in astronomy. - -It follows that racial superiority and inferiority are partly matters -of the intellectual and spiritual evolution which guides one race after -another into periods of great ascent too often followed by sad and -catastrophic decline. In this as in all other interminglings of science -and sentiment, let us not extenuate nor write in malice, but always in -broad-mindedness and a truly generous spirit. - -It is with the greatest pleasure that I have written a few words -endorsing this book as the first racial history of America, or, in -fact, of any nation. I stand with the author not only in nailing his -colors to the mast but in giving an entirely indisputable historic, -patriotic, and governmental basis to the fact that in its origin and -evolution our country is fundamentally Nordic. - - Henry Fairfield Osborn. - - August, 1933. - - - - -ACKNOWLEDGMENTS - - -First and foremost, the author desires to express his appreciation of -the assistance of his research associate, Doctor Paul Popenoe, who -collected authorities and statistics during an intensive study lasting -over four years. - -He also desires to express his appreciation for the sympathy and aid -of Professor Henry Fairfield Osborn, and of Charles Stewart Davison, -Esq. The latter carefully revised the text and made many valuable -suggestions. - -The author owes a special debt of gratitude to Doctor Clarence G. -Campbell for much assistance and to Doctor Harry H. Laughlin for many -of the statistics and analyses used in this book. His thanks are due -also to Captain John B. Trevor, whose masterly study of the early -population has been a great help, as have the studies of Messrs. Howard -F. Barker and Marcus L. Hansen. He also wishes to acknowledge the -assistance of Mr. A.E. Hamilton. - -Colonel William Wood, of Quebec, has been of great assistance in the -data given regarding the origin of the French "Habitants" in Canada. - -The writer is also obligated to Professor E. Prokosch, of Yale -University, for his assistance on several critical points. - -The American Geographical Society and Mr. Ray R. Platt were -instrumental in providing the maps used in this volume and the author -takes this opportunity to express his thanks to them both. - - - - -CONTENTS - - PAGE - - Introduction, by Prof. Henry Fairfield Osborn vii - - CHAPTER - - I. Foreword 1 - - II. The Cradle of Mankind 17 - - III. The Nordic Conquest of Europe 39 - - IV. The Nordic Settlement of America 65 - - V. The Puritans in New England 81 - - VI. The Gateways to the West from New England and Virginia 102 - - VII. Virginia and Her Neighbors 130 - - VIII. The Old Northwest Territory 158 - - IX. The Mountaineers Conquer the Southwest 183 - - X. From the Mississippi to the Oregon 195 - - XI. The Spoils of the Mexican War 208 - - XII. The Alien Invasion 223 - - XIII. The Transformation of America 235 - - XIV. Checking the Alien Invasion 268 - - XV. The Legacy of Slavery 281 - - XVI. Our Neighbors on the North 296 - - XVII. Our Neighbors on the South 320 - - XVIII. The Nordic Outlook 347 - - Bibliography 359 - - Index 379 - - -MAPS - - - FACING PAGE - - Ireland 68 - - Highlands and Lowlands of Scotland 82 - - Ulster Scot and New England Origins 84 - - Puritan Emigration from England, 1620-1640 86 - - Territorial Growth of the United States 122 - - The Thirteen Colonies 144 - - Roman Catholics, 1930 160 - - Congregational Churches 218 - - Negro Population, 1930 282 - - Negro Population: Increase and Decrease, 1920-1930 286 - - Dominion of Canada and Newfoundland 300 - - Mexico, Central America, and the West Indies 324 - - Distribution of Mexicans by States 328 - - South America 334 - - - - -THE CONQUEST OF A CONTINENT - - - - -I - -FOREWORD - - -American public sentiment regarding the admission of aliens has -undergone recently a profound change. At the end of the nineteenth -century a fatuous humanitarianism prevailed and immigrants of all kinds -were welcomed to "The Refuge of the Oppressed," regardless of whether -they were needed in our industrial development or whether they tended -to debase our racial unity. - -The "Myth of the Melting Pot" was, at that time, deemed by the -unthinking to be a part of our national creed. - -This general attitude was availed of and encouraged by the steamship -companies, which felt the need of the supply of live freight. The -leading industrialists and railroad builders were equally opposed -to any check on the free entry of cheap labor. Restrictionists were -active, but in number they were relatively few, until the World War -aroused the public to the danger of mass migration from the countries -of devastated and impoverished Europe. - -As a result of the problems raised by the World War, a stringent -immigration law was passed in 1924 and is now in force. This law[1] has -for its basic principle a provision that the total number of persons -allowed to enter the United States from countries to which quotas have -been assigned shall be so apportioned as to constitute a cross section -of the then existent white population of the United States. This is the -so-called National Origins provision. - -A controversy immediately arose over this new basis, as it was to the -interest of every national and religious group of aliens now here -to exaggerate the importance and size of its contribution to the -population of our country, especially in Colonial times. This was -particularly true of immigrants from those nations, such as Germany -and Ireland, the quotas of which were greatly reduced under the new -law. The purpose of this opposition was to warp public opinion in -regard to the merits of various national groups and to exaggerate the -non-Anglo-Saxon elements in the old Colonial population. - -This book is an effort to make an estimate of the various elements, -national and racial, existing in the present population of the United -States and to trace their arrival and subsequent spread. - -In the days of our fathers the white population of the United States -was practically homogeneous. Racially it was preponderantly English -and Nordic. At the end of the Colonial period we had a population -about 90 per cent Nordic and over 80 per cent British in origin. In -spite of the intrusion of two foreign elements of importance, both -nevertheless chiefly Nordic, our population and our institutions -remained overwhelmingly Anglo-Saxon down to the time of the Civil War. -Since that time there has been an ever-increasing tendency to change -the nature of this once "American" people into a mosaic of national, -racial, and religious groups. The question to what extent this -transformation has gone deserves careful study. - -The draft lists for the American army in the large cities during the -World War showed an amazing collection of foreign names. These lists -are most dramatic indications of the substantial modifications of the -original Anglo-Saxon character of the population which have occurred. A -vivid illustration is found in a war poster issued by an enthusiastic -clerk of foreign extraction in the Treasury Department during one of -the appeals for Liberty Loans. A Howard Chandler Christy girl of pure -Nordic type was shown pointing with pride to a list of names, saying -"Americans All." The list was: - - DuBois - Smith - O'Brien - Ceika - Haucke - Pappandrikopulous - Andrassi - Villotto - Levy - Turovich - Kowalski - Chriczanevicz - Knutson - Gonzales - -Apparently the one native American, so far as he figures at all, is -hidden under the sobriquet of Smith, and there is possibly the implied -suggestion that the beautiful lady was herself the product of this -remarkable mélange. - -Similar foreign names are beginning to appear and sometimes predominate -in the list of college graduates, successful athletes, and minor -politicians. In the words of the late President Theodore Roosevelt, we -are becoming a polyglot boarding house. - -The modification of the religious complexion of the nation also is -very striking. In Colonial times Americans were almost unanimously -Protestants. Now the claim is made that one in seven is a Catholic and -one in thirty a Jew. To what extent this change is due to immigration -and to what extent to the differential birth rate should be carefully -considered. - -In dealing with racial admixture, we should be certain that we are -not considering merely nationality, religion, or language. In popular -thought there is such a racial entity as the German, the Russian, the -Frenchman, or the Italian. These, however, are not racial, but national -terms. In a few cases of still unmixed peoples, like those of Sweden -and Norway, nationality, language, religion, and race coincide. But in -Germany, for instance, the Germans along the North Sea and the Baltic -coasts are Protestant Nordics, while those of Bavaria, of Austria, and -of other parts of the south are Catholic Alpines. Italy north of the -Apennines is largely Alpine, slightly mixed with Nordic, while Naples -and Sicily in the South are purely Mediterranean by race. In France, -where there is a mixed Nordic, Mediterranean, and Alpine population, a -single language and an ancient tradition have created an intense unity -of national feeling, and in recent decades there has been a marked -transfer of political control from the Nordic to the Alpine element, -as evidenced by the names and features of the present political -leaders. In Belgium there are two languages, in Switzerland four, to -say nothing of the medley of languages in the old Austrian Empire. Only -in Switzerland is there national unity, in spite of a diversity of -tongue. - -In America the events of the last hundred years, especially the vast -tide of immigration, have greatly impaired our purity of race and -our unity of religion and even threatened our inheritance of English -speech. If our English language is saved it will be due in no small -degree to the growing world power of the language itself and of its -literature, as well as to the world-wide ocean commerce of Great -Britain and her overseas empire. - -In the United States today this unity of language is vigorously -opposed by the foreign-language press. In all probability, however, -this foreign press is doomed to die out as the older generation of -immigrants passes from the scene. The fact that this non-English press -represents a score or more of different languages makes it impossible -for it in the long run to oppose successfully the English language. - -In Canada the fact that the French language is officially recognized -in Quebec and, for that matter, in the Parliament at Ottawa, makes the -problem there more difficult. It may be here noted that the French -language as spoken in Quebec is sneered at and ridiculed by the -European French. The use of French speech in Quebec, like the attempted -use of Erse in Ireland and Czechish in Bohemia, is merely serving to -keep those speaking such language out of touch with modern literature -and culture. - -The absurdity of attempting to revive an obsolete language such as -Erse is shown by its lack of literature of modern type. Sir Harry -H. Johnston once said to the author that Erse was a perfectly good -language, except for two facts--first, that nobody could pronounce it -and, second, that nobody could spell it. - -In Louisiana French is still spoken by the Creoles of New Orleans -and by the French and Negro mixture called "Cajans." This linguistic -diversity will in due course of time also disappear. More serious -is the retention and use in New Mexico of the Spanish language by -its Mexican-Indian population. Few people know that New Mexico is -officially bi-lingual. Sooner or later this must be stopped, as it has -greatly hindered the development of the State. - -As to race, as distinct from language, religion, and nationality, we -must consider our country today as being in large part a heterogeneous -mixture of racial groups and individuals. Since America's first duty is -to herself and to the people already here, she must weigh the effect -upon the present, as well as upon the future, of such racial admixture -as has already occurred and which promises to spread indefinitely. - -A striking example of this was shown during the Washington Bicentennial -in 1932, when some historians, in their efforts to placate the -assertive groups of aliens in our midst, endeavored to show the -existence in the colonies of substantial groups of these same aliens. -For instance, they claimed that most of the Revolutionary personages of -Irish descent were the same as the South Irish Catholics of today. That -is wholly error. The so-called "Irish" of the Revolution were Ulster -Scots either from the Lowlands of Scotland or from North England, who -came to the colonies by way of the North of Ireland after having lived -there for two or three generations. These Ulster Scots were reinforced -by Protestant English who emigrated from Leinster and both were widely -removed, religiously and culturally, from the South Irish Catholics, -who did not come to this country in any numbers until the potato famine -in Ireland in the 1840's drove them across the seas. - -To take an example: In the Convention of 1787, which formulated the -Constitution, certain individuals were put down as "Irish." These were -Protestant Ulster Scots. In the Senate of today, a few of the senators -are put down as "Irish." These are South Irish Catholics. To use the -same term for these two different types of population is erroneous. -They were widely separated religiously, racially, and culturally. -The same thing is true of that part of our population which was -referred to as "French." The French of the American Revolution and -of our Constitutional Convention were Huguenot French, who, though -few in numbers, took a prominent part in public affairs at the time -of the Revolution. They were, for the most part, Nordic and were -English-speaking. They were a distinguished group which had nothing -whatever in common with the "Habitant" French of Quebec, who are -Catholic Alpines. To call them both "French" is erroneous. A similar, -but less marked distinction, exists between the North Germans and the -Palatines, and they both differ from the South Germans in America, who -are mostly Catholic Alpines. - -In this connection it should be clearly understood that in discussing -the various European races we are concerned only with such individuals -of those races as came to America, and not with the populations which -remained in the original homeland. - -In Colonial times the Anglo-Saxon American avoided the danger arising -from intermarriage with natives, which ruined the Spanish and -Portuguese colonies in the New World and threatened the destruction of -the French colonies in Quebec. There was some crossbreeding between -Englishmen and Indian squaws along the frontier, but the offspring was -everywhere regarded as an Indian, just as a mulatto in the English -colonies was regarded as belonging to the Negro race. This racial -prejudice kept the white race in America pure, while its absence and -the scarcity of white women ultimately destroyed European supremacy in -the Spanish and Portuguese colonies. - -At the time of the settlement of the Spanish and Portuguese colonies, -the Roman Church was dominant. Its chief motive was to save souls for -heaven rather than to perpetuate the control of Europeans. That church, -therefore, favored marriage of the Europeans, Spaniard and Portuguese, -with the native women and considered the children to be white. The -same was true of the mixtures of French and Indians in Quebec, and the -church recognized the resulting half-breed offspring as French and not -native. - -This policy of the church was aided by the lack of race dignity which -is even today found sometimes among the French, the Spaniards, and the -Portuguese. For example, in the South of Portugal there was a large -Negro slave element introduced in the sixteenth century which is now -absorbed into the surrounding population. Similar conditions exist in -South Italy, where there is a substantial Negroid element, probably -descended from the Negro slaves introduced by the Romans from Africa -some two thousand years ago. - -One of the unfortunate results of racial mixture, or miscegenation -between diverse races, is disharmony in the offspring, and the more -widely separated the parent stocks, the greater is this lack of harmony -likely to be in both mental and physical characters. Herbert Spencer, -in response to a request for advice, writing in 1892 to the Japanese -statesman, Baron Keneko Kentaro, stated this biological fact very -clearly when he said: - - "To your remaining question respecting the intermarriage of - foreigners and Japanese, which you say is 'now very much agitated - among our scholars and politicians' and which you say is 'one of the - most difficult problems,' my reply is that, as rationally answered, - there is no difficulty at all. It should be positively forbidden. - It is not at root a question of social philosophy. It is at root a - question of biology. There is abundant proof, alike furnished by the - intermarriages of human races and by the interbreeding of animals, - that when the varieties mingled diverge beyond a certain slight - degree the _result is inevitably a bad one in the long run_.... When, - say of the different varieties of sheep, there is an interbreeding - of those which are widely unlike, the result, especially in the - second generation, is a bad one--there arises an incalculable mixture - of traits, and what may be called a chaotic constitution. And the - same thing happens among human beings--the Eurasians in India, the - half-breeds in America, show this. The physiological basis of this - experience appears to be that any one variety of creature in course - of many generations acquires a certain constitutional adaptation - to its particular form of life, and every other variety similarly - acquires its own special adaptation. The consequence is that, if you - mix the constitution of two widely divergent varieties which have - severally become adapted to widely divergent modes of life, you get - a constitution which is adapted to the mode of life of neither--a - constitution which will not work properly, because it is not fitted - for any set of conditions whatever. By all means, therefore, - peremptorily interdict marriages of Japanese with foreigners." - -The relative diminution of Anglo-Saxon blood in America and the present -check to the expansion of the British Empire are due partly to a -curious sentimental quality of the Anglo-Saxon mind, the effect of -which is almost suicidal. - -It is a striking fact that tragic and even fatal consequences may arise -from the noblest motives. The abolition of the obsolete institution of -slavery occupied the minds of some of the best men of the nineteenth -century and serfdom was only stamped out finally at immense cost to -the finest elements of our Anglo-Saxon stock. Looking back over these -events at a distance of a half-century there appear many considerations -which were neglected by those who were too close to the conflict to see -into the future. Let us consider the consequences in the world at large -of the abolition of slavery and of the breaking down of the barrier -maintained by that institution between the Whites and the Blacks. - -For instance, in the British Empire, the abolition of slavery a hundred -years ago contributed in large part to the decline and finally to the -almost complete disappearance of pure Nordic blood in the West Indies, -where previously there had been rich and flourishing colonies of white -men employing black slaves. - -In South Africa the revolt and outtrekking of Boers beyond the -Vaal River were due largely to the abolition of slavery and to the -sentimental treatment of the slaves by the Home Government. The -passions engendered at that time ultimately led to two bloody and -useless wars between the Nordic peoples of South Africa. - -Other European nations suffered similarly from the abolition of -slavery in their American colonies. Undiluted white blood has almost -disappeared in Jamaica and Puerto Rico, while the natives of the Virgin -Islands are nearly all Negroes and Mulattoes. - -The most tragic result of the loss of White control of the Blacks was -shown in the history of Haiti and Santo Domingo. The freeing of the -slaves and the disturbances resulting from the French Revolution had as -a consequence the massacre or exile of practically every white person -in the island. The French doctrinaires were responsible to some extent -for this. Even Lafayette was President of the "Société des Amis des -Noirs." Today the black inhabitants of this great island have reverted -almost to barbarism. - -The islands and coasts of the entire Caribbean Sea with much of -the coasts of the Gulf of Mexico are fast becoming Negro Land and -apparently in the near future the European element will be more and -more in a hopeless minority. - -In the United States we have a startling example of the effect of -sentimentalism upon Nordic survival. The North was entirely right in -endeavoring to keep slavery out of Kansas and the new States of the -West, to that extent avoiding the color problem there. The sentimental -interference with slavery, however, on the part of the Northern -Abolitionists helped to precipitate the bloody Civil War and to destroy -a very large portion of the best stock of the nation, especially in the -South. The Southerners also were greatly to blame for their utter folly -in seceding as a means of maintaining their peculiar institution, as -they termed it. - -If the question of slavery had been left alone, the issue of the -preservation of the Union would have been postponed for at least a -generation. In time the overwhelming numbers and wealth of the North -would have made any serious question of secession an absurdity. As a -consequence of the Civil War hundreds of thousands of men of Nordic -stock were cut off in the full vigor of manhood, who otherwise would -have lived to propagate their kind and populate the West. Besides this, -slavery as an institution was outside of the pale of civilization long -before the Civil War and it would have been peacefully abolished in a -few decades through economic causes. - -The Blacks themselves were raised by slavery from sheer savagery to a -feeble imitation of white civilization, and they made more advance in -America in two centuries than in as many thousand years in Africa. The -presence of slaves, however, was injurious to the Whites. Serfdom has -been a curse wherever it has flourished in the New World and it has had -a profoundly demoralizing effect on the masters. - -American democracy at the start rested on a base of population that -was, as already said, homogeneous in race, religion, tradition, and -language, and in a relative equality of wealth. All these features -are things of the past and democracy has virtually broken down in -spite of the fatuous ecstasy which characterizes the utterances of -sentimentalists, who even claimed that the World War was fought "to -make the World Safe for Democracy." - -It seems strange that this so-called liberal point of view is so -short-sighted that we have in our midst today organizations and groups -who, with the best intentions, are encouraging the Negro within and -the black, brown, and yellow men without, to dispute the dominance over -the world at large of Christian Europeans and Americans. Throughout -the world, there has gone forth a challenge to white supremacy and -this movement in Asia, Africa, and elsewhere has been fostered by the -Christian missionaries. It has even gone so far that it is openly -stated that any assertion of race supremacy, or even discussion of race -distinctions in this country, should be suppressed in the interests -of the spread of Christianity in foreign countries--notably Japan. In -the long run, however, these doctrines will work great injury to the -Protestant churches if they persist in taking an anti-national point -of view. While many of the individual ministers are well-meaning and -kindly, their education is undeveloped in world affairs and their -advice in such matters, on which they are uninstructed, is often very -dangerous. - -Sentimental sympathy for other races of mankind is manifest today -all over the world, but especially among Anglo-Saxons. It received a -great impetus from President Wilson's doctrine of the right of Self -Determination. The fruits of this doctrine can be seen in the rise -of so-called nationalism everywhere, as in Ireland, Bohemia, Poland, -Egypt, the Philippines, China, and India. - -The racially suicidal result of all this is the undermining of the -control of the Nordic races over the natives. The upper classes and, in -many cases, the peasantry in eastern Germany, for example, are Nordics. -One of the tragic consequences of the World War was the taking of -political power in this region from the Nordics and transferring it, -under the guise of democratic institutions, to Alpine Slavs. In Soviet -Russia, also, through the massacre and exile of the Nordic upper -classes, political power has passed into the hands of Alpines, exactly -as in France during the Revolution the Alpine lower classes destroyed -the Nordic nobility and assumed control of the state. The Revolutionary -and Napoleonic Wars which followed killed off an undue proportion of -Nordics in France and are said to have greatly shortened the stature of -the French soldiers. - -The revolt against European control, especially in the Orient, is -becoming more and more pronounced. As said above it has been encouraged -unintentionally by the missionaries, who, in educating the natives, -succeed only in arousing them to assert their equality with the -European races. Probably the greatest tragedy in the world today is the -corrosive jealousy of the fair skin of the white races felt by those -whose skin is black, yellow, or brown. The world will hear more of this -as the revolt of the lower races spreads. - -One of the manifestations of this jealousy of the fair skin of the -Nordics is shown in those numerous cases where members of the colored -races, or even dark-skinned members of the Nordic race regard the -possession of a blonde woman as an assertion and proof of race -equality. This has been true historically since the earliest times. It -is more than ever in evidence at the present day. - -All the foregoing points to the value of a critical consideration -of the racial composition of the original thirteen colonies and an -analysis of the situation as it is today. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[Footnote 1: This bill was framed and passed through the efforts -of Honorable Albert Johnson of Washington. "A new Declaration of -Independence," it has been happily called.] - - - - -II - -THE CRADLE OF MANKIND - - -Man is an immensely ancient animal. Over a million years have elapsed -since he first made fire and more millions since he became a bipedal -prehuman. He left the forests, at the latest, at the end of the -Miocene, not less than seven million years ago and ventured out into -the plains of Central Asia as a savage, powerful, clever biped, hunting -in packs, or by sheer wit securing his prey single handed by pitfalls -and other devices, the invention of which marks the development of -growing intelligence. - -Man's initial differentiation from his simian ancestry probably began -when he came down from the trees and began to walk erect. The hand was -then liberated from its use as an instrument of locomotion and was -devoted primarily to defense, attack, discovery, and invention. It is -by means of the opportunities afforded by the hand that the human brain -has evolved into man's most important factor in racial survival. - -Clear evidence of man's remote arboreal ancestry is offered by his -stereoscopic or double-eyed vision. The great majority of ground -animals, especially those living in the forest, have eyes on the sides -of their heads; but in man's arboreal ancestors, by the recession of -the intervening nasal and facial bones, the eyes were brought around -to the front of the face. The resulting stereoptic vision enabled him -to judge distance far more accurately than most mammals. Such power of -determining distance is of course vital to an arboreal animal. Failure -to judge accurately the length of a leap from branch to branch would be -fatal. - -One often hears it stated that man has lost his sense of smell; but -this sense was probably never better developed within the human period -than it is now. In the trees a sense of smell is not of much value. The -monkey can sit on a branch and jabber with impunity at the leopard on -the ground below. To forest animals, like the deer or boar, however, -the sense of smell is the surest protection against attack and is much -more highly developed than the sense of sight, which latter is often -quite feeble. In fact, in the thick jungle it is almost useless (and at -"black night" completely so). - -Eurasia, where it is probable that mankind originated, was the greatest -land mass on the globe in Tertiary times. Modern Europe and North -Africa formed relatively small peninsulas in the extreme west of this -Tertiary land mass. It is probably from Eurasia that man spread out -to the uttermost parts of the habitable globe, carrying with him his -language and such cultural features as had developed at the time of -each successive migration. No race or language or cultural invention -seems to have entered Eurasia from adjoining land areas. All went out. -None came in. While the original center of dispersal of the Hominidæ -or human family was probably Eurasia, it was at a later date also the -center of the evolution of the higher types of man. - -To the northeast of Eurasia lay the ancient land connection with North -America via Alaska, over which various species of animals passed back -and forth, some of them having their origin in Asia and others in -western North America. It was undoubtedly over this land connection -that man first entered America at a relatively recent period and -probably he came in successive waves. The American Indians appear to -have been derived from the Mongoloid tribes of northeastern Asia before -the latter had developed some of those extreme specializations which -characterize the typical Mongols of Central Asia and China proper -today. Judging from the culture which these American Indians brought -with them, this migration began before 10,000 B.C. - -The existing races of mankind, and those either entirely extinct or now -absorbed in other races, had their distinctive areas of differentiation -and periods of radiation from Eurasia over the habitable globe. The -most primitive types are now found farthest from this original centre -of distribution in countries where through isolation they escaped -competition with the higher types which evolved later. - -The weight of evidence appears to show that Africa, or Ethiopia, lying -far to the southwest of Eurasia, was peopled in earliest times, by way -of Arabia, by a most primitive negroid type of mankind. While north -of the Sahara migrations from Asia have continued until recent times, -the south was left for a vast period in possession of the Negro. Even -today, aside from the recent infiltration of Whites and Browns, Africa -south of the Sahara belongs to three negroid groups; the Negroes -proper, the Pigmies or Negrillos, and the Bushmen and Hottentots. -These three human types are characterized by very dark or yellow skin, -tightly curled hair, very scanty body hair, flaring nostrils, flattened -noses and an absence of supraorbital ridges. - -Again, Australia, Tasmania, and some of the adjoining islands are, -or recently were, inhabited by what used to be considered one of the -great divisions of mankind, the Australoids. These people have the -black skin and certain features of the Negro; but differ from him in -the possession of abundant body hair and of marked supraorbital ridges. -Also the Australoid head hair is wavy, and not closely curled, a most -important characteristic. The profound cleavage between the Negroes and -the Australoids is now questioned in some quarters. - -The differentiation of the human species into types so distinctly -contrasted as Whites and Blacks and the problems of the evolution -of higher types of man from original stocks bring us to a new -classification of the genus Homo. Some anthropologists still maintain -that all human beings are included in the species _Homo sapiens_; but -this is an old-fashioned grouping. Sooner or later a new system must -be formulated based on the same fundamental rules that are applied -to the classification of other mammals. For instance, the physical -differences between the Nordics and the Negroes, the Australoids and -the Mongols, if found among the lower mammals, would be much more than -sufficient to constitute not only separate species, but even subgenera, -and they are now so regarded by some anthropologists. - -Race is hard to define. It consists in the presence of a collection of -hereditary characters common to the great majority of individuals in a -given group. It lies in the preponderance of such characters as color -of skin, hair, and eyes, facial and nasal contour, shape of skull, and -even mental characteristics, which are more difficult to classify, but -which are distinctly typical of specific human groups. Many individuals -possess all the hereditary characters of a given race. But man is so -ancient a being and intermixture has been so widespread that nearly -every race shows signs of blending with others. This is especially true -in Europe, where the intermingling of peoples has been extensive during -the past twenty centuries. - -Just as the classification of man according to race needs revision in -the light of recent discoveries, so the definition of race must be -understood anew in the light of genetics. Thirty years ago we talked -glibly about the Aryan or Indo-European race, or the Caucasian or -Germanic race. All these terms must be discarded. Aryan, Indo-European, -and Germanic are only linguistic terms and Caucasian has no meaning -except as used in America to distinguish between whites and colored. - -Language or culture may spread quickly and widely among the peoples -of the earth irrespective of race. For example, the bow and arrow -may have originated with some specific race of mankind, yet we find -this invention in use all over the globe and in the hands of the most -diverse peoples. The use of firearms and of horses by the American -Indians indicates nothing more than their contact with the Whites. It -is unsafe to attribute the inception of any cultural feature to a given -race. - -Civilization itself, that is, agriculture and the domestication of -animals, probably arose in West Central Asia, spreading east, south, -southwest, and west. Although the earliest remains of the dog, the -first animal tamed, are found in the Maglemose in Denmark approximately -8000 B.C., it may have been domesticated far earlier in Asia. - -There were two centers of the development of civilization--two foci. -The first was in southwestern Eurasia: the Valley of the Syr-Daria; -Mesopotamia and its city states; Chaldea, Babylonia, Assyria; -then Egypt, Crete, Greece, Rome, and modern Europe. There is the -possibility, or even the probability, of finding in the unexplored -portions of southern Arabia, connecting links of early culture between -the Valley of the Euphrates and the Valley of the Nile. Recent -discoveries indicate a very early civilization in the Valley of the -Indus, which apparently had been brought down from the north. All -these regions formed a single group and were the first center. - -The second focus was an independent, but similar and parallel expansion -of civilization in southeastern Asia, now China. There was apparently -little intercourse until modern times between the Far East and the -Far West of Eurasia, except by caravan routes across Central Asia. -The Romans knew the silk of China and there was a certain amount of -trade in jewels, precious metals, and spices down through the Middle -Ages, but the extraordinary fact that these two cultures developed -independently with slight mutual influence of the one on the other is -little appreciated. Both cultures seem, as said, to have had their -origin in West Central Asia and to have radiated southwest, south, and -east. - -One of the periodic cycles of drought desiccated the central area, and -separated the Western and Eastern worlds by an almost impassable series -of deserts, like the Gobi Desert of Mongolia. In the west, even as late -as the time of Alexander the Great, Bactria and Sogdiana, northwest of -India, were populous and flourishing states. Here it is that future -exploration may uncover the first beginnings of agriculture and the -domestication of animals--perhaps, also, the first written language. - -Language, like culture, is not identical or co-extensive with race to -any great degree. Witness the neighboring islands in the West Indies -where Negroes speak Spanish in one, French in another, and English in a -third. The language of a given group at a given time, however, being -possibly a much more recent acquirement than its cultural inventions, -does show either that it was originated by those who speak it or that -it was imposed upon them by another race long in contact with them. - -Since we are to deal principally with the racial groups of Europe, -namely the Nordic, Mediterranean, and Alpine, we might glance for a -moment in more detail at this distinction between race and language. -The Mediterraneans of Arabia speak a Semitic language, while the -Berbers of North Africa, also a people of Mediterranean stock, speak -a Hamitic language. This same Hamitic tongue was probably spoken all -around the coast of the inland sea and up the west coast of Europe to -the British Islands before Aryan speech was brought there by Nordic -invaders from the north and east. Meanwhile the Alpines spoke languages -related to Turki, a Ural-Altaic language--of course, non-Aryan--as they -still do in Turkestan, Hungary, and Finland. - -As to the Nordics, it would appear that this race originated the -so-called Aryan or Indo-European group of languages. The Aryan tongue -was probably developed in South Russia before the long isolation from -Asia had been broken. At a period in the third millennium B.C. the -Aryan language split into two groups: one, the Western or Centum group, -which pushed west and north; the other, the Eastern or Satem group -which pushed south and east. The Centum group included the Greek, -Latin, Celtic, and Germanic languages. Curiously enough, an outlying -member of this group, the Tokarian, was spoken in Turkestan as late as -the seventh century A.D. The Satem group, sometimes called Iranian, -included the Lithuanian, all the Slavic languages and those of ancient -and modern Persia and the various forms of Sanscrit spoken in India and -Burma. - -Light-skinned invaders from the northwest appear to have entered India -in successive waves and to have introduced the Aryan language known -as Sanscrit. They were probably the Sacae or Scythians from South -Russia. These Nordics in India can properly be called "Aryans." As used -otherwise, however, the term Aryan is purely linguistic. Originally all -the tribes who spoke the languages of the Centum and Satem groups were -members of the Nordic race. - -According to recent discoveries in the Valley of the Indus, a very -elaborate civilization flourished at least five thousand years ago -at Mohenjo-Daro, four hundred miles north of the mouth of the river. -This civilization was as elaborate as the corresponding culture of -Mesopotamia or of Egypt. The racial characters found in the bodies in -the burials indicate that the mass of the population was then, as now, -of Mediterranean race, but that the ruling class was long-headed and -long-faced, and of a tall stature and sturdy build--a type clearly -Nordic. In the earliest graves of Ur, in Mesopotamia, the skulls are -very clearly of a race akin to those on the Indus. All this would tend -to throw back the date of the invasion of men from the north by another -thousand years or more. The same appears to be true of the invasions -into Greece of the Achæans and of the Osco-Umbrians into Italy. - -The wide distribution of the Satem or Iranian group to the south and -west of Asia shows that the Nordics in great numbers conquered the -aboriginal inhabitants of these countries and imposed on them the Aryan -speech. They invented the caste system to maintain the purity of their -blood. In fact, the Hindu word "varna" means both color and caste. In -spite of all their efforts, however, the conquering invaders died out -almost completely in India and Persia--leaving behind them only their -language, and, in some cases, their religion. - -With this brief review of the essential difference between race and -language or culture, we may return to a consideration of humanity in -terms of essentially racial characters. - -The world as a whole can be roughly mapped racially according to the -most obvious human differentiation--namely, color: white, yellow, red, -black, and brown. The white race at the present day dominates Europe, -northern Asia in part, Australia, and North America as far south as -Mexico, with outposts scattered all over the globe. Eastern Asia is -yellow. Southern Asia and northern Africa are brown. Africa south of -the Sahara Desert is black, and there is a black tinge across southern -Asia, as we shall see. The red men, or Amerinds, with but a small -remnant in the United States and Canada, inhabit Latin America, where -in some cases their blood is mixed with that of the descendants of -Negro slaves, and, of course, to a still larger extent with that of -South Europeans. - -Color, however, is not the only character upon which a racial map of -the world could be based. Perhaps a more satisfactory division could -be made according to the cross section of human hair. However, in -dealing with the racial groupings of Eurasia, we find different types -of humanity arranged in definite zones according to certain outstanding -physical characters. - -Farthest south on the great land area of Eurasia lies a belt of -Negroids, extending from Ethiopia with intervals through Arabia to the -South Seas. The principal racial characteristics of these people are -very dark or black skin, dark eyes, tightly curled black hair, and -long, _i.e._, dolichocephalic skulls. In southern Persia the population -shows a Negro admixture, and a distinctly Negroid type is numerous -among the Pre-Dravidians of India. The Hindus themselves are very dark -brown with wavy black hair. - -A few decades ago there was much talk of the English officer and the -Hindu in the ranks being of the same Aryan blood, because they both -spoke widely diverse forms of the great group of Aryan languages. This, -of course, did not imply the slightest trace of blood relationship--the -Aryan speech of the Hindu had been imposed upon him by his conquerors -from the north. Such fallacies were common a generation ago. - -To the eastward we find remnants of Negro types in the Malay Peninsula -and in the large islands to the east as far as the Philippines. This -Negroid type extends also eastward through Melanesia. From this -discontinuous distribution it would appear that the Negroes and -Negritos were the original population of southern Eurasia. It is -probable that from this region the true Negroes migrated westward into -Ethiopia. - -At a date far earlier than this hypothetical migration westward, -an earlier type of Negroid pushed southeast to Tasmania, which was -thereafter cut off from the land mass of Australia. In Australia itself -these Tasmanians were absorbed or exterminated by the later coming -Australoids from whom they differed materially. - -The racial tangle in Australia, Papua, and the islands of Melanesia -presents great difficulties in classification, but the basic element -appears to be Negro with a large admixture of later Mongoloids coming -from Asia. - -The next zone of human population, superimposed in many cases upon the -Negroids, but south of the great central mountain ranges of Eurasia, -is constituted by the Mediterranean race. This race is characterized -by black, wavy hair, very dark eyes, oval face with fairly regular -features, dark olive skin, relatively short stature, and a somewhat -slight skeletal and muscular structure. This last character is in sharp -contrast with the powerful and sturdy build of the next two races to be -considered, the Alpine and the Nordic. The principal character of the -Mediterranean race, however, is its long (dolichocephalic) skull. The -Negroes, as we have said, have long skulls, but of quite a different -type. - -The range of the Mediterraneans extends from the western part of the -British Isles, through Spain and along both coasts of the Mediterranean -Sea, down the east coast of Africa to Somaliland. In Asia it embraces -the Arabs, South Persians, most of the Hindus, with an eastward -extension. In Northeast Africa and India it is strongly mixed with -Negro. - -Spreading everywhere throughout Europe north of the territory dominated -by the Mediterranean race, and often mixed with it, we find the -Alpines. This race is characterized by a somewhat short, stocky build -much sturdier than the Mediterranean, abundant dark, but not straight, -head and body hair, dark eyes and round (brachycephalic) skull. - -The center of origin of the Alpines was somewhere in Central Asia -west of the true Mongols, north of the Mediterraneans, and east of -the Nordics--possibly in Turkestan. The Alpines and Mongols are both -characterized by a round skull but, as in the case of the long-skulled -Mediterraneans and the long-skulled Negroes, the type of skull differs -appreciably. - -The Mongols and Alpines have been in close contact for ages. The -Mongols have issued again and again from East and Central Asia and -submerged the Alpines, driving them westward into Central Europe. There -has been a great deal of intermixture and the Slavic Alpine population -of eastern Europe frequently shows distinctive Mongol traits. However, -the two races, while perhaps remotely connected, differ widely. The -Alpines, like the Australoids and to a less extent like the Nordics, -have abundant body hair and copious beard, while the Mongols (like -their derivatives, the American Indians) are beardless and without body -hair. Alpine hair is wavy, that of the Mongols and Mongoloids straight. -Alpine features are rather coarse, often with a large prominent nose, -while true Mongols have an exceedingly flat face, depressed nose, and -a broad space between the eyes. This depressed nose, in adult Mongols, -is the retention of an infantile character, as babies of all races are -born with bridgeless noses. As to stature, most Alpines are of moderate -height, although those from the Tyrol to Albania, the so-called Dinaric -race, are decidedly tall. - -It was a branch of tall Mongols, with a slight admixture of Alpines, -that crossed into America from Asia and became the ancestors of the -American Indians, who are of substantial height, often with prominent, -almost hawklike noses and high cheek bones. - -We might mention here the Malays, who are essentially Mongols and -who pushed down into Indo-China and throughout the Malay Peninsula. -There are many traces of their blood in Polynesia. This expansion -was relatively recent and in those localities there are everywhere -indications of earlier races, especially of the very ancient Negroid -types known as Negritos. These Malays extended through the Philippines -as far north as Japan, where they met and mingled with a stream of -northern Mongoloid immigrants from Korea. - -The Alpine domain at the present time extends from the center of France -eastward in an ever widening wedge as far as the Himalayas. It includes -the bulk of the population of Central France, North Italy, South -Germany, Switzerland, the provinces of the recent Austrian Empire, -and extends through the Balkan states, Russia, Asia Minor, and far -into Asia. This race penetrated into and overran Central Europe during -relatively recent times, probably at about the beginning of the Bronze -Age, approximately 1800 B.C. - -East and north of the Carpathians, about 400 A.D., the Alpines had a -period of great expansion, chiefly at the expense of the Nordic race, -whose distribution we shall discuss presently. - -As the Nordic tribes moved into the Roman provinces, the lands they -vacated were occupied by Alpine Slavs. All these movements may have -been caused by the pressure from the east of Asiatic Mongols, who, like -the Huns, were beginning their drive toward Europe. Our word slave -coming from Slav reveals the social relation of these Alpines to West -Europeans. - -The westernmost of the Alpine Slavs were called Wends. In Charlemagne's -time they occupied what is now Germany as far west as the Elbe. In -its easternmost range these Alpines were called Turanians and were -confused with the Mongols of Central Asia, who had again and again -conquered them. The remnant of Wends in East Germany, the Bohemians, -most Poles and South Slavs are all Alpines. The great mass of Russians -are of this type, as well as the ancient Avars, Hunagars, Magyars, -Cumans, and the Bulgars, all more or less mixed with Mongols. The -Armenians are Alpines of an especially pronounced type and are probably -descended from the ancient Hittites. The East European Alpines are -saturated everywhere with Mongol blood, dating for the most part from -their conquest by the Tatars during the thirteenth century. - -The fact that Asia, north of the main mountain ranges, is pre-eminently -the home of round skulls is very significant and suggests remote -relationship between Alpine and Mongol. - -The Alpine skull reaches a most extreme form among the Armenians, who -have a very high skull, greatly flattened behind and somewhat like a -sugar loaf in shape. - -The division of the races of mankind based on long and round skulls is -extremely ancient. We find both types among the fossil and semi-fossil -skulls at the end of the Paleolithic. - -The first definite appearance of round skulls mixed with long skulls is -found in the burials at Offnet in Bavaria in the Azilian period at the -very end of the Paleolithic, some twelve thousand years ago. - -From that day to this in France, Bavaria, and elsewhere in western -Europe as well as in eastern Europe the round skulls have expanded -their range. This steady increase of round-skull Alpines everywhere in -Central Europe in recent centuries is one of the most ominous racial -facts that confront us. - -The great French anthropologist, deLapouge, stated in a recent letter -to the author that in France the cranial index has risen two points a -century since the Middle Ages, so that France is no longer a Nordic -land. This transformation is due, in the opinion of some observers, -to a mixture of race in which round-headedness is dominant over -long-headedness. In the opinion of the writer, however, it is due to -the replacement of one race, the Nordic, by another, the Alpine. The -Nordics not only incur disproportionate loss in war, but are also -highly nomadic in habit, while the Alpines, on the other hand, stick -close to the land and breed persistently. - -Of the European races, there remains to be considered the Nordics, -a people greatly specialized, who have developed a fair skin, -light-colored eyes, tall stature of sturdy build, and long, _i.e._, -dolichocephalic skulls, and definite mental traits. The slow but -long-continued physical development of the Nordics has culminated in -a powerful skeleton and musculature in sharp contrast to that of the -Mediterranean race, to which the Nordic is more closely related than -to any other. In fact, the mixture of Nordic and Mediterranean in the -British Islands may possibly be one of the few advantageous racial -crossings. - -As to the homeland of the original Nordic race, we have as yet only -guesswork on the part of the anthropologist. When we shall know more -about the condition of Central Eurasia during the glacial period and -immediately thereafter, we may get nearer to an answer to the question -of where and how this race originated and developed. It is certain, -however, that the Nordics were originally located west of the Alpines -and Mongols and north of the Mediterraneans. - -We have fossil records of five or six extinct species or genera of man -and more are constantly coming to light in Asia and outlying regions of -the Old World. The impulse that forced the ancestors of man to develop -his high energy and intelligence probably arose from the onset of the -Pleistocene glaciation a million or more years ago. Mankind was then -forced apart into widely separated areas where specific characters -developed in isolation. The Nordics were most likely cut off from Asia -by the Caspian and Aral Seas, which extended far to the north, where -they met the oncoming ice. It was west of this barrier that the Nordic -race developed its peculiar characters. - -Later, when the ice retreated and this watery barrier disappeared, the -Nordics were inundated again and again by floods of Asiatics, first -Alpines and then Mongols. Sometimes the Nordics became the aggressors -and expanded eastward in turn, conquering Persia, India, and Burma. -Blond invaders of East Asia, called "the green-eyed devils," attacked -the Great Wall of China as late as 200 B.C. They were also called -"Wusuns," a Tatar word meaning "the tall ones." In the long run, -however, the Nordics were forced westward. - -When the retreating glaciers left habitable land in Scandinavia, it was -into this region that the first westward migration of the Nordics found -its way. This was probably as early as 8000 B.C. There it was, through -the fogs and long winters of the north, that they developed in complete -isolation their great stature and musculature, their fair or flaxen -hair, and their blue eyes. The continental Nordics, however, who moved -westward to settle around the Baltic and North Seas, retained the more -generalized characters of brown hair of various shades, and eyes which -tend to either brown, gray, or, to a less extent, blue. The light eyes -of the Nordics include light brown or hazel, and may be of any and all -shades of gray and green to the deepest violet blue. - -The racial characters which most noticeably distinguish the Nordics are -the colors of the skin, hair, and eyes. As sharply contrasted with the -skin of the Mediterranean peoples, the color of the blood shows through -the fair Nordic skin except when tanned by exposure to the sun. The -light-colored hair is almost always blond in youth, turning darker with -age, although in many individuals extreme blondness is retained through -life. The brown hair, characteristic of the Nordics of the British -Isles and America, runs from light to very dark brown; but blue-black -hair, so rare in England and among native Americans, is never Nordic. -The blond hair may tend towards golden red. In fact, in classic times, -red hair seems to have been more common than now and may be more -characteristic of the Celtic Nordics than of the Teutonic Nordics. In -race mixtures between blond and black-haired peoples, the blondness -tends to be lost. - -On the other hand, light-colored eyes are much more persistent, and -this sign of Nordic admixture is found about ten times more frequently -than is blond hair among such peoples as the Albanians, where all other -Nordic characters except stature seem to have been lost. - -For thousands of years, Europe has been an arena of racial mixtures. -Over great territories, as we shall see, the Nordic race has been -dominant for the past thirty centuries, so that the majority of Alpine -and Mediterranean types shows the impress of Nordic characters. For -example, in Bavaria are found short, stocky, round-skulled Alpines -with extremely blond hair and blue eyes. The French, who are today -preponderantly Alpine, show outcroppings of profound Nordic characters -throughout the population. Thus, while pure types exist everywhere in -sufficient numbers to enable us to define race, nevertheless there has -been so much intermixture in the past that it is hard sometimes to -assign a given individual to a specific race. The definition of race, -in fact, cannot be based on any one character, but on a preponderance -of many racial characters which make up the resultant type. - -We have now considered the main races of mankind, but should devote -space to the Mongols and their derivatives. The Mongol is undoubtedly -a very ancient and major subdivision of the Hominidæ, but appears to be -intrusive in much of its present range. In Southeast Asia and in the -Malay countries and islands it arrived later than the ancient Negroids. - -The Mongoloids, as stated above, are characterized by a short, stocky -build and generally a round skull, very straight black hair with a -round cross section, a broad flat face with projecting malar bones, and -a slanting eye often marked by the Mongol fold. The last characters -distinguish them from the Alpine race, but are sometimes to be found in -such members of that race as have a Mongoloid admixture. - -These Mongolian characters occur often in Bohemia, in Moravia, and -especially in Galicia, in which last province they probably date from -the Mongol invasions of the thirteenth century. Such traits, however, -are not found among the Alpines of southern Germany or France. - -In the American Indians, Mongoloid blood undoubtedly predominates but -the high-bridged nose of some of the tribes and their high stature -undoubtedly point to admixture with other races. - -The Mongol is not inferior to the Nordic in intelligence, as is the -Negro, but represents such a divergent type that the mixture between -Nordics and Chinese or Japanese is not a good one. The overflow of -these Asiatics into our Pacific Coast might have Mongolized the States -there, had not the American laboring man taken alarm and secured -legislation forbidding their immigration. - -With the foregoing as a simple and generalized description of the -primitive races of mankind as we know them today, and with special -emphasis on the three principal European variants of the "white" race, -we shall proceed to consider the distribution and racial influence of -the Nordics in western Europe. - - - - -III - -THE NORDIC CONQUEST OF EUROPE - - -About 1300 B.C. a blond, blue-eyed race of Libyans appears in Egyptian -sculptures. Whence these blonds came or how they got into Libya is -not known, but it is interesting to note that blond Berbers are to be -found today in the Atlas Mountains of North Africa. These, however, are -probably more recent arrivals from the north. - -About 1800 B.C. traces of Nordic infiltration appeared among the -Hittites. These Nordic conquerors later entered Mesopotamia as the -Mitanni and the Kassites, although it may be that they were only the -ruling classes of these peoples. - -In recorded history the Nordics first appear in the West as Achæans. -They came from the North from the Dacian Plains and conquered Greece -and Phrygia about 1400 or 1500 B.C. - -About 1200 or 1300 B.C. a Nordic people, the Osco-Umbrians, sweeping -down from the northeast, entered Italy. They were kindred to the -Achæans and were the ancestors of the Latin tribes, including the early -Romans. The aboriginal Mediterraneans were driven into southern Italy, -where, in Calabria and Apulia, they persist to this day. The contrast -between the peoples of North and South Italy is still profound.[2] - -The Continental Nordics, as Celtic tribes, entered Gaul in the ninth -century B.C. From the evidence of place names, they passed through -South Germany. All Gaul except Aquitania, in the southwest, was -overwhelmed. - -Spain was conquered by Celtic Nordics about 600 B.C., but their -domination was never complete and they soon mingled with the natives. -The mixed inhabitants of the peninsula were called Celtiberians by the -Romans. - -During this same period the British Isles were overrun and thoroughly -occupied by Celtic Nordics named Goidels and the Celtic tongue was -imposed upon the Mediterranean population, although the latter survived -as a race in large numbers, especially in the western parts of England -and Ireland. These Celtic-speaking Mediterraneans were, until recently, -called "Iberians"; but fifteen hundred years ago the invading Saxons -called all the people they found in England "Welsh." - -In about 300 B.C. a new wave of Celts entered Gaul and Britain. This -time they came from the German plains, speaking a somewhat different -form of Celtic. On the Continent they were known as the Belgæ and in -the British Isles as the Brythons. They gave their name to the British -Islands. By Cæsar's time they had conquered the northern third of Gaul -and all of England; but the Roman armies put an end to their farther -advance. They did not reach Ireland. - -Roman writers describe the Celts in Gaul as pure Nordics and speak of -them as forming the ruling classes and military aristocracy until their -virtual destruction by Julius Cæsar in his ten years of conquest. His -campaigns in Gaul are said to have destroyed a million men, chiefly of -the warrior caste. - -At the time of their greatest expansion the Gauls sacked Rome (387 -B.C.). They pressed no farther south and soon retreated to and remained -in Cisalpine Gaul, that is, the valley of the Po and the country north -of the Apennines. - -The Nordic Gauls or Galatians--to use the Greek form of their -name--devastated Greece about 297 B.C. and passed over into Asia Minor. -There they settled in what was long known as Galatia, now Angora, the -present seat of the Turkish Government. These Galatians were the last -Nordics to enter Asia Minor, if we except the armies of the Crusaders. - -From the description of the physical characters of the Celtic-speaking -tribes they closely resembled the Germanic tribes that followed them -into the Roman Empire. Some French anthropologists find that the -present-day population of France is nearly four-fifths Alpine and they -have decided to call the Alpines "Celts," to avoid admitting that the -Celts were physically the same as the hated Germans. This error is not -shared by the leading French anthropologists, such as deLapouge, but it -has been accepted by some anthropologists. - -Careful study of the references to the Celts by classic writers leaves -no doubt that the Gauls, Galatians, Belgæ, and Brythons were Nordics -as were their successors the Visigoths, Suevi, Alemanni, Burgundians, -and, above all, the Franks. In fact, France down to the time of the -Reformation was a Nordic land. - -Soon after the time when the Belgæ first appear in Europe, Nordic -tribes speaking a Germanic dialect are mentioned in history. The -first of these tribes to come in conflict with the Romans were the -Teutones and Cimbri, who after defeating several Roman armies, were -utterly destroyed in 103 B.C. These people were the forerunners of many -tribes and nations which emerged, one after another, from the swamps -and forests of the north. The original home of most of them seems to -have been in Scandinavia, where they had been developing for several -thousand years. These newcomers were the latest and final linguistic -group to appear in the history of Europe. As Teutonic Nordics they have -dominated the scene ever since. The use of the word Teutonic is here -purely linguistic in order to distinguish these late comers from the -earlier, Celtic-speaking Nordic tribes. - -The Teutonic Nordics formed a substantial element among the Belgæ -and Brythons and their expansion may well have been the cause of the -westward thrust of the latter. The Teutons began to press southward on -the Roman Empire early in the Christian era and this pressure continued -for some three centuries until the Empire collapsed under their -successive invasions. - -As said above, the Celts and the Teutons were identical physically and -the use of the word "Celtic" cannot be justified as a racial term at -the present day. Among living Nordics, those of Celtic origin cannot -be distinguished physically from those of German or Scandinavian -extraction. Possibly red hair and the psychical peculiarities -associated with it may be rather more Celtic than Scandinavian. We find -in classical writers the names and description of the barbarians beyond -the borders of the Empire. They were all described as blue-eyed, fair -or red-haired giants. Height, however, must be considered as relative -to that of the Romans, whose legions in the later years of the empire -were apparently composed of small men. With each generation the names -applied to the barbarian tribes change, but the description of physical -characters remains the same. - -The finest of these Teutonic barbarians were the Goths who, according -to their historian, Jordanes, crossed over from Sweden about 300 B.C. -and settled on the banks of the Vistula, whence they expanded into -South Russia, which they occupied for centuries. In fact, a remnant -of their language (Krim Götisch) was spoken in the Crimea until the -seventeenth century. The Gepidæ were a branch of the Goths who lay to -the west of the main body, and the Alans, a closely related tribe, were -located well to the east. It is interesting to note that some of the -Alans, fleeing from the Huns, took refuge in the Caucasus where the -Ossetes to this day show occasional Nordic physical characters. - -The main body of the Gothic nation was split in two in 375 A.D. by the -invasion of the Huns, a Tatar people from Central Asia. Those who took -refuge in the west, in South Germany and Gaul, were called Visigoths. -A part of the Visigoths, however, fled across the Danube, devastated -the provinces of the Byzantine Empire and slew the reigning emperor, -Valens, in 378 A.D. - -The eastern branch, or Ostrogoths, were conquered by the Huns and -remained in Dacia. Later, after Attila's death and the disruption of -his empire, the Ostrogoths, under the great Theodoric, invaded Italy -and came near to building a unified Italian nation nearly fourteen -hundred years ago. - -The Visigoths, who had been long in contact with Roman civilization, -occupied Gaul. When Attila crossed the Rhine in 451 A.D. they fought -on the side of the Romans at Chalons, one of the decisive battles of -history, and their king, the Visigothic Theodoric, fell in the battle. -The Ostrogoths, on the other hand, were the best troops of the Hunnish -host. - -The Visigoths entered Spain in 412 A.D. Their allies, the Suevi, -conquered and ruled Galicia and the provinces on the Atlantic which now -constitute Portugal. The invasion of Spain by the Visigoths resulted in -the expulsion of a closely related Teutonic people, the Vandals, who, -with their allies, a remnant of the Alans, crossed over into Africa -in 428 A.D. On the site of Carthage the Vandals erected a kingdom -which lasted a hundred years. They ruled the African coast westward to -the Atlantic, conquered and settled in Corsica and under their king, -Genseric, sacked Rome in 455 A.D. - -These Vandals, originally from Sweden, first appear in history on -the Baltic coast, thence they passed down through Central Europe and -westward into France and thence into Spain, where they settled and -remained until they were driven into Africa. They may have left behind -some of their blood to mingle with the later-coming Germanic tribes in -Spain. It is possible also, though not probable, that to them are due -some of the blond characters still found in the Atlas Mountains. As a -race, however, their disappearance is complete. - -The Visigoths maintained their control in Spain until 711 A.D. when -the Mohammedan Arabs crossed the Straits of Gibraltar and completely -defeated the Visigothic armies. Why the power of this people collapsed -so suddenly and completely is one of the mysteries of history, but -after the great seven days' battle on the Guadalquivir in which their -king, Roderick, was slain, the whole peninsula was easily conquered by -the Arabs. At this time, it is true, the blood of the Visigoths had -been greatly mixed with that of the subject races, resulting perhaps in -a weakening of their fighting power. - -One of the reasons for the easy conquest of the Visigoths by the -Moors lay in the hatred for them as Arians by the old Orthodox -Catholic population who regarded their conquerors as heretics, and the -assistance rendered by the Jews whom the Visigoths had treated harshly -and who are reputed to have induced the Moors to make their invasion. - -A remnant of the Visigoths fled northerly into southern Gaul, which -was called Gothia Septimania. There the name Visigoths was corrupted -into Vigot or Bigot, which was a term of reproach used by the orthodox -natives. - -It is important to note that the relations between the populations -of the Roman Empire and the invading Teutonic Nordics were greatly -affected by the fact that the latter were the followers of the -schismatic monk Arius who, about 350 A.D., converted the Goths to -a Unitarian form of Christianity. The denial of the Trinity by the -Barbarians roused a fierce hatred among their subject peoples. -Ostrogoths and Visigoths, Vandals and Alans, Burgundians and Lombards, -all were Arians. The Franks alone among the Barbarians were converted -directly to Orthodox Christianity. This greatly facilitated their -conquest of Gaul. In consequence, France for more than a thousand -years was regarded as the eldest son of the church. - -Down to our time, the aristocracy of Spain, and more especially that of -Portugal, shows a marked inheritance of blondness coming down largely -from Visigothic and Suevic ancestry. The province of Galicia still -retains very appreciable marks of Gothic blood, especially in a high -percentage of light-colored eyes. - -The Visigoths left behind them in Spain a legacy of names which now are -regarded as most typically Spanish, as for instance Rodrigo, Alfonso, -Alvarez, Guzman, and Velasquez. In the same manner we find a Nordic -legacy of names reaching from Italy into France even where little -Nordic blood is left. In other words, while blood dies out, names -persist. - -At the time of Spanish greatness the predominant blood in the peninsula -was still Gothic,[3] and the adventurers who went overseas and were -lost to the race were of this blood. In Portugal, the one great -poet, Camoens,[4] and in Spain Cervantes, who was his contemporary, -were descendants of the old Gothic nobility and had marked Nordic -characteristics, as had the Cid Campeador. The case was the same -in Italy[5] at this period. The great men were from the northern -part of the peninsula. Dante, Michaelangelo, Leonardo Da Vinci, and -virtually all of the leading men of the Renaissance were blond Nordics. -Columbus himself, supposed to have come from Genoa, is described as -having blue eyes and fair hair. In southern France, in the so-called -Gothic Septimania and in the country around Toulouse, the home of the -Troubadours, Gothic names abound.[6] A similar condition prevails -throughout France. French names are Gothic, Frankish, or Burgundian -today, though disguised by their spelling, as, for example, Joffre -from Gotfrid. In the opinion of Count deLapouge, France as late as the -settlement of America was more Nordic than is the Germany of today. - -The main body of the Visigoths who survived the conquest by the Arabs -took refuge in the northwestern part of Spain where they maintained -some small kingdoms which ultimately coalesced and became the nucleus -of a Christian Spain, which in the course of a seven-hundred-year -crusade gradually reconquered the peninsula and finally expelled the -Moors in 1492. - -The Arabs who conquered Spain, and the Islamized Persians and Moors, -had a wonderful period of intellectual expansion during the seventh and -following centuries. This amazing outburst of genius, which preserved -for us much of the science and learning of the Greeks, came to an end -when the Mediterranean Mohammedans began mixing their blood with that -of their Negro slaves. Mohammedanism has always appealed to the lower -races, especially the Negro, because when they became followers of -the Prophet they were admitted to social and racial equality with the -superior race. This and the lure of the Negro women ruined the Arab -race. Today, all through Africa and Egypt and in parts of Arabia, the -so-called Arabs are often Negroid in appearance. In this case polygamy -was a racial curse because the richer and abler men had the most slave -women and left a larger progeny of half-breed children than did their -poorer countrymen. - -The exact reverse happened in the case of the Turks, who were -originally Alpines from Central Asia strongly mixed with Mongol. They -conquered Asia Minor and the nations of Southeast Europe up to and -including Hungary. Everywhere they seized the most beautiful women and, -being polygamists, the ablest Turks had the most children by the finest -women of the subject countries. Thus the Turks bred up as the Arabs -bred down. To this day the Turks are the superior race in Asia Minor -and have eliminated, at least from the ruling classes, practically all -the physical traces of their Asiatic origin. - -The women of the Caucasus, especially the Circassians and Georgians, -who retain some remnants of the Nordic Alans, have always been noted -for their physical beauty. They were in great demand in Turkish Harems. - -Incidentally the Kurds are, or rather were, Nordic and it is -interesting to note that Saladin, of Crusading fame, was a Kurd. - -Concerning other Teutonic Nordics, we need mention only those whose -blood enters largely into modern nations. Of these, one of the most -interesting peoples were the Burgundians, who settled on the western -bank of the upper Rhine in what is now Alsace, and in Burgundian -France and French-speaking Switzerland. They were a very promising -and flourishing nation until their overthrow in the middle of the -fifth century by Attila and his Huns, a tragedy which supplies the -subject matter of the Niebelungenlied. Appollonius Sidonius refers to -the Burgundians as being seven feet high; while this is an obvious -exaggeration, it is interesting to note that in the old Burgundian -provinces we find the tallest stature in France today. - -When the Lombards first appear in history about 165 A.D. they were -in northern Germany. They entered Italy in 568 A.D. and conquered -the Peninsula even more thoroughly than had their predecessors, the -Ostrogoths. They not only occupied Italy north of the Apennines for -three hundred years, but also established several large duchies in the -south. The valley of the Po, where they settled, had been for centuries -Cisalpine Gaul, and this Lombard territory is today the backbone of -modern Italy. The percentage of light-colored eyes around Milan is -high, and blondness through this district is as common a characteristic -of the peasantry as it is of the aristocracy throughout the rest of -Italy. - -The Lombards were Arians and were in constant conflict with the Popes -and their Orthodox followers and were consequently generally maligned. -Just as a similar situation facilitated the conquest of Spain by the -Moors, so the destruction of the Lombard Kingdom by the Franks was made -the easier by this antagonism. - -In passing, we need only remark that there were small bands of other -Nordics, who entered Italy as Saxons, Alemanni, and Suevi, and who -entered France as Alans and Saxons. These small bands differed in few -respects from the larger Nordic peoples and were quickly absorbed in -them. All these barbarian tribes were closely related racially. - -Before we leave the Alemanni who occupied southwest Germany with Alsace -and German-speaking Switzerland, we may note that their name, Alemanni, -did not mean 'All Men' in the sense of a mixed company, but rather _The -Men_ "par excellence,"--the German "_All_" being the analogous of the -Greek "_Pan_." - -We come next to the Franks, who appear in history about the time of -the Battle of Chalons in 451 A.D. in which they took an unimportant -part, but in the following centuries they rapidly gained the ascendency -throughout Gaul and western Germany. The conquests by the Franks were -the most important and enduring of those of the Teutonic Nordics in -Continental Europe. We know very little about the Franks from the -Romans, although they may have been the Varini, who were located in -northwestern Germany in classic times. As a result of the Crusades, -Roman Orthodox, as contrasted with Greek Christians, are known as -"Ferangi" to this day in the Levant. Being Orthodox Christians and not -Arians, the Franks had the support of the Roman Church in all their -conquests. - -The Flemings of Belgium are remnants of the original Franks who -retained their own language. Most of these invaders, like the Franks, -Visigoths, Lombards, and Normans, adopted the Latin language of their -subject peoples when they settled within the confines of the Roman -Empire. - -Except in eastern England and northern France the numbers of the -conquering Nordics were not sufficient entirely to evict and replace -the conquered populations, but they everywhere formed the upper classes -and land-owning aristocracy and to this day these same classes in all -European nations continue to show, in more or less purity, the physical -characters of the Nordic race. - -During the Middle Ages, the dominating and war-like Nordics paused long -enough from fighting each other to carry on the Crusades and to beat -back the onrush of the Saracens at Tours in 732 A.D. They saved Europe -from the Mongols in 1241 A.D. at the Battle of Liegnitz (now Wahlstatt) -in Silesia where the Duke of Liegnitz and the Nordic nobility, -outnumbered five to one, lay dead upon the field of battle; but checked -the advance of the Asiatic hordes and saved the budding civilization of -Europe from the fate of Asia. - -This race supplied the navigators of the expansion period, when the -world was for the first time opened up in the fifteenth and sixteenth -centuries, and since then they have formed the fighting men, soldiers, -sailors, explorers, hunters, adventurers, and frontiersmen of Europe -and her colonies. - -After mastering the north of France, the Franks subjugated the remnants -of the Burgundians and destroyed the Visigothic kingdom which still -flourished in the south of Gaul. They also conquered the country on -the east bank of the Rhine known as Franconia, and under Charlemagne -seized northern Italy. In 800 _A.D._ Charlemagne revived the Western -Roman Empire, which under various guises lasted down to 1807. - -Charlemagne's greatest and most difficult conquest, however, was that -of the Saxons, who were pure Nordics. They occupied the districts of -northwest Germany, centering in Hanover, and even today this part of -Germany is still the most Nordic portion of that country. - -When Charlemagne reached the Elbe in his conquests he found beyond it -the heathen Alpine Wends and from his day down to the World War, the -history of Central Europe has been the pushing back of the frontier of -Alpine Asia from the Elbe eastward toward the Urals. - -These eastern lands were conquered and little by little Christianized -and civilized from the west. This process went on as far as the -Vistula, where it met the culture, and Greek Orthodox religion, of the -Byzantine Empire, which had followed up the rivers of Russia from the -Black Sea and had given to Moscovia and to the Ukraine their religion, -alphabet, and art. - -The Northmen were the last of the Nordic barbarians to appear on the -scene. In the ninth and tenth centuries they raided the coasts of -Europe from England to Greece. They established themselves as permanent -settlers on all the Scottish islands and on many parts of the Scottish -coast. In Caithness, the northernmost corner of Scotland, Norse was -spoken as late as the seventeenth century. They formed settlements and -left place names all around the coasts of Wales and England. In the -tenth century as Danes they subjugated northeastern England and imposed -their rule east of the line of Watling Street, which runs from London -to Chester. These Danes had barely been overcome by the Saxons when -a new group of Nordics arrived as Normans from France and conquered -England in 1066. - -Ireland was attacked by the Norse who came in from the north and by the -Danes who entered from the south. The island was overrun by these two -peoples who have left many traces in the place names and in the blood -of Ireland. - -On the Continent the coasts of France and Germany were harried by the -Northmen and the country since called Normandy was conquered by them in -911 A.D. The Danish conquest of England, referred to above, must have -been largely Norse while, in France, Rollo's followers were probably to -an overwhelming extent Danes. - -The Norman element in England and to some extent in America down to -this very day has supplied a very large proportion of the conquerors, -seamen, explorers, and frontiersmen. This same ruling and restless -strain showed itself in the individual adventurers who went to South -Italy and Sicily, which they thoroughly conquered in the twelfth -century. They even attacked the Byzantine Empire. To this day blue -eyes in Sicily are called "Norman eyes" and are to some extent -characteristic of the upper classes there. - -It was in this period that the Norse rovers under Leif Ericson -discovered the northeast mainland of America about 1000 A.D., nearly -five hundred years before Columbus, who probably knew of their voyages, -crossed the Atlantic. - -At the time of this Norwegian and Danish expansion, there was a -similar outpouring of Swedes who, as Varangians, crossed the Baltic -into Russia, which they conquered and ruled for many centuries. The -name Varangian is strongly suggestive of Varini or Franks and the name -"Russian" means "rowers." The Varangians came across the seas precisely -as their ancestors, the Goths, had done a thousand years earlier. After -the expansion of this so-called Viking period, Scandinavian activities -came to an end. - - * * * * * - -Man undoubtedly crossed back and forth on dry land from Europe to -England in Neolithic and earlier times. In fact, some of the earliest -records of man have been found in England and the recent discoveries -in Norfolk of chipped implements and hearths show that man made -tools and used fire in England before the appearance of the first -glaciers--something over a million years ago. - -These early species and genera of men largely died out or were -exterminated and were succeeded at the beginning of Neolithic times by -invasions of the small, dark, long-skulled Mediterranean race which -for many thousands of years formed the basis of the population of -England, Scotland, and Ireland. - -About the beginning of the Bronze Age, some 1800 B.C., a tall, -round-skulled type from the Continent called the Beaker Makers appeared -on the scene in England. They resembled somewhat the present Dinaric -race, a tall, round-skulled branch of the Alpines now found from the -Tyrol southward to Albania on the east side of the Adriatic. It is -clear that the Beaker Makers entered from the east across the narrow -seas and their remains indicate a tall, masterful type which seems to -have disappeared to a large extent, although some of the round-skulled, -heavily built Englishmen, found numerously among the commercial -classes, may be their representatives today. - -The racial composition of the British Isles when the Nordic first -appeared on the scene may be safely said to have been composed of -small, brunet Mediterraneans interspersed with a small number of -round-skulled types and including, very probably, remnants of still -earlier races. - -The Celtic-speaking Nordics appear to have crossed the Rhine into -France and the countries to the southwest about 800 B.C. At about -the same time they forced their way into the British Isles which -they thoroughly conquered. These Nordics were called Goidels or "Q" -Celts and their language is represented today by the remnants of Erse -in Ireland, Gaelic in Scotland, and Manx on the Isle of Man. These -"Q" Celts, as contrasted with the later coming "P" Celts, are now -represented by the Macs (meaning son) just as the later Cymric or -Brythonic Celts are called "P" Celts because in their language Ap means -son. - -The aborigines were called Picts in Scotland. These Mediterranean Picts -spoke a language related to Hamitic or Egyptian, and many place names -of this origin are still to be found. - -It is not definitely known whether the Gaelic speech of Scotland is a -remnant of early Goidel invasion or whether it was reintroduced from -Ireland in the early centuries of our era. The latter appears probable, -because the second conquest by the Celts was nearly complete throughout -Britain, although it did not reach Ireland. This second subjugation of -Britain was by the "P" Celts or Brythons, speaking a Cymric form of -Celtic. It occurred in the fourth century B.C. and was so thorough that -it is not probable that remnants of the earlier Goidelic speech could -have survived in Scotland. - -These Brythons were represented on the continent by the Belgæ, who, in -Cæsar's time, occupied Gaul between the Rhine and the Seine. A remnant -of their speech survives in Brittany as Armorican. - -The "P" Celts gave their speech to all England and remnants of it are -found in the recently extinct Cornish in Cornwall and in the Cymric of -Wales. Both the "Q" Celts and the "P" Celts were, on their arrival in -Britain, pure Nordics, but in many cases they soon merged with the -aboriginal population. They were everywhere the ruling military class, -in Britain as well as in Gaul. - -Having imposed their language on the conquered people, they died out -almost completely, leaving, as in Wales, their speech on the lips -of the little Mediterranean native. Whatever truth there is in the -legends of King Arthur and his resistance to the Saxons they clearly -indicate a blond, Celtic aristocracy ruling over an underclass of small -Mediterraneans. The same condition is indicated in Irish legends where -the Celts appear as a distinct, fair-haired military class. - -The next Nordic invasion of Britain was by the Saxons from the country -around the present duchy of Holstein and by the Angles and Jutes from -farther north on the mainland of Denmark or Jutland. These tribes which -entered England in the fifth century were probably more purely Nordic -than the continental Teutons and this also was true of the Norse and -Varangians of a later date. Their conquest was almost completed during -the century after their arrival but there was sufficient resistance -in the western part of England to postpone its final subjugation for -several centuries. However, gradually the population of practically all -England and the lowlands of Scotland became purely Nordic. This racial -stock was reinforced by the invasion of Danes, who occupied most of -northeast England. - -The Norsemen settled around the coasts of Ireland, Scotland, England, -and, especially, Wales, and added a very considerable contribution to -the pure Nordic element of the population. - -The next and last invasion of Britain by the Nordics was the Norman -conquest in 1066. The Norman leaders and soldiers were pure Nordics -from the most Nordic part of France. In fact, the Normans were heathen -Danes speaking a Teutonic tongue when they arrived in Normandy in 911 -A.D. so that on coming to England they had been in France only a little -over one hundred and fifty years. In those years they had accepted -Christianity, had learned French, and had become the exponents of the -highest culture in Europe. Into England they brought with them many -followers of Alpine origin, and the clergy whom they imported was also -composed very largely of Latinized Alpines. - -At this point we may remark that Wales, especially along the coasts, -has a very large Nordic population. It is absurd to distinguish between -England, Scotland, North Ireland, and Wales as is done in the census -of the United States. We might just as well distinguish between North -England and South England on the ground that the first is Anglian and -Danish and the other Saxon and Jutish. The lowlands of Scotland are -pure English territory and have been such for a thousand years. The -Ulster Scots who came to America were only two or three generations -removed from the Scottish and English borderers and had not mixed with -the native Irish. It is also to be remarked that the Norman conquest -of England was that of one Nordic people by another, and that Great -Britain and Ireland constitute a group, the membership of which is -overwhelmingly Nordic in its racial inheritance. - -At the time of the discovery of America, all Europe was far more Nordic -than it is today. Germany at that time had not witnessed the expansion -of the Alpines of the south and east which is characteristic of the -present era. In England, before the industrial revolution created a -demand for little brunet Mediterraneans to drive spindles, the Nordic -had the field to himself. As farmer, soldier, sailor, explorer, and -pioneer he was pre-eminent. The brunet Mediterranean element, formerly -called Iberians, had been forced back into the extreme west of England -and into Wales, and was not an important economic or political factor. -Nor was there any considerable immigration of that racial stock into -the American colonies. These were settled primarily by the descendants -of the Normans, Saxons, Anglians, and Danes coming from the distinctly -Nordic districts of the mother land. - -Norfolk and Suffolk were settled by the Angles and afterwards formed a -part of the Danish kingdom. As said above the lowlands of Scotland and -the English borders were Anglian and Dane, while the coasts and islands -of Scotland were everywhere Norse. The Highlands were Celtic with an -admixture of Norse, Anglian, and Norman. There were also remnants of -the old Mediterranean populations, probably Picts. Curiously enough -these Mediterraneans contributed their dark eyes and hair color, -but not their short stature. The population of West Scotland has the -greatest height of all the peoples of Europe. - -Ireland, like England, was settled as we have seen originally by -the Neolithic Mediterraneans. They in turn were conquered by the -Goidelic or "Q" Celts, blond Nordics who imposed their language on the -aborigines. In the ninth century, Ireland was overrun by the Norse and -Danes, whose descendants today constitute a very considerable portion -of the population. The very name Ireland is Danish. Most of the big -blond Irish of today, although they like to claim "Celtic" descent, -are, in fact, of Norse, Danish, Saxon, Norman, or Scotch derivation. - -The Nordic elements in Ireland were reinforced again and again by -the English and Normans, who, from the days of their original entry -into the island down to our day have formed the great majority of the -nobility and upper classes of the country. The Celtic Goidel in Ireland -today is a negligible quantity which cannot be racially identified. -The brunet elements in western Ireland, though to some extent Celtic -in speech, are descended from the old Neolithic or Mediterranean -population of the British Isles, mixed with a primitive, aboriginal -race of great antiquity, the Firbolgs. - -Ireland has shown a singular power of absorbing its conquerors. -The descendants of Danish, Norman, and English settlers consider -themselves pure Irish "Celts." It is a strange fact that the English, -Scotch, Norman, Danish, and even the French Huguenots who have -settled in Ireland have acquired and have handed down an extraordinary -temperamental unity. As to language, by the time of Elizabeth the -English Pale constituted a part of eastern Leinster, and there English -was uniformly spoken. The English language ultimately spread over the -whole of Ireland, leaving only a few remnants of Celtic speech in the -extreme west. - -From the times of James I to those of William III, large numbers of -English and Scotch borderers passed over to the northeast corner of the -island into the province of Ulster. They were fervent Presbyterians -and hated the native Catholic Irish. It was the sons and grandsons of -these immigrants who came to America in the eighteenth century and are -sometimes miscalled the "Scotch Irish." They had special grievances of -their own against England on account of economic restrictions imposed -upon their industries. - -Before this time a large number of Cromwellian soldiers had settled in -Leinster, but not having their own women with them they intermarried -with the Catholic Irish and their descendants today are most intensely -Irish in national feeling. The Reformation never had much hold -on Ireland, so that the Catholic Irish today represent the mixed -population of Ireland before the sixteenth century, together with -numerous converts from the Scotch and English immigrants. - -With this brief survey of the distribution of the Nordic race in Europe -down to the time of the discovery of America and the beginning of -emigration to the colonies of the New World, we can pass on to one of -the most dramatic mass-migrations of man. - -From West Central Asia where it was in contact with the Mongoloids on -the _east_, the Nordic race pushed across Europe to the extreme western -coasts. We shall show how it traversed the Atlantic Ocean and then in -three centuries subdued a continent. Generation after generation it -fought its way westward, until it reached the Pacific Ocean, where -today it stands confronting Asia and its immemorial rivals, the -Mongols, this time on the _west_. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[Footnote 2: In _Geographical Lore of the Time of the Crusades_, by -J.K. Wright of the American Geographic Society, p. 320, the author -says: "In these authorities we find that the differences between the -inhabitants of the northern and southern parts of Italy were fully -appreciated in the twelfth century. 'The Lombards,' Gunther says, 'are -a keen, skillful, and active people; foresighted in counsel; expert -in justice; strong in body and spirit, full of life and handsome to -look upon, with slight, supple bodies that give them great power of -endurance; economical and always moderate in eating and drinking; -masters of their hands and mouths; honorable in every business -transaction; mighty in the arts and always striving for the new; lovers -of freedom and ready to face death for freedom's sake. These people -have never been willing to submit to kings.... But what a contrast the -people of Apulia in the south present to the Lombards. Dirty, lazy, -weak, good-for-nothing idlers that they are.'"] - -[Footnote 3: The Spanish popular heroes, Don Rodrigo and the Cid -Campeador, were Gothic, to judge by their names, as was the brave -crusader, Count Raymund of Toulouse. L. Wilser has called attention -to the number of Gothic names still in use in the Iberian peninsula: -Alfonso or Affonso, Alonzo (Gothic Athalafuns); Alvaro and Alvarez -(Gothic Alavair); Bermuy (Gothic Berimud); Bertran (Gothic Bairhtram); -Diego and Diaz (Gothic Thiudareiks, Dietrich); Esmeralda; Fernando and -its genitive Fernandez (Gothic Ferdinanths); Froilaz and Fruela (Gothic -Fravila); Gelmirez (Gelimer); Gomez (Gothic Guma); Gonzalo and Gonzalez -(Gothic Gunthimir, Gundemar); Guilfonso (Gothic Viljafuns); Guzman -(Gothic Godaman, Gutmann); Ildefonso (Gothic Hildifuns); Isabella; -Marques (Gothic Markja); Menendez (Gothic Herminanths); Mundiz and -Munnez (Gothic Mundila); Pizarro (Gothic Pitzas); Ramiro (Gothic -Radomir or Ragnimir); Ramon and Renmondez (Gothic Ragnimund); Rodrigo -and Rodriguez; Ruiz (Gothic Rudoreiks); Sesnandes (Gothic Sisenand); -Vasco and Vasquez (Nordic Wasce); Velasquez (Gothic Vilaskja?). See p. -107, vol. II, of book _Die Germanen_, by Doctor Ludwig Wilser.] - -[Footnote 4: Describing Camoens, George Edward Woodberry (_The Torch_, -pp. 203-4; New York, 1920) says: "He was of the old blue blood of the -Peninsula, the Gothic blood, the same that gave birth to Cervantes. He -was blond, and bright-haired, with blue eyes, large and lively, the -face oval and ruddy--and in manhood the beard short and rounded, with -long untrimmed mustachios--the forehead high, the nose aquiline; in -figure agile and robust; in action 'quick to draw and slow to sheathe,' -and when he was young, he writes that he had seen the heels of many, -but none had seen his heels. Born about the year 1524, of a noble and -well-connected family, educated at Coimbra, a university famous for the -classics, and launched in life about the court at Lisbon, he was no -sooner his own master than he fell into troubles."] - -[Footnote 5: Wilser cites Woltmann's essay, "Have the Goths disappeared -in Italy?," which shows that even in the latter part of the Middle Ages -many people lived according to Gothic law; that in some cities there -even existed Gothic sections; and that many Gothic names can be traced, -as Stavila, Nefila, Leuuia, Hermia, Hilpja, Ansefrida, Gilliefredus, -Totila, Vila.] - -[Footnote 6: In fact, almost all the names of the Troubadours are -Teutonic, says Wilser, giving the following examples of French names, -with the Teutonic original in parentheses: Arnaut (Arnold); Aimeric -(Emerich); Bernart (Bernhard); Bertrand (Bertram); Gaucelm (Walchelm); -Gautier (Walther); Guillem (Wilhelm); Guiraut (Gerold); Gunot (Wido); -Jaufre or Joffre (Gotfrid); Raimon (Raginmund); Rambaut (Raginbald); -Rudel (Rudolf); Savaric (Sabarich). See p. 107, vol. II, of _Die -Germanen_, by Doctor Ludwig Wilser.] - - - - -IV - -THE NORDIC SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA - - -Before considering the question of the origin of the English settlers -of the Atlantic seaboard, it is important to understand the motives -that actuated the newcomers. - -The impelling motive of the settlers who crossed the ocean to America -from the earliest Colonial times down to 1880 was land hunger, and just -as we speculate in stocks today, so down to one hundred years ago our -ancestors speculated in lands on the frontier. - -It is difficult to realize the extent to which the ownership of the -land in Europe was monopolized, largely through the exercise of -Royal favor, by the upper classes in the seventeenth and eighteenth -centuries. This established English tradition and practice, brought -to America by the early settlers, coupled with the favoritism of the -royal governors in land grants, was one of the causes which led to the -Revolution. After the American victory much land was confiscated on the -plea that the owners were Loyalists. - -The distribution of free land in the United States came substantially -to an end about 1880, when the public domain became exhausted. Up -to that date, the immigration into America had been assimilated -readily. Certain exceptions will be dealt with later. Practically all -of it was from northwestern Europe, and the immigrants came mostly -of their own volition. It took some degree of enterprise to leave -home, cross the Atlantic, and establish oneself in a new country amid -strange surroundings. Settling new land meant clearing the forests and -destroying the game, as well as buying off or fighting the Indians, -whose ideas about land ownership were vague. To the frontiersman in -early days, the term "a clearing" was synonymous with "a settlement." - -Religious motives and the desire for political and economic -independence, of course, were also great factors in the Pilgrim and -Puritan migration to New England from 1620 to 1640. - -The New England Puritans represented only a part and relatively a -small part of the exodus from England. They were pure English from the -most Anglo-Saxon part of England and consisted largely of yeomen and -the lesser gentry, who found the religious and political conditions -in England under the Stuarts intolerable for freemen. They were -essentially dissenters, who refused to bend the knee to prelate or to -king. - -In 1640, under the Commonwealth the Puritans seized the reins of -government in England and only permitted the return of royalty in -1660 under conditions which established for all time the supremacy of -Parliament. In fact, during the Commonwealth the power of Parliament -had become so great that many of the best minds of England felt that a -restoration of the monarchy was needed as a check. - -The settlers of New England may be regarded as essentially rebels -against established religion and established authority when the -religion and authority were not of their own choosing. This -non-conformist spirit persisted in the successive new frontiers as -they were settled by New Englanders. The early New England settlers -of western New York and the old Northwest Territory gave birth to an -astonishing number of new sects, religions, "isms," and communities, -ranging all the way from Mormonism to Shakers and the Oneida Community. -They were, however, law-abiding in their own way and murders and crimes -of violence were relatively infrequent. - -This is in sharp contrast to the southern frontiersmen, who were and -are addicted to killings and physical violence. That, however, is -chiefly true of the inhabitants of the Appalachian valleys, who always -have been lawless. The dissent and predisposition to rebellion among -the New Englanders dates back to the Puritans in England and the -lawlessness and violence of the Ulster Scots to the endless border -warfare on the Scottish frontier. The southern frontiersman was -originally a Presbyterian, but he found his religion too intellectual -for isolated communities and turned in many cases to the more emotional -creeds of the Methodist and Baptist. The hatred of England by the -Ulster Scotch frontiersmen dated back to the unjust and oppressive -interference with their industries in the north of Ireland, as well as -to a deep-seated impatience of all authority. - -After the Revolution this hatred of authority was transferred to the -tidewater aristocrats and was accentuated by the debtor complex, which -has characterized all our frontiers. - -The character of the frontier from the very beginning remained the -same. Each generation of the restless, the discontented and the -failures pushed West, carrying with them some of the fine qualities -of the original settlers of the seaboard, but more often developing a -new complex of intolerance for the restraints and usages of the older -communities. - -There is an amusing and significant evolution of these traits in -families who settled around Massachusetts Bay and then moved to -the Connecticut Valley; thence to Vermont, western New York, Ohio, -Illinois, Iowa, and Los Angeles, where they now flourish. - -At the time of the Revolution the intense hatred in New England of -the mother country was due partly to a desire to confiscate the lands -of the Loyalists and partly to that which they considered unfair -restrictions on their overseas trade, as well as to an unwillingness to -being taxed to pay a part of the great cost of conquering Canada. - -The net result of these forces was a widespread anti-British and, -later, anti-governmental complex, which has characterized our country -ever since. In contrast to England and to Canada, we are an essentially -lawless people. - -[Illustration: Ireland.] - -In the North the Revolution was largely a movement of various Calvinist -communities. The few Episcopalians in New England and the more numerous -adherents of that church in New York, Pennsylvania, and Maryland were -almost all Loyalists. In Virginia, however, and further to the south -the numerous Church of England planter class took the American side -and as a result retained their leadership as an aristocracy down to -the time of the Civil War. Even at the time of the Revolution this -church contributed more than its quota of leaders. Of fifty-six signers -of the Declaration of Independence, thirty-four are classified as -Episcopalians, twelve as Congregationalists, five as Presbyterians, -two Quakers, one Baptist and one Roman Catholic. Of the Continental -Congress which ratified this Declaration, nearly two-thirds are said to -have been Episcopalians. - -In the North following the expulsion of the Loyalists, the Church of -England was left prostrate, and it was some time after the Revolution -before it was successfully reorganized and was definitely designated -as the _Protestant_ Episcopal Church to become, after a century, the -fashionable church of the Atlantic seaboard. The Protestant Episcopal -Church has never had any substantial hold in the Middle or Far West -and even today it is there largely a missionary church with a tendency -towards ritualism, which has checked its normal development. - -The Roman Catholic population of the colonies was negligible. In 1790 -out of a white population of a little over 3,000,000, there were not -more than 35,000 Catholics in the United States. This number included -5000 Negroes and some Germans. They were located for the most part in -Maryland and Pennsylvania, showing that the South Irish Catholics had -not come over in appreciable numbers during Colonial times. Many of the -colonies legislated against Roman Catholics. - -The Revolution itself was political and social, carrying to an extreme -development the political theories of the English Whigs. The distrust -of officialdom in power, engendered by the Revolution, led to all -manner of constitutional and legal restrictions, in place of a reliance -on the personal character of office holders as in England. - -During Colonial times two distinct types of population developed. -First, the older communities along the tidewater districts, closely in -touch with Europe and having a long tradition of culture and wealth. -Second, a type grew up on the frontier which from the very beginning -showed itself intolerant of the control of the older and richer -settlements. This found its expression in Shays's Rebellion in West -Massachusetts in 1786-87, in the Whiskey Rebellion in Pennsylvania -in 1794, and, still earlier, in 1770, when the "Regulators" in North -Carolina were in open rebellion. After the Revolution this tendency -became more and more marked until the then West under Andrew Jackson -took over the control of the country and, with many unfortunate -results, carried Jefferson's ideals to an extreme. - -The Revolution emphasized this second attitude of mind and resulted -in the loss, by expulsion, of some of the best Nordic blood in the -country. The Loyalists from Boston, for instance, comprised many of the -oldest and most distinguished families. The representative families -of that city today are not descended wholly from the aristocratic -Colonial families, but largely from the population of the small towns -and villages in its neighborhood. It is said that a total of eighty to -a hundred thousand Loyalists left the colonies and went to Canada and -England and to the English West Indies. - -New England to a greater extent than any other colony had been at -war with France and her Canadian Indians for the best part of one -hundred and fifty years, but the memory of this prolonged and bloody -struggle was obliterated by the Revolution. In its place there arose -in America a sentiment for France, caused largely by the romantic -personality of Lafayette, which survives to this day. The Jeffersonian -emotional sympathy with the French Revolution also played a large part. -The fact nevertheless is that we had a naval war in 1798 with the -French, although no formal war was declared. It was caused by French -depredations on American commerce, resulting in several duels between -American and French frigates. All this is conveniently forgotten or -ignored in some of our school text-books. - - * * * * * - -The earliest permanent settlements of importance in New England were -around Massachusetts Bay, and in Virginia along navigable streams. -From such centers settlements spread up and down the coast until -all the desirable lands accessible to salt water became occupied. -In New England the coasts of southern Maine, of Rhode Island, and -of Connecticut were quickly occupied. Migration then went overland -from Massachusetts Bay, westward to the Connecticut River. This was -our first real northern frontier, and it took more than a century to -populate southern and western New England. - -The settlement of Connecticut westward was blocked by the colony of New -York, while the Indians delayed the advance of Massachusetts to the -north. Connecticut in turn threw out colonies at an early date, such as -Newark in New Jersey in 1666. - -Vermont was not settled until just before the Revolution, owing to the -danger from the Indians and a serious dispute between New Hampshire -and New York as to its ownership. At the time of the Revolution it was -a typical frontier with all of its bad features. At that time it was -about as rough and tough as Kentucky or Tennessee. After the Revolution -some of the best of its population migrated to western New York, along -with settlers from all over New England who went for the most part -through Vermont. - -Early in the eighteenth century nearly all the desirable lands within -reach of salt water had been occupied from New Jersey southward, and -later coming immigrants were forced back into the uplands of the West -beyond the so-called Fall Line at which the Atlantic rivers cease to be -navigable. - -New York interposed an absolute bar to westward migration because the -Iroquois Indians held almost all the fertile lands to the west of the -Hudson River. The east bank of the Hudson was more or less filled up -with New Englanders and the west bank with its undesirable lands was -turned over to late coming immigrants, chiefly Germans. The Dutch -population of New York was but small. The total population of the -colony at the time of its seizure by England in 1664 was little more -than 10,000 and there were already many English among them. - -The English settlers occupied both banks of the Delaware around -Philadelphia, forcing the later-coming Germans and Ulster Scots to the -west. The Swedish settlement along the river was trifling and was soon -absorbed. There is very little trace of it left in place or personal -names. On the upper reaches of the Delaware River, in Pennsylvania, and -in New York, there were some small settlements of French Huguenots, who -suffered severely from Indian depredations during the Revolution. - -Delaware and the country east of Chesapeake Bay are purely English, as -was Maryland, except that western Maryland was really part of western -Pennsylvania and western Virginia. - -Virginia itself was the mother of States and in Colonial times extended -in fact, as other colonies did in theory, to the Mississippi, without -mentioning claims to the South Sea. The tidewater population of -Virginia differed profoundly from that of the western part of the -State, including the Shenandoah Valley, which was settled largely from -western Pennsylvania. - -There was a marked difference between the settlement of New England and -that of Virginia. To New England the earliest settlers brought their -women and families, while in Virginia the early arrivals were nearly -all males. Women were afterwards sent over by the shipload, but this -was only during the early days of the colony. - -Like Virginia, North Carolina in Colonial times extended nominally to -the Mississippi. Its population lacked the tidewater aristocrats of the -Old Dominion and contained many Scots, straight from the Highlands, -who, strangely, took the British side during the Revolution, as well as -a very large number of Ulster Scots in the western mountains, and in -the counties which were afterwards Tennessee. - -Kentucky and Tennessee were both settled from the colonies immediately -to the east, but largely by the Ulster Scots, coming from western -Pennsylvania through the mountainous districts of Virginia and North -Carolina. These Ulster Scots came south along the Appalachian valleys, -which trend in a southwesterly direction. They were reinforced by the -numerous groups of the same people, who came up from South Carolina. -Kentucky was much more purely English than Tennessee. - -It is a fact but little understood, that the frontier was not much -reinforced from the coast but extended itself. In other words, the -frontier from the beginning was pushed onward by the backwoodsmen, each -generation advancing a little farther westward and making new clearings. - -The people along the coast, after a couple of generations of severe -privation, became relatively rich as compared with the frontiersmen. -The inhabitants of the coast cities for the most part preferred a -sea-faring life rather than the hewing out of a homestead in the -wilderness. There have been many cases in our Colonial history where -men went from the coast towns to the wilderness, but for the most part -they were content to stay at home. - -As to the original racial complexion of the colonies, New England was -purely Nordic and English. The handful of Ulster Scots in New Hampshire -was not to be distinguished from the English, and the individual -Huguenot families around Boston were only trifling in number. This -remained true of all New England during the Colonial period. - -In New York, however, conditions were different. Dutch New Amsterdam, -afterwards English New York City, was always an important port and -attracted to itself from the earliest times a substantial number of -foreigners. In addition to the Dutch founders a considerable number of -French Huguenots were among the earlier settlers. There were also a few -Germans and Portuguese. - -The west bank of the Hudson was less accessible and desirable than the -east bank, but there were some substantial colonies of Palatine Germans -settled there and up the valleys of the Mohawk and its connecting -streams. These last played a creditable part in the heavy fighting -which raged in this district with the British settlers, who were for -the most part Loyalists. There were also some small colonies of pure -Scotch along the Mohawk. - -One of the results of the Revolution was the expulsion of the Iroquois -Indians, who had occupied New York westward from near Albany to -Buffalo. They had sided with the British and had committed many -atrocities. Their lands were immediately occupied by New Englanders, -coming chiefly from or through Vermont, so that New York State west of -Albany became little more than an extension of New England, except that -the settlers had become Presbyterians. - -Many of the colonists who came to New York from Holland were refugees -from the provinces now included in Belgium--in other words, they were -either Flemings or French Huguenots. The real Dutch in the province -came from the north of Holland and were mostly Nordic Frisians. - -In addition to the large migration from Ulster very many English -Protestants from Leinster came to America by way of New York -immediately after the Revolution. The Catholic Irish did not come in -any numbers until after 1845. - -The Huguenots were pre-dominantly Nordic. For example, New Rochelle in -New York was settled directly from Old Rochelle which is, even today, -one of the purest Nordic districts remaining in France. It is entirely -safe to say that the Huguenots from Brittany, Normandy, and Picardy, -who came to the American colonies by way of England and Holland were -overwhelmingly Nordic. Some of those from southern France were probably -Mediterranean. - -Outside of the Port of New York the Dutch population was confined to -the Hudson River towns, chiefly on the east bank, up to and including -Albany and Schenectady. The Dutch element of New Jersey was very small. - -New Jersey was almost all English, except a few Scotch settlements. It -was settled directly from England by way of Perth Amboy, Elizabeth, -and Freehold in the north. South Jersey was settled from Pennsylvania. -There were a few German communities scattered throughout the -north-central part of New Jersey, but, on the whole, the State can be -counted as purely English. - -The case of Pennsylvania was somewhat different. The original settlers -on the west bank of the Delaware, around Philadelphia, were English -Quakers with a certain number of Welsh, who probably were for the most -part Nordic. This section was the most cultured and important part -of Pennsylvania. Philadelphia was the port of entry of two important -migrations in the eighteenth century. First, the Ulster Scots, who -came in great numbers after 1720. In fact, most of the Ulster Scots -in America entered the colonies through Philadelphia and, to a less -extent, through Charleston, South Carolina. These late comers found -the desirable land along the Delaware had been taken up, so they -moved westward to the Indian frontier. They were a restless, brave, -and pugnacious people, and immediately assumed the burden of the -Indian fighting, often without the support or even the sympathy of the -Philadelphia Quakers. They were numerous and soon spread along the -foothills and valleys of the Appalachians southwestward through western -Maryland and Virginia into North and South Carolina, whence they again -crossed the ridges westward, until, by the time of the Revolution, they -had laid the foundations of Kentucky and of Tennessee. They were, of -course, pure Nordics and of North England and Lowland Scotch origin. -They had resided for two or three generations in North Ireland. Being -fervent Presbyterians, they had not mingled with the Catholic Irish. - -In 1790 these Ulster Scots in the colonies numbered about 200,000 and -the pure Scots about 300,000 and taken together they were, next to -the English, the most important element. They were, as said above, -pre-eminently pioneers and Indian fighters and the same fact appears in -the history of practically every frontier of British colonies during -the next century. They were a highly selected group when they first -went to Ireland, which was at that time to all intents a frontier. -Since that time the Scots and the Ulster Scots have everywhere shown -the characteristics of the ideal pioneer. They played a predominant -part in the settlement of the southern part of the Middle West. - -The next most important racial element was the Germans. In fact, it -was the only non-British element of importance in the colonies. At -the time of the Revolution the Germans numbered about a quarter of a -million and by 1790 they have been computed to have been about 9 per -cent of the total population of the colonies. They settled in the -districts of Pennsylvania immediately west of Philadelphia around York -and Lancaster, where they are to be found today. They were a peaceful -and industrious people, and have to some extent retained their language -and customs down to the present time. A very few of them joined their -neighbors, the Ulster Scots, in the migration to the Southwest. They -were not particularly loyal to the American cause during the Revolution -nor in the preceding French Wars, and their presence in the colonies -excited much hostility. They were refugees, who had fled down the -Rhine from Alsace and the Palatinate to escape the French when Louis -XIV invaded and devastated their country. With them were many refugees -from German-speaking Switzerland together with Hussites from Moravia. -While there were some Lutherans and Calvinists among them, most of the -"Pennsylvania Dutch," as they were called by the English colonists, -belonged to small and obscure sects. Dunkards, Schwankenfelders, Amish, -and Mennonites still maintain their special religious communities. -Their language is Alemannish and this German dialect is still spoken in -Alsace and Switzerland. In addition to their colonies in Pennsylvania, -there was a small settlement of Moravian Brothers in the western part -of North Carolina. - -Maryland was originally settled under a charter to Lord Baltimore as a -refuge for English Catholics, but from the beginning these latter were -very few in number and by 1690 were so thoroughly outnumbered that they -were deprived of the franchise. - -Virginia, the most important of the colonies next to New England, if -the latter be taken as a whole, was pure English in the tidewater -district, that is, as far west as Richmond. Beyond were many Ulster -Scots, who, it must be remembered, were very largely English. - -North Carolina was much the same, except that the Ulster Scots were -relatively more numerous. - -South Carolina had an English planter aristocracy and was much purer -English and had less Ulster Scotch than her northern neighbor. It had -also a considerable French Huguenot element, by far the largest and -most influential in the colonies. These Huguenots, while not very -numerous, were nearly all men of culture and social standing and played -a large part in the development of the country. - -Georgia was substantially of the same racial complexion as South -Carolina. - - - - -V - -THE PURITANS IN NEW ENGLAND - - -Taking up the settlement of the colonies more in detail, we may -commence with New England. The first inhabitants of Massachusetts were -pre-dominantly from the eastern half of England. This contains the -counties in which Nordic influence had probably been the strongest, and -the early settlement of Massachusetts was by an overwhelmingly Nordic -stock, judging alike by place of origin and by family and personal -names. A study of the origin of the pioneers of Plymouth, Watertown, -and Dedham shows that two-thirds of them came from a region along the -English coast between London and the Wash and mostly from the southern -part of that stretch of territory. - -Although given an important position by historians because of its -priority and the romantic incidents connected with its founding, -Plymouth Colony, because of its small size, played only a minor part in -the early development of the American nation. Its settlers, as shown by -the detailed accounts available concerning many of them, were people of -the lower and middle classes, mostly of good character but attracting -to their numbers also adventurers and men of more doubtful quality. - -Within five or six years after the landing at Plymouth Rock, the -Plymouth settlers were already outnumbered by other settlers in New -England, while Plymouth itself was the parent of a number of other -settlements that outstripped it. During the decade 1630-40 it became -a province of eight small towns, seven of them stretching for fifty -miles along the shore of Cape Cod Bay, from Scituate to Yarmouth, -with Taunton lying twenty-five miles inland. The entire colony would -probably have moved to the Connecticut River valley, had not the -competition of settlers from Massachusetts Bay been too strong. -Two generations after the original settlement there the number of -inhabitants of Plymouth was no greater than it was at the start. - -In the decade of 1620-30 there was a rapid but sporadic settlement of -small towns on or near the Massachusetts coast, but the first great -migration was that represented by the arrival of Governor Winthrop's -fleet in Massachusetts Bay in 1630. The new arrivals settled Boston, -Charlestown, Medford, Watertown, Roxbury, Lynn, and Dorchester. During -the next decade the Puritan emigration from England continued, again -largely from the northern and eastern counties, overwhelmingly of as -nearly pure Nordic stock as Great Britain could show. - -[Illustration: Showing Highlands and Lowlands of Scotland.] - -The difference in antecedents of the Massachusetts Bay Colony from -that of Plymouth is reflected in the differences in geographical and -social origin. The Pilgrim Fathers, as every one knows, took their -start from Scrooby in Yorkshire at the point where this county joins -Lincolnshire and Northamptonshire, under the leadership of Bradford, -the local postmaster and Robinson the clergyman. The capital for the -enterprise was almost all subscribed in London, and only one-third -of the first settlers were members of Robinson's congregation. The -part of Scrooby and Holland in that colony has therefore often been -exaggerated. The English founders of the Massachusetts Bay Colony were -on the other hand not merely religious dissenters, but powerful members -of the Puritan nobility. The group attracted to their enterprise was -therefore one of a somewhat wider social outlook. It was distinguished -for the same reason from most of the later emigration. - -The people who settled in the Massachusetts Bay Colony in the decade of -1630-40 doubtless had every desire to better their condition, and their -zeal in seizing land from the Indians showed that they were able to -put this desire into effect successfully. Their motive in emigrating, -however, was more political than was that of many later colonists, most -of whom came frankly to find fortune in a new country. - -There were among them a sprinkling of members of the important county -families and even a few representatives of the Puritan gentry. Alumni -of Cambridge were liberally represented among the clergy, together -with a few from Oxford, although few other professional men seem to -have been in the group. Many of the settlers were from families of -merchants, among whom Puritanism had made great progress in England. -The bulk, however, consisted of more or less well-to-do yeomen and -artisans. - -Since a large part of this Puritan migration, which probably amounted -to 20,000 between 1620 and 1640, came in groups often following their -local clergymen, it is fairly easy to determine from what parts of -Great Britain the early population of Massachusetts came. The evidence -all indicates that little of it was from the far north of England -where Puritanism had made comparatively slight progress. The greater -proportion of the settlers came from the Puritan stronghold of East -Anglia comprising the counties of Suffolk, Essex, Norfolk, and eastern -Hereford. Next to this was the emigration from Wessex including Dorset, -Somerset, and eastern Devon. Following came contributions from Kent, -from the midland counties of Buckingham, Northampton, and Leicester, -a considerable group from the borders of Wiltshire, Hampshire, and -western Berkshire with some from as far west as Gloucestershire near -the Welsh border. A large Boston group came from Lincolnshire (which -was the home of the ancestors of the Boston-born Benjamin Franklin) -and of course there was a strong contingent from London, which was -largely Puritan and Presbyterian. Towns in Massachusetts tended to -be settled by people who were all from the same region in England; -and as the expansion of Massachusetts was very largely in the form of -congregations from given towns, these populations often kept together -for a long time. Frequently the town's name indicates the old home. -Thus Gloucester was settled by men from that county and Dorchester was -named for the town in Dorset from which its early settlers came with -the Rev. John Maverick, although it contained an element of Lancashire -people from the neighborhood of Preston, Liverpool, and Manchester. - -[Illustration: Ulster Scot and New England origins--1, heaviest; 2, -heavy; 3, light; 4, very light; 5, uncertain; 6, English definitely -present.] - -Along with the desire of these settlers to better themselves, to -acquire the ownership of land, and to seek fortune in new countries, -the disturbed political conditions in Great Britain particularly -urged Puritans to migrate. British documents of the period throw many -sidelights on the nature and scope of this movement. Thus Lord Maynard, -in a memorandum to Archbishop Laud in 1638, laments "the intention of -divers clothiers of great trading to go suddenly into New England." He -hears daily of incredible numbers of persons of very good abilities -who have sold their lands to depart and says there is danger of divers -parishes being impoverished. - -Since some of them liked the Massachusetts government no better than -the one at home, the tide of emigration turned strongly toward the West -Indies, the British islands of which were rapidly filled with Nordic -stock. The history of Nordic settlement in the West Indies is little -known and is exceedingly instructive in connection with a study of the -peopling of the New World. Bermuda was colonized in 1612, Saint Kitts -in 1623, Barbadoes and Saint Croix in 1625, and Nevis three years -later. By 1640 Massachusetts had about 14,000 settlers; but Saint -Kitts had almost as many and Barbadoes decidedly more. The number of -Englishmen who migrated to the West Indies was perhaps three times as -large as the number who went to all New England. - -Down to the end of the eighteenth century the West Indies were -flourishing, populous, and wealthy, but these islands then ceased to -have any world-wide importance--not merely because of economic and -agricultural changes, such as affected the sugar industry, but because -the white man in the tropics could not compete on even terms with -the Negro. It will be pointed out later that these islands are now -virtually Negro territory, and they have become centers of emigration -into the United States of a black population of low economic and -social status--the Nordics having died out, or lost their original -characteristics, or gone elsewhere. - -From 1640 the emigration from Great Britain to New England almost -stopped and the tide turned the other way; many settlers in -Massachusetts either returning to England or going to the West Indies. -The natural increase of the population from then on accounts for most -of the growth of the New England colonies. Even here, however, the Bay -State fell behind Virginia in rate of increase of white population. - -[Illustration: PURITAN EMIGRATION FROM ENGLAND - -1620 TO 1640 - -SHOWING A TOTAL OF ABOUT 67,300 - - _New England 17,800_ - - _Maryland and Virginia 9500_ - - _West Indies including Bermuda about 40,000_] - -Almost as soon as they had established themselves around Massachusetts -Bay, groups of settlers began to push out in all directions, partly -to get better or cheaper land, and partly to get greater independence -of action. In this way the settlement of Connecticut was begun as -early as 1634. In the next year emigrants arrived in Connecticut from -Dorchester and Watertown in Massachusetts and in 1636 from Newton. -They established settlements in the Connecticut River valley bearing -the names of the Massachusetts towns from which they came until the -names of Windsor, Wethersfield, and Hartford were substituted. In 1638 -came the settlements at New Haven, Guilford, Milford, and elsewhere. -Stratford, Fairfield, Norwalk, and Stamford were established not many -months later as a challenge to the Dutch from New York who regarded -that part of Connecticut as their own domain. By 1640, at least a -couple of thousand settlers were in Connecticut; Hartford, New Haven, -and New London becoming in their turn the main gateways of immigration -into the whole back country. The settlement of New England was, in -general, however, from south to north, proceeding along the river -valleys. - -The fisheries and the excellent supply of timber for naval construction -led to scattered settlements on the coast of Maine even earlier. The -lack of navigable rivers delayed penetration into the interior--but -during the seventeenth century the Massachusetts people had settled -along most of the river valleys. Even to this day the interior of Maine -is very largely backwoods. This territory was claimed by Massachusetts -as a part of its own dominion, from which it did not separate until in -1820 when it was admitted as an independent State to offset Missouri in -Henry Clay's famous compromise. - -As Indians were gradually dispossessed, the population of Massachusetts -continued to push westward. In 1676 the end of King Philip's War -removed the fear of Indians for a time and led to particularly active -movements of population inland. Meanwhile settlements had been made in -New Hampshire and Rhode Island. The first settlement in New Hampshire -had been made by David Thomson, a Scotsman who established himself on -the coast; but its population came from Plymouth Colony and later from -other parts of Massachusetts. The spread of the English in the New -Hampshire mountains and forests, where the Indians continued hostile -for a long time, was slow, and even at the time of the Revolution, -New Hampshire contained few settlements of any size. The greatest -development came toward the end of the period here considered. In -1700 it held but 5000 or 6000 souls. Up to 1760 only the coast towns -had any considerable population, but the peace of 1763, which finally -removed the French and Indian menace, resulted in a rapid penetration -of settlers largely from Connecticut. In the next fifteen years 30,000 -people are said to have entered New Hampshire from Connecticut alone, -and a hundred new towns had been planted. - -Rhode Island already had a few settlers before Roger Williams founded -Providence (1636), though that is generally regarded as the beginning -of the colony. Portsmouth was founded in 1638, Newport and Warwick in -1639, and in 1644 these settlements were united under one government. -Because of its small size, Rhode Island plays in a sense only a minor -part in the history of the formation of the early population of North -America. But it served as a place of entry for colonists from all -sources, and it likewise attracted settlers from the other colonies, -due to its conspicuous policy of political and religious toleration. In -another way the small size of Rhode Island led to its being a source -of colonization. Its available land resources were so small that large -families soon exhausted them and there was no recourse except to get -out of the colony. It was therefore an incubator for colonists and -furnished more emigrants in proportion to its population than did other -colonies which had greater resources wherewith to care for their own -people. It may be said that while Massachusetts is the parent of all -New England, the whole of New England is in some sense a parent of -Rhode Island. In either case, the racial homogeneity of the population -is conspicuous, the little groups of settlers who represented other -than Nordic stock being insignificant in numbers however much they may -appeal through sentiment to the pride of their descendants. - -Vermont was settled late, its main occupation not coming until after -the Revolution. At first a part of New Hampshire, it attracted -occasional settlers from that State and its neighbors, but there could -hardly be said to have been a permanent settlement until Brattleboro -was founded in 1740. - -The settlement of Massachusetts west of the Connecticut River began -in 1725, when the Berkshires were invaded and Sheffield established. -Settlers steadily pressed north and west, and gradually took possession -of the territory between the Connecticut River and Lake Champlain. The -Connecticut River was the first American frontier, as Alaska was the -last. - -At the time of the Revolution Vermont was very much of a frontier, in -which a lawless and defiant lot known as the Green Mountain Boys held -possession and yielded allegiance to no one. Within six weeks after -the collapse of Shays's Rebellion, more than 700 families are said -to have migrated from western Massachusetts into Vermont. Many New -England soldiers who had fought over this ground in the Revolution had -marked it as offering desirable home sites, and came into it to take -up land and clear it, to bring their families, and establish isolated -settlements which gradually coalesced into something like a settled -country. The increasing influx of New Englanders led to the surrender -of New York's claims on the territory, so that it took its place as -an independent State in 1791, the first to be added to the original -thirteen. - -The picture of New England then is that of a community which received -the bulk of its foundation stock in a very short period of time, 1620 -to 1640, and almost wholly from a single source; that is, England, -and specifically from the most Nordic districts of England. It was -no mere figure of speech when Captain John Smith bestowed upon the -region the prophetic name of New England. During the eighteenth -century, scattered groups of other origins came to add themselves -to the descendants of these early settlers; but in most cases they -represented only drops in the bucket. Doubtless one of the reasons why -the study of genealogy and the pride of ancestry have flourished most -conspicuously in New England is that so large a proportion of the old -population traces its ancestry back to the same period and to the same -group of people. Even as early as the Revolution, the great bulk of the -settlers of New England represented families that had been four or five -generations on American soil. - -If there was a conspicuous absence of immigrants of very distinguished -families into New England at that time, it may be said, on the -other hand, that the general level was sound and intelligent. The -immigrant population of New England was composed of a small group of -families dominant in business and the professions, and an overwhelming -proportion of representatives of the English yeomanry, owners of small -freeholds, whose sons often sailed ships or went to the fisheries. This -same type made up the bulk of the population of the middle colonies -and peopled the back country of the southern colonies. As most of the -settlers in New England in the early migration were men who brought -their families, the foundation stock thus established was on a better -level than that in some other colonies where men arrived without -bringing wives and therefore were forced to marry women of any kind -whom the colony could furnish. The definitely Nordic character of New -England stock, its early establishment, and the survival of the able -and vigorous in a region where nature took a heavy toll of weaklings, -have produced in New England a population that has left its stamp on -subsequent American history as has no other group. - -As to the Ulster Scots we must bear in mind that the Irish question was -as serious a thorn in the side of English statesmen in the sixteenth -and seventeenth centuries, as it was before or since, and numerous -attempts were made to alleviate the situation, if not to end it, by the -colonization of Protestant people in Ireland. In 1611, James I began -to encourage the emigration of people from the lowlands of Scotland, -particularly from the western part, and from the north of England, -into Ulster. He looked forward to establishing in Ireland a staunch -Protestant population that might ultimately outnumber the Catholics -and become the controlling element politically. For this reason the -settlers were picked with some care. The plan succeeded so well that in -a generation or a little more, about 300,000 people had been colonized -in the northern part of the island, and by the end of a century their -number had risen to nearly a million. - -These are the "Scotch Irish" of American history. The name is a -grotesque misnomer suggesting to the popular mind a sort of hybrid -origin and hybrid character which has no basis in reality. They were -not Irish in any sense of the word, and while most of them were Scotch -a great many were English. They are designated in this book as "Ulster -Scots." - -Following the planting of Ulster in the north of Ireland, there was a -heavy British emigration into the east of Ireland. This was due partly -to economic factors and partly to the desire of Cromwell, in his turn, -to solve the Irish problem by colonization, after the precedent which -James I had established. These English Protestants in eastern Ireland -have too often been ignored. They, too, had nothing in common with the -older Roman Catholic population of the eastern part of the Island. Many -of the Protestant "Irish" were Quakers. - -These adopted children of Ireland also migrated freely to the American -colonies and have been assumed far too easily to have been Roman -Catholics. While it is extremely difficult to arrive at exact figures -on this point, there is some reason to believe that the number of -Protestant English in the east of Ireland during the seventeenth -century was as large as the number of Protestant Scotch in the north, -and this former group contributed its quota of English population to -the colonies. It was this group which imposed the English language on -the Irish. Until the later 1840's the Leinster Protestants and the -Ulster Presbyterians were practically the only immigrants from Ireland -to this country. - -The great movement of Ulster Scots to America, although of an entirely -different degree of magnitude, has been perhaps second only to that -from the English counties in its influence on the subsequent history -of the Continent. It began in the latter part of the seventeenth -century but did not reach its height until the first quarter of the -eighteenth. Five shiploads arrived in the summer of 1718, giving Cotton -Mather the chance to note in his diary with anticipatory pleasure the -merit that would accrue to him from showing "kindness to ye indigent." -Thereafter, one finds in most histories such items as "In 1719 there -came one hundred and twenty Presbyterian families from the north of -Ireland who settled in Massachusetts" or "In the years 1719 and 1720 -more than one hundred Presbyterian families came from the north of -Ireland and settled at Londonderry in New Hampshire," and so on. - -The Congregationalists of the seaboard were not too hospitable to -these Presbyterians, and forced them to move inland in almost every -case, away from the long-settled territory over which the Boston -theocracy attempted to maintain its rule, and mostly to New Hampshire -and Connecticut. Londonderry recalls its origin by its name and the -Scotch who settled it not only introduced their manufactures into -New Hampshire but brought along with them a still more valuable -importation, the so-called Irish potato, which, having been taken -from South America to Ireland long before, had, in this round-about -way, been brought back to its own hemisphere. Other groups went to -Worcester, to Pelham, to Palmer, to Andover, and to other communities -in small numbers; while many others went to Maine. The total numbers, -however, were very small. - -Massachusetts had a definite policy at this time of encouraging, if not -requiring, immigrants of this sort to settle on the frontiers. They -furnished less competition in this way and played a useful part in -keeping off the Indians. - -The emigration of the Scotch and North English who had been in Ulster -for a generation or two or at the most for three generations, was -due to discontent with their situation there. They had built up an -important manufacture of woollens and linens which has ever since -been famous throughout the world; but in 1698 the jealousy of rival -industrialists in England led to Parliamentary legislation which -crippled the industries in Ulster and threw many men out of employment. -In 1704 and the following years a religious persecution of these -Presbyterians was also carried on. These economic and religious -handicaps were so great that after a few years of patient waiting the -population gave up hope, and within half a century about half of the -entire number had moved to the New World. The most important stream -went into the middle and southern colonies and will be traced later. - -This exodus was a cause of alarm in the old country as well as in the -new. "The rumour [of going to America] has spread like a contagious -distemper," laments an Irish letter writer in 1728; "and the worst is -that it affects only Protestants, and reigns chiefly in the North"; -while another laments that "there are now seven ships at Belfast, that -are carrying off about 1000 passengers thither; and if we knew how to -stop them, as most of them can get neither victuals nor work at home, -it would be cruel to do it." - -Reference will recur frequently to this immigration of Ulster Scots. -At this point it is necessary to emphasize in the first place that it -was little different in racial background from the preceding English -settlement, both groups being definitely Nordic in their make-up. In -the second place it was a valuable addition to the colonies in the -quality and energy of its members. In the third place it was always -small in proportion to the English element. - -New England in 1790, regardless of numerous non-English groups, many of -them of good individual quality though insignificant in total numbers, -is to be considered definitely as a transplanted English population, -most of which had been settled in North America so long that its -habits of thought and action had become differentiated--one might say -definitely American rather than English. - -A third source of New England settlers during this period, small in -numbers but valuable in quality, is represented by the French Huguenots -who arrived for the most part in the decade or two following the -Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. - -The Huguenot migration to America falls in two general epochs. From -1555, when Admiral Coligny had a vision of a Protestant France in the -New World, to the Revocation in 1685 of the Edict of Nantes, the French -charter of Protestant liberty, is the first epoch, during which the -immigration was scattering. From 1685 up to about 1750 is the second -epoch, when the Huguenots, fleeing from oppression and death, sought -refuge in many countries. During this period their immigration to North -America reached considerable proportions. Providence and Boston were -points of entry for many, though more went to the Southern colonies, -and to them many an American family of the present day is proud to -trace its ancestry. - -These French Huguenots seem to have come pre-dominantly from the middle -class or artisan stratum of the population with a mixture of the lesser -gentry. But their energy, ability, and character earned for them an -important rôle in their adopted country, out of proportion to their -small numbers. Unlike some of the other non-English groups they did not -tend to establish colonies or settlements of their own, but scattered -widely and merged freely into the general population. This was the less -difficult in that they came from the most Nordic parts of France and in -racial composition are scarcely to be distinguished from the English. - -In the same way those northern and eastern counties of England, which -supplied a large part of the migration to America, had, during the -preceding century, received a continuous infusion of continental -Huguenots to a total sometimes estimated as high as 250,000, who there -also became by admixture and hereditary similitude indistinguishable -from their neighbors. - -The Indian population of New England though never great was largely -exterminated by war, disease, whiskey, and the breaking up of their -cultural and economic background. In the century before the settlement -of Plymouth, smallpox, introduced from the Spanish Main, had flickered -up and down the New England coast and had so decimated the natives that -only a weakened remnant remained to oppose the Whites. - -In contrast, in the eleventh century the Norsemen who attempted -to found settlements on the New England coast had met with savage -resistance from the natives, whom they called Skrellings. - -Intermarriage between Whites and Indians was almost unknown save in the -occasional case in which a colonist was carried into captivity. The -antipathy of the English settlers to the Indians was far too great to -lead to the sort of miscegenation which was encouraged by the French in -their part of the continent, and to which reference will be made later. -In the British colonies the half-breed was looked upon as an Indian, -whereas in the French colonies, as generally in all Colonial countries -that had the Roman imperial tradition and the Roman Catholic religion, -the half-breed was assimilated to the European group. Some of the -remaining Indians along the Atlantic coast mixed with the runaway Negro -slaves, but few of them contributed to the white population, and the -term "half-breed" was in general a term of contempt. It was not until -within the life-time of those now living that an infusion of Indian -blood became a subject of pride, particularly in Oklahoma, unless -one makes exception for such isolated tales as the somewhat grotesque -Pocahontas tradition in Virginia. - -The predominant influence of Massachusetts at the time of the -Revolution is easy to understand. It possessed, to an unusual degree, -unity in the various fields in which unity is most valuable to a -nation--unity of race, unity of language, unity of culture, unity -of religion, unity of institutions--and, more than anywhere else in -the United States, its unity was attained through a long-continued, -independent growth on American soil. - -The French and Indian menace held back the rapidly multiplying -population of New England for at least a generation. The agricultural -areas were carrying more population than they could support, and -they were waiting for a favorable opportunity to spread out. This -opportunity came in the overthrow of Montcalm at Quebec in 1759. -The Peace of Paris in 1763 left the road open, and the New England -population began to push north, west, and south with a vigor that was -reflected in the activity of the communities at home. The succeeding -half-century is correctly regarded as the golden age of New England. -Its country districts were more densely populated when the first census -of the United States was taken in 1790 than they have been since. The -decline, which will be traced in the next section, then began and -decade after decade thereafter the New England towns and villages are -found in a surprisingly large percentage of cases either standing -still or actually declining in number of inhabitants. - -The history of American colonization is usually written only in terms -of the additions to population. The subtractions from it may be no less -important. Subtractions by migration westward were less significant -because in many cases the frontier merely proliferated itself by -sending its surplus out without diminishing its own standards or -numbers. - -The first national loss of population occurred after 1640 when the -changing political conditions in England, and the tyranny of the -Massachusetts Bay authorities, drove many people out of Massachusetts. -This loss, serious as it was, is insignificant compared with the -tremendous loss of superior stock at the time of the Revolution. The -Loyalists made up an undetermined part of the population, perhaps -as much as one-third. Those who had been most conspicuous or most -active were obliged in many cases to flee, and persecution with the -confiscation of their property was carried on even after the war. -Most of the Loyalists who left the colonies went either to Canada or -to the West Indies. Altogether the loss from this source may have -been as great as 100,000 people representing on the whole a superior -selection of the population. It is comparable in the racial damage done -the American population with the loss which France suffered from the -expulsion of the Huguenots. - -By the Revolution, the colonizing impulse of New England had not -merely begun to fill up western New York, as will be described -shortly, but had led to the formation of speculative land companies -for settlement in the Wyoming Valley of Pennsylvania, and even on -the lower Mississippi. The hard times following the Revolution led -to a great increase in migration, which, in general, has been rapid -in hard times, slower in periods of prosperity. Vermont, as already -said, felt the impulse markedly. Maine also seems to have grown most -rapidly in the decade or two following the Declaration of Independence, -though Portland and Falmouth were the only towns worthy of the name. -New Hampshire, likewise, slower in its development than other parts -of New England, had begun to catch up by attracting those ready to -better themselves by a change of location. Connecticut had made a -steady growth and had fewer non-English elements than almost any other -of the New England colonies, small as these elements were everywhere. -The growth of Massachusetts had been largely in the interior, Boston -having made less progress than many other cities. People were moving -from Massachusetts to other colonies. Many were moving through Boston -but not staying there. Politically and culturally important, the Hub -of the Universe stagnated industrially until the beginning of the -manufacturing era. - - - - -VI - -THE GATEWAYS TO THE WEST FROM NEW ENGLAND AND VIRGINIA - - -In 1609, the English navigator, Henry Hudson, had explored the river -which now bears his name, acting on behalf of the Dutch East India -Company. During the next decade, small Dutch settlements, trading -posts, were established along the river; but the first real settlement -is generally dated 1623 when thirty families of Walloons arrived. These -were people from northern France and the southern Netherlands who had -been driven into Holland by religious persecution and wanted to escape -from the unsympathetic treatment which they were receiving in the -southern part of Holland. Their language was not Dutch but French. - -Speaking at large the Dutch settlement of New Netherland was, at the -beginning, a trading venture and was based on a stronghold at the -mouth of the river and another one at the head of navigation. For many -years the latter settlement, originally called Fort Orange and later -Albany, was much more important than the little town of New Amsterdam -on Manhattan Island. - -Restrictions on land tenure held back colonization, and at no time -during the Dutch occupation did its reach extend much beyond the -fertile farm lands of the Hudson valley northerly to Fort Orange, -though an outpost to the west was established at Schenectady and -scattering settlements had also been made in New Jersey and on Long -Island. - -In all these outlying regions, the pressure of New England migrants was -too strong for the scanty Dutch population to withstand, and even in -Manhattan the New Englanders had become early an important part of the -population. - -The immigration of respectable Dutch families did not begin in general -until after 1638 when the monopoly of the West India Company was -abolished. Many of the families who became great land owners in the -northern part of the Hudson River valley were from Gelderland, east of -the Zuyder Zee, the town of Myjerka being one of the principal centers -of emigration. While many of these Dutch families were of excellent -mercantile stock, it is a mistake to suppose that they represented the -social élite of the home country. - -Although the Dutch have left a permanent mark on the Hudson River -valley, the contribution which they made to the future population of -the State was small. When England captured the colony in 1664 and the -Dutch immigration ceased, there were probably not many more than 10,000 -inhabitants in the whole region, and of these from a quarter to a third -were English. - -Holland at the time was not at all a colonizing nation. Its overseas -ventures were for the purpose of trade, and it had not sufficient -surplus population to settle colonies permanently. - -The amount of Dutch and Huguenot blood that was perpetuated in the -later history of the colonies was, therefore, small by comparison with -the English, but was for the most part of the same racial stock. Six or -seven thousand Dutch in the present State of New York in 1664 are to be -compared with 35,000 English in Virginia and 50,000 in New England at -the same date. - -There was no further general and organized emigration from Holland -to America until the close of the Revolution. At that time some -of the Amsterdam bankers, who had loaned millions of dollars to -the Revolutionary government, decided to try to capitalize their -investments and bought nearly 4,000,000 acres of land in New York -and Pennsylvania. Most of the settlers on this tract were not Dutch; -and while Dutch names may still play an important part in the Social -Registers of New York and Albany, Dutch blood is insignificant in the -present make-up of the population of the United States. - -The southerly tide of New Englanders, which washed over the Dutch -colony and others to the South, was in the first instance made up -largely of those who did not find the religious convictions of their -associates in Massachusetts and Connecticut to their liking. - -The little "Forts" of the Dutch in the Connecticut valley were swamped -shortly after 1630, and by 1639 the Connecticut people of English -ancestry had established themselves at Greenwich within thirty miles -of New Amsterdam and in other towns even nearer. Long Island was -settled from the same source, and Thomas Belcher took up a tract upon -the present site of the City of Brooklyn in the same year in which the -English began to build at Greenwich. Brooklyn, until the twentieth -century, has been a typically New England community, entirely distinct -from the other boroughs of Greater New York. The eastern end of Long -Island was long separated from the western end and was settled directly -from Connecticut. The Hamptons are virtually still a part of New -England. - -The development of the southern part of New York State, and -particularly of the Hudson River valley, was delayed indefinitely by -the great land holdings of the so-called "patroons" or great landlords. -New York City continued to be a cosmopolitan and nondescript town, -built up on commerce and trade and without any particular racial -complexion. Even at the time of the Revolution, it was inferior alike -in size and in influence to Philadelphia and Boston, and New York State -was but seventh in population among the thirteen colonies. - -The real foundation of the greatness of the Empire State was the New -England colonization of northern and western New York, which created -a territory that was, and has ever since remained, quite distinct in -political complexion and economic and social interests from the Hudson -River valley and the metropolis at its mouth. - -The commercial greatness of the City of New York dates from the opening -of the Erie Canal in 1825, which made New York the outlet of the lake -States. Meanwhile, however, several other foreign invasions had taken -place. - -The French Huguenots, racially Nordic and almost identical with the -British, began to arrive in Colonial New York after 1685, founding the -town of New Rochelle to commemorate the French city from which so many -of them had come. Here, as elsewhere, their influence was far in excess -of their proportionately small number. - -In 1711, Governor Hunter of New York became imbued with grandiose ideas -about developing the resources of his Province and began to look for a -source of cheap labor for its exploitation. He found this in the German -districts on the Rhine, broadly known as the Palatinate, where various -national elements, not merely German and Alsatian, but French, Swiss, -Moravian, and miscellaneous, were gathered, and where the religious -persecution to which they were subjected as Protestants, and the -excessive hardships which they were compelled to endure from invasions -of the armies of Louis XIV, had reduced them to great misery. - -The population was ripe for emigration and furnished the only -substantial element of non-Nordic origin in the Colonial history of -America. It is not necessary to trace in detail the innumerable petty -sects and national elements, often two or three times removed from -their original home, of which this "Palatine" emigration was composed. -For the present purpose it was pre-dominantly German-speaking, and -largely of the round-headed Alpine stock in racial make-up. - -About 1709, these Palatines began frantic efforts to escape from their -misfortunes, and within a few years some 30,000 had gone over into -Holland and even into England, where they were not welcome. The British -Government was only too glad to subsidize their further emigration, and -several thousand of them were transported to the Hudson River valley. -They soon became discontented there and were finally colonized on the -Schoharie River in New York. Here, in turn, they were ousted by what -they considered political jobbery and many of them moved on to the -Mohawk River, a tributary of the Hudson, while others continued down -the Susquehanna River to Pennsylvania. On the whole, therefore, the -Palatines are to be considered merely temporary inhabitants of New -York State. Although a good many of them remained, the reports they -sent out as to their treatment were so unsatisfactory that thenceforth -the Palatine immigration mostly avoided New York and landed in -Pennsylvania, where it will be encountered later. - -The next influx, particularly after 1719, was of Ulster Scots, -similar to that already mentioned as invading New England. Much of -Orange County on the west of the Hudson River was settled by these -Ulstermen, beginning as early as 1729, and for the next half-century -the infiltration of this Nordic element was continuous, although more -of it came through New England than directly into New York harbor. By -the time of the Revolution the Ulster Scots had spread over much of the -eastern part of northern New York, having enough representatives in -Albany in 1760 to establish a Presbyterian church there. - -At about the same time Sir William Johnson, who had received a grant -of 100,000 acres of land north of the Mohawk River for his valor in -defending the colonies against the French at Crown Point and Lake -George in 1755, began to look about for suitable tenants and hit upon -the idea of importing Scotch Highlanders of Roman Catholic faith. Some -hundreds of these arrived just before the Revolution, and like Sir -John Johnson, son of Sir William, espoused the cause of the Loyalists. -After the Revolution, they moved northward to Ontario where the town of -Glengarry recalls their earlier home in Inverness. There, such families -as the MacDonnells, McDougalls, Camerons, McIntyres, and Fergusons -became an important element of strength to Canada. - -As noted, New York State at the time of the Revolution was still -distinctly an unimportant colony, and its greatness dates from the -invasion of New Englanders immediately after the war. Connecticut, by -virtue of its proximity, was the principal source of these settlers, -although almost every part of New England contributed. The crossing -over of the Ulster Scots has already been mentioned, but it must not -be inferred that that was the principal element in the settlement of -the State. The main immigration was of the old Puritan English stock -which still dominates all of upper New York, except where subsequent -colonies of recent immigrants in some of the larger industrial cities -have altered the local scene. - -The western shores of Lake Champlain and some of the older towns of the -Hudson River valley could scarcely be recognized, after a few years, by -those who had known them previously. A mere Dutch farm in 1784 had been -changed in four years to the thriving city of Hudson, a typical New -England commercial town with warehouses, wharves, Yankee shipping, and -stores filled with Yankee notions. - -A visitor to Whitesborough on the Mohawk River, in 1788, reported -that "settlers are continually pouring in from the Connecticut hive." -Binghamton was settled jointly by Connecticut and Massachusetts. The -same spirit caused a mixing up of the population within the limits -of New England so that, to take a single illustration, the men of -Middlefield, a small hill town in western Massachusetts, were found on -inquiry to come from nearly sixty different towns in Massachusetts and -Connecticut. - -After the Revolution the more enterprising young men of Massachusetts -and Connecticut began to leave their home towns. Of those who departed, -a half went to other places in New England, a quarter to western New -York, and a quarter to Ohio and other points in the then "Far West." - -The extreme western part of New York State had not begun to develop -as early as the period of which we are speaking. Canandaigua was the -largest town in 1790, and it had but a hundred inhabitants. Pioneers -came from New Jersey and Pennsylvania by way of the Susquehanna and -Tioga Rivers, went to Seneca Lake, and thence to Cayuga; others from -Connecticut had entered the valley of the Mohawk by way of Albany and -Fort Schuyler. Small settlements sprang up at Bath, Naples, Geneva, -Aurora, Seneca Falls, Palmyra, Richmond, Fort Stanwix, and Marcellus. -The Erie Canal was as yet undreamt of. - -The population picture of New York State in 1790 is then a double one. -The great bulk of the State, so far as area is concerned, was a colony -of Anglo-Saxon origin almost identical with the New England States. The -Hudson valley formed a less important appendage to this, with New York -City at its mouth--a miscellaneous settlement of people of all sorts -whose interests were largely commercial. - -New York was one of the States that lost most heavily by the Loyalist -migration at the end of the Revolution. This superior Nordic element -left in two great streams; one by sea to Nova Scotia, and the other -overland to Canada. Long Island was a particularly heavy loser, 3000 -people going in one fleet in 1783. The influx of Loyalists into Nova -Scotia, amounting to some 35,000, was a severe burden on that little -colony. Those who went into Canada overland from New York were more -easily assimilated, and many of the important settlements along the -northern shores of Lake Erie and Lake Ontario, such as Kingston, -date from that time. To these Ontario settlers was given, by Order in -Council in 1789, the honorary name of "United Empire Loyalists," and -they formed the backbone of Upper Canada, as the Province of Ontario -was then called, and were a main element in defeating the plans of -American strategists in 1812 to capture Canada and annex it to the -Union. - -Although New York is generally credited with having more Loyalists -during the Revolution than any other colony, she also furnished -more troops for the patriot army than did any other State except -Massachusetts. - -New Jersey, in contrast to its neighbors on either side, was one of the -most thoroughly English of all the colonies. The settlements of the -Dutch in the north, and the squabbles of a few hundred Dutch, Swedes, -and Finlanders in the south, left little trace on the population when -colonization once started in earnest. The real history of the colony -begins in 1664 when the English proprietors, to whom it had been -granted, began to colonize it seriously. - -Northern New Jersey was a chaos of rugged hills and forests which -offered little to the settler and is still largely waste land. The -southern part of the State is also largely waste land, consisting -chiefly of pine barrens so that early settlement was virtually limited -to two areas. On the North River, as the Hudson was called, the lands -along the meadows opposite Manhattan Island were inviting, and on the -South River, as the Delaware was originally designated, there was a -broad strip of fertile farm land which attracted the early settlers. -Among other centers New Haven had established a colony there about -1640, but had been driven off by the Dutch. There was also some -extremely fertile land around Freehold and other towns on the line -between New York and Philadelphia. - -Since these two areas were so inaccessible to each other by direct -communication, the State grew up in two distinct settlements; that -along the western side of New York harbor, then known as East Jersey, -and that on the Delaware, known as West Jersey. While these two were -consolidated administratively in 1702, they have never been wholly -consolidated in actual character, and the two ends of the State are, -even today, diverse enough to show their somewhat divergent origin. - -The land along the Delaware was colonized, for the most part, directly -from England by the Quakers who had secured an interest in it, and who -established the only two towns of importance in West Jersey during -the Colonial period--Burlington in 1667 and Salem in 1675. Those -who established Burlington were mostly from Yorkshire with a large -group also from London, and they took opposite sides of the town, the -Yorkshire people spreading north and the London people spreading south. -Geographical difficulties checked the southward spread so that Cape May -was settled separately by people from Connecticut and from Long Island. -Later, some of the French Huguenots went down into West Jersey, but -it always remained essentially an English colony, largely of Quaker -complexion and influenced by the close proximity of co-religionists in -Pennsylvania. - -East Jersey, like western New York, represents more directly a New -England outpost. Elizabethtown had been established in 1665 by -emigrants sent direct from Great Britain, but Newark had at almost -the same time been colonized by people from Connecticut, who at first -gave to it the name of their old home, Milford. The Elizabethtown -Association somewhat later sold part of its territory to people from -New Hampshire and Massachusetts who established the two hamlets of -Woodbridge and Piscataqua, now New Brunswick. - -In 1666, Connecticut Puritans also established on the Passaic River -first Guilford, and later Branford, both of which with Milford merged -in the town of Newark. The New England overflow continued until the -shores of Newark Bay had become another New England colony. Such -communities as the Oranges were chiefly transplanted Puritan towns. - -The proprietorship of East Jersey shortly passed into the hands -of Scotsmen and a steady immigration of these began about 1684. -The capital of East Jersey, Perth Amboy, was named for one of the -proprietors, James Drummond, the Earl of Perth. The colony soon -became, and has ever since remained, one of the strongholds of Scotch -Presbyterianism in America, which found its intellectual center in the -establishment of Princeton University. - -For a long time the two sections of New Jersey were of about equal -size and importance. As the country between them gradually filled -up, the State grew slowly until at the time of the Revolution its -population was estimated at about 120,000. Another fifteen years saw a -healthy growth, the first census, in 1790, showing 184,139 inhabitants. -The somewhat complicated details of its development should not obscure -the fact that New Jersey was one of the most purely white, Protestant, -Nordic settlements in the colonies. - -Although prior to the arrival of William Penn there were several -thousand settlers on the Delaware River, in the territory now covered -by Pennsylvania and Delaware, the real settlement of that region -is generally dated from the beginning of his operations in 1681, -when Upland, now Chester, was settled as his headquarters. A year -later Philadelphia was founded, and in spite of this late start grew -so rapidly that William Penn, the Quaker, at his death, had the -satisfaction of knowing that the City of Brotherly Love was the largest -in North America. - -While the foundation stock was made up of English Quakers, Penn had -ambitious ideas of establishing a headquarters for other like-minded -persons, and with this idealism was apparently mixed a solid commercial -ambition which led him and his agents to advertise the merits of -the colony widely. The land system, unlike that of Virginia or New -Netherlands, favored the settler with small means. English and Welsh -farmers rapidly appropriated to themselves the country along the west -side of the Delaware River from Trenton to Wilmington. - -Penn maintained friendly relations with the Protestant leaders -in southern Germany, and he and his agents seem to have had an -extraordinary flair for finding obscure and peculiar sects and getting -them to emigrate to the new colony. A mere list of the odd religious -denominations that soon flourished in Pennsylvania is bewildering, and -an attempt to define the characteristics, which to them seemed more -than matters of life and death, is quite beyond the capacity of the -present-day student not steeped in the knowledge of seventeenth-century -theology. - -Germantown was established in October, 1673, the first outpost of the -Alpine race in the present territory of the United States. Its founders -were Mennonites; but they were later joined by Dunkards or Tunkers, -that is, Dippers, who held to the efficacy of baptism by immersion. - -Generally speaking, the Germans who came to Pennsylvania during the -first quarter-century of its settlement belong to these distinctive -sects, while after that time the immigration was made up of a somewhat -more uniform mass of adherents of either the Lutheran or the Reformed -Church. This difference soon became a recognized one for an easy -division of "the Pennsylvania Dutch," as this mixed group of Alpines -came to be called, not very correctly, from an assimilation of -_Pennsylvanische Deutsche_. One would ask, on hearing such a person -mentioned, "Does he belong to the sects or to the church people?" - -A few of these such as the Labadists from Friesland who settled in New -Castle County, Delaware, were either from Holland or parts of Germany -bordering Holland, but the great bulk of the "Pennsylvania Dutch" came -from the Rhine Provinces, particularly from Alsace and the Palatinate, -with a liberal sprinkling of northern French Protestants who had been -forced over the border, while others came from Austria and Prussia and -even from northern Italy. As a matter of fact, down to the time of the -World War, Americans called, colloquially, all Germans "Dutchmen." - -While the Palatinate furnished only a part of the immigration its name -was soon given to all similar newcomers, so that the term Palatine -became a general description for a German-speaking immigrant; and one -even finds in the old records such anomalies as an allusion to "a -Palatine from Hamburg." An important centre of their dispersion was the -town of Crefeld near the border of Holland. - -The colonies in general, being overwhelmingly and typically British, -looked with suspicion on any alien groups, and New England, in -particular, probably would not have encouraged these Alpines to -enter at all. Virginia with its Church of England establishment and -its self-conscious English attitude was likewise not disposed to be -hospitable to such a large group of foreigners. - -Governor Oglethorpe attracted some of them to Georgia, but not very -successfully, as will be mentioned later. One important group of his -settlers, in particular, the Moravians, left Georgia about 1739 -because they were required to take up arms against the neighboring -Spanish in Florida. They moved to Pennsylvania where they founded, in -1741, the town of Bethlehem, which has been their headquarters ever -since. - -While New York originally welcomed the Palatines, it soon treated -them so badly that thereafter almost all the vessels bearing German -immigrants came directly from Dutch ports to the Delaware, and if by -chance an occasional ship was forced to make a landing in New York, -its passengers quickly made their way across the Jerseys into more -hospitable territory. - -Even in Pennsylvania the invasion of the Germans eventually began -to cause alarm among the English-speaking and dominant part of the -population. In Virginia this attitude of exclusion of supposedly alien -races had been maintained ever since the first permanent settlement. -Inspired by visions of building up a great industry, the proprietors of -that colony had sent out with their "second supply" a little group of -eight artisans from Germany and Poland who were skilled glassmakers. -The English colonists charged them with treasonable dealings with the -Indians and the Chronicler of the settlement refers to them disgustedly -as those "damned Dutchmen." - -Benjamin Franklin, who, in 1753, expressed his opinion of some of his -fellow citizens in a letter to Peter Collinson, was merely reflecting -an attitude which the English stock had more or less generally taken -when he declared: - - "Those who come hither are generally the most stupid of their own - nation, and, as ignorance is often attended with credulity when - knavery would mislead it, and with suspicion when honesty would set - it right; and as few of the English understand the German language, - and so cannot address them either from the press or the pulpit, it - is almost impossible to remove any prejudices they may entertain. - Their clergy have very little influence on the people, who seem to - take a pleasure in abusing and discharging the minister on every - trivial occasion. Not being used to liberty, they know not how to - make a modest use of it. And as Holben says of the young Hottentots, - that they are not esteemed men until they have shown their manhood - by beating their mothers, so these seem not to think themselves - free, till they can feel their liberty in abusing and insulting - their teachers. Thus they are under no restraint from ecclesiastical - government; they behave, however, submissively enough at present to - the civil government, which I wish they may continue to do, for I - remember when they modestly declined intermeddling in our elections, - but now they come in droves and carry all before them, except in one - or two counties.[7] - - "Few of their children in the country know English. They import - many books from Germany; and of the six printing-houses in the - province, two are entirely German, two half German, half English, and - but two entirely English. They have one German newspaper, and one - half-German. Advertisements, intended to be general, are now printed - in Dutch and English. The signs in our streets have inscriptions - in both languages, and in some places only German. They begin of - late to make all their bonds and other legal instruments in their - own language, which (though I think it ought not to be) are allowed - in our courts, where the German business so increases that there - is continued need of interpreters; and I suppose in a few years - they will also be necessary in the Assembly, to tell one-half our - legislators what the other half say. - - "In short, unless the stream of their importation could be turned - from this to other colonies, as you very judiciously propose, they - will soon so outnumber us that we will, in my opinion, be not able - to preserve our language, and even our government will become - precarious. The French, who watch all advantages, are now themselves - making a German settlement, back of us, in the Illinois country, and - by means of these Germans they may in time come to an understanding - with ours; and, indeed, in the last war,[8] our Germans showed a - general disposition, that seemed to bode us no good. For, when the - English, who were not Quakers, alarmed by the danger arising from - the defenseless state of our country, entered unanimously into an - association, and within this government, and the Lower Counties - raised, armed, and disciplined near ten thousand men, the Germans, - except a very few in proportion to their number, refused to engage - in it, giving out, one amongst another, and even in print, that, if - they were quiet, the French, should they take the country, would not - molest them; at the time abusing the Philadelphians for fitting out - privateers against the enemy, and representing the trouble, hazard, - and expense of defending the province, as a greater inconvenience - than any that might be expected from a change of government. Yet I - am not for refusing to admit them entirely into our colonies. All - that seems to me necessary is, to distribute them more equally, - mix them with the English schools, where they are not too thickly - settled, and take some care to prevent the practice, lately fallen - into by some of the shipowners, of sweeping the German gaols to - make up the number of their passengers. I say I am not against the - admission of Germans in general, for they have their virtues. Their - industry and frugality are exemplary. They are excellent husbandmen, - and contribute greatly to the improvement of a country." - -By 1727, the English in Pennsylvania had become sufficiently alarmed -over the proportions of the Palatine invasion to demand a careful -record of the numbers arriving each year so that from then on there -is full official record of all foreigners entered at the port of -Philadelphia. By that time there were probably fifteen or twenty -thousand Germans already in the province, and the record mentioned -indicates that between 1727 and 1745 approximately 22,000 arrived by -ships. To this number should, of course, be added the high natural -increase of those already settled. - -Since the English had pre-empted much of the desirable land along -the Delaware and around Philadelphia, the Germans, with whom the -acquisition of farming land was a dominant passion, mostly went -westward of the English settlement and formed a belt where their -language was and, in scattered groups to this day, is spoken. They -filled the Lehigh and Schuylkill valleys and occupied a band of -fertile soil beginning in eastern Pennsylvania on the Delaware, passing -westward toward the Susquehanna through the towns of Allentown, -Reading, Lebanon, Lancaster, and thence down to the Cumberland valley -on the Maryland border where they had a natural outlet to western -Virginia and to the south. The tier of counties north of this belt and -along the borders of New York was comparatively neglected by them, and -was filled largely by settlers from Connecticut. The influx of English -and German sectaries was so rapid that within three years from its -founding, Penn's province had made a growth as great as that of New -Netherlands in its first half-century. - -The early Quakers who belonged to the privileged group grew prosperous, -and many of them finding the strict ordinances of their sect somewhat -oppressive became Anglicans. Thus the Church of England gained an -important position in Philadelphia which it retained up to the -Revolution. In general, it represented the Loyalist element and -therefore partly disintegrated when they left at the end of the war. -The Revolution was largely Calvinistic, and the Established Church was -in most of the northern colonies regarded with disfavor as "loyalist." - -The invasion of Ulster Scots into Pennsylvania began shortly after the -German immigration was well under way. Within a few years the great -majority of the Ulster immigrants to America were making directly -for the Delaware shores. Presbyterian congregations existed in -the important towns of the colony about 1700, and within the next -decade the Scotch had made numerous settlements in New Castle County, -Delaware, and on both sides of the Pennsylvania-Maryland boundary at -its intersection with the Delaware line. - -When the great tide of emigration from Ulster set in about 1720, -the Scotch found the best and most accessible soil in Pennsylvania -occupied by the English and the next belt held firmly by the Germans. -In general, therefore, they were obliged to pass over these two -territories and settle still farther west, particularly in the -Cumberland valley of which Gettysburg, York, and Carlisle are now -important centers. In this district geographical isolation led later to -the establishment farther south of a distinct church, the Cumberland -Presbyterian, somewhat different in its tenets from the Presbyterianism -of the Philadelphia region and Delaware. - -The number of Scotch who thus left Ulster for Pennsylvania is -uncertain, but may have exceeded 40,000 or 50,000. Taken in connection -with the Palatine immigration at the same period the influx to -Pennsylvania in the 1730's formed the largest migration from Europe to -the New World that ever took place until the steamship era arrived. - -[Illustration: TERRITORIAL GROWTH of the UNITED STATES] - -Seeking newer and freer land, the Scotch together with some Germans -began to follow the mountain valleys trending southwestward from -Pennsylvania. They not only filled the Shenandoah Valley in a few -years, but filtered down to the back country of the southern -colonies and to the eastern portion of what is now Tennessee. - -A good illustration of this migration is Daniel Boone, himself of -English stock, who was born on the Delaware only a few miles above -Philadelphia. The Boone family soon moved to Reading. Thence drifting -southwestward with his compatriots, Daniel Boone settled in the North -Carolina uplands, along the valley of the Yadkin, then passed beyond -into Kentucky, and, after that location began to be civilized, went on -as a pioneer to Missouri. His son appears a little later as one of the -early settlers of Kansas, his grandson as a pioneer in Colorado. - -When the land west of the Alleghanies was opened for settlement about -1768, the Ulster Scots began to throng the mountain passes. In addition -to their aptitude for frontier life, and the insatiable desire to find -new and cheap land, they wanted to get away from their neighbors, the -Pennsylvania Dutch, with whom they usually did not live on very good -terms. Pittsburgh rapidly became a Nordic territory settled mainly by -the Ulster Scots. - -These streams of immigration were sufficient by 1740 to enable -Pennsylvania to overtake and pass the population of every other colony -except Maryland, Massachusetts, and Virginia, although most of them -had been started a generation earlier than Penn's settlement. A decade -later Maryland was passed and just after the Revolution Massachusetts -was outstripped, while Philadelphia remained the metropolis of the -United States until finally excelled by New York City in the first -half of the nineteenth century. - -Benjamin Franklin's offhand estimate that at the end of the Colonial -period one-third of the population of his adopted State was English, -one-third Scotch, and one-third German, was not far from the truth. -Though the population was then by a safe majority British in origin -and English-speaking, the Germans remained an element impossible to -assimilate, so long as they continued to be segregated in their own -communities of which Lancaster was the largest inland town in the -thirteen colonies. - -Such of the Germans as went to the frontier States were assimilated -by the Nordic groups without much difficulty; but the experience of -the Pennsylvania Dutch farming communities is like that of some of -the city slum districts of the last century, in presenting groups -almost impossible to Americanize. Even at the present time this Alpine -island of population still retains many of its alien characteristics. -For this, among other reasons, the German element in Pennsylvania -at the time of the Revolution played a relatively unimportant part -in the affairs of the State, as suggested by the quotation from -Franklin above. The dominant element was formed by the group around -Philadelphia composed mainly of the original English Quakers; but the -Pennsylvania-Dutch, on their farms, and the Scots on the frontier, -furnished a large contingent with which the politicians had to deal, -though they were seldom represented in the government and leadership -of the colony. The German element was inclined to follow the leadership -of the Quakers under whose invitation it had come to Pennsylvania. The -Scots, on the other hand, were apt to be in a state of rebellion when -occasion arose, as conspicuously in the Whiskey Rebellion, which formed -one of the first tests of the power of the Federal Government under -Washington's presidency. - -The claim that half of the Ulstermen were adherents of the Established -Church, rather than Presbyterians, is doubtless extreme, but emphasizes -the typically non-Irish and Protestant character of this whole element -of the population, as also the fact that many of the Ulstermen were -not Scots, nor even Lowland Scots, whose ancestors had moved northward -across the border from England; but were direct emigrants from England -to Ireland, some indeed as late as and even after the time of Cromwell. - -Delaware has been dealt with incidentally in what has been said -concerning Pennsylvania, because it was part of Pennsylvania during the -first period of colonization. Unimportant attempts had been made by -the Dutch and Swedes, of whom the Swedes are the best known, to settle -there but the population of the region when Penn arrived was mainly -composed of English who had moved in under the regime of the Duke of -York. - -In 1633, an English nobleman, Lord Baltimore, who had for years been -seeking favor with the Stuart monarchy, announced that he had become a -convert to the papacy, and, with the zeal of a new convert, desired -to establish a colony in the New World where Catholics, then laboring -under heavy disabilities in Great Britain, could enjoy religious -freedom. He applied for, and Charles I granted, a charter for the -foundation of a semi-feudal proprietorship, with the stipulation that -freedom of worship should prevail. - -If one stops to consider what a howl of outraged virtue would have been -raised by the people of Great Britain, and what a hurricane would have -descended upon the head of the monarch, had he granted the Catholics a -charter without stipulating for freedom of worship, it will be realized -that the much-vaunted "toleration" of Lord Baltimore's colony was -not entirely an evidence of his own broad-mindedness. However, this -toleration had its limits. Disbelief in the doctrine of the Trinity was -a capital offense. - -In 1634, the little town of St. Mary was established as the center -for the new colony. Few Catholics of the home country seem to have -been anxious to take advantage of the opportunities offered, and Lord -Baltimore began to seek tenants elsewhere. As early as 1634, he was -writing to Boston and urging Massachusetts people to emigrate, but the -first great invasion of Puritans came in 1649. - -Inspired by enthusiasm for the cause of the King, after he had lost his -head, the Virginians under the leadership of Governor Berkeley passed -ordinances expelling non-conformists from their colony, and a thousand -of these who had previously gone from New England to Virginia were -driven out and took refuge in Maryland, establishing the settlement -which later became Annapolis. - -During the next generation most of the arrivals in Maryland were -either Puritans or Quakers. The policy of tolerance was not held to -apply to Quakers, who, by a law of 1659, were to be whipped out of any -town which they entered, but this measure does not seem to have been -enforced very long, and English Quakers from other colonies soon formed -an important part of the population. - -In 1689, word reached the New World of the expulsion of James II, and -the occupation of the British throne by the uncompromisingly Protestant -House of Orange. While James II was on the throne a general alarm -had arisen throughout the colonies over the prospects of Catholic -aggression. - -Many of the colonies contained a sprinkling of the Huguenot refugees -who had been driven out of France only a few years before because of -their Protestantism, and there were thus in every colony men who knew -the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes and the terrible persecution -which followed. The tragedy of the Thirty Years War was also still -fresh in the minds of many. - -There was no disposition in America, therefore, to look upon the -Catholics as a group who, if in power, would distinguish themselves -by a policy of broad toleration, and the one colony in which there -was any appreciable number of Catholics, namely, Maryland, naturally -felt the situation most keenly. The number of Catholics in the -colony at that time, however, even including Negroes, was only a few -thousand, and their capital of St. Mary was a hamlet of scarcely -sixty houses. Probably eleven-twelfths of the population of Maryland -were Protestants, and of them a majority were Puritans. These lost -no time in taking steps to protect their freedom which they knew the -Catholic church would never tolerate if able to do otherwise, and by -a homemade revolution turned out the proprietary government and set -up a staunch Protestant regime. Under this new rule, however, the few -Catholic residents were subjected to no harm, but were placed under -approximately the same disabilities as they had long lived under in -Great Britain. Thereupon the little Roman Catholic principality in the -United States was at an end, and the then Lord Baltimore, fourth of -that title, shortly conformed by returning to his ancestral Protestant -faith. - -The Revolution of 1689 cost St. Mary its existence, for the Puritans -transferred the capital to their own town of Providence (rebaptized -Annapolis), and the headquarters of the Roman Catholics soon relapsed -into the wilderness. - -Maryland continued to be almost wholly an English colony, with more -than its share of Negroes and transported convicts, and with a very -slight sprinkling of aliens, much as all the colonies had. When the -Acadians were transported from Nova Scotia in 1755, a considerable -number of them were landed in Maryland. - -Baltimore, founded in 1729, languished for a quarter of a century, but -in the decade before the Revolution it began to grow with such rapidity -that in a few years it was one of the half dozen most considerable -towns of the continent. - -The back country of Maryland was settled independently from -Pennsylvania, to a considerable extent by Ulster Scots and Palatines, -though there was also a steady encroachment on this cheap land by men -from the tidewater who could not get possession of farms in the more -expensive and fashionable as well as prosperous region. - -By the Revolution, Maryland had reached a population of 250,000. -Perhaps one-seventh of this was in Frederick County, where Palatines -had begun to settle as early as 1710, and into which they began to -enter in large numbers after about 1730. Despite this back-country -element, Maryland must be recognized as being, at the time of the first -census, an Anglo-Saxon colony in culture, in traditions, in language, -and in population. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[Footnote 7: He is writing of Pennsylvania.] - -[Footnote 8: The French and Indian War.] - - - - -VII - -VIRGINIA AND HER NEIGHBORS - - -The settlement of Virginia, beginning with Jamestown in 1607, was of -a different character from that of the northern and middle colonies. -It was not a colonization project undertaken by families, but an -exploitation by adventurers. In a sense it may be compared with the -Klondike Gold Rush at the end of the nineteenth century. Men went forth -seeking fortune and expecting to return in a few years with newly -acquired wealth. The motley array of colonists sent to Jamestown by the -Company during the first decade of activity seems to have been drawn -from every part of the British Isles and every stratum of society. - -After ten or a dozen years, the proprietors recognized that the wealth -of their plantations would not consist in gold and pearls but that -they were facing an actual colonization project, which could only be -built upon the foundations of family life. An early recognition of -this fact has been one of the principal sources of strength in all -British colonization, and the proprietors of the Virginia colony, while -continuing to encourage men of all sorts to go to their settlement -on the James River, undertook one of the famous eugenic enterprises -of history by sending over several shiploads of young women to make -homes for their settlers. The undertaking seems to have been carried -out in good faith and with good judgment and the result was notably -successful. A little later, however, the continuing demand for wives -led to a sort of traffic that probably produced a less carefully -selected feminine population for the plantations. On the whole, it -would probably be fair to say that the "First Families of Virginia" -represented a higher social standard in the male than in the female -lines. - -The year 1619 was racially eventful. It saw the arrival at Jamestown -both of the first shipload of "uncorrupt maydes for wives," and the -landing of the first cargo of Negroes. The next half-century brought -the development of the plantation system and the spread of Negro -slavery and the problem of miscegenation between Negro women and -the lowest and most unintelligent type of white servant came into -prominence. In this way originated the mulatto group which has ever -since been a characteristic feature of the Negroes in the United -States. Those admirers of the Mulatto who boast that he carries in his -veins the blue blood of the aristocratic families of the South, would -do well to read the actual records of Virginia and other colonies -during the seventeenth century and see what sort of white stock -actually formed the foundation of that half of this hybrid group. - -The colony continued to grow for the first quarter of a century by -attracting voluntary adventurers from whom the rule of the survival of -the fittest exacted so heavy a toll that probably the survivors were -a fairly fit lot. The abandonment of the original proprietary company -in 1624 led to a marked change in the manner of populating the colony, -and for the next generation the bulk of the immigrants were assisted in -one way or another to get to Virginia and allowed to work out the money -advanced them by their labor after their arrival. - -At its best, there was little difference in the colonization plans -that British colonies have always used to get desirable settlers from -"home." In the case of Virginia it brought a vigorous population of -all sorts, and the name of "indentured servant" covers not merely -the domestic in the kitchen and the laborer in the tobacco field -but artisans' apprentices and medical students. Under the extremely -trying conditions many of these immigrants were unable to survive. -Governor Berkeley asserted that four out of five died during the first -year of residence, while Evelyn, the diarist, declared that five out -of six succumbed. Such statements at least point to an excessively -high mortality which must have spared most frequently those who were -physically and mentally superior and well adapted to be among the -founders of a new colony. Hence it seems clear that the importance of -these indentured servants in the later development of Virginia, as of -other colonies, is not to be reckoned in proportion to the number who -arrived, but to be estimated upon the much smaller number who survived -and founded families. - -Another type of assisted immigrant of which a great deal has been -heard was the deported convict. Some of these were evidently men who -had cheated the gallows, for the Virginians continually protested -against their arrival. Apparently much the larger number, however, were -men of superior quality in many respects. When nearly three hundred -offenses were punishable by the death penalty in England, many of those -convicted were not persons marked by great moral turpitude, and the -so-called "transported convict" might have been equally well a pirate, -or a preacher who persisted in expounding the gospel without proper -license from the ecclesiastical authorities so to do. - -Large numbers were political prisoners who found themselves -temporarily on the losing side; still more were mere prisoners of -war. During the Protectorate, victories like Dunbar and Worcester -and the suppression of the Irish Rebellion by Cromwell in 1652 were -followed by deportations of prisoners of war to the colonies, and the -government felt fully justified in recovering part of the expense -of transportation by selling the services of these able-bodied and -intelligent men for seven years to the highest bidder. Unquestionably -most of the foundation stock of this kind that survived to perpetuate -itself would be entirely fit for colonization. During the same period -many cavaliers took refuge in Virginia. - -When the royalists were again in power after 1660, a similar stream -of Commonwealth soldiers and non-conformists began to come into the -colonies. The Scotch Rebellion of 1670 brought another accession to -Virginia, and in 1685 many of the captives at the Battle of Sedgmoor -were exiled here. Such labor was welcomed by the Virginians in marked -distinction to the real criminals, of whom there were apparently only -a few thousand in all. After about 1700 the spread of Negro slavery -reduced the demand for white indentured labor and less of it arrived. - -In the great diversity of men and women brought over in these and other -ways, there are some who figure in the ancestry of the best families of -Virginia at the present time, and others who, from the beginning, were -misfits in the colony. Such of the latter as survived the trying ordeal -of the tobacco fields either ran away, or, when their term of service -expired, drifted out to the borders of the settlement. - -The Virginia holdings were large and far beyond the reach of an -ordinary man without capital, in marked contrast to conditions in -New England, where the great majority of the settlers were small -landowners. The freed bondsmen therefore had to go to the frontier or -drift down into North Carolina or some other region where they were -not handicapped by their lack of funds. The most shiftless and least -intelligent of them tended to collect in the less valuable lands at the -fringe of civilization, or to drift along to other similar settlements -farther west and south. In this way originated one of the peculiar -elements of the Southern population, the "poor white trash." Their -numbers were recruited generation after generation by others of the -same sort while the able, enterprising, and imaginative members were -continually drained off to the cities or sought better land elsewhere. -These "poor whites" in the Alleghanies and through the swamp lands -of North and South Carolina have been an interesting feature of the -population for three centuries. Largely of pure Nordic stock, they are -a striking example to the eugenist of the results of isolation and -undesirable selection. - -During the Stuart period Virginia was the refuge of many Puritans. They -were, however, looked upon with disfavor by the prevailing royalist -sentiment and the activities of Sir William Berkeley as Governor -were such that not less than a thousand left the colony. Their place -was taken by Royalists, invited by the Governor to find a refuge in -Virginia as soon as news arrived of the execution of Charles I. Within -the next twelve months probably a thousand Royalists appeared bringing -many of the family names which have been conspicuous in the Old -Dominion ever since. Richard Lee came a little earlier, in 1642, but -it is after the death of Charles I that one begins to meet in Virginia -such names as Randolph, Cary, Parke, Robinson, Marshall, Washington, -and Ludwell. - -The place of origin in Great Britain of most of the Royalists is -not so easily traced as is that of the Massachusetts Puritans who -came to America in groups, sometimes as entire congregations, but -random samples of families which afterwards furnished distinguished -leadership show that they came from practically all over England and -Scotland: Washingtons from Northamptonshire, Marshalls and Jeffersons -from Wales, Lees from the part of Shropshire adjoining Wales, and -Randolphs from Warwickshire. James Monroe's ancestors were Scotch -and Patrick Henry's father was born in Aberdeen. They had at least -one thing in common, that they were of English and Nordic stock. -Examination of lists in the land office at Richmond indicates that -fully 95 per cent of the names of landowners during the seventeenth -century were unmistakably Anglo-Saxon. - -The tidewater population was fecund and spread steadily up to the -fall-line of the rivers, by its own multiplication. Men and women -married early. Colonel Byrd described his daughter, Evelyn, as an -"antique virgin" when she was twenty. "Either our young fellows are -not smart enough for her or she seems too smart for them," he moaned. -With a high death rate second marriages were common. It has been the -custom of late for sentimental feminists to refer to the large families -of the Colonial period as having been produced by husbands who thus -killed off one wife after another. Such nonsense is easily refuted by -an examination of genealogies and of tombstones. Many a husband had to -marry several wives because of the high death rate, but equally many -wives had to marry several husbands apiece for the same reason. - -The toll taken by hard work, unhygienic conditions, and childbirth -without proper care among pioneer women, was no greater than the toll -taken by hard work, unhygienic conditions, and Indian warfare among the -men. If Colonel John Carter married five wives successively, in an age -when divorce was unknown, Elizabeth Mann married six husbands. - -While a purely Nordic population was thus occupying tidewater Virginia -east of the Blue Ridge, another Nordic invasion from a wholly different -source was entering upland Virginia on the other side of the mountains. -The Shenandoah Valley is virtually an extension of the interior valleys -of Pennsylvania; and while an occasional pioneer pushed his way to it -through the mountains from the eastern front, the real settlement came -through the side door beginning about 1725 and reaching the proportions -of an invasion about 1732. - -Ulster Scots coming down through Pennsylvania began that penetration -of the Piedmont from north to south which is such a striking feature -of the history of the South Atlantic coast during the next century. -With them were some Alpines, mostly Germans from the Palatine, -representative of the so-called Pennsylvania Dutch stock. - -When General Braddock, whose army was nearly wiped out by the French -and Indians in 1755, sighed, "Who would have thought it?" and expired, -he nevertheless had cleared a road for the rapid spread of this -immigration along the mountain valleys, not merely into Virginia but -on through the Carolinas and to Georgia. His road was followed a few -years later by General Forbes' road through the same country, and the -way was open. - -The upland and mountain sections of Virginia therefore came to be -represented by a group with a very different outlook from those of the -tidewater, dominated as it was by large landholders. This diversity of -original settlement, which was of sufficient importance to effect in -the Civil War a cleavage of the State and establish West Virginia as -free soil, is still apparent and makes itself felt in the twentieth -century. - - * * * * * - -North Carolina represents an overflowing from Virginia to the South. It -was a frontier for the Old Dominion where landless men could find new -homes more easily than to the westward, where they encountered the Blue -Ridge. In 1653 a settlement was begun at Albemarle by Virginians who -were not in accord either with the established religion or else with -the political control of their colony. Most of these were Quakers. - -By adopting a remarkably liberal code of laws, which welcomed insolvent -debtors by cancelling their indebtedness, this colony attracted an -element which the more conservative Virginians regarded with suspicion. -A continual infiltration of landseekers led to steady colonization, -and gradually the tidewater section of North Carolina developed as a -separate region, not very thickly settled, not very prosperous, not -very distinguished in any way. A few French Huguenots drifted in after -the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. In 1710 a group of Palatines, -who had left their German homes because of religious persecution, and -had sought refuge in England, was passed on to North Carolina through -the enterprise of a couple of Swiss promoters who were looking for -colonists. As a courtesy to the promoters the settlement was given -the name of New Bern, which has led to a general supposition that the -population were Swiss. In fact, they were nearly all German Alpines. - -Another immigration, this time of Nordics, began a few years later -when Scotch Highlanders, disappointed at the results of the 1715 -uprising on behalf of the Old Pretender, fled the country and came to -North Carolina, starting a settlement on the Cape Fear River. Later, -following the collapse of the Young Pretender in 1745, the Highlanders -again found themselves in a bad situation at home. Shipload after -shipload landed at Wilmington in 1746 and 1747. This emigration of -Scotch Highlanders continued until the Revolution, during which time -they showed themselves, strangely enough, loyal to the Hanoverian -dynasty and mostly fought as Loyalists against the Continentals. - -The general breakup of the clan system with the accompanying distress -in the Highlands caused most of this emigration, although some of the -Scots were deported as prisoners of war. Campbelltown was the centre -of their settlement, and it is unfortunate that its present name of -Fayetteville conceals its interesting history. Some of the Highlanders -are said to have brought cattle with them, and they pushed on into the -interior of the State because of the great areas of succulent grass and -peavine stretching toward the mountains which provided excellent fodder -for their herds. - -The sympathetic patronage of Gabriel Johnston, the Governor of the -Province from 1734 to 1752, was largely responsible for the welcome -extended to these Highlanders. Himself a Scotchman, he was under -strong suspicion of not being too loyal to the Crown. At any rate, his -hospitality to the Highlanders brought to North Carolina the largest -group of Highland Scotch that came to the colonies. These men of the -purest Nordic blood form a selected group anthropologically. It is no -mere coincidence that the tallest average height of a population in the -United States at the present time is in these North Carolina counties -that were settled by the Scotch Highlanders after "Bonnie Prince -Charlie" ceased to be a political possibility. - -While the back country of North Carolina was thus being penetrated from -the seacoast by the Highland Scots, the Lowland Scots were drifting -into it along the foot of the mountains from Pennsylvania and Maryland -through Virginia. This was the principal source of increase of the -population during the eighteenth century, and still gives to the State -its characteristic complexion. Along with the Ulster Scots came, as -said above, some of the German settlers, thus bringing a small Alpine -element to the State. The southern tidewater region also developed at -the same time as a northern extension of settlement from South Carolina. - - * * * * * - -South Carolina was settled only a little later than North Carolina by -the establishment of Old Charles Town in 1665. This settlement, shortly -moved across and up the river to a better location, prospered and -expanded until it became South Carolina. - -Originally a sort of offshoot from the West Indies, this region caught -the attention of the Huguenot refugees a few years later, perhaps -because Coligny had marked it out a century before as a desirable home -for them. It attracted a larger proportion of the French refugees -than any other colony; and although they were unwelcome at first to -the English who were in possession, they soon assimilated themselves -to the Anglo-Saxon population with which they were racially identical -and became an important element in the upbuilding of the State. -In Colonial and Revolutionary times, Gendron, Huger, LeSerrurier, -deSaussure, Laurens, Lanier, Sevier, and Ravenel were all Huguenots who -distinguished themselves in the service of the State. - -The establishment of large-scale agriculture with plantations devoted -to rice or indigo sharply limited the possibilities of settlement in -the tidewater region of South Carolina, and it became a country of -large holdings worked by Negro slaves in charge of overseers. Meanwhile -the owners largely made their homes in or near Charleston, and brought -it to the position of the fourth city of the colonies in importance. - -The growth of the colony would have been slow had it not been for the -influx of the Ulster Scots coming along the foot of the mountains from -the north after the middle of the eighteenth century. The upcountry -thus became quite different from the tidewater, so different, that in -South Carolina as in North Carolina and Virginia it was a question -whether the State might not split on slavery a few years before the -Civil War, and the Upland population was only whipped into line for -secession by sharp practice on the part of the political leaders in the -slave-holding regions. - -Other small elements were incorporated easily in the Nordic population -of the State, but the loss to the colony was heavy when the Loyalists -left after the Revolution. On the 13th and 14th of December, 1782, 300 -ships set sail from Charleston carrying not merely the soldiery but -more than 9000 civilians and slaves. Half of these went to the West -Indies, and most of the others to Florida where such of them as had not -subsequently removed were presumably reincorporated into the United -States a generation later. On the other hand, hundreds of Hessian -deserters stayed in the community, as also occurred in others of the -colonies, thus introducing the first noticeable immigration of Nordic -Germans into the State. As previously noted, most of the so-called -Palatine immigration of Germans in the eighteenth century was Alpine, -in sharp contrast to the North German Nordics, who came to this -country in large numbers in the middle of the nineteenth century after -the futile revolutions of 1848. - - * * * * * - -Georgia was the last of the thirteen colonies to be settled. Even -at the Revolution it was so weak that it was regarded by many of -the Colonial leaders as more of a liability than an asset to the -confederation. Its establishment in 1732 by Oglethorpe was on a basis -appealing more to sentiment than to practical views. As in the case -of some other similar schemes in contemporary times, Parliament was -persuaded to appropriate nearly a hundred thousand pounds to aid the -oppressed of all countries. Most of the few thousand persons who were -settled by the original trustees were English, and were selected with -as much care as possible from among those who were apparently "down on -their luck," and who might prosper if relieved of their debts and put -back on land. Many of these insolvent debtors were doubtless victims of -political and economic changes, but it soon transpired that in too many -cases the man who did not have sufficient capacity to make a living in -England, likewise lacked sufficient capacity to make a living in the -newer and more difficult conditions of Georgia. - -In addition to these English debtors, Oglethorpe enlisted on the -Continent small bodies of oppressed Protestants and established several -other little settlements. Waldenses from Piedmont in Italy were -settled in one place, a colony of Scots in another, German Moravians -at still a third point, and a few French families elsewhere, as well -as a colony from Salzburg, made up of a pre-dominantly Alpine stock -that had suffered for its religious principles enough to deserve all -the sympathy it received. The hardy Nordics (Scotch Presbyterian -Highlanders) who had been settled on the southern frontier, to afford -protection for Georgia from the Spaniards and Indians, were almost -exterminated by the Spaniards and of all these various undertakings -Savannah was the only one that prospered. - -It was necessary to abandon the attempt to create a prosperous colony -by means of establishing a refuge for the oppressed. Unfortunately -the change was accompanied by the introduction of Negro slavery. -Nevertheless, when Georgia became open to outside settlers, there -was a valuable accession from colonies to the north, one of the most -interesting of the groups being the Dorchester Society, which came in -1752. This Protestant congregation had left England in 1630 and founded -Dorchester in Massachusetts. In 1695 a part of them had moved to South -Carolina and, two generations later, some of these went still farther -south to midland Georgia. - -Their example was followed, or perhaps indeed preceded, by many other -Carolina planters, so that the influx from this source became a real -element of strength to the more southerly colony. Shortly thereafter -the flood of Ulster Scots, rolling along the Piedmont, began to reach -the uplands of Georgia and assured its future. - -[Illustration: THE THIRTEEN COLONIES] - -The Georgians of the present day are descendants of the Oglethorpe -colonists in only insignificant proportions. The Nordic settlers who -came in through North Carolina, English from the tidewater region, and -Ulster Scots from the Uplands, are the real founders of the State. - -After the Revolution, Georgia benefited by the prevalent unrest and the -tide of migration that flowed in all directions. It received settlers -from all of the Southern States and some of the Northern ones, as well -as new arrivals direct from Europe. - - * * * * * - -Kentucky for a generation prior to the Revolution had become known -through hunters of game bringing back glowing accounts of the beauty -and fertility of the level lands of central Kentucky. Access in the -one case was down the Ohio River by boat, and in the other by a long -and hazardous trip through the mountains, entering by the Cumberland -Gap, the most practicable of several difficult passes. The danger -from Indians was so great on the Ohio River that most of the invaders -preferred those dangers of a different type to be encountered by the -Cumberland Gap entry. It was the route which Daniel Boone, acting for -a land company, had blazed: the narrow trail, six hundred miles long, -that has become famous as the Wilderness Road. - -By the time of the Revolution several hundred people were in Kentucky, -and more were coming each year from the inland portion of Virginia, -and, to a less extent, from Pennsylvania. During the Revolution the -population rose and fell in accordance with local conditions on the -frontier and the ravages of the Indians. With the end of the Revolution -a great tide of immigration set in, composed in part of soldiers who -were given land grants by the Virginia Government. With them was an -element of Loyalists, as well as many families from Maryland, both -seeking to get away from unpleasant associations in the East. - -From 1780 onward the route down the Ohio began to be more used. The -Indians were driven back or the boatmen learned how to cope with their -ruses, and the annual migration began to be counted in thousands. In -the year 1786 as many as 3000 went down the river, in 1788, 10,000, and -in 1789, 20,000. Meanwhile, the immigration through the Cumberland Gap -continued steadily. The growth of Kentucky was on a scale unparalleled -in North America up to that time. Within a few decades from the -day when the first cabins were erected in the region, a population -of 70,000 people had entered the State, and it had half as many -inhabitants as Massachusetts. - -Compared with the Scotch tone of Tennessee, Kentucky was overwhelmingly -English in aspect. Virginia was definitely its progenitor, a large part -of its early population having come through the Shenandoah Valley. Next -as feeders were Pennsylvania and North Carolina, while other regions -contributed but small minorities, those from Maryland being probably -the most numerous. The government of Virginia was seriously concerned -by its losses of population from this cause. After the Revolution, -officers who had served with the Virginia forces were compensated -by allotments of land in the Kentucky region. The State attracted -other settlers of a superior social and economic status. These gave a -tone to its society and laid the foundation of a local aristocracy. -Kentucky long remained distinctive because of its conspicuously English -atmosphere and the social refinements which it showed in contrast to -some of its neighbors. Kentucky remained part of Virginia until 1792 -when it was admitted as a State. - - * * * * * - -Tennessee was, in fact, only the western part of North Carolina which -originally stretched beyond the Appalachians as far as the Mississippi. -The French had established a trading post on the site of Nashville as -early as 1714. But the State was actually settled from the East rather -than from the West, and, indeed, its western third was not settled -until well into the nineteenth century. The first area of settlement -was in the river valleys near the North Carolina border, and this -remained the principal area during the period here considered. A second -and less important point of growth was in the center of the State. In -northeastern Tennessee the earlier settlements were from Virginia, and -the settlers supposed that they were still within the limits of the Old -Dominion. - -The settlers from North Carolina soon began to push through the -mountain passes and established the groupings that go in history -by the name of the Holston and Watauga settlements. Many of the -early settlers, of whom some hundreds were present before the -Revolution, were, as noted, from the upland portion of Virginia, -and were Presbyterians from Scotland, often by way of Ulster, while -the principal early influx from North Carolina was connected with -the uprising in the Piedmont section of that colony about 1770. An -insurgent element known as the Regulators put itself in opposition to -the royal governor, and, being beaten, fled over the mountains for -safety. A large proportion of these were from Wake County. They brought -in an element of Baptists contrasting with the Presbyterianism which, -on the whole, characterized the State from the beginning and still does -so owing to the predominance of the Scotch in its settlement. - -While the eastern community was growing, settlement began in the -central portion of the State in what is known as the Cumberland -district. This was for years almost isolated from the neighboring -settlement to the east, the center of which was Nashville, while the -eastern settlement headed in Knoxville, which became the capital. - -During the Revolution the settlement of this territory continued -steadily until the State had 10,000 or 12,000 inhabitants. North -Carolina made liberal allotments of Tennessee lands to its soldiers -who had fought in the Revolution, and this continued the stream of -immigration. By the time that President Washington was inaugurated -the eastern section of the State had some 30,000 inhabitants, the -Cumberland district about 7000, and both were growing steadily. Western -Tennessee was still Indian territory. - -The population of Tennessee in 1790 was typical of the upland -population of the South in its racial make-up. It is definitely a mere -extension of the western part of North Carolina, though its inhabitants -were often born in Virginia, and to a less extent in other States, as -was true of the inhabitants of North Carolina itself. - -In the Mississippi Valley at this period there were a few settlements -established under the French and Spanish regimes, which had attracted -a miscellaneous crowd of adventurers and traders. Since this territory -did not become part of the United States until the Louisiana Purchase -of 1803, it will be dealt with more fully in the next section. In this -period we are dealing with comparatively small numbers for this entire -region. - -Of nearly 4,000,000 people, both white and black, in the United States -in 1790, at the time of the first census, 95 per cent were living east -of the Appalachians. - -In territories of the present United States other than the settlements -already covered, there were three little islands of population. One -lay along the Mississippi in southwest Illinois, a remnant of the old -French settlements with some English and American additions. A second -was around Vincennes, Indiana, with a population like that of the -Illinois settlements but more strongly American. A third was in Ohio, -where settlement was just beginning, the first serious colonization -being that made in 1788 at Marietta by New Englanders. - -Although the Revolution grew out of economic and political causes, it -represents primarily one of those costly and unfortunate internecine -wars in which the Nordics have been prone to indulge at intervals for -two or three thousand years, and which have done so much to weaken them -as a race. - -Had there been no complications the effects of the Revolutionary War -might have been less permanent. Winner and loser would have lived -on terms of peace with each other, as they did in England after the -Civil War and in the United States after the Rebellion. But the hard -feeling that goes with any conflict was intensified by several factors. -The Ulster Scots, in particular, had reason to feel themselves badly -treated by England, and they carried into, and through, the Revolution, -an unusual animosity. This feeling of resentment was shared and kept -alive by many other Americans through the injudicious behavior in -Canada of a number of the English governments after the Revolution. - -The tradition of one hundred and fifty years of common action of the -colonies and the mother country in opposing France was forgotten -overnight and a sentimental attitude for which there was astonishingly -little actual basis led to a glorification of France and everything -French for a generation or more--an attitude that has not entirely -disappeared to this day. The antagonism toward Great Britain was -maintained for political reasons during the next century mostly by -Irish agitators. This ill feeling prevented the close co-operation -between the two greatest sections of the English-speaking races, which -would have meant so much for world peace and harmony, and which would -have laid the basis for a closer co-operation of all the nations of -predominant Nordic stock, in the interest of the progressive evolution -of mankind. A first object of statesmanship should now be to regain -that solidarity of the Nordics, in the interests not merely of world -progress, but of the very survival of civilization. - -Denominational questions in the United States were scarcely an issue -after the Revolution, for the bitter sectarian feeling that had -existed earlier was rapidly disappearing, and the Roman Catholics had -not yet been able to raise the issue of bigotry, for the country was -overwhelmingly Protestant. Of approximately 4,000,000 persons in the -United States in 1790, Catholic writers make varying claims running -as high as 35,000 or 45,000 persons of their faith. Without stopping -to inquire how many of those claimed for Rome were merely nominal -adherents, and how many were Negroes, one may remark that at the most, -about one American in each one hundred might have had some affiliation -with the Roman Church. When the Catholic hierarchy was established for -the first time in the United States by the appointment of the Jesuit -John Carroll as bishop of Baltimore in 1789, he reported to his -superiors that there were about 16,000 Catholics in Maryland, including -children and Negroes; something over 7000 in Pennsylvania, some 3000 -French around Detroit, and about 4000 scattered through the rest of the -country. To this total of 30,000 might be added the unknown but small -number of nominal Catholics on the frontier, in the Mississippi Valley, -and in other regions where there were no priests to minister to them, -and where their children, at least, were fairly sure to grow up outside -the church. It is probably accurate to say that there never has been -a nation which was so completely and definitely Protestant as well as -Nordic as was the United States just after the American Revolution. - -The total white population found in the United States by the first -census (1790) was 3,172,444. To this should be added, for the present -purpose, the population of parts of the continent that are now, but -were not then, in the United States, that is Louisiana and Florida. -The latter had but a few thousand inhabitants. The Louisiana Purchase -territory may be credited with 36,000, of whom nearly one-half were -Negroes. The French are estimated at about 12,000. Professor Hansen -gives the figure of Whites only for the Louisiana Purchase area in -1790 as 20,000. The addition of Negroes would probably increase these -population figures considerably. Texas may be allotted 5000 (Spanish) -Whites, New Mexico and Arizona 15,000, and California 1000 at this -period. But it will be shown later that the use of the word "White" -in these Spanish-American lands is frequently largely a "courtesy -title." Finally, the census enumerators did not reach the Old Northwest -Territory, where there were already some 11,000 residents, about -equally divided between American and French. The total white population -of the territory now comprised in the continental United States may -therefore be put at approximately 3,250,000 in 1790. - -Disregarding the French and Spanish in the outlying regions, the only -race, aside from the Nordic, that was important enough to be counted -at this period was the Alpine, represented by the Germans. In Maine -one in a hundred of the population might have been German, but in the -other New England states the Alpines were negligible.[9] In the middle -colonies they were an important element, perhaps one in every ten -or twelve in such States as New York, New Jersey, and Maryland, and -one-third of the whole population in Pennsylvania. Through the Southern -States they formed perhaps one in twenty of the population, confined -mainly to the upland regions and, having spread over from these uplands -and from Pennsylvania into the west, they amounted to about one in -seven in Kentucky and Tennessee. - -Nine-tenths of the whole white population of 1790 was therefore -Nordic in race, and ninety-nine hundredths of it Protestant in -religion. It was all English-speaking, save for the little island of -Pennsylvania Dutch, and for the French and Spanish on the frontiers. -It was all living under a political and cultural tradition that was -characteristically British. - -At the time of the Revolution there were about 6,000,000 people in -England and about half that number in the colonies. - - * * * * * - -The preceding pages have been devoted to describing the conditions in -the English colonies at the end of the Colonial Period. Let us now -consider the situation of the continent as a whole. - -Never before in the history of the Nordic race had there been an event -comparable in importance to this occupation of North America, north of -the Rio Grande, by the English and Scotch. The Canadian French were too -few to be a serious obstacle to the development of the country and, as -will be seen in the following pages, the rest of Canada was in race, -language, religion, and cultural traditions identical with the original -British colonies. - -Thus we have the most vigorous race in existence, with a few outside -elements which were entirely in sympathy with the dominant type, in -possession of the richest and most salubrious continent in the world. -That this country was healthy and well fitted to breed a highly -selected race is shown by the comparison of the fate of the colonists -who went to the West Indies with those who went to New England. - -These Puritan migrations were in their general nature identical, -but the enervating climate of the Caribbean Sea proved fatal to the -Nordics who went there, while the vigor of the New Englanders as a -body was increased by the elimination of weaklings through a harsh but -beneficent climate. - -To appreciate how highly selected a race the Americans were at that -time, one has only to consider the extraordinary group of men of -talent and ability, some fifty-five in number, who represented the -colonies at the Convention of 1787 at Philadelphia. Those men framed -the Constitution of the United States, which after a hundred and fifty -years of stress and strain still remains the model for such documents -throughout the world. - -Let the reader consider whether our 110,000,000 whites of today could -produce the same number of men with corresponding ability and equally -high motive, in spite of the fact that our population is more than -thirty times as large as in 1787. - -So we find in 1790 a practically empty continent, its eastern half -buried under a mantle of forest, with a coast line broken by ports -and short navigable rivers. Across low mountain ranges we first find -a vast central valley traversed for hundreds of miles by wide rivers; -then a belt of treeless plains covered with succulent buffalo grass; -next a region long called the "Great American Desert"; then a range -of mountains dimly known to the Colonials as the "Stony Mountains"; -beyond them a great alkaline desert, next the Sierra range, and lastly -the genial Pacific Coast. The western half of the continent abounded -in mineral wealth, while in the central valley the virgin soil awaited -the plow. These conditions had their counterpart in Canada. Wild game -abounded, inviting the fur traders to explore the remoter places and -enabling the settler to find ready food, while he built his log cabin -and planted his crop. - -Such was the continent and such the opportunity. In the following pages -we shall see what has been done with these opportunities by the British -race. - - * * * * * - -Before leaving the Colonial Period, it is well to call attention, once -more, to the history of the frontier. For a hundred years and more the -frontier was beset by savages often instigated by the French in Canada. -The Indians killed and tortured the lonely settlers and burned their -log cabins. This desultory warfare cost the English many hundreds, if -not thousands of lives along the frontiers of New England as well as of -Pennsylvania and Virginia. - -The Indians found by English settlers on their arrival in America were -probably, as to many of their tribes, the most formidable fighting -men of any native race encountered by the Whites. Not only were they -redoubtable warriors in their own surroundings, but they were beyond -question the cruelest of mankind. The Assyrians, of all ancient -peoples, were reputed to be the most fiendishly cruel, but bad as they -were, they did not compare with the American Indian. The details of -the torture of prisoners taken in open warfare are too revolting to -describe. These tortures were carried out by the squaws while the bucks -sat around and laughed at the agony of their victims. There is nothing -like it in history in any part of the world and the result was that -the aboriginal Indians were regarded as ravening wolves or worse and -deprived of all sympathy, while the Whites stole their lands and killed -their game. No one who knew the true nature of the Indian felt any -regret that they were driven off their hunting grounds. This attitude -was found wherever the Whites came in conflict with them and explains -why they were scarcely regarded as human beings. - -The effect of the existence of the Indians on the frontier was to -slow down the advance westward of the settlements and to compel the -backwoodsman to keep in touch with his countrymen in the rear. If -there had been no hostile Indians, the settlers would have scattered -widely and would have established independent communities, such as -were attempted in Kentucky and Tennessee after the Revolution. In this -respect the Indians were a benefit to the Whites. - -At the close of the period ending in 1790, despite the loss of many -valuable elements at the time of the Revolution, the American race was -homogeneous and Scotch and English to the core. It was bursting the -bonds of the old frontier and ready to pour a human deluge over the -mountains and inundate the West. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[Footnote 9: Studying the percentage of various nationalities in -Colonial times, and later, one is guided partly by records of -immigration, partly by the names of the inhabitants, as recorded -in census and other returns. There was always a tendency, in an -Anglo-Saxon region, to corrupt names of other nationalities, -occasionally in such a way as to make them appear English. This fact -must be allowed for in all calculations in this field.] - - - - -VIII - -THE OLD NORTHWEST TERRITORY - - -The second period to be dealt with covers the years from the first -census, 1790, to the eve of the Civil War, 1860, and deals with the -organization of our government and the extension of settlement westward -to the Pacific. Free land and a very high birthrate among native -Americans led to a great increase of the population, so that the white -inhabitants of the United States, about three millions and a quarter -in 1790, became twenty-seven millions and a half, in 1860, though -immigration during the seventy-year period was not over four and a -quarter million. - -From 1790 to 1820, no official record of immigrant arrivals was kept. -Thousands certainly arrived during those thirty years, but it seems -probable that they were nearly all English and Scotch. - -Just as the termination in 1790 of the preceding period was marked by -a racial loss, caused by the expulsion of the Loyalists, so this later -period was terminated by an internecine Civil War, costing the country -three-fourths of a million Nordic lives, counting killed and died of -wounds only. The descendants of those men who gave their lives for -their country on both sides would have filled up the West, instead of -its being largely populated by the immigrants we recklessly invited to -our shores. - -During the period referred to (1790-1860), there was, as said, no heavy -immigration except from two sources, Ireland and Germany, and both of -these occurred in the later portion of the period. - -The displacement of agriculture by sheep in Scotland at the beginning -of the nineteenth century dispossessed thousands of farmers who moved -to America, sometimes with the active assistance of their landlords. -The population of some districts, as Perthshire, Argyllshire, and -Inverness-shire, fell sharply, because the people, no longer able to -make a living, moved away. North America was the favorite destination. - -Southern England experienced a similar movement. The price of -agricultural products, which had been forced up during the Napoleonic -wars, fell steadily for a long time. Farmers could not make a living. -The counties of Kent, Hampshire, Somerset, and Surrey were the chief -centers of emigration. These people also turned their faces toward -North America. - -Ireland, too, was in perpetual ferment and the emigration from that -island was increased as the result of the abortive revolutionary -attempts of the United Irishmen in 1798 and 1803. After the leader of -the latter, Robert Emmet, was executed, his elder brother, Thomas A. -Emmet, came to New York, practised law, and within a decade became the -attorney-general of the state. The Emmets, like most others of these -Irish refugees, were Protestants in religion. - -Later, in 1845, the potato crop failed in Ireland, and soon after -the starving peasantry, many of them from the lower types of western -Ireland, swarmed over here. The women became domestic servants and the -men day laborers, doing the heavy work of ditch digging and railroad -building. They were Roman Catholic and that fact excited animosity in -many sections of the country. They were not welcome in the West when -they drifted there. It was not unusual to see on the frontier railroad -stations and in advertisements in New York newspapers, "No Irish need -apply." There was some violence and an American party was organized to -check their entrance into local politics, for which they showed great -aptitude. - -Since then, these Irish have been forced upward in the social scale by -later arriving immigrants over whom they had the advantage of speaking -English. They became the nucleus in America of the present Roman -Catholic Church, which has spread rapidly in this country. The Irish -did not take to agriculture and have never shown much liking for the -larger industries. - -The total number of Irish immigrants during the forties and fifties -amounted to more than a million and a half, and that first migration -has been followed by a continuous stream of southern Irish down to the -last few years when the quota restrictions went into effect. - -[Illustration: ROMAN CATHOLICS - -1930] - -As soon as they secured a certain amount of wealth and rose in the -social scale, they established schools and colleges of their own, the -teachings and, indeed, the existence of which conflict with those of -the public-school system of the United States, and to that extent they -have impaired the unity of the nation. Some regiments of Irish fought -on the Northern side in the Civil War, but the draft riots of New York -were caused by the Irish who did not want to fight for the Union. In -addition to the shanty Irish there came over some middle-class families -of importance. - -The second immigration of importance occurred a few years later when -a large number of Germans were forced over here by the failure of the -Revolution in Germany in 1848. These Germans were very different from -those who migrated to Pennsylvania in the eighteenth century. Many of -them were from northern Germany and were Nordics, including individuals -of some culture and distinction. They settled in certain cities of -the West, notably in Cincinnati, Milwaukee, and Saint Louis. For the -most part, however, they took up public land and became hard-working -farmers. They did not in the mass improve the population already here -intellectually, racially, or physically, and they impaired our national -unity, at least for the time being, by the introduction of their own -language. - -At the end of the period here considered there were in the United -States more than one and a quarter millions of German-born, of whom -about one-fourth were Roman Catholics. This church, which in 1790 -controlled not one in a hundred of the population, could in 1860 count -upon one in every nine of the Whites. - -Outside of the Irish and Germans, who were preponderantly Nordic, there -was not much immigration of importance. The census of 1860 enumerated -4,138,697 foreign-born persons out of a total of nearly 27,000,000 -Whites. England, Scotland, and Canada accounted for most of those who -were neither Irish nor German. Thus at the end of this period the -racial unity of the United States was still virtually unimpaired. - -The French in the old Northwest Territory were negligible in number, -amounting to but a few thousands. The number of Mexicans in Texas, -Arizona, and New Mexico when we took over those countries was but a few -thousand more. These Mexicans considered themselves Spanish; but as a -matter of fact, the veneer of religion, language, and culture was very -thin, and racially most of them were at least seven-eighths Indian. The -same condition prevailed in California in 1846; the number of Mexicans -being even smaller than in Texas. - - * * * * * - -Many of the original Colonial charters granted by the English kings -provided for a north and south boundary by latitude, but the western -boundary was often defined as the "South Sea," and not unnaturally -many of these boundaries overlapped. After the Revolution, the -original colonies were induced to cede to the Federal Government -their indefinite and conflicting claims to the western lands. This -general and important cession of territory had two results: it gave the -impoverished Federal Government lands which could be sold for its own -benefit, and it led to the establishment of communities which looked to -the Federal Government for everything they needed, which in itself was -a long step toward unity of government. - -In 1787 the western boundaries of New York and Pennsylvania were fixed -as they are at present, and out of the country south of the Great -Lakes, north of the Ohio River, and east of the Mississippi was erected -the Northwest Territory under the special guardianship of the Federal -Government. - -This "Northwest Territory" had been seized during the Revolution by -an extraordinary group of adventurers and frontiersmen under General -George Rogers Clark. Thereby the Thirteen Colonies were in physical -possession of these districts south of the Great Lakes when the Treaty -of Paris was signed in 1783. Without such actual possession of the -Old Northwest, it would have remained part of Canada, an outcome -which would have limited the growth of the United States westward or, -more probably, have led to another war. The reluctance of the British -authorities in charge of the outposts in this territory to surrender -their forts in accordance with the terms of the treaty, and their -alleged backing of the Indians, were among the causes underlying the -War of 1812. - -As population increased, new States were created in succession out of -this territory--Ohio (1803), Indiana (1816), Illinois (1818), Michigan -(1837), and Wisconsin (1848). - - * * * * * - -Ohio's first straggling settlers had pushed northwesterly across -the Ohio River during the Revolution, but the first real, permanent -settlement was by the New England Company which established Marietta -in 1788. This New England immigration, though soon swamped by that -from other States, played an important part in the organization of the -territory and in the shaping of its future policies. - -Scarcely had the Massachusetts group, led by General Rufus Putnam, -taken possession of its vast grant around Marietta, when a new group -led by Judge J.C. Symmes of Kentucky occupied a grant of a million -acres between the Great and Little Miami Rivers, including the sites -of Cincinnati, Dayton, and many of the most important of the early -settlements of the territory. - -Virginia had reserved a military district of more than four million -acres to reward its soldiers of the Revolution, and this quickly began -to be settled largely by veterans from Kentucky which was at that time, -it will be remembered, still a part of Virginia. - -Connecticut on the other hand had stipulated for its own Western -Reserve of nearly 3,000,000 acres, extending in an oblong, 120 miles, -from the boundary of Pennsylvania along Lake Erie, and the settlement -of Cleveland marked its nucleus. - -Thus Ohio, within a few years after the Revolution, started with four -different growing points. The Virginia element increased the most -rapidly, partly because of its proximity to Kentucky, partly because of -its easy access by the Ohio River, so that the English and Ulster Scots -of the southern part of the State soon dominated the whole. - -A similar element was continually coming across the Pennsylvania -border from the Monongahela country, and before long the Pennsylvania -emigration to Ohio became the greatest from any one State, filling up -the central part which comprised the great wheat belt. Even as late as -the Mexican War, one-fourth of the members of the Ohio Legislature were -natives of Pennsylvania, exceeding the members born in any other State, -or in all the New England States combined, or in Ohio itself. - -Through Kentucky came not merely Virginians but a steady stream of -Ulster Scots from North Carolina, many of whom, however, had previously -been Virginians. The southern parts of the State, therefore, took on -some of the complexion of the slave-holding States, while the northern -part was tinged by the culture of New England and the Central States, -many coming in from western New York, which from the present point of -view is to be regarded as merely an extension of New England. - -Thus for a score of years the population of the States to the south and -east of Ohio, which, dammed back by hostile Indians, had been ready to -overflow for some time, poured into the new territory. Then the flood -slackened until after the close of the War of 1812, when it was renewed -with vigor. Men from all parts of the United States who had served -with the western and northern forces in the War of 1812 had seen the -beauties of the new country and determined to settle there as soon as -peace was declared and they could dispose of their holdings at home. So -far as New England was concerned this tendency was accentuated by two -remarkably cold winters in 1816 and 1817, which surpassed the memories -of the oldest inhabitants. General economic and social conditions were -favorable for a widespread movement of population. The northwestern -part of Ohio had been cleared of Indians and was then thrown open to -settlement. - -This second great flood of immigration into Ohio was in general of -the same character as the first, bringing into the State from all -sides an almost purely Nordic population of British ancestry, except -for the small element of Pennsylvania Dutch who for a while kept much -to themselves, maintained their own customs and their own language, -and thus cut themselves off largely from the march of progress. Their -Alemannish dialect was rapidly becoming almost as far out of line with -the literary language of Germany as it was with the English language of -their adopted home. - -Later Ohio received a quarter of a million of German and Irish -immigrants. But of the 2,339,511 inhabitants whom the State contained -in 1860, a million and a half were born in the State itself. - - * * * * * - -Indiana, a typical American State, owes nothing worth mentioning to the -original French population. In early days it must be considered little -more than an extension of Kentucky. Virginia had set aside a large -tract for rewarding the men of George Rogers Clark's expedition and -these were the original land agents, so to speak, for the territory. -But all along the border a frontier population drifted there across the -Ohio River. As late as 1850 there were twice as many Southern people -in Indiana as there were from the Middle States and New England put -together. A good share of these were from Kentucky, which means that -they or their parents were previously from Virginia or North Carolina. - -That Indiana was in sympathy a Northern State bears testimony to the -fact that these migrants had little in common except original racial -stock with the older slave-holding population. The Ulster Scots were -the largest element, although there were also many Quakers from North -and South Carolina, some of whom were of Huguenot descent. It was this -element which made of Indiana a principal route of the "Underground -Railroad," as the system of smuggling runaway slaves out of the slave -States was called. But in the southern part of the State there was much -sympathy with the slaveholders. - -The settlement of Indiana falls almost entirely in the nineteenth -century, the number of people there prior to 1800 being negligible and -confined for the most part to lands under the protection of the little -post of Vincennes. On the northerly side of the Ohio River, at the -Falls, the settlement of the tract of 149,000 acres, which Virginia had -conveyed in 1786 to General Clark and his soldiers, was well under way. - -The rapid settlement of Indiana was a part of the great westward -movement beginning with the panic of 1819, and the hard times that -followed. The price of cotton was steadily declining in the South -and it was easy for the poorer farmer heavily in debt to sell out or -simply pack up and quit, moving on to free and richer land in a new -country. Many of the Ulster Scots in the South were hostile to slavery, -while others of them, strongly Jacksonian in politics, were opposed -to nullification and shared the reputed death-bed regret of the hero -of New Orleans that he had not hanged John C. Calhoun. South Carolina -therefore sent a large contingent of Ulster Scots to the new territory, -in addition to the general immigration which has already been mentioned. - -The Southern stream was met in the old Northwest Territory by the -stream of New Englanders coming over the line of the Erie Canal after -crossing the Hudson at the great break in the highlands near Albany. -Many of the settlers of northern Indiana had tarried for a season in -Ohio and moved westward as they had a chance to harvest the unearned -increment by selling their farms at a profit and migrating to take up -cheaper land and start again. - -Indiana missed the main flood of foreign immigration in the generation -before the Civil War. The Germans were going elsewhere because of -clannishness, while the Irish avoided Indiana because of its lack of -great cities. By the time the Scandinavian flood began to come in, land -values in Indiana were already high and the new settlers went farther -west and north. - -Indiana, therefore, of the States in the Northwest Territory is the -most nearly Nordic in population and the most nearly American, and, -at the end of the period under consideration, it represented an -overwhelmingly native-born population originating, in not very unequal -parts, from the Northern and Southern States, respectively. Though -the foreign element was rapidly gaining ground, it had not begun -to make itself felt even as late as 1833 when northern Indiana was -a wilderness, while southern Indiana was already well peopled from -Kentucky, Tennessee and the Carolinas. - -The development of internal improvements together with the general -migration from Northern States to all points west brought a complete -change in the political complexion of the State. In 1836, alone, land -sales in Indiana amounted to 3,000,000 acres and in the decade from -1840 to 1850 the population of counties bordering the new Ohio canal -increased 400 per cent, while the State began to look to New York as an -outlet for its products rather than to New Orleans. - -From 1820, the date of the founding of Indianapolis, to 1860, Indiana -had twice quadrupled her population and from almost purely American -stock. During these forty years, it is calculated that a million -people came to the Northwest from the slave States of the South. At -the outbreak of the Civil War, Indiana had a population of 1,350,000 -of which only about one in eleven was foreign-born. More than half -of the aliens were from Germany, and Indiana seems to have attracted -particularly the Nordic element, since Prussia contributed the largest -quota. Ireland was represented by only 24,000 persons at that time and -like the smaller French and English groups, they were scattered through -the State and soon became lost in the general mass. - -This distinctive character of Indiana, almost purely American, -Protestant, and Nordic in 1860, gives the key to much of its history -since then. As elsewhere the immediate surrounding States had -contributed the bulk of the population. The census returns showed that -the ten States constituting the birthplace of the largest number of -Hoosiers in that year were, in order of importance: Ohio, Kentucky, -Pennsylvania, Virginia, New York, North Carolina, Tennessee, Maryland, -New Jersey, and Illinois. So far as the New England element was -represented, it had come almost wholly through other States. - - * * * * * - -Illinois, like Ohio, had attracted a few settlers before the -Revolution, mainly to the neighborhood of the half-dozen little French -trading posts. The French population of this district had never been -large, and when it was taken over by Great Britain in 1763, most of -the French inhabitants who could get away hastened to do so, either -returning to Canada or going down the river to Saint Louis or New -Orleans. - -With the withdrawal of the little French garrisons only a few hundred -persons of French ancestry were left in the territory. These were of -two different origins. Part had come down from Canada and represented -the "Habitant" French, who were largely Alpine. The remainder had come -up the river from New Orleans and represented a more heterogeneous and -probably inferior group. Some of the Canadians brought their families; -but for the most part the French element was made up of single men who -formed loose alliances with Indian squaws. For these various reasons -the French influence on the subsequent population of the region is too -negligible to justify consideration. - -The raid made by the Kentuckians under George Rogers Clark during the -Revolution had given the Americans a more detailed knowledge of this -region, and by 1800 several thousand of them had already drifted across -the border and started settlements. This immigration increased up to -the outbreak of Indian hostilities in 1811 followed by the War of -1812 which almost completely checked settlement along the old western -frontier. - -After the declaration of peace and the opening up of land sales in 1814 -and 1816, Illinois began to have a real boom. By this time the choicest -locations in Ohio, Indiana, and Kentucky had either been taken by -settlers or bought by speculators, so that the new arrival looking for -a bonanza turned to Illinois or Missouri. - -Following the general rule of migration in the United States, which -was not broken until the gold rush to California in 1849 introduced -new conditions, the settlement of Illinois was mostly from the States -closest to it, and at the beginning was almost wholly from the South, -particularly from Kentucky, Tennessee, and Virginia. Insignificant -little Shawneetown, on the Ohio River just below the mouth of the -Wabash, gave easy access to the lower end of Illinois--that "Egypt" -which is still a Southern Democratic stronghold. For a short time it -was even the seat of government. - -In this population the presence of a sprinkling of Northerners from -Pennsylvania was resented and an occasional stray Yankee was scarcely -tolerated. The settlement of the northern part of the State by New -Englanders was made to a marked extent by colonies or organized -groups, and from the early thirties one reads continually of the -movement of caravans from all the New England States and western New -York. Here again the opening of the Erie Canal gave easy access to -northern Illinois by water. Prior to that time the lead mines in the -northwestern part of Illinois and the southwestern part of Wisconsin -had been the main attraction, and had been developed almost entirely by -the Southerners. - -In general, it may be said that up to that time three-fourths of the -population of Illinois came from south of the Mason and Dixon line, -with Kentucky making the largest single contribution, although a small -foreign element was already arriving, mainly from the British Isles. - -At the date of Statehood in 1818, Illinois may be said to have been -dominated by the Ulster Scots who had come in from the southern -Piedmont. These represented, on the whole, a class which for lack -of wealth and other reasons had not been slaveholders, and had no -particular sympathy with slavery, having found by personal experience -that the presence of slave labor was disadvantageous to a large part of -the white population. As a matter of fact, probably not more than one -Southern family in four ever owned a slave. - -The population required of a new State for admission to the Union in -1818 was 40,000. By the beginning of the Civil War the population of -Illinois had increased to a million and three quarters. Obviously this -change in little more than a generation represented only in small -part the natural increase of the original settlers from Kentucky -and Virginia. So rapidly, indeed, did the forces of progress act in -Illinois that many of the old-timers packed up and moved on, as had -happened during the previous generation among their parents, and -Illinois in the following generation will be found strongly represented -in the early migration to California, Kansas, Nebraska, and Colorado. -To show how little slave-holding sentiment there was in the early -Illinois population, in spite of its Southern origin, it is interesting -to note that most of the Illinois contingent in Kansas were Free-State -men whom the South regarded as enemies to its cause. - -For every one of the old-timers who moved farther west, a dozen -Yankees arrived along with many Pennsylvanians, while the Southern -immigration almost entirely stopped, having been diverted to Texas or -to territories beyond the Mississippi. - -The people who left the slave-holding States in the decade prior to -the Civil War were largely seeking free soil themselves. This movement -of some of the best Nordic stock out of the South just before and at -the beginning of the Civil War has not been given as much importance -as it deserves. It was a factor in the weakening of the South and the -strengthening of the North. While slavery was a curse in the opinion of -many an owner of a great plantation, he was caught in the system and -felt that he could not get away. The poor man, on the other hand, found -conditions less and less to his liking and many of the more intelligent -decided to get out of a country where they were obliged to compete -with Negro slaves and were looked down upon by their white neighbors. -In this way the lands along the Illinois Central Railway became a -lode-stone for ambitious and dissatisfied farmers from Tennessee, -Alabama, and even from Georgia. With the outbreak of hostilities this -trickle became temporarily a torrent as political refugees who did not -care to remain in a slave-holding republic at war with the American -Union began to seek freer air. - -The railroads developed a new specialty in transporting whole families -with their furniture and agricultural implements to points in Illinois, -Iowa, and Wisconsin, while steamers made their way up the Mississippi -crowded with refugees and great numbers of Missourians crossed the -river to Illinois with all their worldly goods. Many of the latter -returned home after Missouri was cleared of secession, but their place -was taken by new streams of Southerners released by the victories of -Union armies and coming to join friends and relatives in southern and -central Illinois. - -The decline of leadership in the South after the war was not due -entirely to the loss of its men on the battle-field. Although this -was by far the principal factor, another important one was the flight -from the South of many of those who were not in sympathy with the -fire-eating politicians who had forced secession upon often unwilling -communities. - -Before this time, however, the streams of foreign-born which poured -into the Mississippi Valley had already begun to influence the -composition of the population of Illinois, so that even in 1850 one in -four was of alien birth. The largest element was German, who formed -farming communities, mainly in the northern and central part of the -State. By 1860 there were 130,000 of them in Illinois, together with -others who had also come from Pennsylvania. - -Ireland sent the group of second importance, and the great internal -improvements in this period were largely the product of their labor. As -elsewhere the Irish showed little inclination for farming, which had -proved so ruinous to them in Ireland, and they made a restless floating -population in the large cities. In 1860 they represented four times -as large a proportion of the population of Chicago as they did of the -State as a whole. - -The State attracted a large English immigration. The Illinois Central -Railroad had been built to a considerable extent with English capital, -and the stockholders saw a chance to increase the value of their shares -by promoting emigration to the lands owned by the company, so that by -1860 there were 41,000 English-born in the State. - -Another large element of English descent, which had come into the -State in an extraordinary way, had already left. This was the group of -Mormon converts who were brought over from 1840 onward. By 1844 it was -estimated that of the 16,000 Mormon arrivals, 10,000 were English. Most -of these went west to Utah later, or were scattered within a few years. - -The last important Nordic element in the State was that of the -Scandinavians who had only begun to come before the Civil War, at which -time there were little more than 10,000 of them in the State as against -87,000 Irish. - - * * * * * - -Michigan, owing to its proximity to Canada, and the importance of -Detroit as a headquarters, had a distinct French atmosphere in its -early days. Unlike those in some of the more distant settlements, the -French inhabitants at Detroit did not intermarry frequently with the -Indians, and they represent therefore a relatively pure French Canadian -stock. American immigration was slow, and not until 1805 did the -inhabitants become numerous enough to warrant a separate territory. As -late as the beginning of the War of 1812 four-fifths of the 5000 people -in Michigan were French. In 1817 the first steamboat appeared on the -waters of Lake Erie and the Erie Canal was begun, and from that time -the Americanization of the territory was rapid. - -By 1830 a hundred ships, both steam and sail, were on the Lakes, and -a daily line ran between Buffalo and Detroit. In 1836 when the State -Constitution was adopted the population was nearly 100,000, mainly from -New England and its extension in western New York. The Empire State can -very definitely be called the parent of Michigan. - -Many of the New England farmers who had bought farms from the great -land companies in western New York found themselves unable or unwilling -to complete their payments and sold their equities for enough to buy -government land in Michigan and move their families, while from the -rocky hills of Vermont a steady stream came without any intervening -stop. By this time many of the French Canadians had moved out, and of -eighty-nine names signed to the Constitution of 1835, not more than -three can be identified as French. - -The tide of alien immigration at this period was late in reaching -Michigan. A group not found elsewhere was that of Dutchmen who came -like some of the earlier settlers, seeking religious tolerance and -freedom. The town of Holland has been a centre for them since 1847. -Of the 749,113 inhabitants of the State in 1860, one-fifth were -foreign-born, divided not unequally between English, Irish, Germans, -and mixed Canadians. - - * * * * * - -Wisconsin's first settlement was at the lead mines of the southwestern -part and attracted largely Ulster Scots from Virginia, Kentucky, and -Tennessee. A little later these were reinforced by another Nordic group -of Englishmen from Cornwall who formed an important element in that -region. - -The second migration scattered agricultural communities throughout the -southeastern part of Wisconsin along the lake shore. This immigration -was almost wholly from the New England States and the New England -part of New York State, and was accomplished roughly in the years -1835 to 1850. By 1847 when Statehood was achieved the territory had a -population of nearly 250,000 and was virtually a New England colony. - -Of the seventy-six men who composed the second Constitutional -Convention, one-third came from New York, one-third from New England, -and the rest were a scattering. - -During the decade which ended with the Federal Census of 1850, the -growth of the State had been nearly 900 per cent, a record rarely -exceeded in America. This extraordinary surge was due largely to the -sudden arrival of a foreign element which has ever since made Wisconsin -a State apart from all the others. Even as early as 1850 one-third -of the population was actually foreign-born. Of the foreign-born who -came to the State during the territorial period, the British Isles -contributed about one-half and foreign-language groups the other -half. The English-speaking immigrants soon blended with the native -population, with the exception of the Roman Catholic Irish who were -less easily assimilated. In the decade before the Civil War there was -a stream of Belgian immigrants amounting to at least 15,000. Some -hundreds of Russians also came in and the Scandinavians had begun to -arrive, although they did not play an important part until after the -Civil War. Danes and Norwegians were beginning to come in some numbers -but few Swedes as yet. - -The great immigration of this period was the German, which introduced -another partly Alpine element into the overwhelmingly Nordic population -of the United States. These had begun to come after 1830, when the -Revolution in France had stirred up similar, but less successful, -political upheavals in the parts of South Germany adjoining France. -Many of the politically discontented decided to leave the country -or were obliged to do so, and they found in Wisconsin conditions -particularly to their liking. In the first place the State offered a -variety of climate and soil that was not dissimilar to that in which -they were brought up. In the second place land was cheap and good and -there was much forest land for which the Germans showed a notable -preference. Not only was the possession of timber an asset, but it was -to the German immigrant a mark of social status. Forests had largely -disappeared in Germany, except on the great estates of the nobility. -Hence, to own a piece of forest land was a mark of superiority. Only -the few could afford the forest land in Germany but in Wisconsin every -small farmer could feel himself as good as the Duke or Prince whose -yoke he had renounced. A third important attraction after Statehood was -a provision that the alien could vote after only one year's residence. -This gave the Germans a political importance without delay which they -lost no time in using. - -German settlement in the United States follows a belt beginning with -Pennsylvania and running due west through Ohio, Indiana, Wisconsin, -Iowa, and Missouri. This was partly due to an avoidance of the Southern -States with whose products they were not familiar and with whose land -system and slave labor they were not sympathetic. Being in this belt -Wisconsin immediately took and retained such a prominence that patriots -from the "Fatherland" seriously urged that it become a genuine German -colony. - -The Pennsylvania Dutch had already shown how little disposed the -German-speaking peoples were to become citizens of a new country with -a whole heart, and the new tide of immigration followed this example. -They attacked the public-school system from the beginning and insisted -on having their own schools and on having their children taught German -in the American schools. They kept their own social organization and -even went so far as to get the State laws published in the German -language in Indiana in 1858. This tendency toward hyphenation has made -the Germans a less valuable element in the American population up to -the present time than they should have been. - -The early German immigration to Wisconsin was on the whole from -southern and central Germany, and was pre-dominantly Alpine in race and -Roman Catholic in religion. Statehood in Wisconsin coincided with the -unsuccessful Revolution of 1848 in Germany which started the real flood -of German immigration that reached its maximum numbers in 1854, and -continued with noticeable strength for more than a generation longer. - -The principal Nordic emigration in the '40s was from Pomerania and -Brandenburg, and many of the South Germans, while largely Alpine, were -Protestants rather than Catholics. In 1863, just after the end of the -period here considered, the church authorities reported that Wisconsin -contained 225,000 German Lutherans as against 105,000 German Catholics. -After that the Germans pressed more and more into the northern and -central regions of the State. - -Wisconsin then at the end of the period here considered (1860) had -probably the largest non-Nordic population of any of the American -States, although even here the Nordics were in a great majority. With -one-third of its population foreign-born, it was surpassed in this -respect only by California. - - - - -IX - -THE MOUNTAINEERS CONQUER THE SOUTHWEST - - -Meanwhile the States of the lower Mississippi Valley were coming into -existence at a rapid rate. - - * * * * * - -Alabama had no American settlement until after the Revolution, save for -the sporadic appearance of adventurers or traders. But in 1798, when -the Mississippi territory was formed, including the present State of -Alabama, there was already a movement of settlers from the adjoining -States on the east and north, and this continued rapidly until checked -by the war with the Creek Indians in 1813 and 1814. This war advertised -the territory. Its termination threw the land open to settlement, and -more than 100,000 people located in Alabama within five years. The -slight French and Spanish element in Mobile and two or three other -places was soon reduced to insignificant proportions. - -The State was settled either by those who came down some of the -rivers of that region, particularly from Tennessee, or by those -who came through Georgia, stopping long enough at the land office -in Milledgeville (then the State capital) to make the necessary -arrangements for acquiring title to real estate. An unimproved but -passable trail ran thence through Montgomery to Natchez, and over -this "Three Notch Road" (so-called from the blaze which marked it) -a stream of settlers from the Atlantic seaboard States passed into -the broad belt of rich blackland which quickly made Alabama and -Mississippi the heart of the Cotton Kingdom. Alabama is, for the most -part, the offspring of Virginia, North and South Carolina, Georgia, and -Tennessee, and therefore represents almost entirely Scotch and English -blood. Its foreign-born population was negligible in 1860, amounting to -little more than 12,000, almost half of whom were Irish, in a total of -virtually a million. - - * * * * * - -Mississippi: As in most others of this group of States, the supposed -influence of the earlier French and Spanish settlements is more -sentimental than real. American settlers began to filter in after -1763, some coming even from New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and New England. -A few Loyalists drifted down to the Mississippi country during the -Revolution, joining the British who were attached to the district at -that time in military or administrative capacities. One of the elements -of this Loyalist immigration consisted of Scotch Highlanders from North -Carolina. - -The census of 1850 furnished the first opportunity to ascertain the -origin of the population. The main immigration naturally was from -other Southern States which contributed 145,000 against 5000 from the -Northern States. In the same year 18,000 natives of Mississippi were -residing in other Southern States, principally in Louisiana, Texas, -Arkansas, Alabama, and Tennessee. - -At the census ten years later the Mississippi natives, then located in -other Southern States, had almost doubled in number. The enumeration -gives an interesting picture of the way in which population was flowing -backward and forward between adjoining States at that time as it has in -almost every other period in American history. - -Since the population of Mississippi before the Civil War was almost -identical in composition with the population of the other Mississippi -Valley slave States, most of which owed their inhabitants originally to -Virginia and subsequently to the States which Virginia had colonized, -it was not surprising that these people found it easy to move from -one part of this region to another. Of nearly 800,000 population at -the outbreak of the Civil War, the foreign-born, still mainly Irish, -constituted only one in a hundred. But nearly half of the population of -the State was colored, and thus no element of racial strength. In this -respect Mississippi's record was surpassed only by Georgia and South -Carolina. This latter State was the only one in which Negroes actually -outnumbered Whites at that time. Other Southern States later reached -the same unenviable situation, and it continued in South Carolina until -after the shift of Negro population which followed the World War. - - * * * * * - -Louisiana at the time of the Purchase in 1803 presented among its -50,000 residents a more varied group than could be found in any other -American State. The foundation of this population was French, the -Spanish element never having been important. These French seem to -have represented a much more heterogeneous lot than did the early -French-Canadians. One colonization scheme after another had been -launched in Paris, and settlers had been recruited by all sorts of -means, many of them of more than doubtful merit. - -Here, however, as in other colonies, it must be remembered that the -final population represented not those who arrived, but those who both -survived and left posterity. This fact has too often been disregarded -in the accounts of the origins of the American population. If France -shipped prostitutes to New Orleans to provide wives for its soldiers, -nevertheless this is now of importance only in so far as such persons -left descendants. In one case, of which the details exist, forty-four -girls were sent out from France in 1722. They all married, but only one -left offspring. - -Another element in the population was the Acadian refugees, who, -uprooted by the New England militia in 1758, were driven to almost -every part of the colonies. Some made their way to Louisiana, as -Longfellow has described, though drawing a very erroneous picture, in -_Evangeline_. Others were scattered through Maryland, Virginia, and -the Carolinas, in fact on almost every part of the Atlantic coast. -The total number of persons expelled from Nova Scotia at this time -probably did not exceed 6000, and many of these certainly died from -hardships. In any case only a minority was directed to Louisiana, so -that the original settlement of Acadians must represent a very small -part of the population. The so-called "Cajan" population of some of -the southern parishes of Louisiana is, at the present time, largely of -other origins, chiefly Negro. - -Another group of French refugees came from Haiti by way of Cuba after -1800, when the Negro uprising there drove out the Whites. Many of these -were persons of good quality but as many as could do so went elsewhere -after peace returned. - -Still another source of population was the notorious Mississippi -Bubble sponsored by the Scotchman John Law about 1717. This was the -period at which the Germans from the Palatine and adjacent regions -were emigrating in large numbers, as has been previously set forth in -detail, and 10,000 or more of them were persuaded to go to Louisiana. -According to accepted accounts, not more than 2000 of these Alpines -actually arrived, and when the bubble burst, they settled along the -Mississippi above Baton Rouge in a region which is still known as the -German Coast. - -An ill-natured English traveller, John Davis, visiting Louisiana in the -year before the Purchase of 1803, has left the following picture of -these two elements as they appeared to him: - - "The Acadians are the descendants of French colonists, transported - from the province of Nova Scotia. The character of their - fore-fathers is strongly marked in them; they are rude and sluggish, - without ambition, living miserable on their sorry plantations, where - they cultivate Indian corn, raise pigs, and get children. Around - their houses one sees nothing but hogs, and before their doors great - rustic boys, and big strapping girls, stiff as bars of iron, gaping - for want of thought, or something to do, at the stranger who is - passing. - - "The Germans are somewhat numerous, and are easy to be distinguished - by their accent, fair and fresh complexion, their inhospitality, - brutal manners and proneness to intoxication. They are, however, - industrious and frugal." - -A small Spanish settlement, New Iberia, was made in 1779 of colonists -largely from Andalusia and the Canary Islands. At least the former -element doubtless contained Moorish blood. - -Finally, there was an immigration from the American colonies which had -been coming in for a generation previous to the Purchase. One of the -first groups was from North Carolina. From time to time other small -bodies of settlers crossed the mountains to the Tennessee River, where -they constructed flat boats and floated down to the Ohio and thence -to the Mississippi. A few years later a group of Scotch Highlanders -from North Carolina arrived, settling near Natchez. The early American -immigration to Louisiana came on the whole from the upland parts of -the Southern States, and was therefore Scotch and English. After the -Purchase a similar immigration increased greatly in numbers. - -The census of 1860, which credited the State with 708,002 people, -revealed that only 81,000 of these were foreign-born, the Germans and -Irish being in about equal numbers. Nearly all of the remainder who -were not natives of the State were born in adjacent States of the -Mississippi Valley, the Whites being made up in about equal proportions -of native-born and those born in nearby States. The former contained -much of the old French and mixed stock; the latter was almost entirely -of British antecedents. - - * * * * * - -Arkansas, at the time of the Louisiana Purchase, did not contain 500 -white people. The current of immigration down the Mississippi had gone -past the Post at the mouth of the Arkansas River without taking the -trouble to turn aside. Settlement can scarcely be said to have begun -before 1807, and at the census three years later there were only 1000 -people in the territory. - -It was not until after the passage by Congress in 1818 of the Land Act -that the pioneers, each carrying in a leather wallet a certificate -which entitled him to a homestead, began to work their boats up the -current of the Arkansas River. There was a steady though not rapid -arrival of settlers from Virginia, the Carolinas, Kentucky, and -particularly Tennessee--which has often been regarded as the original -parent of Arkansas. - -Attempts have been made to trace a line of migration from the first -settlement in North Carolina, the undesirable character of which was -mentioned earlier, through Tennessee and down into Arkansas, and to -attribute to this element of the population the backwardness of some -parts of the last-named State. A few settlers came from Georgia or -Alabama up the Mississippi River but this involved a long struggle with -a strong current and it was easier for them to settle in the blacklands -of Mississippi or Louisiana. - -There were about 14,000 persons in Arkansas in 1817 when it was created -a Territory. Thereafter it made a steady growth, derived generally from -all the Southern States of the Mississippi Valley, until nearly the -time of the Civil War when Indiana and Kentucky began to contribute -some settlers. Its population therefore was in general made up almost -wholly of British stock. Its 1860 population of 435,350 was one-fourth -black, the Whites being almost wholly native-born, a thousand Germans -and a thousand Irish being lost in the mass. - - * * * * * - -Missouri must be considered from a double point of view. As a French -outpost, St. Louis had become the refuge of much of the French -population of the whole Northwest Territory when that passed under -English control, and for many years the city remained a foreign -settlement. Scattered settlers began to occupy the river banks after or -even during the Revolution. In the westward march of population down -the eastern slope of the Mississippi Valley small groups soon began to -enter Missouri, until at the census of 1810, they amounted to 20,000 -persons occupying a strip of land along the Mississippi with a small -isolated settlement at the lead mines. - -On the other hand, as a territory where slavery was permitted, Missouri -naturally attracted emigrants from Virginia and North Carolina, -Kentucky and Tennessee. Within ten years after the Louisiana Purchase -it was estimated that four-fifths of the people in Missouri were -Americans and they were rapidly moving from the river back into the -interior. - -The Missouri River was naturally an avenue of access for these people. -The interior of the State soon began to have the collective name of -"Boone's Lick" because the Boones had made salt in that district in -1807. A real rush into this region began about 1817, and Kentucky -showed its loyalty to its adopted son (who it will be remembered was a -Pennsylvanian by birth) by contributing 90 per cent of the immigration. -The State has been called the daughter of Kentucky and within -limits this is not inappropriate. Tennessee, however, was strongly -represented. The whole population was in general of the upland element -originally from Virginia and North Carolina, largely Ulster Scotch in -its more remote origin. - -By 1830 the movement of population had reached the western border -of the State. Until this time the settlement was purely British -in character save for the now negligible remnant of French on the -Mississippi. Missouri then began to get a part of the immigration of -German Alpines which makes Saint Louis still one of the American cities -with a most marked German tinge. At the same time some of the old -American stock who objected to slavery and its influences were passing -north and west of Missouri into Iowa, Kansas, and Nebraska. On the -whole, however, at the close of this period Missouri remained a Nordic -community mostly of Virginian stock going back eventually to Great -Britain. Its population of well over a million was nine-tenths white -and eight-tenths American-born, the Germans outnumbering the Irish -two to one among the foreigners. Kentucky had been by far the largest -contributor, Tennessee came next, followed by Virginia, while Ohio, -Illinois, and Indiana together accounted for only about as many as -Kentucky alone, that is, 100,000. - -This Missouri population, with its Ulster Scotch tinge, played an -important part in the settlement of the trans-Missouri West. It -contributed a large percentage of the plainsmen and mountain men of -later date, as well as of the cowboys on the cattle ranges, to say -nothing of the gun-men and bad men of the frontier. - - * * * * * - -Florida missed the establishment of one of the earliest and what might -have been one of the greatest of Nordic colonies in North America when -Coligny's settlement of Huguenots was massacred by the Spanish on -September 20, 1565. The latter made no effective use of the territory -which was looked upon by the government of Mexico probably in about the -same light as the Virgin Islands are now looked upon by the government -in Washington. In 1763 Spain ceded Florida to England in return for -Havana, which had been captured during the Seven Years' War. - -A second Nordic invasion of Florida occurred at the time of the -American Revolution when the English Loyalists from the Southern -colonies sought refuge there to the number of more than 13,000. If -these had remained as permanent settlers the State would have benefited -immensely, but most of them left in 1784, when the Spaniards reoccupied -the territory and abolished religious freedom. Some went to England -and others to the West Indies or Nova Scotia. The development of the -peninsula was thereby long delayed. - -East and West Florida became part of the United States in 1819. A -Florida colonization scheme, of little importance numerically, deserves -mention in passing because it represented the first real establishment -in American territory of the Mediterranean peoples who have formed such -an important element in the immigration of the last half-century. This -was a colony established by British promoters to which they brought -1,500 Greeks, Italians, and Minorcans about 1767. Sickness soon greatly -reduced their numbers, but a few of the descendants of these people are -in the State at the present time. - -As late as the Civil War, Florida was one of the weakest of the -American States, with but 140,000 population, of which well over a -third was colored. Nearly all of the Whites represented a southward -thrust of the Atlantic seaboard states, from or through Georgia. -Foreigners were a scattered lot, constituting but one in twenty-five of -the white population. - - - - -X - -FROM THE MISSISSIPPI TO THE OREGON - - -After the Old Northwest Territory was filled up, it began to overflow -into the territories across the Mississippi which the Louisiana -Purchase had provided. - - * * * * * - -Minnesota's early settlers were French and half-breeds, who came over -the border from Canada, together with a small number of Scots escaping -from the breakup of the Red River Colony in Manitoba in the first -quarter of the last century. This Red River is, of course, the Red -River of the North which forms the present boundary between Minnesota -and the Dakotas. - -Beginning in 1837 treaties were made with the Indians which gradually -opened up the land to settlement; but in 1849, when a territorial -organization was effected and the first official census taken, there -were less than 5000 persons in the region. - -Meanwhile the flood of immigration was reaching the nearby States, and -Wisconsin and Iowa were growing with tremendous spurts. The tide soon -began to flow up to Minnesota, coming by four principal routes. Some of -the invaders came from Milwaukee across Wisconsin by land. Others from -Chicago by land through northern Illinois and southwestern Wisconsin. -Still others from Chicago to Galena, embarking there on the river -steamers. Another group embarked at Saint Louis and came 800 miles up -the Mississippi to Fort Snelling, the nucleus around which the Twin -Cities began to develop. - -When the Rock Island and Pacific Railway was built through to the -Mississippi in the early summer of 1854, the gateways really opened. -The next season saw 50,000 persons in the territory of Minnesota. -That number was doubled in 1856. In 1854 the sales of public land -had amounted to 300,000 acres, in 1856 to 2,300,000. Most of this -population, which evidently came to stay, was from the Middle States. -The States of the Old Northwest and New England were not far behind, -but little of the Southern emigration came this far north. The years -1855, 1856, and 1857 marked the high tide of the flood of immigration -of territorial days which has not since been duplicated. - -The Scandinavian immigration, which has colored Minnesota so strongly, -began in this decade, and brought a steady stream of hardy Nordics who -avoided the cities, their objective being to acquire land, establish -a home, develop a farm, and become American citizens. A substantial -part of the German migration also reached Minnesota, so that in the -census of 1860 one-third of the foreign-born population was German. -By this time the Canadian elements had been completely swamped. The -Federal Census of 1860, three years after the territory had been -admitted to Statehood, found 170,000 inhabitants, of whom 58,000 were -foreign-born. The Germans at this time still somewhat exceeded the -Scandinavians in number. The native-born were overwhelmingly of British -ancestry and represented a prolongation of the westward movement of -population from New England that had been going on for more than two -centuries. Minnesota at this time had a Nordic population and was -pre-dominantly Anglo-Saxon in character. - - * * * * * - -Dakota was included in Minnesota in 1860 when a few settlers had -already begun to enter the region. Dakota Territory, however, scarcely -deserves consideration until the final period is herein reviewed. - - * * * * * - -Iowa had no real settlement until the spring of 1833, when several -companies of Americans from Illinois and elsewhere settled in the -vicinity of Burlington, although John Dubuque established a settlement -in 1788 on the site of the city which now bears his name, and, with his -descendants, carried on a business of mining lead and trading with the -Indians for a generation or more. Settlements then began to be made at -other points along the Mississippi, and in 1838 the country was cut off -from Wisconsin and established as a separate territory. - -As in the States of the Old Northwest Territory, the early population -of Iowa was made up principally from the Southern States; and when -Dubuque was formally declared to be a town in 1834 its 500 citizens -were mostly from Tennessee, Kentucky, and North Carolina. - -The delay in the settlement of Iowa, as compared with that of the -States east of the Mississippi, was due mainly to the fact that it was -held by the Indians. The Black Hawk War kept the country disturbed for -three years. At the end of that time the chief was utterly routed and -ultimately captured, and in September, 1832, a treaty was signed in -which the Indians relinquished what was afterward known as the Black -Hawk Purchase, comprising about one-third of the present State of Iowa. - -At that time there were probably not fifty white men in Iowa, but -thenceforward the settlement was extraordinarily rapid. The pioneers -from the South came up the Mississippi, while those from the East could -go down the Ohio. But since the purpose of most of the settlers was to -take up farm land and since the livestock and implements necessary for -this purpose could not be transported easily on the small river boats, -the great bulk of the immigration was overland in wagons drawn by oxen, -horses, or mules. - -In 1836 there were 10,000 Southerners in the territory. In the -following two years this number had more than doubled and the census of -1840 made it 43,000. - -Foreign immigrants began to appear in small numbers, but the new -arrivals were still largely of Southern upland stock, mainly of -Scottish ancestry. By the Federal Census of 1850 Iowa had nearly -200,000 people and, although the settlement had begun at the most only -seventeen years before, one-fourth of the population was Iowa-born. - -As in the Old Northwest Territory, the direct contribution of New -England was small. Most of the settlers came from adjoining States, -and, while many of them went back to New England in pedigree, a still -larger number in the early years came from the Southern States. This -was true in Iowa nearly up to the time of the Civil War. - -The ebb and flow of population in these States was so rapid as to make -the task of tracing its details difficult. Thus in 1843 meetings were -held in various points in Iowa to form companies of emigrants for -Oregon. In 1849 the territory contributed its share to the California -gold rush. Whole communities were depopulated almost as fast as they -had been populated a few years previously, but many of these travellers -probably returned after failing to find fortune ready to hand in the -Golden State. Ohio was sending on settlers to the three States beyond -her. Indiana and Illinois were attracting large bodies of settlers -from Ohio but sending on others to Iowa. Iowa itself was contributing -heavily to the population of Utah and Oregon. But these were all of the -old native English Nordic stock. - -By 1860 Iowa had a population of 674,913. The foreign-born made up -nearly one-sixth of the total, two-thirds were German or Irish, and the -remainder English or Scandinavian. - -Iowa, by the outbreak of the Civil War, had become a Northern State, -not so much from the direct New England immigration (only 25,000 -of its people were New England born) as from the general drift of -population, and from the fact that, as pointed out previously, many of -the Southerners who came into the Northwest Territory had very little -sympathy with the slave-holding point of view. - -Iowa then entered the Union as a State almost completely Nordic and -overwhelmingly Anglo-Saxon, populated by settlers from all parts of -the original States who were moving westward in the hope of finding an -advantage. What an immigrant of the 1830's said about Iowa pioneers -he encountered, holds good of most of the westward movement--that it -was made up of three classes: "men with families seeking to ameliorate -fortune, men with families seeking to retrieve fortune, and young men -attempting fortune." While the first pioneer surge into a new territory -often contained a surplus of bachelors, the permanent settlement was -made by men who brought their families. - - * * * * * - -Kansas-Nebraska's settlement in the decade before the Civil War is a -familiar episode to every one who remembers his American history. - -Daniel Morgan Boone, a son of the Kentucky Pathfinder, is often alleged -to have been the first American settler in Kansas, having been sent -there by the government in 1819 to aid the Indians in agriculture. But -the settlement of the State did not begin seriously until 1854, when -treaties were made with the tribes of what was at that time an Indian -territory. - -Missouri, adjoining Kansas to the east, had then nearly 600,000 -inhabitants, and the counties bordering on the Kansas line contained a -population of some 80,000 whites, as shown by the census of 1850. These -naturally were the most available material for settlement of the new -land and in a short time they had staked out the best claims in the -river bottoms. While they do not bear a good reputation in the Kansas -histories, where they generally go by the name of "border ruffians," -they represented, worthily or not, pure Nordic American stock. Most -of the Missourians who had moved into Kansas at that time were simply -seeking new homes and were not even in favor of slavery. The trouble -that was made on the border was due to small organized gangs of quite a -different complexion. - -Kansas represented a real battleground for the slavery and free-soil -elements, and colonies were organized in a number of the Southern -States, but particularly in Alabama and Kentucky, to move to the new -territory and insure its retention for the cause. Most of the Southern -settlers naturally stayed as close to the Missouri border as possible. -The Free-State settlers on the other hand tended to get away from the -border, to leave the belt of pro-slavery settlers behind, and to stake -out their claims well within the interior of the territory. - -The New England Emigrant Aid Company was the principal crusader in the -campaign to make Kansas free soil, and proclaimed widely that it would -send 10,000 men into the region. Its funds, however, were scanty, and -beyond advertising the opportunities of the country, it gave little -substantial aid to the emigration. Contrary to what is generally -supposed, the number of settlers who came directly from New England to -Kansas was small. As had been the history elsewhere in this country, -most of the settlers came from nearby States such as Illinois; though -often of New England ancestry. - -In the first census of the territory, in 1855, more than half of the -population was found to be from the South, although the Slave States' -representatives made strong protests against the manner of taking the -census which was sudden and in mid-winter when many of the Missouri -settlers had returned to their old homes. The high-water mark of the -Southern immigration was in 1856. Thereafter the emigration from the -Free States increased until by 1860 it outnumbered the Slave-State -natives nearly three to one. That year's census, crediting Kansas with -107,000 population, also revealed that Missouri and Kentucky were -the principal sources of the pro-slavery immigration, while the main -sources of the free-soil immigration were in the following order: Ohio, -Indiana, Illinois, Pennsylvania, and New York, with only 3000 direct -from all the New England States together. Indeed, there were almost -as many natives of North Carolina in Kansas as there were natives of -Massachusetts. - -Kansas was at the end of this period a western State, of almost wholly -British complexion. The streams of Scandinavians and Germans which -afterward entered the State had scarcely begun at this period. Kansas -was, to a marked degree, the offspring of New England through the -Central States, while not much more than one-fourth of its population, -arriving from the border States, had ancestral lines running back to -Virginia. - - * * * * * - -Nebraska, like many other Western States, was first settled by -trappers, traders, missionaries, and soldiers. In 1845 the Mormons, -driven out of Illinois and Iowa, stopped in the Nebraska country, but -most of them afterward moved on to Utah. Meanwhile, the State was -being traversed each year by hundreds of emigrant trains on their way -to the Pacific Coast, and thus became known to people from all parts -of the Union. During the years 1849 and 1850 it was estimated that -more than 100,000 people crossed the Nebraska plains in this way. Some -of them would stop there for various reasons, while others came into -the section to cater to the needs of the emigrants. Thus Nebraska was -gradually built up out of the overland traffic. The early migration -to Utah and to Oregon was succeeded by the rush to California, and -that had scarcely died down when the boom days in Colorado brought -new contingents to the region. Before this had disappeared the -Transcontinental Railway opened up the territory in real earnest. - -The first boom year in the territory was in 1856 when a large number -of permanent settlers came in. In 1860 the population numbered 28,841, -and even at this time relatively few of the settlers depended upon -agriculture, most of them still "living off of the tourists," which -became a recognized profession in some States half a century later. - - * * * * * - -Utah, when Brigham Young led his Saints there in 1847, was a desert as -to the region of the Great Salt Lake, with scarcely even a population -of Indians. The early population was almost wholly Nordic, made up of -people from the New England States, New York, and those States in which -the Mormon Church had temporarily settled, or through which it had -moved successively to Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, and Nebraska. - -The Mormon authorities made a determined effort from the outset to -bring converts from Europe, the first one arriving from Liverpool in -1849. At that time the English mission was said to have 30,000 members. -In the fall of 1849 the Mormon leaders established the famous Perpetual -Emigrating Fund which was used thenceforth to aid the transport of -converts. - -The Mormon Utah settlement by 1850 had a population of 11,000. The -number of converts brought from abroad during the first ten years is -put at 17,000, mostly from England. By 1887 the Mormons are said to -have brought more than 85,000 of the working classes from England and -northern Europe to the Great Basin of the Rocky Mountains. - -Brigham Young in 1849 organized his territory as "The Provisional -State of Deseret," including what is now Utah and Nevada, and parts -of Wyoming, Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, and California. This had -but a short existence even on paper, for in 1850 Congress passed a law -organizing the territory of Utah which also included what is now Nevada. - -Toward the end of this period the discovery of rich silver mines in the -Nevada section began to attract a miscellaneous population from all -parts of the West. By 1863 a Mormon census of Utah gave the territory a -population of 88,206, of whom probably a majority were foreigners. The -great bulk of these were English, particularly from the factory towns, -but Brigham Young boasted that fifty nationalities were represented in -his territory a few years later. On the whole, however, the population -was almost entirely Nordic. - - * * * * * - -Idaho's first settlement is supposed to have been made by a party of -Mormons in 1855 when it was still a part of Washington territory. -At the close of the period here considered it was still a part of -Washington and was just beginning to get a population of its own -because of a gold rush in 1860. - -Its early settlers were from Oregon, Washington, and northern -California, and included an unusual proportion of men bred in the -Southern and Southwestern States. - - * * * * * - -Montana had scarcely begun to receive settlers at this time. - -Meanwhile the tides of colonization were flowing over the "great -plains" to deposit their load on the Pacific Coast. - - * * * * * - -Oregon's settlement may be conveniently dated from the expedition of -Marcus Whitman in 1836. The few trappers and traders who had arrived in -early days may be disregarded. Thus began the short-lived race between -the United States and Great Britain to colonize the country and to have -their claims to possession based on effective occupation. American -immigration did not commence in earnest until 1842 or 1843, but -continued steadily, until the discovery of gold in California diverted -many to that territory. - -Most of the early American settlers came from Missouri or Iowa, and -represented therefore either the Southern or New England pioneer stock. -In general it may be said that Oregon at that time was settled from the -Mississippi Valley, and mainly by men who came as genuine settlers with -their families, in striking contrast to the adventurers who invaded -California. - -Meanwhile, the British colonizers were coming from Canada, many of -them French-Canadians, while the rest were mostly of Scotch ancestry. -But the American population grew so much more rapidly that by 1846, -when the Treaty was made defining the parallel of 49° as the boundary -between the two nations, there were nearly 8000 American settlers in -the Oregon territory as against about 1500 of British allegiance. - -In 1860, of the 30,500 native immigrants in the State 40 per cent -were of Southern birth. Nearly half of these were from Missouri, and -a large part of the others from Kentucky or Tennessee. The remainder -represented principally the New England stock which has always been -considered to be the foundation of Oregon. - -The actual permanent settlement of the Puget Sound country began in -1845, but progress for some years was slow. Scarcely had a start been -made here when the gold rush turned everyone's attention to California. -Following this came the Indian war of 1855 to 1856, and shortly -afterward the Civil War upset all plans, leaving the few scattered -inhabitants of the Puget Sound region in the midst of a wilderness, -surrounded by hostile savages, and inevitably neglected by the -government to which they naturally looked for attention. - - * * * * * - -Washington was separated from Oregon and established as an independent -territory in 1853. The census found there only 3965 white persons, a -small number to assume the responsibilities of a separate political -existence. Walla Walla Valley was opened up in 1859, when the removal -of a military interdict and a survey of public lands allowed a waiting -population of some 2000 to rush in and spread over the whole of eastern -Washington within a short time. - - - - -XI - -THE SPOILS OF THE MEXICAN WAR - - -It has been remarked often that it was a mere accident that gave -North America to the Nordics instead of to the King of Spain, when -Columbus turned from his course to follow a flock of birds and thus -sighted the West Indies instead of the mainland, but several other -incidents played an equally important part in giving this empire to -the British. The defeat of the Invincible Armada by the captains of -Elizabeth stopped the expansion of Spain and thus gave the British an -opportunity to begin their colonization, and the Louisiana Purchase -by Thomas Jefferson's administration virtually made certain that by -far the larger part of the North American continent should belong to -British stock, rather than to French or Spanish. Jefferson himself, -who believed that the Purchase was illegal, saw its tremendous -possibilities, but no one in his day could realize just what this -action would mean in extending a Nordic civilization to the Pacific -Ocean. - -The settlement of the Louisiana Purchase by Americans made certain -the conquest of Texas, which was extraordinarily aided by the fact -that in the period after the War of 1812 there were not many more -than 5000 Mexicans in that vast territory. The great Plains stretched -southward as a wide-open domain, inviting settlement by those who were -far-sighted and aggressive enough to possess themselves of it. - -The beginning of the American settlement of Texas is always dated -from 1820, when the Connecticut Yankee, Moses Austin, started his -colonization scheme. Austin himself had lived for some years in -Missouri, but most of his settlers, like most of the other early -pioneers of Texas, came from the lower Mississippi Valley or from -Tennessee and Kentucky, with a sprinkling of adventurers from the -Central and New England States and even from Europe. - -By 1835, when the Americans so outnumbered the Mexicans that the -throwing off of the Mexican yoke was inevitable, there were 30,000 -or 35,000 Nordics settled in the territory. The original background -of these can easily be remembered from what has been said before in -these pages about the settlement of their respective States. They -were overwhelmingly English and Scotch and pre-dominantly from the -trans-Appalachian part of the United States. - -The idea that most of these settlers went to Texas as a deliberate plan -to acquire this region for the extension of the slave-holding States -seems to have little basis. Most of them went, just as most of them -or their fathers had gone to Tennessee or to Louisiana a few decades -previously, in search of better and cheaper land, freer opportunities, -and a possible fortune. It was the accident of geographical location -that gave to Texas its importance as slave-holding territory, and that -led indirectly to the war with Mexico. - -On technical grounds there was little justification for a declaration -of war in 1846, but from a larger point of view it was one of the -most important and most beneficial acts ever taken by the American -Government, in spite of the feeling of the Abolitionists, because it -formed the final procedure in the spread of American sovereignty to the -Pacific Ocean. - -The United States was indeed deprived a few years later, at the time -of the Gadsden Purchase, of the outlet to the Gulf of California which -it should have had. Whether this was due to the climate of that region -which made the surveyors shirk their duty, as one story goes, or to the -drunkenness of the mapmakers which led them to draw the boundary line -crooked, as another story has it, the result is unfortunate and might -yet perhaps be rectified by a further purchase. The Southwest should -have an outlet on the Gulf in the logic of the case. - -This does not involve any desire to take over Lower California -which is a peninsula of negligible value for Nordic purposes, and -contains a Mexican population which under no circumstances should be -incorporated in the United States. From a racial point of view it is -indeed fortunate that the desire of James K. Polk's Administration to -include the whole peninsula of Lower California in the transfer of -sovereignty was not accomplished. Still more disastrous would have been -a realization of the wishes of an important element in Congress which -desired to annex a large part of northern Mexico. - -Similarly, one can scarcely avoid being grateful nowadays that Cuba -did not get its independence in the first quarter of the nineteenth -century instead of at the end. Henry Clay and others, encouraging -the Cuban patriots, had virtually arranged to have the island taken -over by the United States. In this instance abolitionist sentiment in -the North, which prevented an extension of slave territory, was more -beneficial to the true interests of America than it was a generation -later--for the acquisition of Cuba would have brought into the union an -indigestible mass of Mediterraneans and blacks. - -When the suspicions and jealousies of international relations abate -somewhat, it may be possible to make a slight rectification of the -Arizona boundary which will give the Southwest its intended outlet -on the Gulf of California. Such a step would doubtless promote the -prosperity of the adjoining Mexican territory in every way. If Mexico -could be persuaded to accept a gift of some of the United States' -possessions in the West Indies, in return for this favor, the whole -transaction would be most satisfactory. - -It is now easy to see that Mexico could not have retained Texas under -any circumstances, but the catastrophe (from the Mexican point of -view) was made quick and certain by the encouragement of American -immigration, in spite of refusals to discuss a sale of the whole -territory to the United States, and by an attempt to fasten an -objectionable State religion on the immigrants they had invited. - -In the days of the Lone Star Republic, immigration increased rapidly. -The Mexican War not only gave unlimited advertising to the region but -furnished many Northerners with an opportunity to see something of it -first-hand, and by the close of that conflict there were some 200,000 -Americans in Texas. During the decade from 1850 to 1860 the growth of -the State was exceeded by few in the Union. - -Unfortunately much of this population was made up of Negroes who have -ever since formed one of the real handicaps of this immense American -Empire. As we have seen, the great bulk of the population of eastern -and southern Texas came from the adjoining slave States, and it was not -until the time of the Civil War that the northern counties had begun to -attract settlers from Illinois, Missouri, and Arkansas. The war put a -stop to this movement, but it was resumed later. - -Meanwhile southern and western Texas had been attracting a German -emigration made up largely of Alpines from the States along the Upper -Rhine. This reached serious proportions as early as 1842, when a group -of noblemen with uncertain motives fostered an Emigration Society Land -Company. The movement continued in force up to the Civil War and indeed -had not ceased altogether until the outbreak of the World War. Though -Texas had but 20,000 German-born in 1860, these were so concentrated -that half of the entire population of the southern part of the State, -in the region surrounding San Antonio, was German. Here, as elsewhere, -the Germans greatly diminished their value to their adopted country by -an unwise insistence on retaining the customs and the language of the -Fatherland. - -The history of any country demonstrates that national unity is a -necessary condition of national survival. Those who have come to the -United States of their own will, to profit by what opportunities they -find may well be expected to yield a whole-hearted allegiance to the -country which thus benefits them, or to move elsewhere. - - * * * * * - -New Mexico, when it became a part of the territory of the United -States, had a population made up of native and Mexican Indians, some -of the latter having enough Spanish blood to cause them to consider -themselves white men. The self-styled Spanish-American population -of the present day is, properly speaking, composed of those whose -ancestors were in the territory at the time of the Mexican War. The -Spanish part of the description must be considered largely a courtesy -title, for the amount of real Spanish blood in this hybrid population -was always from a biological point of view nearly negligible, and the -American part must be understood to mean native American Indians. The -persistence of the Spanish language and culture is of course only a -passing phase. - -The Federal Census of 1850 credited New Mexico with 61,000 population -not counting Indians, but the territory at that time included all of -Arizona and Southeastern Colorado. By 1860 the population of the same -territory was given at 82,979, plus 55,100 Indians. At this time there -were less than 1200 natives of the United States in the whole territory. - - * * * * * - -Arizona had a fluctuating white population dependent upon the -prosperity of the mining industry, but when the Federal troops were -withdrawn at the outbreak of the Civil War most of the white men had to -leave also. At that time the only real settlement was Tucson, where a -few hundred Mexicans lived under mediæval conditions. - - * * * * * - -California had a population of Indians when the Spaniards coming -from Mexico entered it. Most of them were of a very low order of -intelligence and social development. The Spanish invaders were largely -soldiers, and few of the members of these early expeditions brought -their families. Hence, there was undoubtedly some mixing with the -Indians from the very first days. In accordance with the custom -elsewhere, those who had any white blood called themselves white, -and the figures given by early writers for the number of Spanish -in the colony must be understood in that light. The amount of real -Spanish blood was extremely small and much of it was in the veins of -missionaries who left no offspring. - -The permanent population was made up of ex-soldiers who had settled -down, married Indian women, and taken up land, together with occasional -traders, vagabond sailors, and adventurers. The population of 1820 -other than Indian could hardly have represented more than 500 men. -The Mexican administration made an effort to supply women of Spanish -ancestry to the colony in order to prevent too much matrimonial mixture -with the Indians, which, even at that time, was regarded as somewhat -disgraceful; but the number of brides who could be sent into a colony -of that sort was small. - -The population grew mainly by its own natural increase, and the -small size of the Mexican population in California was one of the -main factors that led to the incorporation of the territory in the -United States. It has been computed that the "Spanish" population, -most of which was of Indian blood, never exceeded 3000 persons. Prior -to the American occupation there were not more than 1200 foreigners -in California, three-fourths of whom were American and most of the -remainder British. Thus this immense territory, which became a part -of the United States in 1848 as a result of the Mexican War, was -relatively empty. The amount of Spanish blood in the California -population of today must therefore be quite negligible. - -The whole trend of migration was changed by the discovery of gold at -the end of 1848. In February of that year there were not more than 2000 -Americans in all California. By the end of December there were 6000. -By July of 1849 this number had grown to 15,000 and six months later -it had climbed to 53,000. The earliest arrivals naturally came from -the nearby regions. Oregon alone contributed more than 5000 from its -scanty population. But every seaport of the Pacific sent a contingent, -and the stream of men that poured into the gold fields was the most -cosmopolitan group that had ever been seen in North America. In _The -New York Tribune_ for December 15, 1849, appears the following item -from San Francisco: - - "Foreign flags in the harbor: English, French, Portuguese, Italian, - Hamburg, Bremen, Belgium, New Granadian, Dutch, Swedish, Oldenburgh, - Chilean, Peruvian, Russian, Mexican, Hanoverian, Norwegian, Hawaiian, - and Tahitian." - -When the territory became a State, on September 9, 1850, its population -was at least 150,000, and a year later had probably reached a -quarter of a million. Many of the Argonauts stayed but a few months, -and, failing to become rich at a stroke, went elsewhere, so that -the composition of the population changed markedly from week to -week. It was almost exclusively a population of males. Few brought -their families; and while prostitutes went to San Francisco from -all accessible seaports, they contributed little or nothing to the -permanent population. - -The first Chinese immigrant found his way into California in 1847, but -by the summer of 1852, 20,000 others had followed him. Probably 5000 -Mexicans also had come into the territory which they had so recently -lost. - -By the census of 1860 it appears that most of the riff-raff had -drifted out of the State again, and the basis of the permanent -population had been laid. The total population was 380,000 of which -nearly 40 per cent was foreign-born; the percentage reaching this -high mark partly because of the number of Chinese. California had a -population more nearly representative of the entire Union than did -any other State--about equal numbers were contributed by New England, -by the Middle States, by the Northwest, and by the lower Mississippi -Valley. This population, it will be remembered, was almost entirely in -the northern half of the State. The more homogeneous settlement of the -southern half did not get under way until about the middle of the next -period. - -California differs profoundly from the other frontier regions of the -United States in that it was settled from all sections of the country -and not mostly from the adjoining States. The vast mineral wealth of -the new State supplied it from the very beginning with abundant capital -for local enterprises so that it was free from the debtor complex, so -characteristic of the other frontier communities. - -California faces westward on the Pacific and has developed into a -unique and more or less self-sufficient section with a definite -self-reliant character of its own. - - * * * * * - -While the West was thus filling up and the United States was reaching -the Pacific Ocean, the States on the Atlantic continued to grow in -power and population, largely through their own natural increase, but -partly through the immigration of the period. French Canadians began to -drift down into New England, as they have continued to do to this day. -The single State of New York had by the end of the period a million -foreign-born in its population, of whom half were Irish and one-fourth -German. New Jersey had become one-fifth foreign-born, Connecticut -one-sixth, Pennsylvania one-seventh. The racial character of this -immigration was not particularly harmful, as it was mostly Nordic, but -the large Roman Catholic element excited widespread alarm. - -The arrival of large numbers of ignorant and destitute South Irish -Catholics, who occupied the lowest social status here, led directly -to the formation of a native American secret political party, -nicknamed the "Know Nothings," because of their refusal to discuss -or divulge their aims or actions. For the purpose of membership they -defined the name Native American to mean a person all four of whose -grandparents were born in this country. This party's policy, in -the early stage of its career, was to act secretly, supporting the -candidate who most nearly represented their views, regardless of his -party affiliations. The party at once developed great strength, and -in 1854 and 1855 carried State elections in Massachusetts, New York, -Kentucky, California, and several other States. It played a large part -in national politics in 1856, but its organization was disrupted by the -increasing virulence of the slavery issue. - -[Illustration: CONGREGATIONAL CHURCHES - -Showing distribution of the 4447 Congregational Churches in the -United States. Figures indicate number of churches in shaded areas -in which there are too many to be shown by dots and circles. As the -Congregational Church is largely identified with New England, the map -shows in a general way the westward movement of people of New England -origin.] - -The principle of the Know Nothing party was opposition to the political -power of the large masses of newly arrived aliens. This was especially -directed against the Catholic Church, because it was felt that their -establishment of parochial schools was inimical to the public-school -system, which the Americans of that time regarded as the palladium -of their liberties. This hostility to Catholics was aggravated by -the attempted use of public funds derived from general taxation for -parochial schools and even more by the exemption claimed and often -obtained from taxation of large ecclesiastical institutions as well as -churches. - -Further opposition to aliens arose from their organization into compact -political units which quickly demoralized our municipal governments, a -scandal which has existed down to this day. - -All this led to the widespread belief that these immigrants, now -arriving in large numbers, refused to accept wholeheartedly the -customs, principles, and institutions of the country in which they -had sought refuge. This belief still persists and has given rise in -each generation since the days of the Know Nothing party, to similar -powerful and secret anti-foreign organizations. Our alien elements are -to this day extremely sensitive to the public discussion of any of -these matters. In this respect, Americans probably have less freedom -of speech and freedom of press than exist in any of the countries of -Europe. - - * * * * * - -During the colonial period the natural increase of the Anglo-Saxon -stock in New England had made it a continual source of population -for the rapidly opening West. No one State, however, contributed such -a large element of the population of the subsequent United States as -did Virginia, the largest and most populous of the thirteen Colonies. -One cannot read the history of the movement westward of the American -frontier without being impressed by the importance of the Old Dominion -in supplying settlers for the West, first to Kentucky, thence to the -States of the upper and lower Mississippi Valley, later to the Great -Plains, and finally to the Southwest and the Pacific Coast. - -But if Virginia has been the most fertile source of settlers, New -England has more nearly put its stamp on American civilization; and -this was made possible largely because there was an available emigrant -stock in Massachusetts and her sister States, to carry this impress in -person. Before the Civil War, however, the birth rate of the old white -stock in New England had declined to the point where it was probably -not replacing its own numbers. - - * * * * * - -In 1860 the religious unity of the United States had been somewhat -impaired. The unity of language was as yet scarcely menaced. The unity -of institutions, traditions, and culture was breached only temporarily. -The racial unity of the country was little changed from 1790. The -United States was still nine-tenths Nordic. - - * * * * * - -Earlier in these pages a description is given of the empty continent -which lay open to settlement by the British stock on both sides of the -Canadian border. - -Let us see what use was made of this opportunity in the period from the -end of Colonial times to the Civil War. - -A continent was occupied and the territory of the Union was swept -westward to the Pacific. The forests were cut down and the wild life -destroyed. The Indians were evicted. The mineral wealth of the western -mountains was ransacked. The coal was exploited, and the once fertile -soil of the Southern States greatly depleted through the reckless -growing of tobacco and cotton. Waste was the order of the day in -America. - -All this was perhaps inevitable, but never since Cæsar plundered Gaul -has so large a territory been sacked in so short a time. Probably no -more destructive human being has ever appeared on the world stage than -the American pioneer with his axe and his rifle. - -In 1860, at the end of this period, we find the essential elements -of national unity still unchanged, but we were about to engage -in a fratricidal war, which was to destroy the best blood of the -nation. We had admitted large numbers of Irish and German immigrants -who impaired, in the case of the Irish, our religious system and -introduced certain undesirable racial elements. The Germans who came -were largely Protestants and only temporarily disturbed our unity by -clinging to their foreign language. Both of these elements, however, -were pre-dominantly Nordic, and it was not until the next and final -period that the unassimilable Alpines and Mediterraneans came here -from southern and eastern Europe. The tragedy of the Civil War and the -introduction of cheap labor were still to come, so that in 1860 the -United States was at its high-water mark of national unity. - -The Indians had been ruthlessly swept aside, as was unavoidable because -a few hunting tribes could not be allowed to possess a continent, but -the Negro question could have been postponed, and the men who died -needlessly on Southern battle-fields could have been used to populate -the States of the Far West. - -In the next chapter we shall study the swamping of this American -civilization, which reached its zenith in 1860. - - - - -XII - -THE ALIEN INVASION - - -The period 1860-1930, with which we are now dealing, is characterized -by the end of free public land in the West about 1880. It is also -marked by the great development of industries in the North and -East, which created a demand for cheap labor, and attracted a mass -immigration of non-British and non-Nordic workmen from southern and -eastern Europe. This immigration for the most part went to the cities -and industrial districts. - -The Southern States, which had not entered upon an industrial expansion -before the Civil War, did not welcome immigrants of the low-grade -factory type, hence the South has remained characteristically American. -One of the strange results of the Civil War has been that while the -victorious North sold its birthright of culture, religion, and racial -purity for a mess of industrial pottage, the South, though defeated and -impoverished, retained its racial inheritance unimpaired. - -Some of the earlier immigrants in this period sought the lands in -the West, while they were still to be had. The land hunger having -carried most of the energetic, ambitious, and able Nordic immigrants -westward, the industrial expansion of New England, Pennsylvania, Ohio, -and of some of the adjacent States resulted in an unfilled demand -for low-grade factory labor in the East. This demand was quickly -recognized by the steamship companies, which began scouring Europe for -immigrants to transport to America. - -The most fertile recruiting ground for this type of humanity was in -South Europe, Italy, the Balkan countries, and the provinces of the -then Austrian Empire and Russia. Inducements were offered potential -immigrants to come to America. There was no discrimination as to type -or quality. Many criminals were rounded up, especially in southern -Italy and Sicily, with the connivance if not the actual initiative of -their governments. - -As to the ratio of criminals to the native American population, some -interesting figures have been compiled through a first-hand survey of -242 State and federal prisons in the United States during 1931-32. -Most of the criminals referred to were committed for serious offenses. -The criminals from northwestern Europe were well under (sometimes only -one-quarter) their ratio to the general population. South Europe and -eastern Europe were very much higher. The Filipinos were over twice -as many as the proper allowance, native-born Negroes were two-and -three-quarters above their allowance and the Mexicans were six and -one-half times as many as their ratio to the general population would -entitle them to be. - -It was in this period that the Polish Jews began their tumultuous and -frantic invasion, a flood which only recently has been checked, and -that with the greatest difficulty. The great mass of immigrants from -South Poland, Galicia, and Russia were Ashkanazim Jews, descendants -in part of Alpine Khozars, with a Mongol admixture, who entered the -eastern Ukraine from Asia in the early centuries of our era. Many of -the Khozars and their Khan were converted by Jewish missionaries and -they formally accepted Judaism in 740 A.D. It is doubtful whether there -is a single drop of the old Palestinian, Semitic-speaking Hebrew blood -among these East European Jews. They are essentially a non-European -people. The language they speak, Jüdisch, or Yiddish, is a corrupt -German of the Franconian dialect mixed with Slavic and Hebrew elements, -which fact strengthens the tradition of a large migration of German -Jews into Poland in the Middle Ages. It may be that the strain of these -German Jews has died out, leaving only their language behind, but in -any event the Polish Jews are now distinctly Alpine--a mixture of Slavs -and of Asiatic invaders of Russia. - -Exact figures of Jewish immigration are not obtainable until 1899, when -this group was listed separately. Prior to that year probably 500,000 -Jews had arrived; after that date nearly 2,000,000. From the beginning -of this century the Jews made up 10 per cent of the total immigration -into this country, and there are now more than 4,000,000 of them here, -half of the number being in New York City. This is more than one-fifth -of the Jews of the world. - -Because they speak Yiddish, they are often colloquially referred to as -"German Jews." But, in fact, the number who come from Germany is small, -and, as said, the great bulk of them are more properly described as -"Polish Jews" and are much despised socially by the true German Jews. -Many of them are from those parts of Poland which were held by Russia -prior to the World War. Immigration figures show the last place of -residence of Jewish arrivals, 1899-1924, to be as follows: - - _Countries_ - Russia and Poland 1,243,000 - Austria-Hungary 260,000 - Rumania 103,000 - United Kingdom 73,000 - Turkey 20,000 - Germany 15,000 - British North America 57,000 - All other countries 67,000 - --------- - 1,838,000 - -Meanwhile the immigration from northern Europe declined, not only -relatively but absolutely, and at the same time the native American, -whose ancestry was pre-dominantly Nordic, began to be crowded to the -wall. In certain sections of New England that progressive change soon -became all too evident and has made them no longer American but foreign -communities. The French Canadians, Irish, and Poles took over whole -districts and occupied the abandoned farms. The Polish Jews, settling -almost entirely in the larger cities, built up a Ghetto population -similar in most respects to the congested urbanism of their homeland. - -Americans were so obsessed with the idea of a "Refuge for the -Oppressed" that they even welcomed the draining into our country of -that morass of human misery found in the Polish Ghettos. When the -objection arose that there were already 1,000,000 Jews in New York -City, an effort was made to divert this migration into Texas, where the -wide-open spaces were supposed to provide room for the 7,000,000 Polish -Jews. - -The German Jews, who also came into this country in smaller numbers -at the end of the last century, were of the Alpine type, closely -resembling those from Poland, Galicia, and Russia. All of these Jews -are in sharp contrast to the Sephardim Jews, a superior group, largely -Mediterranean in race, a very few of whom came from Holland to America -in Colonial times. These latter had reached Spain by way of North -Africa and later fled to Holland to escape the Inquisition. - -The immigration from Scandinavia was entirely Nordic. Sweden is purely -Nordic, and Norway and Denmark are overwhelmingly so. Lithuania and -North Poland are also Nordic lands, as are the German provinces along -the Baltic; but South Poland and Galicia are Alpine, as are the -majority of the immigrants who come from South Germany. Those from the -provinces of the former Austrian Empire are mostly Alpine, although a -few Nordics came from the Tyrol. - -The Balkans, Greece, Asia Minor, and Armenia sent over practically -only Alpine immigrants. French-speaking Switzerland was originally -Burgundian territory and contributed some very valuable Nordic racial -elements to America. Those from German-speaking Switzerland were -largely Alpine. - -The period of the great European migration to the United States covered -just a century. Prior to that time, since the founding of the Union, -most of the immigration had been English and Scotch. Up to 1860, as -will be recalled, this British character of the immigration continued, -except for the beginning of the great stream of Germans who have been, -next to the English, the largest single element in our population. - -The early Germans in the United States were, as previously described, -mostly Alpines from the upper Rhine--the Palatinate and Swabia. In the -'40's the area of the German emigration spread. At first to the western -states and provinces, which were much more Nordic in character (Hesse, -the Rhineland, Westphalia, Thuringia). All this region had an easy -outlet by the Rhine to the seaports; moreover emigration was stimulated -by the result of revolutionary activities, which forced many to leave. - -After transportation began to be improved by railways, the main -currents of emigration began to flow from central and eastern Germany. -Emigration reached its first crest in the southwest and west of Germany -in the middle of the '50's, its second in Central Germany toward the -end of that decade, its third in the eastern part of the empire in the -'70's and '80's. This later emigration was, on the whole, more Nordic -than the earlier stream. - -After the World War, when business conditions in Germany brought about -some years of active emigration with the United States as its main -objective, the current of emigration shifted again to the northwestern -and southwestern districts (the former Nordic, the latter mainly so) -and away from the northeast, which was even more Nordic. - -The Scandinavian immigration, another main source of the Nordic -population of the United States, dates almost entirely from the period -since the Civil War. The largest volume was between 1877 and 1898, when -more than 1,000,000 arrived. One-fifth of the entire population of -Norway and Sweden moved to the New World, nearly all of them seeking -farms in the States of the upper Mississippi Valley. There has been -also an active immigration from Scandinavia since the end of the World -War. In general, the United States was the only destination which a -Scandinavian emigrant considered. Of those who left the homeland, not -one Swede in fifty directed his course elsewhere than to America. No -other emigrant population has shown such a single-minded interest in -the United States, though the Norwegians have not been far behind, with -96 per cent of their departures destined to the United States; and the -Danes, with 88 per cent. - -Arriving at New York or sometimes Quebec, the immigrants made their way -to Chicago or Detroit, and thence were distributed to the States west -of the Great Lakes. The Norwegian movement was the earlier, beginning -with the southern and central counties of that kingdom and gradually -working its way north until arrivals were giving as their birthplaces -little towns far north of the Arctic Circle. - -In a few decades Norwegians owned six times as much farming land in -the States of Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, Illinois, Michigan, and the -Dakotas (four-fifths of the immigration being found in the States -named) as did all the farmers in the "Old Country." No nationality has -sent such a small percentage of its people into the cities--one in -five of the whole, as compared with a half of the Germans, and a still -higher percentage of the Irish and Italians, who seek an urban life. - -This tendency to agricultural life and to prompt and whole-hearted -Americanism has made the great body of Scandinavian immigrants one of -the most valuable that America has received. - -Meanwhile there continued a steady immigration of English and Irish. -The latter envenomed our political life up to the last few years, by -introducing into the United States their old political and religious -feuds with Great Britain, and endeavoring to involve this country in -their plans for Irish freedom. As a consequence, the friendly relations -which should exist between the two great Anglo-Saxon nations have been -kept disturbed, and a systematic policy of twisting the lion's tail -was pursued, not merely by the Fenian agitators, but by American -demagogues anxious to cultivate the "Irish vote." - -Prior to 1880 only 5 per cent of the immigration was from southern and -eastern Europe. Between 1860 and 1880 less than 250,000 immigrants from -eastern and southern Europe came over. Then came the rush, and between -1890 and 1910 more than 8,000,000 immigrants reached our shores from -southern and eastern Europe. - -A group not homogeneous with the old native American population is -the Italian. It began arriving after 1870, but did not reach large -proportions until after 1890. Then it soon became a flood. From 1900 -until the World War cut down immigration, the Italians far outnumbered -all other peoples arriving on our shores. - -Northern Italy has furnished us some fine types of immigrants. They -are mostly Alpine with a Nordic admixture. Southern Italy, that is, -Naples and Sicily, sent us almost exclusively a Mediterranean stock, -which formed the great mass of Italian immigration and was of extremely -inferior type. They are derived to some extent from the slaves whom -the Romans gathered along the coasts of the Mediterranean from Syria -to Morocco and employed on their large estates or latifundia. Among -them, however, are to be found remnants of the pre-Nordic Mediterranean -population of Italy. - -In earlier decades the emigration from Italy was mostly of North -Italians, commonly spoken of as "Genoese," but mainly from the crowded -Italian Riviera west of Genoa. These went to neighboring countries, -particularly France, and to South America, few of them reaching the -United States. When Italian mass emigration to this country began, -it was from central and southern Italy and Sicily, who are of quite -different racial stock from those of the more northerly districts. - -The northern Italians are well thought of in the countries to which -they have gone. The southern Italians seem to be far inferior in -quality. While the country of their origin, Magna Græcia, two thousand -five hundred years ago was the source of a large part of the world's -progress in civilization, it is doubtful whether the reader can name a -single man produced in that region during the last two thousand years, -whose ability or eminence was such as to give him a worthy place in the -world's history. - -Add to this that the United States did not receive even the best of the -southern Italian population, but in some instances rather the part that -the local authorities were most happy to get rid of, and it is easy to -understand how the Italian children in the American schools have shown -themselves in almost every test to be a group apart, widely separated -from every other white racial group and close to the Negro-Mulatto -children in their ability. - -Of the non-English-speaking peoples who have arrived in the United -States during the last century, the 4,500,000 of Italians are -outnumbered by only one group, namely, the nearly 6,000,000 Germans. - -The Italians have been more inclined to return home than some others. -In all the immigration, it has been observed that a considerable -proportion of the immigrants stayed only temporarily, sometimes -for a season of work, sometimes for a generation or until they had -accumulated enough money to return to the "Old Country" and live on -their investments. It is usually figured that the arrivals should be -diminished by about one-third to give the net of permanent immigration. -There are of course exceptions--thus it is relatively rare for a Jew -who came to the United States to move out of the country later. - -During the sixteen years, 1908-23, the total alien emigration from the -United States was 35 per cent of the total alien immigration, and the -differences between the racial groups in respect to this tendency were -immense.[10] - -This ebb and flow of migration is often overlooked. It is impossible to -understand the population figures without bearing it in mind. - -While the departure of so many unassimilable aliens is highly -favorable, the fact that migratory cheap labor thus floats into and -out of the country to compete with the native white, may of course -have most serious effects socially and economically on the older stock. -Fortunately, this has now been stopped by suitable restrictions. - -Taking a long view over the whole history of immigration into the -United States in the century and a half before 1930 one sees that -approximately half of the total was from the countries of northern -and western Europe, which are largely and some distinctly Nordic in -population, and which sent us people who, in most cases, were easily -assimilated by the Native Americans. Most of these came in during the -first century of the Republic's life, as pointed out above. - -After 1890 the tide turned strongly to southern and eastern Europe, the -countries of which in 1913 (the last year of unrestricted immigration) -sent 85 per cent of the total as against 15 per cent from northern -and western Europe. The main contributors to this later stream, often -called the "new immigration" as distinct from the "old immigration" -were, in order of importance, Italy, Austria-Hungary, and the Russian -Empire. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[Footnote 10: The Chinese stood at the head of the list, emigrants from -here exceeding immigrants by 30 per cent--that is, none were coming in -as permanent residents, because of legislative restrictions; and some -of the earlier arrivals were going home to stay. In a number of groups -the outflow was more than half of the inflow--Bulgarians, Serbians, -Montenegrins, 89 per cent; Turkish, 86 per cent; Koreans, 73 per cent; -Rumanians, 66 per cent; Magyars, 66 per cent; Italians (South), 60 per -cent; Cubans, 58 per cent; Slovaks, 57 per cent; Russians, 52 per cent. - -The lowest rate of re-migration was that of the Jews, 5 per cent. The -Irish showed 11 per cent; Scotch and Welsh, 13 per cent; Armenians, 15 -per cent; Dutch and Flemish, 18 per cent; Mexican, 19 per cent; English -and French, 21 per cent; Scandinavian, 22 per cent; Syrian, 24 per -cent; Lithuanian, 25 per cent; and Finnish, 29 per cent.] - - - - -XIII - -THE TRANSFORMATION OF AMERICA - - -Under the impact of the "new immigration," most of it dating from the -beginning of the present century, the complexion of the States which, -as repeatedly shown, was almost wholly Nordic and Protestant, began to -change rapidly. As concerned their native-born population, most of the -States followed the rule, often mentioned in these pages, that a State -is populated, in the first instance by its own increase, and secondly -by movements from the States directly adjacent to it. - -Maine, according to the 1930 census, with about one-tenth of the -population of New England, is only five-eighths native stock, _i.e._, -native white of native parents. These were mostly people born in Maine, -with a few from surrounding States. Of its foreign stock, three-fourths -were French Canadians. - -New Hampshire presents a similar picture, with a slightly higher -percentage of native Americans from nearby States. - -Vermont's native population, aside from that portion born in the State -itself, came from New Hampshire or Massachusetts and even more from New -York. As in the two States previously mentioned, most of the foreign -stock is from French Canada, and that which was not from Quebec is -mostly Irish. - -The Slavs and Italians have made little inroad in these three States. - -Massachusetts in 1930 was more cosmopolitan, with 300,000 residents -from other New England States and nearly 100,000 from New York. The -old white stock, however, now makes up but one-third of the population -of the Bay State. French Canadians, Irish, Italians, Poles, Russians, -and Scandinavians, in the order named, have completely overwhelmed the -native stock--even such a small country as Lithuania is represented in -Massachusetts by more than 50,000 people. - -Rhode Island's population, similarly, is now only one-third from the -old stock. Its complexion is similar to that of Massachusetts. French -Canadian Catholics control the government in many communities. - -Connecticut, like Rhode Island, has about one-third old American stock. -Here the Italians are the dominant element in number, with Irish, -Slavs, and French Canadians almost equally numerous. - -Thus New England, with its more than 8,000,000 population, has been -virtually lost to the native Americans. Their birthrate in that area -has long been far below the level necessary to prevent its dying out, -and migration to the west is not now caused by the region's increase, -as in Colonial times, but by an actual uprooting of families whose -place is taken by others who in race, language, religion, culture, and -institutions are quite out of harmony with American traditions. - -A similar picture is observed when one turns to the 26,000,000 -inhabitants of the Middle Atlantic States--the most populous, the -wealthiest, and in many ways the most powerful section of the country. - -The old stock makes up but one-third of New York's population. For -its composition every State in the Union has been drawn on, with -Pennsylvania and New Jersey furnishing the largest contingents. The -State has well on to half a million Negroes--mostly in Manhattan, -though the ratio of increase of Negroes in some of the other cities of -the State vastly outstripped the ratio of increase of Whites between -1920 and 1930. Thus while the Whites of Buffalo increased 11 per cent -in the decade, the Negroes increased 200 per cent; in Syracuse they -increased twice, in Utica four times, in Rochester seven times, in -Albany eight times, as fast as the whites--due, of course, to the -migration of great numbers of mulattoes from the Southern States -northward. - -With its two million Jews, its million and a half Italians, its million -Germans, and its three-quarters of a million each of Poles and Irish, -together with substantial contingents from almost every other country -on the map, the Empire State is scarcely able to meet the requirements -of the Founders of the Republic, who, like Thomas Jefferson, feared -above everything else the formation of an alien, urban proletariat as -creating a condition under which a democratic form of government could -not function successfully. - -Three-eighths of New Jersey's population were still of the old native -stock in 1930, though half of these were born in other States, -particularly New York and Pennsylvania. The rest of the population was -a heterogeneous mixture of half a million British (largely Irish), half -a million southern Italians, a quarter of a million Poles, a somewhat -larger number of Germans, and so on down the list. - -Pennsylvania makes a somewhat better showing, with more than half of -its population still old native Americans. Of the later arrivals the -largest number, well on to a million, was of British (including Irish) -extraction. Italy and Poland each sent more than half a million, -Germany not much less, Russia and Czechoslovakia each more than 200,000. - -In both these divisions, then, the New England and the Middle Atlantic -States, containing as they do more than a third of the entire -population of the United States, the old American stock is now reduced -to a minority. Fortunately, this cannot be said of any of the other -major divisions of the country, though it is true of a few other -individual States--Wisconsin, Minnesota, and North Dakota--where the -foreign-born or their offspring are in a slight majority, but of good -Nordic stock. On the whole, it is the northern and central parts of -the Atlantic Coast that have become the worst un-American parts of -the Union. The South Atlantic States play a much less important part -nowadays than they did a century ago, in furnishing population to the -rest of the country; but they are still American. In the following -discussion their Negro population is ignored, and consideration is -limited to the Whites, unless otherwise stated. - -Delaware, with more than three-fifths of its people belonging to the -old stock, has drawn no great additions in late years except from its -neighbors on the west and south, Pennsylvania and Maryland. Its alien -element is a cosmopolitan one in which no single group particularly -preponderates. - -Maryland is three-fourths native. Its industrial and commercial life, -centered in Baltimore, has drawn a population from an unusually wide -area, and this tendency has been greatly accentuated because many -of the cosmopolitan group in Washington, D.C., actually reside in -Maryland. Thus in addition to the heavy contingents from Pennsylvania -and Virginia, it has groups of a thousand or more each from half the -States in the Union. The bulk of its foreign population is made up of -Germans, Poles, Russians (including Jews), and Italians, in addition to -the British. - -The District of Columbia, as the seat of the Federal Government, -naturally draws its residents from every part of the United States, -the largest element of what may be called its permanent population -being from Virginia and Maryland. There is no large foreign element, -but the Negroes, more than one-fourth of the whole, are nowhere more -aggressive. It is generally understood that the reason Congress has -never been willing to grant the residents of the district the right -to vote, even in local affairs, is that it would be likely to put -the political control in the hands of this Negro block, which would -always find unscrupulous white politicians ready to forget their own -birthright and truckle to it. - -Virginia is almost purely of old native stock, Virginian born. Its -seaports and its proximity to the District of Columbia account for some -residents from other States. After dealing in quarter millions and half -millions to describe the foreign-born of the North Atlantic States, -it is with something like incredulity that one notes only 23,000 -foreign-born Whites of all sorts in the Old Dominion. The number who -are native-born of foreign or mixed parentage, and therefore classified -as "foreign stock," is twice as large; but many thereof are British. -With Virginia, one reaches the region where the old native American -holds his ground. - -North Carolina makes a still more striking picture. In its population -of more than three million, the 1930 census enumerators found scarcely -25,000 foreign-born or of foreign parentage. North Carolina is an -active industrial State, yet it has been able to attain to its modern -development from its own resources. Its neighbors on the North and -South, together, have supplied a hundred thousand citizens; other -regions have contributed a few; but the old white American stock -in this State, as in many others of the South, has been largely -self-sufficing. - -South Carolina is not only of the American stock, but has had few -outsiders, even from adjacent States. In addition to natives, a -very few British and Germans, a very few Northerners, and moderate -contingents from the nearby States make up its white population, which -is still but slightly larger than the Negro element in the State. - -Georgia fits into the same pattern, though it has attracted a few more -of the "new immigration"--Slavs and Italians; and a few more Yankees, -so that its population, on the whole, is somewhat more cosmopolitan. - -Florida, on the other hand, has had an influx both of Northerners, -who have almost changed the political complexion of the State; and of -the foreign stock, largely Nordic, it is true, but with a West Indian -element that is less assimilable. Of its million Whites, a sixth are of -foreign stock, including almost every one of the nationalities found -anywhere in the United States. But despite this somewhat cosmopolitan -nature of its population, the State is overwhelmingly Nordic, like the -other Southern commonwealths. - -West Virginia, cut off from the Old Dominion by a technically -questionable move at the beginning of the Civil War, showed by this -very "secession" of its own that its population differed widely from -that of the Tidewater. As pointed out earlier, the latter region was -English and the mountains were Ulster Scotch, with a widely different -outlook on life. The western part of the State had never been a great -slave-holding region, partly because of the sentiment of the people, -partly because there was little for a slave to do there that a free -white could not do much better. To this day only one in sixteen of -the population of West Virginia is colored, and it is still largely -native white, despite the coal mines, which in other regions have come -to depend largely on the labor of Slavs. In the 10 per cent of its -foreign-stock population West Virginia has a scattering of Slavs, as -also of almost every other people, but the largest element is British, -the next German. - -Kentucky offers no exception to the rule that the Southern States are -still almost wholly native white. The only important foreign element -is a small German one. It still retains a little of the tendency which -made it, a century or more ago, one of the chief colonizing States, for -it has more of its native sons scattered throughout the Union, than has -almost any other Southern State. - -Virginia still sends out a surplus population, and Georgia notably has -done so, though mainly to the States nearest at hand. Kentucky and -Tennessee have sent out pioneers to more distant regions. At present, -for instance, they have as many representatives on the Pacific Coast as -have all the South Atlantic States together. - -Tennessee's racial make-up is very similar to that of Kentucky, -although there is still the marked contrast in the "atmosphere" of the -two States, which has existed from the beginning. - -Alabama's composition is not very dissimilar to the two just mentioned, -save that the Italian element is a little larger. Its main foreign -stocks, however, are British and German. - -What has been said of these States applies almost literally to -Mississippi. The Whites, forming a little less than half of the total -population, are almost all of the old native stock. The emigration of -Whites (and of Negroes, too, for that matter) from the cotton States -during the last fifteen or twenty years has been largely due to the -ravages of the boll weevil, which made cotton less profitable and -prevented many small farmers from making even their expenses. - -Georgia has been hit harder than any other State, probably, by this -movement out of the State and thousands of acres of good farming land -are now lying idle there, for lack of hands to work them. The same -holds good to some extent in other States of the region. Many of the -small farmers have moved westward, first perhaps to Texas or Oklahoma, -and then on to the Pacific Coast, the automobile now taking the place -of the covered wagon of their forebears. - -Arkansas differs in no important respect from Mississippi, save in -having a much smaller proportion of Negroes. Its old white population -has likewise begun to move, though more often northward, as to Missouri -or Kansas. But Oklahoma and, also, Texas have been the great outlets -for the Arkansas farmers. - -The climate and resources of Louisiana have attracted some 50,000 -Italians--a small element compared with those in the Northeastern -States, but large for the South. Louisiana has always been more -cosmopolitan than any of the other Southern States, and this is -still the case, yet 85 per cent of its Whites are of the old native -stock. Most of those not born in the State have come from States -directly adjoining. While to a certain extent there has been the usual -interchange, Louisianians going to other nearby States, mainly Texas, -nevertheless Louisiana has been relatively unimportant in settling -other States since the Civil War. - -Its population is less homogeneous than most of the Southern States. -The northern part of the State, with a majority of the inhabitants -and with political control, is made up largely of Nordic Protestants -who have come in from Arkansas, Mississippi, Tennessee, or elsewhere, -and who differ little from the inhabitants of those States. The -southern part of Louisiana, on the contrary, is largely Roman Catholic -in religion, and to a large extent French-speaking. In some towns -there are no public schools. The parochial schools teach the children -in French, and the Catholic Church has made particular efforts to -perpetuate the use of that language. The State Convention which -revised the constitution in 1921 made the literacy qualification for -the exercise of the electoral franchise, the ability of a citizen to -write his application for registration "in the English language _or his -mother tongue_." - -The State has the highest rate of illiteracy of any in the Union, -whether one considers the total population including Negroes, or -limits the figures to the native Whites. It has been part of the United -States for one hundred and thirty years, but United States officials, -when going into many parts of it, still have to be accompanied by -an interpreter. With only two or three exceptions, every bishop who -has been in charge of Catholic interests in Louisiana since Thomas -Jefferson's day has been foreign-born and foreign-trained. - -For such reasons the feeling of separate interests and lack of unity -and national identity have tended to continue; and when the "Cajan" -representatives attend the State legislature at Baton Rouge, they -address the House in eloquent English, but among themselves, discuss -their program in a French patois. - -Oklahoma, due to its peculiar history, is one of the cosmopolitan -States. When the territory was thrown open to settlement in the great -land rush of April 22, 1889, speculators from all parts of the United -States were attracted to the scene. But most of the settlers in the -northern part came from Kansas or Missouri and in the southern, from -Texas or Arkansas. In the next year, when the territory was formally -organized, one-third of its population was Indian or Negro. Subsequent -land allotments and colonization tended to perpetuate this dual origin -of the settlers, but after the State became a famous oil field, in the -early years of the present century, the population became so mixed -that this distinction was partly lost. Meanwhile the Indian population -was not only swamped by the Whites, but largely intermarried with -them, partly because Indian women had titles to valuable oil land. At -present Oklahoma is still credited with nearly 30 per cent of all the -Indians in the United States, though it is supposed that not more than -one-fourth of these are full-blood, and many of those who are legally -counted as Indians have but a negligible amount of Indian heredity. The -Creeks and a few others have mixed to some extent with Negroes, but -this has not been general. - -Texas, Missouri, Arkansas, and Kansas are still the principal -sources of Oklahomans, in the order named; but there is not a State -in the Union which is not represented here, many of them with large -contingents. The foreign stock is of equally cosmopolitan background, -but makes up only one-sixteenth of the whole. Considering the -geographical location, it includes a surprisingly large number of -Canadians. - -Texas contains nearly half a million people of foreign stock, the -German element being by far the largest. Second in importance among -the foreign stocks is a Czechoslovakian population which has settled -largely in the southeastern part. The Germans are mainly to the west of -them. The State began to attract Italians just before the World War. -The British element is important, while Galveston has long been largely -dominated by Jews. - -North Texas enjoyed a boom in 1875 and 1876 when a flood of homeseekers -poured in with their emigrant wagons. Many of these were farmers from -the Middle West who had been impoverished by the great grasshopper -plague. - -Western Texas was settled late, and periods of drought, such as that at -the time of the World War, largely depopulated some sections, farmers -packing up what they could carry and abandoning everything else to move -into a region where nature was less reluctant to aid them. - -Texas is still the offspring of the lower Mississippi Valley States, -but commercial development and the oil industry have brought in many -Northerners, particularly from the Central States. On the other hand, -the State's contribution to Oklahoma dwarfs all the other streams that -have gone out from it; but it has also contributed liberally to New -Mexico and Arizona and in recent years to California. - -Turning back now to the East North Central States, which comprise those -originally carved out of the Northwest Territory of 1787, one again -encounters the full tide of the so-called "new immigration." Here the -old native stock is scarcely more than a numerical majority--fourteen -million out of twenty-five, to be more exact; a striking contrast to -the Southern States, which we have just been considering, where it -still forms nine-tenths or more of the total white population. - -Five millions of the later arrivals in the North Central States are -Nordics, but a number almost equally large are Alpines. Half a million -Mediterraneans are present in the Italian immigration, while the area -from which the congress of the Confederation, as one of its last acts, -declared that Negro slaves should be forever excluded, has acquired -nearly a million free Negroes. - -Ohio is still two-thirds native, and its great industrial development -has drawn population from all sides, though four out of five of its -citizens still find their names on the birth records of the State -itself. Besides giving population to all its neighbors it has, like the -other States of this region, sent a stream westward, not merely to such -places as Kansas and Colorado, but particularly to the Pacific Coast. - -While the German element in Ohio which, half a century ago, made such -cities as Cincinnati centers of Teutonic kultur, is still the most -important numerically, it is outnumbered by the Poles, Czechoslovaks, -Hungarians, Yugoslavs, Lithuanians, and the like, if they are taken -together. The easy access across the Great Lakes has given Ohio, like -her sister States, an important Canadian element. - -Indiana, most American of States in its early period, still makes an -excellent showing, with nearly 85 per cent of its population native -white of native parentage. In the interchange of inhabitants it still -continues, as it did in the days of its founding, to draw an important -Southern element from across the Ohio River. The State of Ohio does the -same. The population still tends to move westward, not eastward, from -Indiana, taking with it some of the best of American family lines and -the purest of American traditions. - -The half million of foreign stock within the borders of the State are -at least half Nordic. No single group of the Slavs or Mediterraneans -is represented heavily, although there are a few of all those national -elements. - -The people of Indiana deserve recognition for the way they have -preserved their heritage. It is no accident that the "Indiana school" -of writers has long sounded the authentic American note in literature, -in striking contrast to the decadent tone of the output in some of the -Atlantic Coast centers where the dominant element is quite un-American. - -Illinois, by contrast, is barely more than half native, and the -scandals of its politics in regions where the alien vote is -self-conscious, have long been manifest to every newspaper reader. -With 329,000 Negroes, according to the 1930 census, Illinois ranks in -this respect only after Pennsylvania and New York, among the Northern -States; but corrupt political rings have made of the Negro an important -factor in the government of Chicago, as he has not been in New York or -Philadelphia. - -Of its foreign-born stock, Nordics are far below a million, as compared -with a million and a half of Alpines and a quarter of a million of -Mediterraneans. Under the pressure of this competition, the old native -stock has shown a strong tendency to move West and South. Texas and -Arkansas, for example, have drawn more heavily from Illinois than they -have from any other Northern State, and Illinois has also been the -greatest single contributor to the development of the Pacific Coast. - -Michigan is now just half native. Its geographical location has -attracted more than half a million Canadians, many of them belonging to -the French Alpine stock there. In the foreign stock as a whole, Alpines -outnumber Nordics not far from two to one. Among the 100,000 Italians -are many Northerners in the copper mines--big fellows so unlike the -Sicilian and Neapolitan to whom the American on the Atlantic Coast is -accustomed, that he does not recognize them as Italians. These northern -Italians, as previously noted, are not Mediterraneans, but mostly -Alpine with remnants of Nordic blood from the days of the Lombards and -Goths. - -Wisconsin has almost escaped the Negro invasion of the North, so its -three million inhabitants are at least white; but the native stock -is in a minority, due largely to the great German inrush of the last -century. With this came many Scandinavians. - -From 1860 to 1880 the immigrant nationalities ranked in the -order--German, Norwegian, Dane, and Swede. The only difference since -then is that they rank in the order--German, Norwegian, Swede, and -Dane. The great Swedish tide of immigration in the last half of the -nineteenth century did not acquire full force until the Norwegian had -passed its crest. - -As late as 1900, three-fourths of the people of Wisconsin were of -foreign parentage, and the Germans made up half of these. Milwaukee, -with its Socialist administration, had long been conspicuously the -center of German influence in the United States. Up to 1843, was a -Yankee village, earnestly trying to supplant Chicago as the center of -the Midwest. By 1856 a third of its population was German. By 1890 -one-half of its population was of German parentage and one-fourth -actually of German birth. That census year, however, saw the high tide -of Germanism in Milwaukee. Poles, Russians, Slovaks, and Italians have -modified since then the racial character of the city, which is only -one-third German at the present time. In the characteristic political -color of the State some students profess to see evidence of the fact -that many of the German immigrants were revolutionists fleeing from the -Fatherland. - -In Minnesota, the Germans outnumber any single group, although less -numerous than the three Scandinavian groups put together, so the -State is correctly thought of as Scandinavian. Considerably less than -half of its population is of the old American stock, but the State is -overwhelmingly Nordic, the 150,000 Slavs who have invaded it in recent -decades being of little account in its 2,500,000 population. Since -the days of its founding, Minnesota has drawn from Canada a desirable -element, and has given freely in exchange. - -Due partly to its relatively late settlement, the State has not been -one of those which have contributed heavily to its neighbors. Its -greatest outflow has been to the Pacific Coast, as its inhabitants -became prosperous enough to move to a milder climate in their old age. - -Iowa, of about the same population as Minnesota, is two-thirds native -and equally Nordic. It has contributed heavily to the prairie and -mountain States, and also to the Pacific Coast, but the standing joke -which ascribes to Iowa the parentage of all Southern Californians seems -to be not quite exact--at least California as a whole has received more -of its population during the past generation from Illinois, Missouri, -New York, and Ohio, than from Iowa, which stands only fifth in the list. - -Iowa, being pre-dominantly agricultural, has felt particularly the -unfavorable status of agriculture since the World War. During the -decade 1920-30, three out of every five of the villages in the State -actually lost in population, the people having either moved into the -cities or "gone West." Here as elsewhere, the small village seems -unable to meet the needs of the inhabitants. One of the real problems -of statesmanship in the near future is to work out a social and -economic system under which a larger part of the old native stock, and -particularly the most intelligent portion of it, can live under the -favorable biological conditions of the small village. - -Missouri has nearly a quarter of a million Negroes, in contrast -with such States as the three last discussed, in which the colored -population is negligible. But of its white population, three-fourths -is native, the rest mostly German. Slavs and Italians have only begun -to get a footing. On the whole, the State is strongly Nordic and sends -out large contingents of Nordics to Illinois on the East, to Kansas -and Oklahoma, and to the mountain and coast States westward. The -importance of the Missouri stock, coming to a large extent from that of -Virginia, has been much greater than is generally recognized, in the -settlement of the whole West. - -The great rush into Dakota took place in the decade after 1875. The -Red River country was opened up by the Northern Pacific Railway, and -the model farms which were established were advertised far and wide, -so that the population of 6000 in this district in 1875 increased more -than 2000 per cent in the following ten years. - -In 1889 the territory of Dakota was divided on the 45° 55´ parallel, -and North Dakota was admitted as a State with approximately 170,000 -population. Its subsequent growth has kept it fairly homogeneous from -a racial point of view, the State being almost wholly Nordic. Apart -from the old native Americans the main elements have been British -from Canada, Germans, and Scandinavians. The Norwegian immigration -which began in the early '90's was particularly noteworthy. Norwegians -now form about one-fourth of the total population of the State. An -interesting small group is that of the Icelanders, representatives of -one of the oldest, most highly cultured, and most stringently selected -of all Nordic peoples. - -The Russians in the State, approaching a hundred thousand in number, -are mostly German-speaking. They are farmers whose ancestors were -invited to South Russia several centuries ago, but who retained their -speech and culture to a marked degree. - -After the discovery of gold in the Black Hills, the country which is -now South Dakota had a rush in 1876 and for some years following, much -like that of Nevada and Montana during the Civil War and of California -in 1849. This frequently does not result in a well-balanced permanent -population, and the real settlement of South Dakota dates from the -succeeding period when its prairie lands were taken up by wheat growers -from the States of the upper Mississippi Valley. The wheat industry in -Wisconsin gradually died during the decade of 1870-80, and many who -found the ground unprofitable there moved farther west, as did others -with similar motives from western New York and the States of the old -Northwest Territory. - -South Dakota has a slightly higher percentage of old Americans than -its sister to the north; otherwise the two differ remarkably little -in size, composition, and resources. In 1920, half of the inhabitants -of North Dakota claimed South Dakota as a birthplace; while half of -the inhabitants of South Dakota claimed North Dakota as theirs. Of all -the forty-eight States, these two are unmistakably the Tweedledum and -Tweedledee. - -Nebraska after the Civil War continued to attract mainly the old -American pioneer class, but it also became a haven for several foreign -groups. It is said to contain about one-eighth of all the Bohemians -in the United States. The serious permanent settlement of the State -began in the early '70's. Many discharged soldiers seeking to make a -new start went West with their families. It was only a few years later -that the foreign tide began to reach these prairies and thereafter the -State attracted large fractions of the Bohemian, Scandinavian, and -German immigrations. Like some of the other prairie States it also -received many settlers who were listed as Russian because of their -nationality, but who, in fact, were Germans whose ancestors had gone to -Russia and failed to prosper there. Nebraska, therefore, though less -than three-fourths native, is overwhelmingly Nordic. - -Kansas is still four-fifths native and nine-tenths Nordic. It has -received the same foreign contributions as Nebraska, but in much -smaller quantities. At the same time it has continued to receive -settlers from the Mississippi Valley, and even from Eastern States, -such as New York and Pennsylvania. - -On the whole, the prairie States have been notably successful in -assimilating their immigrants and maintaining an American tradition. -The newcomers were not segregated in slums but scattered on farms. -It was almost a necessity for them to learn the speech and adopt -the customs of their hosts. While some of the Scandinavians, as in -Minnesota, have tried to have their children learn the language and -preserve the traditions of the "old country," these have at least been -Nordic traditions, and any feeling of aloofness or separateness is -rapidly disappearing. - -The mountain States date largely from the Civil War, when another of -the country's waves of migration and settlement broke loose from its -moorings and started westward. - -The first great migration of the American stock began immediately after -the Revolution, and resulted in the creation of Kentucky and Tennessee -by the Southerners, the transformation of western New York by the New -Englanders, and a mingling of these two streams as they crossed the -Ohio River to open up the Northwest Territory. - -The second great migration reached its crest with the panic of 1819. It -completed the settlement of the Ohio Valley and of the States along the -lower Mississippi and the Gulf. - -The third great migration reached its height with the feverish land -speculation promoted by Andrew Jackson's experiments in banking and -broke with the collapse of the prosperity which Martin Van Buren -inherited from his predecessor. It witnessed the settlement of the -Mississippi Valley throughout almost its entire length; together with -the Nordic absorption of Texas. - -The fourth wave, slightly more diffuse, washed over the "great plains" -and broke on the crests of the Rocky Mountains during the Civil War, -though a heavy splash had meanwhile reached the Pacific Coast. It -began with the settlement of Kansas, motivated in part by land hunger, -but also by definite political calculations. Meanwhile the conquest -of California, the discovery of gold there, the settlement of Oregon, -and the Mormon appropriation of Utah, brought into existence an active -traffic across the plains, which was the beginning of Nebraska's -existence. - -The Rocky Mountain States grew up in the first place out of this -traffic, then by the mining discoveries within their limits, and the -fact that there was a restless population on the Pacific Coast, ready -to surge back eastward, together with a footloose population to the -East ready to move into any part of the West. - -This Eastern contingent received its impetus from the panic of 1857, -when many men, bankrupt or dislocated, were prepared to make a new -start. The mining activities in the Far West encouraged adventurers -to try their hand at the gold pan, and the country was full of -prospectors, some of them professional but mostly amateur. Men who had -no jobs at home thought they might as well seek a fortune in this way; -it would not cost them much to live, and they could at least see the -country. A similar renaissance of prospecting and small-scale mining -took place all over the mountains of the West when the depression of -1929 was well under way. - -To this element was shortly added another composed of people getting -away from the Civil War. Some of these were actual deserters from -military service; others went West to escape the pressure of public -opinion toward enlistment; others in the border States, ruined by the -conflict or unwilling to cast their lot with either combatant, simply -started in motion as their fathers and grandfathers had done before -them. - -The population of the mountain States varied remarkably from month to -month, as the crowd moved from one reputed bonanza to another. The -government at Washington showed itself unusually ready to set up new -governments in that region, because it was on the whole of unquestioned -Union loyalty and, if the South, at the close of the war, should be -brought back into the Union on the old terms, as President Lincoln -evidently planned, a dozen new senators from half as many new Western -States could easily be secured, leaving the South in the minority and -breaking that deadlock of almost half a century which had been the -source of so many compromises and the occasion of so many conflicts. - -Colorado, at that time a part of Kansas, was an almost unknown "Indian -territory" when prospectors struck gold in the neighborhood of Denver -in 1858 and 1859. The rush from Kansas and Nebraska, when the legend -"Pike's Peak or Bust," lettered on the sides of emigrant wagons, became -traditional, disclosed how little was known of the country. Pike's -Peak, though not near the gold diggings, was the only place in Colorado -of which most Americans had ever heard. - -In 1861 there was enough population to justify territorial government. -Statehood was not attained until 1876. From then on until the -agricultural period, the history of Colorado was the history of its -fluctuating mining camps. But by 1930 the State had reached a permanent -basis and a population of more than a million, of which two-thirds was -native and the other third a heterogeneous lot, partly Nordic but -containing strong Slav, Italian, and Mexican elements. So far as the -native American population was concerned, its geographical origin still -represented a fan spreading out from Pike's Peak until it reached the -Atlantic Ocean. In large or small proportions, emigrants from most of -the older States had converged on the Rockies. - -Wyoming, first explored by trappers and fur traders, became important -because it was traversed by the Oregon Trail; but it was merely -a place to pass through, until the arrival of the Union Pacific -Railway and the discovery of gold in the same year (1867) gave it a -life of its own. Nearly 6000 persons spent the following winter in -Cheyenne--a cosmopolitan crowd of adventurers and speculators. After -its organization as a territory in 1859, agriculture had begun, stock -raising became important, there were local gold rushes, and the region -slowly developed until admitted to the Union in 1890. - -Wyoming's population, smaller than that of any other State with the -single exception of Nevada, is less than two-thirds native stock, and -this represents a blend from all parts of the United States. Iowa, -Missouri, Illinois, have all contributed more inhabitants than either -of its neighbors, Colorado and Utah. In these mountain States the -general rule that a State is settled by its neighbors, quite breaks -down. Its foreign stock is equally mixed; while much is Nordic the -State has also attracted its quota of Slavs and Italians, and even of -Mexicans. - -Idaho, after small Mormon settlements of farmers, owed most of its -early population to its mines. During the Civil War it grew remarkably, -but the fact that it could be reached more easily from the West than -from the East, due to access by the Columbia River, made its settlement -somewhat anomalous in American history, for it was settled largely by -Westerners moving east from Oregon, Washington, and northern California. - -In Idaho the development of Mormon colonies has given Utah a strong -influence in the State. Apart from this, its population is made up -nowadays more from the Mississippi Valley than from the mountain and -Pacific Coast States. It is only three-fourths native, but most of the -remainder is Nordic, British and Scandinavians both having sought its -opportunities. A territory in 1863 and a State in 1890, Idaho now has a -population of nearly half a million. - -Montana, in the winter of 1862 and 1863 had a total population of 670 -inhabitants of whom _The Chronicle_ complacently says: "Fifty-nine -were evidently respectable women." Like Idaho, it attracted an element -of Southern men escaping from the draft into the Confederate Army, -but from then on a large part of its population was from the Northern -States. Its growth of population was closely linked up with the -fortunes of the mining industry. - -Territorial status was given Montana at the time of the great gold -discoveries in 1864, and the character of its population fluctuated a -good deal, both as to quantity and quality, between that date and 1889 -when it was admitted to Statehood. It has now more than half a million -inhabitants, nearly half of whom are of foreign stock and largely Roman -Catholics. Most of the natives are from the Central States; most of the -foreigners are Irish, Germans, or Canadians, though Montana has also -attracted more than 50,000 Scandinavians. - -Utah's population is now about the size of that of Montana, and but -slightly more native in character (three-fifths). These natives are -to a large extent born in the State, the descendants of the Mormon -pioneers. The "Gentiles" are of widely scattered origin. The foreign -stock is mostly English or Scandinavian, the Mormon missionaries having -worked diligently in those kingdoms. Utah, therefore, represents -a Nordic population, and one with a high birthrate, whence it is -evidently destined to continue spreading steadily in the Great Basin. - -Nevada sprang almost full grown from the desert, as Venus did from -the waves. It scarcely existed, though on the maps as a transmontane -part of California, until the gold rush of 1849 brought settlements -into existence to take care of the travellers. Then it was attached -administratively to Utah, which was also inconveniently distant. The -discovery of silver in the fabulously rich Comstock Lode (1859) led -to the establishment of Virginia City, and to the inrush of a torrent -of miners, particularly from California, where the gold deposits were -becoming exhausted. - -In 1861 Nevada was established as a separate territory, and Lincoln's -administration pushed it through to Statehood in 1864 to get the -advantage of two more friendly senators. With the exhausting of the -silver deposits in a quarter of a century, Nevada had a severe decline, -many of her inhabitants moving away. There was another mining boom in -the first ten or fifteen years of this century, but the State has never -made a steady and substantial growth, and the 1930 census credited it -with no more than 91,058 inhabitants. Not much more than half of these -were of the native stock. The foreigners were a scattered lot, with an -unexpectedly large Italian contingent. - -Arizona was cut loose from New Mexico in 1863, and, after the Civil -War, became a typical Western mining community, with a fluctuating -frontier population. A district might be active one year and a few -years later abandoned. - -The Mormons made some of the early settlements in the State and still -form a significant part of its population. Like Colorado, Arizona -has more than its share of Mexicans, while some of the other Western -States, Utah and Nevada for instance, have only negligible numbers of -them. The presence of more than 100,000 Mexicans in 1930 gave Arizona, -with less than half a million inhabitants all told, a bad position as -to its proportion of native stock. If one takes account only of the -Whites, 80 per cent are natives of native parentage, the others mostly -British or German, with again a surprisingly large Canadian contingent, -considering how far removed the two regions are. The American -population is of notably cosmopolitan origin, people having gone there -from every State in the Union, in connection with mining, or for -reasons of health. But Texas is by far the largest single contributor, -with California a poor second. - -New Mexico stands in the anomalous position of having an almost -unparalleled percentage of its population born not merely in the -United States, but within its own borders; and yet of having an -unparalleled proportion of its population speaking an alien language. -An official interpreter is still required in its State legislature, -so that the local statesmen who boast of their Americanism but -cannot speak English, can make their views known to the Americans. -Since the "Spanish-Americans" are classified by the census as white, -three-fourths of the population are listed as native white of native -parentage. There were also, in 1930, about 60,000 Mexicans born south -of the line, hence aliens. The other residents of foreign stock are -scattering, with no one nationality greatly predominating. - -California, which in 1860 had the highest percentage of foreigners, -had not changed this situation strikingly in 1930, despite the great -influx of old American stock from the Central States. Of its 5,677,251 -residents, just over a half were native Whites of native parentage. The -general character of the migration to California since the beginning of -this century is too well known to require extended comment. Every part -of the Union has contributed; even Florida is credited with a couple -of thousand converts. On the whole, this influx has been of the purest -Nordic stock, but if a constitutional convention were now to be called, -its make-up would perhaps not differ greatly from that of 1849, which -was attended by delegates born in thirty different States of the Union. - -The foreign element in California is equally heterogeneous, though -largely Nordic, so far as it is white at all. Canada has sent a quarter -of a million, nearly all of English ancestry. Italy has contributed -nearly a quarter of a million, who make an important part of the -population in the northern half of the State. Unlike their fellow -nationals in the Atlantic States, these California Italians are mostly -from the northern part of that kingdom. Between North and South -Italians there is not great sympathy--representatives of the two groups -avoid intermarriage. They also avoid migrating to the same territories -and, if the Neapolitan occupies the Atlantic States, the Genoese will -push on to the other side of the continent. These northern Italians -have played a much more prominent rôle around San Francisco than one -would anticipate who knows only the southern Italian in New York or -Boston. - -The State has also attracted 150,000 Russians, partly refugees since -the Bolshevik revolution, but mostly agriculturists of an earlier -period; more than half a million British, including Irish, more than -300,000 Germans, more than 200,000 Scandinavians. - -It is the non-white element that has attracted attention most -continuously from the outside world. California had nearly half a -million Mexicans, until the exodus which began after the depression of -1929 had made their manual labor less valuable. - -It had 45,000 Filipinos, who created serious problems in some regions, -both by competing with native labor, and by paying attention to white -girls, which is resented by the Americans. - -The State's population of 37,000 Chinese is declining steadily. The -memorable agitation of the '70's for Chinese exclusion is now only a -historical event, but it was important as helping to lay the foundation -for a wise immigration policy in the United States. Mining, war times, -and the building of the transcontinental railway had kept up inflated -conditions for years. Chinese were pouring in, partly to the mines, -and partly to the railway, which used them in construction work. Some -15,000 of these Oriental laborers, turned out of work by the completion -of the Central Pacific Railway, principally in 1869-70, poured into -San Francisco and made their presence unmistakable. A decade of -dissatisfaction followed, particularly among American workingmen. The -most conspicuous agitator was the Irish drayman, Dennis Kearney. In -1879 the State voted against the further immigration of Chinese by a -majority of 154,638 to 883. There have been few issues in American -history carried by a more nearly unanimous vote. In the same year -the Federal Congress passed an exclusion act which established the -principle that an unassimilable people may be shut out entirely, if -necessary to protect American standards. - -Agitation along similar lines sprang up about 1906-7, due to the -rapid increase of Japanese in the State. It was settled, first by a -"gentlemen's agreement" between the United States and Japan, by which -the latter undertook to prevent the emigration of its laboring class to -the Pacific Coast States; second, by a law later adopted in California, -which prevented alien Japanese from owning land; third, by a final -exclusion of all Orientals through national legislation. - -The hundred thousand Japanese shown in the 1930 census are no -longer increasing rapidly, in spite of a fairly high birthrate. -The existence of these second-generation Japanese (and the same is -true, in proportion, of the Chinese) has, however, created a serious -problem all its own, since they are not accepted by either race. They -usually do not speak the Japanese language. They are inclined to look -down upon its institutions, and admire those of America. Hence the -real Japanese element both dislikes them, and does not employ them -because of the language barrier. On the other hand, the American does -not accept them as Americans, and they cannot be employed easily -alongside of and in competition with white natives of the United -States. The second-generation Oriental is practically a man without -a country. Because of these special racial problems, California has -had difficulties that some of the other States have not fully or -sympathetically understood. - -Oregon's million inhabitants are two-thirds native Whites of the old -stock. Canada, the British Isles, Germany, and Scandinavia, have been -the other large contributors. The American population is largely from -the Central States. - -Washington now has more than a million and a half inhabitants, 56 per -cent of whom are of old native stock. Eastern Washington felt a boom in -1862 when it began to accumulate population attracted partly by mines -and partly by farming possibilities, until it reached an equilibrium -with the Puget Sound end of the State which has always been an -important political factor. Many settlers at this time were immigrants -from the "border States" of the Civil War, who became disgusted with -the guerrilla warfare to which they were subjected, and who were -not enthusiastically for either side. During the '80's, the rapid -construction of railway lines brought the population of Washington up -to a respectable figure in a very few years. - -The present Whites are mainly from the States of the upper Mississippi -Valley. Canada has furnished 100,000 more of British ancestry, and a -slightly larger number has come direct from the British Isles. Germany -has contributed 100,000, Scandinavia 175,000. As against this, Italy is -represented by less than 25,000, and the Slav countries altogether by -not much more than 60,000. Hence Washington is entitled to claim that -it is one of the most Nordic of the States. - - - - -XIV - -CHECKING THE ALIEN INVASION - - -During the earlier part of the immigration period, the tradition of -an "Asylum for the Oppressed" of all nations was the ruling principle -in the national attitude towards aliens, though even then there was -occasional objection to the undesirable character of some of the -immigrants. - -Various States adopted their own restrictions. Massachusetts, Maryland, -Pennsylvania, and others tried to control the flow of new arrivals by -head taxes and administrative regulations, while foreign governments -sometimes opposed these measures, as in the case of Wurtemberg in 1855. -The United States having sent back some paupers who had been dumped -on its shores, public resolutions are said to have been passed by the -Wurtembergers, protesting at this lack of hospitality. If the paupers -were returned, they complained bitterly, "we shall have defrayed the -expense of their journey in vain." But the right to deport undesirable -aliens had been set forth by the famous Alien and Sedition Acts of -1798, and the Federal Government has never wavered in its assertion of -this right. - -For a generation before the Civil War, the undesirability of -unrestricted immigration was debated, but without definite action. -The first federal restriction was the law of 1875, excluding foreign -convicts and prostitutes. President Roosevelt in 1907 appointed an -Immigration Commission which made a long investigation and a voluminous -report that served as a base for future measures and by 1914 most of -the undesirable classes, except illiterates, were formally excluded. - -The opposition to restriction was from the steamship companies, whose -interest was obvious, and from the large employers of cheap labor, -who were likewise not at all disinterested. It also arose among alien -groups in the United States, that wished to get more of their own -people into this country. - -The most active forces in its favor were, primarily, organized labor, -which wished no more competition from floating aliens with a wholly -un-American standard of living and, most of all, the native American -groups, eugenists and others who were far-sighted and unwilling to -see the racial character and national unity of America destroyed and -republican ideals endangered and undermined. - -The first attempt at a general restriction to improve the quality of -immigration was the adoption by Congress of the literacy test, which -provided that those who could not read and write some language should -be excluded. This was vetoed by President Wilson. - -Meanwhile the outbreak of the World War had, for the time, put a -virtual stop to international movements of population, and the nation -had a breathing space to consider its future policies. In 1917 -the Burnett Act consolidated the existing provisions for excluding -undesirables, and included the literacy test. President Wilson vetoed -it also, but it was passed over his veto. - -At the close of the war, there was widespread apprehension that the -unsettled and impoverished peoples of Europe would begin a new mass -migration westward. Before the war we had been receiving a million -immigrants a year; travellers and consular agents predicted that we -might look forward to receiving two million or more annually. It was -felt that the literacy test, and the provisions against mental and -physical defectives, would not be enough to stop this flood. Congress -met the emergency by the Quota Act of 1921, which provided that the -number of aliens of any nationality admitted in any one year should -be no more than 3 per cent of the number of foreign-born persons of -such nationality residing in the United States in 1910. This law was -intended to preserve the _status quo_. What the nation was in 1910, -that it should be forever. - -Such a solution could not satisfy the native Americans, whose people -had made the country great. Fortunately, the demand for a more -scientific approach to regulation found an adequate representative -in the Hon. Albert Johnson, a member of Congress from the State of -Washington, under whose leadership the whole system was revised in the -famous act of 1924. - -Administratively, the proceedings were made more workable and more -intelligent by placing on the United States consuls abroad the duty -of approving passports, without which no immigrant could enter. When -the quota was exhausted, the consul was required to refuse his visa on -passports until the next year. There was no longer any possibility of -hardship and apparent injustice. - -Restrictively, the quota was reduced from 3 per cent to 2 per cent, -and based not on the 1910 census, but on the 1890 census. The purpose -of this was, frankly, to encourage new arrivals from the countries of -the "old immigration,"--the countries of northern and western Europe -who had contributed most to the American population and whose people -were, therefore, most easily assimilable in the United States; and, -conversely, to discourage immigration from the countries of southern -and eastern Europe, most of whose nationals had come here since 1890. - -This law reduced the total possible immigration under quota to 167,750 -as against 357,800 permitted by the act it supplanted, and favored the -European Nordic whose people made the United States what it is, as -against the European Alpine and the Mediterranean who were late comers -and intrusive elements. Unfortunately it did not apply to the western -hemisphere, hence offered no obstacle to the Indian peon from Mexico -nor to the Negro from the West Indies, nor were the Filipinos barred. - -The most interesting provision of the law of 1924 and, in one sense, -the reason for the existence of this present book, was a provision -that the quotas should be based only temporarily on the 1890 census. -That basis had been justly criticized on the ground that it made the -immigrants of recent times, rather than the old native stock, the -determinants of the future composition of the United States. The -quotas, it was argued, should be based not on the number of aliens here -in 1890, or in any other year; but on the ratio of these aliens to -the whole population. The law therefore embodied the National Origins -provision--one of the decisive events in the racial history of America. - -An investigation was ordered to find the proportions of the various -national (not _racial_) groups in the United States at the time of -the 1920 census. The general quota to apply from July 1, 1927 (later -delayed one year), was fixed at a total of 150,000. Each nationality -was to be assigned such proportion of this 150,000 as the number of -its people here in 1920 bore to the total population. Thus, if it -should transpire that 10 per cent of the total population in 1920 was -of Swedish ancestry, Sweden would receive a quota of 10 per cent of -150,000 or 15,000. Or if it were found, for example, that 2 per cent -of the total population in 1920 derived from France, the French quota -would become 3000. - -While a committee of experts went to work on the necessary research -for this purpose, an amusing competition began among the alien groups -and hyphenates, to exaggerate as much as possible their claims so that -their relatives and compatriots might benefit by an increase in their -nation's quota. The Irish were perhaps the most industrious in this -occupation, for they could take advantage of the confusion, due to the -fact, pointed out in these pages time and again, that the territory -now composing the Irish Free State had long taken credit for every one -who has passed through Ireland. Actually the "Irish" immigration in -Colonial times was, as already shown, not Irish at all, but for the -most part Scotch, though taking shipping from Ulster; and the Free -State Catholics had few representatives in America at the time of the -Revolution. Such facts were conveniently ignored by the Irish patriots, -who wrote books to demonstrate that the "Irish" not only fought and won -the Revolution, but that they made up the predominant element at the -present time. "It has been estimated by good authorities," affirmed one -such enthusiast, "that at least 25,000,000 of our present population -have more or less Irish blood coursing through their veins. We" -(_i.e._, the population of the United States), he went on, warming up -to his job, "are no more Anglo-Saxon than we are Hindu!" - -If the Irish Catholics were inclined to claim something like one-fourth -of the total population, the Germans were prepared to claim anything -up to one-third. The quota based on the 1890 census had, in fact, been -extraordinarily favorable for the Germans, since they were the group -that had been coming into the country in greatest number just before -that date, hence they had the largest number of actual foreign-born -here present in that year. Their allotment on that basis was almost -one-third of the quota for the entire world. The obvious unfairness of -basing future immigration on such conditions, and of ignoring almost -entirely the English and Scotch stock which was the overwhelming -element in the building of America, but which together received only 20 -per cent of the quota, was generally recognized. - -Scarcely had this injustice been removed and the National Origins -measure gone into effect, however, when business depression began to -throw men out of work, and it was universally felt that no new seekers -for jobs should be brought into the country to displace the workers -already here. Administrative restrictions, therefore, cut down the -incoming flow of aliens to almost nothing. At the same time, many -recent arrivals went back home, thinking they could weather the storm -better among their own people. - -A direct benefit from the depression, then, was that it practically -stopped foreign immigration. When the time comes for consideration -of the renewal of present administrative restrictions, the National -Origins Act will be on the statute books as a protection. Meanwhile -Americans can consider what further measures they need to take to -extend the quota provision to the western hemisphere. - -The actual contribution of the alien groups to the population of the -United States is based not merely on their net immigration, but also -on their fecundity after they settle here. Many familiar studies show -that, in general, the immigrant women are more fecund than the old -stock. They marry earlier, show a lower percentage of sterility, and -have larger families. - -The fact that women are in a minority among most of the recent -immigrant groups has, however, tended to cut down their contribution. -Of the whole foreign-born group, men and women have in late decades -been in the ratio of about five to three. This means that the group, as -a group, will make a smaller contribution than it would, had each man -brought a wife with him. On the other hand, the surplus males usually -marry women of other groups, their descendants being thus assimilated -into the population more quickly, whether for good or for ill. - -Again, the increase of the foreign-born groups is cut down by the fact -that for the most part they have a higher rate of infant mortality. -Variations among the races are striking. Thus while the native white -has an infant mortality rate of 94 per 1000 births, that of the -American Negro is 154, that of the Poles about the same, that of the -French Canadians 171, that of the Portuguese 200, as shown in some -extensive studies made by the Federal Children's Bureau. - -In the second generation, the fecundity of the alien groups begins -to decline. It is generally said that the immigrant's daughter bears -one less child than did her mother. Hence if immigrants are let in -slowly, they are not likely to swamp the native stock; and as to those -already here, although some of them, particularly the Italians, have -remarkably high birthrates, they will probably lose this advantage -within the next couple of generations. - -The question is often raised, whether the population of the United -States would not be just as large today, if immigration had been -permanently excluded in 1790. In other words, if no alien had arrived -since the founding of the United States, would the descendants of the -Colonial population have produced as many citizens as there are now -here? This hypothesis, often known as Walker's Law, assumes that the -fecundity of a group is cut down by the competition of immigrants, and -that the latter do no more than fill the places which would otherwise -have been filled by natural increase. - -No one would claim that such a generalization is exact, but as a -general tendency it seems to be near the truth. The United States would -have grown large and strong, had immigration been shut off a century -ago. It will continue to grow large and strong, with immigration shut -off at the present time. That does not mean that the rate of growth -which has been maintained during the last century will continue for -another century. The Nordic civilization is at present near the end of -a cycle of growth, and its rate of multiplication is slowing in every -civilized country. In most of the Nordic nations, the population does -not now replace itself. When the women now of child-bearing age pass -from the scene, they will not leave enough daughters to take their -places. - -The influence of the "newer immigration" and its offspring is great -enough to carry forward the United States population expansion a little -longer, but all signs indicate that, assuming _all_ immigration ceased, -the numerical growth of the United States would come to a standstill at -the end of two or three generations, probably at a figure not higher -than 150,000,000 of population, and no more are needed. - -All the greater is the need, then, that this stock should be sound in -quality. A memorable step toward this goal was taken by the Federal -Supreme Court in 1923, when it held that only white persons and persons -of African descent are eligible to citizenship. - - * * * * * - -In 1790 Congress enacted the first naturalization statute, the terms of -which confined its benefits to "free white citizens." The restriction -remained in force until extended in 1870 by statute giving the right -of citizenship to persons of African descent. At present, then, only -Whites and Negroes are eligible for naturalization. Interpreting the -statute of 1790, the Supreme Court held that the term "free white" must -be understood in its common meaning as used by the framers, and could -not include a Hindu (Sikh) or, in another case, a Japanese. - -Meanwhile the immigration act of 1924 provides that "no alien -ineligible to citizenship shall be admitted to the United States." -The Supreme Court decisions in the cases mentioned mean that this law -excludes all colored and Oriental races--all, in short, save "free -Whites" and Negroes. Another safeguard is thus thrown around the -American stock. - -The three millions of Whites of 1790 have increased to 109 millions in -1930. Of this number, one-third are either foreign-born or the children -of such. One wonders how many of the 109 millions are the undiluted -descendants of Colonial stock. While mathematical exactitude cannot be -expected in such calculations, the census experts have figured that -about one-third of the population is of such ancestry. - -There are many others who have one parent Colonial and the other going -back perhaps to an immigrant of 1850. Such latter, these experts -claim, is the equivalent of half of a Colonial descendant. Two of -them together they count as equivalent to one Colonial descendant. By -this device the experts calculated that the "numerical equivalent" -of the Colonial stock amounts to nearly one-half of the entire white -population. - -The investigations necessary to put the National Origins provision -into effect, and to defend it from partisan criticism, brought out -the salient facts concerning the composition of the population -today--again, of course, subject to such margin of error as is -inevitable. The white population of 1920 was apportioned as follows: - - England, Scotland, Wales, and - North Ireland 39,242,733 - Germany 14,833,588 - Irish Free State 10,378,634 - Poland[11] 3,626,692 - Italy 3,566,396 - Russia 2,108,283 - Sweden 2,024,434 - France 1,970,189 - Netherlands 1,835,959 - Czechoslovakia 1,623,438 - Norway 1,431,292 - Austria 976,248 - Switzerland 961,406 - Belgium 790,928 - Denmark 735,083 - Hungary 703,409 - Yugoslavia 440,518 - Finland 338,036 - Lithuania 293,100 - Portugal 272,104 - Greece 185,836 - Rumania 185,423 - Spain 181,658 - Latvia 144,844 - Turkey 138,389 - Danzig 81,522 - All other quota countries 262,216 - Non-quota countries[12] 5,488,757 - ---------- - 94,820,915 - -The United States is no longer 99 per cent Protestant, as it was in -1790; but it is still 80 per cent Protestant. Its white inhabitants are -no longer 90 per cent Nordic, as after the Revolution; but they are -still 70 per cent Nordic.[13][14] Its future course must be guided in -the light of a consideration of these facts. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[Footnote 11: It must be remembered that these figures show national -origins, not _racial_. The numbers credited to such countries as -Poland, Russia, and Austria-Hungary therefore include very large -proportions of Jews.] - -[Footnote 12: These are the countries of the Western Hemisphere, of -which Canada and Mexico have been the largest contributors.] - -[Footnote 13: This would, of course, include all Germany.] - -[Footnote 14: The Hoover Committee on Social Trends, in re National -Origins, says that "about 85 per cent of the Whites in the United -States in 1920 were from strains originating in northwestern Europe -where Nordics predominate."] - - - - -XV - -THE LEGACY OF SLAVERY - - -The most essential element in nationality is unity. This unity can be -based on race, on language, on religion, on a long tradition held in -common, or on several or all of these. - -In the past century the United States has to some extent lost its -unity of religion, of race, and of language. In the same period it has -acquired a number of unassimilable elements brought in as cheap and -docile labor to develop its industries or else allowed to enter through -the false humanitarianism of the so-called Victorian Era. It had been -forgotten that a cheap man makes a cheap job. - -In the South manual labor was performed by the Negroes, but in the -North, where there were no slaves, manual labor was chiefly performed -by Americans, and it still is in the districts where there are no -aliens. The moment that cheap alien labor was introduced to build -railroads or dig canals, such labor became distasteful to the native -American, because it was done by lowly foreigners whom they despised. - -Among the various outland elements now in the United States which -threaten in different degrees our national unity, the most important is -the Negro. Unlike the other alien elements the blacks were brought into -the country against their will. They brought with them no persisting -language, religion, or other cultural attribute, but accepted these -elements from their masters. - -At the time of the first census (1790) the Negroes numbered 757,208, -being 19.3 per cent of the total population. They were naturally mostly -in the Southern States. In 1860 the Negroes numbered 4,441,830 and -constituted 14.1 per cent of the population. They were still in the -South. In 1930 the Negroes numbered 11,891,143 and constituted 9.69 -per cent of the population, but there had been a distinct migration -from the agricultural districts of the South to the large cities of the -North. - -When, after the Civil War, the Negroes were granted the franchise the -Negro problem was greatly complicated. This ill-advised measure was -forced on the country by a wave of feeling aroused by the wanton murder -of Lincoln. The North feared to entrust the government of the country -to those who had lately been in armed rebellion, so they conferred the -voting power on the Negroes and thereby greatly increased the electoral -vote of the South. If the franchise had been confined to the Whites -only, the influence of the "Solid South" after the Civil War would have -been much less than it now is. The purpose of the measure was to make -the South Republican, its actual effect was to enhance the power of the -South in Congress and in the Electoral College and make that section -definitely Democratic. In the words of the late Chancellor Von Bismarck -this was worse than a crime--it was a blunder. - -[Illustration: NEGRO POPULATION - -1930 - -_11,891,143_] - -The Southerners understand how to treat the Negro--with firmness and -with kindness--and the Negroes are liked below the Mason and Dixon line -so so long as they keep to their proper relation to the Whites, but in -the North the blocks of Negroes in the large cities, migrating from the -South, have introduced new complications, which are certain to produce -trouble in the future, especially if Communist propaganda makes headway -among them. - -In the Negro section of Harlem a further problem is arising from -crosses between Negroes and Jews and Italians. These and other -Mulattoes are showing a tendency toward Communism. During the World War -a Communistic and racial movement was started there and a situation -developed which was controlled with some difficulty, though without -publicity. - -The increase in the relative number of Mulattoes to Blacks is growing -greater in the Northern States, as is obvious to any observer in the -Negro districts of the larger cities. There can be seen many yellow and -light-colored individuals, who are Negro in every other respect. Many -of our dark immigrant Whites are themselves darker in color than the -yellow Negroes and this enables some of these light Negroes to "pass" -as Whites. This problem is one which will increase in gravity. - -Evidence does not exist to show whether the number of Mulattoes being -produced by primary union of Whites and Negroes is now larger than it -was fifty or one hundred years ago. But evidence does exist to show -that the intelligence and ability of a colored person are in pretty -direct proportion to the amount of white blood he has, and that most -of the positions of leadership, influence, and prominence in the Negro -race are held not by real Negroes but by Mulattoes, many of whom have -very little Negro blood. This is so true that to find a black Negro -in a conspicuous position is a matter of comment. E.B. Reuter has -calculated that a Mulatto child has a better chance than a black child -to achieve prominence in the ratio of thirty-four to one. - -Such a situation naturally puts a premium on white blood in the minds -of Negroes, and therefore puts a prize on bastardy, discouraging any -tendency to cultivate pure racial values on the part of the Blacks -themselves. The black man who acquires wealth, at once wishes to show -visible evidences of his affluence by acquiring a light yellow or -"pink" wife, and the black girl is at a heavy discount matrimonially. - -Even in adoption the same tendency is found. Child-placing societies -may seek in vain to find a home for the pickaninny with black -skin and curly hair, but the light-colored baby, despite other -disqualifications, is eagerly adopted by darker Negro parents. - -The religious world, the political world, and the educational world -alike seem to have conspired to give all the rewards to the Negro with -white blood and to make the bulk of the race feel that white blood is -the greatest possible good for a Negro. Such a condonation of race -mixture is an insidious and far-reaching menace to the racial and -ethical standards of both races. - -How much white blood now circulates in the veins of our Negroes cannot -be told. It is generally considered, however, that at least one-third -of all those classed as Negroes in the United States have, in fact, -some white blood and the proportion is probably larger. - -The "pass-for-white" does so purely by virtue of his physical -characters which approximate those of his white ancestors. His -intellectual and emotional traits may insidiously go back to his black -ancestry, and may be brought into the White race in this way. - -Mentally and emotionally the Negro is the product of thousands of -years of evolution under the most stringent natural selection in the -hot lands of Africa. He is notably lacking in just those qualities -necessary for success in a modern Nordic industrial civilization, -as for instance in self-control and in capacity for co-operation. -Physically he is the product of the same circumstances. His tough skin -gives him an advantage over the White in resisting some diseases. His -lower vital capacity puts him at a disadvantage in others. Thus the -Negro is liable to succumb to tuberculosis or pneumonia, and is less -prone to cancer and skin affections. With the aid of white sanitation -and hygiene, the Negro is holding his own, even gaining ground in the -Northern cities where it was formerly supposed he would die out. - -Natural selection, therefore, in view of the present vital statistics -of the two races, can no longer be relied upon to solve the problem by -a gradual elimination of the Negro in America. Comfort has been found -in the fall of the ratio of the Negroes to the total population; but -their absolute increase goes on just the same. - -No satisfactory solution of the problem has been suggested. At present, -from a study of past history, there appear to be but three possible -solutions. - -First, slow amalgamation with the Whites and an ever-increasing -number of Mulattoes, who little by little will "pass" for Whites. -This amalgamation might easily assume serious proportions in the near -future, with an increase of mixed breeds all over the United States. -But if the sentimental views about Negroes engendered by the Civil -War can be lived down, it may be that the oncoming generation will -resolutely face this Mulatto menace. Otherwise the absorption of 10 per -cent Negroes and Mulattoes, to say nothing of East and South Europeans, -in addition to Mexicans, Filipinos, and Japanese will produce a racial -chaos such as ruined the Roman Empire. - -A second solution would be deportation, which was seriously suggested -a hundred years ago. At that time it might have been possible to -re-transport the then slaves to Africa, and such action would have -involved only a fraction of the cost of the Civil War. This was -considered as a possible remedy by some of the wisest statesmen in the -years immediately preceding the Civil War. Today it is not possible, -because Africa, with the exception of Liberia, is under the control -of white states, which certainly would not welcome such an enormous -addition to their own color problem, aside from all other practical -considerations. - -[Illustration: NEGRO POPULATION - -INCREASE & DECREASE - -1920-1930 - -Figures in each State show the percentage of increase and decrease.] - -Present-day advocates of repatriation argue that lack of native -population is the principal factor likely to hold back the development -of some of the healthiest and most fertile parts of interior Africa. -The American Negro, they say, might well carry there the education -he has received in the United States, and do better for himself than -he could expect to do here, especially if, through a rising race -consciousness among the Whites, they show themselves less hospitable to -his claims for equality. - -The substantial following, gained by the Negro Garvey, who started a -"Back to Africa" movement a few years ago, is cited as evidence that -the Negroes in this country are not necessarily adverse to leaving it. -But much more evidence will be needed before the repatriation of the -Negro can be considered seriously. - -As a third possibility, segregation has been suggested. This would mean -the abandonment by the Whites of whole sections of the country along -the Gulf of Mexico. This has actually happened in some places along the -lower Mississippi River, where the numbers of the Negroes have become -so overwhelming that the few remaining Whites have simply moved out and -abandoned the district to them. It has happened and is happening in the -West Indies. Haiti and Santo Domingo have been entirely turned over to -Negroes and other examples of West Indian Islands almost abandoned to -Negroes can be found. - -Whatever be the final outcome, the Negro problem must be taken -vigorously in hand by the Whites, without delay. States which have -no laws preventing the intermarriage of white and black should adopt -them. During the last quarter-century, many such bills, introduced in -Northern legislatures, have been defeated by an organized pro-Negro -lobby. The Christian churches in some parts of the North have also -taken an unwise stand, in trying to break down the social barriers -between Negro and White. This attitude goes back to the days of the -abolitionists, who persuaded themselves that the Negro slave had all -possible virtues and the Southern White man all possible vices. It was -a primary factor in creating the tragedy of "reconstruction" after the -Civil War. - -Senator Roscoe Conkling hit this attitude off neatly when some one -asked him what had happened in the Senate that day. He replied: "We -have been discussing Senator Sumner's annual bill entitled 'An act to -amend the act of God whereby there is a difference between white and -black.'" - -More necessary than legislation is a more vigorous and alert public -opinion among the Whites, which will put a stop to social mixing of -the two races. Social separation is the key to minimizing the evils -of race mixture at the present time. Public opinion might well stop -exalting the Mulatto and thereby putting its stamp of approval on -miscegenation. Negroes should be encouraged to respect their own -racial integrity. Finally, knowledge of methods of Birth Control now -widespread among the Whites, should be made universally available to -the Blacks. - -Compared with the Negro, the American Indian offers no serious problem -to American unity. On the entire continent north of Mexico there are -only about 432,000. The 1930 census gives the Indian population of the -United States as 332,397. - -The distribution of these Indians is remarkably irregular. The West has -the largest number; then comes the South, because of Oklahoma's 92,000, -for the Gulf States have few. North Carolina, on the other hand, stands -seventh in the list of States arranged according to Indian population. -As against 137,000 in the West and 116,000 in the South, the North has -but 78,000. These are widely scattered and often little known to the -general public. New York State still has 7000 Indians, Michigan about -the same number and North Dakota somewhat more; Wisconsin and Minnesota -have 11,000 each, while South Dakota stands fourth on the list of -all the States with its 22,000. In the West the Indian population is -concentrated mainly in Arizona, New Mexico, California, Montana, and -Washington, in the order named. - -These Indians now represent 371 tribes, or remnants of tribes. How -large their numbers were at the time of the first white settlement -in North America has been a matter of interesting conjecture. Most -estimates are not much above a million, but the population may -have been considerably greater a few hundred years earlier. Since -white occupation a few tribes have increased in numbers. Most have -diminished, and some have become extinct, more frequently from the -white man's diseases and from whiskey than from the results of fighting. - -The densest Indian population at the time of the conquest was on the -Pacific Coast, which did not come into close contact with the Whites -until the last century. This Pacific Coast Indian population was also -of a low scale of intelligence and culture, and remarkably broken up -into distinct groups which could not understand each other. As many -separate languages were spoken by the Indians of this region as by all -the other Indians of the United States together. When the first mission -on the West Coast was founded by the Spaniards, in 1769, the number of -California Indians was computed at 220,000. This has decreased more -than 90 per cent at this date. - -The policy of the Catholic missionaries was to corral the Indians -around the missions. The church considered itself the owner of all the -land, and the Indians worked it as tenants. When the Mexican Government -confiscated the property of the church, it took title to all the -land. Hence the Indians, who had always lived on it, found themselves -illegal trespassers, and until about 1913 they were landless, starving -fugitives. At that time the government began to provide land for the -Indians. While their treatment has decimated them nine times, their -isolation prevented intermarriage with the Whites, so the California -Indians are of relatively pure blood. - -The revolt of the Pueblo Indians of Arizona and New Mexico against the -Spanish in 1680-92 was the beginning of their decline. The Navajos and -Apaches, on the contrary, have increased in numbers, at the same time -avoiding white mixture. - -The Indians of the Atlantic Coast were destroyed partly by disease, -partly by war; and their remnants were pushed westward year after -year by the Whites until they are mostly now west of the Mississippi, -many of them being in Oklahoma. The Iroquois are an exception, and -have perhaps increased in numbers. They got hold of firearms before -their tribal neighbors and were able to destroy many of the latter, -incorporating the remnants in their own tribe. The Sioux of the great -plains are also said to have increased. - -In the Gulf States, on the other hand, the Indians were largely -exterminated before their remnants were moved to the Indian Territory. -The Chickasaws told the French explorer, Iberville, in 1702, that -in the preceding twelve years they had killed or captured for slave -traders 2300 Choctaws, at a cost to themselves of 800 men. - -In the Northwest and Alaska, whiskey and disease have been leading -factors in the reduction of the number of the natives. With this, in -many regions, went a low fertility, due partly to starvation. - -Nearly all of the American Indians lived as hunters. When the Whites -invaded the forests and drove off or killed the game, the Indian -economic system was broken up, and they had little opportunity to meet -the rapidly changing conditions. - -There has been, since early times, some intermarriage between Indians -and Whites, but it has not been on a sufficiently large scale to be -serious. The estimate however is sometimes made that one-half of the -census population of Indians has white blood. Naturally, there is no -way of proving or disproving such a conjecture. Only in Oklahoma has -such mixing been looked on with favor, and even there some tribes -held themselves largely aloof from white miscegenation and punished -with death any interbreeding of their members with Negroes. The -discovery of oil on Indian tribal lands made the claim to Indian blood -a lucrative one and oil revenues unfortunately covered a multitude of -sins. Throughout the West in general the term "squaw man" is a bitter -reproach. - -Taking the country over, the Whites who have married Indians have not -been of a high class. But the total number of Indians in the United -States is so small that their future is probably that of being absorbed -in the White race through miscegenation, unless it be for a few tribes -cultivating a racial purity of their own and, with favorable economic -conditions, perpetuating themselves for a long time to come. - -The Mexican population is found mainly in the Southwestern States, -but has also assumed relatively large proportions in such States as -Colorado, Kansas, Illinois, and Michigan. The character of this -immigration has been described elsewhere in these pages. It has given -the United States an alien element with a high birthrate and very low -standards of living, with which white laborers cannot and will not -compete. - -The census of 1930 found nearly a million and a half Mexicans in the -United States. It was generally supposed that the number who had -entered the country illegally was greater than those who came through -the recognized routes. To prevent such a nullification of immigration -regulations, mere registration of aliens is not sufficient, for -that is likely to affect only those who have entered legally. Our -entire population should be registered. The advantages of a universal -system of proving identity are many, and extension of the system of -registering births, on the one hand, and of registering voters, on -the other, would take care of this without setting up much new and -expensive machinery. - -The menace of Chinese and Japanese immigration has for the present -been stopped by immigration laws which exclude any one not eligible to -citizenship. A proper application of this rule as established by the -Supreme Court might shut off much of the immigration of Indians from -Mexico. - -Since the end of the World War the immigration of Filipino young men -has become a disturbing problem on the Pacific Coast. The number of -arrivals up to 1930 amounts to nearly 50,000. These, like the Greeks -and some other European immigrant groups, bring but few women with -them and therefore form a socially undesirable and racially threatening -element wherever they are located. - -Unlike the Puerto Ricans and Hawaiians, the Filipinos are not citizens -of the United States, with rights of entry that cannot be abrogated. -They are citizens of the Philippine Islands, and permitted to enter -the United States only by courtesy. Congress, therefore, has full -right to adopt legislation which will exclude them, and it should make -immediate use of its power to protect white America from this reservoir -of 10,000,000 Malays and Mongoloids now under the American flag and at -present potential immigrants. If this cannot be done effectively, the -United States will have no alternative but to admit that its adoption -of the islands and its attempt to salvage them after Spanish misrule -was a mistake. As a safeguard to its own racial welfare, it may become -necessary to give the Filipino his independence, commend him to the -benevolence of Providence and the League of Nations, and have nothing -more to do with him. - -In the same way there should be no thought of further acquisition of -territory in the West Indies or in Central America. It is conceivable -that the Central American countries might in a not too remote future be -able to form a stable confederation and stand on their own feet more -successfully than they have done during the last generation. If such -a federation could include the West Indian Islands, the United States -might well donate its possessions there. - -Hindu immigration has so far been nothing more than a threat. The -present immigration restrictions will prevent the immigration of these -people, except for travel and study. Experience in many parts of the -world has shown the folly of allowing white countries to be overrun by -Hindus, and Americans should sympathize with the British possessions -that are trying to maintain white supremacy in their own borders in -this respect. - -In Hawaii the United States has another possible source of undesirable -immigration. The dominant element among its third of a million -inhabitants is the Japanese, who have held themselves aloof from -the other residents and shown little tendency to intermarry. Every -Japanese child born in the islands is an American citizen, with the -full right of entry to the mainland. The greater part of the rest -of the population is a mongrel crowd. Chinese and native Hawaiians, -until quite recently, have shown a marked tendency to intermarry. -Every effort should be made to find some constitutional way by which -Hawaii can be prevented from becoming a continuous source of supply of -undesirable citizens of the United States. - -While the list of unassimilable elements in the United States is a long -one, it must be borne in mind that most of them are still small. A wise -population policy promptly adopted and maintained henceforth will give -the republic an opportunity to grow along sound and fruitful lines. - - - - -XVI - -OUR NEIGHBORS ON THE NORTH - - -Before dealing with the countries to the north of us, it may be well -to call attention to the fact that there are three major divisions of -Canada. First, the Maritime Provinces, which were acquired by Great -Britain at a later date than the other Atlantic Colonies, as they were -originally claimed by the French. In this division Newfoundland should -be considered. These territories lying east of the United States were -settled directly from England or at the time of the Revolution by -Loyalist refugees from New England. There is a large Scotch element in -the population, which was lacking in New England. On the whole, the -area is thoroughly Nordic, except on the shores of the Gulf of Saint -Lawrence and the Bay of Chaleurs, where the Alpine French Habitants -have infiltrated. - -The second division of the Dominion is French-speaking, Roman Catholic -Quebec, with a fecund population of low cultural status. The French -distrust of the New England Protestants, with whom they had been at war -for one hundred and fifty years, was the predominant cause of their -failure to join with the revolting American Colonies in 1776. Quebec -was known as Lower Canada. - -Like the territories of the United States, the Dominion of Canada of -today represents a part of the Nordic conquest of North America, the -sole exception being the French population of Quebec Province. - -The country to the west of the Ottawa River constitutes the third -major division and was, after the Revolution, known as Upper Canada. -Its original population was composed chiefly of American Loyalists who -fled there in numbers after the Revolution. The immigration into Upper -Canada from Britain was later very largely Scotch, Scotch Irish, and -North of England. This is true more or less of all English-speaking -Canada, except possibly British Columbia. - -In a measure the Dominion is an offshoot of the United States, and -its development proceeded along lines parallel to those of the States -to the south of the boundary. The character of the population west of -Quebec Province is much the same as that of the United States, lacking, -fortunately for Canada, some of our immigrant elements. The country was -settled without the terrible Indian wars that afflicted our frontier -and without the lawless element so conspicuous in the history of our -Far West. - -The French settlement of Quebec was contemporaneous with the first -English settlement in North America at Jamestown. A majority of the -emigrants were from northern France. So far as one can judge at the -present time by the descendants of this population, the pure Nordic -stock must have been rare among them. They are today in general a -stocky, short-necked people, rather of the Alpine build, with eyes -often rather dark. The blond hair and tall stature of the Nordic -are so rare as to attract attention at once. The type suggests the -Pre-Norman population of northwestern France, rather than its Nordic -conquerors. Some of the seigneurs, the explorers, and the adventurers -of the early period apparently were of Nordic stock, but they were -probably always in a great minority and have left few descendants. - -Very little satisfactory research has been done as to the origin of the -Habitants. A recent study of a typical group has given some indication -of the general conditions in Quebec. In this group stature was found to -be five feet and five inches, which is about the general average of the -French. The cephalic index was over 83.0, which is about the mean for -Brittany and is higher than that of Normandy. The hair was rather dark -brown and straight, this straightness is slightly suggestive of Indian -admixture. The eye color was more often brown than mixed blue and -brown. Pure blue eyes were present only in 15 per cent. The tall burly -build of the Norman peasant was very rare. - -The language spoken in Quebec is an archaic Norman patois of the time -of Louis XIV. This fact has given rise to the general belief that the -Habitants came from Normandy, but the more probable reason is that the -Normans were the earliest immigrants and established their patois, -which was accepted by later arrivals. The Normans appeared to have been -far short of a majority of the total number of immigrants and Brittany -supplied still fewer. The balance was divided among the provinces of -the northern half of France. - -The physical type of the Habitants of today suggestive as it is of the -peasants of the interior of Brittany finds confirmative evidence in -their subserviency to the church. - -Throughout the French period the population consisted to a marked -extent of soldiers, traders, administrators, priests, and others -who did not bring their families with them. Efforts of the French -Government to encourage family life were not always either well -directed or successful. Colbert hoped for a large French population in -Canada by intermarriage with the Indians. Administrative regulations -penalized bachelors, who, for instance, were refused licenses to enter -the fur trade, which was the main source of wealth in the country at -that time. - -Many of these restrictions were directed by the priests, doubtless -not so much for eugenic reasons as with the motive of protecting the -morals of the young men by giving them wives. At an early date the -colony fell under the domination of the Jesuits, and maintained for a -long time a religious tone that in its own way was much more stern and -uncompromising than that of the Puritan settlements in New England. -Much of the wealth and effort that might have gone to strengthen the -colony was sunk in sterile monastic foundations. Even today stone -churches are a conspicuous feature of the landscape in the midst of -poverty-stricken villages. - -At one time there was for some years a directed migration of young -women from France, sent out to become the wives of the colonists and -early in the history of the country a policy of bonuses for marriage, -and for large families, which has been repeated at intervals ever -since, was introduced. None the less, the colony grew but slowly and to -the failure to establish it on a sound biological foundation is due the -collapse of French rule. - -In 1665 the first census showed a population of 3215. In the next -hundred years this had increased to somewhat more than 70,000, with -an additional 20,000 in what are now the Maritime Provinces. That the -French could maintain the contest for so long against British neighbors -who outnumbered them twenty to one is to their credit, but their lack -of recognition that their settlement could not be permanent unless -based on a real migration of families ultimately cost them the country. - -One of the chief causes of the failure of French Canada to expand -beyond the narrow limits of the banks of the Saint Lawrence River, -during its first century of existence, was an obscure skirmish which -occurred on the west side of Lake Champlain in 1609. Champlain was -advancing toward the South in company with Canadian Algonquins, when he -encountered a war party of the Mohawks. In the fighting that followed, -some Mohawks were killed and captured. At that time and in that place -began the bitter enmity of the Iroquois Five Nations and the Canadian -French. It was a feud that was never allowed to rest and yearly war -parties of Mohawks went north along Lake Champlain and the Richelieu -River and devastated the lower portion of Quebec Province. At the -same time war parties of the Senecas descended the Saint Lawrence and -attacked the French from the West. As long as the power of the Iroquois -lasted, which was all through the seventeenth century, they devastated -a large part of New France. - -[Illustration: DOMINION OF CANADA & NEWFOUNDLAND] - -In the meantime, the Dutch and English were growing up in security to -the South and East. Thus Champlain's skirmish with the Iroquois was -the factor that delayed the expansion of France into the region of the -Great Lakes and down the Mississippi Valley until relatively late in -the eighteenth century. - -The French population still centers in Quebec Province, long known as -Lower Canada, but it has spread to other parts of the continent both -south and west of the Quebec boundary. Their expansion in Canada has -been into the neighboring provinces. Emigration to New England began in -the eighteenth century but was not considerable until the nineteenth -century. - -While this French-Canadian population has remained so fecund as to -furnish a stock example for every writer, it, too, has felt the trend -of the times. For a long time the government of Quebec offered a grant -of one hundred acres of land to every man who was the father of twelve -living children by one wife. In less than a single year over 3000 heads -of families availed themselves of this privilege and in 1907 there -was published a list of 7000 families having at least twelve living -children. - -In spite of this fecundity, the birthrate has been declining for almost -the whole of the historical period. Two hundred and fifty years ago the -average for all women of child-bearing age in Quebec Province was one -child every two and one-half years. By 1850 this ratio had decreased to -one in five years. At present it is one in seven and one-half years. -Under this method of measurement, the rate of natural increase per head -is only one-third of what it was in colonial times. Even the Roman -Catholic "Habitant," therefore, has felt the effect of the general -decline of birthrate throughout the western world in the period since -the beginning of the industrial revolution. - -From the beginning of the nineteenth century there was a small but -steady immigration from the British Isles into Upper Canada, though -interrupted by the Napoleonic Wars. After the close of that conflict a -larger movement of population took place, which brought in an extensive -English population. Theretofore most of the arrivals had been Scotch or -Americans, so that a visitor in 1810 commented on the fact that he met -"scarcely any English and few Irish." - -In 1815 the government began to assist immigrants by giving free -passage and a grant of one hundred acres of land after arrival with -a promise of free rations for the first six or eight months and a -like amount of land to each male child on his reaching the age of -twenty-one. A wise restriction required a deposit of a little less -than one hundred dollars by the immigrant, to be returned to him after -two years if he had complied with the terms of the contract on his -behalf. These provisions were availed of mainly by Scotchmen going to -Ontario. The scheme, however, had the advantage for our present purpose -of establishing for the first time records of immigration, which -thenceforth can be traced in detail. - -In 1819 the emigration from British ports to Canada was in excess of -20,000, and continued for years at about this rate in spite of the -booms which Australia and New Zealand were enjoying at the same time. -There was a substantial movement of emigration toward Canada in the -years 1830-34. In the nine years preceding 1837, more than a quarter of -a million emigrants from the British Isles arrived at Quebec on their -way westward, more than 50,000 of them in a single year. - -Primogeniture in England has been a powerful factor in building up the -British Commonwealth. The oldest son of a landed family inherited the -estate and the titles, if any, and stayed at home. The younger sons, -left to shift for themselves, were ready to emigrate. The colonies have -thus received a great many more settlers of first-class ability than -would otherwise have been the case. At the same time, the perpetuation -of family continuity, through the preservation of the ancestral home -intact, has been a strong psychological factor in maintaining a -vigorous family life in the upper classes of Great Britain. - -By 1840 the population of Canada was approximately a million and a -half. During the next generation nearly a million more immigrants -arrived from British ports--the great Irish migration changing the -racial character of this movement markedly from about 1845. Prior to -that time the newcomers were pre-dominantly English, with Wiltshire and -Yorkshire largely represented. When the potato famine caused the Irish -to seek refuge elsewhere, they naturally turned their steps to England, -as the most easily and cheaply accessible of havens. Great Britain -could absorb only a limited part of these and began to direct them to -Canada, which, indeed, they preferred to the United States because the -Catholic Church was strong there. - -The emigrants were weak and in 1849 one-sixth of those who started -are said to have died on the voyage. The number of Irish who left the -United Kingdom in that year was 215,000, of whom nearly half were bound -for Quebec. Canada became alarmed at being made the dumping ground of -an enfeebled and destitute population so much in excess of its capacity -to absorb, and, by increased taxes and other means, slowed down this -immigration, which then headed toward the United States. Thereafter -many of the Irish who had already gone to Canada moved on down into the -Union, so that in the end Canada received a smaller part of the Irish -Catholic migration than might be thought. - -The census of 1871 furnishes a convenient point at which to take -a review of the population. It then totalled 3,485,761 in the four -original provinces (Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia). -British and French together, in the ratio of two to one, made up 92 per -cent. The only foreign element which contributed as much as 1 per cent -of the whole was the German, numbering more than 200,000 people, or 5.8 -per cent. - -The French Habitants have always formed a somewhat indigestible mass, -but half a century of struggle had resulted in a workable system of -government and compromise in the administrative life of the country. -The dominant element was the British, and save for the great mass of -French there was no large foreign block to menace the country's unity. - -In sharp contrast to the settlement of the West of the United States, -the occupation of the prairie and mountain provinces of Canada has -been marked by law and order. In our West, especially in the mining -districts, law was largely disregarded and its place taken by private -justice, administered by individuals. - -In Canada the Mounted Police have played a most efficient rôle in -controlling both the settlers and the Indians. At the time of the -Klondike rush in 1898, when hordes of gold seekers scrambled over the -passes to the head waters of the Yukon, a handful of Mounted Police -maintained a discipline for which the Americans themselves were very -grateful. In the same way the administration of the mining laws of the -Klondike, which is in Canadian territory, was admired and envied by the -Americans there. - -The Canadian treatment of the Indians in the western provinces was -also marked by an absence of the bloody wars which characterized our -westward advance. The only uprising against the Whites was the Riel -Rebellion in Manitoba, in 1869, which was by the half-breeds rather -than by the Indians and which had special underlying causes. All this -has been accomplished without the Whites in any way fraternizing with -the Indians. - -During the French period, the Canadian Indians always sided with the -French against the English, because under the influence of the Catholic -priests, the French Indian half-breed was regarded as a Frenchman and, -as a result, influenced his mother's people in favor of the ruling race. - -There were plenty of offspring of white frontiersmen and Indian squaws -all along our frontier, but these half breeds were everywhere kicked -out and despised as Indians. This attitude toward the lower race has -always characterized our American frontier and while very unpopular -with the natives, has served to keep the White race unmixed, in sharp -contrast to the French and Spanish colonies. - -Canada still has more than 100,000 Indians, four times as many in -proportion to the whole population, as in the United States. - - * * * * * - -Newfoundland, for geographical reasons, even though it has politically -no relation to Canada, is the most convenient starting point in -reviewing in more detail the subdivisions of the country. - -Larger than Ireland, the island claims to be the "senior colony" of -the British Commonwealth. John Cabot, a Genoese, sailing from Bristol, -discovered it in 1497, according to the traditional account, and -took possession of it in the name of Henry VII. Within a few years -fishermen, not merely English but French, Spanish, Portuguese, and -Basque, were landing there to dry and cure the enormous quantities of -cod caught on the Great Banks, which still form the principal wealth of -the colony. In fact, some writers believe that the island may have been -discovered long before the time of Columbus, by fishermen. At any rate, -the effective occupation, though scarcely the continuous settlement of -Newfoundland, long antedated the colonization of Virginia and many of -the original English residents came from Devonshire. - -The aboriginal inhabitants, the Beothics, disappeared half a century -ago. They were probably Eskimos, or closely related to them, and are -sometimes spoken of as "Red" Indians, in contrast to the "Black" -Indians, the Micmacs, who have recently immigrated in small numbers -from New Brunswick. - -Newfoundland has nearly a quarter of a million inhabitants, but its -backward stage of development still makes it little known to the -outside world. - -On the mainland a long strip of the Atlantic Coast and a large triangle -of land behind it are attached to Newfoundland administratively, under -the name of Labrador. Because of its scanty population it may well be -disregarded in the present discussion. - - * * * * * - -Nova Scotia during Colonial days was almost a New England colony. It -was known to the French as "Acadie" and was ceded to England in 1713. - -Interposed between New England and French Canada, Acadia suffered -heavily from the warfare that went on between the two regions. -The existence of a large French population was always a source of -irritation, and of danger, to the English. Finally in 1758 the French -were cleared out, about 6000 of them being distributed throughout the -English colonies, and the remainder escaping to Canada. Those who came -to the thirteen colonies suffered hardships, but on the whole were more -humanely treated than were those who fled to their co-religionists in -Quebec Province. The place of the exiled Acadians[15] was largely taken -by New England emigrants. - -The American population of Nova Scotia was further greatly augmented -at the time of the Revolution by an influx of Loyalists. These came -in such numbers as to disturb the colony seriously, but formed an -invaluable addition of the best sort of British stock. This general -trend has continued so that, even in 1921, of the foreign-born -population of Nova Scotia, that which originated in the United States -was twice as large as all the rest of the foreign-born population put -together. - -The Scotch immigration which has exercised such an important influence -on the eastern counties of Nova Scotia began about 1760 with the -arrival of Scots and Ulster Scots. In 1772 a contingent of Highlanders -direct from Scotland took up land alongside an American group from -Philadelphia. From then on until about 1820, a steady stream of -Highlanders came into the region; Gaelic is still spoken in parts -of the colony. Nova Scotia with the other Maritime Provinces still -represents the most purely British of all the Canadian provinces, and -as shown, an important part of its population came to it through the -United States. - - * * * * * - -New Brunswick was established on August 16, 1784, out of a part of -ancient Acadia. It also received an important number of Loyalists -at the time of the Revolution--indeed it might be said to owe its -existence to the arrival of some 10,000 expatriates from the United -States. But the bulk of the population is Scottish with a strong -Highland contingent. There are few foreign-born other than a small -element from the United States. - - * * * * * - -Prince Edward Island is similar as to its population and is the most -purely "native" of all, only one in each one hundred in this province -being foreign-born. The Roman Catholics there include a considerable -number of Scotch Highlanders and number nearly a half of the population. - - * * * * * - -Quebec is still the stronghold of the French-Canadians, more than -half of whom are unable to speak the English language. The French -stock still numbers one-fourth of the entire population of the entire -Dominion of Canada. On the northern frontier of Quebec there was some -mixture with the Indians, but the half-breeds are probably not numerous -enough to form a substantial part of the old population. In addition to -their great movement to New England the French-Canadians have spread -into Ontario, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island to some extent. - -The French-Canadian stock is the most highly inbred of any of the -large groups of the New World. It is based on original immigrants who -numbered a good many less than 10,000. In the course of three centuries -this nucleus has multiplied to 3,000,000, with virtually no additions -of fresh arrivals from abroad. They have lived a New World life longer -than have most of the Whites of the Western Hemisphere, and must be -put in a class by themselves. They are not French, in spite of their -language--an archaic speech at which the true Frenchman laughs. In -every way they differ from the present-day French, more indeed than -New Englanders of Colonial descent now differ from the present-day -Englishman. From the cradle to the grave they are surrounded by the -influence of the Roman Catholic Church to an extent almost as unknown -to the present-day French as it is to the present-day Americans. Of -late years not only those who have come to New England, but some of -those living in Quebec Province have shown a disposition to break away -from the church because of its heavy and inexorable taxation. - -The French-Canadians, in Quebec and the neighboring provinces, were, to -an extent, disloyal to the British Empire in the Great War. Under the -influence of their priests they resisted the draft in several instances -and there was bloodshed in Quebec on this account. As has been said -elsewhere, these Frenchmen would not fight for the British Empire, -which had guaranteed them extraordinary privileges as to their language -and religion, nor would they fight for France, which they claimed as -motherland, but which they now regarded as atheistic. Neither would -they fight for Belgium, which is pretty nearly as clerical as they are. -In short, their conduct during the World War was contemptible and in -sharp contrast to the militant and effective patriotism of the more -westerly provinces of Canada. - - * * * * * - -Ontario, called Upper Canada in distinction to French-speaking Lower -Canada, received its first important population from the United -States when Loyalist refugees, including many Highland Scots, mainly -from northern and western New York, settled there and became known -as the United Empire Loyalists. Among these immigrants, were the -disbanded frontier regiments which had been organized by Sir John -Johnson, including abundant Macdonalds from Glengarry and Inverness, -together with Camerons, Chisholms, Fergusons, MacIntyres, Russells, and -Hamiltons, who opened up the region constituting the present counties -of Glengarry, Stormont, and Dundas. - -In 1785, almost the entire parish of Knoydart, Glengarry, emigrated -direct from Scotland and settled in a body in Upper Canada. In 1793 a -contingent from Glenelg settled at Kirkhill. In 1799 came many Camerons -from Lochiel, and in 1803 another delegation of Macdonalds arrived, -with more people from Glenelg and Kintail. Thus Ontario, which in 1791 -was set off from (French) Lower Canada and given its own government -under the name of Upper Canada, became almost as much entitled to -consider itself a "Nova Scotia," as did the Maritime Province of that -name. - -At the end of the American Revolution, Upper Canada was supposed not -to contain as many as 10,000 inhabitants. By 1811 it had 83,000 and -by 1817 it was estimated to have 134,000. While many Irish came at a -somewhat later period, most of these eventually went on to the United -States. - -The interference with British immigration caused by the Napoleonic -wars led to Upper Canada's offering special attraction to settlers -from the United States. The lack of sympathy of these with the British -Government during the War of 1812 was an embarrassment to Canada, just -as the loyalty of the United Empire group, which prevented Canada from -being conquered by the United States, was in turn a serious annoyance -to the American Government. - -The later settlement of Ontario was largely from Scotland and the -northern English counties, and was pre-dominantly Presbyterian. There -were enough Ulster Scots to make it an active center of the American -Protective Association of forty years ago and it is definitely, at the -present time, a Nordic territory. - -During the present century it has received thousands of Austrians, -Poles, and Italians, who introduced racial elements not easily -assimilated. - - * * * * * - -Manitoba began to be settled shortly after the War of 1812, when Lord -Selkirk established his Red River Colony. The Scotch Highlanders, -Swiss, and others whom he planted there did not prosper, and many of -them eventually drifted down into the United States, taking an active -part in the formation of Minnesota. Around this nucleus, however, -there gradually grew an incongruous and isolated settlement made up -of three elements that had almost nothing in common; the Scotch, the -French-Canadians, and the half-breeds. In 1849 the Red River Settlement -was credited with 5391 people. With the establishment of steam -navigation on the Red River, and the official creation of Winnipeg, -both of which occurred in 1862, development began on a larger scale. - -A provisional government was given to the territory in 1869, and from -time to time land was generously allotted to the early white settlers, -to the half-breeds, and to the Hudson's Bay Company. Thereafter the -province grew slowly, from the natural increase of its founders and -from a Nordic migration from Ontario and from the neighboring parts of -the United States, until the mixed European immigration of the last -half-century changed somewhat the character of the population. These -latter now account for one-third of the whole. - -The proportion of these non-Nordic Europeans, from southern or central -Europe, is three times as great as the European immigration from either -northern or western Europe. If this immigration continues in like -proportions, Manitoba, like the other prairie provinces, is in danger -of being lost to the Nordics. - - * * * * * - -Saskatchewan has a larger American-born population than Manitoba, one -resident in every eight having first seen the light of day under the -American flag. But it has a still larger recent European immigration -amounting to nearly 40 per cent of the total population of the -province. A bare half of the people of Saskatchewan are of British -origin. - - * * * * * - -Alberta has both a somewhat smaller European element and the largest -American-born contingent of any of the provinces, amounting to one in -six. Many English of a fine type have settled there. - - * * * * * - -In all the Prairie Provinces the French-Canadian represents scarcely -more than one in twenty of the population. - - * * * * * - -British Columbia has prided itself with justice on its British origin, -and is exceeded in this respect only by the Maritime Provinces. Of its -European immigrants (one in eleven of the whole), approximately equal -numbers are Nordics from northern or western Europe, and Alpines or -Mediterraneans from southeastern and central Europe. During the World -War its young men showed great attachment to the mother country, and -the loss from death was correspondingly great. Because of its great -distance from the ports of entry, it was long avoided by immigrants. -Not until about 1907 did it begin to get its fair share. Since then, it -has held its own, about half of its new arrivals however coming from -the United States. - -The province also has its Asiatic problem, which has been the source -of hard feeling on several occasions. One of the great hindrances to -its more rapid development was shortage of labor, and it was natural -that the Orient, which could reach British Columbia more easily and -cheaply than could either Europe or even the Atlantic provinces of -Canada itself, should be called upon to meet the need. Chinese soon -began to enter, until stopped by a head tax of $500. Japanese came in -considerable numbers, not merely in the fisheries but for day labor in -railway construction. Some 6000 Hindus likewise found their way there. -Orientals now amount to one in every seven of the total population. -There is a real Asiatic question here and the Whites are beginning to -look to the United States for protection. - - * * * * * - -Canada's immense arctic area, the Yukon and the Northwest Territories, -may be neglected in this discussion because of the lack of population. -Those who see in the mosquito-infested tundra of "The Land of Little -Sticks," with its months of winter darkness, a future populous area of -agricultural and livestock industry are destined to wait long for the -realization of their dream. - - * * * * * - -So far as the British element in Canada is concerned, it has been -pointed out above in several places that the country is to a certain -extent an offspring of the United States. This contribution has -continued up to the present time. During the 1880's there was another -great period of migration from the Union to the Dominion. At that time -nearly twice as many entered Canada from this country as from Great -Britain, and six times as many as from the continent of Europe. - -Not all of these Americans were of the old native stock. It has been -calculated that at least half of this contingent was of British -extraction, the other half being made up of various European -nationalities who, after becoming acclimated to the New World in the -United States, passed on to Canadian soil. Thus the contribution from -the United States during that period did not represent a purely Nordic -accession. - -The 1890's represented a period of British immigration. But, with -the turn of the century, Canada began to share in the great influx -of miscellaneous peoples who were already deluging the shores of the -United States. During the first twelve years of the twentieth century, -Canada received 2,000,000 people, of whom 800,000 were British. About -700,000 others came from the United States, but more than a third of -these are calculated to have been Continental arrivals who merely -passed through the United States for convenience. In 1901 there were in -Canada some 650,000 of "foreign stock"--that is, of neither British nor -French origin. In 1921 there were more than twice as many. Since the -beginning of the century Canada has acquired more than 100,000 Jews. - -After the World War the Empire Settlement Act began to make itself -felt, reducing markedly the proportion of immigrants from the United -States into Canada while from 1900 onward Ireland began to figure -heavily in the immigration statistics. - -In 1930 there were, on the other hand, over 1,200,000 Canadian-born, -both of British and French stock, in the United States and during the -preceding eight years 300,000 had returned to Canada. - -Not only have the western provinces, then, been thrown violently into -a disequilibrium by the population changes of the last generation, but -the stability of the whole Dominion has been menaced. Canada, like the -United States, has taken on a great liability in the admission of the -hundreds of thousands of non-Nordics, who will be hard to assimilate, -even if it be assumed that they would become valuable when assimilated, -which is by no means always the case. One of Canada's advantages, on -the other hand, is the negligible proportion of Negroes, and it might -well erect barriers even now against them, as it has already done -against the Asiatics. - -With its immense territory and more than 10,000,000 inhabitants, Canada -is still to be credited to the Nordics, though, if the population -trends that began with this century should continue, the balance would -change rapidly. While the United States has contributed by far the -largest number of foreign-born, Russia has contributed the second -largest number of immigrants, Saskatchewan receiving more of these than -any other province. Ontario, Quebec, and Manitoba have received about -equal numbers, in each case one-third less than went to Saskatchewan. -Those of Austrian birth, who are third in the list, are concentrated in -the two provinces of Manitoba and Saskatchewan in about equal numbers, -each of these provinces having almost twice as many Austrian-born as -Alberta or Ontario. The Chinese stand fourth in numbers among the -foreign-born of the Dominion, but most of them are concentrated in -British Columbia. Ontario has almost as many Italians as all the rest -of Canada put together, and it has also the largest number of Poles. - -Because of the great body of French-Canadians, the Roman Catholic -Church is proportionately twice as strong as in the United States. - -The 1921 census showed the population to be made up as follows: - - PER CENT - British origin 55.40 - French 27.91 - Other European 14.16 - Indian 1.26 - Asiatic .75 - -This computation distributes the immigrants from the United States -according to their racial stock; thus the main part would be classified -with those of British origin, a smaller part as "other European," and -so on. - -From the foregoing it is evident that Canada is now less than 60 per -cent Nordic--probably less Nordic than the United States. - -Canada has been the great obstacle to extending the American -immigration quotas to the countries of the Western Hemisphere. The -majority of its inhabitants are our own kinsmen, many of whom have -already contributed elements of great value to our population. Others -would be most welcome if they chose to come. - -Our nation has been unwilling to put the slightest restriction on -Canadian immigration, by applying a quota; and it was thought it would -be invidious and discriminatory to apply a quota to the countries south -of us, and not to the one to the north. That difficulty will have to be -met firmly in the near future. One proposed solution has been to admit -from Canada only those whose mother tongue is English. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[Footnote 15: Acadie in the Micmac language means "place." Henry -Wadsworth Longfellow's pathetic poem, "Evangeline," embodies the -anti-English sentiments of the early nineteenth century in New England -and is founded largely on an error of spelling, which made "Arcadia" -out of the Indian word. The expulsion of the French in 1758 was by -Bostonians under Colonel John Winslow, and was justified by the refusal -of the French to accept loyally the rule of the English.] - - - - -XVII - -OUR NEIGHBORS ON THE SOUTH - - -Unlike Canada on our north, the countries south of the Rio Grande have -been relatively little influenced by Nordic culture, to say nothing -of anything resembling a Nordic conquest. The outlying territories of -Mexico which were annexed to the United States were nearly empty lands -and present Mexican influences in the Southwest are matters of more -recent date. - -Latin America is one of the major divisions of the World, and from the -present point of view should no more be discussed as a unit than could -Europe or Asia. Its original population represents one of the great -racial divisions of mankind. Its twenty different nations now speak -several different languages, and embrace representatives of all the -important races of both hemispheres. - -The general area gets such unity as it possesses from the Latin and -Roman Catholic aspect of its culture as contrasted with the Protestant, -Anglo-Saxon culture of America north of the Mexican border. This Latin -civilization was originally Spanish (in Brazil Portuguese), but since -the era of the revolutions which threw off the Spanish yoke, the -Spanish influence has become more and more negligible, and locally has -been somewhat supplanted by the French, and, to a small extent, by the -Italian influence. - -Latin America was never colonized at all in the sense that North -America was colonized. English settlers with their families came to the -New World to found homes, but the early history of Latin America was -that of a series of plundering and proselyting expeditions, and such of -the adventurers as tarried were usually men without families who had -no desire to stay a day longer than was necessary to acquire a fortune -and return to Europe. Add to these the military forces who came under -compulsion, and the missionaries, administrators, and concessionaires -of all kinds and one has the bulk of the early European immigration. - -Under these circumstances the number of women who came with their -husbands was naturally small, and most of the Europeans took Indian -wives, frequently several of them, thus laying the basis for the -half-breed population of the present day. In Paraguay, for instance, -some of the colonial rulers are said to have had fifty or a hundred -native concubines. If every descendant of these matings carries the -Spanish name but has married mainly with Indian stock in the ten or -fifteen generations since, it is easy to understand that present-day -families may bear the names of hidalgos, of whose genetic traits they -have virtually none. - -The number of European immigrants was never large. During the sixteenth -century, a period of active exploitation, the entire movement from -Spain to America is thought to have represented only about 1000 or 1500 -persons a year. With a high death rate, and the disposition on their -part to return as soon as possible, there was no opportunity for the -Spaniard to establish the basis of a civilization built upon his own -race. - -By 1553 foundling half-breeds numbered thousands in Spanish America -and the viceroy Mendoza was obliged to establish an orphan school for -them. Even at the end of the eighteenth century, when Humboldt visited -Mexico City, he remarked that of the European-born Spaniards there, not -one-tenth were women. The proportion of women must certainly have been -still smaller in the provincial towns and on the frontiers. - -So far as the present population goes back to the early days of Spanish -dominion, it may be said to be Spanish by name and Indian by blood. The -families, which in many Spanish American countries have social prestige -because of descent from the conquerors and rulers of the Colonial -Period, must therefore attach all importance to the family name, and -little or none to the many other lines of descent which have entered -into the composition of their present generation. - -Honorable exception should be made in almost every one of the Spanish -American republics of a small group of Whites that has consistently -maintained its racial integrity and upheld intelligent ideals of racial -progress, under most difficult conditions. In many of the countries, -too, there are groups of far-seeing intellectuals who are working -for the adoption of wise immigration policies, presenting sound and -constructive measures of eugenic reform, and striving to awaken their -fellow countrymen to the fact that a nation's capital is, in the last -analysis, biological, and that permanent and satisfactory progress is -possible only to a people with a healthy family life. - -In many of the Latin American countries the Whites, or those who pass -as such (for they have, in most cases, a large proportion of Indian -blood) form an oligarchy or ruling caste occupying the higher positions -in the political and ecclesiastical worlds. They also constitute the -land-owning and professional classes, while commerce and industry are -largely in the hands of foreigners or their descendants. In many cases -these foreign immigrants marry into the best native families, and thus -their children become a part of the ruling caste. - - * * * * * - -Mexico. The restriction of European immigration into the United -States under the National Origins Quota cutting off what had been the -principal source of unskilled labor had an unexpected and undesirable -effect in encouraging immigration from nearby countries of the Western -Hemisphere, which were not under the quota, and particularly from -Mexico. Industries accustomed to depend upon cheap, ignorant, and -docile workers from Mediterranean or Alpine countries turned to the -illiterate Indians on the South as a ready substitute. The stream of -arrivals across the border, more illegal than legal, soon brought into -the United States more than a million Mexicans. Only the unexpected -depression beginning in 1929 stemmed this tide and apparently prevented -Mexico from reconquering peacefully, by an immigrant invasion, the -territory it had lost by the decision of war in 1848. - -Since the sixteen million residents of Mexico are the nearest large -body of people in a position to supply immigrants to the United States -and ready to do so, a study of their composition is of the highest -importance at the present time. Mexico at the time of the Spanish -Conquest had seen the rise and fall of several relatively high native -civilizations, and that of the Aztecs, which was destroyed by the -Spaniards, had many noteworthy features. The combination of brutality -and piety which dominated the conquerors led to the extermination as -far as possible of every salient feature of the native culture. The -country was, thereafter, exploited ruthlessly by the Spaniards, but the -Spanish civilization, such as it was, did not succeed in establishing -itself in this foreign soil. The history of the last four centuries -has been a history of the gradual absorption of the foreigners by the -Indian element. This is true alike of race and culture. - -[Illustration: MEXICO CENTRAL AMERICA AND THE WEST INDIES] - -The large native population found here by the Spaniards was quickly -reduced in numbers. A Spanish priest enumerates ten plagues which had -decimated the people during his time, that is, during the first -quarter of a century after the conquest. First the smallpox, brought -by a Negro in one of Narvaez' ships. It is said to have destroyed more -than half of the people in many of the provinces. The others were: the -slaughter in the capture of Mexico City, the famine resulting from -the widespread warfare; the abuses of overseers of the towns given in -vassalage; the heavy tributes; the tremendous abuses in connection -with the mines; the reconstruction of Mexico City by forced labor; -the traffic in branded slaves; the abuses of transportation, with -Indians as human beasts of burden; and the factional warfare among -the Spaniards themselves, in which the Indians bore the brunt of the -fighting. To these should be added particularly the other infectious -diseases that the Spaniards introduced, such as tuberculosis and -syphilis, as to which the aboriginal inhabitants had not the slightest -immunity or resistance, through previous racial experience. - -Under such conditions the native population of the hemisphere was -probably reduced by 50 or 75 per cent in a few generations, and in -the West Indies it was exterminated. Since then it has been steadily -regaining ground on the mainland, though not in the islands, in many of -which the Negro has replaced it. - -The number of Spaniards who came at any time to Mexico is placed at -300,000 at the outside. Many of these certainly did not remain in the -country and few of them brought their families. Under the conditions -that existed in Mexico and the other conquered territories, it was -universally recognized that the situation was not suitable for a white -woman. While the Spanish Government encouraged men to take their wives -out from Spain, few of them cared to do so, and probably most of the -men who came to the colonies were unmarried. Spain put insuperable -difficulties in the way of unmarried women who wanted to emigrate, -so that Spanish women throughout the history of Mexico were few. The -resulting population is therefore made up of the offspring of the -Indians and of a few Spanish men mated to Indian women. Most of the -Mexican population is still pure or nearly pure Indian. There is a -considerable hybrid element which does most of the talking, and a -negligible element that can be considered white in the strict sense of -the term. - -Mexican statistics commonly designate about 10 per cent of the -population as white. But most of these have much Indian blood, and -recent students doubt whether 3 per cent are properly to be described -as white. Much of this genuine white element is in Mexico City, though -the various states have their local and reputable white aristocracies, -of which that in Yucatan is conspicuous for the maintenance of high -standards of racial integrity. - -The Mexican revolution which began in 1810 dislodged the overseas -Spanish and substituted exploitation by the local hybrid group. Since -then the general trend has been toward the rise to control of the -Indians. The last period of revolution, which began in 1910 and may -be said to be still in progress, has been marked by attempts to take -away from the hybrid oligarchy the immense land properties which it had -obtained and to distribute them to the Indians. While this has met with -many difficulties, and has been realized only to a small extent, it has -been at least the avowed objective of most of the revolutionists in the -past two or three decades. - -During recent years there has been a glorification of the Mexican -Indian and his culture by North American writers. No doubt the Mexican -Indian is well suited to his environment, and his traditional habits -are well suited to him. This does not mean, however, that either has -any important contribution to make to the United States which would be -realized by a northward mass migration of agricultural and industrial -serfs. On the contrary, the Mexican immigration to the United States, -which is made up overwhelmingly of the poorer Indian element, has -brought nothing but disadvantages. It has created, particularly in the -Southwestern States, an exploited peasant class unconformable with -the principles of American civilization. This population, neither -physically nor mentally up to the prevailing standards, is producing a -large contribution to the future American race, since every one of its -numerous children born in the States becomes an American citizen by -birth. - -Tests made in the schools of southern California, in which the language -handicap was discounted as far as possible, indicate that the average -Mexican child was about as far below the average Negro child in -abstract intellect as the average Negro child was below the average -white child. - -Physically, the race is conspicuous by its low resistance to -tuberculosis, which has exterminated so large a part of the native -population of the Western Hemisphere during the last four centuries. -The New World had not been subject to tuberculosis and therefore -offered a fertile field for the germs of this disease. The population -of the Old World had been ravaged by it for many centuries, and in each -generation the low resistants had been killed off so that a more immune -stock had been gradually produced by natural selection. - -Such studies as have been made in the Southwestern States indicate -that the average Mexican family is at least half again as large as -the average white family. Thus there is every reason to expect that, -without a sharp limitation of such immigration, the Southwest will -become more and more Mexicanized. - -By 1928 Los Angeles County had more than a quarter of a million -Mexicans, and the City of Los Angeles had the largest Mexican -population of any city in the world, with the exception of Mexico -City. Whole industries and whole agricultural areas had come to -think themselves largely dependent on Mexican labor, while millions -of American citizens were out of employment in every State of the -Union. The dependence of agriculture in the Southwestern States on -cheap Mexican labor, largely of a migratory nature, is particularly -disastrous from a racial point of view, since the maintenance of -American civilization depends largely on the maintenance of a healthy -and prosperous farm population. - -[Illustration: DISTRIBUTION OF MEXICANS - - _The figures represent distribution of Mexicans by states per 100000 - of population in 1930_ - -Distribution of Mexicans by States. Except in the border States -Mexicans are chiefly concentrated in large urban centers.] - -Nearly all of the Mexicans who came to the United States were seeking -to better themselves economically and to avoid the murder and plunder -that had been going on in their country for a score of years under -the guise of revolution. Most of them intended to return home as soon -as conditions became more satisfactory, but as conditions from year -to year failed to improve, the Mexican population tended to become a -permanent one. At the same time few of the Mexicans became American -citizens, and in every community where they settled in racial groups -there were unsatisfactory standards of education and sanitation. - -Most of the Mexicans come with their families, thereby differing -markedly from some of the other foreign groups, as the Bulgarians, -Greeks, Spanish, and Filipinos, which consist mainly of unmarried men. -These latter either return home after making money, or else intermarry -with the other immigrant groups. The Mexican community, on the other -hand, perpetuates itself and increases without much intermarriage with -the other population. - -Since the depression beginning in 1929 there has been a repatriation of -a portion of the Mexican immigration of unknown size but undoubtedly -considerable. Lack of work has led many to go home where they can live -more economically and be among friends, and at the same time American -authorities began to offer free transportation back to Mexico for -those dependent on public charity, and willing to leave. Thus trainload -after trainload returned, and at the same time a tightening of the -immigration restrictions and procedures on the border cut down the flow -of immigrants to almost nothing. - -While the census of 1930 counted nearly a million and a half Mexicans -in the United States, it is probable that the number has since then -diminished, and it is of highest importance that it should not be -allowed to increase. The Mexican Indian has no racial qualities to -contribute to the United States population that are now needed, and -if he has any cultural contribution to make it will not be made by -the immigration of hundreds of thousands of illiterate and destitute -laborers. - - * * * * * - -Guatemala. More than half of the population of Guatemala is still pure -Indian, and the half breed class which plays such an important part in -Mexico and other countries is relatively less conspicuous there. The -inconsiderable white population is made up in part of the descendants -of old Spanish families and in part from more recent immigrants, -especially Germans. - -The proportion of Teutonic names among the rulers of Guatemala during -the last generation has been growing steadily. With two million -population Guatemala is the most powerful of the Central American -countries, but the Indians tend to be little more than a subject race -exploited by others, and the general progress of the country is -therefore in some ways slow. - - * * * * * - -Honduras suffers partly from its tropical situation but still more -from the mixture of races, and the large amount of Negro blood in -the population of the lowlands. By contrast with Guatemala the -Indian element is here unimportant, and the people are Negroes and -half-breeds, or a little of each. With its 600,000 population largely -of mongrel origin, the Republic has been a backward member of the -Central American group throughout most of its history. British Honduras -is an unimportant area with much the same characteristics. The -so-called Caribs along the coast are now scarcely distinguishable from -pure Negroes. - - * * * * * - -Salvador. Smaller than the State of New Jersey, Salvador has an -importance out of proportion to its size because of the dense -population and large amount of cultivable land together with a smaller -amount of Negro mixture than in the adjoining Republics. With a -population estimated at a million and a half (such a thing as a real -census is almost unknown in Latin American countries), its people are -largely of mixed blood with the Indian predominating, but the number of -pure-blooded Indians is not large compared with Guatemala. - - * * * * * - -Nicaragua, a synonym for turbulence in the minds of Americans, has also -a population of highly mixed character. The Indians did not remain a -distinct group as in Guatemala, nor were they largely exterminated as -in Costa Rica. They were absorbed into a half-breed population of more -than 600,000 which has also in the lowlands a large Negro admixture. - -The upper classes of more or less remote European ancestry have -maintained a semi-feudal political dominance that has been disastrous -to the welfare of the country, and it is doubtful whether the Yankee -influence, which during the last generation has been stronger in -Nicaragua than in any of the other Latin American states except Panama, -has been particularly useful. - - * * * * * - -Costa Rica has always prided itself on being the whitest of the Central -American Republics, and its history of relative peace and prosperity -reflects this fact. Apart from a fringe of Indians and Negroes in -the lowlands, the population of nearly 500,000 is concentrated in a -beautiful and healthful inland region. The Indians of the country -having been driven out or destroyed at an early day, the settlers of -Costa Rica were unable to live as parasites exploiting serfs as did the -upper classes in some of the other Central American countries, but were -forced to settle on the land and work out their own salvation. While -they were therefore considered in colonial days to be in a pitiable -situation, the result was highly advantageous in the long run, for it -has given the country a more nearly genuine population of citizens -prepared to contribute to the progress and welfare of the country. - -A large part of the Spanish blood in Costa Rica is supposed to be -Galician, and therefore to have a considerable Nordic infusion. The -Gallegos, as natives of this part of the Iberian Peninsula are called, -are one of the most law-abiding and hard-working of the numerous -peoples that comprise the Spanish Republic, and their descendants in -Costa Rica reflect credit on their origin. In most of the other Latin -American countries the Spanish element is supposed to be largely from -Andalusia and therefore quite different in make-up, with a noteworthy -Moorish element. - - * * * * * - -Panama with its hybrid population of half a million, largely Negro in -composition, is unimportant in the picture of Latin America. North -American influence has transformed it economically, but cannot change -mongrels into a sound and vigorous stock. - - * * * * * - -Colombia has large numbers of Negroes in the hot lowlands, but the -bulk of the six million population is Indian with a slight infusion -of European blood. The upper class of Colombia represents the results -of geographical isolation, the region until recently having been -inaccessible; and by virtue of a sort of intellectual inbreeding it has -long been the most conservative and least touched by foreign influence -of all the Latin American "aristocracies." The upper-class Colombian -prides himself with reason on the purity of his Spanish blood, and -still lives to a large degree in the memories of the ancient colonial -period. In Bogotá there is an intense anti-Negro social sentiment. The -isolation of the half-breeds in Colombia has come nearer to producing a -new racial group than is to be found elsewhere in Latin America. - - * * * * * - -Venezuela, in spite of its nearly three million inhabitants, is an -unimportant country, largely hybrid with extensive Negro infiltrations. -As in many other Latin American countries, the number of Whites is -officially put down as about 10 per cent, but as in most such instances -it is doubtful whether one resident in fifty can properly be called a -white man, except by courtesy. - - * * * * * - -Guiana. The three Guianas, British, French, and Dutch, represent one of -the least attractive parts of South America in almost every way. - -British Guiana has 300,000 inhabitants of whom one-third are Negroes, -another third Orientals, mostly Hindu, and the remainder is largely -made up of crosses between these two elements, of a few thousand native -Indians, and of a handful of Whites. - -Dutch Guiana has a population well under a hundred thousand, largely -Orientals imported to furnish coolie labor and including Hindus, -Javanese, and Chinese. There are many Negroes and a couple of thousand -Whites. - -[Illustration: SOUTH AMERICA] - -French Guiana differs from the Dutch settlement mainly in being -smaller, its population being not much more than 30,000, including -many convicts or ex-convicts, for this has long been a French penal -settlement. - - * * * * * - -Brazil with a territory larger than the continental United States -differs from its neighbors in many striking ways, apart from the fact -that it was settled by Portuguese, not Spanish, and that its language -and culture are therefore Portuguese rather than Spanish. - -The Indian population was killed off or driven westward by the early -settlers just as in the United States, so that it is now confined -largely to the untracked and almost unpopulated forests of the -Amazonian Basin, where perhaps a couple of a million aborigines may -still exist. - -To provide labor the Portuguese imported slaves from Africa, and -then fused with them to produce the present-day pre-dominantly Negro -population. The Portuguese here thus repeated the experience of the -mother country. During the great years of Portuguese exploration and -colonization in the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries, -it has been estimated that a million Portuguese, mainly young men, -went to the tropics, and for the most part never came back. Negroes -were imported to take their places and to do the work of the country. -Intermarriage of these Negroes with the old population left Portugal -with a larger amount of Negro blood than any other European country, -and greatly impaired its ability to contribute to the progress of -civilization. Thus Portugal, which, when dominated by the Nordics, had -set an extraordinary example of progress in many ways, now contributes -relatively little to such progress and only the rebirth of a reasonable -pride of race, and the application of a sound eugenics program will -enable it to regain a position of leadership. - -History has repeated itself in Brazil. The salvation of Brazil has been -the arrival during the past century of European immigrants. Thousands -of Germans poured into the Highlands of the Southern States where large -regions have an almost Teutonic civilization at the present time. If a -false interpretation of the Monroe Doctrine had not helped to interfere -with this process, the results for South America might have been most -beneficial. - -But the main currents of immigration have been from Latin countries of -the Old World. During the past century Brazil has received more than -four million foreigners, of whom a million and a half were Italians, -a million and a quarter Portuguese, and half a million Spanish. Thus -more than three-fourths of the immigration has been from the Latin -countries, and only about a quarter of a million from Germany and -Austria. Since the World War this overwhelming migration from the Latin -countries has slowed down. The German migration has, on the contrary, -increased. - -Brazil thus consists of two distinct areas: a relatively small, -fertile, and healthful highland region in the south, where the main -activities of the country are carried on largely under the influence -of Mediterranean and Alpine immigrants; and a huge tropical area given -over mainly to the Negro and Mulatto element and the Indians. - -With a population of somewhere around 30,000,000 Brazil is not only the -largest of the South American republics, but nearly as large as all the -rest of them put together. - -The future of Brazil depends largely on the nature of its immigration -policy during the next generation or two and on the acceptance of a -workable program of eugenics. Fortunately, no South American country -has taken up such a policy with more interest than has this great -republic. It still possesses an aristocracy which has maintained its -racial purity, but this is probably too small a nucleus alone to -regenerate the whole body politic. - - * * * * * - -Uruguay. Crossing the boundary from Brazil to Uruguay, one sees a new -picture. Uruguay is almost entirely white. Indeed, this whole region -of La Plata is one of the future dominant areas of the New World. It -contains less Negro blood than does, relatively, the United States. Not -only have Negroes been largely kept out, but the remnants of Indian -tribes have become inconspicuous, as on the plains of the Mississippi -Valley, where the Indians, mere nomads with a negligible culture, were -driven back by the march of civilization. The striking parallel between -the settlement of this region and that of the Western States of North -America is often pointed out. Each was a sheep and cattle country, and -then farmers took up land and developed it into a region of prosperity -and great potentialities. - -Uruguay has a cosmopolitan population almost wholly of European -origin. Since the World War it has attracted not only a large part of -the Spanish emigration but also large numbers of Italians, French, -Germans, and others. The earlier immigration was largely of North -Italians, mainly of Alpine blood with slight Nordic infusion. The total -population of the country is now well over a million and a half. - -A wise selection of immigration from now on will still further increase -the influence of this small republic, and set a good example for all of -South America. - - * * * * * - -Argentina represents one of the striking examples of a nation built up -rapidly by foreign immigration. Nearly 85 per cent of its people are -foreign-born or the descendants of recent immigration, with Italians -forming by far the largest group. Moreover, the Argentine Republic -has attracted the vigorous population of North Italy, which racially -is mainly Alpine but still has a Nordic element, and forms a striking -contrast to the population of South Italian and Sicilian immigrants -that have filled up the slums of North American cities. The North -Italians are more akin to the Swiss and the South Germans than they are -to the South Italians. - -Non-whites do not amount to 5 per cent of the population. The total -population of something like 10,000,000 makes the Argentine Republic -second only to Brazil in size in South America, and in every respect, -except size, it easily takes first rank. - -The racial composition of this extraordinary nation with its -ultra-modern civilization, and its get-rich-quick atmosphere, deserves -more extended treatment than can be given here. The English, though not -the most numerous, have taken the first place in its financial world. -French immigrants, though fewer in number, have become a very important -factor in the progress of its civilization. A hundred thousand Germans -have settled in the country and form the backbone of many regions. - -Since the war Argentina has been one of the principal destinations of -citizens of the former Central Empires who were going overseas. The -spirit of the civilization has attracted many Jews. More than 160,000 -immigrants during the last two generations are credited to Russia, -and almost an equal number to Turkey. These last, however, were Turks -only by force and were actually Christian Syrians from the Lebanon who -became so completely identified with the retail trade of the country -that the colloquial name for a small grocery store is "Turco." - -All of these elements together do not begin to measure in importance -with the Spanish and Italian elements. But in recent years new currents -have set in which, if continued, will profoundly modify the character -of the country by introducing a large number of Slavs, particularly -Poles, Yugoslavs, Czechoslovaks, and Lithuanians, together with the -Slavic element among the Germans. Before the World War the immigration -to Argentina was about seven-eighths from the Latin countries, but -since then these have furnished only about two-thirds. - -Argentina therefore represents a white population largely Alpine and -Mediterranean with a considerable Nordic element. It is doubtful -whether it stands to gain by allowing Alpines to increase, particularly -if this brings in different types of culture and traditions. Argentina -might well profit by the mistakes of the United States and immediately -orient its immigration policy along sound logical and constructive -lines. - - * * * * * - -Chile, unlike the Indo-Spanish countries just south of the United -States, is also a white man's country. The pure Indians are a vanishing -minority. The Spanish and dominant element is largely made up of -Basques, but there has been a substantial addition of British, whose -influence is important in commerce and industry, and of Germans, who -have dominated the army and education, and have been an important -factor in agriculture. Chile, with four million population, is -therefore the least Latin of any of the countries south of the United -States. The progressiveness and prosperity of the region have long -attracted the attention of every traveller. - - * * * * * - -Bolivia is another of the pre-dominantly Indian countries which have -made little contribution to the world. The number of Whites here is -negligible. Immigration has never been important and the Bolivian has -developed a provincial arrogance and hostility to foreigners which is -as prejudicial to his own interests as it is unwarranted. Scarcely -one-fifth of the people even speak Spanish in their daily life, and -two-thirds are primitive Indians, the others being hybrids of varying -degrees. - - * * * * * - -Paraguay is an Indian republic which has not only avoided the Negro -influence common elsewhere but has almost escaped the infusion of -white blood. There are scarcely any pure Whites. The Guarani Indians -of this region were not highly civilized like the Mayas and Incas, and -therefore took on a Spanish culture instead of retaining one of their -own. It would have been extremely interesting to see what an Indian -republic could amount to in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. -Unfortunately the course of experiment was obstructed by one of the -most sanguinary wars in history (1864-69) in which Paraguay carried on -a contest with Brazil and Argentina until the greater part of its male -population was destroyed. At the beginning of the war, the population -of Paraguay was officially said to be 1,337,437. Even if this were -extraordinarily inaccurate and exaggerated, the figures afterward were -no less so, for the calculation after the close of hostilities credited -the country with a loss of more than a million. More exactly, the -population was returned as 221,709, of which 86,079 were children, -106,254 women, and only 28,746 men. Nothing like this situation has -ever before been recorded in a large population. Whole regiments had -been made up of boys under sixteen. In more than half a century since -then, the country has not begun to recover. Even now its population is -less than a million. Immigrants from Europe have always avoided it. -Paraguay is in a class by itself. - - * * * * * - -Peru's four or five million inhabitants are mostly pure Indians, while -the remainder are nearly all hybrids. Chinese and Japanese as well as -Negroes have contributed to the mongrelization of the mass, and not -one in ten even claims to be white, which here, as elsewhere in Latin -America, by no means guarantees anything more than a homoeopathic dose -of European blood. - -The aboriginal civilization is often described as remarkably high but -seems to have been the work of peoples who antedated the Spanish by a -long period; and the Conquerors themselves apparently considered the -Peruvian Indians to be less intelligent than those they had encountered -in Mexico. The number of Indians decreased during the early Spanish -regime until some districts were almost depopulated and the loss -of leaders especially was irreparable. Whether or not the present -inhabitants are the descendants of the Incas, they have not been able -to develop a strong and progressive state. - - * * * * * - -Ecuador is an isolated and unimportant region inhabited largely by -backward Indian tribes. Probably not less than two-thirds of the -2,000,000 population are pure Indian. The handful of Whites and the few -hundred thousand hybrids rule the country. The Negro element, never -large, is gradually being absorbed and is leaving its stamp on the -whole population. - - * * * * * - -The West Indies are more important to the United States immigration -policy than would be expected from their size, because of their close -proximity to American ports of entry. - - * * * * * - -Cuba has always received its immigrants pre-dominantly from Spain, -and the imported Negro element, numbering about 800,000 of its three -millions of population, is not increasing in importance. The island is -considered less white than Puerto Rico, but more than a quarter of a -million of the inhabitants are Spanish-born, these comprising nearly -three-quarters of all the foreigners. - -As in many other Latin-American countries, the Chinese have taken a -strong hold, beginning nearly a century ago, and are intermarrying with -the Whites. - -Cuba does not represent a desirable or needed source of immigration to -the United States, and should be put under a proper quota. - - * * * * * - -Puerto Rico has a population of nearly a million and a half. The fact -that this dense population cannot make a living under the present -and backward conditions on the island, and that it is continually -exercising its right of entry to the United States, is one of the most -serious features of the present immigration policy. - -The Negro and Mulatto element makes up a majority of the population but -is relatively losing ground--partly from high death rates and partly by -absorption in the mass. The Indian stock is extinct. Immigration from -abroad has been negligible for a long time. - -As the island is a territory, the inhabitants are citizens of the -United States and cannot be prevented from coming freely into the -mainland. The number of Puerto Ricans in New York City was at one time -estimated as high as 100,000. If economic conditions are attractive -there is nothing to prevent half a million of them from migrating to -the continent and adding their traits to the much-overloaded "melting -pot." - -It is now clear that the United States made a great mistake, after the -war with Spain, in taking over territories that were already populated -by aliens. Previously the territory that was acquired was largely -empty and suitable for settlement by the old stock. What has been done -is not easy to undo, but it may at least serve as an emphatic lesson -against any further acquisitions of inhabited territory in the future. -Meanwhile there is an embryonic movement for independence in Puerto -Rico, which may have to, indeed should, be encouraged in order to give -the United States protection from its own folly. - - * * * * * - -The Virgin Islands, which the United States bought from Denmark in -1917, have, like other West Indian islands, a population almost -exclusively Negro or Mulatto. - - * * * * * - -The British West Indies are overwhelmingly black, though many of them, -such as New Providence, Barbados, Bermuda, and the Bahamas, have -substantial English aristocracies that guard jealously their racial -heritage. These British islands, particularly Jamaica and Barbados (the -latter one of the most densely populated spots in the whole world) have -been fertile sources of black emigration to other islands and to the -mainland. - - * * * * * - -Haiti is a purely Negro Republic, and offers a good illustration of -what the Negro accomplishes if left to himself, even though given all -the advantages of easy access to European civilization. The republic of -Santo Domingo occupies the other part of the same island; its hybrid -population has more Spanish and less Negro blood but it is not by any -means civilized. - -In general the islands of the West Indies now contain nearly 8,000,000 -people, the descendants of Negro slaves with a very small but -undiscoverable admixture of Indian blood and a somewhat larger but -still unimportant admixture of European stock. They present a standing -menace to the United States immigration policy, and afford one of the -principal arguments for extending stringent restrictions to the Western -Hemisphere. The whole Caribbean is in the process of becoming a Negro -territory. Such a result may be inevitable, but adjacent nations which -desire to remain white must protect themselves while there is time. - -In broad outline, the picture of Latin-America is the picture of a -diversified region occupied by some 80,000,000 people, mainly Indians, -but with varying proportions of White and Negro blood, the former -usually small in amount, the latter often large. The few countries that -may properly be called white are not emigrant-exporting countries, -and their inhabitants are for the most part non-Nordic, therefore not -particularly well adapted to incorporation in the United States. - -In conclusion, it may be remarked at this point that each successive -revolution in Latin America has tended toward hastening the elimination -of European blood and influence. It is usually the half-breeds who -revolt and they, in turn, are subject to the increasing self-assertion -of the pure native. - - - - -XVIII - -THE NORDIC OUTLOOK - - -In the preceding chapters we have seen the unity of the nation greatly -impaired in race and religion and threatened in language, but the -country is still 70 per cent Nordic and 80 per cent Protestant, and -no one foreign language seriously threatens our English speech. There -are nearly 50 per cent of Old-Native American Whites in the country at -large, although they have been swamped by aliens in New England and in -the industrialized States of the Northeast. - -The great majority of the senators of the United States are still -of old American stock and so are the members of the House of -Representatives. The leaders of the nation in science, education, -industry, and in the Army and Navy are still overwhelmingly Nordic, -so that with these elements in our favor we are still in a position -to check the increase of the other elements and contend against their -deleterious effects upon our institutions. - -Much of the immigration during the last century has been identical -with the old British stock in all respects. The English and the Scotch -who have come over here, as well as the Scandinavians and most of -the Germans, and perhaps some other elements, are to be regarded as -reinforcements of the older stock. On the other hand, most of the -people from southern and eastern Europe must be regarded as distinct -menaces to our national unity. - -The remedy is first and foremost _the absolute_ suspension of all -immigration from all countries; and the signs of the times indicate -that such suspension is inevitable. Such a total suspension of -immigration would remove all grounds for charges of discrimination -against Asiatics, which now embarrass our foreign relations. At the -very least, the same quota limitations should be imposed on the -countries to the south of us as are enforced against Europe. - -In view of the fact that during the great depression which began in -1929 we had millions of unemployed of our own people here, we should be -deaf to sentimental pleas for the admission of relatives of any kind. -If families are separated, it has not been through the fault of the -American people, and the immigrant can return whence he came, if he -wishes to join his family. As a matter of fact, it is only one or two -groups which are so vigorously clamoring for the admission of relatives. - -Not only should European immigration be entirely stopped but still -more, all immigration of every sort from countries to the south of us -should be barred. In the islands and on the coasts of the Caribbean, -and in Mexico and in Central America, to say nothing of the countries -farther south, we have a vast reservoir of Negroes, and of Indians in -the interior, who sooner or later will be drawn toward the United -States by the high wages of common labor. The strictest legislation -at this time is necessary to prevent this impending invasion before -it assumes the dimensions of a flood, such as has already happened -in the case of the Mexican Indians. If immigration be not absolutely -prohibited, at very least, no one should be allowed to enter the United -States, unless a visitor or traveller, except white men of superior -intellectual capacity distinctly capable of becoming valuable American -citizens. - -The law of 1790 providing that no one could become a citizen of the -United States except free Whites was the law until the aftermath of the -Civil War added the word "black" or "of African descent" to those who -could be naturalized. This last provision should be repealed and the -blacks with the South American and Central American Indians put on the -same footing as the Orientals. - -All Filipino immigration should be stopped before it becomes a serious -menace. If possible, half-breeds from Hawaii should not be allowed -entry and absolute restriction should be placed on the entrance of -Negroes and Mulattoes from Puerto Rico. There are now swarms of them -in the Harlem District of New York. This last is simple justice to the -American Negroes. - -The increasing use of machines calls for less and less common labor, -and even in normal times there will be a surplus of man power for the -factories and the farms. Why should outsiders be allowed to come in and -take the jobs and lower the living standards of American labor? This -is one of the greatest questions before the American people and the -depression following 1929 has brought this truth home. - -We have now in this country over five million aliens who are not -citizens, more than a million of whom are said to be illegally here. -These last should be deported as fast as they can be located and funds -made available. There can be no better means of relieving unemployment -present or future than by such wholesale deportation. We should begin -with those aliens who have violated our laws or who have become public -charges and all such, now in our penitentiaries and asylums, should be -deported forthwith. When that has been done and done fully, it should -be followed by the deportation of unemployed aliens. - -Registration is necessary for the carrying out of any proper system -of deportation. Why any one should object to registration as a proper -means of identification is a mystery, unless there is a sinister motive -behind the desire to conceal identity. - -A storm of protest will arise from the vociferous and influential -foreign blocs and from the radicals and half-breeds claiming to be -Americans, who will all rush to the defense of their kind. It is -strange to find how sensitive we are to any foreign criticism of things -American, but how prone we are to listen respectfully to local aliens, -who are urging their own interests at the expense of the national -welfare. - -In order to curb the influence of these aliens and to prevent their -pernicious control by politicians, it would also be wise to suspend -all naturalization for a generation at least. Our citizenship in the -past has been made of little value by the absurd way that it has been -thrust upon foreigners. Nothing can be more ill-advised politically -than the Americanization programs of some worthy people. An American -is not made by conferring upon him the franchise, but by the alien's -voluntary and genuine acceptance of our language, laws, institutions, -and cultural traditions. - -Even though the foregoing program were put into effect, which would, -possibly, be a "Counsel of Perfection," we would still have with us -an immense mass of Negroes and nearly as many southern and eastern -Europeans, intellectually below the standard of the average American. -The proper extension to and use by these undesirable classes of -a knowledge of birth control may be in the future of substantial -benefit, and the practice of sterilization of the criminal and the -intellectually unfit, now legally established in twenty-seven States, -can be resorted to with good result. - -The fundamental question for this nation, as well as for the world at -large, is for the community itself to regulate births by depriving -the unfit of the opportunity of leaving behind posterity of their -own debased type. Our civilization has mercifully put an end to the -cruel, wasteful, and indiscriminate destruction of the unfit by -Nature, wherefore it is our duty, as exponents of that civilization, -to substitute scientific control, that civilization itself may be -maintained. Down to date the American stock has only just begun to -intermarry with the immigrant stock. When this process has gone -further--and it will go further--it will be more difficult to control -the destinies of the nation. It is therefore the duty of all Americans, -and such of the immigrant stock as are in sympathy with them, to face -the problem boldly and to take all eugenic means to encourage the -multiplication of desirable types and abate drastically the increase of -the unfit and miscegenation by widely diverse races. - -So much for our internal problems. The problems outside of our country -are a different matter. In the last century the world has grown -smaller, and, perhaps, in the long run America must take her part in -international affairs. - - -The White Man's Burden - -As Americans we are faced with the necessity of assuming our share of -a burden which has been carried by Great Britain for the last three -centuries--that is "the White Man's Burden,"--the duty of policing the -world and maintaining the prestige of the white man throughout the -Seven Seas. Due to the change in the industrial situation all over the -world and to the spread of the fatal sentimentalism of the Anglo-Saxon, -the lower races in Europe and elsewhere are beginning to assert -themselves. Everywhere from one end of the world to the other is heard -the cry of self-determination. - -Americans already have much the same problem in the Philippines. - -The attitude of the Imperial Government in London toward the native -races in its various Dominions has been in the past and still is not -unlike that of the Federal Government in Washington toward the Negroes -in our Southern States. - -Americans must sympathize with the firm resolve of the handful of white -men in South Africa (less than a million and a half) to control and -regulate the Negro population there--numbering some seven millions and -in the midst of which they live. The same problem arises in Australia -and New Zealand where the Whites are determined that their civilization -shall not be swamped by Orientals. - -We must also sympathize with the Whites in Kenya Colony in their -opposition to a filling of their country with cheap Hindu labor. As -Americans we can understand the Negro and recognize his cheerful -qualities, but we can have little sympathy with the Hindu whom we -have expressly barred from our Pacific Coast. These Hindus, with -the Chinese, have ruined the native races of many of the Polynesian -Islands. They have been for ages in contact with the highest -civilizations, but have failed to benefit by such contact, either -physically, intellectually, or morally. - -Similar dangers exist on the Pacific Coast of Canada. The struggle for -the maintenance of the supremacy of the white man over the native, or -for that matter over the non-European, until now has been maintained -by Great Britain alone. Her ruling class has given the world the -greatest example since the days of Rome, of a just, fearless, and -unselfish government, but apparently the native does not desire such a -government. - -The old imperial instinct that enabled Great Britain to retain control -of the white man's world appears to be coming to an end. The weary -Titan seems willing to turn over the burden of government to the -Dominions as fast as the latter demand it. This is evidenced also by -the proposal to give up the naval base at Singapore. If this base -is ever actually abandoned, it means England's withdrawal from the -supremacy of the Pacific. In such event, whether we Americans like it -or not--whether we intend it or not--the burden of the control of the -Pacific will pass in great measure to America. The future lies in the -Pacific rather than in the Atlantic, and with the completion of the -Panama Canal, America is brought face to face with Oriental problems. - -Australia and New Zealand, still more British Columbia, look for -co-operation and leadership to the United States as well as to Great -Britain, and we must be prepared to accept this responsibility. - -We have our own troubles in respect to the Philippines. The swarming of -the Filipinos into the Pacific States brings with it a repetition of -the Chinese problem of sixty years ago. California is determined that -the white man there shall not be replaced by the Chinese, the Japanese, -the Mexican, or the Filipino. The Eastern States should face this -problem understandingly, and recognize the simple fact that the white -men on the Pacific Coast of the United States and Canada are determined -to maintain a white ownership of the country, even though the East has -been willing to see New England swamped by French-Canadians and Polaks, -and the industrial centers of the North filled to overflowing with -southern and eastern Europeans. - -When we talk about the maintenance of the white man's ideals and -culture and about the supremacy of the white man, we are talking -about two distinct things. One is the determination of the white -man to keep for himself his own countries, the United States, Great -Britain, Canada, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, and many of -the smaller islands. With this determination Americans sympathize and -sooner or later we may be called on to help protect the White race -and the English language in these countries. It seems to be a part of -our destiny. The other phase of white supremacy is the white man's -effort to benefit the backward races and raise them to civilization by -instilling his language, his religion, and his culture into Asiatics -and Africans. This is the tendency of foreign missions, and it leads -sooner or later to a challenge by the natives of the control of the -Whites. - -To rule justly, as the English have in India and Burma, is for the best -interest of the native. For example, the United States should either -firmly govern the Philippines, which, in the last analysis, is for the -interest and enrichment of the Filipinos, or else abandon them to -their own devices. If Japan ever gets hold of these islands, she will -keep them without regard to the wishes or interests of the native, as -that Empire is not greatly troubled with sentimentalists and native -sympathizers such as flourish in the United States. - -The Japanese, the Chinese, the Hindus, and the Moslems have cultures, -customs, religions, arts, literatures, and institutions of their own, -which for them may be, and in many cases probably are, as good as -our own. The writer does not see any gain in destroying these native -elements of culture or replacing them indiscriminately with the -institutions of the white man to which those races are, for the most -part, unfitted. Democracy is an excellent example. It simply will not -work among Asiatics. In fact, its success is yet fully to be proven in -the Western World. - -But the other side of the problem--whether we, the White race, shall -surrender our own culture, our own lands and our own traditions, -good or bad, to another race--presents a very different question. -Fortunately, in this case, Reason and Sentiment march hand in hand. - -The prestige and strength of Europe and Great Britain have been greatly -impaired since the World War and Western civilization sooner or later -may be forced to hand on the Torch to America. - -We see the Nordics again confronted across the Pacific by their -immemorial rivals, the Mongols. This will be the final arena of the -struggle between these two major divisions of man for world dominance -and the Nordic race in America may find itself bearing the main brunt. - -In the meantime, the Nordic race, that has built up, protected, and -preserved Western civilization, needs to realize the necessity of its -own solidarity and close co-operation. 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München, 1837. - - - - -INDEX - - - Aberdeen, 136. - - Abolitionists, 210. - - Acadia, 308, 309. - - "Acadie" (Nova Scotia), 308. - - Achæans, invasions into Greece, 26; - Nordics in West as, 39; - Osco-Umbrians, kin to, 39. - - Africa, Negro slaves in, 9; - Christianity in, 14; - (Ethiopia) early races in, 19, 20. - - Alabama, settlement in, 183, 184; - heart of Cotton Kingdom, 184; - Scotch and English blood in, 184; - 1930 census native population, 242. - - Alans, the, 44, 45, 46. - - Alaska, 90. - - Albanians, 36. - - Albany (N.Y.), 102, 110, 168; - Ulster Scots in, 108; - increase in Negroes in, 237. - - Albemarle, 138. - - Alberta, 314, 318. - - Alemanni, the, 42, 51, 52. - - Alemannish dialect, 79, 166. - - Alexander the Great, 23. - - Alien Act of 1798, 268. - - Aliens, public sentiment in America, 1; - attitude toward, 268; - restrictions of, 269; - opposition to restrictions of, 269; - literacy test for, 269; - Quota Act of 1921, 270, 271; - National Origins Act, 272, 274, 278. - - Alleghanies, Ulster Scots west of, 123; - "poor whites" in, 135. - - Allentown (Pa.), 121. - - Alpine race, characteristics of, 29, 30; - origin of, 29; - similarity to Mongols, 29; - extent of domain, 31; - Turanians, 31, 32; - Armenians, 32; - increase in Central Europe, 33; - in United States, 153. - - Alpine Slavs, 15. - - Alsace, 50, 116. - - Amazonian Basin, 335. - - America, Catholics in, 4; - Jews in, 4, 224-227; - South Germans in, 8; - relative diminution of Anglo-Saxon blood in, 10; - whites and blacks in, 12, 13; - origin of American Indians in, 19; - Norman element in, 55; - Ulster Scots in, 60; - sentiment for France in, 71; - naval war with France in 1798, 71; - motive of early settlers in, 65; - migration from Leinster to, 76; - "Scotch Irish" of, 92; - emigration from Ireland to, 93; - Huguenot migration to, 96; - North German Nordics in, 143; - opportunities for British race in, 156; - migration toward Pacific Coast, 158; - emigration of Scottish farmers to, 159; - emigration of Southern England farmers to, 159; - emigration of Irish to, 159; - emigration of Germans to, 161, 162; - South Irish Catholics in, 218; - freedom of speech and press in, 219; - waste in, 221; - ratio of criminals in, 224; - alien invasion in, 223-234; - migration following the Revolution, 256; - migration with panic of 1819, 256; - migration at time of land speculation by Andrew Jackson, 256; - minority of women among recent immigration groups in, 275; - solutions of Negro elimination in, 285 ff. - _See also under_ United States. - - American colonies, Nordics in, 77. - - American Indians, Mongols and Alpines ancestors of, 30; - Mongolian blood in, 37. - - American Protective Association, 313. - - American Revolution, the influence of Massachusetts during, 99; - loss of population during, 100; - increase in migration following, 101; - New York State after, 108; - migration after, 109; - troops from New York and Massachusetts, 111; - Calvinistic, 121. - - Amerinds, 26, 27. - - Amish, 79. - - Andalusia, 188, 333. - - Andover, 94. - - Angles, the, 59. - - Anglicans, Quakers become, 121. - - Angora, 41. - - Annapolis, 127. - - Apache Indians, 291. - - Apennines, the, 41, 51. - - Appalachian valleys, 74, 78; - lawlessness in, 67. - - Apulia, 39. - - Arabia, 22, 27; - the Mediterraneans of, 24. - - Arabs, in Spain, 46, 49; - race mixture among, 49; - period of expansion, 49; - ruined by Negro women, 49 - - Aral Sea, 34. - - Argentina, 338; - racial composition of, 339, 340. - - Argonauts, the, 216. - - Argyllshire, 159. - - Arians, 46. - - Arius, 46. - - Arizona, 152, 213, 214; - Mexicans in, 162, 262; - separated from New Mexico, 262; - Mormons in, 262; - Texans in, 263; - Indians in, 289. - - Arkansas, 243; - settlement in, 189, 190; - growth of, 190; - British stock in, 190. - - Arkansas River, 189. - - Armenians, 32. - - Armorican language, 58. - - Aryan language, Centum group, 24-25; - Satem group, 24-25. - - Ashkanazim Jews, 225. - - Asia, Christianity in, 14; - Mongoloid tribes of northeastern, 19; - expansion of civilization in southeastern, 23. - - Asia Minor, Nordic Gauls in, 41; - Turks in, 50. - - Asiatics, 356. - - Assyria, 22. - - Assyrians, cruelty of, 156. - - "Asylum for the Oppressed," 268. - - Atlas Mountains, 45. - - Attila, 44, 51. - - Aurora (N.Y.), 110. - - Austin, Moses, 209. - - Australia, 20, 303, 353, 354; - Negroids in, 28; - racial tangle in, 28. - - Australoids, the, 20, 21, 28; - compared to Alpines, 30. - - Austria, 116. - - Austrian Empire, languages in old, 5. - - Aztecs, the, 324. - - - Babylonia, 22. - - Bactria, 23. - - Bahamas, the, 345. - - Baltic Sea, 35, 56. - - Baltimore (Md.), growth of, 129; - cosmopolitan population in, 239. - - Baltimore, Lord, 125, 126, 128. - - Barbadoes, 85, 86, 345. - - Basques, 340. - - Bath (N.Y.), 110. - - Baton Rouge (La.), 187, 245. - - Bavaria, Alpines in, 36. - - Bay of Chaleurs, 296. - - Beaker Makers, 57. - - Belcher, Thomas, 105. - - Belfast, 95. - - Belgæ, the, 41, 42, 43, 58. - - Belgium, languages in, 5; - the Flemings of, 52. - - Beothics, the, 307. - - Berbers, the, 24; - in Atlas Mountains (North Africa), 39. - - Berkeley, Governor (Virginia), 126, 132, 135. - - Berkshire, 84. - - Bermuda, 85, 345. - - Bethlehem (Pa.), Moravians in, 117. - - Bigot, 46. - - Binghamton (N.Y.), 109. - - Black Hawk Purchase, 198. - - Black Hawk War, 198. - - Black Hills, gold in, 254. - - Blacks, the, 12, 20; - advance in America, 13 - - Blue Ridge, the, 137, 138. - - Bogotá, 334. - - Bohemia, Czechish in, 5; - rise of nationalism in, 14; - Mongolian characters in, 37. - - Bolivia, population of, 341. - - "Bonnie Prince Charlie," 140. - - Boone, Daniel, 123, 145. - - Boone, Daniel Morgan, 200. - - "Boone's Lick," 191. - - Boston (Mass.), 71, 82, 101, 105; - Huguenots in, 97. - - Braddock, General, 137. - - Bradford (postmaster), 83. - - Brandenburg, 181. - - Branford (N.J.), 113. - - Brattleboro (Vt.), 89. - - Brazil, Portuguese in, 335; - European immigrants in, 336; - size of, 337. - - Bristol, 307. - - Britain, Celts in, 41; - invaded by Saxons, 59; - invaded by Angles and Jutes, 59; - Norman conquest in 1066, 60, 61. - - British Columbia, 297, 354; - Asiatic problem in, 315, 316. - - British Commonwealth, 303. - - British Empire, abolition of slavery in, 11. - - British Honduras, 331. - - British Islands, mixture of Nordics and Mediterraneans in, 33. - - British Isles, racial composition of, 57. - - British West Indies, 345. - - Brittany, Armorican language in, 58. - - Bronze Age, 57; - Alpines in, 31. - - Brooklyn (N.Y.), 105. - - Brythons, the, 41, 42, 43, 58. - - Buckingham, 84. - - Buffalo (N.Y.), 177; - increase in Negroes in, 237. - - Burgundians, the, 42, 46, 50. - - Burlington (Iowa), 197. - - Burlington (N.J.), 112. - - Burma, Sanscrit in, 25; - English rule in, 355. - - Burnett Act, 270. - - Bushmen, the, 20. - - Byrd, Colonel, 136. - - Byzantine Empire, 54. - - - Cabot, John, 307. - - Cæsar, Julius, 221; - campaigns in Gaul, 41. - - Caithness, 55. - - "Cajans," 6. - - Calabria, 39. - - Calhoun, John C., 168. - - California, 152, 173; - Mexicans in, 162; - Indians and Spaniards in, 214; - annexed to United States, 215; - Spanish blood in, 215; - increase in Americans in, 215, 216; - gold in, 215, 263; - Chinese in, 216; - contrasted with other United States frontiers, 217; - foreigners in, 263-267; - migration to, 263, 264; - Nordic element in, 264; - decline of Chinese in, 265; - vote against Chinese immigration, 265; - racial problems in, 265, 266; - Indians in, 289. - - California gold rush, 199. - - Camoens, 48. - - Campbelltown, 139. - - Canada, French language in, 5; - migration of Loyalists to, 100, 110; - annexed to the Union, 111; - divisions of, 296, 297; - Maritime Provinces, 296, 300; - Quebec, 297-301; - Upper Canada, 297, 302; - inducements to immigrants, 302; - population in 1840, 304; - Irish Catholics in, 304; - population in 1871, 305; - British and French in, 305; - Mounted Police in, 305; - Indians in, 306; - migration from United States to, 316-319; - British immigration in, 317; - "foreign stock" in, 317, 318; - Jews in, 317; - few Negroes in, 318; - Nordic element in, 318; - strength of Roman Catholic Church in, 318; - 1921 census, 319. - - Canandaigua (N.Y.), 109, 110. - - Canary Islands, 188. - - Cape Cod Bay, 82. - - Cape Fear River, 139. - - Cape May, 112. - - Caribbean Sea, 12, 155, 348. - - Caribs, 331. - - Carlisle (Pa.), 122. - - Carpathians, the, 31. - - Carroll, Jesuit John, 151. - - Carter, Colonel John, 137. - - Caspian Sea, 34. - - Caucasus, the, 44; - beauty of women in, 50. - - Cayuga, 110. - - Celtiberians, 40. - - Celtic Nordics, 36; - conquest of Spain by, 40; - in British Isles, 40. - - Celtic-speaking tribes, 42. - - Celtic tribes, in Gaul and Britain, 40, 41; - "Q" and "P," 57, 58. - - Central America, 294, 330 ff., 348. - - Central Asia, 17, 44. - - Central Pacific Railway, 265. - - Cervantes, 48. - - Chaldea, 22. - - Chalons, 44; - Battle of, 52. - - Champlain, 300, 301. - - Charlemagne, 31; - the Franks under, 54; - conquest of Saxons, 54. - - Charles I, 126, 135. - - Charleston (S.C.), 41, 42; - Ulster Scots enter colonies through, 77, 78. - - Charlestown (Mass.), 82. - - Chesapeake Bay, 73. - - Chester, 114. - - Cheyenne (Wyo.), 259. - - Chicago (Ill.), 196, 229. - - Chickasaw Indians, 291. - - Chile, white races in, 340. - - China, rise of nationalism in, 14; - Mongols of, 19. - - Chinese, the, 353; - in California, 265. - - Choctaws, 291. - - Christian Syrians, 339. - - Christianity, Unitarian form of, 46; - orthodox, 46. - - Christy, Howard Chandler, 3. - - Cid Campeador, 48. - - Cimbri, 42. - - Cincinnati (Ohio), 161, 164, 248. - - Circassians, the, 50. - - Cisalpine Gaul, 41, 51. - - City of Brotherly Love (Philadelphia), 114. - - Civil War, 2, 3, 12, 138, 158, 169-176, 193, 199, 200, 207, 212, 214, - 220, 223, 229, 241, 254, 262, 267, 349; - Irish in, 161; - influence of "Solid South" after, 282. - - Civilization, development of, 22 ff. - - Clark, General George Rogers, 163, 167, 168, 171. - - Clay, Henry, 87, 211. - - Cleveland (Ohio), 165. - - Coast cities, inhabitants richer than frontiersmen, 75. - - Colbert, 299. - - Coligny, 141, 192. - - Coligny, Admiral, 96. - - Collinson, Peter, 117. - - Colombia, population of, 333. - - Colonial times, racial population in, 2; - religion in, 4; - intermarriage during, 8. - - Colonies, original racial complexion of, 75; - Ulster Scots in, 78. - - Color, 26, 27. - - Colorado, 173, 203; - Daniel Boone's grandson in, 123; - Southeastern, 213; - gold in, 258; - Nordics in, 259; - Mexican population in, 292. - - Columbia River, 260. - - Columbus, Christopher, 48, 56, 208. - - Commonwealth, Puritans under the, 66. - - Comstock Lode, 261. - - Confederate Army, 260. - - Congregationalists, hostile to Presbyterians, 94. - - Conkling, Senator Roscoe (quoted), 288. - - Connecticut, 94, 108; - early settlement of, 72, 86, 87; - growth of, 101; - Western Reserve of, 164, 165; - foreign-born in, 218; - 1930 census native population, 236. - - Connecticut River, 90; - migration to, 72. - - Connecticut River Valley, 82; - "forts" of Dutch in, 104. - - Constitution of the United States, 155. - - Constitution of 1835, 177. - - Continental Congress, religion of, 69. - - Continentals, the, 139. - - Convention of 1787, 7, 155. - - Cornwall, 58. - - Corsica, Vandals in, 45. - - Costa Rica, population of, 332, 333; - Nordic infusion in, 333. - - Creek Indians, 183. - - Creeks, the, 246. - - Crefeld, 116. - - Creoles, French spoken by, 6. - - Crete, 22. - - Crimea, the, 44. - - Cromwell, Oliver, 93, 125; - and Irish Rebellion, 133. - - Crown Point, 108. - - Crusades, the, 53. - - Cuba, 211; - population of, 343. - - Cumberland Gap, 145, 146 - - Cumberland Presbyterian Church, 122. - - Cymric, 58. - - - Dacia, 44. - - Dacian Plains, 39. - - Dakota, 197; - rush into, 253. - - Dante, 48. - - Danube, the, 44. - - Da Vinci, Leonardo, 48. - - Davis, John (quoted), 187, 188. - - Dayton (Ohio), 164. - - Declaration of Independence, 101; - religion of signers, 69. - - Dedham, 81. - - de Lapouge, Count, 33, 49. - - Delaware, 73, 125; - 1930 census native population, 239. - - Delaware River, 111; - English settlers along, 73; - French Huguenots along, 73; - surrounding land colonized by Quakers, 112. - - Democracy, 356. - - Denmark, 22, 59, 345. - - de Saussure, 141. - - Detroit (Mich.), 176, 229. - - Devonshire, 307. - - Dippers, 115. - - District of Columbia, residents of, 239; - Negroes in, 239, 240. - - Dorchester (Mass.), 82, 87, 144. - - Dorchester Society, 144. - - Drummond, James, the Earl of Perth, 113. - - Dubuque, John, 197. - - Duke of Liegnitz, 53. - - Duke of York, 125. - - Dundas (Ontario), 312. - - Dunkards, 79. - - Dutch East India Company, 102. - - Dutch settlement, 102 ff. - - - East Anglia, Puritan emigration from, 84. - - East Jersey, 112; - stronghold of Scotch Presbyterians in, 113. - - Ecuador, Indian tribes in, 343. - - Edict of Nantes, 127, 139; - revocation of, 96. - - Egypt, 22, 25; - rise of nationalism in, 14; - Libyans in, 39. - - Elbe, the, 31, 54. - - Electoral College, 282. - - Elizabeth (N.J.), 77. - - Elizabethtown (N.J.), 113. - - Elizabethtown Association, the, 113. - - Emigration Society Land Company, 212. - - Emmet, Robert, 159. - - Emmet, Thomas A., 159. - - Empire Settlement Act, 317. - - England, Norman element in, 55; - Norsemen in, 59; - Puritan emigration from, 82; - Palatines in, 107; - population at time of Revolution, 154. - - English Quakers, 77. - - English Whigs, 70. - - Episcopalians, strength of, 69. - - Ericson, Leif, 56. - - Erie Canal, 105, 106, 110, 168, 172, 177. - - Erse language, 57. - - Eskimos, 307. - - Ethiopia (Africa), 27; - early races in, 19, 20; - true Negroes in, 28. - - Euphrates, Valley of the, 22. - - Eurasia, 18, 19; - development of civilization in southwestern, 22; - racial groupings in, 27; - Negroids in, 27; - Negritos in, 28. - - Europe, intermingling of peoples in, 21; - racial mixtures in, 36; - saved from Mongols, 53; - Nordics in, at time of discovery of America, 61; - monopoly of land ownership in, 65. - - _Evangeline_ (Longfellow), 186. - - - Fairfield (Conn.), 87. - - Fall Line, the, 73. - - Falmouth, 101. - - Fayetteville, 139. - - Federal Children's Bureau, 275. - - Federal Government, 163. - - Federal Supreme Court, 277. - - Filipinos, 224, 294. - - Finland, Ural-Altaic language in, 24. - - Finlanders, 111. - - Firbolgs, the, 62. - - Flemings, in New York, 76. - - Florida, 152; - Spanish in, 117; - South Carolinians in, 142; - settlement in, 192-194; - ceded by Spain to England, 193; - second Nordic invasion of, 193; - slow development of, 193; - small population in, 193, 194; - Negroes in, 193; - 1930 census native population, 241. - - Forbes, General, 138. - - Foreign missions, 355. - - Fort Orange (N.Y.), 102. - - Fort Schuyler (N.Y.), 110. - - Fort Snelling, 196. - - Fort Stanwix (N.Y.), 110. - - Founders of the Republic, 237. - - France, races in, 4, 5; - unity of national feeling in, 4; - Alpines in, 15; - decrease of Nordics in, 33, 49; - Alpines in, 42; - as a Nordic land, 42; - eldest son of the church, 46, 47; - (southern) Gothic names in, 48; - variety of names in, 49. - - Franklin, Benjamin 84, 124; - (quoted), 118-120. - - Franks, the, 42, 46; - in Gaul and western Germany, 52; - had support of Roman Church, 52; - in Belgium, 52; - in northern France, 53; - conquer Franconia, 54; - seize northern Italy, under Charlemagne, 54. - - Frederick County (Md.), 129. - - Free State Catholics, 273. - - Freehold (N.J.), 77, 112. - - French, the Nordics and Alpines among the, 36; - in Quebec province, 301; - emigration from Quebec to New England, 301. - - French Canadians, 355; - influence of Roman Catholic Church on, 311. - - French Huguenots, in New England, 73; - in New York, 76; - in South Carolina, 80; - in North Carolina, 139. - - Friesland, 116. - - Frontier, the, character of, 68; - history of, 156, 157; - effect of Indians on, 157. - - - Gadsden Purchase, 210. - - Gaelic, spoken in Scotland, 58; - spoken in Nova Scotia, 309. - - Galatia, 41, 45; - Gothic blood in, 47. - - Galatians, 41, 42. - - Galena, 196. - - Galicia, Mongolian characters in, 37. - - Gallegos, the, 333. - - Garvey, the Negro, 287. - - Gaul, 221; - Celts in, 41; - remnant of Visigoths in, 46. - - Gauls, the, 42. - - Gelderland, 103. - - Gendron, 141. - - Geneva (N.Y.), 110. - - Genoa, 48, 231. - - "Genoese," 231, 264. - - Genseric, 45. - - "Gentiles," the, 261. - - Georgia, racial complexion in, 80; - Palatines in, 116, 117; - settlement of, 143, 144; - benefited after Revolution, 145; - 1930 census native population in, 241; - idle farming in, 243. - - Georgians, the, 50, 145. - - Gepidæ, the, 44. - - German Jews, 226. - - Germans, among Roman Catholics in the colonies, 70; - forced to the West, 73; - in Pennsylvania, 73; - in the colonies, 79. - - Germantown (Pa.), founded by Mennonites, 115. - - Germany, quota of immigrants from, 2; - races in, 4; - Nordics in eastern, 14; - Revolution of 1848, 161, 181; - immigrants in America, 161, 162; - peak of emigration in, 228, 229. - - Gettysburg (Pa.), 122. - - Ghetto population, 227. - - Glenelg, 312. - - Glengarry (Ontario), 108, 312. - - Gloucestershire, 84. - - Gobi desert, 23. - - Goidelic, the, conquer the Neolithic Mediterraneans in Ireland, 62. - - Goidels, 40, 57. - - Gold, discovered in California, 215; - caused increase in California population, 216. - - Gothia Septimania, 46. - - Goths, the, 43, 250; - in South Russia, 44. - - "Great American Desert," 155. - - Great Britain, emigration from New England to, 86; - "White Man's Burden" in, 352, 354. - - Great Lakes, the, 163. - - Great Salt Lake, 204. - - Great Wall of China, 34. - - Greece, 22; - invasions of Achæans into, 26; - Nordic conquest of, 39. - - Green Mountain Boys, 90. - - Greenwich (Conn.), 104, 105. - - Guadalquivir, the, 46. - - Guarani Indians, 341. - - Guatemala, population of, 330, 332. - - Guiana (British), 334; - (Dutch), 334; - (French), 334, 335. - - Guilford (N.J.), 113. - - Gulf of California, 210, 211. - - Gulf of Mexico, 12, 287. - - Gulf of Saint Lawrence, 296. - - Gulf States, extermination of Indians in, 291. - - - Habitants, the, origin of, 298; - physical type of, 299; - effect of decline in birthrate on, 302. - - Haiti, 287; - loss of white control in, 11, 12; - barbarism in, 12; - Negro Republic, 345. - - Hamitic language, 24. - - Hamburg, 116. - - Hampshire, 84, 159. - - Hamptons, the, 105. - - Hansen, Professor, 152. - - Hartford (Conn.), 87. - - Hawaii, 349; - Japanese element in, 295; - possible source of undesirable immigration, 295. - - Hawaiians, 294. - - Henry, Patrick, 136. - - Henry VII, 307. - - Highlands, the, mixture of races in, 61. - - Hindus, the, 27, 353; - Aryan speech among, 27. - - Hittites, 32, 39. - - Holland, 103, 116; - Palatines in, 107. - - Holland (Mich.), 178. - - Holstein, 59. - - Holston settlement, the, 148. - - _Homo sapiens_, 20. - - Honduras, population of, 331. - - Hottentots, the, 20. - - Hudson, Henry, 102. - - Hudson (N.Y.), 109. - - Hudson River, New Englanders and Germans along, 73; - Dutch settlements along, 102. - - Hudson River valley, 110; - Dutch in, 102, 103, 105; - growth of towns in, 109. - - Hudson's Bay Colony, 314. - - Huger, 141. - - Huguenot French, during the Revolution, 7. - - Huguenots, migration to America, 96, 97. - - Humboldt, 322. - - Hungary, 50; - Ural-Altaic language in, 24. - - Huns, 31, 44. - - Hunter, Governor (N.Y.), 106. - - Hussites, 79. - - - Iberian Peninsula, 333. - - Iberians, 40, 61. - - Iberville (French explorer), 291. - - Idaho, first settlement in, 205; - part of Washington territory, 205; - growth during Civil War, 260; - Nordic strength in, 260. - - Illinois, 149, 164, 175; - settlement of, 170-176; - boom in, 171; - Erie Canal access to, 172; - lead mines in, 172; - dominated by Ulster Scots, 173; - population at beginning of Civil War, 173; - represented in Westward migration, 173; - Germans in, 175; - Irish in, 175, 176; - English in, 176; - Mormons in, 176; - Scandinavians in, 176; - Mexican population in, 293; - native population in, 249; - Negroes in, 249. - - Illinois Central Railway, 174, 176. - - Immigration Commission (1907), 269. - - Incas, 341. - - India, rise of nationalism in, 14; - Sanscrit in, 25; - Aryans in, 25; - passing of Nordics in, 26; - Pre-Dravidians of, 27; - English rule in, 355. - - Indian War of 1855-1856, 207. - - Indiana, 164; - Southerners in, 167; - Ulster Scots and Quakers in, 167; - "Underground Railroad" in, 167; - settlement of, 167-170; - Nordic influence in, 169, 170; - population in, 169, 170; - influence of Germans in, 181; - native population in, 248, 249. - - Indianapolis (Ind.), 169, 170. - - Indians, American, 22, 66; - origin of, 19; - culture of, 19; - cruelty of, 156; - effect on the frontier, 157; - 1930 population in United States, 289; - distribution in United States, 289; - on Pacific Coast, 290; - on Atlantic Coast, 291; - lived as hunters, 291, 292; - intermarriage with Whites, 292. - - Indus, Valley of the, 25. - - Inquisition, the, 227. - - Inverness, 108, 312. - - Inverness-shire, 159. - - Invincible Armada, 208. - - Iowa, 175, 195, 197; - delay in settlement, 198; - Southerners in, 198; - foreign immigrants in, 198; - entered Union as a State, 200; - Nordic and Anglo-Saxon, 200; - native population in, 252; - agricultural, 252. - - Iranian, division of Aryan languages, 25; - distribution in Asia, 26. - - Ireland, quota of immigrants from, 2; - Erse in, 5, 6, 57, 58; - potato famine in, 7; - rise of nationalism in, 14; - attacked by Norse and Danes, 55; - Norsemen in, 59; - Neolithic Mediterraneans in, 62; - the Goidelics in, 62; - Norse and Danes in, 62; - English language in, 63; - religion in, 63; - the Reformation in, 63; - Protestants in, 92, 93; - emigration to North America from, 159, 160. - - Irish Free State, 273. - - Irish Rebellion in 1652, 133. - - Iroquois Five Nations, 300, 301. - - Iroquois Indians, 73, 291. - - Isle of Man, 58. - - Italians, immigration in United States, 231; - high birthrate of, 276. - - Italy, races in, 4; - invasions of Osco-Umbrians in, 26, 39; - Ostrogoths in, 44; - northern, 116; - emigration from, 231. - - - Jackson, Andrew, 70, 256. - - Jamaica, 345; - results of abolition of slavery in, 11. - - James I, 63, 92, 93. - - James II, 127. - - James River, 130. - - Jamestown (Va.), settlement of, 130, 297; - Negroes in, 131. - - Japan, Christianity in, 14; - "gentlemen's agreement" with United States, 266. - - Japanese, in California, 266. - - Jefferson, Thomas, 70, 208, 237, 245. - - Jews, 46. - - Johnson, Honorable Albert, 1 n.; 270. - - Johnson, Sir John, 108, 312. - - Johnson, Sir William, 108. - - Johnston, Gabriel, 140. - - Johnston, Sir Harry H., 6. - - Jordanes, 43. - - Judaism, 225. - - Jutes, the, 59. - - Jutland, 59. - - - Kansas, 173; - slavery in, 12; - Daniel Boone's son in, 123; - Kansas-Nebraska settlement, 200; - battleground for slavery and free-soil elements, 201; - few New England settlers in, 202; - increase in emigration from Free States, 202; - of British complexion, 202, 203; - native population in, 255; - settlement of, 256; - Mexican population in, 292. - - Kassites, 39. - - Kearney, Dennis, 265. - - Kent, 84, 159. - - Kentaro, Baron Keneko, 9. - - Kentucky, 72, 157; - Boone in, 123; - settlement of, 145, 146; - growth of, 146; - English atmosphere in, 147; - admitted as a State, 147; - Alpines in, 153; - 1930 census native population, 242. - - Kenya Colony, 353. - - Khozars (Alpine), 225. - - King Philip's War, 88. - - Kingston (Ontario), 110. - - Kintail, 312. - - Kirkhill, 312. - - Klondike gold rush, 130, 305. - - "Know Nothings," 218; - principle of, 219. - - Knoydart, 312. - - Korea, 31. - - Krim, Götisch, 44. - - Kurds, the, 50. - - - Labadists, the, 116. - - Labrador, 308. - - Lafayette, 12, 71. - - Lake Champlain, 90, 109, 300. - - Lake Erie, 110; - first steamboat on, 177. - - Lake George, 108. - - Lake Ontario, 110. - - Lancaster (Pa.), 79, 121, 124. - - Land Act (1818), 189. - - Languages, in West Indies, 23, 24; - Hamitic, 24; - spoken by Alpines, 24; - Aryan, 24 ff.; - Erse, 57. - _See also under_ various languages. - - Lanier, 141. - - La Plata, 337. - - Latin America, 320, 321, 333, 334, 342, 346; - Amerinds in, 26; - Indians in, 321, 322; - Whites in, 322, 323. - - Laud, Archbishop, 85. - - Laurens, 141. - - Law, John, 187. - - League of Nations, 294. - - Lebanon (Pa.), 121. - - Lebanon, the, 339. - - Lee, Richard, 135. - - Lehigh Valley, Germans in, 120-121. - - Leicester, 84. - - Leinster, 7, 63. - - Leinster Protestants, 93. - - LeSerrurier, 141. - - Liberty Loans, 3. - - Libyans, in Egypt, 39. - - Liegnitz, Battle of, 53. - - Lincolnshire, 83. - - Literacy test, for aliens, vetoed by President Wilson, 269; - passed over veto, 270. - - Lithuania, 236. - - Lithuanian language, 25. - - Liverpool, 204. - - Lochiel, 312. - - Lombards, 46, 50, 250; - in Italy, 51; - overthrown by Franks, 51. - - London, Puritan emigration from, 84; - Imperial government in, 353. - - Londonderry, 94. - - Lone Star Republic, 211. - - Long Island, 103, 105, 110. - - Lord Baltimore, 80. - - Los Angeles (Calif.), Mexicans in, 328. - - Los Angeles County, Mexicans in, 328. - - Louis XIV, 79, 106. - - Louisiana, 152; - French language in, 6; - settlement in, 186-189; - French in, 186; - Acadian refugees in, 186; - Nova Scotians in, 186, 187; - cosmopolitan population in, 243, 244; - religious groups in, 244; - illiteracy test, 244, 245. - - Louisiana Purchase of 1803, 149, 152, 185, 187, 188, 189, 191, 195, 208. - - Lower California, 210. - - Loyalists, 65, 68, 108, 146, 158; - Episcopalians as, 69; - expulsion in the North, 69; - in Boston, 71; - leave colonies for Canada, England, and English West Indies, 71; - flee from colonies, 100; - migration from New York State after the Revolution, 110; - in New York State during the Revolution, 110; - Scotch Highlanders as, 139; - United Empire, 311. - - Lynn (Mass.), 82. - - - Magna Græcia, 232. - - Maine, 101; - scattered settlements on coast of, 87; - 1930 census native population, 235. - - Malay Peninsula, Negroids in, 28. - - Malays, the, 30, 294; - in the Philippines, 31; - in Japan, 31. - - Man, ancestry of, 17. - - Manhattan, Negroes in, 237. - - Manhattan Island, 102, 111. - - Manitoba, 195; - Riel Rebellion in, 306; - settlement of, 313, 314; - Russians in, 318. - - Mann, Elizabeth, 137. - - Manx, 58. - - Marcellus (N.Y.), 110. - - Marietta (Ohio), established by New England Company, 164. - - Maritime Provinces, 309, 315; - Nordic element in, 296; - population in, 300. - - Maryland, 73, 127, 146; - settlement of, 80; - religious groups in, 127, 128; - Negroes in, 128; - Acadians in, 128; - population at time of Revolution, 129; - thoroughly Anglo-Saxon at time of first census, 129; - Alpines in, 153; - 1930 census native population, 239; - attitude toward aliens, 268. - - Mason and Dixon line, 172. - - Massachusetts, first inhabitants of, 81; - expansion in, 84; - naming of cities in, 84, 85; - population pushed westward, 88; - as parent of all New England, 89; - settlement west of Connecticut River in, 89, 90; - influence during Revolution, 99; - loss of population in, 100; - growth in interior of, 101; - Revolutionary troops from, 111; - cosmopolitan population in 1930, 236; - attitude toward aliens, 268. - - Massachusetts Bay, early permanent settlements around, 72; - Governor Winthrop's fleet in, 82. - - Massachusetts Bay Colony, antecedents of, 82; - social status of English founders of, 83, 84. - - Mather, Cotton, 94. - - Maverick, Rev. John, 85. - - Mayas, 341. - - Maynard, Lord, 85. - - Medford (Mass.), 82. - - Mediterraneans, the, 24, 57, 59; - characteristics of, 29; - range of, 29; - in southern Italy, 39; - Celtic-speaking, 40; - on British Isles, 57. - - Melanesia, Negroids in, 28; - racial tangle in, 28. - - Mendoza, 322. - - Mennonites, 79; - in Germantown, 115. - - Mesopotamia, 22, 25, 39. - - Mexican Indians, 327, 349. - - Mexican revolution, in 1810, 326; - in 1910, 326, 327. - - Mexican War, 165, 208, 213; - California annexed to United States as result of, 215. - - Mexicans, in California, 216; - in Southwestern States, 292; - lack of intelligence, 327, 328; - in United States, 327-330. - - Mexico, 323, 348; - Nordics in, 209; - Spaniards in, 324, 325; - Indian blood in, 326. - - Mexico City, 325, 328; - Humboldt in, 322. - - Michaelangelo, 48. - - Michigan, 164; - French atmosphere in, 177; - State Constitution, 177; - population in 1836, 177; - Dutchmen in, 178; - native population in, 250; - Canadians in, 250; - Indians in, 289; - Mexican population in, 293. - - Micmacs, the, 307. - - Middle Atlantic States, powerful section of America, 237. - - Middlefield (Mass.), varied population in, 109. - - Milan, 51. - - Milford (N.J.), 113. - - Milledgeville (Ala.), 183. - - Milwaukee (Wis.), 161, 250, 251; - Germans in, 251. - - Minnesota, 313; - settlement in, 195; - treaties with Indians, 195; - first official census in, 195; - Scandinavians in, 196, 251; - Germans in, 196; - Anglo-Saxon in character, 197; - Indians in, 289; - native population in, 238. - - Miocene, 17. - - Mississippi, heart of Cotton Kingdom, 184; - settlement in, 184-189; - Negroes in, 185; - 1930 census native population, 243. - - Mississippi Bubble, 187. - - Mississippi River, 73; - territories west of, 195-207. - - Mississippi Valley, 149; - Norway and Sweden immigration to, 229; - settlement of, 256. - - Missouri, 87, 172, 175; - Boone in, 123; - settlement in, 190-192, 201; - Kentuckians in, 191; - Nordic American stock in, 201; - native population in, 252; - Negroes in, 252. - - Mitanni, 39. - - Mobile (Ala.), 183. - - Mohammedan Arabs, 45. - - Mohammedanism, and the Negro, 49. - - Mohawk River, 107, 108; - Loyalists and Scotch along the, 76. - - Mohawk Valley, 109, 110. - - Mohawks, the, 299. - - Mohenjo-Daro, 25. - - Mongolia, 23. - - Mongoloid race, physical characteristics of, 37; - as distinguished from Alpine race, 37. - - Mongoloid tribes, 19. - - Mongoloids, the, 28, 64, 294. - - Mongols, the, 21, 53; - similarity to Alpines, 29; - traits in, 30; - ancestors of American Indians, 30; - Asiatic, 31; - confront the Nordics, 356. - - Monongahela country, 165. - - Monroe, James, 136. - - Montana, 254; - few settlers in, 205; - mining industry and growth of, 260; - admitted to statehood, 261; - foreign stock in, 261; - Indians in, 289. - - Montcalm, overthrown at Quebec, 99. - - Montgomery (Ala.), 183. - - Moors, 49. - - Moravia, 79; - Mongolian characters in, 37. - - Moravian Brothers, in North Carolina, 80. - - Moravians, in Georgia, 117, 144. - - Mormon Church, 204. - - Mormon Utah settlement, converts from England, 204. - - Mormonism, 67. - - Mormons, 176; - in Nebraska, 203; - in Utah, 203. - - Morocco, 231. - - Moscovia, 54. - - Mulattoes, 131, 283; - in Virgin Islands, 11; - migration northward, 237; - intelligence of, 284. - - Myjerka, 103. - - "Myth of the Melting Pot," 1. - - - Naples (N.Y.), 110, 231. - - Napoleonic Wars, 302, 312. - - Nashville (Tenn.), 147. - - Natchez (Ala.), 183. - - Natchez (La.), 188. - - National Origins Act, 272, 274, 278. - - National Origins provision, 2. - - National Origins Quota, 323. - - Navajo Indians, 291. - - Naval war in 1798, 71. - - Neapolitan, the, 264. - - Nebraska, 173; - settlement in, 203; - Mormons in, 203; - transients in, 203; - permanent settlers in, 203, 204; - attracted pioneers after Civil War, 254; - Bohemians in, 254; - Nordic influence in, 255. - - Negrillos (or Pigmies), 20. - - Negritos, 31; - in Eurasia, 28. - - Negro slavery, 134, 144. - - Negroes, the, 21; - in Virgin Islands, 11; - and Mohammedanism, 49; - among Roman Catholics in the colonies, 70; - increase in New York State, 237; - manual labor in South by, 281; - in United States according to census, 282; - in the North, 282; - treatment by Southerners, 282, 283; - in the North, 283; - tendency toward Communism, 283; - advantages of "white blood," 284; - in Central American countries, 330 ff. - - Negroids, in Eurasia, 27; - in Melanesia, 28; - in Tasmania, 28. - - Neolithic Mediterraneans, in Ireland, 62; - conquered by the Goidelic, 62. - - Nevada, 254; - discovery of silver in, 205, 261; - growth of, 261; - admitted as a State, 262; - decrease in population, 262. - - Nevis, 85. - - New Amsterdam (Manhattan Island), 102. - - New Bern, 139. - - New Brunswick, Scottish population in, 309; - French-Canadians in, 310. - - New Brunswick (N.J.), 113. - - New Castle County (Del.), 116; - Scotch settlements in, 122. - - New England, Pilgrim and Puritan migration to, 65; - early religions in, 67; - Episcopalians as Loyalists in, 69; - at war with France and Canadian Indians, 71; - early settlements in, 72; - natural increase in population of Whites in, 86; - emigration to Great Britain and West Indies from, 86; - Nordic character in, 90, 91; - Indian population of, 97, 98; - smallpox in, 98; - golden age of, 99; - vigor of Nordics in, 155; - French-Canadians in, 218; - increase of Anglo-Saxon stock in, 219, 220; - decline in white stock birth rate in, 220. - - New England Company, 164. - - New England Emigrant Aid Company, 201. - - New Hampshire, 72, 94; - settlements in, 88, 89; - growth of, 101; - 1930 census native population, 235. - - New Iberia, 188. - - New Jersey, 72; - settlement of, 77; - small Dutch element in, 77; - English in, 77, 111-114; - East Jersey, 112; - West Jersey, 112; - population at time of Revolution, 114; - Alpines in, 153; - foreign-born in, 218; - 1930 census native population, 238. - - New London (Conn.), 87. - - New Mexico, 152; - Spanish language in, 6; - native and Mexican Indians in, 213; - population in, 213, 214; - Mexicans in, 263; - Indians in, 289. - - New Netherland, Dutch settlement of, 102. - - New Orleans (La.), 168, 171, 186. - - New Providence, 345. - - New Rochelle (N.Y.), 76, 106. - - New York City, 112; - inferiority of, at time of Revolution, 105; - beginning of commercial greatness of, 105, 106; - arrival of French Huguenots in, 106; - Puerto Ricans in, 344. - - New York State, 72, 229; - small Dutch population in, 73; - French Huguenots in, 73, 76; - foreigners in, 75; - Flemings in, 76; - as unimportant colony, 105, 108; - New England colonization of, 105; - Palatines in, 107; - invasion of New Englanders after the Revolution, 108; - Ulster Scots in, 108; - Loyalist migration from New York State after the Revolution, 110; - large quantity of Revolutionary troops from, 111; - Alpines in, 153; - foreign-born in, 218; - increase in Negroes in, 237; - race mixture in, 237; - Indians in, 289. - - _New York Tribune_ (quoted), 216. - - New Zealand, 303, 353, 354. - - Newark (N.J.), 72, 113. - - Newark Bay, 113. - - Newfoundland, 296, 307, 308. - - Newport (R.I.), 88. - - Newton, 87. - - Nicaragua, population of, 331, 332. - - Niebelungenlied, the, 51. - - Nile, valley of the, 22. - - Nordic Frisians, 76. - - Nordic race, peculiar characteristics of, 34, 35; - red-haired branch of, 35, 36; - importance in United States, 153; - necessity of close co-operation by, 357. - - Nordics, 21; - jealousy of, 15; - originators of Aryan group of languages, 24, 26; - in India, 25; - and the caste system, 26; - passing of, in India and Persia, 26; - expansion of Alpines at expense of, 31; - development of, 33; - mixture with Mediterraneans in British Islands, 33; - question as to homeland of, 33, 34; - as aggressors, 34; - in Scandinavia, 35; - around Baltic and North Seas, 35; - Celtic, 36; - Teutonic, 36, 42, 46, 50; - in West as Achæans, 39; - in Mesopotamia, 39; - in Italy, 51; - in France, 52; - and the Crusades, 53; - Goidels, 57, 62; - in American colonies, 77; - weakened as a race, 150; - in Mexican territory, 209; - favored in Quota Act of 1921, 271; - confronted by the Mongols, 356, 357. - - Norfolk, 56; - the Angles in, 61. - - Norman conquest in 1066, 60. - - Normandy, religion in, 60. - - Normans, the, 52. - - Norse, 59; - in Scotland, 55. - - Norsemen, 59, 60. - - North, the Revolution in the, 69. - - North Africa, the Berbers of, 24. - - North Carolina, 134, 146; - extended to Mississippi River, 74; - Scots in, 74; - Moravian Brothers in, 80; - English and Ulster Scots in, 80; - Boone in, 123; - settlement of, 138; - varied races in, 138-140; - 1930 census native population, 240; - Indians in, 289. - - North Dakota, native population, 238; - admitted as a State, 253; - Nordic element in, 253; - Indians in, 289. - - North German Nordics, in America, 143. - - North Sea, 35. - - Northampton (England), 84. - - Northamptonshire, 83. - - Northern Abolitionists, 12. - - Northern Pacific Railway, 253. - - Northmen, the, in Scotland, 55; - as Danes, 55; - conquer Normandy, 55. - - Northwest Territory (old), 163-182; - French in, 162; - Mexicans in, 162; - Ohio, 164-167; - Indiana, 167-170; - Illinois, 170-176; - Michigan, 176-178; - Wisconsin, 178-182. - - Norwalk (Conn.), 87. - - Nova Scotia, the French in, 308; - Loyalists in, 308; - Gaelic spoken in, 309. - - - Offnet race, 32. - - Oglethorpe, Governor, 116, 143, 145. - - Ohio, 150; - migration to, 109; - settled by New England Company, 164; - Pennsylvania emigration to, 165; - Nordics and Pennsylvania Dutch in, 166; - German and Irish immigrants in, 166; - settlers of northern Indiana in, 168; - native population in, 248; - Canadians in, 248. - - Ohio Legislature, 165. - - Ohio River, 145, 146, 164, 167, 168. - - Oklahoma, pride of Indian blood in, 98; - cosmopolitan population in, 245, 246; - Indians in, 246, 289-292; - Canadians in, 246. - - Old Charles Town, 141. - - Old Pretender, the, 139. - - Oneida Community, 67. - - Ontario, 303; - Roman Catholic Scotch Highlanders in, 108; - "United Empire Loyalists" in, 111; - French-Canadians in, 310; - Loyalist refugees in, 311; - increase in population, 312; - Nordic element in, 313; - Poles and Italians in, 318; - Russians in, 318. - - Orange County, Ulster Scots in, 107. - - Oregon, settlement in, 206, 207, 256; - native population in, 267. - - Oregon Trail, 259. - - Orient, revolt against European control in the, 15; - missionaries in, 15. - - Osco-Umbrians, 39; - invasions into Italy, 26. - - Ostrogoths, 44, 51. - - Ottawa, French language in, 5. - - Ottawa River, 297. - - - Pacific Coast, 155; - migration westward to, 158, 217, 218; - restless population on, 257; - Indian population on, 290; - immigration of Filipinos on, 293, 294. - - Pacific States, America's future in, 354; - Philippines in, 354. - - Palatinate, the, 116, 228. - - Palatine Germans, along the Hudson River and Mohawk valleys, 76. - - Palatines, the, 8, 106; - in Holland and England, 107; - in New York State, 107, 117; - in Pennsylvania, 107; - in Georgia, 116, 117. - - Paleolithic Period, 32. - - Palmer, 94. - - Palmyra (N.Y.), 110. - - Panama, population of, 333; - North American influence in, 333. - - Panama Canal, 354. - - Papua, racial tangle in, 28. - - Paraguay, 321; - population of, 341, 342; - war with Brazil and Argentina, 341. - - Paris, 186. - - Peace of Paris, the, 99. - - Pelham, 94. - - Penn, William, 114, 115, 121, 123, 125. - - Pennsylvania, 146; - French Huguenots in, 73; - settlement of, 77; - Germans in, 79; - Palatines in, 107; - religious denominations in, 115; - invasion of Palatinates in, 117, 122, 124; - English alarmed over Palatine invasion, 120; - Ulster Scots in, 121-122; - increase in population, 123; - races in, at end of Colonial period, 124; - Delaware part of, 125; - foreign-born in, 218; - 1930 census native population in, 238; - attitude toward aliens, 268. - - Pennsylvania Dutch, 123, 124, 137. - - _Pennsylvanische Deutsche_, 115. - - Perpetual Emigrating Fund, 204. - - Persia, passing of Nordics in, 26; - Negro admixture in, 27. - - Persians, Islamized, 49. - - Perth Amboy (N.J.), 77, 113. - - Perthshire, 159. - - Peru, Indian race in, 342. - - Peruvian Indians, 342. - - Philadelphia, 105, 112, 114, 155, 309; - English Quakers and Welsh around, 77; - Ulster Scots enter colonies through, 77; - strength of Church of England in, 121; - as metropolis of United States, 123. - - Philippines, the, 294; - rise of nationalism in, 14; - American problem in, 353; - in Pacific States, 354; - United States should govern, 355, 356. - - Phrygia, Nordic conquest of, 39. - - Picts, 58, 61. - - Piedmont, 173. - - Piedmont (Italy), 143. - - Pigmies (or Negrillos), 20. - - Pike's Peak, 258, 259. - - Pilgrim Fathers, 82. - - Piscataqua (New Brunswick, N.J.), 113. - - Pittsburgh, Ulster Scots in, 123. - - Pleistocene glaciation, 34. - - Plymouth, 98. - - Plymouth colony, settlers of, 81; - antecedents in, 82. - - Plymouth Rock, 82. - - Po valley, as Cisalpine Gaul, 41. - - Polaks, 355. - - Poland, rise of nationalism in, 14; - migration of German Jews into, 225. - - Polish Jews, 224-226. - - Polk, James K., 210. - - Polygamy, as racial curse, 49, 50. - - Polynesia, Malay blood in, 30. - - Polynesian Islands, 353. - - Pomerania, 181. - - Port of New York, Dutch population outside, 77. - - Portland (Maine), 101. - - Portsmouth (R.I.), 88. - - Portugal, 47, 48, 335, 336. - - Portuguese, in Brazil, 335. - - Prairie Provinces, 314. - - Prince Edward Island, native population of, 309; - French-Canadians in, 310. - - Princeton University, 113. - - Protectorate, the, 133. - - Protestant Episcopal Church, the, 69. - - Protestant House of Orange, 127. - - Providence (R.I.), 88; - Huguenots in, 97. - - Prussia, 116, 170. - - Pueblo Indians, revolt against Spanish, 291. - - Puerto Ricans, 294. - - Puerto Rico, 343, 349; - results of abolition of slavery in, 11; - population of, 343, 344. - - Puget Sound, 267. - - Puritan emigration, from England, 82. - - Puritans, New England, 66; - as refugees in Virginia, 135. - - Putnam, General Rufus, 164. - - - "Q" Celts, 62. - - Quakers, 93, 125; - along Delaware River, 112; - become Anglicans, 121; - in Albemarle, 138. - - Quebec, 229, 304; - French language in, 5; - "Habitat" French of, 8; - intermarriage of French and Indians, 9; - overthrow of Montcalm at, 99; - stronghold of French Canadians, 310; - Russians in, 318. - - Quebec Province (Lower Canada), 301; - French settlement of, 297; - physical characteristics of settlers, 297, 298; - language in, 298; - domination of Jesuits in, 299; - centre of French population, 301. - - Quota Act of 1921, 270, 271; - favored the European Nordic, 271. - - - Race, in United States during Colonial times, 2 ff.; - at present time, 6; - definition of, 21 ff., 36; - distinction between language and, 24; - Mediterranean, 28, 29; - Alpine, 28, 29; - Nordic, 29; - Alpine Slavs, 31; - Mongols, 36; - in Ireland, 62, 63. - _See also under_ various races. - - Railroads, 175. - - Ravenal, 141. - - Reading (Pa.), 121, 123. - - Red River, steam navigation on, 313. - - Red River Colony, 195, 313. - - Red River country, 253. - - Reformation, the, 42; - lack of hold on Ireland, 63. - - "Refuge for the Oppressed," 227. - - "Regulators," rebellion in North Carolina, 70. - - Reuter, E.B., 284. - - Revolution, the American, hatred in New England of mother country - during, 68; - political and social, 70; - loss of Nordic blood in America during, 71; - and expulsion of Iroquois Indians, 76; - Germans unloyal during, 79; - Protestants in United States after, 152; - Nordic invasion of Florida during, 193; - migration following, 256. - - Revolution (French), 179. - - Revolution of 1689, 128. - - Rhode Island, settlements in, 88; - source of colonization, 89; - 1930 census native population, 236. - - Richelieu River, 301. - - Richmond (N.Y.), 110. - - Richmond (Va.), 136. - - Riel Rebellion, 306. - - Rio Grande, the, 154, 320. - - Robinson (clergyman), 83. - - Rochester, increase in Negroes in, 237. - - Rock Island and Pacific Railway, 196. - - Rocky Mountain States, 257; - varying population in, 258. - - Roderick, 46. - - Roman Catholic church, growth in America, 162; - hostility of Know Nothing Party to, 219; - strength in Canada, 318. - - Roman Catholics, population in the colonies, 69, 70; - Negroes and Germans among, 70; - many colonies legislated against, 70. - - Rome, 22; - sacked by Gauls, 41. - - Roosevelt, Theodore, 4, 269. - - Roxbury (Mass.), 82. - - Royalists, in Virginia, 135. - - Russia, Varangians in, 56. - - - Sahara Desert, 26. - - Saint Croix, 85. - - Saint Kitts, 85, 86. - - Saint Lawrence River, 300, 301. - - Saint Louis (Mo.), 161, 171, 196; - as French outpost, 190; - marked German tinge in, 191, 192. - - Saint Mary's (Md.), 126, 128. - - Saladin, 50. - - Salem, 112. - - Salvador, population of, 331. - - Salzburg, 144. - - San Antonio (Texas), 212. - - San Francisco (Calif.), 216; - Oriental laborers in, 265. - - Sanscrit, in Burma, 25; - in India, 25. - - Santo Domingo, 287, 345; - loss of white control in, 11, 12; - barbarism in, 12. - - Saracens, at Tours, 53. - - Saskatchewan, 314; - Russians in, 318. - - Savannah (Ga.), 144. - - Saxons, 41, 51; - invaded Britain, 59. - - Scandinavia, 42; - first Nordics in, 35; - Nordic immigration from, 227, 229. - - Schenectady, 103. - - Schuylkill valley, Germans in, 121. - - Schwankenfelders, 79. - - Scituate, 82. - - Scotch Highlanders, importation of Roman Catholics, 108. - - "Scotch Irish," 63. - - Scotch Rebellion of 1670, 133. - - Scotland, 58; - Nordic population in, 59; - invaded by Danes, 59. - - Scrooby, 82. - - Sedgmoor, Battle of, 134. - - Sedition Act of 1798, 268. - - Selkirk, Lord, 313. - - Seneca Falls (N.Y.), 110. - - Seneca Lake, 110. - - Sephardim, 227. - - Seven Seas, the, 352. - - Seven Years' War, 193. - - Sevier, 141. - - Shakers, 67. - - Shawneetown, 172. - - Shays's Rebellion, 70, 90. - - Sheffield, 90. - - Shenandoah Valley, 74, 137, 146; - Scotch Germans in, 122. - - Sicily, 231, 232. - - Sidonius, Appollonius, 51. - - Sierra range, the, 155. - - Silesia, 53. - - Singapore, 354. - - Sioux Indians, 291. - - Skrellings, 98. - - Slavery, 12; - results of abolition on British Empire, 11; - in South Africa, 11; - in Jamaica, 11; - in Puerto Rico, 11; - and the Civil War, 12, 13; - in South Carolina, 142. - - Slavs, Alpine, 31. - - Smith, Captain John, 90. - - Société des Amis des Noirs, 12. - - Sogdians, 23. - - "Solid South," 282. - - Somaliland, 29. - - Somerset, 159. - - South, the, religion in, 69; - decline of leadership in, 175. - - South Africa, 353; - results of abolition of slavery in, 11. - - South Carolina, 168; - racial complexion in, 80; - settlement of, 141; - large-scale agriculture in, 141; - Ulster Scots in, 142; - slavery question in, 142; - Nordics and loyalists in, 142; - Dorchester Society in, 144; - Negroes outnumbered whites, 185; - 1930 census native population, 240, 241. - - South Dakota, rush in 1876 in, 254; - Indians in, 289. - - South Irish Catholics, 7. - - South Italy, Negroid element in, 9. - - South of Portugal, Negro slave element in, 9. - - South Russia, Aryan language in, 24; - the Goths in, 44. - - "South Sea," the, 162 - - Southern frontiersman, religion of, 67. - - Southwest, 183-194; - Alabama, 183, 184; - Mississippi, 184-189; - Louisiana, 185-189; - Arkansas, 189-190; - Missouri, 190-192; - Florida, 192-194. - - Soviet Russia, Alpines in, 15. - - Spain, conquered by Celtic Nordics, 40; - Visigoths in, 45; - ceded Florida to England, 193. - - Spaniards, in Mexico, 324, 325. - - Spanish Conquest, 324. - - Spanish Main, the, 98. - - Spencer, Herbert (quoted), 9, 10. - - Stamford (Conn.), 87. - - Statehood, 258, 261, 262. - - Steamboat, first on Lake Erie, 177. - - "Stony Mountains," 155. - - Stormont (Ontario), 312. - - Straits of Gibraltar, 45. - - Stratford (Conn.), 87. - - Suevi, the, 42, 45, 51. - - Suffolk, the Angles in, 61. - - Sumner, Senator, 288. - - Surrey, 159. - - Susquehanna River, 110. - - Swabia, 228. - - Sweden, 44, 45. - - Swedes, 111. - - Switzerland, 50; - national unity in, 5; - various languages in, 5. - - Symmes, Judge T.C., 164. - - Syracuse, increase in Negroes in, 237. - - Syria, 231. - - - Tasmania, 20; - Negroids in, 28. - - Taunton (Mass.), 82. - - Tennessee, 72, 146, 157; - Scotch and Germans in, 122; - settlement of, 147-149; - Alpines in, 153; - racial make-up of, 242. - - Teutonic, branch of the Nordic race, 42; - as a term, 43. - - Teutonic Nordics, 36, 42, 43. - - Teutons, 42; - collapse of Roman Empire under, 43; - physical characteristics of, 43. - - Texas, 152, 174; - Mexicans in, 162, 208; - American settlement in, 209; - importance as slave-holding territory, 209; - growth of population at time of Mexican War, 212; - Negroes in, 212; - German emigration (Alpines) in, 212; - foreign elements in, 246; - Nordic absorption of, 256. - - _The Chronicle_, 260. - - "The Land of Little Sticks," 316. - - "The Provisional State of Deseret," 204. - - "The Refuge of the Oppressed," 1. - - Theodoric, 44. - - Thirteen Colonies, the, 163. - - Thirty Years War, 127. - - Thomson, David, 88. - - "Three Notch Road," 184. - - Tioga River, 110. - - Tokarian language, 25. - - Toulouse, 48. - - Tours, the Saracens at, 53. - - Transcontinental Railway, 203. - - Treaty of Paris, 163. - - Trenton (N.J.), 115. - - Troubadours, 48. - - Tucson (Ariz.), 214. - - Turanians, 31. - - "Turco," 339. - - Turkestan, Ural-Altaic language in, 24. - - Turks, race mixture among, 50; - in Asia Minor, 50. - - - Ukraine, the, 54. - - Ulster, 95; - Presbyterians in, 63. - - Ulster Presbyterians, 93. - - Ulster Scots, 7, 92, 93, 96; - in America, 60; - hatred of England, 67; - forced to the West, 73; - in North Carolina, Kentucky and Tennessee, 74; - in California, 78; - in Ireland, 78; - in Orange County, 107; - established church in Albany, 108; - west of Alleghanies, 123; - in Pittsburgh, 123; - in Maryland, 129; - in South Carolina, 142; - in Georgia, 144; - animosity during Revolution, 150. - - Union, the, requirement for admission to, in 1818, 173. - - Union Pacific Railway, 259. - - Unitarian form of Christianity, 46. - - "United Empire Loyalists," 111, 311, 313. - - United Irishmen, 159. - - United States, mixture of racial groups in, 2; - effect of sentimentalism on Nordic survival in, 12; - slavery in, 12; - first census, 49; - distribution of free land in, 65; - little Dutch blood in present population of, 104; - population at time of first census, 149, 152, 153; - Protestant majority in, 151, 154; - Catholic hierarchy in, 151, 152; - Nordic race in, 153; - Alpine race in, 153; - census of 1860, 158, 162; - German settlement in, 180, 181; - Nordics in, 220, 226, 234; - national unity in, 222; - Nordic immigration from Scandinavia, 227-230; - Alpines in, 227, 228; - European immigration to, 228; - early Germans in, 228; - Norwegians in farming land of, 230; - immigration of English and Irish in, 230; - immigration of Italians, 231; - percentage of alien emigration and immigration in, 233; - "gentlemen's agreement" with Japan, 266; - white population in 1920, 278; - percentage of Protestants in, 279; - percentage of Nordics in, 279, 280; - loss of unity in, 281; - Negroes in, 282; - increase of electoral vote in the South, 282; - 1930 Indian population, 289; - distribution of Indians in, 289; - Mexicans in, according to 1930 census, 293; - Hindu immigration prevented in, 295; - Irish Catholic migration from Canada to, 304; - Mexicans in, 324; - disadvantages of Mexican immigration to, 327, 329; - percentage of Nordics and Protestants in, 347; - immigration during last century, 347, 348; - restriction of immigration, 348 ff.; - aliens in, 350; - international affair, 352; - "White Man's Burden" in, 352, 357; - trouble with Philippines, 354; - should govern Philippines, 355. - - Upland (Chester), 114. - - Upper Canada, 297; - immigration from British Isles to, 302, 303; - increase in population, 312. - - Ur, 25. - - Ural mountains, 54. - - Uruguay, white races in, 337; - cosmopolitan population in, 338. - - Utah, Mormons in, 176, 204, 205, 256; - Nordic population in, 204, 205; - native population in, 261; - foreign stock in, 261. - - Utica, increase in Negroes in, 237. - - - Vaal River, 11. - - Valens, 44. - - Valley of the Syr-Daria, 22. - - Van Buren, Martin, 256. - - Vandals, 45, 46. - - Varangians, 56, 59. - - Varini, the, 52. - - Venezuela, population of, 334. - - Vermont, dispute over ownership of, 72; - settlement of, 89; - as a frontier, 90; - migration from Massachusetts to, 90; - as an independent state, 90; - growth of, 101; - 1930 census native population, 235. - - Victorian Era, 281. - - Vigot (or Bigot), 46. - - Vincennes (Ind.), 149, 168. - - Virgin Islands, 192; - Negroes and Mulattoes in, 11, 345. - - Virginia, 116, 117, 146, 220; - early settlements, 72; - Mother of States in Colonial times, 73; - tidewater population, 73, 74; - extended to Mississippi River, 73; - English settlement, 80; - natural increase in population of whites, 86; - Pocahontas tradition in, 99; - as exploitation of adventurers, 130; - mixed classes of immigrants in, 132 ff.; - Cavaliers in, 133; - refuge of Puritans during Stuart period, 135; - Royalists in, 135; - Kentucky veterans in, 164; - 1930 census native population, 240; - surplus population, 242. - - Virginia City (Nevada), 261. - - Visigoths, 46, 52; - in Gaul, 44; - in Spain, 45, 49. - - Vistula, the, 44, 54. - - Von Bismarck, chancellor, 282. - - - Waldenses, 143. - - Wales, 58, 59; - Norsemen in, 59; - Iberians in, 61. - - Walker's Law, 276. - - Walla Walla Valley, 207. - - Walloons, 102. - - War of 1812, 166, 171, 177, 208, 312, 313; - causes of, 163. - - Warwick (R.I.), 88. - - Washington, 289; - an independent territory, 207; - native population, 267; - population increased by railways, 267; - Nordic element in, 267. - - Washington (D.C.), 239. - - Washington Bicentennial in 1932, 6. - - Washington, George, 125, 148. - - Watauga settlement, the, 148. - - Watertown (Mass.), 81, 82, 87. - - Welsh, in England, 41. - - Wends, 31, 54. - - Wessex, Puritan emigration from, 84. - - West Central Asia, 64; - origin of civilization in, 22, 23. - - West India Company, 103. - - West Indies, 208, 294, 325, 343; - languages in, 23, 24; - Nordic settlement, 85, 86; - Negroes in, 86; - Loyalists flee to, 100; - South Carolinians in, 142; - fate of colonists in, 154, 155. - - West Jersey, 112, 113. - - West Scotland, high stature in, 62. - - West Virginia, 138; - 1930 census native population, 241, 242. - - Wethersfield (Conn.), 87. - - Whiskey Rebellion, 70, 125. - - "White Man's Burden," 352, 354, 357. - - Whites, the, 12, 20; - slaves injurious to, 13. - - Whitesborough, 109. - - Whitman, Marcus, 206. - - Wilderness Road, 145. - - William III, 63. - - Williams, Roger, 88. - - Wilmington (Del.), 115, 139. - - Wilson, Woodrow, 14, 269, 270. - - Wiltshire, 84. - - Windsor (Conn.), 87. - - Winnipeg, 313. - - Winthrop, Governor, arrival of fleet in Massachusetts Bay, 82. - - Wisconsin, 164, 175, 195; - lead mines in, 172, 178; - settlement of, 178-182; - growth, 178, 179; - foreign element in, 179; - climate, soil, and forest lands, 179, 180; - Germans in, 179-181; - non-Nordic population, 182; - native population, 238; - foreign element in, 250, 251; - waning of wheat industry, 254; - Indians in, 289. - - Woodbridge (N.J.), 113. - - Worcester, 94. - - World, the, racially, 26 ff. - - World War, 15, 116, 185, 212, 231, 246, 247, 252, 269, 283, 315, 336, - 338, 340, 356; - immigration law as result of, 1, 2; - foreigners in draft list, 3; - immigration from Scandinavia since, 229. - - Wright, J.K., (quoted), 40 n. - - Wurtemberg, 268. - - Wusuns, 34. - - Wyoming, admitted to Union, 259; - native population, 259; - foreign stock in, 259. - - Wyoming Valley of Pennsylvania, 101. - - - Yadkin valley, 123. - - Yarmouth, 82. - - Yiddish (language), 225. - - York (Pa.), 79, 122. - - Yorkshire, 82. - - Young, Brigham, 204, 205. - - Young Pretender, the, 139. - - - Zuyder Zee, 103. - - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's The Conquest of a Continent, by Madison Grant - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CONQUEST OF A CONTINENT *** - -***** This file should be named 60145-8.txt or 60145-8.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/0/1/4/60145/ - -Produced by Tim Lindell, Graeme Mackreth and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: The Conquest of a Continent - or, The Expansion of Races in America - -Author: Madison Grant - -Release Date: August 21, 2019 [EBook #60145] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CONQUEST OF A CONTINENT *** - - - - -Produced by Tim Lindell, Graeme Mackreth and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - - - - - - -</pre> - - -<div class="hidehand"> -<p class="center"> -<img src="images/cover.jpg" alt="pic" /> -</p></div> - - - - - - - - - - -<p class="ph1">THE CONQUEST OF<br /> -A CONTINENT</p> - -<p class="ph3">OR</p> - -<p class="ph3">THE EXPANSION OF RACES IN AMERICA</p> - -<p class="ph5">BY</p> - -<p class="ph3">MADISON GRANT</p> - -<p class="ph5">PRESIDENT, NEW YORK ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY<br /> -TRUSTEE, AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY<br /> -PRESIDENT, BOONE AND CROCKETT CLUB<br /> -COUNCILLOR, AMERICAN GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY<br /> -AUTHOR, "PASSING OF THE GREAT RACE"</p> - -<p class="ph4">WITH AN INTRODUCTION</p> - -<p class="ph5">BY</p> - -<p class="ph4" style="margin-top: 10em;">PROF. HENRY FAIRFIELD OSBORN</p> - -<p class="ph4">CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS</p> - -<p class="ph5">NEW YORK · LONDON</p> - -<p class="ph6">MCMXXXIII</p> - - - - - - -<p class="ph5" style="margin-top: 10em;"><span class="smcap">Copyright, 1933, by</span></p> - -<p class="ph5">CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS</p> - -<p class="ph6">Printed in the United States of America</p> - -<p class="ph6"><i>All rights reserved. No part of this book -may be reproduced in any form without -the permission of Charles Scribner's Sons</i></p> - -<p class="center"> -<img src="images/illus1.jpg" alt="pic" /> -</p> - - - - - - -<p class="ph5" style="margin-top: 10em;">To</p> - -<p class="ph6">MY BROTHER</p> - -<p class="ph4">DE FOREST GRANT</p> - - - - - -<p class="ph2">INTRODUCTION</p> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span><span class="smcap">The</span> character of a country depends upon the racial character of the men -and women who dominate it. I welcome this volume as the first attempt -to give an authentic racial history of our country, based on the -scientific interpretation of race as distinguished from language and -from geographic distribution.</p> - -<p>The most striking induction arising through research into the -prehistory of man is that racial characters and predispositions, -governing racial reactions to certain old and new conditions of life, -extend far back of the most ancient civilizations. For example, -the characteristics which Homer, in the <i>Iliad</i> and the <i>Odyssey</i>, -attributed to his heroes and to his imaginary gods and goddesses -were not the product of the civilization which existed in his time -in Greece; they were the product of creative evolution long prior -even to the beginnings of Greek culture and government. This creative -principle—the most mysterious of the recently discovered phenomena -of evolution, to which I have devoted the researches of nearly half -a century—is that racial preparation for various expressions of -civilization—art, law, government, etc.—is long antecedent to these -institutions.</p> - -<p>Ripley missed this point in his superb researches into the racial -constitution of the peoples of Europe. Grant partly based his <i>Passing -of the Great Race</i> on Ripley's researches, but did not carry out the -purely<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</a></span> anatomical analysis to its logical end-point, namely, that -moral, intellectual, and spiritual traits are just as distinctive and -characteristic of different races as are head-form, hair and eye color, -physical stature, and other data of anthropologists.</p> - -<p>In the present volume, which I regard as an entirely original and -essential contribution to the history of the United States of America, -Grant goes much further and in tracing back the racial origins of the -majority of our people he lays the foundation for an understanding -of the peculiar characteristics of American civilization, which, all -agree, is of a very new type, something the world has never before seen.</p> - -<p>Grant supports Ripley in his distinction between three great European -stocks—Nordic, Alpine, Mediterranean. He gives very strong additional -reasons for one of his own earlier inductions, namely, that the -Aryan language was invented by primitive peoples of the Nordic race -before its dispersal, in the third millennium <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, from -the Steppe country in the southeast of Russia. This superb and -flexible language doubtless aided the Nordic race in its conquest -of Europe, in its ever-westward journey across the Atlantic, in its -Anglo-Saxon occupation of our continent, in its stamping of Anglo-Saxon -institutions on American government and civilization. We all recognize -that, like all other languages, Aryan is purely a linguistic and not -a racial term, just as French is spoken equally by the Norman Nordics -of the north of France, by the Alpines of the center, and by the -Mediterraneans of the south.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</a></span></p> - -<p>My faith is unshaken in the ultimately beneficial recognition of racial -values and in the stimulating and generous emulation aroused by racial -consciousness. Let this stimulation be without prejudice to other -racial values—which should be duly recognized and evaluated—values -we Anglo-Saxons do not naturally possess. Moreover, I set great store -by the great mass of documentary evidence assembled by Grant in the -present volume. I think it explodes the bubble, of the opponents of -racial values, that they are merely myths. The theme of the present -work is that America was made by Protestants of Nordic origin and that -their ideas about what makes true greatness should be perpetuated. That -this is a precious heritage which we should not impair or dilute by -permitting the entrance and dominance of alien values and peoples of -alien minds and hearts.</p> - -<p>Finally I would like to define clearly my own position on these -very important racial questions which arouse so much heat, so much -bad feeling, so much misrepresentation. I object strongly to the -assumption that one race is "superior" or "inferior" to another, -just as I object to the assumption that all races are alike or even -equal. Such assumptions are wholly unwarranted by facts. Equality or -inequality, superiority and inferiority, are all relative terms. For -example, around the Equator the black races and certain of the colored -and tinted races are "superior" to the white races and may be capable -under certain conditions of creating great civilizations. In a torrid -climate and under a burning sun witness the marvel<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[Pg x]</a></span>lous achievements of -the Mediterranean race in Mesopotamia, Egypt, North Africa, Cambodia, -and India between 4000 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> and 1250 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> Or, -coming nearer home to the cool mountain regions, witness the great -achievements of the Alpine race in engineering, in mathematics, and in -astronomy.</p> - -<p>It follows that racial superiority and inferiority are partly matters -of the intellectual and spiritual evolution which guides one race after -another into periods of great ascent too often followed by sad and -catastrophic decline. In this as in all other interminglings of science -and sentiment, let us not extenuate nor write in malice, but always in -broad-mindedness and a truly generous spirit.</p> - -<p>It is with the greatest pleasure that I have written a few words -endorsing this book as the first racial history of America, or, in -fact, of any nation. I stand with the author not only in nailing his -colors to the mast but in giving an entirely indisputable historic, -patriotic, and governmental basis to the fact that in its origin and -evolution our country is fundamentally Nordic.</p> - -<p> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;"><span class="smcap">Henry Fairfield Osborn.</span></span><br /> -</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>August, 1933.</p></blockquote> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[Pg xi]</a></span></p> - - - - -<p class="ph2">ACKNOWLEDGMENTS</p> - - -<p>First and foremost, the author desires to express his appreciation of -the assistance of his research associate, Doctor Paul Popenoe, who -collected authorities and statistics during an intensive study lasting -over four years.</p> - -<p>He also desires to express his appreciation for the sympathy and aid -of Professor Henry Fairfield Osborn, and of Charles Stewart Davison, -Esq. The latter carefully revised the text and made many valuable -suggestions.</p> - -<p>The author owes a special debt of gratitude to Doctor Clarence G. -Campbell for much assistance and to Doctor Harry H. Laughlin for many -of the statistics and analyses used in this book. His thanks are due -also to Captain John B. Trevor, whose masterly study of the early -population has been a great help, as have the studies of Messrs. Howard -F. Barker and Marcus L. Hansen. He also wishes to acknowledge the -assistance of Mr. A.E. Hamilton.</p> - -<p>Colonel William Wood, of Quebec, has been of great assistance in the -data given regarding the origin of the French "Habitants" in Canada.</p> - -<p>The writer is also obligated to Professor E. Prokosch, of Yale -University, for his assistance on several critical points.</p> - - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[Pg xii]</a></span></p> - -<p>The American Geographical Society and Mr. Ray R. Platt were -instrumental in providing the maps used in this volume and the author -takes this opportunity to express his thanks to them both.</p> - - - - -<p class="ph2">CONTENTS</p> - -<table summary="contents" width="65%"> -<tr><td></td><td></td><td>PAGE</td></tr> - -<tr><td></td><td><span class="smcap">Introduction, by Prof. Henry Fairfield Osborn</span></td> <td align="right"><a href="#Page_vii">vii</a></td></tr> - - -<tr><td><small>CHAPTER</small></td><td></td><td></td></tr> - -<tr><td align="right">I.</td> <td><a href="#I"><span class="smcap">Foreword</span></a></td> <td align="right"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td align="right">II.</td> <td><a href="#II"><span class="smcap">The Cradle of Mankind</span></a></td> <td align="right"><a href="#Page_17">17</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td align="right">III.</td> <td><a href="#III"><span class="smcap">The Nordic Conquest of Europe</span></a></td> <td align="right"><a href="#Page_39">39</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td align="right">IV.</td> <td><a href="#IV"><span class="smcap">The Nordic Settlement of America</span></a></td> <td align="right"><a href="#Page_65">65</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td align="right">V.</td> <td><a href="#V"><span class="smcap">The Puritans in New England</span></a></td> <td align="right"><a href="#Page_81">81</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td align="right">VI.</td><td><a href="#VI"><span class="smcap">The Gateways to the West from New -England and Virginia</span></a></td> <td align="right"><a href="#Page_102">102</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td align="right">VII.</td> <td><a href="#VII"><span class="smcap">Virginia and Her Neighbors</span></a></td> <td align="right"><a href="#Page_130">130</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td align="right">VIII.</td><td><a href="#VIII"><span class="smcap">The Old Northwest Territory</span></a></td> <td align="right"><a href="#Page_158">158</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td align="right">IX.</td> <td><a href="#IX"><span class="smcap">The Mountaineers Conquer the Southwest</span></a></td> <td align="right"><a href="#Page_183">183</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td align="right">X.</td> <td><a href="#X"><span class="smcap">From the Mississippi to the Oregon</span></a></td> <td align="right"><a href="#Page_195">195</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td align="right">XI.</td> <td><a href="#XI"><span class="smcap">The Spoils of the Mexican War</span></a></td> <td align="right"><a href="#Page_208">208</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td align="right">XII.</td> <td><a href="#XII"><span class="smcap">The Alien Invasion</span></a></td> <td align="right"><a href="#Page_223">223</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td align="right">XIII.</td> <td><a href="#XIII"><span class="smcap">The Transformation of America</span></a></td> <td align="right"><a href="#Page_235">235</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td align="right">XIV.</td> <td><a href="#XIV"><span class="smcap">Checking the Alien Invasion</span></a></td> <td align="right"><a href="#Page_268">268</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td align="right">XV.</td> <td><a href="#XV"><span class="smcap">The Legacy of Slavery</span></a></td> <td align="right" ><a href="#Page_281">281</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td align="right">XVI.</td> <td><a href="#XVI"><span class="smcap">Our Neighbors on the North</span></a></td> <td align="right"><a href="#Page_296">296</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td align="right">XVII.</td> <td><a href="#XVII"><span class="smcap">Our Neighbors on the South</span></a></td> <td align="right"><a href="#Page_320">320</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td align="right">XVIII.</td> <td><a href="#XVIII"><span class="smcap">The Nordic Outlook</span></a></td> <td align="right"><a href="#Page_347">347</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td align="right"></td><td><a href="#BIBLIOGRAPHY"><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span></a></td> <td align="right"><a href="#Page_359">359</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td align="right"></td><td><a href="#INDEX"><span class="smcap">Index</span></a></td> <td align="right"><a href="#Page_379">379</a></td></tr> -</table> - - -<p class="center">MAPS</p> - - -<p style="margin-left: 20%;"> - -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;"><a href="#illus2">Ireland</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;"><a href="#illus3">Highlands and Lowlands of Scotland</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;"><a href="#illus4">Ulster Scot and New England Origins</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;"><a href="#illus5">Puritan Emigration from England, 1620-1640</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;"><a href="#illus6">Territorial Growth of the United States</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;"><a href="#illus15">The Thirteen Colonies</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;"><a href="#illus8">Roman Catholics, 1930</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;"><a href="#illus9">Congregational Churches</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;"><a href="#illus7">Negro Population, 1930</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;"><a href="#illus16">Negro Population: Increase and Decrease, 1920-1930</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;"><a href="#illus11">Dominion of Canada and Newfoundland</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;"><a href="#illus12">Mexico, Central America, and the West Indies</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;"><a href="#illus13">Distribution of Mexicans by States</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;"><a href="#illus14">South America</a></span><br /> -</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p> -<p class="ph2"><a name="THE_CONQUEST_OF_A_CONTINENT" id="THE_CONQUEST_OF_A_CONTINENT">THE CONQUEST OF A CONTINENT</a></p> - - - - -<p class="ph2"><a name="I" id="I">I</a></p> - -<p class="center">FOREWORD</p> - - -<p><span class="smcap">American</span> public sentiment regarding the admission of aliens has -undergone recently a profound change. At the end of the nineteenth -century a fatuous humanitarianism prevailed and immigrants of all kinds -were welcomed to "The Refuge of the Oppressed," regardless of whether -they were needed in our industrial development or whether they tended -to debase our racial unity.</p> - -<p>The "Myth of the Melting Pot" was, at that time, deemed by the -unthinking to be a part of our national creed.</p> - -<p>This general attitude was availed of and encouraged by the steamship -companies, which felt the need of the supply of live freight. The -leading industrialists and railroad builders were equally opposed -to any check on the free entry of cheap labor. Restrictionists were -active, but in number they were relatively few, until the World War -aroused the public to the danger of mass migration from the countries -of devastated and impoverished Europe.</p> - -<p>As a result of the problems raised by the World War, a stringent -immigration law was passed in 1924 and is now in force. This law<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> has -for its basic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span> principle a provision that the total number of persons -allowed to enter the United States from countries to which quotas have -been assigned shall be so apportioned as to constitute a cross section -of the then existent white population of the United States. This is the -so-called National Origins provision.</p> - -<p>A controversy immediately arose over this new basis, as it was to the -interest of every national and religious group of aliens now here -to exaggerate the importance and size of its contribution to the -population of our country, especially in Colonial times. This was -particularly true of immigrants from those nations, such as Germany -and Ireland, the quotas of which were greatly reduced under the new -law. The purpose of this opposition was to warp public opinion in -regard to the merits of various national groups and to exaggerate the -non-Anglo-Saxon elements in the old Colonial population.</p> - -<p>This book is an effort to make an estimate of the various elements, -national and racial, existing in the present population of the United -States and to trace their arrival and subsequent spread.</p> - -<p>In the days of our fathers the white population of the United States -was practically homogeneous. Racially it was preponderantly English -and Nordic. At the end of the Colonial period we had a population -about 90 per cent Nordic and over 80 per cent British in origin. In -spite of the intrusion of two foreign elements of importance, both -nevertheless chiefly Nordic, our population and our institutions -remained overwhelmingly Anglo-Saxon down to the time of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span> the Civil War. -Since that time there has been an ever-increasing tendency to change -the nature of this once "American" people into a mosaic of national, -racial, and religious groups. The question to what extent this -transformation has gone deserves careful study.</p> - -<p>The draft lists for the American army in the large cities during the -World War showed an amazing collection of foreign names. These lists -are most dramatic indications of the substantial modifications of the -original Anglo-Saxon character of the population which have occurred. A -vivid illustration is found in a war poster issued by an enthusiastic -clerk of foreign extraction in the Treasury Department during one of -the appeals for Liberty Loans. A Howard Chandler Christy girl of pure -Nordic type was shown pointing with pride to a list of names, saying -"Americans All." The list was:</p> - -<p style="margin-left: 20%;"> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">DuBois</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Smith</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">O'Brien</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Ceika</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Haucke</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Pappandrikopulous</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Andrassi</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Villotto</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Levy</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Turovich</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Kowalski</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Chriczanevicz</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Knutson</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Gonzales</span><br /> -</p> - -<p>Apparently the one native American, so far as he figures at all, is -hidden under the sobriquet of Smith, and there is possibly the implied -suggestion that the beautiful lady was herself the product of this -remarkable mélange.</p> - -<p>Similar foreign names are beginning to appear and sometimes predominate -in the list of college grad<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span>uates, successful athletes, and minor -politicians. In the words of the late President Theodore Roosevelt, we -are becoming a polyglot boarding house.</p> - -<p>The modification of the religious complexion of the nation also is -very striking. In Colonial times Americans were almost unanimously -Protestants. Now the claim is made that one in seven is a Catholic and -one in thirty a Jew. To what extent this change is due to immigration -and to what extent to the differential birth rate should be carefully -considered.</p> - -<p>In dealing with racial admixture, we should be certain that we are -not considering merely nationality, religion, or language. In popular -thought there is such a racial entity as the German, the Russian, the -Frenchman, or the Italian. These, however, are not racial, but national -terms. In a few cases of still unmixed peoples, like those of Sweden -and Norway, nationality, language, religion, and race coincide. But in -Germany, for instance, the Germans along the North Sea and the Baltic -coasts are Protestant Nordics, while those of Bavaria, of Austria, and -of other parts of the south are Catholic Alpines. Italy north of the -Apennines is largely Alpine, slightly mixed with Nordic, while Naples -and Sicily in the South are purely Mediterranean by race. In France, -where there is a mixed Nordic, Mediterranean, and Alpine population, a -single language and an ancient tradition have created an intense unity -of national feeling, and in recent decades there has been a marked -transfer of political control from the Nor<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span>dic to the Alpine element, -as evidenced by the names and features of the present political -leaders. In Belgium there are two languages, in Switzerland four, to -say nothing of the medley of languages in the old Austrian Empire. Only -in Switzerland is there national unity, in spite of a diversity of -tongue.</p> - -<p>In America the events of the last hundred years, especially the vast -tide of immigration, have greatly impaired our purity of race and -our unity of religion and even threatened our inheritance of English -speech. If our English language is saved it will be due in no small -degree to the growing world power of the language itself and of its -literature, as well as to the world-wide ocean commerce of Great -Britain and her overseas empire.</p> - -<p>In the United States today this unity of language is vigorously -opposed by the foreign-language press. In all probability, however, -this foreign press is doomed to die out as the older generation of -immigrants passes from the scene. The fact that this non-English press -represents a score or more of different languages makes it impossible -for it in the long run to oppose successfully the English language.</p> - -<p>In Canada the fact that the French language is officially recognized -in Quebec and, for that matter, in the Parliament at Ottawa, makes the -problem there more difficult. It may be here noted that the French -language as spoken in Quebec is sneered at and ridiculed by the -European French. The use of French speech in Quebec, like the attempted -use of Erse in Ireland and Czechish in Bohemia, is merely<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span> serving to -keep those speaking such language out of touch with modern literature -and culture.</p> - -<p>The absurdity of attempting to revive an obsolete language such as -Erse is shown by its lack of literature of modern type. Sir Harry -H. Johnston once said to the author that Erse was a perfectly good -language, except for two facts—first, that nobody could pronounce it -and, second, that nobody could spell it.</p> - -<p>In Louisiana French is still spoken by the Creoles of New Orleans -and by the French and Negro mixture called "Cajans." This linguistic -diversity will in due course of time also disappear. More serious -is the retention and use in New Mexico of the Spanish language by -its Mexican-Indian population. Few people know that New Mexico is -officially bi-lingual. Sooner or later this must be stopped, as it has -greatly hindered the development of the State.</p> - -<p>As to race, as distinct from language, religion, and nationality, we -must consider our country today as being in large part a heterogeneous -mixture of racial groups and individuals. Since America's first duty is -to herself and to the people already here, she must weigh the effect -upon the present, as well as upon the future, of such racial admixture -as has already occurred and which promises to spread indefinitely.</p> - -<p>A striking example of this was shown during the Washington Bicentennial -in 1932, when some historians, in their efforts to placate the -assertive groups of aliens in our midst, endeavored to show the -existence in the colonies of substantial groups<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span> of these same aliens. -For instance, they claimed that most of the Revolutionary personages of -Irish descent were the same as the South Irish Catholics of today. That -is wholly error. The so-called "Irish" of the Revolution were Ulster -Scots either from the Lowlands of Scotland or from North England, who -came to the colonies by way of the North of Ireland after having lived -there for two or three generations. These Ulster Scots were reinforced -by Protestant English who emigrated from Leinster and both were widely -removed, religiously and culturally, from the South Irish Catholics, -who did not come to this country in any numbers until the potato famine -in Ireland in the 1840's drove them across the seas.</p> - -<p>To take an example: In the Convention of 1787, which formulated the -Constitution, certain individuals were put down as "Irish." These were -Protestant Ulster Scots. In the Senate of today, a few of the senators -are put down as "Irish." These are South Irish Catholics. To use the -same term for these two different types of population is erroneous. -They were widely separated religiously, racially, and culturally. -The same thing is true of that part of our population which was -referred to as "French." The French of the American Revolution and -of our Constitutional Convention were Huguenot French, who, though -few in numbers, took a prominent part in public affairs at the time -of the Revolution. They were, for the most part, Nordic and were -English-speaking. They were a distinguished group which had nothing -whatever in common with the "Habitant" French of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span> Quebec, who are -Catholic Alpines. To call them both "French" is erroneous. A similar, -but less marked distinction, exists between the North Germans and the -Palatines, and they both differ from the South Germans in America, who -are mostly Catholic Alpines.</p> - -<p>In this connection it should be clearly understood that in discussing -the various European races we are concerned only with such individuals -of those races as came to America, and not with the populations which -remained in the original homeland.</p> - -<p>In Colonial times the Anglo-Saxon American avoided the danger arising -from intermarriage with natives, which ruined the Spanish and -Portuguese colonies in the New World and threatened the destruction of -the French colonies in Quebec. There was some crossbreeding between -Englishmen and Indian squaws along the frontier, but the offspring was -everywhere regarded as an Indian, just as a mulatto in the English -colonies was regarded as belonging to the Negro race. This racial -prejudice kept the white race in America pure, while its absence and -the scarcity of white women ultimately destroyed European supremacy in -the Spanish and Portuguese colonies.</p> - -<p>At the time of the settlement of the Spanish and Portuguese colonies, -the Roman Church was dominant. Its chief motive was to save souls for -heaven rather than to perpetuate the control of Europeans. That church, -therefore, favored marriage of the Europeans, Spaniard and Portuguese, -with the native women and considered the children to be white.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span> The -same was true of the mixtures of French and Indians in Quebec, and the -church recognized the resulting half-breed offspring as French and not -native.</p> - -<p>This policy of the church was aided by the lack of race dignity which -is even today found sometimes among the French, the Spaniards, and the -Portuguese. For example, in the South of Portugal there was a large -Negro slave element introduced in the sixteenth century which is now -absorbed into the surrounding population. Similar conditions exist in -South Italy, where there is a substantial Negroid element, probably -descended from the Negro slaves introduced by the Romans from Africa -some two thousand years ago.</p> - -<p>One of the unfortunate results of racial mixture, or miscegenation -between diverse races, is disharmony in the offspring, and the more -widely separated the parent stocks, the greater is this lack of harmony -likely to be in both mental and physical characters. Herbert Spencer, -in response to a request for advice, writing in 1892 to the Japanese -statesman, Baron Keneko Kentaro, stated this biological fact very -clearly when he said:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>"To your remaining question respecting the intermarriage of -foreigners and Japanese, which you say is 'now very much agitated -among our scholars and politicians' and which you say is 'one of the -most difficult problems,' my reply is that, as rationally answered, -there is no difficulty at all. It should be positively forbidden. -It is not at root a question of social philosophy. It is at root a -question of biology.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span> There is abundant proof, alike furnished by the -intermarriages of human races and by the interbreeding of animals, -that when the varieties mingled diverge beyond a certain slight -degree the <i>result is inevitably a bad one in the long run</i>.... When, -say of the different varieties of sheep, there is an interbreeding -of those which are widely unlike, the result, especially in the -second generation, is a bad one—there arises an incalculable mixture -of traits, and what may be called a chaotic constitution. And the -same thing happens among human beings—the Eurasians in India, the -half-breeds in America, show this. The physiological basis of this -experience appears to be that any one variety of creature in course -of many generations acquires a certain constitutional adaptation -to its particular form of life, and every other variety similarly -acquires its own special adaptation. The consequence is that, if you -mix the constitution of two widely divergent varieties which have -severally become adapted to widely divergent modes of life, you get -a constitution which is adapted to the mode of life of neither—a -constitution which will not work properly, because it is not fitted -for any set of conditions whatever. By all means, therefore, -peremptorily interdict marriages of Japanese with foreigners."</p></blockquote> - -<p>The relative diminution of Anglo-Saxon blood in America and the present -check to the expansion of the British Empire are due partly to a -curious sentimental quality of the Anglo-Saxon mind, the effect of -which is almost suicidal.</p> - -<p>It is a striking fact that tragic and even fatal consequences may arise -from the noblest motives. The abolition of the obsolete institution of -slavery oc<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span>cupied the minds of some of the best men of the nineteenth -century and serfdom was only stamped out finally at immense cost to -the finest elements of our Anglo-Saxon stock. Looking back over these -events at a distance of a half-century there appear many considerations -which were neglected by those who were too close to the conflict to see -into the future. Let us consider the consequences in the world at large -of the abolition of slavery and of the breaking down of the barrier -maintained by that institution between the Whites and the Blacks.</p> - -<p>For instance, in the British Empire, the abolition of slavery a hundred -years ago contributed in large part to the decline and finally to the -almost complete disappearance of pure Nordic blood in the West Indies, -where previously there had been rich and flourishing colonies of white -men employing black slaves.</p> - -<p>In South Africa the revolt and outtrekking of Boers beyond the -Vaal River were due largely to the abolition of slavery and to the -sentimental treatment of the slaves by the Home Government. The -passions engendered at that time ultimately led to two bloody and -useless wars between the Nordic peoples of South Africa.</p> - -<p>Other European nations suffered similarly from the abolition of -slavery in their American colonies. Undiluted white blood has almost -disappeared in Jamaica and Puerto Rico, while the natives of the Virgin -Islands are nearly all Negroes and Mulattoes.</p> - -<p>The most tragic result of the loss of White control<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span> of the Blacks was -shown in the history of Haiti and Santo Domingo. The freeing of the -slaves and the disturbances resulting from the French Revolution had as -a consequence the massacre or exile of practically every white person -in the island. The French doctrinaires were responsible to some extent -for this. Even Lafayette was President of the "Société des Amis des -Noirs." Today the black inhabitants of this great island have reverted -almost to barbarism.</p> - -<p>The islands and coasts of the entire Caribbean Sea with much of -the coasts of the Gulf of Mexico are fast becoming Negro Land and -apparently in the near future the European element will be more and -more in a hopeless minority.</p> - -<p>In the United States we have a startling example of the effect of -sentimentalism upon Nordic survival. The North was entirely right in -endeavoring to keep slavery out of Kansas and the new States of the -West, to that extent avoiding the color problem there. The sentimental -interference with slavery, however, on the part of the Northern -Abolitionists helped to precipitate the bloody Civil War and to destroy -a very large portion of the best stock of the nation, especially in the -South. The Southerners also were greatly to blame for their utter folly -in seceding as a means of maintaining their peculiar institution, as -they termed it.</p> - -<p>If the question of slavery had been left alone, the issue of the -preservation of the Union would have been postponed for at least a -generation. In time the overwhelming numbers and wealth of the North<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span> -would have made any serious question of secession an absurdity. As a -consequence of the Civil War hundreds of thousands of men of Nordic -stock were cut off in the full vigor of manhood, who otherwise would -have lived to propagate their kind and populate the West. Besides this, -slavery as an institution was outside of the pale of civilization long -before the Civil War and it would have been peacefully abolished in a -few decades through economic causes.</p> - -<p>The Blacks themselves were raised by slavery from sheer savagery to a -feeble imitation of white civilization, and they made more advance in -America in two centuries than in as many thousand years in Africa. The -presence of slaves, however, was injurious to the Whites. Serfdom has -been a curse wherever it has flourished in the New World and it has had -a profoundly demoralizing effect on the masters.</p> - -<p>American democracy at the start rested on a base of population that -was, as already said, homogeneous in race, religion, tradition, and -language, and in a relative equality of wealth. All these features -are things of the past and democracy has virtually broken down in -spite of the fatuous ecstasy which characterizes the utterances of -sentimentalists, who even claimed that the World War was fought "to -make the World Safe for Democracy."</p> - -<p>It seems strange that this so-called liberal point of view is so -short-sighted that we have in our midst today organizations and groups -who, with the best intentions, are encouraging the Negro within and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> -the black, brown, and yellow men without, to dispute the dominance over -the world at large of Christian Europeans and Americans. Throughout -the world, there has gone forth a challenge to white supremacy and -this movement in Asia, Africa, and elsewhere has been fostered by the -Christian missionaries. It has even gone so far that it is openly -stated that any assertion of race supremacy, or even discussion of race -distinctions in this country, should be suppressed in the interests -of the spread of Christianity in foreign countries—notably Japan. In -the long run, however, these doctrines will work great injury to the -Protestant churches if they persist in taking an anti-national point -of view. While many of the individual ministers are well-meaning and -kindly, their education is undeveloped in world affairs and their -advice in such matters, on which they are uninstructed, is often very -dangerous.</p> - -<p>Sentimental sympathy for other races of mankind is manifest today -all over the world, but especially among Anglo-Saxons. It received a -great impetus from President Wilson's doctrine of the right of Self -Determination. The fruits of this doctrine can be seen in the rise -of so-called nationalism everywhere, as in Ireland, Bohemia, Poland, -Egypt, the Philippines, China, and India.</p> - -<p>The racially suicidal result of all this is the undermining of the -control of the Nordic races over the natives. The upper classes and, in -many cases, the peasantry in eastern Germany, for example, are Nordics. -One of the tragic consequences of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> World War was the taking of -political power in this region from the Nordics and transferring it, -under the guise of democratic institutions, to Alpine Slavs. In Soviet -Russia, also, through the massacre and exile of the Nordic upper -classes, political power has passed into the hands of Alpines, exactly -as in France during the Revolution the Alpine lower classes destroyed -the Nordic nobility and assumed control of the state. The Revolutionary -and Napoleonic Wars which followed killed off an undue proportion of -Nordics in France and are said to have greatly shortened the stature of -the French soldiers.</p> - -<p>The revolt against European control, especially in the Orient, is -becoming more and more pronounced. As said above it has been encouraged -unintentionally by the missionaries, who, in educating the natives, -succeed only in arousing them to assert their equality with the -European races. Probably the greatest tragedy in the world today is the -corrosive jealousy of the fair skin of the white races felt by those -whose skin is black, yellow, or brown. The world will hear more of this -as the revolt of the lower races spreads.</p> - -<p>One of the manifestations of this jealousy of the fair skin of the -Nordics is shown in those numerous cases where members of the colored -races, or even dark-skinned members of the Nordic race regard the -possession of a blonde woman as an assertion and proof of race -equality. This has been true historically since the earliest times. It -is more than ever in evidence at the present day.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span></p> - -<p>All the foregoing points to the value of a critical consideration -of the racial composition of the original thirteen colonies and an -analysis of the situation as it is today.</p> - - - -<div class="footnotes"><p class="ph3">FOOTNOTES:</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> This bill was framed and passed through the efforts -of Honorable Albert Johnson of Washington. "A new Declaration of -Independence," it has been happily called.</p></div></div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span></p> - -<p class="ph2"><a name="II" id="II">II</a></p> - -<p class="center">THE CRADLE OF MANKIND</p> - - -<p><span class="smcap">Man</span> is an immensely ancient animal. Over a million years have elapsed -since he first made fire and more millions since he became a bipedal -prehuman. He left the forests, at the latest, at the end of the -Miocene, not less than seven million years ago and ventured out into -the plains of Central Asia as a savage, powerful, clever biped, hunting -in packs, or by sheer wit securing his prey single handed by pitfalls -and other devices, the invention of which marks the development of -growing intelligence.</p> - -<p>Man's initial differentiation from his simian ancestry probably began -when he came down from the trees and began to walk erect. The hand was -then liberated from its use as an instrument of locomotion and was -devoted primarily to defense, attack, discovery, and invention. It is -by means of the opportunities afforded by the hand that the human brain -has evolved into man's most important factor in racial survival.</p> - -<p>Clear evidence of man's remote arboreal ancestry is offered by his -stereoscopic or double-eyed vision. The great majority of ground -animals, especially those living in the forest, have eyes on the sides -of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> their heads; but in man's arboreal ancestors, by the recession of -the intervening nasal and facial bones, the eyes were brought around -to the front of the face. The resulting stereoptic vision enabled him -to judge distance far more accurately than most mammals. Such power of -determining distance is of course vital to an arboreal animal. Failure -to judge accurately the length of a leap from branch to branch would be -fatal.</p> - -<p>One often hears it stated that man has lost his sense of smell; but -this sense was probably never better developed within the human period -than it is now. In the trees a sense of smell is not of much value. The -monkey can sit on a branch and jabber with impunity at the leopard on -the ground below. To forest animals, like the deer or boar, however, -the sense of smell is the surest protection against attack and is much -more highly developed than the sense of sight, which latter is often -quite feeble. In fact, in the thick jungle it is almost useless (and at -"black night" completely so).</p> - -<p>Eurasia, where it is probable that mankind originated, was the greatest -land mass on the globe in Tertiary times. Modern Europe and North -Africa formed relatively small peninsulas in the extreme west of this -Tertiary land mass. It is probably from Eurasia that man spread out -to the uttermost parts of the habitable globe, carrying with him his -language and such cultural features as had developed at the time of -each successive migration. No race or language or cultural invention -seems to have entered Eurasia<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> from adjoining land areas. All went out. -None came in. While the original center of dispersal of the Hominidæ -or human family was probably Eurasia, it was at a later date also the -center of the evolution of the higher types of man.</p> - -<p>To the northeast of Eurasia lay the ancient land connection with North -America via Alaska, over which various species of animals passed back -and forth, some of them having their origin in Asia and others in -western North America. It was undoubtedly over this land connection -that man first entered America at a relatively recent period and -probably he came in successive waves. The American Indians appear to -have been derived from the Mongoloid tribes of northeastern Asia before -the latter had developed some of those extreme specializations which -characterize the typical Mongols of Central Asia and China proper -today. Judging from the culture which these American Indians brought -with them, this migration began before 10,000 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span></p> - -<p>The existing races of mankind, and those either entirely extinct or now -absorbed in other races, had their distinctive areas of differentiation -and periods of radiation from Eurasia over the habitable globe. The -most primitive types are now found farthest from this original centre -of distribution in countries where through isolation they escaped -competition with the higher types which evolved later.</p> - -<p>The weight of evidence appears to show that Africa, or Ethiopia, lying -far to the southwest of Eurasia, was peopled in earliest times, by way -of Ara<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span>bia, by a most primitive negroid type of mankind. While north -of the Sahara migrations from Asia have continued until recent times, -the south was left for a vast period in possession of the Negro. Even -today, aside from the recent infiltration of Whites and Browns, Africa -south of the Sahara belongs to three negroid groups; the Negroes -proper, the Pigmies or Negrillos, and the Bushmen and Hottentots. -These three human types are characterized by very dark or yellow skin, -tightly curled hair, very scanty body hair, flaring nostrils, flattened -noses and an absence of supraorbital ridges.</p> - -<p>Again, Australia, Tasmania, and some of the adjoining islands are, -or recently were, inhabited by what used to be considered one of the -great divisions of mankind, the Australoids. These people have the -black skin and certain features of the Negro; but differ from him in -the possession of abundant body hair and of marked supraorbital ridges. -Also the Australoid head hair is wavy, and not closely curled, a most -important characteristic. The profound cleavage between the Negroes and -the Australoids is now questioned in some quarters.</p> - -<p>The differentiation of the human species into types so distinctly -contrasted as Whites and Blacks and the problems of the evolution -of higher types of man from original stocks bring us to a new -classification of the genus Homo. Some anthropologists still maintain -that all human beings are included in the species <i>Homo sapiens</i>; but -this is an old-fashioned grouping. Sooner or later a new system must -be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> formulated based on the same fundamental rules that are applied -to the classification of other mammals. For instance, the physical -differences between the Nordics and the Negroes, the Australoids and -the Mongols, if found among the lower mammals, would be much more than -sufficient to constitute not only separate species, but even subgenera, -and they are now so regarded by some anthropologists.</p> - -<p>Race is hard to define. It consists in the presence of a collection of -hereditary characters common to the great majority of individuals in a -given group. It lies in the preponderance of such characters as color -of skin, hair, and eyes, facial and nasal contour, shape of skull, and -even mental characteristics, which are more difficult to classify, but -which are distinctly typical of specific human groups. Many individuals -possess all the hereditary characters of a given race. But man is so -ancient a being and intermixture has been so widespread that nearly -every race shows signs of blending with others. This is especially true -in Europe, where the intermingling of peoples has been extensive during -the past twenty centuries.</p> - -<p>Just as the classification of man according to race needs revision in -the light of recent discoveries, so the definition of race must be -understood anew in the light of genetics. Thirty years ago we talked -glibly about the Aryan or Indo-European race, or the Caucasian or -Germanic race. All these terms must be discarded. Aryan, Indo-European, -and Germanic are only linguistic terms and Caucasian has<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> no meaning -except as used in America to distinguish between whites and colored.</p> - -<p>Language or culture may spread quickly and widely among the peoples -of the earth irrespective of race. For example, the bow and arrow -may have originated with some specific race of mankind, yet we find -this invention in use all over the globe and in the hands of the most -diverse peoples. The use of firearms and of horses by the American -Indians indicates nothing more than their contact with the Whites. It -is unsafe to attribute the inception of any cultural feature to a given -race.</p> - -<p>Civilization itself, that is, agriculture and the domestication of -animals, probably arose in West Central Asia, spreading east, south, -southwest, and west. Although the earliest remains of the dog, the -first animal tamed, are found in the Maglemose in Denmark approximately -8000 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, it may have been domesticated far earlier in Asia.</p> - -<p>There were two centers of the development of civilization—two foci. -The first was in southwestern Eurasia: the Valley of the Syr-Daria; -Mesopotamia and its city states; Chaldea, Babylonia, Assyria; -then Egypt, Crete, Greece, Rome, and modern Europe. There is the -possibility, or even the probability, of finding in the unexplored -portions of southern Arabia, connecting links of early culture between -the Valley of the Euphrates and the Valley of the Nile. Recent -discoveries indicate a very early civilization in the Valley of the -Indus, which apparently had been brought down from the north. All<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> -these regions formed a single group and were the first center.</p> - -<p>The second focus was an independent, but similar and parallel expansion -of civilization in southeastern Asia, now China. There was apparently -little intercourse until modern times between the Far East and the -Far West of Eurasia, except by caravan routes across Central Asia. -The Romans knew the silk of China and there was a certain amount of -trade in jewels, precious metals, and spices down through the Middle -Ages, but the extraordinary fact that these two cultures developed -independently with slight mutual influence of the one on the other is -little appreciated. Both cultures seem, as said, to have had their -origin in West Central Asia and to have radiated southwest, south, and -east.</p> - -<p>One of the periodic cycles of drought desiccated the central area, and -separated the Western and Eastern worlds by an almost impassable series -of deserts, like the Gobi Desert of Mongolia. In the west, even as late -as the time of Alexander the Great, Bactria and Sogdiana, northwest of -India, were populous and flourishing states. Here it is that future -exploration may uncover the first beginnings of agriculture and the -domestication of animals—perhaps, also, the first written language.</p> - -<p>Language, like culture, is not identical or co-extensive with race to -any great degree. Witness the neighboring islands in the West Indies -where Negroes speak Spanish in one, French in another, and English in a -third. The language of a given group<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> at a given time, however, being -possibly a much more recent acquirement than its cultural inventions, -does show either that it was originated by those who speak it or that -it was imposed upon them by another race long in contact with them.</p> - -<p>Since we are to deal principally with the racial groups of Europe, -namely the Nordic, Mediterranean, and Alpine, we might glance for a -moment in more detail at this distinction between race and language. -The Mediterraneans of Arabia speak a Semitic language, while the -Berbers of North Africa, also a people of Mediterranean stock, speak -a Hamitic language. This same Hamitic tongue was probably spoken all -around the coast of the inland sea and up the west coast of Europe to -the British Islands before Aryan speech was brought there by Nordic -invaders from the north and east. Meanwhile the Alpines spoke languages -related to Turki, a Ural-Altaic language—of course, non-Aryan—as they -still do in Turkestan, Hungary, and Finland.</p> - -<p>As to the Nordics, it would appear that this race originated the -so-called Aryan or Indo-European group of languages. The Aryan tongue -was probably developed in South Russia before the long isolation from -Asia had been broken. At a period in the third millennium <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> -the Aryan language split into two groups: one, the Western or Centum -group, which pushed west and north; the other, the Eastern or Satem -group which pushed south and east. The Centum group included the Greek, -Latin, Celtic, and Germanic languages. Curiously enough, an out<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span>lying -member of this group, the Tokarian, was spoken in Turkestan as late as -the seventh century <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> The Satem group, sometimes called -Iranian, included the Lithuanian, all the Slavic languages and those of -ancient and modern Persia and the various forms of Sanscrit spoken in -India and Burma.</p> - -<p>Light-skinned invaders from the northwest appear to have entered India -in successive waves and to have introduced the Aryan language known -as Sanscrit. They were probably the Sacae or Scythians from South -Russia. These Nordics in India can properly be called "Aryans." As used -otherwise, however, the term Aryan is purely linguistic. Originally all -the tribes who spoke the languages of the Centum and Satem groups were -members of the Nordic race.</p> - -<p>According to recent discoveries in the Valley of the Indus, a very -elaborate civilization flourished at least five thousand years ago -at Mohenjo-Daro, four hundred miles north of the mouth of the river. -This civilization was as elaborate as the corresponding culture of -Mesopotamia or of Egypt. The racial characters found in the bodies in -the burials indicate that the mass of the population was then, as now, -of Mediterranean race, but that the ruling class was long-headed and -long-faced, and of a tall stature and sturdy build—a type clearly -Nordic. In the earliest graves of Ur, in Mesopotamia, the skulls are -very clearly of a race akin to those on the Indus. All this would tend -to throw back the date of the invasion of men from the north by another -thousand years or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span> more. The same appears to be true of the invasions -into Greece of the Achæans and of the Osco-Umbrians into Italy.</p> - -<p>The wide distribution of the Satem or Iranian group to the south and -west of Asia shows that the Nordics in great numbers conquered the -aboriginal inhabitants of these countries and imposed on them the Aryan -speech. They invented the caste system to maintain the purity of their -blood. In fact, the Hindu word "varna" means both color and caste. In -spite of all their efforts, however, the conquering invaders died out -almost completely in India and Persia—leaving behind them only their -language, and, in some cases, their religion.</p> - -<p>With this brief review of the essential difference between race and -language or culture, we may return to a consideration of humanity in -terms of essentially racial characters.</p> - -<p>The world as a whole can be roughly mapped racially according to the -most obvious human differentiation—namely, color: white, yellow, red, -black, and brown. The white race at the present day dominates Europe, -northern Asia in part, Australia, and North America as far south as -Mexico, with outposts scattered all over the globe. Eastern Asia is -yellow. Southern Asia and northern Africa are brown. Africa south of -the Sahara Desert is black, and there is a black tinge across southern -Asia, as we shall see. The red men, or Amerinds, with but a small -remnant in the United States and Canada, inhabit Latin America, where -in some cases their blood is mixed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> with that of the descendants of -Negro slaves, and, of course, to a still larger extent with that of -South Europeans.</p> - -<p>Color, however, is not the only character upon which a racial map of -the world could be based. Perhaps a more satisfactory division could -be made according to the cross section of human hair. However, in -dealing with the racial groupings of Eurasia, we find different types -of humanity arranged in definite zones according to certain outstanding -physical characters.</p> - -<p>Farthest south on the great land area of Eurasia lies a belt of -Negroids, extending from Ethiopia with intervals through Arabia to the -South Seas. The principal racial characteristics of these people are -very dark or black skin, dark eyes, tightly curled black hair, and -long, <i>i.e.</i>, dolichocephalic skulls. In southern Persia the population -shows a Negro admixture, and a distinctly Negroid type is numerous -among the Pre-Dravidians of India. The Hindus themselves are very dark -brown with wavy black hair.</p> - -<p>A few decades ago there was much talk of the English officer and the -Hindu in the ranks being of the same Aryan blood, because they both -spoke widely diverse forms of the great group of Aryan languages. This, -of course, did not imply the slightest trace of blood relationship—the -Aryan speech of the Hindu had been imposed upon him by his conquerors -from the north. Such fallacies were common a generation ago.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span></p> - -<p>To the eastward we find remnants of Negro types in the Malay Peninsula -and in the large islands to the east as far as the Philippines. This -Negroid type extends also eastward through Melanesia. From this -discontinuous distribution it would appear that the Negroes and -Negritos were the original population of southern Eurasia. It is -probable that from this region the true Negroes migrated westward into -Ethiopia.</p> - -<p>At a date far earlier than this hypothetical migration westward, -an earlier type of Negroid pushed southeast to Tasmania, which was -thereafter cut off from the land mass of Australia. In Australia itself -these Tasmanians were absorbed or exterminated by the later coming -Australoids from whom they differed materially.</p> - -<p>The racial tangle in Australia, Papua, and the islands of Melanesia -presents great difficulties in classification, but the basic element -appears to be Negro with a large admixture of later Mongoloids coming -from Asia.</p> - -<p>The next zone of human population, superimposed in many cases upon the -Negroids, but south of the great central mountain ranges of Eurasia, -is constituted by the Mediterranean race. This race is characterized -by black, wavy hair, very dark eyes, oval face with fairly regular -features, dark olive skin, relatively short stature, and a somewhat -slight skeletal and muscular structure. This last character is in sharp -contrast with the powerful and sturdy build of the next two races to be -considered, the Alpine<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> and the Nordic. The principal character of the -Mediterranean race, however, is its long (dolichocephalic) skull. The -Negroes, as we have said, have long skulls, but of quite a different -type.</p> - -<p>The range of the Mediterraneans extends from the western part of the -British Isles, through Spain and along both coasts of the Mediterranean -Sea, down the east coast of Africa to Somaliland. In Asia it embraces -the Arabs, South Persians, most of the Hindus, with an eastward -extension. In Northeast Africa and India it is strongly mixed with -Negro.</p> - -<p>Spreading everywhere throughout Europe north of the territory dominated -by the Mediterranean race, and often mixed with it, we find the -Alpines. This race is characterized by a somewhat short, stocky build -much sturdier than the Mediterranean, abundant dark, but not straight, -head and body hair, dark eyes and round (brachycephalic) skull.</p> - -<p>The center of origin of the Alpines was somewhere in Central Asia -west of the true Mongols, north of the Mediterraneans, and east of -the Nordics—possibly in Turkestan. The Alpines and Mongols are both -characterized by a round skull but, as in the case of the long-skulled -Mediterraneans and the long-skulled Negroes, the type of skull differs -appreciably.</p> - -<p>The Mongols and Alpines have been in close contact for ages. The -Mongols have issued again and again from East and Central Asia and -submerged the Alpines, driving them westward into Central Europe. There -has been a great deal of intermixture and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> Slavic Alpine population -of eastern Europe frequently shows distinctive Mongol traits. However, -the two races, while perhaps remotely connected, differ widely. The -Alpines, like the Australoids and to a less extent like the Nordics, -have abundant body hair and copious beard, while the Mongols (like -their derivatives, the American Indians) are beardless and without body -hair. Alpine hair is wavy, that of the Mongols and Mongoloids straight. -Alpine features are rather coarse, often with a large prominent nose, -while true Mongols have an exceedingly flat face, depressed nose, and -a broad space between the eyes. This depressed nose, in adult Mongols, -is the retention of an infantile character, as babies of all races are -born with bridgeless noses. As to stature, most Alpines are of moderate -height, although those from the Tyrol to Albania, the so-called Dinaric -race, are decidedly tall.</p> - -<p>It was a branch of tall Mongols, with a slight admixture of Alpines, -that crossed into America from Asia and became the ancestors of the -American Indians, who are of substantial height, often with prominent, -almost hawklike noses and high cheek bones.</p> - -<p>We might mention here the Malays, who are essentially Mongols and -who pushed down into Indo-China and throughout the Malay Peninsula. -There are many traces of their blood in Polynesia. This expansion -was relatively recent and in those localities there are everywhere -indications of earlier races, especially of the very ancient Negroid -types known as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> Negritos. These Malays extended through the Philippines -as far north as Japan, where they met and mingled with a stream of -northern Mongoloid immigrants from Korea.</p> - -<p>The Alpine domain at the present time extends from the center of France -eastward in an ever widening wedge as far as the Himalayas. It includes -the bulk of the population of Central France, North Italy, South -Germany, Switzerland, the provinces of the recent Austrian Empire, -and extends through the Balkan states, Russia, Asia Minor, and far -into Asia. This race penetrated into and overran Central Europe during -relatively recent times, probably at about the beginning of the Bronze -Age, approximately 1800 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span></p> - -<p>East and north of the Carpathians, about 400 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span>, the Alpines -had a period of great expansion, chiefly at the expense of the Nordic -race, whose distribution we shall discuss presently.</p> - -<p>As the Nordic tribes moved into the Roman provinces, the lands they -vacated were occupied by Alpine Slavs. All these movements may have -been caused by the pressure from the east of Asiatic Mongols, who, like -the Huns, were beginning their drive toward Europe. Our word slave -coming from Slav reveals the social relation of these Alpines to West -Europeans.</p> - -<p>The westernmost of the Alpine Slavs were called Wends. In Charlemagne's -time they occupied what is now Germany as far west as the Elbe. In -its easternmost range these Alpines were called Turanians<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> and were -confused with the Mongols of Central Asia, who had again and again -conquered them. The remnant of Wends in East Germany, the Bohemians, -most Poles and South Slavs are all Alpines. The great mass of Russians -are of this type, as well as the ancient Avars, Hunagars, Magyars, -Cumans, and the Bulgars, all more or less mixed with Mongols. The -Armenians are Alpines of an especially pronounced type and are probably -descended from the ancient Hittites. The East European Alpines are -saturated everywhere with Mongol blood, dating for the most part from -their conquest by the Tatars during the thirteenth century.</p> - -<p>The fact that Asia, north of the main mountain ranges, is pre-eminently -the home of round skulls is very significant and suggests remote -relationship between Alpine and Mongol.</p> - -<p>The Alpine skull reaches a most extreme form among the Armenians, who -have a very high skull, greatly flattened behind and somewhat like a -sugar loaf in shape.</p> - -<p>The division of the races of mankind based on long and round skulls is -extremely ancient. We find both types among the fossil and semi-fossil -skulls at the end of the Paleolithic.</p> - -<p>The first definite appearance of round skulls mixed with long skulls is -found in the burials at Offnet in Bavaria in the Azilian period at the -very end of the Paleolithic, some twelve thousand years ago.</p> - -<p>From that day to this in France, Bavaria, and elsewhere in western -Europe as well as in eastern<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span> Europe the round skulls have expanded -their range. This steady increase of round-skull Alpines everywhere in -Central Europe in recent centuries is one of the most ominous racial -facts that confront us.</p> - -<p>The great French anthropologist, deLapouge, stated in a recent letter -to the author that in France the cranial index has risen two points a -century since the Middle Ages, so that France is no longer a Nordic -land. This transformation is due, in the opinion of some observers, -to a mixture of race in which round-headedness is dominant over -long-headedness. In the opinion of the writer, however, it is due to -the replacement of one race, the Nordic, by another, the Alpine. The -Nordics not only incur disproportionate loss in war, but are also -highly nomadic in habit, while the Alpines, on the other hand, stick -close to the land and breed persistently.</p> - -<p>Of the European races, there remains to be considered the Nordics, -a people greatly specialized, who have developed a fair skin, -light-colored eyes, tall stature of sturdy build, and long, <i>i.e.</i>, -dolichocephalic skulls, and definite mental traits. The slow but -long-continued physical development of the Nordics has culminated in -a powerful skeleton and musculature in sharp contrast to that of the -Mediterranean race, to which the Nordic is more closely related than -to any other. In fact, the mixture of Nordic and Mediterranean in the -British Islands may possibly be one of the few advantageous racial -crossings.</p> - -<p>As to the homeland of the original Nordic race, we have as yet only -guesswork on the part of the an<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span>thropologist. When we shall know more -about the condition of Central Eurasia during the glacial period and -immediately thereafter, we may get nearer to an answer to the question -of where and how this race originated and developed. It is certain, -however, that the Nordics were originally located west of the Alpines -and Mongols and north of the Mediterraneans.</p> - -<p>We have fossil records of five or six extinct species or genera of man -and more are constantly coming to light in Asia and outlying regions of -the Old World. The impulse that forced the ancestors of man to develop -his high energy and intelligence probably arose from the onset of the -Pleistocene glaciation a million or more years ago. Mankind was then -forced apart into widely separated areas where specific characters -developed in isolation. The Nordics were most likely cut off from Asia -by the Caspian and Aral Seas, which extended far to the north, where -they met the oncoming ice. It was west of this barrier that the Nordic -race developed its peculiar characters.</p> - -<p>Later, when the ice retreated and this watery barrier disappeared, the -Nordics were inundated again and again by floods of Asiatics, first -Alpines and then Mongols. Sometimes the Nordics became the aggressors -and expanded eastward in turn, conquering Persia, India, and Burma. -Blond invaders of East Asia, called "the green-eyed devils," attacked -the Great Wall of China as late as 200 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> They were also -called "Wusuns," a Tatar word meaning<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> "the tall ones." In the long -run, however, the Nordics were forced westward.</p> - -<p>When the retreating glaciers left habitable land in Scandinavia, it was -into this region that the first westward migration of the Nordics found -its way. This was probably as early as 8000 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> There it was, -through the fogs and long winters of the north, that they developed in -complete isolation their great stature and musculature, their fair or -flaxen hair, and their blue eyes. The continental Nordics, however, who -moved westward to settle around the Baltic and North Seas, retained the -more generalized characters of brown hair of various shades, and eyes -which tend to either brown, gray, or, to a less extent, blue. The light -eyes of the Nordics include light brown or hazel, and may be of any and -all shades of gray and green to the deepest violet blue.</p> - -<p>The racial characters which most noticeably distinguish the Nordics are -the colors of the skin, hair, and eyes. As sharply contrasted with the -skin of the Mediterranean peoples, the color of the blood shows through -the fair Nordic skin except when tanned by exposure to the sun. The -light-colored hair is almost always blond in youth, turning darker with -age, although in many individuals extreme blondness is retained through -life. The brown hair, characteristic of the Nordics of the British -Isles and America, runs from light to very dark brown; but blue-black -hair, so rare in England and among native Americans, is never Nordic. -The blond hair may tend towards golden red. In fact, in classic times, -red hair<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> seems to have been more common than now and may be more -characteristic of the Celtic Nordics than of the Teutonic Nordics. In -race mixtures between blond and black-haired peoples, the blondness -tends to be lost.</p> - -<p>On the other hand, light-colored eyes are much more persistent, and -this sign of Nordic admixture is found about ten times more frequently -than is blond hair among such peoples as the Albanians, where all other -Nordic characters except stature seem to have been lost.</p> - -<p>For thousands of years, Europe has been an arena of racial mixtures. -Over great territories, as we shall see, the Nordic race has been -dominant for the past thirty centuries, so that the majority of Alpine -and Mediterranean types shows the impress of Nordic characters. For -example, in Bavaria are found short, stocky, round-skulled Alpines -with extremely blond hair and blue eyes. The French, who are today -preponderantly Alpine, show outcroppings of profound Nordic characters -throughout the population. Thus, while pure types exist everywhere in -sufficient numbers to enable us to define race, nevertheless there has -been so much intermixture in the past that it is hard sometimes to -assign a given individual to a specific race. The definition of race, -in fact, cannot be based on any one character, but on a preponderance -of many racial characters which make up the resultant type.</p> - -<p>We have now considered the main races of mankind, but should devote -space to the Mongols<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> and their derivatives. The Mongol is undoubtedly -a very ancient and major subdivision of the Hominidæ, but appears to be -intrusive in much of its present range. In Southeast Asia and in the -Malay countries and islands it arrived later than the ancient Negroids.</p> - -<p>The Mongoloids, as stated above, are characterized by a short, stocky -build and generally a round skull, very straight black hair with a -round cross section, a broad flat face with projecting malar bones, and -a slanting eye often marked by the Mongol fold. The last characters -distinguish them from the Alpine race, but are sometimes to be found in -such members of that race as have a Mongoloid admixture.</p> - -<p>These Mongolian characters occur often in Bohemia, in Moravia, and -especially in Galicia, in which last province they probably date from -the Mongol invasions of the thirteenth century. Such traits, however, -are not found among the Alpines of southern Germany or France.</p> - -<p>In the American Indians, Mongoloid blood undoubtedly predominates but -the high-bridged nose of some of the tribes and their high stature -undoubtedly point to admixture with other races.</p> - -<p>The Mongol is not inferior to the Nordic in intelligence, as is the -Negro, but represents such a divergent type that the mixture between -Nordics and Chinese or Japanese is not a good one. The overflow of -these Asiatics into our Pacific Coast might have Mongolized the States -there, had not the Amer<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span>ican laboring man taken alarm and secured -legislation forbidding their immigration.</p> - -<p>With the foregoing as a simple and generalized description of the -primitive races of mankind as we know them today, and with special -emphasis on the three principal European variants of the "white" race, -we shall proceed to consider the distribution and racial influence of -the Nordics in western Europe.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span></p> - - - - -<p class="ph2"><a name="III" id="III">III</a></p> - -<p class="center">THE NORDIC CONQUEST OF EUROPE</p> - - -<p><span class="smcap">About</span> 1300 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> a blond, blue-eyed race of Libyans appears -in Egyptian sculptures. Whence these blonds came or how they got into -Libya is not known, but it is interesting to note that blond Berbers -are to be found today in the Atlas Mountains of North Africa. These, -however, are probably more recent arrivals from the north.</p> - -<p>About 1800 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> traces of Nordic infiltration appeared among -the Hittites. These Nordic conquerors later entered Mesopotamia as the -Mitanni and the Kassites, although it may be that they were only the -ruling classes of these peoples.</p> - -<p>In recorded history the Nordics first appear in the West as Achæans. -They came from the North from the Dacian Plains and conquered Greece -and Phrygia about 1400 or 1500 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span></p> - -<p>About 1200 or 1300 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> a Nordic people, the Osco-Umbrians, -sweeping down from the northeast, entered Italy. They were kindred to -the Achæans and were the ancestors of the Latin tribes, including the -early Romans. The aboriginal Mediterraneans were driven into southern -Italy, where, in Calabria and Apulia, they persist to this day. -The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span> contrast between the peoples of North and South Italy is still -profound.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p> - -<p>The Continental Nordics, as Celtic tribes, entered Gaul in the ninth -century <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> From the evidence of place names, they passed -through South Germany. All Gaul except Aquitania, in the southwest, was -overwhelmed.</p> - -<p>Spain was conquered by Celtic Nordics about 600 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, but -their domination was never complete and they soon mingled with -the natives. The mixed inhabitants of the peninsula were called -Celtiberians by the Romans.</p> - -<p>During this same period the British Isles were overrun and thoroughly -occupied by Celtic Nordics named Goidels and the Celtic tongue was -imposed upon the Mediterranean population, although the latter survived -as a race in large numbers, especially in the western parts of England -and Ireland. These Celtic-speaking Mediterraneans were, until recently, -called "Iberians"; but fifteen hundred years ago the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span> invading Saxons -called all the people they found in England "Welsh."</p> - -<p>In about 300 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> a new wave of Celts entered Gaul and -Britain. This time they came from the German plains, speaking a -somewhat different form of Celtic. On the Continent they were known as -the Belgæ and in the British Isles as the Brythons. They gave their -name to the British Islands. By Cæsar's time they had conquered the -northern third of Gaul and all of England; but the Roman armies put an -end to their farther advance. They did not reach Ireland.</p> - -<p>Roman writers describe the Celts in Gaul as pure Nordics and speak of -them as forming the ruling classes and military aristocracy until their -virtual destruction by Julius Cæsar in his ten years of conquest. His -campaigns in Gaul are said to have destroyed a million men, chiefly of -the warrior caste.</p> - -<p>At the time of their greatest expansion the Gauls sacked Rome (387 -<span class="smcap">B.C.</span>). They pressed no farther south and soon retreated to -and remained in Cisalpine Gaul, that is, the valley of the Po and the -country north of the Apennines.</p> - -<p>The Nordic Gauls or Galatians—to use the Greek form of their -name—devastated Greece about 297 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> and passed over into -Asia Minor. There they settled in what was long known as Galatia, now -Angora, the present seat of the Turkish Government. These Galatians -were the last Nordics to enter Asia Minor, if we except the armies of -the Crusaders.</p> - -<p>From the description of the physical characters<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span> of the Celtic-speaking -tribes they closely resembled the Germanic tribes that followed them -into the Roman Empire. Some French anthropologists find that the -present-day population of France is nearly four-fifths Alpine and they -have decided to call the Alpines "Celts," to avoid admitting that the -Celts were physically the same as the hated Germans. This error is not -shared by the leading French anthropologists, such as deLapouge, but it -has been accepted by some anthropologists.</p> - -<p>Careful study of the references to the Celts by classic writers leaves -no doubt that the Gauls, Galatians, Belgæ, and Brythons were Nordics -as were their successors the Visigoths, Suevi, Alemanni, Burgundians, -and, above all, the Franks. In fact, France down to the time of the -Reformation was a Nordic land.</p> - -<p>Soon after the time when the Belgæ first appear in Europe, Nordic -tribes speaking a Germanic dialect are mentioned in history. The first -of these tribes to come in conflict with the Romans were the Teutones -and Cimbri, who after defeating several Roman armies, were utterly -destroyed in 103 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> These people were the forerunners of -many tribes and nations which emerged, one after another, from the -swamps and forests of the north. The original home of most of them -seems to have been in Scandinavia, where they had been developing for -several thousand years. These newcomers were the latest and final -linguistic group to appear in the history of Europe. As Teutonic -Nordics they have dominated<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> the scene ever since. The use of the word -Teutonic is here purely linguistic in order to distinguish these late -comers from the earlier, Celtic-speaking Nordic tribes.</p> - -<p>The Teutonic Nordics formed a substantial element among the Belgæ -and Brythons and their expansion may well have been the cause of the -westward thrust of the latter. The Teutons began to press southward on -the Roman Empire early in the Christian era and this pressure continued -for some three centuries until the Empire collapsed under their -successive invasions.</p> - -<p>As said above, the Celts and the Teutons were identical physically and -the use of the word "Celtic" cannot be justified as a racial term at -the present day. Among living Nordics, those of Celtic origin cannot -be distinguished physically from those of German or Scandinavian -extraction. Possibly red hair and the psychical peculiarities -associated with it may be rather more Celtic than Scandinavian. We find -in classical writers the names and description of the barbarians beyond -the borders of the Empire. They were all described as blue-eyed, fair -or red-haired giants. Height, however, must be considered as relative -to that of the Romans, whose legions in the later years of the empire -were apparently composed of small men. With each generation the names -applied to the barbarian tribes change, but the description of physical -characters remains the same.</p> - -<p>The finest of these Teutonic barbarians were the Goths who, according -to their historian, Jordanes,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span> crossed over from Sweden about 300 -<span class="smcap">B.C.</span> and settled on the banks of the Vistula, whence they -expanded into South Russia, which they occupied for centuries. In -fact, a remnant of their language (Krim Götisch) was spoken in the -Crimea until the seventeenth century. The Gepidæ were a branch of the -Goths who lay to the west of the main body, and the Alans, a closely -related tribe, were located well to the east. It is interesting to -note that some of the Alans, fleeing from the Huns, took refuge in the -Caucasus where the Ossetes to this day show occasional Nordic physical -characters.</p> - -<p>The main body of the Gothic nation was split in two in 375 -<span class="smcap">A.D.</span> by the invasion of the Huns, a Tatar people from Central -Asia. Those who took refuge in the west, in South Germany and Gaul, -were called Visigoths. A part of the Visigoths, however, fled across -the Danube, devastated the provinces of the Byzantine Empire and slew -the reigning emperor, Valens, in 378 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span></p> - -<p>The eastern branch, or Ostrogoths, were conquered by the Huns and -remained in Dacia. Later, after Attila's death and the disruption of -his empire, the Ostrogoths, under the great Theodoric, invaded Italy -and came near to building a unified Italian nation nearly fourteen -hundred years ago.</p> - -<p>The Visigoths, who had been long in contact with Roman civilization, -occupied Gaul. When Attila crossed the Rhine in 451 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> -they fought on the side of the Romans at Chalons, one of the decisive -battles of history, and their king, the Visigothic Theodoric,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> fell in -the battle. The Ostrogoths, on the other hand, were the best troops of -the Hunnish host.</p> - -<p>The Visigoths entered Spain in 412 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> Their allies, the -Suevi, conquered and ruled Galicia and the provinces on the Atlantic -which now constitute Portugal. The invasion of Spain by the Visigoths -resulted in the expulsion of a closely related Teutonic people, the -Vandals, who, with their allies, a remnant of the Alans, crossed over -into Africa in 428 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> On the site of Carthage the Vandals -erected a kingdom which lasted a hundred years. They ruled the African -coast westward to the Atlantic, conquered and settled in Corsica and -under their king, Genseric, sacked Rome in 455 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span></p> - -<p>These Vandals, originally from Sweden, first appear in history on -the Baltic coast, thence they passed down through Central Europe and -westward into France and thence into Spain, where they settled and -remained until they were driven into Africa. They may have left behind -some of their blood to mingle with the later-coming Germanic tribes in -Spain. It is possible also, though not probable, that to them are due -some of the blond characters still found in the Atlas Mountains. As a -race, however, their disappearance is complete.</p> - -<p>The Visigoths maintained their control in Spain until 711 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> -when the Mohammedan Arabs crossed the Straits of Gibraltar and -completely defeated the Visigothic armies. Why the power of this -people collapsed so suddenly and completely is one of the mysteries of -history, but after the great seven days'<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> battle on the Guadalquivir -in which their king, Roderick, was slain, the whole peninsula was -easily conquered by the Arabs. At this time, it is true, the blood of -the Visigoths had been greatly mixed with that of the subject races, -resulting perhaps in a weakening of their fighting power.</p> - -<p>One of the reasons for the easy conquest of the Visigoths by the -Moors lay in the hatred for them as Arians by the old Orthodox -Catholic population who regarded their conquerors as heretics, and the -assistance rendered by the Jews whom the Visigoths had treated harshly -and who are reputed to have induced the Moors to make their invasion.</p> - -<p>A remnant of the Visigoths fled northerly into southern Gaul, which -was called Gothia Septimania. There the name Visigoths was corrupted -into Vigot or Bigot, which was a term of reproach used by the orthodox -natives.</p> - -<p>It is important to note that the relations between the populations -of the Roman Empire and the invading Teutonic Nordics were greatly -affected by the fact that the latter were the followers of the -schismatic monk Arius who, about 350 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span>, converted the -Goths to a Unitarian form of Christianity. The denial of the Trinity -by the Barbarians roused a fierce hatred among their subject peoples. -Ostrogoths and Visigoths, Vandals and Alans, Burgundians and Lombards, -all were Arians. The Franks alone among the Barbarians were converted -directly to Orthodox Christianity. This greatly facilitated their -conquest of Gaul. In consequence, France for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> more than a thousand -years was regarded as the eldest son of the church.</p> - -<p>Down to our time, the aristocracy of Spain, and more especially that of -Portugal, shows a marked inheritance of blondness coming down largely -from Visigothic and Suevic ancestry. The province of Galicia still -retains very appreciable marks of Gothic blood, especially in a high -percentage of light-colored eyes.</p> - -<p>The Visigoths left behind them in Spain a legacy of names which now are -regarded as most typically Spanish, as for instance Rodrigo, Alfonso, -Alvarez, Guzman, and Velasquez. In the same manner we find a Nordic -legacy of names reaching from Italy into France even where little -Nordic blood is left. In other words, while blood dies out, names -persist.</p> - -<p>At the time of Spanish greatness the predominant blood in the peninsula -was still Gothic,<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> and the adventurers who went overseas and were -lost to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> race were of this blood. In Portugal, the one great -poet, Camoens,<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> and in Spain Cervantes, who was his contemporary, -were descendants of the old Gothic nobility and had marked Nordic -characteristics, as had the Cid Campeador. The case was the same -in Italy<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> at this period. The great men were from the northern -part of the peninsula. Dante, Michaelangelo, Leonardo Da Vinci, and -virtually all of the leading men of the Renaissance were blond Nordics. -Columbus himself, supposed to have come from Genoa, is described as -having blue eyes and fair hair. In southern France, in the so-called -Gothic Septimania and in the country around Toulouse, the home of the -Troubadours, Gothic names abound.<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> A simi<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span>lar condition prevails -throughout France. French names are Gothic, Frankish, or Burgundian -today, though disguised by their spelling, as, for example, Joffre -from Gotfrid. In the opinion of Count deLapouge, France as late as the -settlement of America was more Nordic than is the Germany of today.</p> - -<p>The main body of the Visigoths who survived the conquest by the Arabs -took refuge in the northwestern part of Spain where they maintained -some small kingdoms which ultimately coalesced and became the nucleus -of a Christian Spain, which in the course of a seven-hundred-year -crusade gradually reconquered the peninsula and finally expelled the -Moors in 1492.</p> - -<p>The Arabs who conquered Spain, and the Islamized Persians and Moors, -had a wonderful period of intellectual expansion during the seventh and -following centuries. This amazing outburst of genius, which preserved -for us much of the science and learning of the Greeks, came to an end -when the Mediterranean Mohammedans began mixing their blood with that -of their Negro slaves. Mohammedanism has always appealed to the lower -races, especially the Negro, because when they became followers of -the Prophet they were admitted to social and racial equality with the -superior race. This and the lure of the Negro women ruined the Arab -race. Today, all through Africa and Egypt and in parts of Arabia, the -so-called Arabs are often Negroid in appearance. In this case polygamy -was a racial curse because the richer and abler men had the most slave<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> -women and left a larger progeny of half-breed children than did their -poorer countrymen.</p> - -<p>The exact reverse happened in the case of the Turks, who were -originally Alpines from Central Asia strongly mixed with Mongol. They -conquered Asia Minor and the nations of Southeast Europe up to and -including Hungary. Everywhere they seized the most beautiful women and, -being polygamists, the ablest Turks had the most children by the finest -women of the subject countries. Thus the Turks bred up as the Arabs -bred down. To this day the Turks are the superior race in Asia Minor -and have eliminated, at least from the ruling classes, practically all -the physical traces of their Asiatic origin.</p> - -<p>The women of the Caucasus, especially the Circassians and Georgians, -who retain some remnants of the Nordic Alans, have always been noted -for their physical beauty. They were in great demand in Turkish Harems.</p> - -<p>Incidentally the Kurds are, or rather were, Nordic and it is -interesting to note that Saladin, of Crusading fame, was a Kurd.</p> - -<p>Concerning other Teutonic Nordics, we need mention only those whose -blood enters largely into modern nations. Of these, one of the most -interesting peoples were the Burgundians, who settled on the western -bank of the upper Rhine in what is now Alsace, and in Burgundian -France and French-speaking Switzerland. They were a very promising -and flourishing nation until their overthrow in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span> middle of the -fifth century by Attila and his Huns, a tragedy which supplies the -subject matter of the Niebelungenlied. Appollonius Sidonius refers to -the Burgundians as being seven feet high; while this is an obvious -exaggeration, it is interesting to note that in the old Burgundian -provinces we find the tallest stature in France today.</p> - -<p>When the Lombards first appear in history about 165 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> they -were in northern Germany. They entered Italy in 568 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> -and conquered the Peninsula even more thoroughly than had their -predecessors, the Ostrogoths. They not only occupied Italy north of -the Apennines for three hundred years, but also established several -large duchies in the south. The valley of the Po, where they settled, -had been for centuries Cisalpine Gaul, and this Lombard territory is -today the backbone of modern Italy. The percentage of light-colored -eyes around Milan is high, and blondness through this district is as -common a characteristic of the peasantry as it is of the aristocracy -throughout the rest of Italy.</p> - -<p>The Lombards were Arians and were in constant conflict with the Popes -and their Orthodox followers and were consequently generally maligned. -Just as a similar situation facilitated the conquest of Spain by the -Moors, so the destruction of the Lombard Kingdom by the Franks was made -the easier by this antagonism.</p> - -<p>In passing, we need only remark that there were small bands of other -Nordics, who entered Italy as Saxons, Alemanni, and Suevi, and who -entered<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span> France as Alans and Saxons. These small bands differed in few -respects from the larger Nordic peoples and were quickly absorbed in -them. All these barbarian tribes were closely related racially.</p> - -<p>Before we leave the Alemanni who occupied southwest Germany with Alsace -and German-speaking Switzerland, we may note that their name, Alemanni, -did not mean 'All Men' in the sense of a mixed company, but rather <i>The -Men</i> "par excellence,"—the German "<i>All</i>" being the analogous of the -Greek "<i>Pan</i>."</p> - -<p>We come next to the Franks, who appear in history about the time of -the Battle of Chalons in 451 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> in which they took an -unimportant part, but in the following centuries they rapidly gained -the ascendency throughout Gaul and western Germany. The conquests -by the Franks were the most important and enduring of those of the -Teutonic Nordics in Continental Europe. We know very little about the -Franks from the Romans, although they may have been the Varini, who -were located in northwestern Germany in classic times. As a result of -the Crusades, Roman Orthodox, as contrasted with Greek Christians, are -known as "Ferangi" to this day in the Levant. Being Orthodox Christians -and not Arians, the Franks had the support of the Roman Church in all -their conquests.</p> - -<p>The Flemings of Belgium are remnants of the original Franks who -retained their own language. Most of these invaders, like the Franks, -Visigoths, Lombards, and Normans, adopted the Latin lan<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span>guage of their -subject peoples when they settled within the confines of the Roman -Empire.</p> - -<p>Except in eastern England and northern France the numbers of the -conquering Nordics were not sufficient entirely to evict and replace -the conquered populations, but they everywhere formed the upper classes -and land-owning aristocracy and to this day these same classes in all -European nations continue to show, in more or less purity, the physical -characters of the Nordic race.</p> - -<p>During the Middle Ages, the dominating and war-like Nordics paused long -enough from fighting each other to carry on the Crusades and to beat -back the onrush of the Saracens at Tours in 732 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> They -saved Europe from the Mongols in 1241 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> at the Battle of -Liegnitz (now Wahlstatt) in Silesia where the Duke of Liegnitz and the -Nordic nobility, outnumbered five to one, lay dead upon the field of -battle; but checked the advance of the Asiatic hordes and saved the -budding civilization of Europe from the fate of Asia.</p> - -<p>This race supplied the navigators of the expansion period, when the -world was for the first time opened up in the fifteenth and sixteenth -centuries, and since then they have formed the fighting men, soldiers, -sailors, explorers, hunters, adventurers, and frontiersmen of Europe -and her colonies.</p> - -<p>After mastering the north of France, the Franks subjugated the remnants -of the Burgundians and destroyed the Visigothic kingdom which still -flourished in the south of Gaul. They also conquered the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span> country on -the east bank of the Rhine known as Franconia, and under Charlemagne -seized northern Italy. In 800 <i>A.D.</i> Charlemagne revived the Western -Roman Empire, which under various guises lasted down to 1807.</p> - -<p>Charlemagne's greatest and most difficult conquest, however, was that -of the Saxons, who were pure Nordics. They occupied the districts of -northwest Germany, centering in Hanover, and even today this part of -Germany is still the most Nordic portion of that country.</p> - -<p>When Charlemagne reached the Elbe in his conquests he found beyond it -the heathen Alpine Wends and from his day down to the World War, the -history of Central Europe has been the pushing back of the frontier of -Alpine Asia from the Elbe eastward toward the Urals.</p> - -<p>These eastern lands were conquered and little by little Christianized -and civilized from the west. This process went on as far as the -Vistula, where it met the culture, and Greek Orthodox religion, of the -Byzantine Empire, which had followed up the rivers of Russia from the -Black Sea and had given to Moscovia and to the Ukraine their religion, -alphabet, and art.</p> - -<p>The Northmen were the last of the Nordic barbarians to appear on the -scene. In the ninth and tenth centuries they raided the coasts of -Europe from England to Greece. They established themselves as permanent -settlers on all the Scottish islands and on many parts of the Scottish -coast. In<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span> Caithness, the northernmost corner of Scotland, Norse was -spoken as late as the seventeenth century. They formed settlements and -left place names all around the coasts of Wales and England. In the -tenth century as Danes they subjugated northeastern England and imposed -their rule east of the line of Watling Street, which runs from London -to Chester. These Danes had barely been overcome by the Saxons when -a new group of Nordics arrived as Normans from France and conquered -England in 1066.</p> - -<p>Ireland was attacked by the Norse who came in from the north and by the -Danes who entered from the south. The island was overrun by these two -peoples who have left many traces in the place names and in the blood -of Ireland.</p> - -<p>On the Continent the coasts of France and Germany were harried by the -Northmen and the country since called Normandy was conquered by them in -911 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> The Danish conquest of England, referred to above, -must have been largely Norse while, in France, Rollo's followers were -probably to an overwhelming extent Danes.</p> - -<p>The Norman element in England and to some extent in America down to -this very day has supplied a very large proportion of the conquerors, -seamen, explorers, and frontiersmen. This same ruling and restless -strain showed itself in the individual adventurers who went to South -Italy and Sicily, which they thoroughly conquered in the twelfth -century. They even attacked the Byzantine Empire. To this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> day blue -eyes in Sicily are called "Norman eyes" and are to some extent -characteristic of the upper classes there.</p> - -<p>It was in this period that the Norse rovers under Leif Ericson -discovered the northeast mainland of America about 1000 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span>, -nearly five hundred years before Columbus, who probably knew of their -voyages, crossed the Atlantic.</p> - -<p>At the time of this Norwegian and Danish expansion, there was a -similar outpouring of Swedes who, as Varangians, crossed the Baltic -into Russia, which they conquered and ruled for many centuries. The -name Varangian is strongly suggestive of Varini or Franks and the name -"Russian" means "rowers." The Varangians came across the seas precisely -as their ancestors, the Goths, had done a thousand years earlier. After -the expansion of this so-called Viking period, Scandinavian activities -came to an end.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Man undoubtedly crossed back and forth on dry land from Europe to -England in Neolithic and earlier times. In fact, some of the earliest -records of man have been found in England and the recent discoveries -in Norfolk of chipped implements and hearths show that man made -tools and used fire in England before the appearance of the first -glaciers—something over a million years ago.</p> - -<p>These early species and genera of men largely died out or were -exterminated and were succeeded at the beginning of Neolithic times by -invasions of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span> the small, dark, long-skulled Mediterranean race which -for many thousands of years formed the basis of the population of -England, Scotland, and Ireland.</p> - -<p>About the beginning of the Bronze Age, some 1800 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, a tall, -round-skulled type from the Continent called the Beaker Makers appeared -on the scene in England. They resembled somewhat the present Dinaric -race, a tall, round-skulled branch of the Alpines now found from the -Tyrol southward to Albania on the east side of the Adriatic. It is -clear that the Beaker Makers entered from the east across the narrow -seas and their remains indicate a tall, masterful type which seems to -have disappeared to a large extent, although some of the round-skulled, -heavily built Englishmen, found numerously among the commercial -classes, may be their representatives today.</p> - -<p>The racial composition of the British Isles when the Nordic first -appeared on the scene may be safely said to have been composed of -small, brunet Mediterraneans interspersed with a small number of -round-skulled types and including, very probably, remnants of still -earlier races.</p> - -<p>The Celtic-speaking Nordics appear to have crossed the Rhine into -France and the countries to the southwest about 800 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> -At about the same time they forced their way into the British Isles -which they thoroughly conquered. These Nordics were called Goidels or -"Q" Celts and their language is represented today by the remnants of -Erse in Ire<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span>land, Gaelic in Scotland, and Manx on the Isle of Man. -These "Q" Celts, as contrasted with the later coming "P" Celts, are -now represented by the Macs (meaning son) just as the later Cymric or -Brythonic Celts are called "P" Celts because in their language Ap means -son.</p> - -<p>The aborigines were called Picts in Scotland. These Mediterranean Picts -spoke a language related to Hamitic or Egyptian, and many place names -of this origin are still to be found.</p> - -<p>It is not definitely known whether the Gaelic speech of Scotland is a -remnant of early Goidel invasion or whether it was reintroduced from -Ireland in the early centuries of our era. The latter appears probable, -because the second conquest by the Celts was nearly complete throughout -Britain, although it did not reach Ireland. This second subjugation -of Britain was by the "P" Celts or Brythons, speaking a Cymric form -of Celtic. It occurred in the fourth century <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> and was so -thorough that it is not probable that remnants of the earlier Goidelic -speech could have survived in Scotland.</p> - -<p>These Brythons were represented on the continent by the Belgæ, who, in -Cæsar's time, occupied Gaul between the Rhine and the Seine. A remnant -of their speech survives in Brittany as Armorican.</p> - -<p>The "P" Celts gave their speech to all England and remnants of it are -found in the recently extinct Cornish in Cornwall and in the Cymric of -Wales. Both the "Q" Celts and the "P" Celts were, on their arrival in -Britain, pure Nordics, but in many cases<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span> they soon merged with the -aboriginal population. They were everywhere the ruling military class, -in Britain as well as in Gaul.</p> - -<p>Having imposed their language on the conquered people, they died out -almost completely, leaving, as in Wales, their speech on the lips -of the little Mediterranean native. Whatever truth there is in the -legends of King Arthur and his resistance to the Saxons they clearly -indicate a blond, Celtic aristocracy ruling over an underclass of small -Mediterraneans. The same condition is indicated in Irish legends where -the Celts appear as a distinct, fair-haired military class.</p> - -<p>The next Nordic invasion of Britain was by the Saxons from the country -around the present duchy of Holstein and by the Angles and Jutes from -farther north on the mainland of Denmark or Jutland. These tribes which -entered England in the fifth century were probably more purely Nordic -than the continental Teutons and this also was true of the Norse and -Varangians of a later date. Their conquest was almost completed during -the century after their arrival but there was sufficient resistance -in the western part of England to postpone its final subjugation for -several centuries. However, gradually the population of practically all -England and the lowlands of Scotland became purely Nordic. This racial -stock was reinforced by the invasion of Danes, who occupied most of -northeast England.</p> - -<p>The Norsemen settled around the coasts of Ireland, Scotland, England, -and, especially, Wales, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span> added a very considerable contribution to -the pure Nordic element of the population.</p> - -<p>The next and last invasion of Britain by the Nordics was the Norman -conquest in 1066. The Norman leaders and soldiers were pure Nordics -from the most Nordic part of France. In fact, the Normans were heathen -Danes speaking a Teutonic tongue when they arrived in Normandy in 911 -<span class="smcap">A.D.</span> so that on coming to England they had been in France only -a little over one hundred and fifty years. In those years they had -accepted Christianity, had learned French, and had become the exponents -of the highest culture in Europe. Into England they brought with them -many followers of Alpine origin, and the clergy whom they imported was -also composed very largely of Latinized Alpines.</p> - -<p>At this point we may remark that Wales, especially along the coasts, -has a very large Nordic population. It is absurd to distinguish between -England, Scotland, North Ireland, and Wales as is done in the census -of the United States. We might just as well distinguish between North -England and South England on the ground that the first is Anglian and -Danish and the other Saxon and Jutish. The lowlands of Scotland are -pure English territory and have been such for a thousand years. The -Ulster Scots who came to America were only two or three generations -removed from the Scottish and English borderers and had not mixed with -the native Irish. It is also to be remarked that the Norman conquest -of England was that of one Nordic people by an<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span>other, and that Great -Britain and Ireland constitute a group, the membership of which is -overwhelmingly Nordic in its racial inheritance.</p> - -<p>At the time of the discovery of America, all Europe was far more Nordic -than it is today. Germany at that time had not witnessed the expansion -of the Alpines of the south and east which is characteristic of the -present era. In England, before the industrial revolution created a -demand for little brunet Mediterraneans to drive spindles, the Nordic -had the field to himself. As farmer, soldier, sailor, explorer, and -pioneer he was pre-eminent. The brunet Mediterranean element, formerly -called Iberians, had been forced back into the extreme west of England -and into Wales, and was not an important economic or political factor. -Nor was there any considerable immigration of that racial stock into -the American colonies. These were settled primarily by the descendants -of the Normans, Saxons, Anglians, and Danes coming from the distinctly -Nordic districts of the mother land.</p> - -<p>Norfolk and Suffolk were settled by the Angles and afterwards formed a -part of the Danish kingdom. As said above the lowlands of Scotland and -the English borders were Anglian and Dane, while the coasts and islands -of Scotland were everywhere Norse. The Highlands were Celtic with an -admixture of Norse, Anglian, and Norman. There were also remnants of -the old Mediterranean populations, probably Picts. Curiously enough -these Mediterraneans contributed their dark eyes and hair color,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> -but not their short stature. The population of West Scotland has the -greatest height of all the peoples of Europe.</p> - -<p>Ireland, like England, was settled as we have seen originally by -the Neolithic Mediterraneans. They in turn were conquered by the -Goidelic or "Q" Celts, blond Nordics who imposed their language on the -aborigines. In the ninth century, Ireland was overrun by the Norse and -Danes, whose descendants today constitute a very considerable portion -of the population. The very name Ireland is Danish. Most of the big -blond Irish of today, although they like to claim "Celtic" descent, -are, in fact, of Norse, Danish, Saxon, Norman, or Scotch derivation.</p> - -<p>The Nordic elements in Ireland were reinforced again and again by -the English and Normans, who, from the days of their original entry -into the island down to our day have formed the great majority of the -nobility and upper classes of the country. The Celtic Goidel in Ireland -today is a negligible quantity which cannot be racially identified. -The brunet elements in western Ireland, though to some extent Celtic -in speech, are descended from the old Neolithic or Mediterranean -population of the British Isles, mixed with a primitive, aboriginal -race of great antiquity, the Firbolgs.</p> - -<p>Ireland has shown a singular power of absorbing its conquerors. -The descendants of Danish, Norman, and English settlers consider -themselves pure Irish "Celts." It is a strange fact that the English, -Scotch, Norman, Danish, and even the French Hu<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span>guenots who have -settled in Ireland have acquired and have handed down an extraordinary -temperamental unity. As to language, by the time of Elizabeth the -English Pale constituted a part of eastern Leinster, and there English -was uniformly spoken. The English language ultimately spread over the -whole of Ireland, leaving only a few remnants of Celtic speech in the -extreme west.</p> - -<p>From the times of James I to those of William III, large numbers of -English and Scotch borderers passed over to the northeast corner of the -island into the province of Ulster. They were fervent Presbyterians -and hated the native Catholic Irish. It was the sons and grandsons of -these immigrants who came to America in the eighteenth century and are -sometimes miscalled the "Scotch Irish." They had special grievances of -their own against England on account of economic restrictions imposed -upon their industries.</p> - -<p>Before this time a large number of Cromwellian soldiers had settled in -Leinster, but not having their own women with them they intermarried -with the Catholic Irish and their descendants today are most intensely -Irish in national feeling. The Reformation never had much hold -on Ireland, so that the Catholic Irish today represent the mixed -population of Ireland before the sixteenth century, together with -numerous converts from the Scotch and English immigrants.</p> - -<p>With this brief survey of the distribution of the Nordic race in Europe -down to the time of the dis<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span>covery of America and the beginning of -emigration to the colonies of the New World, we can pass on to one of -the most dramatic mass-migrations of man.</p> - -<p>From West Central Asia where it was in contact with the Mongoloids on -the <i>east</i>, the Nordic race pushed across Europe to the extreme western -coasts. We shall show how it traversed the Atlantic Ocean and then in -three centuries subdued a continent. Generation after generation it -fought its way westward, until it reached the Pacific Ocean, where -today it stands confronting Asia and its immemorial rivals, the -Mongols, this time on the <i>west</i>.</p> - - - -<div class="footnotes"><p class="ph3">FOOTNOTES:</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> In <i>Geographical Lore of the Time of the Crusades</i>, by -J.K. Wright of the American Geographic Society, p. 320, the author -says: "In these authorities we find that the differences between the -inhabitants of the northern and southern parts of Italy were fully -appreciated in the twelfth century. 'The Lombards,' Gunther says, 'are -a keen, skillful, and active people; foresighted in counsel; expert -in justice; strong in body and spirit, full of life and handsome to -look upon, with slight, supple bodies that give them great power of -endurance; economical and always moderate in eating and drinking; -masters of their hands and mouths; honorable in every business -transaction; mighty in the arts and always striving for the new; lovers -of freedom and ready to face death for freedom's sake. These people -have never been willing to submit to kings.... But what a contrast the -people of Apulia in the south present to the Lombards. Dirty, lazy, -weak, good-for-nothing idlers that they are.'"</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> The Spanish popular heroes, Don Rodrigo and the Cid -Campeador, were Gothic, to judge by their names, as was the brave -crusader, Count Raymund of Toulouse. L. Wilser has called attention -to the number of Gothic names still in use in the Iberian peninsula: -Alfonso or Affonso, Alonzo (Gothic Athalafuns); Alvaro and Alvarez -(Gothic Alavair); Bermuy (Gothic Berimud); Bertran (Gothic Bairhtram); -Diego and Diaz (Gothic Thiudareiks, Dietrich); Esmeralda; Fernando and -its genitive Fernandez (Gothic Ferdinanths); Froilaz and Fruela (Gothic -Fravila); Gelmirez (Gelimer); Gomez (Gothic Guma); Gonzalo and Gonzalez -(Gothic Gunthimir, Gundemar); Guilfonso (Gothic Viljafuns); Guzman -(Gothic Godaman, Gutmann); Ildefonso (Gothic Hildifuns); Isabella; -Marques (Gothic Markja); Menendez (Gothic Herminanths); Mundiz and -Munnez (Gothic Mundila); Pizarro (Gothic Pitzas); Ramiro (Gothic -Radomir or Ragnimir); Ramon and Renmondez (Gothic Ragnimund); Rodrigo -and Rodriguez; Ruiz (Gothic Rudoreiks); Sesnandes (Gothic Sisenand); -Vasco and Vasquez (Nordic Wasce); Velasquez (Gothic Vilaskja?). See p. -107, vol. II, of book <i>Die Germanen</i>, by Doctor Ludwig Wilser.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> Describing Camoens, George Edward Woodberry (<i>The Torch</i>, -pp. 203-4; New York, 1920) says: "He was of the old blue blood of the -Peninsula, the Gothic blood, the same that gave birth to Cervantes. He -was blond, and bright-haired, with blue eyes, large and lively, the -face oval and ruddy—and in manhood the beard short and rounded, with -long untrimmed mustachios—the forehead high, the nose aquiline; in -figure agile and robust; in action 'quick to draw and slow to sheathe,' -and when he was young, he writes that he had seen the heels of many, -but none had seen his heels. Born about the year 1524, of a noble and -well-connected family, educated at Coimbra, a university famous for the -classics, and launched in life about the court at Lisbon, he was no -sooner his own master than he fell into troubles."</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> Wilser cites Woltmann's essay, "Have the Goths disappeared -in Italy?," which shows that even in the latter part of the Middle Ages -many people lived according to Gothic law; that in some cities there -even existed Gothic sections; and that many Gothic names can be traced, -as Stavila, Nefila, Leuuia, Hermia, Hilpja, Ansefrida, Gilliefredus, -Totila, Vila.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> In fact, almost all the names of the Troubadours are -Teutonic, says Wilser, giving the following examples of French names, -with the Teutonic original in parentheses: Arnaut (Arnold); Aimeric -(Emerich); Bernart (Bernhard); Bertrand (Bertram); Gaucelm (Walchelm); -Gautier (Walther); Guillem (Wilhelm); Guiraut (Gerold); Gunot (Wido); -Jaufre or Joffre (Gotfrid); Raimon (Raginmund); Rambaut (Raginbald); -Rudel (Rudolf); Savaric (Sabarich). See p. 107, vol. II, of <i>Die -Germanen</i>, by Doctor Ludwig Wilser.</p></div></div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span></p> - -<p class="ph2"><a name="IV" id="IV">IV</a></p> - -<p class="center">THE NORDIC SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA</p> - - -<p><span class="smcap">Before</span> considering the question of the origin of the English settlers -of the Atlantic seaboard, it is important to understand the motives -that actuated the newcomers.</p> - -<p>The impelling motive of the settlers who crossed the ocean to America -from the earliest Colonial times down to 1880 was land hunger, and just -as we speculate in stocks today, so down to one hundred years ago our -ancestors speculated in lands on the frontier.</p> - -<p>It is difficult to realize the extent to which the ownership of the -land in Europe was monopolized, largely through the exercise of -Royal favor, by the upper classes in the seventeenth and eighteenth -centuries. This established English tradition and practice, brought -to America by the early settlers, coupled with the favoritism of the -royal governors in land grants, was one of the causes which led to the -Revolution. After the American victory much land was confiscated on the -plea that the owners were Loyalists.</p> - -<p>The distribution of free land in the United States came substantially -to an end about 1880, when the public domain became exhausted. Up -to that date,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span> the immigration into America had been assimilated -readily. Certain exceptions will be dealt with later. Practically all -of it was from northwestern Europe, and the immigrants came mostly -of their own volition. It took some degree of enterprise to leave -home, cross the Atlantic, and establish oneself in a new country amid -strange surroundings. Settling new land meant clearing the forests and -destroying the game, as well as buying off or fighting the Indians, -whose ideas about land ownership were vague. To the frontiersman in -early days, the term "a clearing" was synonymous with "a settlement."</p> - -<p>Religious motives and the desire for political and economic -independence, of course, were also great factors in the Pilgrim and -Puritan migration to New England from 1620 to 1640.</p> - -<p>The New England Puritans represented only a part and relatively a -small part of the exodus from England. They were pure English from the -most Anglo-Saxon part of England and consisted largely of yeomen and -the lesser gentry, who found the religious and political conditions -in England under the Stuarts intolerable for freemen. They were -essentially dissenters, who refused to bend the knee to prelate or to -king.</p> - -<p>In 1640, under the Commonwealth the Puritans seized the reins of -government in England and only permitted the return of royalty in -1660 under conditions which established for all time the supremacy of -Parliament. In fact, during the Commonwealth the power of Parliament -had become so great that many<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span> of the best minds of England felt that a -restoration of the monarchy was needed as a check.</p> - -<p>The settlers of New England may be regarded as essentially rebels -against established religion and established authority when the -religion and authority were not of their own choosing. This -non-conformist spirit persisted in the successive new frontiers as -they were settled by New Englanders. The early New England settlers -of western New York and the old Northwest Territory gave birth to an -astonishing number of new sects, religions, "isms," and communities, -ranging all the way from Mormonism to Shakers and the Oneida Community. -They were, however, law-abiding in their own way and murders and crimes -of violence were relatively infrequent.</p> - -<p>This is in sharp contrast to the southern frontiersmen, who were and -are addicted to killings and physical violence. That, however, is -chiefly true of the inhabitants of the Appalachian valleys, who always -have been lawless. The dissent and predisposition to rebellion among -the New Englanders dates back to the Puritans in England and the -lawlessness and violence of the Ulster Scots to the endless border -warfare on the Scottish frontier. The southern frontiersman was -originally a Presbyterian, but he found his religion too intellectual -for isolated communities and turned in many cases to the more emotional -creeds of the Methodist and Baptist. The hatred of England by the -Ulster Scotch frontiersmen dated back to the unjust and oppressive -interference with their indus<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span>tries in the north of Ireland, as well as -to a deep-seated impatience of all authority.</p> - -<p>After the Revolution this hatred of authority was transferred to the -tidewater aristocrats and was accentuated by the debtor complex, which -has characterized all our frontiers.</p> - -<p>The character of the frontier from the very beginning remained the -same. Each generation of the restless, the discontented and the -failures pushed West, carrying with them some of the fine qualities -of the original settlers of the seaboard, but more often developing a -new complex of intolerance for the restraints and usages of the older -communities.</p> - -<p>There is an amusing and significant evolution of these traits in -families who settled around Massachusetts Bay and then moved to -the Connecticut Valley; thence to Vermont, western New York, Ohio, -Illinois, Iowa, and Los Angeles, where they now flourish.</p> - -<p>At the time of the Revolution the intense hatred in New England of -the mother country was due partly to a desire to confiscate the lands -of the Loyalists and partly to that which they considered unfair -restrictions on their overseas trade, as well as to an unwillingness to -being taxed to pay a part of the great cost of conquering Canada.</p> - -<p>The net result of these forces was a widespread anti-British and, -later, anti-governmental complex, which has characterized our country -ever since. In contrast to England and to Canada, we are an essentially -lawless people.</p> - -<p class="center"> -<img src="images/illus2.jpg" alt="pic" /> -<a id="illus2" name="illus2"></a> -</p> -<p class="caption">Ireland.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span></p> - -<p>In the North the Revolution was largely a movement of various Calvinist -communities. The few Episcopalians in New England and the more numerous -adherents of that church in New York, Pennsylvania, and Maryland were -almost all Loyalists. In Virginia, however, and further to the south -the numerous Church of England planter class took the American side -and as a result retained their leadership as an aristocracy down to -the time of the Civil War. Even at the time of the Revolution this -church contributed more than its quota of leaders. Of fifty-six signers -of the Declaration of Independence, thirty-four are classified as -Episcopalians, twelve as Congregationalists, five as Presbyterians, -two Quakers, one Baptist and one Roman Catholic. Of the Continental -Congress which ratified this Declaration, nearly two-thirds are said to -have been Episcopalians.</p> - -<p>In the North following the expulsion of the Loyalists, the Church of -England was left prostrate, and it was some time after the Revolution -before it was successfully reorganized and was definitely designated -as the <i>Protestant</i> Episcopal Church to become, after a century, the -fashionable church of the Atlantic seaboard. The Protestant Episcopal -Church has never had any substantial hold in the Middle or Far West -and even today it is there largely a missionary church with a tendency -towards ritualism, which has checked its normal development.</p> - -<p>The Roman Catholic population of the colonies was negligible. In 1790 -out of a white population of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> a little over 3,000,000, there were not -more than 35,000 Catholics in the United States. This number included -5000 Negroes and some Germans. They were located for the most part in -Maryland and Pennsylvania, showing that the South Irish Catholics had -not come over in appreciable numbers during Colonial times. Many of the -colonies legislated against Roman Catholics.</p> - -<p>The Revolution itself was political and social, carrying to an extreme -development the political theories of the English Whigs. The distrust -of officialdom in power, engendered by the Revolution, led to all -manner of constitutional and legal restrictions, in place of a reliance -on the personal character of office holders as in England.</p> - -<p>During Colonial times two distinct types of population developed. -First, the older communities along the tidewater districts, closely in -touch with Europe and having a long tradition of culture and wealth. -Second, a type grew up on the frontier which from the very beginning -showed itself intolerant of the control of the older and richer -settlements. This found its expression in Shays's Rebellion in West -Massachusetts in 1786-87, in the Whiskey Rebellion in Pennsylvania -in 1794, and, still earlier, in 1770, when the "Regulators" in North -Carolina were in open rebellion. After the Revolution this tendency -became more and more marked until the then West under Andrew Jackson -took over the control of the country and, with many unfortunate -results, carried Jefferson's ideals to an extreme.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span></p> - -<p>The Revolution emphasized this second attitude of mind and resulted -in the loss, by expulsion, of some of the best Nordic blood in the -country. The Loyalists from Boston, for instance, comprised many of the -oldest and most distinguished families. The representative families -of that city today are not descended wholly from the aristocratic -Colonial families, but largely from the population of the small towns -and villages in its neighborhood. It is said that a total of eighty to -a hundred thousand Loyalists left the colonies and went to Canada and -England and to the English West Indies.</p> - -<p>New England to a greater extent than any other colony had been at -war with France and her Canadian Indians for the best part of one -hundred and fifty years, but the memory of this prolonged and bloody -struggle was obliterated by the Revolution. In its place there arose -in America a sentiment for France, caused largely by the romantic -personality of Lafayette, which survives to this day. The Jeffersonian -emotional sympathy with the French Revolution also played a large part. -The fact nevertheless is that we had a naval war in 1798 with the -French, although no formal war was declared. It was caused by French -depredations on American commerce, resulting in several duels between -American and French frigates. All this is conveniently forgotten or -ignored in some of our school text-books.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>The earliest permanent settlements of importance<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span> in New England were -around Massachusetts Bay, and in Virginia along navigable streams. -From such centers settlements spread up and down the coast until -all the desirable lands accessible to salt water became occupied. -In New England the coasts of southern Maine, of Rhode Island, and -of Connecticut were quickly occupied. Migration then went overland -from Massachusetts Bay, westward to the Connecticut River. This was -our first real northern frontier, and it took more than a century to -populate southern and western New England.</p> - -<p>The settlement of Connecticut westward was blocked by the colony of New -York, while the Indians delayed the advance of Massachusetts to the -north. Connecticut in turn threw out colonies at an early date, such as -Newark in New Jersey in 1666.</p> - -<p>Vermont was not settled until just before the Revolution, owing to the -danger from the Indians and a serious dispute between New Hampshire -and New York as to its ownership. At the time of the Revolution it was -a typical frontier with all of its bad features. At that time it was -about as rough and tough as Kentucky or Tennessee. After the Revolution -some of the best of its population migrated to western New York, along -with settlers from all over New England who went for the most part -through Vermont.</p> - -<p>Early in the eighteenth century nearly all the desirable lands within -reach of salt water had been occupied from New Jersey southward, and -later coming immigrants were forced back into the uplands<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> of the West -beyond the so-called Fall Line at which the Atlantic rivers cease to be -navigable.</p> - -<p>New York interposed an absolute bar to westward migration because the -Iroquois Indians held almost all the fertile lands to the west of the -Hudson River. The east bank of the Hudson was more or less filled up -with New Englanders and the west bank with its undesirable lands was -turned over to late coming immigrants, chiefly Germans. The Dutch -population of New York was but small. The total population of the -colony at the time of its seizure by England in 1664 was little more -than 10,000 and there were already many English among them.</p> - -<p>The English settlers occupied both banks of the Delaware around -Philadelphia, forcing the later-coming Germans and Ulster Scots to the -west. The Swedish settlement along the river was trifling and was soon -absorbed. There is very little trace of it left in place or personal -names. On the upper reaches of the Delaware River, in Pennsylvania, and -in New York, there were some small settlements of French Huguenots, who -suffered severely from Indian depredations during the Revolution.</p> - -<p>Delaware and the country east of Chesapeake Bay are purely English, as -was Maryland, except that western Maryland was really part of western -Pennsylvania and western Virginia.</p> - -<p>Virginia itself was the mother of States and in Colonial times extended -in fact, as other colonies did in theory, to the Mississippi, without -mentioning claims to the South Sea. The tidewater population<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span> of -Virginia differed profoundly from that of the western part of the -State, including the Shenandoah Valley, which was settled largely from -western Pennsylvania.</p> - -<p>There was a marked difference between the settlement of New England and -that of Virginia. To New England the earliest settlers brought their -women and families, while in Virginia the early arrivals were nearly -all males. Women were afterwards sent over by the shipload, but this -was only during the early days of the colony.</p> - -<p>Like Virginia, North Carolina in Colonial times extended nominally to -the Mississippi. Its population lacked the tidewater aristocrats of the -Old Dominion and contained many Scots, straight from the Highlands, -who, strangely, took the British side during the Revolution, as well as -a very large number of Ulster Scots in the western mountains, and in -the counties which were afterwards Tennessee.</p> - -<p>Kentucky and Tennessee were both settled from the colonies immediately -to the east, but largely by the Ulster Scots, coming from western -Pennsylvania through the mountainous districts of Virginia and North -Carolina. These Ulster Scots came south along the Appalachian valleys, -which trend in a southwesterly direction. They were reinforced by the -numerous groups of the same people, who came up from South Carolina. -Kentucky was much more purely English than Tennessee.</p> - -<p>It is a fact but little understood, that the frontier was not much -reinforced from the coast but extend<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span>ed itself. In other words, the -frontier from the beginning was pushed onward by the backwoodsmen, each -generation advancing a little farther westward and making new clearings.</p> - -<p>The people along the coast, after a couple of generations of severe -privation, became relatively rich as compared with the frontiersmen. -The inhabitants of the coast cities for the most part preferred a -sea-faring life rather than the hewing out of a homestead in the -wilderness. There have been many cases in our Colonial history where -men went from the coast towns to the wilderness, but for the most part -they were content to stay at home.</p> - -<p>As to the original racial complexion of the colonies, New England was -purely Nordic and English. The handful of Ulster Scots in New Hampshire -was not to be distinguished from the English, and the individual -Huguenot families around Boston were only trifling in number. This -remained true of all New England during the Colonial period.</p> - -<p>In New York, however, conditions were different. Dutch New Amsterdam, -afterwards English New York City, was always an important port and -attracted to itself from the earliest times a substantial number of -foreigners. In addition to the Dutch founders a considerable number of -French Huguenots were among the earlier settlers. There were also a few -Germans and Portuguese.</p> - -<p>The west bank of the Hudson was less accessible and desirable than the -east bank, but there were some substantial colonies of Palatine Germans -set<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span>tled there and up the valleys of the Mohawk and its connecting -streams. These last played a creditable part in the heavy fighting -which raged in this district with the British settlers, who were for -the most part Loyalists. There were also some small colonies of pure -Scotch along the Mohawk.</p> - -<p>One of the results of the Revolution was the expulsion of the Iroquois -Indians, who had occupied New York westward from near Albany to -Buffalo. They had sided with the British and had committed many -atrocities. Their lands were immediately occupied by New Englanders, -coming chiefly from or through Vermont, so that New York State west of -Albany became little more than an extension of New England, except that -the settlers had become Presbyterians.</p> - -<p>Many of the colonists who came to New York from Holland were refugees -from the provinces now included in Belgium—in other words, they were -either Flemings or French Huguenots. The real Dutch in the province -came from the north of Holland and were mostly Nordic Frisians.</p> - -<p>In addition to the large migration from Ulster very many English -Protestants from Leinster came to America by way of New York -immediately after the Revolution. The Catholic Irish did not come in -any numbers until after 1845.</p> - -<p>The Huguenots were pre-dominantly Nordic. For example, New Rochelle in -New York was settled directly from Old Rochelle which is, even today, -one of the purest Nordic districts remaining in France.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span> It is entirely -safe to say that the Huguenots from Brittany, Normandy, and Picardy, -who came to the American colonies by way of England and Holland were -overwhelmingly Nordic. Some of those from southern France were probably -Mediterranean.</p> - -<p>Outside of the Port of New York the Dutch population was confined to -the Hudson River towns, chiefly on the east bank, up to and including -Albany and Schenectady. The Dutch element of New Jersey was very small.</p> - -<p>New Jersey was almost all English, except a few Scotch settlements. It -was settled directly from England by way of Perth Amboy, Elizabeth, -and Freehold in the north. South Jersey was settled from Pennsylvania. -There were a few German communities scattered throughout the -north-central part of New Jersey, but, on the whole, the State can be -counted as purely English.</p> - -<p>The case of Pennsylvania was somewhat different. The original settlers -on the west bank of the Delaware, around Philadelphia, were English -Quakers with a certain number of Welsh, who probably were for the most -part Nordic. This section was the most cultured and important part -of Pennsylvania. Philadelphia was the port of entry of two important -migrations in the eighteenth century. First, the Ulster Scots, who -came in great numbers after 1720. In fact, most of the Ulster Scots -in America entered the colonies through Philadelphia and, to a less -extent, through Charleston, South Carolina. These late comers found -the desirable land<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span> along the Delaware had been taken up, so they -moved westward to the Indian frontier. They were a restless, brave, -and pugnacious people, and immediately assumed the burden of the -Indian fighting, often without the support or even the sympathy of the -Philadelphia Quakers. They were numerous and soon spread along the -foothills and valleys of the Appalachians southwestward through western -Maryland and Virginia into North and South Carolina, whence they again -crossed the ridges westward, until, by the time of the Revolution, they -had laid the foundations of Kentucky and of Tennessee. They were, of -course, pure Nordics and of North England and Lowland Scotch origin. -They had resided for two or three generations in North Ireland. Being -fervent Presbyterians, they had not mingled with the Catholic Irish.</p> - -<p>In 1790 these Ulster Scots in the colonies numbered about 200,000 and -the pure Scots about 300,000 and taken together they were, next to -the English, the most important element. They were, as said above, -pre-eminently pioneers and Indian fighters and the same fact appears in -the history of practically every frontier of British colonies during -the next century. They were a highly selected group when they first -went to Ireland, which was at that time to all intents a frontier. -Since that time the Scots and the Ulster Scots have everywhere shown -the characteristics of the ideal pioneer. They played a predominant -part in the settlement of the southern part of the Middle West.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span></p> - -<p>The next most important racial element was the Germans. In fact, it -was the only non-British element of importance in the colonies. At -the time of the Revolution the Germans numbered about a quarter of a -million and by 1790 they have been computed to have been about 9 per -cent of the total population of the colonies. They settled in the -districts of Pennsylvania immediately west of Philadelphia around York -and Lancaster, where they are to be found today. They were a peaceful -and industrious people, and have to some extent retained their language -and customs down to the present time. A very few of them joined their -neighbors, the Ulster Scots, in the migration to the Southwest. They -were not particularly loyal to the American cause during the Revolution -nor in the preceding French Wars, and their presence in the colonies -excited much hostility. They were refugees, who had fled down the -Rhine from Alsace and the Palatinate to escape the French when Louis -XIV invaded and devastated their country. With them were many refugees -from German-speaking Switzerland together with Hussites from Moravia. -While there were some Lutherans and Calvinists among them, most of the -"Pennsylvania Dutch," as they were called by the English colonists, -belonged to small and obscure sects. Dunkards, Schwankenfelders, Amish, -and Mennonites still maintain their special religious communities. -Their language is Alemannish and this German dialect is still spoken in -Alsace and Switzerland. In addition to their colonies in Pennsylvania, -there was a small<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span> settlement of Moravian Brothers in the western part -of North Carolina.</p> - -<p>Maryland was originally settled under a charter to Lord Baltimore as a -refuge for English Catholics, but from the beginning these latter were -very few in number and by 1690 were so thoroughly outnumbered that they -were deprived of the franchise.</p> - -<p>Virginia, the most important of the colonies next to New England, if -the latter be taken as a whole, was pure English in the tidewater -district, that is, as far west as Richmond. Beyond were many Ulster -Scots, who, it must be remembered, were very largely English.</p> - -<p>North Carolina was much the same, except that the Ulster Scots were -relatively more numerous.</p> - -<p>South Carolina had an English planter aristocracy and was much purer -English and had less Ulster Scotch than her northern neighbor. It had -also a considerable French Huguenot element, by far the largest and -most influential in the colonies. These Huguenots, while not very -numerous, were nearly all men of culture and social standing and played -a large part in the development of the country.</p> - -<p>Georgia was substantially of the same racial complexion as South -Carolina.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span></p> - - - - -<p class="ph2"><a name="V" id="V">V</a></p> - - - -<p class="center">THE PURITANS IN NEW ENGLAND</p> - - -<p><span class="smcap">Taking</span> up the settlement of the colonies more in detail, we may -commence with New England. The first inhabitants of Massachusetts were -pre-dominantly from the eastern half of England. This contains the -counties in which Nordic influence had probably been the strongest, and -the early settlement of Massachusetts was by an overwhelmingly Nordic -stock, judging alike by place of origin and by family and personal -names. A study of the origin of the pioneers of Plymouth, Watertown, -and Dedham shows that two-thirds of them came from a region along the -English coast between London and the Wash and mostly from the southern -part of that stretch of territory.</p> - -<p>Although given an important position by historians because of its -priority and the romantic incidents connected with its founding, -Plymouth Colony, because of its small size, played only a minor part in -the early development of the American nation. Its settlers, as shown by -the detailed accounts available concerning many of them, were people of -the lower and middle classes, mostly of good character but attracting -to their numbers also adventurers and men of more doubtful quality.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span></p> - -<p>Within five or six years after the landing at Plymouth Rock, the -Plymouth settlers were already outnumbered by other settlers in New -England, while Plymouth itself was the parent of a number of other -settlements that outstripped it. During the decade 1630-40 it became -a province of eight small towns, seven of them stretching for fifty -miles along the shore of Cape Cod Bay, from Scituate to Yarmouth, -with Taunton lying twenty-five miles inland. The entire colony would -probably have moved to the Connecticut River valley, had not the -competition of settlers from Massachusetts Bay been too strong. -Two generations after the original settlement there the number of -inhabitants of Plymouth was no greater than it was at the start.</p> - -<p>In the decade of 1620-30 there was a rapid but sporadic settlement of -small towns on or near the Massachusetts coast, but the first great -migration was that represented by the arrival of Governor Winthrop's -fleet in Massachusetts Bay in 1630. The new arrivals settled Boston, -Charlestown, Medford, Watertown, Roxbury, Lynn, and Dorchester. During -the next decade the Puritan emigration from England continued, again -largely from the northern and eastern counties, overwhelmingly of as -nearly pure Nordic stock as Great Britain could show.</p> - -<p class="center"> -<img src="images/illus3.jpg" alt="pic" /> -<a id="illus3" name="illus3"></a> -</p> -<p class="caption"> Showing Highlands and Lowlands of Scotland.</p> - -<p>The difference in antecedents of the Massachusetts Bay Colony from -that of Plymouth is reflected in the differences in geographical and -social origin. The Pilgrim Fathers, as every one knows, took their -start from Scrooby in Yorkshire at the point where<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span> this county joins -Lincolnshire and Northamptonshire, under the leadership of Bradford, -the local postmaster and Robinson the clergyman. The capital for the -enterprise was almost all subscribed in London, and only one-third -of the first settlers were members of Robinson's congregation. The -part of Scrooby and Holland in that colony has therefore often been -exaggerated. The English founders of the Massachusetts Bay Colony were -on the other hand not merely religious dissenters, but powerful members -of the Puritan nobility. The group attracted to their enterprise was -therefore one of a somewhat wider social outlook. It was distinguished -for the same reason from most of the later emigration.</p> - -<p>The people who settled in the Massachusetts Bay Colony in the decade of -1630-40 doubtless had every desire to better their condition, and their -zeal in seizing land from the Indians showed that they were able to -put this desire into effect successfully. Their motive in emigrating, -however, was more political than was that of many later colonists, most -of whom came frankly to find fortune in a new country.</p> - -<p>There were among them a sprinkling of members of the important county -families and even a few representatives of the Puritan gentry. Alumni -of Cambridge were liberally represented among the clergy, together -with a few from Oxford, although few other professional men seem to -have been in the group. Many of the settlers were from families of -merchants, among whom Puritanism had made great progress in England. -The bulk, however, con<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span>sisted of more or less well-to-do yeomen and -artisans.</p> - -<p>Since a large part of this Puritan migration, which probably amounted -to 20,000 between 1620 and 1640, came in groups often following their -local clergymen, it is fairly easy to determine from what parts of -Great Britain the early population of Massachusetts came. The evidence -all indicates that little of it was from the far north of England -where Puritanism had made comparatively slight progress. The greater -proportion of the settlers came from the Puritan stronghold of East -Anglia comprising the counties of Suffolk, Essex, Norfolk, and eastern -Hereford. Next to this was the emigration from Wessex including Dorset, -Somerset, and eastern Devon. Following came contributions from Kent, -from the midland counties of Buckingham, Northampton, and Leicester, -a considerable group from the borders of Wiltshire, Hampshire, and -western Berkshire with some from as far west as Gloucestershire near -the Welsh border. A large Boston group came from Lincolnshire (which -was the home of the ancestors of the Boston-born Benjamin Franklin) -and of course there was a strong contingent from London, which was -largely Puritan and Presbyterian. Towns in Massachusetts tended to -be settled by people who were all from the same region in England; -and as the expansion of Massachusetts was very largely in the form of -congregations from given towns, these populations often kept together -for a long time. Frequently the town's name indi<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span>cates the old home. -Thus Gloucester was settled by men from that county and Dorchester was -named for the town in Dorset from which its early settlers came with -the Rev. John Maverick, although it contained an element of Lancashire -people from the neighborhood of Preston, Liverpool, and Manchester.</p> - -<p class="center"> -<img src="images/illus4.jpg" alt="pic" /> -<a id="illus4" name="illus4"></a> -</p> -<p class="caption"> Ulster Scot and New England origins—1, heaviest; 2, -heavy; 3, light; 4, very light; 5, uncertain; 6, English definitely -present.</p> - -<p>Along with the desire of these settlers to better themselves, to -acquire the ownership of land, and to seek fortune in new countries, -the disturbed political conditions in Great Britain particularly -urged Puritans to migrate. British documents of the period throw many -sidelights on the nature and scope of this movement. Thus Lord Maynard, -in a memorandum to Archbishop Laud in 1638, laments "the intention of -divers clothiers of great trading to go suddenly into New England." He -hears daily of incredible numbers of persons of very good abilities -who have sold their lands to depart and says there is danger of divers -parishes being impoverished.</p> - -<p>Since some of them liked the Massachusetts government no better than -the one at home, the tide of emigration turned strongly toward the West -Indies, the British islands of which were rapidly filled with Nordic -stock. The history of Nordic settlement in the West Indies is little -known and is exceedingly instructive in connection with a study of the -peopling of the New World. Bermuda was colonized in 1612, Saint Kitts -in 1623, Barbadoes and Saint Croix in 1625, and Nevis three years -later. By 1640 Massachusetts had about 14,000 settlers; but Saint<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span> -Kitts had almost as many and Barbadoes decidedly more. The number of -Englishmen who migrated to the West Indies was perhaps three times as -large as the number who went to all New England.</p> - -<p>Down to the end of the eighteenth century the West Indies were -flourishing, populous, and wealthy, but these islands then ceased to -have any world-wide importance—not merely because of economic and -agricultural changes, such as affected the sugar industry, but because -the white man in the tropics could not compete on even terms with -the Negro. It will be pointed out later that these islands are now -virtually Negro territory, and they have become centers of emigration -into the United States of a black population of low economic and -social status—the Nordics having died out, or lost their original -characteristics, or gone elsewhere.</p> - -<p>From 1640 the emigration from Great Britain to New England almost -stopped and the tide turned the other way; many settlers in -Massachusetts either returning to England or going to the West Indies. -The natural increase of the population from then on accounts for most -of the growth of the New England colonies. Even here, however, the Bay -State fell behind Virginia in rate of increase of white population.</p> - -<p class="center"> -<img src="images/illus5.jpg" alt="pic" /> -<a id="illus5" name="illus5"></a> -</p> -<p class="caption"> PURITAN EMIGRATION FROM ENGLAND<br /> - -1620 TO 1640<br /> - -SHOWING A TOTAL OF ABOUT 67,300</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p class="caption"><i>New England 17,800</i><br /> - -<i>Maryland and Virginia 9500</i><br /> - -<i>West Indies including Bermuda about 40,000</i></p> -</blockquote> - - -<p>Almost as soon as they had established themselves around Massachusetts -Bay, groups of settlers began to push out in all directions, partly -to get better or cheaper land, and partly to get greater independence -of action. In this way the settlement of Connecticut<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> was begun as -early as 1634. In the next year emigrants arrived in Connecticut from -Dorchester and Watertown in Massachusetts and in 1636 from Newton. -They established settlements in the Connecticut River valley bearing -the names of the Massachusetts towns from which they came until the -names of Windsor, Wethersfield, and Hartford were substituted. In 1638 -came the settlements at New Haven, Guilford, Milford, and elsewhere. -Stratford, Fairfield, Norwalk, and Stamford were established not many -months later as a challenge to the Dutch from New York who regarded -that part of Connecticut as their own domain. By 1640, at least a -couple of thousand settlers were in Connecticut; Hartford, New Haven, -and New London becoming in their turn the main gateways of immigration -into the whole back country. The settlement of New England was, in -general, however, from south to north, proceeding along the river -valleys.</p> - -<p>The fisheries and the excellent supply of timber for naval construction -led to scattered settlements on the coast of Maine even earlier. The -lack of navigable rivers delayed penetration into the interior—but -during the seventeenth century the Massachusetts people had settled -along most of the river valleys. Even to this day the interior of Maine -is very largely backwoods. This territory was claimed by Massachusetts -as a part of its own dominion, from which it did not separate until in -1820 when it was admitted as an independent State to offset Missouri in -Henry Clay's famous compromise.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span></p> - -<p>As Indians were gradually dispossessed, the population of Massachusetts -continued to push westward. In 1676 the end of King Philip's War -removed the fear of Indians for a time and led to particularly active -movements of population inland. Meanwhile settlements had been made in -New Hampshire and Rhode Island. The first settlement in New Hampshire -had been made by David Thomson, a Scotsman who established himself on -the coast; but its population came from Plymouth Colony and later from -other parts of Massachusetts. The spread of the English in the New -Hampshire mountains and forests, where the Indians continued hostile -for a long time, was slow, and even at the time of the Revolution, -New Hampshire contained few settlements of any size. The greatest -development came toward the end of the period here considered. In -1700 it held but 5000 or 6000 souls. Up to 1760 only the coast towns -had any considerable population, but the peace of 1763, which finally -removed the French and Indian menace, resulted in a rapid penetration -of settlers largely from Connecticut. In the next fifteen years 30,000 -people are said to have entered New Hampshire from Connecticut alone, -and a hundred new towns had been planted.</p> - -<p>Rhode Island already had a few settlers before Roger Williams founded -Providence (1636), though that is generally regarded as the beginning -of the colony. Portsmouth was founded in 1638, Newport and Warwick in -1639, and in 1644 these settlements were united under one government. -Because of its<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span> small size, Rhode Island plays in a sense only a minor -part in the history of the formation of the early population of North -America. But it served as a place of entry for colonists from all -sources, and it likewise attracted settlers from the other colonies, -due to its conspicuous policy of political and religious toleration. In -another way the small size of Rhode Island led to its being a source -of colonization. Its available land resources were so small that large -families soon exhausted them and there was no recourse except to get -out of the colony. It was therefore an incubator for colonists and -furnished more emigrants in proportion to its population than did other -colonies which had greater resources wherewith to care for their own -people. It may be said that while Massachusetts is the parent of all -New England, the whole of New England is in some sense a parent of -Rhode Island. In either case, the racial homogeneity of the population -is conspicuous, the little groups of settlers who represented other -than Nordic stock being insignificant in numbers however much they may -appeal through sentiment to the pride of their descendants.</p> - -<p>Vermont was settled late, its main occupation not coming until after -the Revolution. At first a part of New Hampshire, it attracted -occasional settlers from that State and its neighbors, but there could -hardly be said to have been a permanent settlement until Brattleboro -was founded in 1740.</p> - -<p>The settlement of Massachusetts west of the Connecticut River began -in 1725, when the Berkshires<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span> were invaded and Sheffield established. -Settlers steadily pressed north and west, and gradually took possession -of the territory between the Connecticut River and Lake Champlain. The -Connecticut River was the first American frontier, as Alaska was the -last.</p> - -<p>At the time of the Revolution Vermont was very much of a frontier, in -which a lawless and defiant lot known as the Green Mountain Boys held -possession and yielded allegiance to no one. Within six weeks after -the collapse of Shays's Rebellion, more than 700 families are said -to have migrated from western Massachusetts into Vermont. Many New -England soldiers who had fought over this ground in the Revolution had -marked it as offering desirable home sites, and came into it to take -up land and clear it, to bring their families, and establish isolated -settlements which gradually coalesced into something like a settled -country. The increasing influx of New Englanders led to the surrender -of New York's claims on the territory, so that it took its place as -an independent State in 1791, the first to be added to the original -thirteen.</p> - -<p>The picture of New England then is that of a community which received -the bulk of its foundation stock in a very short period of time, 1620 -to 1640, and almost wholly from a single source; that is, England, -and specifically from the most Nordic districts of England. It was -no mere figure of speech when Captain John Smith bestowed upon the -region the prophetic name of New England. Dur<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span>ing the eighteenth -century, scattered groups of other origins came to add themselves -to the descendants of these early settlers; but in most cases they -represented only drops in the bucket. Doubtless one of the reasons why -the study of genealogy and the pride of ancestry have flourished most -conspicuously in New England is that so large a proportion of the old -population traces its ancestry back to the same period and to the same -group of people. Even as early as the Revolution, the great bulk of the -settlers of New England represented families that had been four or five -generations on American soil.</p> - -<p>If there was a conspicuous absence of immigrants of very distinguished -families into New England at that time, it may be said, on the -other hand, that the general level was sound and intelligent. The -immigrant population of New England was composed of a small group of -families dominant in business and the professions, and an overwhelming -proportion of representatives of the English yeomanry, owners of small -freeholds, whose sons often sailed ships or went to the fisheries. This -same type made up the bulk of the population of the middle colonies -and peopled the back country of the southern colonies. As most of the -settlers in New England in the early migration were men who brought -their families, the foundation stock thus established was on a better -level than that in some other colonies where men arrived without -bringing wives and therefore were forced to marry women of any kind -whom the colony could furnish. The definitely Nordic character<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> of New -England stock, its early establishment, and the survival of the able -and vigorous in a region where nature took a heavy toll of weaklings, -have produced in New England a population that has left its stamp on -subsequent American history as has no other group.</p> - -<p>As to the Ulster Scots we must bear in mind that the Irish question was -as serious a thorn in the side of English statesmen in the sixteenth -and seventeenth centuries, as it was before or since, and numerous -attempts were made to alleviate the situation, if not to end it, by the -colonization of Protestant people in Ireland. In 1611, James I began -to encourage the emigration of people from the lowlands of Scotland, -particularly from the western part, and from the north of England, -into Ulster. He looked forward to establishing in Ireland a staunch -Protestant population that might ultimately outnumber the Catholics -and become the controlling element politically. For this reason the -settlers were picked with some care. The plan succeeded so well that in -a generation or a little more, about 300,000 people had been colonized -in the northern part of the island, and by the end of a century their -number had risen to nearly a million.</p> - -<p>These are the "Scotch Irish" of American history. The name is a -grotesque misnomer suggesting to the popular mind a sort of hybrid -origin and hybrid character which has no basis in reality. They were -not Irish in any sense of the word, and while most of them were Scotch -a great many were Eng<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span>lish. They are designated in this book as "Ulster -Scots."</p> - -<p>Following the planting of Ulster in the north of Ireland, there was a -heavy British emigration into the east of Ireland. This was due partly -to economic factors and partly to the desire of Cromwell, in his turn, -to solve the Irish problem by colonization, after the precedent which -James I had established. These English Protestants in eastern Ireland -have too often been ignored. They, too, had nothing in common with the -older Roman Catholic population of the eastern part of the Island. Many -of the Protestant "Irish" were Quakers.</p> - -<p>These adopted children of Ireland also migrated freely to the American -colonies and have been assumed far too easily to have been Roman -Catholics. While it is extremely difficult to arrive at exact figures -on this point, there is some reason to believe that the number of -Protestant English in the east of Ireland during the seventeenth -century was as large as the number of Protestant Scotch in the north, -and this former group contributed its quota of English population to -the colonies. It was this group which imposed the English language on -the Irish. Until the later 1840's the Leinster Protestants and the -Ulster Presbyterians were practically the only immigrants from Ireland -to this country.</p> - -<p>The great movement of Ulster Scots to America, although of an entirely -different degree of magnitude, has been perhaps second only to that -from the English counties in its influence on the subsequent<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> history -of the Continent. It began in the latter part of the seventeenth -century but did not reach its height until the first quarter of the -eighteenth. Five shiploads arrived in the summer of 1718, giving Cotton -Mather the chance to note in his diary with anticipatory pleasure the -merit that would accrue to him from showing "kindness to ye indigent." -Thereafter, one finds in most histories such items as "In 1719 there -came one hundred and twenty Presbyterian families from the north of -Ireland who settled in Massachusetts" or "In the years 1719 and 1720 -more than one hundred Presbyterian families came from the north of -Ireland and settled at Londonderry in New Hampshire," and so on.</p> - -<p>The Congregationalists of the seaboard were not too hospitable to -these Presbyterians, and forced them to move inland in almost every -case, away from the long-settled territory over which the Boston -theocracy attempted to maintain its rule, and mostly to New Hampshire -and Connecticut. Londonderry recalls its origin by its name and the -Scotch who settled it not only introduced their manufactures into -New Hampshire but brought along with them a still more valuable -importation, the so-called Irish potato, which, having been taken -from South America to Ireland long before, had, in this round-about -way, been brought back to its own hemisphere. Other groups went to -Worcester, to Pelham, to Palmer, to Andover, and to other communities -in small numbers; while many others went to Maine. The total numbers, -however, were very small.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span></p> - -<p>Massachusetts had a definite policy at this time of encouraging, if not -requiring, immigrants of this sort to settle on the frontiers. They -furnished less competition in this way and played a useful part in -keeping off the Indians.</p> - -<p>The emigration of the Scotch and North English who had been in Ulster -for a generation or two or at the most for three generations, was -due to discontent with their situation there. They had built up an -important manufacture of woollens and linens which has ever since -been famous throughout the world; but in 1698 the jealousy of rival -industrialists in England led to Parliamentary legislation which -crippled the industries in Ulster and threw many men out of employment. -In 1704 and the following years a religious persecution of these -Presbyterians was also carried on. These economic and religious -handicaps were so great that after a few years of patient waiting the -population gave up hope, and within half a century about half of the -entire number had moved to the New World. The most important stream -went into the middle and southern colonies and will be traced later.</p> - -<p>This exodus was a cause of alarm in the old country as well as in the -new. "The rumour [of going to America] has spread like a contagious -distemper," laments an Irish letter writer in 1728; "and the worst is -that it affects only Protestants, and reigns chiefly in the North"; -while another laments that "there are now seven ships at Belfast, that -are carrying off about 1000 passengers thither; and if we<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span> knew how to -stop them, as most of them can get neither victuals nor work at home, -it would be cruel to do it."</p> - -<p>Reference will recur frequently to this immigration of Ulster Scots. -At this point it is necessary to emphasize in the first place that it -was little different in racial background from the preceding English -settlement, both groups being definitely Nordic in their make-up. In -the second place it was a valuable addition to the colonies in the -quality and energy of its members. In the third place it was always -small in proportion to the English element.</p> - -<p>New England in 1790, regardless of numerous non-English groups, many of -them of good individual quality though insignificant in total numbers, -is to be considered definitely as a transplanted English population, -most of which had been settled in North America so long that its -habits of thought and action had become differentiated—one might say -definitely American rather than English.</p> - -<p>A third source of New England settlers during this period, small in -numbers but valuable in quality, is represented by the French Huguenots -who arrived for the most part in the decade or two following the -Revocation of the Edict of Nantes.</p> - -<p>The Huguenot migration to America falls in two general epochs. From -1555, when Admiral Coligny had a vision of a Protestant France in the -New World, to the Revocation in 1685 of the Edict of Nantes, the French -charter of Protestant liberty, is the first epoch, during which the -immigration was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span> scattering. From 1685 up to about 1750 is the second -epoch, when the Huguenots, fleeing from oppression and death, sought -refuge in many countries. During this period their immigration to North -America reached considerable proportions. Providence and Boston were -points of entry for many, though more went to the Southern colonies, -and to them many an American family of the present day is proud to -trace its ancestry.</p> - -<p>These French Huguenots seem to have come pre-dominantly from the middle -class or artisan stratum of the population with a mixture of the lesser -gentry. But their energy, ability, and character earned for them an -important rôle in their adopted country, out of proportion to their -small numbers. Unlike some of the other non-English groups they did not -tend to establish colonies or settlements of their own, but scattered -widely and merged freely into the general population. This was the less -difficult in that they came from the most Nordic parts of France and in -racial composition are scarcely to be distinguished from the English.</p> - -<p>In the same way those northern and eastern counties of England, which -supplied a large part of the migration to America, had, during the -preceding century, received a continuous infusion of continental -Huguenots to a total sometimes estimated as high as 250,000, who there -also became by admixture and hereditary similitude indistinguishable -from their neighbors.</p> - -<p>The Indian population of New England though<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span> never great was largely -exterminated by war, disease, whiskey, and the breaking up of their -cultural and economic background. In the century before the settlement -of Plymouth, smallpox, introduced from the Spanish Main, had flickered -up and down the New England coast and had so decimated the natives that -only a weakened remnant remained to oppose the Whites.</p> - -<p>In contrast, in the eleventh century the Norsemen who attempted -to found settlements on the New England coast had met with savage -resistance from the natives, whom they called Skrellings.</p> - -<p>Intermarriage between Whites and Indians was almost unknown save in the -occasional case in which a colonist was carried into captivity. The -antipathy of the English settlers to the Indians was far too great to -lead to the sort of miscegenation which was encouraged by the French in -their part of the continent, and to which reference will be made later. -In the British colonies the half-breed was looked upon as an Indian, -whereas in the French colonies, as generally in all Colonial countries -that had the Roman imperial tradition and the Roman Catholic religion, -the half-breed was assimilated to the European group. Some of the -remaining Indians along the Atlantic coast mixed with the runaway Negro -slaves, but few of them contributed to the white population, and the -term "half-breed" was in general a term of contempt. It was not until -within the life-time of those now living that an infusion of Indian -blood became a subject of pride, particularly in Okla<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span>homa, unless -one makes exception for such isolated tales as the somewhat grotesque -Pocahontas tradition in Virginia.</p> - -<p>The predominant influence of Massachusetts at the time of the -Revolution is easy to understand. It possessed, to an unusual degree, -unity in the various fields in which unity is most valuable to a -nation—unity of race, unity of language, unity of culture, unity -of religion, unity of institutions—and, more than anywhere else in -the United States, its unity was attained through a long-continued, -independent growth on American soil.</p> - -<p>The French and Indian menace held back the rapidly multiplying -population of New England for at least a generation. The agricultural -areas were carrying more population than they could support, and -they were waiting for a favorable opportunity to spread out. This -opportunity came in the overthrow of Montcalm at Quebec in 1759. -The Peace of Paris in 1763 left the road open, and the New England -population began to push north, west, and south with a vigor that was -reflected in the activity of the communities at home. The succeeding -half-century is correctly regarded as the golden age of New England. -Its country districts were more densely populated when the first census -of the United States was taken in 1790 than they have been since. The -decline, which will be traced in the next section, then began and -decade after decade thereafter the New England towns and villages are -found in a surprisingly large percentage of cases either standing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span> -still or actually declining in number of inhabitants.</p> - -<p>The history of American colonization is usually written only in terms -of the additions to population. The subtractions from it may be no less -important. Subtractions by migration westward were less significant -because in many cases the frontier merely proliferated itself by -sending its surplus out without diminishing its own standards or -numbers.</p> - -<p>The first national loss of population occurred after 1640 when the -changing political conditions in England, and the tyranny of the -Massachusetts Bay authorities, drove many people out of Massachusetts. -This loss, serious as it was, is insignificant compared with the -tremendous loss of superior stock at the time of the Revolution. The -Loyalists made up an undetermined part of the population, perhaps -as much as one-third. Those who had been most conspicuous or most -active were obliged in many cases to flee, and persecution with the -confiscation of their property was carried on even after the war. -Most of the Loyalists who left the colonies went either to Canada or -to the West Indies. Altogether the loss from this source may have -been as great as 100,000 people representing on the whole a superior -selection of the population. It is comparable in the racial damage done -the American population with the loss which France suffered from the -expulsion of the Huguenots.</p> - -<p>By the Revolution, the colonizing impulse of New England had not -merely begun to fill up western New York, as will be described -shortly, but had led<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> to the formation of speculative land companies -for settlement in the Wyoming Valley of Pennsylvania, and even on -the lower Mississippi. The hard times following the Revolution led -to a great increase in migration, which, in general, has been rapid -in hard times, slower in periods of prosperity. Vermont, as already -said, felt the impulse markedly. Maine also seems to have grown most -rapidly in the decade or two following the Declaration of Independence, -though Portland and Falmouth were the only towns worthy of the name. -New Hampshire, likewise, slower in its development than other parts -of New England, had begun to catch up by attracting those ready to -better themselves by a change of location. Connecticut had made a -steady growth and had fewer non-English elements than almost any other -of the New England colonies, small as these elements were everywhere. -The growth of Massachusetts had been largely in the interior, Boston -having made less progress than many other cities. People were moving -from Massachusetts to other colonies. Many were moving through Boston -but not staying there. Politically and culturally important, the Hub -of the Universe stagnated industrially until the beginning of the -manufacturing era.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span></p> - - - - -<p class="ph2"><a name="VI" id="VI">VI</a></p> - -<p class="center">THE GATEWAYS TO THE WEST FROM NEW ENGLAND AND VIRGINIA</p> - - -<p><span class="smcap">In</span> 1609, the English navigator, Henry Hudson, had explored the river -which now bears his name, acting on behalf of the Dutch East India -Company. During the next decade, small Dutch settlements, trading -posts, were established along the river; but the first real settlement -is generally dated 1623 when thirty families of Walloons arrived. These -were people from northern France and the southern Netherlands who had -been driven into Holland by religious persecution and wanted to escape -from the unsympathetic treatment which they were receiving in the -southern part of Holland. Their language was not Dutch but French.</p> - -<p>Speaking at large the Dutch settlement of New Netherland was, at the -beginning, a trading venture and was based on a stronghold at the -mouth of the river and another one at the head of navigation. For many -years the latter settlement, originally called Fort Orange and later -Albany, was much more important than the little town of New Amsterdam -on Manhattan Island.</p> - -<p>Restrictions on land tenure held back colonization, and at no time -during the Dutch occupation did its reach extend much beyond the -fertile farm lands of the Hudson valley northerly to Fort Orange, -though<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span> an outpost to the west was established at Schenectady and -scattering settlements had also been made in New Jersey and on Long -Island.</p> - -<p>In all these outlying regions, the pressure of New England migrants was -too strong for the scanty Dutch population to withstand, and even in -Manhattan the New Englanders had become early an important part of the -population.</p> - -<p>The immigration of respectable Dutch families did not begin in general -until after 1638 when the monopoly of the West India Company was -abolished. Many of the families who became great land owners in the -northern part of the Hudson River valley were from Gelderland, east of -the Zuyder Zee, the town of Myjerka being one of the principal centers -of emigration. While many of these Dutch families were of excellent -mercantile stock, it is a mistake to suppose that they represented the -social élite of the home country.</p> - -<p>Although the Dutch have left a permanent mark on the Hudson River -valley, the contribution which they made to the future population of -the State was small. When England captured the colony in 1664 and the -Dutch immigration ceased, there were probably not many more than 10,000 -inhabitants in the whole region, and of these from a quarter to a third -were English.</p> - -<p>Holland at the time was not at all a colonizing nation. Its overseas -ventures were for the purpose of trade, and it had not sufficient -surplus population to settle colonies permanently.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span></p> - -<p>The amount of Dutch and Huguenot blood that was perpetuated in the -later history of the colonies was, therefore, small by comparison with -the English, but was for the most part of the same racial stock. Six or -seven thousand Dutch in the present State of New York in 1664 are to be -compared with 35,000 English in Virginia and 50,000 in New England at -the same date.</p> - -<p>There was no further general and organized emigration from Holland -to America until the close of the Revolution. At that time some -of the Amsterdam bankers, who had loaned millions of dollars to -the Revolutionary government, decided to try to capitalize their -investments and bought nearly 4,000,000 acres of land in New York -and Pennsylvania. Most of the settlers on this tract were not Dutch; -and while Dutch names may still play an important part in the Social -Registers of New York and Albany, Dutch blood is insignificant in the -present make-up of the population of the United States.</p> - -<p>The southerly tide of New Englanders, which washed over the Dutch -colony and others to the South, was in the first instance made up -largely of those who did not find the religious convictions of their -associates in Massachusetts and Connecticut to their liking.</p> - -<p>The little "Forts" of the Dutch in the Connecticut valley were swamped -shortly after 1630, and by 1639 the Connecticut people of English -ancestry had established themselves at Greenwich within thirty miles -of New Amsterdam and in other towns even<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span> nearer. Long Island was -settled from the same source, and Thomas Belcher took up a tract upon -the present site of the City of Brooklyn in the same year in which the -English began to build at Greenwich. Brooklyn, until the twentieth -century, has been a typically New England community, entirely distinct -from the other boroughs of Greater New York. The eastern end of Long -Island was long separated from the western end and was settled directly -from Connecticut. The Hamptons are virtually still a part of New -England.</p> - -<p>The development of the southern part of New York State, and -particularly of the Hudson River valley, was delayed indefinitely by -the great land holdings of the so-called "patroons" or great landlords. -New York City continued to be a cosmopolitan and nondescript town, -built up on commerce and trade and without any particular racial -complexion. Even at the time of the Revolution, it was inferior alike -in size and in influence to Philadelphia and Boston, and New York State -was but seventh in population among the thirteen colonies.</p> - -<p>The real foundation of the greatness of the Empire State was the New -England colonization of northern and western New York, which created -a territory that was, and has ever since remained, quite distinct in -political complexion and economic and social interests from the Hudson -River valley and the metropolis at its mouth.</p> - -<p>The commercial greatness of the City of New York dates from the opening -of the Erie Canal in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span> 1825, which made New York the outlet of the lake -States. Meanwhile, however, several other foreign invasions had taken -place.</p> - -<p>The French Huguenots, racially Nordic and almost identical with the -British, began to arrive in Colonial New York after 1685, founding the -town of New Rochelle to commemorate the French city from which so many -of them had come. Here, as elsewhere, their influence was far in excess -of their proportionately small number.</p> - -<p>In 1711, Governor Hunter of New York became imbued with grandiose ideas -about developing the resources of his Province and began to look for a -source of cheap labor for its exploitation. He found this in the German -districts on the Rhine, broadly known as the Palatinate, where various -national elements, not merely German and Alsatian, but French, Swiss, -Moravian, and miscellaneous, were gathered, and where the religious -persecution to which they were subjected as Protestants, and the -excessive hardships which they were compelled to endure from invasions -of the armies of Louis XIV, had reduced them to great misery.</p> - -<p>The population was ripe for emigration and furnished the only -substantial element of non-Nordic origin in the Colonial history of -America. It is not necessary to trace in detail the innumerable petty -sects and national elements, often two or three times removed from -their original home, of which this "Palatine" emigration was composed. -For the present purpose it was pre-dominantly German-speaking,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span> and -largely of the round-headed Alpine stock in racial make-up.</p> - -<p>About 1709, these Palatines began frantic efforts to escape from their -misfortunes, and within a few years some 30,000 had gone over into -Holland and even into England, where they were not welcome. The British -Government was only too glad to subsidize their further emigration, and -several thousand of them were transported to the Hudson River valley. -They soon became discontented there and were finally colonized on the -Schoharie River in New York. Here, in turn, they were ousted by what -they considered political jobbery and many of them moved on to the -Mohawk River, a tributary of the Hudson, while others continued down -the Susquehanna River to Pennsylvania. On the whole, therefore, the -Palatines are to be considered merely temporary inhabitants of New -York State. Although a good many of them remained, the reports they -sent out as to their treatment were so unsatisfactory that thenceforth -the Palatine immigration mostly avoided New York and landed in -Pennsylvania, where it will be encountered later.</p> - -<p>The next influx, particularly after 1719, was of Ulster Scots, -similar to that already mentioned as invading New England. Much of -Orange County on the west of the Hudson River was settled by these -Ulstermen, beginning as early as 1729, and for the next half-century -the infiltration of this Nordic element was continuous, although more -of it came through New England than directly into New York<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span> harbor. By -the time of the Revolution the Ulster Scots had spread over much of the -eastern part of northern New York, having enough representatives in -Albany in 1760 to establish a Presbyterian church there.</p> - -<p>At about the same time Sir William Johnson, who had received a grant -of 100,000 acres of land north of the Mohawk River for his valor in -defending the colonies against the French at Crown Point and Lake -George in 1755, began to look about for suitable tenants and hit upon -the idea of importing Scotch Highlanders of Roman Catholic faith. Some -hundreds of these arrived just before the Revolution, and like Sir -John Johnson, son of Sir William, espoused the cause of the Loyalists. -After the Revolution, they moved northward to Ontario where the town of -Glengarry recalls their earlier home in Inverness. There, such families -as the MacDonnells, McDougalls, Camerons, McIntyres, and Fergusons -became an important element of strength to Canada.</p> - -<p>As noted, New York State at the time of the Revolution was still -distinctly an unimportant colony, and its greatness dates from the -invasion of New Englanders immediately after the war. Connecticut, by -virtue of its proximity, was the principal source of these settlers, -although almost every part of New England contributed. The crossing -over of the Ulster Scots has already been mentioned, but it must not -be inferred that that was the principal element in the settlement of -the State. The main immigration was of the old Puritan English<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span> stock -which still dominates all of upper New York, except where subsequent -colonies of recent immigrants in some of the larger industrial cities -have altered the local scene.</p> - -<p>The western shores of Lake Champlain and some of the older towns of the -Hudson River valley could scarcely be recognized, after a few years, by -those who had known them previously. A mere Dutch farm in 1784 had been -changed in four years to the thriving city of Hudson, a typical New -England commercial town with warehouses, wharves, Yankee shipping, and -stores filled with Yankee notions.</p> - -<p>A visitor to Whitesborough on the Mohawk River, in 1788, reported -that "settlers are continually pouring in from the Connecticut hive." -Binghamton was settled jointly by Connecticut and Massachusetts. The -same spirit caused a mixing up of the population within the limits -of New England so that, to take a single illustration, the men of -Middlefield, a small hill town in western Massachusetts, were found on -inquiry to come from nearly sixty different towns in Massachusetts and -Connecticut.</p> - -<p>After the Revolution the more enterprising young men of Massachusetts -and Connecticut began to leave their home towns. Of those who departed, -a half went to other places in New England, a quarter to western New -York, and a quarter to Ohio and other points in the then "Far West."</p> - -<p>The extreme western part of New York State had not begun to develop -as early as the period of which we are speaking. Canandaigua was the -larg<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span>est town in 1790, and it had but a hundred inhabitants. Pioneers -came from New Jersey and Pennsylvania by way of the Susquehanna and -Tioga Rivers, went to Seneca Lake, and thence to Cayuga; others from -Connecticut had entered the valley of the Mohawk by way of Albany and -Fort Schuyler. Small settlements sprang up at Bath, Naples, Geneva, -Aurora, Seneca Falls, Palmyra, Richmond, Fort Stanwix, and Marcellus. -The Erie Canal was as yet undreamt of.</p> - -<p>The population picture of New York State in 1790 is then a double one. -The great bulk of the State, so far as area is concerned, was a colony -of Anglo-Saxon origin almost identical with the New England States. The -Hudson valley formed a less important appendage to this, with New York -City at its mouth—a miscellaneous settlement of people of all sorts -whose interests were largely commercial.</p> - -<p>New York was one of the States that lost most heavily by the Loyalist -migration at the end of the Revolution. This superior Nordic element -left in two great streams; one by sea to Nova Scotia, and the other -overland to Canada. Long Island was a particularly heavy loser, 3000 -people going in one fleet in 1783. The influx of Loyalists into Nova -Scotia, amounting to some 35,000, was a severe burden on that little -colony. Those who went into Canada overland from New York were more -easily assimilated, and many of the important settlements along the -northern shores of Lake Erie and Lake Ontario,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span> such as Kingston, -date from that time. To these Ontario settlers was given, by Order in -Council in 1789, the honorary name of "United Empire Loyalists," and -they formed the backbone of Upper Canada, as the Province of Ontario -was then called, and were a main element in defeating the plans of -American strategists in 1812 to capture Canada and annex it to the -Union.</p> - -<p>Although New York is generally credited with having more Loyalists -during the Revolution than any other colony, she also furnished -more troops for the patriot army than did any other State except -Massachusetts.</p> - -<p>New Jersey, in contrast to its neighbors on either side, was one of the -most thoroughly English of all the colonies. The settlements of the -Dutch in the north, and the squabbles of a few hundred Dutch, Swedes, -and Finlanders in the south, left little trace on the population when -colonization once started in earnest. The real history of the colony -begins in 1664 when the English proprietors, to whom it had been -granted, began to colonize it seriously.</p> - -<p>Northern New Jersey was a chaos of rugged hills and forests which -offered little to the settler and is still largely waste land. The -southern part of the State is also largely waste land, consisting -chiefly of pine barrens so that early settlement was virtually limited -to two areas. On the North River, as the Hudson was called, the lands -along the meadows opposite Manhattan Island were inviting, and on the -South River, as the Delaware was originally desig<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span>nated, there was a -broad strip of fertile farm land which attracted the early settlers. -Among other centers New Haven had established a colony there about -1640, but had been driven off by the Dutch. There was also some -extremely fertile land around Freehold and other towns on the line -between New York and Philadelphia.</p> - -<p>Since these two areas were so inaccessible to each other by direct -communication, the State grew up in two distinct settlements; that -along the western side of New York harbor, then known as East Jersey, -and that on the Delaware, known as West Jersey. While these two were -consolidated administratively in 1702, they have never been wholly -consolidated in actual character, and the two ends of the State are, -even today, diverse enough to show their somewhat divergent origin.</p> - -<p>The land along the Delaware was colonized, for the most part, directly -from England by the Quakers who had secured an interest in it, and who -established the only two towns of importance in West Jersey during -the Colonial period—Burlington in 1667 and Salem in 1675. Those -who established Burlington were mostly from Yorkshire with a large -group also from London, and they took opposite sides of the town, the -Yorkshire people spreading north and the London people spreading south. -Geographical difficulties checked the southward spread so that Cape May -was settled separately by people from Connecticut and from Long Island. -Later, some of the French Huguenots went down into West Jersey,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span> but -it always remained essentially an English colony, largely of Quaker -complexion and influenced by the close proximity of co-religionists in -Pennsylvania.</p> - -<p>East Jersey, like western New York, represents more directly a New -England outpost. Elizabethtown had been established in 1665 by -emigrants sent direct from Great Britain, but Newark had at almost -the same time been colonized by people from Connecticut, who at first -gave to it the name of their old home, Milford. The Elizabethtown -Association somewhat later sold part of its territory to people from -New Hampshire and Massachusetts who established the two hamlets of -Woodbridge and Piscataqua, now New Brunswick.</p> - -<p>In 1666, Connecticut Puritans also established on the Passaic River -first Guilford, and later Branford, both of which with Milford merged -in the town of Newark. The New England overflow continued until the -shores of Newark Bay had become another New England colony. Such -communities as the Oranges were chiefly transplanted Puritan towns.</p> - -<p>The proprietorship of East Jersey shortly passed into the hands -of Scotsmen and a steady immigration of these began about 1684. -The capital of East Jersey, Perth Amboy, was named for one of the -proprietors, James Drummond, the Earl of Perth. The colony soon -became, and has ever since remained, one of the strongholds of Scotch -Presbyterianism in America, which found its intellectual center in the -establishment of Princeton University.</p> - -<p>For a long time the two sections of New Jersey<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span> were of about equal -size and importance. As the country between them gradually filled -up, the State grew slowly until at the time of the Revolution its -population was estimated at about 120,000. Another fifteen years saw a -healthy growth, the first census, in 1790, showing 184,139 inhabitants. -The somewhat complicated details of its development should not obscure -the fact that New Jersey was one of the most purely white, Protestant, -Nordic settlements in the colonies.</p> - -<p>Although prior to the arrival of William Penn there were several -thousand settlers on the Delaware River, in the territory now covered -by Pennsylvania and Delaware, the real settlement of that region -is generally dated from the beginning of his operations in 1681, -when Upland, now Chester, was settled as his headquarters. A year -later Philadelphia was founded, and in spite of this late start grew -so rapidly that William Penn, the Quaker, at his death, had the -satisfaction of knowing that the City of Brotherly Love was the largest -in North America.</p> - -<p>While the foundation stock was made up of English Quakers, Penn had -ambitious ideas of establishing a headquarters for other like-minded -persons, and with this idealism was apparently mixed a solid commercial -ambition which led him and his agents to advertise the merits of -the colony widely. The land system, unlike that of Virginia or New -Netherlands, favored the settler with small means. English and Welsh -farmers rapidly appropriated to themselves the country along the west -side of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span> the Delaware River from Trenton to Wilmington.</p> - -<p>Penn maintained friendly relations with the Protestant leaders -in southern Germany, and he and his agents seem to have had an -extraordinary flair for finding obscure and peculiar sects and getting -them to emigrate to the new colony. A mere list of the odd religious -denominations that soon flourished in Pennsylvania is bewildering, and -an attempt to define the characteristics, which to them seemed more -than matters of life and death, is quite beyond the capacity of the -present-day student not steeped in the knowledge of seventeenth-century -theology.</p> - -<p>Germantown was established in October, 1673, the first outpost of the -Alpine race in the present territory of the United States. Its founders -were Mennonites; but they were later joined by Dunkards or Tunkers, -that is, Dippers, who held to the efficacy of baptism by immersion.</p> - -<p>Generally speaking, the Germans who came to Pennsylvania during the -first quarter-century of its settlement belong to these distinctive -sects, while after that time the immigration was made up of a somewhat -more uniform mass of adherents of either the Lutheran or the Reformed -Church. This difference soon became a recognized one for an easy -division of "the Pennsylvania Dutch," as this mixed group of Alpines -came to be called, not very correctly, from an assimilation of -<i>Pennsylvanische Deutsche</i>. One would ask, on hearing such a person -mentioned, "Does he belong to the sects or to the church people?"</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span></p> - -<p>A few of these such as the Labadists from Friesland who settled in New -Castle County, Delaware, were either from Holland or parts of Germany -bordering Holland, but the great bulk of the "Pennsylvania Dutch" came -from the Rhine Provinces, particularly from Alsace and the Palatinate, -with a liberal sprinkling of northern French Protestants who had been -forced over the border, while others came from Austria and Prussia and -even from northern Italy. As a matter of fact, down to the time of the -World War, Americans called, colloquially, all Germans "Dutchmen."</p> - -<p>While the Palatinate furnished only a part of the immigration its name -was soon given to all similar newcomers, so that the term Palatine -became a general description for a German-speaking immigrant; and one -even finds in the old records such anomalies as an allusion to "a -Palatine from Hamburg." An important centre of their dispersion was the -town of Crefeld near the border of Holland.</p> - -<p>The colonies in general, being overwhelmingly and typically British, -looked with suspicion on any alien groups, and New England, in -particular, probably would not have encouraged these Alpines to -enter at all. Virginia with its Church of England establishment and -its self-conscious English attitude was likewise not disposed to be -hospitable to such a large group of foreigners.</p> - -<p>Governor Oglethorpe attracted some of them to Georgia, but not very -successfully, as will be mentioned later. One important group of his -settlers,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span> in particular, the Moravians, left Georgia about 1739 -because they were required to take up arms against the neighboring -Spanish in Florida. They moved to Pennsylvania where they founded, in -1741, the town of Bethlehem, which has been their headquarters ever -since.</p> - -<p>While New York originally welcomed the Palatines, it soon treated -them so badly that thereafter almost all the vessels bearing German -immigrants came directly from Dutch ports to the Delaware, and if by -chance an occasional ship was forced to make a landing in New York, -its passengers quickly made their way across the Jerseys into more -hospitable territory.</p> - -<p>Even in Pennsylvania the invasion of the Germans eventually began -to cause alarm among the English-speaking and dominant part of the -population. In Virginia this attitude of exclusion of supposedly alien -races had been maintained ever since the first permanent settlement. -Inspired by visions of building up a great industry, the proprietors of -that colony had sent out with their "second supply" a little group of -eight artisans from Germany and Poland who were skilled glassmakers. -The English colonists charged them with treasonable dealings with the -Indians and the Chronicler of the settlement refers to them disgustedly -as those "damned Dutchmen."</p> - -<p>Benjamin Franklin, who, in 1753, expressed his opinion of some of his -fellow citizens in a letter to Peter Collinson, was merely reflecting -an attitude<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span> which the English stock had more or less generally taken -when he declared:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>"Those who come hither are generally the most stupid of their own -nation, and, as ignorance is often attended with credulity when -knavery would mislead it, and with suspicion when honesty would set -it right; and as few of the English understand the German language, -and so cannot address them either from the press or the pulpit, it -is almost impossible to remove any prejudices they may entertain. -Their clergy have very little influence on the people, who seem to -take a pleasure in abusing and discharging the minister on every -trivial occasion. Not being used to liberty, they know not how to -make a modest use of it. And as Holben says of the young Hottentots, -that they are not esteemed men until they have shown their manhood -by beating their mothers, so these seem not to think themselves -free, till they can feel their liberty in abusing and insulting -their teachers. Thus they are under no restraint from ecclesiastical -government; they behave, however, submissively enough at present to -the civil government, which I wish they may continue to do, for I -remember when they modestly declined intermeddling in our elections, -but now they come in droves and carry all before them, except in one -or two counties.<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></p> - -<p>"Few of their children in the country know English. They import -many books from Germany; and of the six printing-houses in the -province, two are entirely German, two half German, half English, and -but two entirely English. They have one German newspaper, and one -half-German. Advertisements, intended to be general, are now printed -in Dutch and English. The signs in our streets have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> inscriptions -in both languages, and in some places only German. They begin of -late to make all their bonds and other legal instruments in their -own language, which (though I think it ought not to be) are allowed -in our courts, where the German business so increases that there -is continued need of interpreters; and I suppose in a few years -they will also be necessary in the Assembly, to tell one-half our -legislators what the other half say.</p> - -<p>"In short, unless the stream of their importation could be turned -from this to other colonies, as you very judiciously propose, they -will soon so outnumber us that we will, in my opinion, be not able -to preserve our language, and even our government will become -precarious. The French, who watch all advantages, are now themselves -making a German settlement, back of us, in the Illinois country, and -by means of these Germans they may in time come to an understanding -with ours; and, indeed, in the last war,<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> our Germans showed a -general disposition, that seemed to bode us no good. For, when the -English, who were not Quakers, alarmed by the danger arising from -the defenseless state of our country, entered unanimously into an -association, and within this government, and the Lower Counties -raised, armed, and disciplined near ten thousand men, the Germans, -except a very few in proportion to their number, refused to engage -in it, giving out, one amongst another, and even in print, that, if -they were quiet, the French, should they take the country, would not -molest them; at the time abusing the Philadelphians for fitting out -privateers against the enemy, and representing the trouble, hazard, -and expense of defending the province, as a greater inconvenience -than any that might be ex<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span>pected from a change of government. Yet I -am not for refusing to admit them entirely into our colonies. All -that seems to me necessary is, to distribute them more equally, -mix them with the English schools, where they are not too thickly -settled, and take some care to prevent the practice, lately fallen -into by some of the shipowners, of sweeping the German gaols to -make up the number of their passengers. I say I am not against the -admission of Germans in general, for they have their virtues. Their -industry and frugality are exemplary. They are excellent husbandmen, -and contribute greatly to the improvement of a country."</p> -</blockquote> - -<p>By 1727, the English in Pennsylvania had become sufficiently alarmed -over the proportions of the Palatine invasion to demand a careful -record of the numbers arriving each year so that from then on there -is full official record of all foreigners entered at the port of -Philadelphia. By that time there were probably fifteen or twenty -thousand Germans already in the province, and the record mentioned -indicates that between 1727 and 1745 approximately 22,000 arrived by -ships. To this number should, of course, be added the high natural -increase of those already settled.</p> - -<p>Since the English had pre-empted much of the desirable land along -the Delaware and around Philadelphia, the Germans, with whom the -acquisition of farming land was a dominant passion, mostly went -westward of the English settlement and formed a belt where their -language was and, in scattered groups to this day, is spoken. They -filled the Lehigh<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span> and Schuylkill valleys and occupied a band of -fertile soil beginning in eastern Pennsylvania on the Delaware, passing -westward toward the Susquehanna through the towns of Allentown, -Reading, Lebanon, Lancaster, and thence down to the Cumberland valley -on the Maryland border where they had a natural outlet to western -Virginia and to the south. The tier of counties north of this belt and -along the borders of New York was comparatively neglected by them, and -was filled largely by settlers from Connecticut. The influx of English -and German sectaries was so rapid that within three years from its -founding, Penn's province had made a growth as great as that of New -Netherlands in its first half-century.</p> - -<p>The early Quakers who belonged to the privileged group grew prosperous, -and many of them finding the strict ordinances of their sect somewhat -oppressive became Anglicans. Thus the Church of England gained an -important position in Philadelphia which it retained up to the -Revolution. In general, it represented the Loyalist element and -therefore partly disintegrated when they left at the end of the war. -The Revolution was largely Calvinistic, and the Established Church was -in most of the northern colonies regarded with disfavor as "loyalist."</p> - -<p>The invasion of Ulster Scots into Pennsylvania began shortly after the -German immigration was well under way. Within a few years the great -majority of the Ulster immigrants to America were making directly -for the Delaware shores. Presby<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span>terian congregations existed in -the important towns of the colony about 1700, and within the next -decade the Scotch had made numerous settlements in New Castle County, -Delaware, and on both sides of the Pennsylvania-Maryland boundary at -its intersection with the Delaware line.</p> - -<p>When the great tide of emigration from Ulster set in about 1720, -the Scotch found the best and most accessible soil in Pennsylvania -occupied by the English and the next belt held firmly by the Germans. -In general, therefore, they were obliged to pass over these two -territories and settle still farther west, particularly in the -Cumberland valley of which Gettysburg, York, and Carlisle are now -important centers. In this district geographical isolation led later to -the establishment farther south of a distinct church, the Cumberland -Presbyterian, somewhat different in its tenets from the Presbyterianism -of the Philadelphia region and Delaware.</p> - -<p>The number of Scotch who thus left Ulster for Pennsylvania is -uncertain, but may have exceeded 40,000 or 50,000. Taken in connection -with the Palatine immigration at the same period the influx to -Pennsylvania in the 1730's formed the largest migration from Europe to -the New World that ever took place until the steamship era arrived.</p> - -<p class="center"> -<img src="images/illus6.jpg" alt="pic" /> -<a id="illus6" name="illus6"></a> -</p> - -<p class="caption"> <span class="smcap">TERRITORIAL GROWTH of the UNITED STATES</span></p> - -<p>Seeking newer and freer land, the Scotch together with some Germans -began to follow the mountain valleys trending southwestward from -Pennsylvania. They not only filled the Shenandoah Valley in a few -years, but filtered down to the back country of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span> southern -colonies and to the eastern portion of what is now Tennessee.</p> - -<p>A good illustration of this migration is Daniel Boone, himself of -English stock, who was born on the Delaware only a few miles above -Philadelphia. The Boone family soon moved to Reading. Thence drifting -southwestward with his compatriots, Daniel Boone settled in the North -Carolina uplands, along the valley of the Yadkin, then passed beyond -into Kentucky, and, after that location began to be civilized, went on -as a pioneer to Missouri. His son appears a little later as one of the -early settlers of Kansas, his grandson as a pioneer in Colorado.</p> - -<p>When the land west of the Alleghanies was opened for settlement about -1768, the Ulster Scots began to throng the mountain passes. In addition -to their aptitude for frontier life, and the insatiable desire to find -new and cheap land, they wanted to get away from their neighbors, the -Pennsylvania Dutch, with whom they usually did not live on very good -terms. Pittsburgh rapidly became a Nordic territory settled mainly by -the Ulster Scots.</p> - -<p>These streams of immigration were sufficient by 1740 to enable -Pennsylvania to overtake and pass the population of every other colony -except Maryland, Massachusetts, and Virginia, although most of them -had been started a generation earlier than Penn's settlement. A decade -later Maryland was passed and just after the Revolution Massachusetts -was outstripped, while Philadelphia remained the metropolis of the -United States until finally excelled<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span> by New York City in the first -half of the nineteenth century.</p> - -<p>Benjamin Franklin's offhand estimate that at the end of the Colonial -period one-third of the population of his adopted State was English, -one-third Scotch, and one-third German, was not far from the truth. -Though the population was then by a safe majority British in origin -and English-speaking, the Germans remained an element impossible to -assimilate, so long as they continued to be segregated in their own -communities of which Lancaster was the largest inland town in the -thirteen colonies.</p> - -<p>Such of the Germans as went to the frontier States were assimilated -by the Nordic groups without much difficulty; but the experience of -the Pennsylvania Dutch farming communities is like that of some of -the city slum districts of the last century, in presenting groups -almost impossible to Americanize. Even at the present time this Alpine -island of population still retains many of its alien characteristics. -For this, among other reasons, the German element in Pennsylvania -at the time of the Revolution played a relatively unimportant part -in the affairs of the State, as suggested by the quotation from -Franklin above. The dominant element was formed by the group around -Philadelphia composed mainly of the original English Quakers; but the -Pennsylvania-Dutch, on their farms, and the Scots on the frontier, -furnished a large contingent with which the politicians had to deal, -though they were seldom represented in the government and leader<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span>ship -of the colony. The German element was inclined to follow the leadership -of the Quakers under whose invitation it had come to Pennsylvania. The -Scots, on the other hand, were apt to be in a state of rebellion when -occasion arose, as conspicuously in the Whiskey Rebellion, which formed -one of the first tests of the power of the Federal Government under -Washington's presidency.</p> - -<p>The claim that half of the Ulstermen were adherents of the Established -Church, rather than Presbyterians, is doubtless extreme, but emphasizes -the typically non-Irish and Protestant character of this whole element -of the population, as also the fact that many of the Ulstermen were -not Scots, nor even Lowland Scots, whose ancestors had moved northward -across the border from England; but were direct emigrants from England -to Ireland, some indeed as late as and even after the time of Cromwell.</p> - -<p>Delaware has been dealt with incidentally in what has been said -concerning Pennsylvania, because it was part of Pennsylvania during the -first period of colonization. Unimportant attempts had been made by -the Dutch and Swedes, of whom the Swedes are the best known, to settle -there but the population of the region when Penn arrived was mainly -composed of English who had moved in under the regime of the Duke of -York.</p> - -<p>In 1633, an English nobleman, Lord Baltimore, who had for years been -seeking favor with the Stuart monarchy, announced that he had become a -convert to the papacy, and, with the zeal of a new<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span> convert, desired -to establish a colony in the New World where Catholics, then laboring -under heavy disabilities in Great Britain, could enjoy religious -freedom. He applied for, and Charles I granted, a charter for the -foundation of a semi-feudal proprietorship, with the stipulation that -freedom of worship should prevail.</p> - -<p>If one stops to consider what a howl of outraged virtue would have been -raised by the people of Great Britain, and what a hurricane would have -descended upon the head of the monarch, had he granted the Catholics a -charter without stipulating for freedom of worship, it will be realized -that the much-vaunted "toleration" of Lord Baltimore's colony was -not entirely an evidence of his own broad-mindedness. However, this -toleration had its limits. Disbelief in the doctrine of the Trinity was -a capital offense.</p> - -<p>In 1634, the little town of St. Mary was established as the center -for the new colony. Few Catholics of the home country seem to have -been anxious to take advantage of the opportunities offered, and Lord -Baltimore began to seek tenants elsewhere. As early as 1634, he was -writing to Boston and urging Massachusetts people to emigrate, but the -first great invasion of Puritans came in 1649.</p> - -<p>Inspired by enthusiasm for the cause of the King, after he had lost his -head, the Virginians under the leadership of Governor Berkeley passed -ordinances expelling non-conformists from their colony, and a thousand -of these who had previously gone from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span> New England to Virginia were -driven out and took refuge in Maryland, establishing the settlement -which later became Annapolis.</p> - -<p>During the next generation most of the arrivals in Maryland were -either Puritans or Quakers. The policy of tolerance was not held to -apply to Quakers, who, by a law of 1659, were to be whipped out of any -town which they entered, but this measure does not seem to have been -enforced very long, and English Quakers from other colonies soon formed -an important part of the population.</p> - -<p>In 1689, word reached the New World of the expulsion of James II, and -the occupation of the British throne by the uncompromisingly Protestant -House of Orange. While James II was on the throne a general alarm -had arisen throughout the colonies over the prospects of Catholic -aggression.</p> - -<p>Many of the colonies contained a sprinkling of the Huguenot refugees -who had been driven out of France only a few years before because of -their Protestantism, and there were thus in every colony men who knew -the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes and the terrible persecution -which followed. The tragedy of the Thirty Years War was also still -fresh in the minds of many.</p> - -<p>There was no disposition in America, therefore, to look upon the -Catholics as a group who, if in power, would distinguish themselves -by a policy of broad toleration, and the one colony in which there -was any appreciable number of Catholics, namely, Maryland, naturally -felt the situation most keenly.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span> The number of Catholics in the -colony at that time, however, even including Negroes, was only a few -thousand, and their capital of St. Mary was a hamlet of scarcely -sixty houses. Probably eleven-twelfths of the population of Maryland -were Protestants, and of them a majority were Puritans. These lost -no time in taking steps to protect their freedom which they knew the -Catholic church would never tolerate if able to do otherwise, and by -a homemade revolution turned out the proprietary government and set -up a staunch Protestant regime. Under this new rule, however, the few -Catholic residents were subjected to no harm, but were placed under -approximately the same disabilities as they had long lived under in -Great Britain. Thereupon the little Roman Catholic principality in the -United States was at an end, and the then Lord Baltimore, fourth of -that title, shortly conformed by returning to his ancestral Protestant -faith.</p> - -<p>The Revolution of 1689 cost St. Mary its existence, for the Puritans -transferred the capital to their own town of Providence (rebaptized -Annapolis), and the headquarters of the Roman Catholics soon relapsed -into the wilderness.</p> - -<p>Maryland continued to be almost wholly an English colony, with more -than its share of Negroes and transported convicts, and with a very -slight sprinkling of aliens, much as all the colonies had. When the -Acadians were transported from Nova Scotia in 1755, a considerable -number of them were landed in Maryland.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span></p> - -<p>Baltimore, founded in 1729, languished for a quarter of a century, but -in the decade before the Revolution it began to grow with such rapidity -that in a few years it was one of the half dozen most considerable -towns of the continent.</p> - -<p>The back country of Maryland was settled independently from -Pennsylvania, to a considerable extent by Ulster Scots and Palatines, -though there was also a steady encroachment on this cheap land by men -from the tidewater who could not get possession of farms in the more -expensive and fashionable as well as prosperous region.</p> - -<p>By the Revolution, Maryland had reached a population of 250,000. -Perhaps one-seventh of this was in Frederick County, where Palatines -had begun to settle as early as 1710, and into which they began to -enter in large numbers after about 1730. Despite this back-country -element, Maryland must be recognized as being, at the time of the first -census, an Anglo-Saxon colony in culture, in traditions, in language, -and in population.</p> - - - -<div class="footnotes"><p class="ph3">FOOTNOTES:</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> He is writing of Pennsylvania.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> The French and Indian War.</p></div></div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span></p> - -<p class="ph2"><a name="VII" id="VII">VII</a></p> - -<p class="center">VIRGINIA AND HER NEIGHBORS</p> - - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> settlement of Virginia, beginning with Jamestown in 1607, was of -a different character from that of the northern and middle colonies. -It was not a colonization project undertaken by families, but an -exploitation by adventurers. In a sense it may be compared with the -Klondike Gold Rush at the end of the nineteenth century. Men went forth -seeking fortune and expecting to return in a few years with newly -acquired wealth. The motley array of colonists sent to Jamestown by the -Company during the first decade of activity seems to have been drawn -from every part of the British Isles and every stratum of society.</p> - -<p>After ten or a dozen years, the proprietors recognized that the wealth -of their plantations would not consist in gold and pearls but that -they were facing an actual colonization project, which could only be -built upon the foundations of family life. An early recognition of -this fact has been one of the principal sources of strength in all -British colonization, and the proprietors of the Virginia colony, while -continuing to encourage men of all sorts to go to their settlement -on the James River, undertook one of the famous eugenic enterprises -of history by sending over several shiploads of young women to make<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span> -homes for their settlers. The undertaking seems to have been carried -out in good faith and with good judgment and the result was notably -successful. A little later, however, the continuing demand for wives -led to a sort of traffic that probably produced a less carefully -selected feminine population for the plantations. On the whole, it -would probably be fair to say that the "First Families of Virginia" -represented a higher social standard in the male than in the female -lines.</p> - -<p>The year 1619 was racially eventful. It saw the arrival at Jamestown -both of the first shipload of "uncorrupt maydes for wives," and the -landing of the first cargo of Negroes. The next half-century brought -the development of the plantation system and the spread of Negro -slavery and the problem of miscegenation between Negro women and -the lowest and most unintelligent type of white servant came into -prominence. In this way originated the mulatto group which has ever -since been a characteristic feature of the Negroes in the United -States. Those admirers of the Mulatto who boast that he carries in his -veins the blue blood of the aristocratic families of the South, would -do well to read the actual records of Virginia and other colonies -during the seventeenth century and see what sort of white stock -actually formed the foundation of that half of this hybrid group.</p> - -<p>The colony continued to grow for the first quarter of a century by -attracting voluntary adventurers from whom the rule of the survival of -the fittest ex<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span>acted so heavy a toll that probably the survivors were -a fairly fit lot. The abandonment of the original proprietary company -in 1624 led to a marked change in the manner of populating the colony, -and for the next generation the bulk of the immigrants were assisted in -one way or another to get to Virginia and allowed to work out the money -advanced them by their labor after their arrival.</p> - -<p>At its best, there was little difference in the colonization plans -that British colonies have always used to get desirable settlers from -"home." In the case of Virginia it brought a vigorous population of -all sorts, and the name of "indentured servant" covers not merely -the domestic in the kitchen and the laborer in the tobacco field -but artisans' apprentices and medical students. Under the extremely -trying conditions many of these immigrants were unable to survive. -Governor Berkeley asserted that four out of five died during the first -year of residence, while Evelyn, the diarist, declared that five out -of six succumbed. Such statements at least point to an excessively -high mortality which must have spared most frequently those who were -physically and mentally superior and well adapted to be among the -founders of a new colony. Hence it seems clear that the importance of -these indentured servants in the later development of Virginia, as of -other colonies, is not to be reckoned in proportion to the number who -arrived, but to be estimated upon the much smaller number who survived -and founded families.</p> - -<p>Another type of assisted immigrant of which a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span> great deal has been -heard was the deported convict. Some of these were evidently men who -had cheated the gallows, for the Virginians continually protested -against their arrival. Apparently much the larger number, however, were -men of superior quality in many respects. When nearly three hundred -offenses were punishable by the death penalty in England, many of those -convicted were not persons marked by great moral turpitude, and the -so-called "transported convict" might have been equally well a pirate, -or a preacher who persisted in expounding the gospel without proper -license from the ecclesiastical authorities so to do.</p> - -<p>Large numbers were political prisoners who found themselves -temporarily on the losing side; still more were mere prisoners of -war. During the Protectorate, victories like Dunbar and Worcester -and the suppression of the Irish Rebellion by Cromwell in 1652 were -followed by deportations of prisoners of war to the colonies, and the -government felt fully justified in recovering part of the expense -of transportation by selling the services of these able-bodied and -intelligent men for seven years to the highest bidder. Unquestionably -most of the foundation stock of this kind that survived to perpetuate -itself would be entirely fit for colonization. During the same period -many cavaliers took refuge in Virginia.</p> - -<p>When the royalists were again in power after 1660, a similar stream -of Commonwealth soldiers and non-conformists began to come into the -colonies. The Scotch Rebellion of 1670 brought another ac<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span>cession to -Virginia, and in 1685 many of the captives at the Battle of Sedgmoor -were exiled here. Such labor was welcomed by the Virginians in marked -distinction to the real criminals, of whom there were apparently only -a few thousand in all. After about 1700 the spread of Negro slavery -reduced the demand for white indentured labor and less of it arrived.</p> - -<p>In the great diversity of men and women brought over in these and other -ways, there are some who figure in the ancestry of the best families of -Virginia at the present time, and others who, from the beginning, were -misfits in the colony. Such of the latter as survived the trying ordeal -of the tobacco fields either ran away, or, when their term of service -expired, drifted out to the borders of the settlement.</p> - -<p>The Virginia holdings were large and far beyond the reach of an -ordinary man without capital, in marked contrast to conditions in -New England, where the great majority of the settlers were small -landowners. The freed bondsmen therefore had to go to the frontier or -drift down into North Carolina or some other region where they were -not handicapped by their lack of funds. The most shiftless and least -intelligent of them tended to collect in the less valuable lands at the -fringe of civilization, or to drift along to other similar settlements -farther west and south. In this way originated one of the peculiar -elements of the Southern population, the "poor white trash." Their -numbers were recruited generation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span> after generation by others of the -same sort while the able, enterprising, and imaginative members were -continually drained off to the cities or sought better land elsewhere. -These "poor whites" in the Alleghanies and through the swamp lands -of North and South Carolina have been an interesting feature of the -population for three centuries. Largely of pure Nordic stock, they are -a striking example to the eugenist of the results of isolation and -undesirable selection.</p> - -<p>During the Stuart period Virginia was the refuge of many Puritans. They -were, however, looked upon with disfavor by the prevailing royalist -sentiment and the activities of Sir William Berkeley as Governor -were such that not less than a thousand left the colony. Their place -was taken by Royalists, invited by the Governor to find a refuge in -Virginia as soon as news arrived of the execution of Charles I. Within -the next twelve months probably a thousand Royalists appeared bringing -many of the family names which have been conspicuous in the Old -Dominion ever since. Richard Lee came a little earlier, in 1642, but -it is after the death of Charles I that one begins to meet in Virginia -such names as Randolph, Cary, Parke, Robinson, Marshall, Washington, -and Ludwell.</p> - -<p>The place of origin in Great Britain of most of the Royalists is -not so easily traced as is that of the Massachusetts Puritans who -came to America in groups, sometimes as entire congregations, but -random samples of families which afterwards furnished<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span> distinguished -leadership show that they came from practically all over England and -Scotland: Washingtons from Northamptonshire, Marshalls and Jeffersons -from Wales, Lees from the part of Shropshire adjoining Wales, and -Randolphs from Warwickshire. James Monroe's ancestors were Scotch -and Patrick Henry's father was born in Aberdeen. They had at least -one thing in common, that they were of English and Nordic stock. -Examination of lists in the land office at Richmond indicates that -fully 95 per cent of the names of landowners during the seventeenth -century were unmistakably Anglo-Saxon.</p> - -<p>The tidewater population was fecund and spread steadily up to the -fall-line of the rivers, by its own multiplication. Men and women -married early. Colonel Byrd described his daughter, Evelyn, as an -"antique virgin" when she was twenty. "Either our young fellows are -not smart enough for her or she seems too smart for them," he moaned. -With a high death rate second marriages were common. It has been the -custom of late for sentimental feminists to refer to the large families -of the Colonial period as having been produced by husbands who thus -killed off one wife after another. Such nonsense is easily refuted by -an examination of genealogies and of tombstones. Many a husband had to -marry several wives because of the high death rate, but equally many -wives had to marry several husbands apiece for the same reason.</p> - -<p>The toll taken by hard work, unhygienic con<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span>ditions, and childbirth -without proper care among pioneer women, was no greater than the toll -taken by hard work, unhygienic conditions, and Indian warfare among the -men. If Colonel John Carter married five wives successively, in an age -when divorce was unknown, Elizabeth Mann married six husbands.</p> - -<p>While a purely Nordic population was thus occupying tidewater Virginia -east of the Blue Ridge, another Nordic invasion from a wholly different -source was entering upland Virginia on the other side of the mountains. -The Shenandoah Valley is virtually an extension of the interior valleys -of Pennsylvania; and while an occasional pioneer pushed his way to it -through the mountains from the eastern front, the real settlement came -through the side door beginning about 1725 and reaching the proportions -of an invasion about 1732.</p> - -<p>Ulster Scots coming down through Pennsylvania began that penetration -of the Piedmont from north to south which is such a striking feature -of the history of the South Atlantic coast during the next century. -With them were some Alpines, mostly Germans from the Palatine, -representative of the so-called Pennsylvania Dutch stock.</p> - -<p>When General Braddock, whose army was nearly wiped out by the French -and Indians in 1755, sighed, "Who would have thought it?" and expired, -he nevertheless had cleared a road for the rapid spread of this -immigration along the mountain valleys, not merely into Virginia but -on through the Carolinas<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span> and to Georgia. His road was followed a few -years later by General Forbes' road through the same country, and the -way was open.</p> - -<p>The upland and mountain sections of Virginia therefore came to be -represented by a group with a very different outlook from those of the -tidewater, dominated as it was by large landholders. This diversity of -original settlement, which was of sufficient importance to effect in -the Civil War a cleavage of the State and establish West Virginia as -free soil, is still apparent and makes itself felt in the twentieth -century.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>North Carolina represents an overflowing from Virginia to the South. It -was a frontier for the Old Dominion where landless men could find new -homes more easily than to the westward, where they encountered the Blue -Ridge. In 1653 a settlement was begun at Albemarle by Virginians who -were not in accord either with the established religion or else with -the political control of their colony. Most of these were Quakers.</p> - -<p>By adopting a remarkably liberal code of laws, which welcomed insolvent -debtors by cancelling their indebtedness, this colony attracted an -element which the more conservative Virginians regarded with suspicion. -A continual infiltration of landseekers led to steady colonization, -and gradually the tidewater section of North Carolina developed as a -separate region, not very thickly settled, not very prosperous, not -very distinguished in any way. A few French<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span> Huguenots drifted in after -the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. In 1710 a group of Palatines, -who had left their German homes because of religious persecution, and -had sought refuge in England, was passed on to North Carolina through -the enterprise of a couple of Swiss promoters who were looking for -colonists. As a courtesy to the promoters the settlement was given -the name of New Bern, which has led to a general supposition that the -population were Swiss. In fact, they were nearly all German Alpines.</p> - -<p>Another immigration, this time of Nordics, began a few years later -when Scotch Highlanders, disappointed at the results of the 1715 -uprising on behalf of the Old Pretender, fled the country and came to -North Carolina, starting a settlement on the Cape Fear River. Later, -following the collapse of the Young Pretender in 1745, the Highlanders -again found themselves in a bad situation at home. Shipload after -shipload landed at Wilmington in 1746 and 1747. This emigration of -Scotch Highlanders continued until the Revolution, during which time -they showed themselves, strangely enough, loyal to the Hanoverian -dynasty and mostly fought as Loyalists against the Continentals.</p> - -<p>The general breakup of the clan system with the accompanying distress -in the Highlands caused most of this emigration, although some of the -Scots were deported as prisoners of war. Campbelltown was the centre -of their settlement, and it is unfortunate that its present name of -Fayetteville conceals its in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span>teresting history. Some of the Highlanders -are said to have brought cattle with them, and they pushed on into the -interior of the State because of the great areas of succulent grass and -peavine stretching toward the mountains which provided excellent fodder -for their herds.</p> - -<p>The sympathetic patronage of Gabriel Johnston, the Governor of the -Province from 1734 to 1752, was largely responsible for the welcome -extended to these Highlanders. Himself a Scotchman, he was under -strong suspicion of not being too loyal to the Crown. At any rate, his -hospitality to the Highlanders brought to North Carolina the largest -group of Highland Scotch that came to the colonies. These men of the -purest Nordic blood form a selected group anthropologically. It is no -mere coincidence that the tallest average height of a population in the -United States at the present time is in these North Carolina counties -that were settled by the Scotch Highlanders after "Bonnie Prince -Charlie" ceased to be a political possibility.</p> - -<p>While the back country of North Carolina was thus being penetrated from -the seacoast by the Highland Scots, the Lowland Scots were drifting -into it along the foot of the mountains from Pennsylvania and Maryland -through Virginia. This was the principal source of increase of the -population during the eighteenth century, and still gives to the State -its characteristic complexion. Along with the Ulster Scots came, as -said above, some of the German settlers, thus bringing a small Alpine -element to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span> State. The southern tidewater region also developed at -the same time as a northern extension of settlement from South Carolina.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>South Carolina was settled only a little later than North Carolina by -the establishment of Old Charles Town in 1665. This settlement, shortly -moved across and up the river to a better location, prospered and -expanded until it became South Carolina.</p> - -<p>Originally a sort of offshoot from the West Indies, this region caught -the attention of the Huguenot refugees a few years later, perhaps -because Coligny had marked it out a century before as a desirable home -for them. It attracted a larger proportion of the French refugees -than any other colony; and although they were unwelcome at first to -the English who were in possession, they soon assimilated themselves -to the Anglo-Saxon population with which they were racially identical -and became an important element in the upbuilding of the State. -In Colonial and Revolutionary times, Gendron, Huger, LeSerrurier, -deSaussure, Laurens, Lanier, Sevier, and Ravenel were all Huguenots who -distinguished themselves in the service of the State.</p> - -<p>The establishment of large-scale agriculture with plantations devoted -to rice or indigo sharply limited the possibilities of settlement in -the tidewater region of South Carolina, and it became a country of -large holdings worked by Negro slaves in charge of overseers. Meanwhile -the owners largely made their homes in or near Charleston, and brought -it to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span> position of the fourth city of the colonies in importance.</p> - -<p>The growth of the colony would have been slow had it not been for the -influx of the Ulster Scots coming along the foot of the mountains from -the north after the middle of the eighteenth century. The upcountry -thus became quite different from the tidewater, so different, that in -South Carolina as in North Carolina and Virginia it was a question -whether the State might not split on slavery a few years before the -Civil War, and the Upland population was only whipped into line for -secession by sharp practice on the part of the political leaders in the -slave-holding regions.</p> - -<p>Other small elements were incorporated easily in the Nordic population -of the State, but the loss to the colony was heavy when the Loyalists -left after the Revolution. On the 13th and 14th of December, 1782, 300 -ships set sail from Charleston carrying not merely the soldiery but -more than 9000 civilians and slaves. Half of these went to the West -Indies, and most of the others to Florida where such of them as had not -subsequently removed were presumably reincorporated into the United -States a generation later. On the other hand, hundreds of Hessian -deserters stayed in the community, as also occurred in others of the -colonies, thus introducing the first noticeable immigration of Nordic -Germans into the State. As previously noted, most of the so-called -Palatine immigration of Germans in the eighteenth century was Alpine, -in sharp contrast to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span> North German Nordics, who came to this -country in large numbers in the middle of the nineteenth century after -the futile revolutions of 1848.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Georgia was the last of the thirteen colonies to be settled. Even -at the Revolution it was so weak that it was regarded by many of -the Colonial leaders as more of a liability than an asset to the -confederation. Its establishment in 1732 by Oglethorpe was on a basis -appealing more to sentiment than to practical views. As in the case -of some other similar schemes in contemporary times, Parliament was -persuaded to appropriate nearly a hundred thousand pounds to aid the -oppressed of all countries. Most of the few thousand persons who were -settled by the original trustees were English, and were selected with -as much care as possible from among those who were apparently "down on -their luck," and who might prosper if relieved of their debts and put -back on land. Many of these insolvent debtors were doubtless victims of -political and economic changes, but it soon transpired that in too many -cases the man who did not have sufficient capacity to make a living in -England, likewise lacked sufficient capacity to make a living in the -newer and more difficult conditions of Georgia.</p> - -<p>In addition to these English debtors, Oglethorpe enlisted on the -Continent small bodies of oppressed Protestants and established several -other little settlements. Waldenses from Piedmont in Italy were -settled in one place, a colony of Scots in another,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span> German Moravians -at still a third point, and a few French families elsewhere, as well -as a colony from Salzburg, made up of a pre-dominantly Alpine stock -that had suffered for its religious principles enough to deserve all -the sympathy it received. The hardy Nordics (Scotch Presbyterian -Highlanders) who had been settled on the southern frontier, to afford -protection for Georgia from the Spaniards and Indians, were almost -exterminated by the Spaniards and of all these various undertakings -Savannah was the only one that prospered.</p> - -<p>It was necessary to abandon the attempt to create a prosperous colony -by means of establishing a refuge for the oppressed. Unfortunately -the change was accompanied by the introduction of Negro slavery. -Nevertheless, when Georgia became open to outside settlers, there -was a valuable accession from colonies to the north, one of the most -interesting of the groups being the Dorchester Society, which came in -1752. This Protestant congregation had left England in 1630 and founded -Dorchester in Massachusetts. In 1695 a part of them had moved to South -Carolina and, two generations later, some of these went still farther -south to midland Georgia.</p> - -<p>Their example was followed, or perhaps indeed preceded, by many other -Carolina planters, so that the influx from this source became a real -element of strength to the more southerly colony. Shortly thereafter -the flood of Ulster Scots, rolling along the Piedmont, began to reach -the uplands of Georgia and assured its future.</p> - -<p class="center"> -<img src="images/illus15.jpg" alt="pic" /> -<a id="illus15" name="illus15"></a> -</p> -<p class="caption"> THE THIRTEEN COLONIES</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span></p> - -<p>The Georgians of the present day are descendants of the Oglethorpe -colonists in only insignificant proportions. The Nordic settlers who -came in through North Carolina, English from the tidewater region, and -Ulster Scots from the Uplands, are the real founders of the State.</p> - -<p>After the Revolution, Georgia benefited by the prevalent unrest and the -tide of migration that flowed in all directions. It received settlers -from all of the Southern States and some of the Northern ones, as well -as new arrivals direct from Europe.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Kentucky for a generation prior to the Revolution had become known -through hunters of game bringing back glowing accounts of the beauty -and fertility of the level lands of central Kentucky. Access in the -one case was down the Ohio River by boat, and in the other by a long -and hazardous trip through the mountains, entering by the Cumberland -Gap, the most practicable of several difficult passes. The danger -from Indians was so great on the Ohio River that most of the invaders -preferred those dangers of a different type to be encountered by the -Cumberland Gap entry. It was the route which Daniel Boone, acting for -a land company, had blazed: the narrow trail, six hundred miles long, -that has become famous as the Wilderness Road.</p> - -<p>By the time of the Revolution several hundred people were in Kentucky, -and more were coming each year from the inland portion of Virginia, -and, to a less extent, from Pennsylvania. During the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span> Revolution the -population rose and fell in accordance with local conditions on the -frontier and the ravages of the Indians. With the end of the Revolution -a great tide of immigration set in, composed in part of soldiers who -were given land grants by the Virginia Government. With them was an -element of Loyalists, as well as many families from Maryland, both -seeking to get away from unpleasant associations in the East.</p> - -<p>From 1780 onward the route down the Ohio began to be more used. The -Indians were driven back or the boatmen learned how to cope with their -ruses, and the annual migration began to be counted in thousands. In -the year 1786 as many as 3000 went down the river, in 1788, 10,000, and -in 1789, 20,000. Meanwhile, the immigration through the Cumberland Gap -continued steadily. The growth of Kentucky was on a scale unparalleled -in North America up to that time. Within a few decades from the -day when the first cabins were erected in the region, a population -of 70,000 people had entered the State, and it had half as many -inhabitants as Massachusetts.</p> - -<p>Compared with the Scotch tone of Tennessee, Kentucky was overwhelmingly -English in aspect. Virginia was definitely its progenitor, a large part -of its early population having come through the Shenandoah Valley. Next -as feeders were Pennsylvania and North Carolina, while other regions -contributed but small minorities, those from Maryland being probably -the most numerous. The government<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span> of Virginia was seriously concerned -by its losses of population from this cause. After the Revolution, -officers who had served with the Virginia forces were compensated -by allotments of land in the Kentucky region. The State attracted -other settlers of a superior social and economic status. These gave a -tone to its society and laid the foundation of a local aristocracy. -Kentucky long remained distinctive because of its conspicuously English -atmosphere and the social refinements which it showed in contrast to -some of its neighbors. Kentucky remained part of Virginia until 1792 -when it was admitted as a State.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Tennessee was, in fact, only the western part of North Carolina which -originally stretched beyond the Appalachians as far as the Mississippi. -The French had established a trading post on the site of Nashville as -early as 1714. But the State was actually settled from the East rather -than from the West, and, indeed, its western third was not settled -until well into the nineteenth century. The first area of settlement -was in the river valleys near the North Carolina border, and this -remained the principal area during the period here considered. A second -and less important point of growth was in the center of the State. In -northeastern Tennessee the earlier settlements were from Virginia, and -the settlers supposed that they were still within the limits of the Old -Dominion.</p> - -<p>The settlers from North Carolina soon began to push through the -mountain passes and established<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span> the groupings that go in history -by the name of the Holston and Watauga settlements. Many of the -early settlers, of whom some hundreds were present before the -Revolution, were, as noted, from the upland portion of Virginia, -and were Presbyterians from Scotland, often by way of Ulster, while -the principal early influx from North Carolina was connected with -the uprising in the Piedmont section of that colony about 1770. An -insurgent element known as the Regulators put itself in opposition to -the royal governor, and, being beaten, fled over the mountains for -safety. A large proportion of these were from Wake County. They brought -in an element of Baptists contrasting with the Presbyterianism which, -on the whole, characterized the State from the beginning and still does -so owing to the predominance of the Scotch in its settlement.</p> - -<p>While the eastern community was growing, settlement began in the -central portion of the State in what is known as the Cumberland -district. This was for years almost isolated from the neighboring -settlement to the east, the center of which was Nashville, while the -eastern settlement headed in Knoxville, which became the capital.</p> - -<p>During the Revolution the settlement of this territory continued -steadily until the State had 10,000 or 12,000 inhabitants. North -Carolina made liberal allotments of Tennessee lands to its soldiers -who had fought in the Revolution, and this continued the stream of -immigration. By the time that President Washington was inaugurated -the eastern section of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span> the State had some 30,000 inhabitants, the -Cumberland district about 7000, and both were growing steadily. Western -Tennessee was still Indian territory.</p> - -<p>The population of Tennessee in 1790 was typical of the upland -population of the South in its racial make-up. It is definitely a mere -extension of the western part of North Carolina, though its inhabitants -were often born in Virginia, and to a less extent in other States, as -was true of the inhabitants of North Carolina itself.</p> - -<p>In the Mississippi Valley at this period there were a few settlements -established under the French and Spanish regimes, which had attracted -a miscellaneous crowd of adventurers and traders. Since this territory -did not become part of the United States until the Louisiana Purchase -of 1803, it will be dealt with more fully in the next section. In this -period we are dealing with comparatively small numbers for this entire -region.</p> - -<p>Of nearly 4,000,000 people, both white and black, in the United States -in 1790, at the time of the first census, 95 per cent were living east -of the Appalachians.</p> - -<p>In territories of the present United States other than the settlements -already covered, there were three little islands of population. One -lay along the Mississippi in southwest Illinois, a remnant of the old -French settlements with some English and American additions. A second -was around Vincennes, Indiana, with a population like that of the -Illinois<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span> settlements but more strongly American. A third was in Ohio, -where settlement was just beginning, the first serious colonization -being that made in 1788 at Marietta by New Englanders.</p> - -<p>Although the Revolution grew out of economic and political causes, it -represents primarily one of those costly and unfortunate internecine -wars in which the Nordics have been prone to indulge at intervals for -two or three thousand years, and which have done so much to weaken them -as a race.</p> - -<p>Had there been no complications the effects of the Revolutionary War -might have been less permanent. Winner and loser would have lived -on terms of peace with each other, as they did in England after the -Civil War and in the United States after the Rebellion. But the hard -feeling that goes with any conflict was intensified by several factors. -The Ulster Scots, in particular, had reason to feel themselves badly -treated by England, and they carried into, and through, the Revolution, -an unusual animosity. This feeling of resentment was shared and kept -alive by many other Americans through the injudicious behavior in -Canada of a number of the English governments after the Revolution.</p> - -<p>The tradition of one hundred and fifty years of common action of the -colonies and the mother country in opposing France was forgotten -overnight and a sentimental attitude for which there was astonishingly -little actual basis led to a glorification of France and everything -French for a generation or more—an attitude that has not entirely -disappeared<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span> to this day. The antagonism toward Great Britain was -maintained for political reasons during the next century mostly by -Irish agitators. This ill feeling prevented the close co-operation -between the two greatest sections of the English-speaking races, which -would have meant so much for world peace and harmony, and which would -have laid the basis for a closer co-operation of all the nations of -predominant Nordic stock, in the interest of the progressive evolution -of mankind. A first object of statesmanship should now be to regain -that solidarity of the Nordics, in the interests not merely of world -progress, but of the very survival of civilization.</p> - -<p>Denominational questions in the United States were scarcely an issue -after the Revolution, for the bitter sectarian feeling that had -existed earlier was rapidly disappearing, and the Roman Catholics had -not yet been able to raise the issue of bigotry, for the country was -overwhelmingly Protestant. Of approximately 4,000,000 persons in the -United States in 1790, Catholic writers make varying claims running -as high as 35,000 or 45,000 persons of their faith. Without stopping -to inquire how many of those claimed for Rome were merely nominal -adherents, and how many were Negroes, one may remark that at the most, -about one American in each one hundred might have had some affiliation -with the Roman Church. When the Catholic hierarchy was established for -the first time in the United States by the appointment of the Jesuit -John Carroll as bishop of Baltimore in 1789, he reported to his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span> -superiors that there were about 16,000 Catholics in Maryland, including -children and Negroes; something over 7000 in Pennsylvania, some 3000 -French around Detroit, and about 4000 scattered through the rest of the -country. To this total of 30,000 might be added the unknown but small -number of nominal Catholics on the frontier, in the Mississippi Valley, -and in other regions where there were no priests to minister to them, -and where their children, at least, were fairly sure to grow up outside -the church. It is probably accurate to say that there never has been -a nation which was so completely and definitely Protestant as well as -Nordic as was the United States just after the American Revolution.</p> - -<p>The total white population found in the United States by the first -census (1790) was 3,172,444. To this should be added, for the present -purpose, the population of parts of the continent that are now, but -were not then, in the United States, that is Louisiana and Florida. -The latter had but a few thousand inhabitants. The Louisiana Purchase -territory may be credited with 36,000, of whom nearly one-half were -Negroes. The French are estimated at about 12,000. Professor Hansen -gives the figure of Whites only for the Louisiana Purchase area in -1790 as 20,000. The addition of Negroes would probably increase these -population figures considerably. Texas may be allotted 5000 (Spanish) -Whites, New Mexico and Arizona 15,000, and California 1000 at this -period. But it will be shown later that the use of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span> word "White" -in these Spanish-American lands is frequently largely a "courtesy -title." Finally, the census enumerators did not reach the Old Northwest -Territory, where there were already some 11,000 residents, about -equally divided between American and French. The total white population -of the territory now comprised in the continental United States may -therefore be put at approximately 3,250,000 in 1790.</p> - -<p>Disregarding the French and Spanish in the outlying regions, the only -race, aside from the Nordic, that was important enough to be counted -at this period was the Alpine, represented by the Germans. In Maine -one in a hundred of the population might have been German, but in the -other New England states the Alpines were negligible.<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> In the middle -colonies they were an important element, perhaps one in every ten -or twelve in such States as New York, New Jersey, and Maryland, and -one-third of the whole population in Pennsylvania. Through the Southern -States they formed perhaps one in twenty of the population, confined -mainly to the upland regions and, having spread over from these uplands -and from Pennsylvania into the west, they amounted to about one in -seven in Kentucky and Tennessee.</p> - -<p>Nine-tenths of the whole white population of 1790<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span> was therefore -Nordic in race, and ninety-nine hundredths of it Protestant in -religion. It was all English-speaking, save for the little island of -Pennsylvania Dutch, and for the French and Spanish on the frontiers. -It was all living under a political and cultural tradition that was -characteristically British.</p> - -<p>At the time of the Revolution there were about 6,000,000 people in -England and about half that number in the colonies.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>The preceding pages have been devoted to describing the conditions in -the English colonies at the end of the Colonial Period. Let us now -consider the situation of the continent as a whole.</p> - -<p>Never before in the history of the Nordic race had there been an event -comparable in importance to this occupation of North America, north of -the Rio Grande, by the English and Scotch. The Canadian French were too -few to be a serious obstacle to the development of the country and, as -will be seen in the following pages, the rest of Canada was in race, -language, religion, and cultural traditions identical with the original -British colonies.</p> - -<p>Thus we have the most vigorous race in existence, with a few outside -elements which were entirely in sympathy with the dominant type, in -possession of the richest and most salubrious continent in the world. -That this country was healthy and well fitted to breed a highly -selected race is shown by the comparison of the fate of the colonists -who went to the West Indies with those who went to New England.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span></p> - -<p>These Puritan migrations were in their general nature identical, -but the enervating climate of the Caribbean Sea proved fatal to the -Nordics who went there, while the vigor of the New Englanders as a -body was increased by the elimination of weaklings through a harsh but -beneficent climate.</p> - -<p>To appreciate how highly selected a race the Americans were at that -time, one has only to consider the extraordinary group of men of -talent and ability, some fifty-five in number, who represented the -colonies at the Convention of 1787 at Philadelphia. Those men framed -the Constitution of the United States, which after a hundred and fifty -years of stress and strain still remains the model for such documents -throughout the world.</p> - -<p>Let the reader consider whether our 110,000,000 whites of today could -produce the same number of men with corresponding ability and equally -high motive, in spite of the fact that our population is more than -thirty times as large as in 1787.</p> - -<p>So we find in 1790 a practically empty continent, its eastern half -buried under a mantle of forest, with a coast line broken by ports -and short navigable rivers. Across low mountain ranges we first find -a vast central valley traversed for hundreds of miles by wide rivers; -then a belt of treeless plains covered with succulent buffalo grass; -next a region long called the "Great American Desert"; then a range -of mountains dimly known to the Colonials as the "Stony Mountains"; -beyond them a great alkaline desert, next the Sierra range, and lastly -the genial<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span> Pacific Coast. The western half of the continent abounded -in mineral wealth, while in the central valley the virgin soil awaited -the plow. These conditions had their counterpart in Canada. Wild game -abounded, inviting the fur traders to explore the remoter places and -enabling the settler to find ready food, while he built his log cabin -and planted his crop.</p> - -<p>Such was the continent and such the opportunity. In the following pages -we shall see what has been done with these opportunities by the British -race.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Before leaving the Colonial Period, it is well to call attention, once -more, to the history of the frontier. For a hundred years and more the -frontier was beset by savages often instigated by the French in Canada. -The Indians killed and tortured the lonely settlers and burned their -log cabins. This desultory warfare cost the English many hundreds, if -not thousands of lives along the frontiers of New England as well as of -Pennsylvania and Virginia.</p> - -<p>The Indians found by English settlers on their arrival in America were -probably, as to many of their tribes, the most formidable fighting -men of any native race encountered by the Whites. Not only were they -redoubtable warriors in their own surroundings, but they were beyond -question the cruelest of mankind. The Assyrians, of all ancient -peoples, were reputed to be the most fiendishly cruel, but bad as they -were, they did not compare with the American Indian. The de<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span>tails of -the torture of prisoners taken in open warfare are too revolting to -describe. These tortures were carried out by the squaws while the bucks -sat around and laughed at the agony of their victims. There is nothing -like it in history in any part of the world and the result was that -the aboriginal Indians were regarded as ravening wolves or worse and -deprived of all sympathy, while the Whites stole their lands and killed -their game. No one who knew the true nature of the Indian felt any -regret that they were driven off their hunting grounds. This attitude -was found wherever the Whites came in conflict with them and explains -why they were scarcely regarded as human beings.</p> - -<p>The effect of the existence of the Indians on the frontier was to -slow down the advance westward of the settlements and to compel the -backwoodsman to keep in touch with his countrymen in the rear. If -there had been no hostile Indians, the settlers would have scattered -widely and would have established independent communities, such as -were attempted in Kentucky and Tennessee after the Revolution. In this -respect the Indians were a benefit to the Whites.</p> - -<p>At the close of the period ending in 1790, despite the loss of many -valuable elements at the time of the Revolution, the American race was -homogeneous and Scotch and English to the core. It was bursting the -bonds of the old frontier and ready to pour a human deluge over the -mountains and inundate the West.</p> - - - -<div class="footnotes"><p class="ph3">FOOTNOTES:</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> Studying the percentage of various nationalities in -Colonial times, and later, one is guided partly by records of -immigration, partly by the names of the inhabitants, as recorded -in census and other returns. There was always a tendency, in an -Anglo-Saxon region, to corrupt names of other nationalities, -occasionally in such a way as to make them appear English. This fact -must be allowed for in all calculations in this field.</p></div></div> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="ph2"><a name="VIII" id="VIII">VIII</a></p> - - - -<p class="center">THE OLD NORTHWEST TERRITORY</p> - - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> second period to be dealt with covers the years from the first -census, 1790, to the eve of the Civil War, 1860, and deals with the -organization of our government and the extension of settlement westward -to the Pacific. Free land and a very high birthrate among native -Americans led to a great increase of the population, so that the white -inhabitants of the United States, about three millions and a quarter -in 1790, became twenty-seven millions and a half, in 1860, though -immigration during the seventy-year period was not over four and a -quarter million.</p> - -<p>From 1790 to 1820, no official record of immigrant arrivals was kept. -Thousands certainly arrived during those thirty years, but it seems -probable that they were nearly all English and Scotch.</p> - -<p>Just as the termination in 1790 of the preceding period was marked by -a racial loss, caused by the expulsion of the Loyalists, so this later -period was terminated by an internecine Civil War, costing the country -three-fourths of a million Nordic lives, counting killed and died of -wounds only. The descendants of those men who gave their lives for -their country on both sides would have filled up the West,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span> instead of -its being largely populated by the immigrants we recklessly invited to -our shores.</p> - -<p>During the period referred to (1790-1860), there was, as said, no heavy -immigration except from two sources, Ireland and Germany, and both of -these occurred in the later portion of the period.</p> - -<p>The displacement of agriculture by sheep in Scotland at the beginning -of the nineteenth century dispossessed thousands of farmers who moved -to America, sometimes with the active assistance of their landlords. -The population of some districts, as Perthshire, Argyllshire, and -Inverness-shire, fell sharply, because the people, no longer able to -make a living, moved away. North America was the favorite destination.</p> - -<p>Southern England experienced a similar movement. The price of -agricultural products, which had been forced up during the Napoleonic -wars, fell steadily for a long time. Farmers could not make a living. -The counties of Kent, Hampshire, Somerset, and Surrey were the chief -centers of emigration. These people also turned their faces toward -North America.</p> - -<p>Ireland, too, was in perpetual ferment and the emigration from that -island was increased as the result of the abortive revolutionary -attempts of the United Irishmen in 1798 and 1803. After the leader of -the latter, Robert Emmet, was executed, his elder brother, Thomas A. -Emmet, came to New York, practised law, and within a decade became the -attorney-general of the state. The Emmets, like most<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span> others of these -Irish refugees, were Protestants in religion.</p> - -<p>Later, in 1845, the potato crop failed in Ireland, and soon after -the starving peasantry, many of them from the lower types of western -Ireland, swarmed over here. The women became domestic servants and the -men day laborers, doing the heavy work of ditch digging and railroad -building. They were Roman Catholic and that fact excited animosity in -many sections of the country. They were not welcome in the West when -they drifted there. It was not unusual to see on the frontier railroad -stations and in advertisements in New York newspapers, "No Irish need -apply." There was some violence and an American party was organized to -check their entrance into local politics, for which they showed great -aptitude.</p> - -<p>Since then, these Irish have been forced upward in the social scale by -later arriving immigrants over whom they had the advantage of speaking -English. They became the nucleus in America of the present Roman -Catholic Church, which has spread rapidly in this country. The Irish -did not take to agriculture and have never shown much liking for the -larger industries.</p> - -<p>The total number of Irish immigrants during the forties and fifties -amounted to more than a million and a half, and that first migration -has been followed by a continuous stream of southern Irish down to the -last few years when the quota restrictions went into effect.</p> - -<p class="center"> -<img src="images/illus8.jpg" alt="pic" /> -<a id="illus8" name="illus8"></a> -</p> -<p class="caption"> ROMAN CATHOLICS<br /> - -1930</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span></p> - -<p>As soon as they secured a certain amount of wealth and rose in the -social scale, they established schools and colleges of their own, the -teachings and, indeed, the existence of which conflict with those of -the public-school system of the United States, and to that extent they -have impaired the unity of the nation. Some regiments of Irish fought -on the Northern side in the Civil War, but the draft riots of New York -were caused by the Irish who did not want to fight for the Union. In -addition to the shanty Irish there came over some middle-class families -of importance.</p> - -<p>The second immigration of importance occurred a few years later when -a large number of Germans were forced over here by the failure of the -Revolution in Germany in 1848. These Germans were very different from -those who migrated to Pennsylvania in the eighteenth century. Many of -them were from northern Germany and were Nordics, including individuals -of some culture and distinction. They settled in certain cities of -the West, notably in Cincinnati, Milwaukee, and Saint Louis. For the -most part, however, they took up public land and became hard-working -farmers. They did not in the mass improve the population already here -intellectually, racially, or physically, and they impaired our national -unity, at least for the time being, by the introduction of their own -language.</p> - -<p>At the end of the period here considered there were in the United -States more than one and a quarter millions of German-born, of whom -about one-fourth<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span> were Roman Catholics. This church, which in 1790 -controlled not one in a hundred of the population, could in 1860 count -upon one in every nine of the Whites.</p> - -<p>Outside of the Irish and Germans, who were preponderantly Nordic, there -was not much immigration of importance. The census of 1860 enumerated -4,138,697 foreign-born persons out of a total of nearly 27,000,000 -Whites. England, Scotland, and Canada accounted for most of those who -were neither Irish nor German. Thus at the end of this period the -racial unity of the United States was still virtually unimpaired.</p> - -<p>The French in the old Northwest Territory were negligible in number, -amounting to but a few thousands. The number of Mexicans in Texas, -Arizona, and New Mexico when we took over those countries was but a few -thousand more. These Mexicans considered themselves Spanish; but as a -matter of fact, the veneer of religion, language, and culture was very -thin, and racially most of them were at least seven-eighths Indian. The -same condition prevailed in California in 1846; the number of Mexicans -being even smaller than in Texas.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Many of the original Colonial charters granted by the English kings -provided for a north and south boundary by latitude, but the western -boundary was often defined as the "South Sea," and not unnaturally -many of these boundaries overlapped. After the Revolution, the -original colonies were induced to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span> cede to the Federal Government -their indefinite and conflicting claims to the western lands. This -general and important cession of territory had two results: it gave the -impoverished Federal Government lands which could be sold for its own -benefit, and it led to the establishment of communities which looked to -the Federal Government for everything they needed, which in itself was -a long step toward unity of government.</p> - -<p>In 1787 the western boundaries of New York and Pennsylvania were fixed -as they are at present, and out of the country south of the Great -Lakes, north of the Ohio River, and east of the Mississippi was erected -the Northwest Territory under the special guardianship of the Federal -Government.</p> - -<p>This "Northwest Territory" had been seized during the Revolution by -an extraordinary group of adventurers and frontiersmen under General -George Rogers Clark. Thereby the Thirteen Colonies were in physical -possession of these districts south of the Great Lakes when the Treaty -of Paris was signed in 1783. Without such actual possession of the -Old Northwest, it would have remained part of Canada, an outcome -which would have limited the growth of the United States westward or, -more probably, have led to another war. The reluctance of the British -authorities in charge of the outposts in this territory to surrender -their forts in accordance with the terms of the treaty, and their -alleged backing of the Indians, were among the causes underlying the -War of 1812.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span></p> - -<p>As population increased, new States were created in succession out of -this territory—Ohio (1803), Indiana (1816), Illinois (1818), Michigan -(1837), and Wisconsin (1848).</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Ohio's first straggling settlers had pushed northwesterly across -the Ohio River during the Revolution, but the first real, permanent -settlement was by the New England Company which established Marietta -in 1788. This New England immigration, though soon swamped by that -from other States, played an important part in the organization of the -territory and in the shaping of its future policies.</p> - -<p>Scarcely had the Massachusetts group, led by General Rufus Putnam, -taken possession of its vast grant around Marietta, when a new group -led by Judge J.C. Symmes of Kentucky occupied a grant of a million -acres between the Great and Little Miami Rivers, including the sites -of Cincinnati, Dayton, and many of the most important of the early -settlements of the territory.</p> - -<p>Virginia had reserved a military district of more than four million -acres to reward its soldiers of the Revolution, and this quickly began -to be settled largely by veterans from Kentucky which was at that time, -it will be remembered, still a part of Virginia.</p> - -<p>Connecticut on the other hand had stipulated for its own Western -Reserve of nearly 3,000,000 acres, extending in an oblong, 120 miles, -from the boundary<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span> of Pennsylvania along Lake Erie, and the settlement -of Cleveland marked its nucleus.</p> - -<p>Thus Ohio, within a few years after the Revolution, started with four -different growing points. The Virginia element increased the most -rapidly, partly because of its proximity to Kentucky, partly because of -its easy access by the Ohio River, so that the English and Ulster Scots -of the southern part of the State soon dominated the whole.</p> - -<p>A similar element was continually coming across the Pennsylvania -border from the Monongahela country, and before long the Pennsylvania -emigration to Ohio became the greatest from any one State, filling up -the central part which comprised the great wheat belt. Even as late as -the Mexican War, one-fourth of the members of the Ohio Legislature were -natives of Pennsylvania, exceeding the members born in any other State, -or in all the New England States combined, or in Ohio itself.</p> - -<p>Through Kentucky came not merely Virginians but a steady stream of -Ulster Scots from North Carolina, many of whom, however, had previously -been Virginians. The southern parts of the State, therefore, took on -some of the complexion of the slave-holding States, while the northern -part was tinged by the culture of New England and the Central States, -many coming in from western New York, which from the present point of -view is to be regarded as merely an extension of New England.</p> - -<p>Thus for a score of years the population of the States to the south and -east of Ohio, which, dammed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span> back by hostile Indians, had been ready to -overflow for some time, poured into the new territory. Then the flood -slackened until after the close of the War of 1812, when it was renewed -with vigor. Men from all parts of the United States who had served -with the western and northern forces in the War of 1812 had seen the -beauties of the new country and determined to settle there as soon as -peace was declared and they could dispose of their holdings at home. So -far as New England was concerned this tendency was accentuated by two -remarkably cold winters in 1816 and 1817, which surpassed the memories -of the oldest inhabitants. General economic and social conditions were -favorable for a widespread movement of population. The northwestern -part of Ohio had been cleared of Indians and was then thrown open to -settlement.</p> - -<p>This second great flood of immigration into Ohio was in general of -the same character as the first, bringing into the State from all -sides an almost purely Nordic population of British ancestry, except -for the small element of Pennsylvania Dutch who for a while kept much -to themselves, maintained their own customs and their own language, -and thus cut themselves off largely from the march of progress. Their -Alemannish dialect was rapidly becoming almost as far out of line with -the literary language of Germany as it was with the English language of -their adopted home.</p> - -<p>Later Ohio received a quarter of a million of German and Irish -immigrants. But of the 2,339,511 in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span>habitants whom the State contained -in 1860, a million and a half were born in the State itself.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Indiana, a typical American State, owes nothing worth mentioning to the -original French population. In early days it must be considered little -more than an extension of Kentucky. Virginia had set aside a large -tract for rewarding the men of George Rogers Clark's expedition and -these were the original land agents, so to speak, for the territory. -But all along the border a frontier population drifted there across the -Ohio River. As late as 1850 there were twice as many Southern people -in Indiana as there were from the Middle States and New England put -together. A good share of these were from Kentucky, which means that -they or their parents were previously from Virginia or North Carolina.</p> - -<p>That Indiana was in sympathy a Northern State bears testimony to the -fact that these migrants had little in common except original racial -stock with the older slave-holding population. The Ulster Scots were -the largest element, although there were also many Quakers from North -and South Carolina, some of whom were of Huguenot descent. It was this -element which made of Indiana a principal route of the "Underground -Railroad," as the system of smuggling runaway slaves out of the slave -States was called. But in the southern part of the State there was much -sympathy with the slaveholders.</p> - -<p>The settlement of Indiana falls almost entirely in the nineteenth -century, the number of people there<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span> prior to 1800 being negligible and -confined for the most part to lands under the protection of the little -post of Vincennes. On the northerly side of the Ohio River, at the -Falls, the settlement of the tract of 149,000 acres, which Virginia had -conveyed in 1786 to General Clark and his soldiers, was well under way.</p> - -<p>The rapid settlement of Indiana was a part of the great westward -movement beginning with the panic of 1819, and the hard times that -followed. The price of cotton was steadily declining in the South -and it was easy for the poorer farmer heavily in debt to sell out or -simply pack up and quit, moving on to free and richer land in a new -country. Many of the Ulster Scots in the South were hostile to slavery, -while others of them, strongly Jacksonian in politics, were opposed -to nullification and shared the reputed death-bed regret of the hero -of New Orleans that he had not hanged John C. Calhoun. South Carolina -therefore sent a large contingent of Ulster Scots to the new territory, -in addition to the general immigration which has already been mentioned.</p> - -<p>The Southern stream was met in the old Northwest Territory by the -stream of New Englanders coming over the line of the Erie Canal after -crossing the Hudson at the great break in the highlands near Albany. -Many of the settlers of northern Indiana had tarried for a season in -Ohio and moved westward as they had a chance to harvest the unearned -increment by selling their farms at a profit and migrating to take up -cheaper land and start again.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span></p> - -<p>Indiana missed the main flood of foreign immigration in the generation -before the Civil War. The Germans were going elsewhere because of -clannishness, while the Irish avoided Indiana because of its lack of -great cities. By the time the Scandinavian flood began to come in, land -values in Indiana were already high and the new settlers went farther -west and north.</p> - -<p>Indiana, therefore, of the States in the Northwest Territory is the -most nearly Nordic in population and the most nearly American, and, -at the end of the period under consideration, it represented an -overwhelmingly native-born population originating, in not very unequal -parts, from the Northern and Southern States, respectively. Though -the foreign element was rapidly gaining ground, it had not begun -to make itself felt even as late as 1833 when northern Indiana was -a wilderness, while southern Indiana was already well peopled from -Kentucky, Tennessee and the Carolinas.</p> - -<p>The development of internal improvements together with the general -migration from Northern States to all points west brought a complete -change in the political complexion of the State. In 1836, alone, land -sales in Indiana amounted to 3,000,000 acres and in the decade from -1840 to 1850 the population of counties bordering the new Ohio canal -increased 400 per cent, while the State began to look to New York as an -outlet for its products rather than to New Orleans.</p> - -<p>From 1820, the date of the founding of Indianap<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span>olis, to 1860, Indiana -had twice quadrupled her population and from almost purely American -stock. During these forty years, it is calculated that a million -people came to the Northwest from the slave States of the South. At -the outbreak of the Civil War, Indiana had a population of 1,350,000 -of which only about one in eleven was foreign-born. More than half -of the aliens were from Germany, and Indiana seems to have attracted -particularly the Nordic element, since Prussia contributed the largest -quota. Ireland was represented by only 24,000 persons at that time and -like the smaller French and English groups, they were scattered through -the State and soon became lost in the general mass.</p> - -<p>This distinctive character of Indiana, almost purely American, -Protestant, and Nordic in 1860, gives the key to much of its history -since then. As elsewhere the immediate surrounding States had -contributed the bulk of the population. The census returns showed that -the ten States constituting the birthplace of the largest number of -Hoosiers in that year were, in order of importance: Ohio, Kentucky, -Pennsylvania, Virginia, New York, North Carolina, Tennessee, Maryland, -New Jersey, and Illinois. So far as the New England element was -represented, it had come almost wholly through other States.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Illinois, like Ohio, had attracted a few settlers before the -Revolution, mainly to the neighborhood of the half-dozen little French -trading posts. The French population of this district had never<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span> been -large, and when it was taken over by Great Britain in 1763, most of -the French inhabitants who could get away hastened to do so, either -returning to Canada or going down the river to Saint Louis or New -Orleans.</p> - -<p>With the withdrawal of the little French garrisons only a few hundred -persons of French ancestry were left in the territory. These were of -two different origins. Part had come down from Canada and represented -the "Habitant" French, who were largely Alpine. The remainder had come -up the river from New Orleans and represented a more heterogeneous and -probably inferior group. Some of the Canadians brought their families; -but for the most part the French element was made up of single men who -formed loose alliances with Indian squaws. For these various reasons -the French influence on the subsequent population of the region is too -negligible to justify consideration.</p> - -<p>The raid made by the Kentuckians under George Rogers Clark during the -Revolution had given the Americans a more detailed knowledge of this -region, and by 1800 several thousand of them had already drifted across -the border and started settlements. This immigration increased up to -the outbreak of Indian hostilities in 1811 followed by the War of -1812 which almost completely checked settlement along the old western -frontier.</p> - -<p>After the declaration of peace and the opening up of land sales in 1814 -and 1816, Illinois began to have a real boom. By this time the choicest -locations in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span> Ohio, Indiana, and Kentucky had either been taken by -settlers or bought by speculators, so that the new arrival looking for -a bonanza turned to Illinois or Missouri.</p> - -<p>Following the general rule of migration in the United States, which -was not broken until the gold rush to California in 1849 introduced -new conditions, the settlement of Illinois was mostly from the States -closest to it, and at the beginning was almost wholly from the South, -particularly from Kentucky, Tennessee, and Virginia. Insignificant -little Shawneetown, on the Ohio River just below the mouth of the -Wabash, gave easy access to the lower end of Illinois—that "Egypt" -which is still a Southern Democratic stronghold. For a short time it -was even the seat of government.</p> - -<p>In this population the presence of a sprinkling of Northerners from -Pennsylvania was resented and an occasional stray Yankee was scarcely -tolerated. The settlement of the northern part of the State by New -Englanders was made to a marked extent by colonies or organized -groups, and from the early thirties one reads continually of the -movement of caravans from all the New England States and western New -York. Here again the opening of the Erie Canal gave easy access to -northern Illinois by water. Prior to that time the lead mines in the -northwestern part of Illinois and the southwestern part of Wisconsin -had been the main attraction, and had been developed almost entirely by -the Southerners.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span></p> - -<p>In general, it may be said that up to that time three-fourths of the -population of Illinois came from south of the Mason and Dixon line, -with Kentucky making the largest single contribution, although a small -foreign element was already arriving, mainly from the British Isles.</p> - -<p>At the date of Statehood in 1818, Illinois may be said to have been -dominated by the Ulster Scots who had come in from the southern -Piedmont. These represented, on the whole, a class which for lack -of wealth and other reasons had not been slaveholders, and had no -particular sympathy with slavery, having found by personal experience -that the presence of slave labor was disadvantageous to a large part of -the white population. As a matter of fact, probably not more than one -Southern family in four ever owned a slave.</p> - -<p>The population required of a new State for admission to the Union in -1818 was 40,000. By the beginning of the Civil War the population of -Illinois had increased to a million and three quarters. Obviously this -change in little more than a generation represented only in small -part the natural increase of the original settlers from Kentucky -and Virginia. So rapidly, indeed, did the forces of progress act in -Illinois that many of the old-timers packed up and moved on, as had -happened during the previous generation among their parents, and -Illinois in the following generation will be found strongly represented -in the early migration to California, Kansas, Nebraska, and Colorado. -To show how lit<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span>tle slave-holding sentiment there was in the early -Illinois population, in spite of its Southern origin, it is interesting -to note that most of the Illinois contingent in Kansas were Free-State -men whom the South regarded as enemies to its cause.</p> - -<p>For every one of the old-timers who moved farther west, a dozen -Yankees arrived along with many Pennsylvanians, while the Southern -immigration almost entirely stopped, having been diverted to Texas or -to territories beyond the Mississippi.</p> - -<p>The people who left the slave-holding States in the decade prior to -the Civil War were largely seeking free soil themselves. This movement -of some of the best Nordic stock out of the South just before and at -the beginning of the Civil War has not been given as much importance -as it deserves. It was a factor in the weakening of the South and the -strengthening of the North. While slavery was a curse in the opinion of -many an owner of a great plantation, he was caught in the system and -felt that he could not get away. The poor man, on the other hand, found -conditions less and less to his liking and many of the more intelligent -decided to get out of a country where they were obliged to compete -with Negro slaves and were looked down upon by their white neighbors. -In this way the lands along the Illinois Central Railway became a -lode-stone for ambitious and dissatisfied farmers from Tennessee, -Alabama, and even from Georgia. With the outbreak of hostilities this -trickle became temporarily a torrent as political refugees who did not -care to remain in a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span> slave-holding republic at war with the American -Union began to seek freer air.</p> - -<p>The railroads developed a new specialty in transporting whole families -with their furniture and agricultural implements to points in Illinois, -Iowa, and Wisconsin, while steamers made their way up the Mississippi -crowded with refugees and great numbers of Missourians crossed the -river to Illinois with all their worldly goods. Many of the latter -returned home after Missouri was cleared of secession, but their place -was taken by new streams of Southerners released by the victories of -Union armies and coming to join friends and relatives in southern and -central Illinois.</p> - -<p>The decline of leadership in the South after the war was not due -entirely to the loss of its men on the battle-field. Although this -was by far the principal factor, another important one was the flight -from the South of many of those who were not in sympathy with the -fire-eating politicians who had forced secession upon often unwilling -communities.</p> - -<p>Before this time, however, the streams of foreign-born which poured -into the Mississippi Valley had already begun to influence the -composition of the population of Illinois, so that even in 1850 one in -four was of alien birth. The largest element was German, who formed -farming communities, mainly in the northern and central part of the -State. By 1860 there were 130,000 of them in Illinois, together with -others who had also come from Pennsylvania.</p> - -<p>Ireland sent the group of second importance, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span> the great internal -improvements in this period were largely the product of their labor. As -elsewhere the Irish showed little inclination for farming, which had -proved so ruinous to them in Ireland, and they made a restless floating -population in the large cities. In 1860 they represented four times -as large a proportion of the population of Chicago as they did of the -State as a whole.</p> - -<p>The State attracted a large English immigration. The Illinois Central -Railroad had been built to a considerable extent with English capital, -and the stockholders saw a chance to increase the value of their shares -by promoting emigration to the lands owned by the company, so that by -1860 there were 41,000 English-born in the State.</p> - -<p>Another large element of English descent, which had come into the -State in an extraordinary way, had already left. This was the group of -Mormon converts who were brought over from 1840 onward. By 1844 it was -estimated that of the 16,000 Mormon arrivals, 10,000 were English. Most -of these went west to Utah later, or were scattered within a few years.</p> - -<p>The last important Nordic element in the State was that of the -Scandinavians who had only begun to come before the Civil War, at which -time there were little more than 10,000 of them in the State as against -87,000 Irish.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Michigan, owing to its proximity to Canada, and the importance of -Detroit as a headquarters,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span> had a distinct French atmosphere in its -early days. Unlike those in some of the more distant settlements, the -French inhabitants at Detroit did not intermarry frequently with the -Indians, and they represent therefore a relatively pure French Canadian -stock. American immigration was slow, and not until 1805 did the -inhabitants become numerous enough to warrant a separate territory. As -late as the beginning of the War of 1812 four-fifths of the 5000 people -in Michigan were French. In 1817 the first steamboat appeared on the -waters of Lake Erie and the Erie Canal was begun, and from that time -the Americanization of the territory was rapid.</p> - -<p>By 1830 a hundred ships, both steam and sail, were on the Lakes, and -a daily line ran between Buffalo and Detroit. In 1836 when the State -Constitution was adopted the population was nearly 100,000, mainly from -New England and its extension in western New York. The Empire State can -very definitely be called the parent of Michigan.</p> - -<p>Many of the New England farmers who had bought farms from the great -land companies in western New York found themselves unable or unwilling -to complete their payments and sold their equities for enough to buy -government land in Michigan and move their families, while from the -rocky hills of Vermont a steady stream came without any intervening -stop. By this time many of the French Canadians had moved out, and of -eighty-nine names signed to the Constitution of 1835, not more than -three can be identified as French.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span></p> - -<p>The tide of alien immigration at this period was late in reaching -Michigan. A group not found elsewhere was that of Dutchmen who came -like some of the earlier settlers, seeking religious tolerance and -freedom. The town of Holland has been a centre for them since 1847. -Of the 749,113 inhabitants of the State in 1860, one-fifth were -foreign-born, divided not unequally between English, Irish, Germans, -and mixed Canadians.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Wisconsin's first settlement was at the lead mines of the southwestern -part and attracted largely Ulster Scots from Virginia, Kentucky, and -Tennessee. A little later these were reinforced by another Nordic group -of Englishmen from Cornwall who formed an important element in that -region.</p> - -<p>The second migration scattered agricultural communities throughout the -southeastern part of Wisconsin along the lake shore. This immigration -was almost wholly from the New England States and the New England -part of New York State, and was accomplished roughly in the years -1835 to 1850. By 1847 when Statehood was achieved the territory had a -population of nearly 250,000 and was virtually a New England colony.</p> - -<p>Of the seventy-six men who composed the second Constitutional -Convention, one-third came from New York, one-third from New England, -and the rest were a scattering.</p> - -<p>During the decade which ended with the Federal Census of 1850, the -growth of the State had been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span> nearly 900 per cent, a record rarely -exceeded in America. This extraordinary surge was due largely to the -sudden arrival of a foreign element which has ever since made Wisconsin -a State apart from all the others. Even as early as 1850 one-third -of the population was actually foreign-born. Of the foreign-born who -came to the State during the territorial period, the British Isles -contributed about one-half and foreign-language groups the other -half. The English-speaking immigrants soon blended with the native -population, with the exception of the Roman Catholic Irish who were -less easily assimilated. In the decade before the Civil War there was -a stream of Belgian immigrants amounting to at least 15,000. Some -hundreds of Russians also came in and the Scandinavians had begun to -arrive, although they did not play an important part until after the -Civil War. Danes and Norwegians were beginning to come in some numbers -but few Swedes as yet.</p> - -<p>The great immigration of this period was the German, which introduced -another partly Alpine element into the overwhelmingly Nordic population -of the United States. These had begun to come after 1830, when the -Revolution in France had stirred up similar, but less successful, -political upheavals in the parts of South Germany adjoining France. -Many of the politically discontented decided to leave the country -or were obliged to do so, and they found in Wisconsin conditions -particularly to their liking. In the first place the State offered a -variety of climate and soil that was not dissimilar to that in which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span> -they were brought up. In the second place land was cheap and good and -there was much forest land for which the Germans showed a notable -preference. Not only was the possession of timber an asset, but it was -to the German immigrant a mark of social status. Forests had largely -disappeared in Germany, except on the great estates of the nobility. -Hence, to own a piece of forest land was a mark of superiority. Only -the few could afford the forest land in Germany but in Wisconsin every -small farmer could feel himself as good as the Duke or Prince whose -yoke he had renounced. A third important attraction after Statehood was -a provision that the alien could vote after only one year's residence. -This gave the Germans a political importance without delay which they -lost no time in using.</p> - -<p>German settlement in the United States follows a belt beginning with -Pennsylvania and running due west through Ohio, Indiana, Wisconsin, -Iowa, and Missouri. This was partly due to an avoidance of the Southern -States with whose products they were not familiar and with whose land -system and slave labor they were not sympathetic. Being in this belt -Wisconsin immediately took and retained such a prominence that patriots -from the "Fatherland" seriously urged that it become a genuine German -colony.</p> - -<p>The Pennsylvania Dutch had already shown how little disposed the -German-speaking peoples were to become citizens of a new country with -a whole heart, and the new tide of immigration followed this ex<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span>ample. -They attacked the public-school system from the beginning and insisted -on having their own schools and on having their children taught German -in the American schools. They kept their own social organization and -even went so far as to get the State laws published in the German -language in Indiana in 1858. This tendency toward hyphenation has made -the Germans a less valuable element in the American population up to -the present time than they should have been.</p> - -<p>The early German immigration to Wisconsin was on the whole from -southern and central Germany, and was pre-dominantly Alpine in race and -Roman Catholic in religion. Statehood in Wisconsin coincided with the -unsuccessful Revolution of 1848 in Germany which started the real flood -of German immigration that reached its maximum numbers in 1854, and -continued with noticeable strength for more than a generation longer.</p> - -<p>The principal Nordic emigration in the '40s was from Pomerania and -Brandenburg, and many of the South Germans, while largely Alpine, were -Protestants rather than Catholics. In 1863, just after the end of the -period here considered, the church authorities reported that Wisconsin -contained 225,000 German Lutherans as against 105,000 German Catholics. -After that the Germans pressed more and more into the northern and -central regions of the State.</p> - -<p>Wisconsin then at the end of the period here considered (1860) had -probably the largest non-Nordic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span> population of any of the American -States, although even here the Nordics were in a great majority. With -one-third of its population foreign-born, it was surpassed in this -respect only by California.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span></p> - - - - -<p class="ph2"><a name="IX" id="IX">IX</a></p> - -<p class="center">THE MOUNTAINEERS CONQUER THE SOUTHWEST</p> - - -<p><span class="smcap">Meanwhile</span> the States of the lower Mississippi Valley were coming into -existence at a rapid rate.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Alabama had no American settlement until after the Revolution, save for -the sporadic appearance of adventurers or traders. But in 1798, when -the Mississippi territory was formed, including the present State of -Alabama, there was already a movement of settlers from the adjoining -States on the east and north, and this continued rapidly until checked -by the war with the Creek Indians in 1813 and 1814. This war advertised -the territory. Its termination threw the land open to settlement, and -more than 100,000 people located in Alabama within five years. The -slight French and Spanish element in Mobile and two or three other -places was soon reduced to insignificant proportions.</p> - -<p>The State was settled either by those who came down some of the -rivers of that region, particularly from Tennessee, or by those -who came through Georgia, stopping long enough at the land office -in Milledgeville (then the State capital) to make the necessary -arrangements for acquiring title to real estate. An unimproved but -passable trail ran thence through Montgomery to Natchez, and over -this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span> "Three Notch Road" (so-called from the blaze which marked it) -a stream of settlers from the Atlantic seaboard States passed into -the broad belt of rich blackland which quickly made Alabama and -Mississippi the heart of the Cotton Kingdom. Alabama is, for the most -part, the offspring of Virginia, North and South Carolina, Georgia, and -Tennessee, and therefore represents almost entirely Scotch and English -blood. Its foreign-born population was negligible in 1860, amounting to -little more than 12,000, almost half of whom were Irish, in a total of -virtually a million.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Mississippi: As in most others of this group of States, the supposed -influence of the earlier French and Spanish settlements is more -sentimental than real. American settlers began to filter in after -1763, some coming even from New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and New England. -A few Loyalists drifted down to the Mississippi country during the -Revolution, joining the British who were attached to the district at -that time in military or administrative capacities. One of the elements -of this Loyalist immigration consisted of Scotch Highlanders from North -Carolina.</p> - -<p>The census of 1850 furnished the first opportunity to ascertain the -origin of the population. The main immigration naturally was from -other Southern States which contributed 145,000 against 5000 from the -Northern States. In the same year 18,000 natives of Mississippi were -residing in other Southern<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span> States, principally in Louisiana, Texas, -Arkansas, Alabama, and Tennessee.</p> - -<p>At the census ten years later the Mississippi natives, then located in -other Southern States, had almost doubled in number. The enumeration -gives an interesting picture of the way in which population was flowing -backward and forward between adjoining States at that time as it has in -almost every other period in American history.</p> - -<p>Since the population of Mississippi before the Civil War was almost -identical in composition with the population of the other Mississippi -Valley slave States, most of which owed their inhabitants originally to -Virginia and subsequently to the States which Virginia had colonized, -it was not surprising that these people found it easy to move from -one part of this region to another. Of nearly 800,000 population at -the outbreak of the Civil War, the foreign-born, still mainly Irish, -constituted only one in a hundred. But nearly half of the population of -the State was colored, and thus no element of racial strength. In this -respect Mississippi's record was surpassed only by Georgia and South -Carolina. This latter State was the only one in which Negroes actually -outnumbered Whites at that time. Other Southern States later reached -the same unenviable situation, and it continued in South Carolina until -after the shift of Negro population which followed the World War.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Louisiana at the time of the Purchase in 1803<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span> presented among its -50,000 residents a more varied group than could be found in any other -American State. The foundation of this population was French, the -Spanish element never having been important. These French seem to -have represented a much more heterogeneous lot than did the early -French-Canadians. One colonization scheme after another had been -launched in Paris, and settlers had been recruited by all sorts of -means, many of them of more than doubtful merit.</p> - -<p>Here, however, as in other colonies, it must be remembered that the -final population represented not those who arrived, but those who both -survived and left posterity. This fact has too often been disregarded -in the accounts of the origins of the American population. If France -shipped prostitutes to New Orleans to provide wives for its soldiers, -nevertheless this is now of importance only in so far as such persons -left descendants. In one case, of which the details exist, forty-four -girls were sent out from France in 1722. They all married, but only one -left offspring.</p> - -<p>Another element in the population was the Acadian refugees, who, -uprooted by the New England militia in 1758, were driven to almost -every part of the colonies. Some made their way to Louisiana, as -Longfellow has described, though drawing a very erroneous picture, in -<i>Evangeline</i>. Others were scattered through Maryland, Virginia, and -the Carolinas, in fact on almost every part of the Atlantic coast. -The total number of persons expelled from Nova<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span> Scotia at this time -probably did not exceed 6000, and many of these certainly died from -hardships. In any case only a minority was directed to Louisiana, so -that the original settlement of Acadians must represent a very small -part of the population. The so-called "Cajan" population of some of -the southern parishes of Louisiana is, at the present time, largely of -other origins, chiefly Negro.</p> - -<p>Another group of French refugees came from Haiti by way of Cuba after -1800, when the Negro uprising there drove out the Whites. Many of these -were persons of good quality but as many as could do so went elsewhere -after peace returned.</p> - -<p>Still another source of population was the notorious Mississippi -Bubble sponsored by the Scotchman John Law about 1717. This was the -period at which the Germans from the Palatine and adjacent regions -were emigrating in large numbers, as has been previously set forth in -detail, and 10,000 or more of them were persuaded to go to Louisiana. -According to accepted accounts, not more than 2000 of these Alpines -actually arrived, and when the bubble burst, they settled along the -Mississippi above Baton Rouge in a region which is still known as the -German Coast.</p> - -<p>An ill-natured English traveller, John Davis, visiting Louisiana in the -year before the Purchase of 1803, has left the following picture of -these two elements as they appeared to him:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>"The Acadians are the descendants of French colonists, transported -from the province of Nova<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span> Scotia. The character of their -fore-fathers is strongly marked in them; they are rude and sluggish, -without ambition, living miserable on their sorry plantations, where -they cultivate Indian corn, raise pigs, and get children. Around -their houses one sees nothing but hogs, and before their doors great -rustic boys, and big strapping girls, stiff as bars of iron, gaping -for want of thought, or something to do, at the stranger who is -passing.</p> - -<p>"The Germans are somewhat numerous, and are easy to be distinguished -by their accent, fair and fresh complexion, their inhospitality, -brutal manners and proneness to intoxication. They are, however, -industrious and frugal."</p></blockquote> - -<p>A small Spanish settlement, New Iberia, was made in 1779 of colonists -largely from Andalusia and the Canary Islands. At least the former -element doubtless contained Moorish blood.</p> - -<p>Finally, there was an immigration from the American colonies which had -been coming in for a generation previous to the Purchase. One of the -first groups was from North Carolina. From time to time other small -bodies of settlers crossed the mountains to the Tennessee River, where -they constructed flat boats and floated down to the Ohio and thence -to the Mississippi. A few years later a group of Scotch Highlanders -from North Carolina arrived, settling near Natchez. The early American -immigration to Louisiana came on the whole from the upland parts of -the Southern States, and was therefore Scotch and English. After the -Purchase a similar immigration increased greatly in numbers.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span></p> - -<p>The census of 1860, which credited the State with 708,002 people, -revealed that only 81,000 of these were foreign-born, the Germans and -Irish being in about equal numbers. Nearly all of the remainder who -were not natives of the State were born in adjacent States of the -Mississippi Valley, the Whites being made up in about equal proportions -of native-born and those born in nearby States. The former contained -much of the old French and mixed stock; the latter was almost entirely -of British antecedents.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Arkansas, at the time of the Louisiana Purchase, did not contain 500 -white people. The current of immigration down the Mississippi had gone -past the Post at the mouth of the Arkansas River without taking the -trouble to turn aside. Settlement can scarcely be said to have begun -before 1807, and at the census three years later there were only 1000 -people in the territory.</p> - -<p>It was not until after the passage by Congress in 1818 of the Land Act -that the pioneers, each carrying in a leather wallet a certificate -which entitled him to a homestead, began to work their boats up the -current of the Arkansas River. There was a steady though not rapid -arrival of settlers from Virginia, the Carolinas, Kentucky, and -particularly Tennessee—which has often been regarded as the original -parent of Arkansas.</p> - -<p>Attempts have been made to trace a line of migration from the first -settlement in North Carolina, the undesirable character of which was -mentioned<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span> earlier, through Tennessee and down into Arkansas, and to -attribute to this element of the population the backwardness of some -parts of the last-named State. A few settlers came from Georgia or -Alabama up the Mississippi River but this involved a long struggle with -a strong current and it was easier for them to settle in the blacklands -of Mississippi or Louisiana.</p> - -<p>There were about 14,000 persons in Arkansas in 1817 when it was created -a Territory. Thereafter it made a steady growth, derived generally from -all the Southern States of the Mississippi Valley, until nearly the -time of the Civil War when Indiana and Kentucky began to contribute -some settlers. Its population therefore was in general made up almost -wholly of British stock. Its 1860 population of 435,350 was one-fourth -black, the Whites being almost wholly native-born, a thousand Germans -and a thousand Irish being lost in the mass.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Missouri must be considered from a double point of view. As a French -outpost, St. Louis had become the refuge of much of the French -population of the whole Northwest Territory when that passed under -English control, and for many years the city remained a foreign -settlement. Scattered settlers began to occupy the river banks after or -even during the Revolution. In the westward march of population down -the eastern slope of the Mississippi Valley small groups soon began to -enter Missouri, until at the census of 1810, they amounted to 20,000 -per<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span>sons occupying a strip of land along the Mississippi with a small -isolated settlement at the lead mines.</p> - -<p>On the other hand, as a territory where slavery was permitted, Missouri -naturally attracted emigrants from Virginia and North Carolina, -Kentucky and Tennessee. Within ten years after the Louisiana Purchase -it was estimated that four-fifths of the people in Missouri were -Americans and they were rapidly moving from the river back into the -interior.</p> - -<p>The Missouri River was naturally an avenue of access for these people. -The interior of the State soon began to have the collective name of -"Boone's Lick" because the Boones had made salt in that district in -1807. A real rush into this region began about 1817, and Kentucky -showed its loyalty to its adopted son (who it will be remembered was a -Pennsylvanian by birth) by contributing 90 per cent of the immigration. -The State has been called the daughter of Kentucky and within -limits this is not inappropriate. Tennessee, however, was strongly -represented. The whole population was in general of the upland element -originally from Virginia and North Carolina, largely Ulster Scotch in -its more remote origin.</p> - -<p>By 1830 the movement of population had reached the western border -of the State. Until this time the settlement was purely British -in character save for the now negligible remnant of French on the -Mississippi. Missouri then began to get a part of the immigration of -German Alpines which makes Saint Louis still one of the American cities -with a most<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span> marked German tinge. At the same time some of the old -American stock who objected to slavery and its influences were passing -north and west of Missouri into Iowa, Kansas, and Nebraska. On the -whole, however, at the close of this period Missouri remained a Nordic -community mostly of Virginian stock going back eventually to Great -Britain. Its population of well over a million was nine-tenths white -and eight-tenths American-born, the Germans outnumbering the Irish -two to one among the foreigners. Kentucky had been by far the largest -contributor, Tennessee came next, followed by Virginia, while Ohio, -Illinois, and Indiana together accounted for only about as many as -Kentucky alone, that is, 100,000.</p> - -<p>This Missouri population, with its Ulster Scotch tinge, played an -important part in the settlement of the trans-Missouri West. It -contributed a large percentage of the plainsmen and mountain men of -later date, as well as of the cowboys on the cattle ranges, to say -nothing of the gun-men and bad men of the frontier.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Florida missed the establishment of one of the earliest and what might -have been one of the greatest of Nordic colonies in North America when -Coligny's settlement of Huguenots was massacred by the Spanish on -September 20, 1565. The latter made no effective use of the territory -which was looked upon by the government of Mexico probably in about the -same light as the Virgin Islands are now<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span> looked upon by the government -in Washington. In 1763 Spain ceded Florida to England in return for -Havana, which had been captured during the Seven Years' War.</p> - -<p>A second Nordic invasion of Florida occurred at the time of the -American Revolution when the English Loyalists from the Southern -colonies sought refuge there to the number of more than 13,000. If -these had remained as permanent settlers the State would have benefited -immensely, but most of them left in 1784, when the Spaniards reoccupied -the territory and abolished religious freedom. Some went to England -and others to the West Indies or Nova Scotia. The development of the -peninsula was thereby long delayed.</p> - -<p>East and West Florida became part of the United States in 1819. A -Florida colonization scheme, of little importance numerically, deserves -mention in passing because it represented the first real establishment -in American territory of the Mediterranean peoples who have formed such -an important element in the immigration of the last half-century. This -was a colony established by British promoters to which they brought -1,500 Greeks, Italians, and Minorcans about 1767. Sickness soon greatly -reduced their numbers, but a few of the descendants of these people are -in the State at the present time.</p> - -<p>As late as the Civil War, Florida was one of the weakest of the -American States, with but 140,000 population, of which well over a -third was colored. Nearly all of the Whites represented a southward<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span> -thrust of the Atlantic seaboard states, from or through Georgia. -Foreigners were a scattered lot, constituting but one in twenty-five of -the white population.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span></p> - - - - -<p class="ph2"><a name="X" id="X">X</a></p> - -<p class="center">FROM THE MISSISSIPPI TO THE OREGON</p> - - -<p><span class="smcap">After</span> the Old Northwest Territory was filled up, it began to overflow -into the territories across the Mississippi which the Louisiana -Purchase had provided.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Minnesota's early settlers were French and half-breeds, who came over -the border from Canada, together with a small number of Scots escaping -from the breakup of the Red River Colony in Manitoba in the first -quarter of the last century. This Red River is, of course, the Red -River of the North which forms the present boundary between Minnesota -and the Dakotas.</p> - -<p>Beginning in 1837 treaties were made with the Indians which gradually -opened up the land to settlement; but in 1849, when a territorial -organization was effected and the first official census taken, there -were less than 5000 persons in the region.</p> - -<p>Meanwhile the flood of immigration was reaching the nearby States, and -Wisconsin and Iowa were growing with tremendous spurts. The tide soon -began to flow up to Minnesota, coming by four principal routes. Some of -the invaders came from Milwaukee across Wisconsin by land. Others from -Chicago by land through northern Illinois and south<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span>western Wisconsin. -Still others from Chicago to Galena, embarking there on the river -steamers. Another group embarked at Saint Louis and came 800 miles up -the Mississippi to Fort Snelling, the nucleus around which the Twin -Cities began to develop.</p> - -<p>When the Rock Island and Pacific Railway was built through to the -Mississippi in the early summer of 1854, the gateways really opened. -The next season saw 50,000 persons in the territory of Minnesota. -That number was doubled in 1856. In 1854 the sales of public land -had amounted to 300,000 acres, in 1856 to 2,300,000. Most of this -population, which evidently came to stay, was from the Middle States. -The States of the Old Northwest and New England were not far behind, -but little of the Southern emigration came this far north. The years -1855, 1856, and 1857 marked the high tide of the flood of immigration -of territorial days which has not since been duplicated.</p> - -<p>The Scandinavian immigration, which has colored Minnesota so strongly, -began in this decade, and brought a steady stream of hardy Nordics who -avoided the cities, their objective being to acquire land, establish -a home, develop a farm, and become American citizens. A substantial -part of the German migration also reached Minnesota, so that in the -census of 1860 one-third of the foreign-born population was German. -By this time the Canadian elements had been completely swamped. The -Federal Census of 1860, three years after the territory had been -admitted to Statehood, found 170,000 in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span>habitants, of whom 58,000 were -foreign-born. The Germans at this time still somewhat exceeded the -Scandinavians in number. The native-born were overwhelmingly of British -ancestry and represented a prolongation of the westward movement of -population from New England that had been going on for more than two -centuries. Minnesota at this time had a Nordic population and was -pre-dominantly Anglo-Saxon in character.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Dakota was included in Minnesota in 1860 when a few settlers had -already begun to enter the region. Dakota Territory, however, scarcely -deserves consideration until the final period is herein reviewed.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Iowa had no real settlement until the spring of 1833, when several -companies of Americans from Illinois and elsewhere settled in the -vicinity of Burlington, although John Dubuque established a settlement -in 1788 on the site of the city which now bears his name, and, with his -descendants, carried on a business of mining lead and trading with the -Indians for a generation or more. Settlements then began to be made at -other points along the Mississippi, and in 1838 the country was cut off -from Wisconsin and established as a separate territory.</p> - -<p>As in the States of the Old Northwest Territory, the early population -of Iowa was made up principally from the Southern States; and when -Dubuque was formally declared to be a town in 1834 its 500 citi<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span>zens -were mostly from Tennessee, Kentucky, and North Carolina.</p> - -<p>The delay in the settlement of Iowa, as compared with that of the -States east of the Mississippi, was due mainly to the fact that it was -held by the Indians. The Black Hawk War kept the country disturbed for -three years. At the end of that time the chief was utterly routed and -ultimately captured, and in September, 1832, a treaty was signed in -which the Indians relinquished what was afterward known as the Black -Hawk Purchase, comprising about one-third of the present State of Iowa.</p> - -<p>At that time there were probably not fifty white men in Iowa, but -thenceforward the settlement was extraordinarily rapid. The pioneers -from the South came up the Mississippi, while those from the East could -go down the Ohio. But since the purpose of most of the settlers was to -take up farm land and since the livestock and implements necessary for -this purpose could not be transported easily on the small river boats, -the great bulk of the immigration was overland in wagons drawn by oxen, -horses, or mules.</p> - -<p>In 1836 there were 10,000 Southerners in the territory. In the -following two years this number had more than doubled and the census of -1840 made it 43,000.</p> - -<p>Foreign immigrants began to appear in small numbers, but the new -arrivals were still largely of Southern upland stock, mainly of -Scottish ancestry. By the Federal Census of 1850 Iowa had nearly -200,000 people and, although the settlement had be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span>gun at the most only -seventeen years before, one-fourth of the population was Iowa-born.</p> - -<p>As in the Old Northwest Territory, the direct contribution of New -England was small. Most of the settlers came from adjoining States, -and, while many of them went back to New England in pedigree, a still -larger number in the early years came from the Southern States. This -was true in Iowa nearly up to the time of the Civil War.</p> - -<p>The ebb and flow of population in these States was so rapid as to make -the task of tracing its details difficult. Thus in 1843 meetings were -held in various points in Iowa to form companies of emigrants for -Oregon. In 1849 the territory contributed its share to the California -gold rush. Whole communities were depopulated almost as fast as they -had been populated a few years previously, but many of these travellers -probably returned after failing to find fortune ready to hand in the -Golden State. Ohio was sending on settlers to the three States beyond -her. Indiana and Illinois were attracting large bodies of settlers -from Ohio but sending on others to Iowa. Iowa itself was contributing -heavily to the population of Utah and Oregon. But these were all of the -old native English Nordic stock.</p> - -<p>By 1860 Iowa had a population of 674,913. The foreign-born made up -nearly one-sixth of the total, two-thirds were German or Irish, and the -remainder English or Scandinavian.</p> - -<p>Iowa, by the outbreak of the Civil War, had become a Northern State, -not so much from the direct<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span> New England immigration (only 25,000 -of its people were New England born) as from the general drift of -population, and from the fact that, as pointed out previously, many of -the Southerners who came into the Northwest Territory had very little -sympathy with the slave-holding point of view.</p> - -<p>Iowa then entered the Union as a State almost completely Nordic and -overwhelmingly Anglo-Saxon, populated by settlers from all parts of -the original States who were moving westward in the hope of finding an -advantage. What an immigrant of the 1830's said about Iowa pioneers -he encountered, holds good of most of the westward movement—that it -was made up of three classes: "men with families seeking to ameliorate -fortune, men with families seeking to retrieve fortune, and young men -attempting fortune." While the first pioneer surge into a new territory -often contained a surplus of bachelors, the permanent settlement was -made by men who brought their families.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Kansas-Nebraska's settlement in the decade before the Civil War is a -familiar episode to every one who remembers his American history.</p> - -<p>Daniel Morgan Boone, a son of the Kentucky Pathfinder, is often alleged -to have been the first American settler in Kansas, having been sent -there by the government in 1819 to aid the Indians in agriculture. But -the settlement of the State did not begin seriously until 1854, when -treaties were made with the tribes of what was at that time an Indian -territory.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span></p> - -<p>Missouri, adjoining Kansas to the east, had then nearly 600,000 -inhabitants, and the counties bordering on the Kansas line contained a -population of some 80,000 whites, as shown by the census of 1850. These -naturally were the most available material for settlement of the new -land and in a short time they had staked out the best claims in the -river bottoms. While they do not bear a good reputation in the Kansas -histories, where they generally go by the name of "border ruffians," -they represented, worthily or not, pure Nordic American stock. Most -of the Missourians who had moved into Kansas at that time were simply -seeking new homes and were not even in favor of slavery. The trouble -that was made on the border was due to small organized gangs of quite a -different complexion.</p> - -<p>Kansas represented a real battleground for the slavery and free-soil -elements, and colonies were organized in a number of the Southern -States, but particularly in Alabama and Kentucky, to move to the new -territory and insure its retention for the cause. Most of the Southern -settlers naturally stayed as close to the Missouri border as possible. -The Free-State settlers on the other hand tended to get away from the -border, to leave the belt of pro-slavery settlers behind, and to stake -out their claims well within the interior of the territory.</p> - -<p>The New England Emigrant Aid Company was the principal crusader in the -campaign to make Kansas free soil, and proclaimed widely that it would -send 10,000 men into the region. Its funds, how<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span>ever, were scanty, and -beyond advertising the opportunities of the country, it gave little -substantial aid to the emigration. Contrary to what is generally -supposed, the number of settlers who came directly from New England to -Kansas was small. As had been the history elsewhere in this country, -most of the settlers came from nearby States such as Illinois; though -often of New England ancestry.</p> - -<p>In the first census of the territory, in 1855, more than half of the -population was found to be from the South, although the Slave States' -representatives made strong protests against the manner of taking the -census which was sudden and in mid-winter when many of the Missouri -settlers had returned to their old homes. The high-water mark of the -Southern immigration was in 1856. Thereafter the emigration from the -Free States increased until by 1860 it outnumbered the Slave-State -natives nearly three to one. That year's census, crediting Kansas with -107,000 population, also revealed that Missouri and Kentucky were -the principal sources of the pro-slavery immigration, while the main -sources of the free-soil immigration were in the following order: Ohio, -Indiana, Illinois, Pennsylvania, and New York, with only 3000 direct -from all the New England States together. Indeed, there were almost -as many natives of North Carolina in Kansas as there were natives of -Massachusetts.</p> - -<p>Kansas was at the end of this period a western State, of almost wholly -British complexion. The streams of Scandinavians and Germans which -after<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span>ward entered the State had scarcely begun at this period. Kansas -was, to a marked degree, the offspring of New England through the -Central States, while not much more than one-fourth of its population, -arriving from the border States, had ancestral lines running back to -Virginia.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Nebraska, like many other Western States, was first settled by -trappers, traders, missionaries, and soldiers. In 1845 the Mormons, -driven out of Illinois and Iowa, stopped in the Nebraska country, but -most of them afterward moved on to Utah. Meanwhile, the State was -being traversed each year by hundreds of emigrant trains on their way -to the Pacific Coast, and thus became known to people from all parts -of the Union. During the years 1849 and 1850 it was estimated that -more than 100,000 people crossed the Nebraska plains in this way. Some -of them would stop there for various reasons, while others came into -the section to cater to the needs of the emigrants. Thus Nebraska was -gradually built up out of the overland traffic. The early migration -to Utah and to Oregon was succeeded by the rush to California, and -that had scarcely died down when the boom days in Colorado brought -new contingents to the region. Before this had disappeared the -Transcontinental Railway opened up the territory in real earnest.</p> - -<p>The first boom year in the territory was in 1856 when a large number -of permanent settlers came in. In 1860 the population numbered 28,841, -and even<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span> at this time relatively few of the settlers depended upon -agriculture, most of them still "living off of the tourists," which -became a recognized profession in some States half a century later.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Utah, when Brigham Young led his Saints there in 1847, was a desert as -to the region of the Great Salt Lake, with scarcely even a population -of Indians. The early population was almost wholly Nordic, made up of -people from the New England States, New York, and those States in which -the Mormon Church had temporarily settled, or through which it had -moved successively to Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, and Nebraska.</p> - -<p>The Mormon authorities made a determined effort from the outset to -bring converts from Europe, the first one arriving from Liverpool in -1849. At that time the English mission was said to have 30,000 members. -In the fall of 1849 the Mormon leaders established the famous Perpetual -Emigrating Fund which was used thenceforth to aid the transport of -converts.</p> - -<p>The Mormon Utah settlement by 1850 had a population of 11,000. The -number of converts brought from abroad during the first ten years is -put at 17,000, mostly from England. By 1887 the Mormons are said to -have brought more than 85,000 of the working classes from England and -northern Europe to the Great Basin of the Rocky Mountains.</p> - -<p>Brigham Young in 1849 organized his territory as "The Provisional -State of Deseret," including<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span> what is now Utah and Nevada, and parts -of Wyoming, Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, and California. This had -but a short existence even on paper, for in 1850 Congress passed a law -organizing the territory of Utah which also included what is now Nevada.</p> - -<p>Toward the end of this period the discovery of rich silver mines in the -Nevada section began to attract a miscellaneous population from all -parts of the West. By 1863 a Mormon census of Utah gave the territory a -population of 88,206, of whom probably a majority were foreigners. The -great bulk of these were English, particularly from the factory towns, -but Brigham Young boasted that fifty nationalities were represented in -his territory a few years later. On the whole, however, the population -was almost entirely Nordic.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Idaho's first settlement is supposed to have been made by a party of -Mormons in 1855 when it was still a part of Washington territory. -At the close of the period here considered it was still a part of -Washington and was just beginning to get a population of its own -because of a gold rush in 1860.</p> - -<p>Its early settlers were from Oregon, Washington, and northern -California, and included an unusual proportion of men bred in the -Southern and Southwestern States.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Montana had scarcely begun to receive settlers at this time.</p> - -<p>Meanwhile the tides of colonization were flowing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span> over the "great -plains" to deposit their load on the Pacific Coast.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Oregon's settlement may be conveniently dated from the expedition of -Marcus Whitman in 1836. The few trappers and traders who had arrived in -early days may be disregarded. Thus began the short-lived race between -the United States and Great Britain to colonize the country and to have -their claims to possession based on effective occupation. American -immigration did not commence in earnest until 1842 or 1843, but -continued steadily, until the discovery of gold in California diverted -many to that territory.</p> - -<p>Most of the early American settlers came from Missouri or Iowa, and -represented therefore either the Southern or New England pioneer stock. -In general it may be said that Oregon at that time was settled from the -Mississippi Valley, and mainly by men who came as genuine settlers with -their families, in striking contrast to the adventurers who invaded -California.</p> - -<p>Meanwhile, the British colonizers were coming from Canada, many of -them French-Canadians, while the rest were mostly of Scotch ancestry. -But the American population grew so much more rapidly that by 1846, -when the Treaty was made defining the parallel of 49° as the boundary -between the two nations, there were nearly 8000 American settlers in -the Oregon territory as against about 1500 of British allegiance.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span></p> - -<p>In 1860, of the 30,500 native immigrants in the State 40 per cent -were of Southern birth. Nearly half of these were from Missouri, and -a large part of the others from Kentucky or Tennessee. The remainder -represented principally the New England stock which has always been -considered to be the foundation of Oregon.</p> - -<p>The actual permanent settlement of the Puget Sound country began in -1845, but progress for some years was slow. Scarcely had a start been -made here when the gold rush turned everyone's attention to California. -Following this came the Indian war of 1855 to 1856, and shortly -afterward the Civil War upset all plans, leaving the few scattered -inhabitants of the Puget Sound region in the midst of a wilderness, -surrounded by hostile savages, and inevitably neglected by the -government to which they naturally looked for attention.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Washington was separated from Oregon and established as an independent -territory in 1853. The census found there only 3965 white persons, a -small number to assume the responsibilities of a separate political -existence. Walla Walla Valley was opened up in 1859, when the removal -of a military interdict and a survey of public lands allowed a waiting -population of some 2000 to rush in and spread over the whole of eastern -Washington within a short time.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span></p> - - - - -<p class="ph2"><a name="XI" id="XI">XI</a></p> - -<p class="center">THE SPOILS OF THE MEXICAN WAR</p> - - -<p><span class="smcap">It</span> has been remarked often that it was a mere accident that gave -North America to the Nordics instead of to the King of Spain, when -Columbus turned from his course to follow a flock of birds and thus -sighted the West Indies instead of the mainland, but several other -incidents played an equally important part in giving this empire to -the British. The defeat of the Invincible Armada by the captains of -Elizabeth stopped the expansion of Spain and thus gave the British an -opportunity to begin their colonization, and the Louisiana Purchase -by Thomas Jefferson's administration virtually made certain that by -far the larger part of the North American continent should belong to -British stock, rather than to French or Spanish. Jefferson himself, -who believed that the Purchase was illegal, saw its tremendous -possibilities, but no one in his day could realize just what this -action would mean in extending a Nordic civilization to the Pacific -Ocean.</p> - -<p>The settlement of the Louisiana Purchase by Americans made certain -the conquest of Texas, which was extraordinarily aided by the fact -that in the period after the War of 1812 there were not many more -than 5000 Mexicans in that vast territory. The great Plains stretched -southward as a wide-open domain, inviting settlement by those who<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span> were -far-sighted and aggressive enough to possess themselves of it.</p> - -<p>The beginning of the American settlement of Texas is always dated -from 1820, when the Connecticut Yankee, Moses Austin, started his -colonization scheme. Austin himself had lived for some years in -Missouri, but most of his settlers, like most of the other early -pioneers of Texas, came from the lower Mississippi Valley or from -Tennessee and Kentucky, with a sprinkling of adventurers from the -Central and New England States and even from Europe.</p> - -<p>By 1835, when the Americans so outnumbered the Mexicans that the -throwing off of the Mexican yoke was inevitable, there were 30,000 -or 35,000 Nordics settled in the territory. The original background -of these can easily be remembered from what has been said before in -these pages about the settlement of their respective States. They -were overwhelmingly English and Scotch and pre-dominantly from the -trans-Appalachian part of the United States.</p> - -<p>The idea that most of these settlers went to Texas as a deliberate plan -to acquire this region for the extension of the slave-holding States -seems to have little basis. Most of them went, just as most of them -or their fathers had gone to Tennessee or to Louisiana a few decades -previously, in search of better and cheaper land, freer opportunities, -and a possible fortune. It was the accident of geographical location -that gave to Texas its importance as slave-holding territory, and that -led indirectly to the war with Mexico.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span></p> - -<p>On technical grounds there was little justification for a declaration -of war in 1846, but from a larger point of view it was one of the -most important and most beneficial acts ever taken by the American -Government, in spite of the feeling of the Abolitionists, because it -formed the final procedure in the spread of American sovereignty to the -Pacific Ocean.</p> - -<p>The United States was indeed deprived a few years later, at the time -of the Gadsden Purchase, of the outlet to the Gulf of California which -it should have had. Whether this was due to the climate of that region -which made the surveyors shirk their duty, as one story goes, or to the -drunkenness of the mapmakers which led them to draw the boundary line -crooked, as another story has it, the result is unfortunate and might -yet perhaps be rectified by a further purchase. The Southwest should -have an outlet on the Gulf in the logic of the case.</p> - -<p>This does not involve any desire to take over Lower California -which is a peninsula of negligible value for Nordic purposes, and -contains a Mexican population which under no circumstances should be -incorporated in the United States. From a racial point of view it is -indeed fortunate that the desire of James K. Polk's Administration to -include the whole peninsula of Lower California in the transfer of -sovereignty was not accomplished. Still more disastrous would have been -a realization of the wishes of an important element in Congress which -desired to annex a large part of northern Mexico.</p> - -<p>Similarly, one can scarcely avoid being grateful<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span> nowadays that Cuba -did not get its independence in the first quarter of the nineteenth -century instead of at the end. Henry Clay and others, encouraging -the Cuban patriots, had virtually arranged to have the island taken -over by the United States. In this instance abolitionist sentiment in -the North, which prevented an extension of slave territory, was more -beneficial to the true interests of America than it was a generation -later—for the acquisition of Cuba would have brought into the union an -indigestible mass of Mediterraneans and blacks.</p> - -<p>When the suspicions and jealousies of international relations abate -somewhat, it may be possible to make a slight rectification of the -Arizona boundary which will give the Southwest its intended outlet -on the Gulf of California. Such a step would doubtless promote the -prosperity of the adjoining Mexican territory in every way. If Mexico -could be persuaded to accept a gift of some of the United States' -possessions in the West Indies, in return for this favor, the whole -transaction would be most satisfactory.</p> - -<p>It is now easy to see that Mexico could not have retained Texas under -any circumstances, but the catastrophe (from the Mexican point of -view) was made quick and certain by the encouragement of American -immigration, in spite of refusals to discuss a sale of the whole -territory to the United States, and by an attempt to fasten an -objectionable State religion on the immigrants they had invited.</p> - -<p>In the days of the Lone Star Republic, immigra<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span>tion increased rapidly. -The Mexican War not only gave unlimited advertising to the region but -furnished many Northerners with an opportunity to see something of it -first-hand, and by the close of that conflict there were some 200,000 -Americans in Texas. During the decade from 1850 to 1860 the growth of -the State was exceeded by few in the Union.</p> - -<p>Unfortunately much of this population was made up of Negroes who have -ever since formed one of the real handicaps of this immense American -Empire. As we have seen, the great bulk of the population of eastern -and southern Texas came from the adjoining slave States, and it was not -until the time of the Civil War that the northern counties had begun to -attract settlers from Illinois, Missouri, and Arkansas. The war put a -stop to this movement, but it was resumed later.</p> - -<p>Meanwhile southern and western Texas had been attracting a German -emigration made up largely of Alpines from the States along the Upper -Rhine. This reached serious proportions as early as 1842, when a group -of noblemen with uncertain motives fostered an Emigration Society Land -Company. The movement continued in force up to the Civil War and indeed -had not ceased altogether until the outbreak of the World War. Though -Texas had but 20,000 German-born in 1860, these were so concentrated -that half of the entire population of the southern part of the State, -in the region surrounding San Antonio, was German. Here, as elsewhere, -the Ger<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span>mans greatly diminished their value to their adopted country by -an unwise insistence on retaining the customs and the language of the -Fatherland.</p> - -<p>The history of any country demonstrates that national unity is a -necessary condition of national survival. Those who have come to the -United States of their own will, to profit by what opportunities they -find may well be expected to yield a whole-hearted allegiance to the -country which thus benefits them, or to move elsewhere.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>New Mexico, when it became a part of the territory of the United -States, had a population made up of native and Mexican Indians, some -of the latter having enough Spanish blood to cause them to consider -themselves white men. The self-styled Spanish-American population -of the present day is, properly speaking, composed of those whose -ancestors were in the territory at the time of the Mexican War. The -Spanish part of the description must be considered largely a courtesy -title, for the amount of real Spanish blood in this hybrid population -was always from a biological point of view nearly negligible, and the -American part must be understood to mean native American Indians. The -persistence of the Spanish language and culture is of course only a -passing phase.</p> - -<p>The Federal Census of 1850 credited New Mexico with 61,000 population -not counting Indians, but the territory at that time included all of -Arizona and Southeastern Colorado. By 1860 the population of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span> the same -territory was given at 82,979, plus 55,100 Indians. At this time there -were less than 1200 natives of the United States in the whole territory.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Arizona had a fluctuating white population dependent upon the -prosperity of the mining industry, but when the Federal troops were -withdrawn at the outbreak of the Civil War most of the white men had to -leave also. At that time the only real settlement was Tucson, where a -few hundred Mexicans lived under mediæval conditions.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>California had a population of Indians when the Spaniards coming -from Mexico entered it. Most of them were of a very low order of -intelligence and social development. The Spanish invaders were largely -soldiers, and few of the members of these early expeditions brought -their families. Hence, there was undoubtedly some mixing with the -Indians from the very first days. In accordance with the custom -elsewhere, those who had any white blood called themselves white, -and the figures given by early writers for the number of Spanish -in the colony must be understood in that light. The amount of real -Spanish blood was extremely small and much of it was in the veins of -missionaries who left no offspring.</p> - -<p>The permanent population was made up of ex-soldiers who had settled -down, married Indian women, and taken up land, together with occasional -traders, vagabond sailors, and adventurers. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span> population of 1820 -other than Indian could hardly have represented more than 500 men. -The Mexican administration made an effort to supply women of Spanish -ancestry to the colony in order to prevent too much matrimonial mixture -with the Indians, which, even at that time, was regarded as somewhat -disgraceful; but the number of brides who could be sent into a colony -of that sort was small.</p> - -<p>The population grew mainly by its own natural increase, and the -small size of the Mexican population in California was one of the -main factors that led to the incorporation of the territory in the -United States. It has been computed that the "Spanish" population, -most of which was of Indian blood, never exceeded 3000 persons. Prior -to the American occupation there were not more than 1200 foreigners -in California, three-fourths of whom were American and most of the -remainder British. Thus this immense territory, which became a part -of the United States in 1848 as a result of the Mexican War, was -relatively empty. The amount of Spanish blood in the California -population of today must therefore be quite negligible.</p> - -<p>The whole trend of migration was changed by the discovery of gold at -the end of 1848. In February of that year there were not more than 2000 -Americans in all California. By the end of December there were 6000. -By July of 1849 this number had grown to 15,000 and six months later -it had climbed to 53,000. The earliest arrivals naturally came from -the nearby regions. Oregon alone contributed more than<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span> 5000 from its -scanty population. But every seaport of the Pacific sent a contingent, -and the stream of men that poured into the gold fields was the most -cosmopolitan group that had ever been seen in North America. In <i>The -New York Tribune</i> for December 15, 1849, appears the following item -from San Francisco:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>"Foreign flags in the harbor: English, French, Portuguese, Italian, -Hamburg, Bremen, Belgium, New Granadian, Dutch, Swedish, Oldenburgh, -Chilean, Peruvian, Russian, Mexican, Hanoverian, Norwegian, Hawaiian, -and Tahitian."</p></blockquote> - -<p>When the territory became a State, on September 9, 1850, its population -was at least 150,000, and a year later had probably reached a -quarter of a million. Many of the Argonauts stayed but a few months, -and, failing to become rich at a stroke, went elsewhere, so that -the composition of the population changed markedly from week to -week. It was almost exclusively a population of males. Few brought -their families; and while prostitutes went to San Francisco from -all accessible seaports, they contributed little or nothing to the -permanent population.</p> - -<p>The first Chinese immigrant found his way into California in 1847, but -by the summer of 1852, 20,000 others had followed him. Probably 5000 -Mexicans also had come into the territory which they had so recently -lost.</p> - -<p>By the census of 1860 it appears that most of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span> riff-raff had -drifted out of the State again, and the basis of the permanent -population had been laid. The total population was 380,000 of which -nearly 40 per cent was foreign-born; the percentage reaching this -high mark partly because of the number of Chinese. California had a -population more nearly representative of the entire Union than did -any other State—about equal numbers were contributed by New England, -by the Middle States, by the Northwest, and by the lower Mississippi -Valley. This population, it will be remembered, was almost entirely in -the northern half of the State. The more homogeneous settlement of the -southern half did not get under way until about the middle of the next -period.</p> - -<p>California differs profoundly from the other frontier regions of the -United States in that it was settled from all sections of the country -and not mostly from the adjoining States. The vast mineral wealth of -the new State supplied it from the very beginning with abundant capital -for local enterprises so that it was free from the debtor complex, so -characteristic of the other frontier communities.</p> - -<p>California faces westward on the Pacific and has developed into a -unique and more or less self-sufficient section with a definite -self-reliant character of its own.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>While the West was thus filling up and the United States was reaching -the Pacific Ocean, the States on the Atlantic continued to grow in -power and popu<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span>lation, largely through their own natural increase, but -partly through the immigration of the period. French Canadians began to -drift down into New England, as they have continued to do to this day. -The single State of New York had by the end of the period a million -foreign-born in its population, of whom half were Irish and one-fourth -German. New Jersey had become one-fifth foreign-born, Connecticut -one-sixth, Pennsylvania one-seventh. The racial character of this -immigration was not particularly harmful, as it was mostly Nordic, but -the large Roman Catholic element excited widespread alarm.</p> - -<p>The arrival of large numbers of ignorant and destitute South Irish -Catholics, who occupied the lowest social status here, led directly -to the formation of a native American secret political party, -nicknamed the "Know Nothings," because of their refusal to discuss -or divulge their aims or actions. For the purpose of membership they -defined the name Native American to mean a person all four of whose -grandparents were born in this country. This party's policy, in -the early stage of its career, was to act secretly, supporting the -candidate who most nearly represented their views, regardless of his -party affiliations. The party at once developed great strength, and -in 1854 and 1855 carried State elections in Massachusetts, New York, -Kentucky, California, and several other States. It played a large part -in national politics in 1856, but its organization was disrupted by the -increasing virulence of the slavery issue.</p> - -<p class="center"> -<img src="images/illus9.jpg" alt="pic" /> -<a id="illus9" name="illus9"></a> -</p> -<p class="caption">CONGREGATIONAL CHURCHES<br /> - -Showing distribution of the 4447 Congregational Churches in the -United States. Figures indicate number of churches in shaded areas -in which there are too many to be shown by dots and circles. As the -Congregational Church is largely identified with New England, the map -shows in a general way the westward movement of people of New England -origin.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span></p> - -<p>The principle of the Know Nothing party was opposition to the political -power of the large masses of newly arrived aliens. This was especially -directed against the Catholic Church, because it was felt that their -establishment of parochial schools was inimical to the public-school -system, which the Americans of that time regarded as the palladium -of their liberties. This hostility to Catholics was aggravated by -the attempted use of public funds derived from general taxation for -parochial schools and even more by the exemption claimed and often -obtained from taxation of large ecclesiastical institutions as well as -churches.</p> - -<p>Further opposition to aliens arose from their organization into compact -political units which quickly demoralized our municipal governments, a -scandal which has existed down to this day.</p> - -<p>All this led to the widespread belief that these immigrants, now -arriving in large numbers, refused to accept wholeheartedly the -customs, principles, and institutions of the country in which they -had sought refuge. This belief still persists and has given rise in -each generation since the days of the Know Nothing party, to similar -powerful and secret anti-foreign organizations. Our alien elements are -to this day extremely sensitive to the public discussion of any of -these matters. In this respect, Americans probably have less freedom -of speech and freedom of press than exist in any of the countries of -Europe.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>During the colonial period the natural increase of the Anglo-Saxon -stock in New England had made<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span> it a continual source of population -for the rapidly opening West. No one State, however, contributed such -a large element of the population of the subsequent United States as -did Virginia, the largest and most populous of the thirteen Colonies. -One cannot read the history of the movement westward of the American -frontier without being impressed by the importance of the Old Dominion -in supplying settlers for the West, first to Kentucky, thence to the -States of the upper and lower Mississippi Valley, later to the Great -Plains, and finally to the Southwest and the Pacific Coast.</p> - -<p>But if Virginia has been the most fertile source of settlers, New -England has more nearly put its stamp on American civilization; and -this was made possible largely because there was an available emigrant -stock in Massachusetts and her sister States, to carry this impress in -person. Before the Civil War, however, the birth rate of the old white -stock in New England had declined to the point where it was probably -not replacing its own numbers.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>In 1860 the religious unity of the United States had been somewhat -impaired. The unity of language was as yet scarcely menaced. The unity -of institutions, traditions, and culture was breached only temporarily. -The racial unity of the country was little changed from 1790. The -United States was still nine-tenths Nordic.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Earlier in these pages a description is given of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span> empty continent -which lay open to settlement by the British stock on both sides of the -Canadian border.</p> - -<p>Let us see what use was made of this opportunity in the period from the -end of Colonial times to the Civil War.</p> - -<p>A continent was occupied and the territory of the Union was swept -westward to the Pacific. The forests were cut down and the wild life -destroyed. The Indians were evicted. The mineral wealth of the western -mountains was ransacked. The coal was exploited, and the once fertile -soil of the Southern States greatly depleted through the reckless -growing of tobacco and cotton. Waste was the order of the day in -America.</p> - -<p>All this was perhaps inevitable, but never since Cæsar plundered Gaul -has so large a territory been sacked in so short a time. Probably no -more destructive human being has ever appeared on the world stage than -the American pioneer with his axe and his rifle.</p> - -<p>In 1860, at the end of this period, we find the essential elements -of national unity still unchanged, but we were about to engage -in a fratricidal war, which was to destroy the best blood of the -nation. We had admitted large numbers of Irish and German immigrants -who impaired, in the case of the Irish, our religious system and -introduced certain undesirable racial elements. The Germans who came -were largely Protestants and only temporarily disturbed our unity by -clinging to their foreign language. Both of these elements, however, -were pre<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span>-dominantly Nordic, and it was not until the next and final -period that the unassimilable Alpines and Mediterraneans came here -from southern and eastern Europe. The tragedy of the Civil War and the -introduction of cheap labor were still to come, so that in 1860 the -United States was at its high-water mark of national unity.</p> - -<p>The Indians had been ruthlessly swept aside, as was unavoidable because -a few hunting tribes could not be allowed to possess a continent, but -the Negro question could have been postponed, and the men who died -needlessly on Southern battle-fields could have been used to populate -the States of the Far West.</p> - -<p>In the next chapter we shall study the swamping of this American -civilization, which reached its zenith in 1860.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span></p> - - - - -<p class="ph2"><a name="XII" id="XII">XII</a></p> - -<p class="center">THE ALIEN INVASION</p> - - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> period 1860-1930, with which we are now dealing, is characterized -by the end of free public land in the West about 1880. It is also -marked by the great development of industries in the North and -East, which created a demand for cheap labor, and attracted a mass -immigration of non-British and non-Nordic workmen from southern and -eastern Europe. This immigration for the most part went to the cities -and industrial districts.</p> - -<p>The Southern States, which had not entered upon an industrial expansion -before the Civil War, did not welcome immigrants of the low-grade -factory type, hence the South has remained characteristically American. -One of the strange results of the Civil War has been that while the -victorious North sold its birthright of culture, religion, and racial -purity for a mess of industrial pottage, the South, though defeated and -impoverished, retained its racial inheritance unimpaired.</p> - -<p>Some of the earlier immigrants in this period sought the lands in -the West, while they were still to be had. The land hunger having -carried most of the energetic, ambitious, and able Nordic immigrants -westward, the industrial expansion of New England, Pennsylvania, Ohio, -and of some of the adjacent States resulted in an unfilled demand -for low-grade<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</a></span> factory labor in the East. This demand was quickly -recognized by the steamship companies, which began scouring Europe for -immigrants to transport to America.</p> - -<p>The most fertile recruiting ground for this type of humanity was in -South Europe, Italy, the Balkan countries, and the provinces of the -then Austrian Empire and Russia. Inducements were offered potential -immigrants to come to America. There was no discrimination as to type -or quality. Many criminals were rounded up, especially in southern -Italy and Sicily, with the connivance if not the actual initiative of -their governments.</p> - -<p>As to the ratio of criminals to the native American population, some -interesting figures have been compiled through a first-hand survey of -242 State and federal prisons in the United States during 1931-32. -Most of the criminals referred to were committed for serious offenses. -The criminals from northwestern Europe were well under (sometimes only -one-quarter) their ratio to the general population. South Europe and -eastern Europe were very much higher. The Filipinos were over twice -as many as the proper allowance, native-born Negroes were two-and -three-quarters above their allowance and the Mexicans were six and -one-half times as many as their ratio to the general population would -entitle them to be.</p> - -<p>It was in this period that the Polish Jews began their tumultuous and -frantic invasion, a flood which only recently has been checked, and -that with the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span> greatest difficulty. The great mass of immigrants from -South Poland, Galicia, and Russia were Ashkanazim Jews, descendants -in part of Alpine Khozars, with a Mongol admixture, who entered the -eastern Ukraine from Asia in the early centuries of our era. Many of -the Khozars and their Khan were converted by Jewish missionaries and -they formally accepted Judaism in 740 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> It is doubtful -whether there is a single drop of the old Palestinian, Semitic-speaking -Hebrew blood among these East European Jews. They are essentially a -non-European people. The language they speak, Jüdisch, or Yiddish, is a -corrupt German of the Franconian dialect mixed with Slavic and Hebrew -elements, which fact strengthens the tradition of a large migration of -German Jews into Poland in the Middle Ages. It may be that the strain -of these German Jews has died out, leaving only their language behind, -but in any event the Polish Jews are now distinctly Alpine—a mixture -of Slavs and of Asiatic invaders of Russia.</p> - -<p>Exact figures of Jewish immigration are not obtainable until 1899, when -this group was listed separately. Prior to that year probably 500,000 -Jews had arrived; after that date nearly 2,000,000. From the beginning -of this century the Jews made up 10 per cent of the total immigration -into this country, and there are now more than 4,000,000 of them here, -half of the number being in New York City. This is more than one-fifth -of the Jews of the world.</p> - -<p>Because they speak Yiddish, they are often col<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span>loquially referred to as -"German Jews." But, in fact, the number who come from Germany is small, -and, as said, the great bulk of them are more properly described as -"Polish Jews" and are much despised socially by the true German Jews. -Many of them are from those parts of Poland which were held by Russia -prior to the World War. Immigration figures show the last place of -residence of Jewish arrivals, 1899-1924, to be as follows:</p> - -<table summary="numbers" width="35%"> -<tr><td><i>Countries</i></td><td></td></tr> -<tr><td>Russia and Poland</td><td align="right">1,243,000</td></tr> -<tr><td>Austria-Hungary</td> <td align="right">260,000</td></tr> -<tr><td>Rumania</td> <td align="right">103,000</td></tr> -<tr><td>United Kingdom</td> <td align="right">73,000</td></tr> -<tr><td>Turkey</td> <td align="right">20,000</td></tr> -<tr><td>Germany</td> <td align="right">15,000</td></tr> -<tr><td>British North America</td> <td align="right">57,000</td></tr> -<tr><td>All other countries</td> <td align="right">67,000</td></tr> -<tr><td></td><td align="right">————</td></tr> -<tr><td></td><td align="right">1,838,000</td></tr> -</table> - -<p>Meanwhile the immigration from northern Europe declined, not only -relatively but absolutely, and at the same time the native American, -whose ancestry was pre-dominantly Nordic, began to be crowded to the -wall. In certain sections of New England that progressive change soon -became all too evident and has made them no longer American but foreign -communities. The French Canadians, Irish, and Poles took over whole -districts and occupied the abandoned farms. The Polish Jews, settling -almost entirely in the larger cities, built up a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span> Ghetto population -similar in most respects to the congested urbanism of their homeland.</p> - -<p>Americans were so obsessed with the idea of a "Refuge for the -Oppressed" that they even welcomed the draining into our country of -that morass of human misery found in the Polish Ghettos. When the -objection arose that there were already 1,000,000 Jews in New York -City, an effort was made to divert this migration into Texas, where the -wide-open spaces were supposed to provide room for the 7,000,000 Polish -Jews.</p> - -<p>The German Jews, who also came into this country in smaller numbers -at the end of the last century, were of the Alpine type, closely -resembling those from Poland, Galicia, and Russia. All of these Jews -are in sharp contrast to the Sephardim Jews, a superior group, largely -Mediterranean in race, a very few of whom came from Holland to America -in Colonial times. These latter had reached Spain by way of North -Africa and later fled to Holland to escape the Inquisition.</p> - -<p>The immigration from Scandinavia was entirely Nordic. Sweden is purely -Nordic, and Norway and Denmark are overwhelmingly so. Lithuania and -North Poland are also Nordic lands, as are the German provinces along -the Baltic; but South Poland and Galicia are Alpine, as are the -majority of the immigrants who come from South Germany. Those from the -provinces of the former Austrian Empire are mostly Alpine, although a -few Nordics came from the Tyrol.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span></p> - -<p>The Balkans, Greece, Asia Minor, and Armenia sent over practically -only Alpine immigrants. French-speaking Switzerland was originally -Burgundian territory and contributed some very valuable Nordic racial -elements to America. Those from German-speaking Switzerland were -largely Alpine.</p> - -<p>The period of the great European migration to the United States covered -just a century. Prior to that time, since the founding of the Union, -most of the immigration had been English and Scotch. Up to 1860, as -will be recalled, this British character of the immigration continued, -except for the beginning of the great stream of Germans who have been, -next to the English, the largest single element in our population.</p> - -<p>The early Germans in the United States were, as previously described, -mostly Alpines from the upper Rhine—the Palatinate and Swabia. In the -'40's the area of the German emigration spread. At first to the western -states and provinces, which were much more Nordic in character (Hesse, -the Rhineland, Westphalia, Thuringia). All this region had an easy -outlet by the Rhine to the seaports; moreover emigration was stimulated -by the result of revolutionary activities, which forced many to leave.</p> - -<p>After transportation began to be improved by railways, the main -currents of emigration began to flow from central and eastern Germany. -Emigration reached its first crest in the southwest and west of Germany -in the middle of the '50's, its second in Central Germany toward the -end of that decade, its<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span> third in the eastern part of the empire in the -'70's and '80's. This later emigration was, on the whole, more Nordic -than the earlier stream.</p> - -<p>After the World War, when business conditions in Germany brought about -some years of active emigration with the United States as its main -objective, the current of emigration shifted again to the northwestern -and southwestern districts (the former Nordic, the latter mainly so) -and away from the northeast, which was even more Nordic.</p> - -<p>The Scandinavian immigration, another main source of the Nordic -population of the United States, dates almost entirely from the period -since the Civil War. The largest volume was between 1877 and 1898, when -more than 1,000,000 arrived. One-fifth of the entire population of -Norway and Sweden moved to the New World, nearly all of them seeking -farms in the States of the upper Mississippi Valley. There has been -also an active immigration from Scandinavia since the end of the World -War. In general, the United States was the only destination which a -Scandinavian emigrant considered. Of those who left the homeland, not -one Swede in fifty directed his course elsewhere than to America. No -other emigrant population has shown such a single-minded interest in -the United States, though the Norwegians have not been far behind, with -96 per cent of their departures destined to the United States; and the -Danes, with 88 per cent.</p> - -<p>Arriving at New York or sometimes Quebec, the immigrants made their way -to Chicago or Detroit,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span> and thence were distributed to the States west -of the Great Lakes. The Norwegian movement was the earlier, beginning -with the southern and central counties of that kingdom and gradually -working its way north until arrivals were giving as their birthplaces -little towns far north of the Arctic Circle.</p> - -<p>In a few decades Norwegians owned six times as much farming land in -the States of Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, Illinois, Michigan, and the -Dakotas (four-fifths of the immigration being found in the States -named) as did all the farmers in the "Old Country." No nationality has -sent such a small percentage of its people into the cities—one in -five of the whole, as compared with a half of the Germans, and a still -higher percentage of the Irish and Italians, who seek an urban life.</p> - -<p>This tendency to agricultural life and to prompt and whole-hearted -Americanism has made the great body of Scandinavian immigrants one of -the most valuable that America has received.</p> - -<p>Meanwhile there continued a steady immigration of English and Irish. -The latter envenomed our political life up to the last few years, by -introducing into the United States their old political and religious -feuds with Great Britain, and endeavoring to involve this country in -their plans for Irish freedom. As a consequence, the friendly relations -which should exist between the two great Anglo-Saxon nations have been -kept disturbed, and a systematic policy of twisting the lion's tail -was pursued, not merely by the Fenian agitators, but by American<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a></span> -demagogues anxious to cultivate the "Irish vote."</p> - -<p>Prior to 1880 only 5 per cent of the immigration was from southern and -eastern Europe. Between 1860 and 1880 less than 250,000 immigrants from -eastern and southern Europe came over. Then came the rush, and between -1890 and 1910 more than 8,000,000 immigrants reached our shores from -southern and eastern Europe.</p> - -<p>A group not homogeneous with the old native American population is -the Italian. It began arriving after 1870, but did not reach large -proportions until after 1890. Then it soon became a flood. From 1900 -until the World War cut down immigration, the Italians far outnumbered -all other peoples arriving on our shores.</p> - -<p>Northern Italy has furnished us some fine types of immigrants. They -are mostly Alpine with a Nordic admixture. Southern Italy, that is, -Naples and Sicily, sent us almost exclusively a Mediterranean stock, -which formed the great mass of Italian immigration and was of extremely -inferior type. They are derived to some extent from the slaves whom -the Romans gathered along the coasts of the Mediterranean from Syria -to Morocco and employed on their large estates or latifundia. Among -them, however, are to be found remnants of the pre-Nordic Mediterranean -population of Italy.</p> - -<p>In earlier decades the emigration from Italy was mostly of North -Italians, commonly spoken of as "Genoese," but mainly from the crowded -Italian Riviera west of Genoa. These went to neighboring<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span> countries, -particularly France, and to South America, few of them reaching the -United States. When Italian mass emigration to this country began, -it was from central and southern Italy and Sicily, who are of quite -different racial stock from those of the more northerly districts.</p> - -<p>The northern Italians are well thought of in the countries to which -they have gone. The southern Italians seem to be far inferior in -quality. While the country of their origin, Magna Græcia, two thousand -five hundred years ago was the source of a large part of the world's -progress in civilization, it is doubtful whether the reader can name a -single man produced in that region during the last two thousand years, -whose ability or eminence was such as to give him a worthy place in the -world's history.</p> - -<p>Add to this that the United States did not receive even the best of the -southern Italian population, but in some instances rather the part that -the local authorities were most happy to get rid of, and it is easy to -understand how the Italian children in the American schools have shown -themselves in almost every test to be a group apart, widely separated -from every other white racial group and close to the Negro-Mulatto -children in their ability.</p> - -<p>Of the non-English-speaking peoples who have arrived in the United -States during the last century, the 4,500,000 of Italians are -outnumbered by only one group, namely, the nearly 6,000,000 Germans.</p> - -<p>The Italians have been more inclined to return home than some others. -In all the immigration, it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span> has been observed that a considerable -proportion of the immigrants stayed only temporarily, sometimes -for a season of work, sometimes for a generation or until they had -accumulated enough money to return to the "Old Country" and live on -their investments. It is usually figured that the arrivals should be -diminished by about one-third to give the net of permanent immigration. -There are of course exceptions—thus it is relatively rare for a Jew -who came to the United States to move out of the country later.</p> - -<p>During the sixteen years, 1908-23, the total alien emigration from the -United States was 35 per cent of the total alien immigration, and the -differences between the racial groups in respect to this tendency were -immense.<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a></p> - -<p>This ebb and flow of migration is often overlooked. It is impossible to -understand the population figures without bearing it in mind.</p> - -<p>While the departure of so many unassimilable aliens is highly -favorable, the fact that migratory cheap labor thus floats into and -out of the country<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span> to compete with the native white, may of course -have most serious effects socially and economically on the older stock. -Fortunately, this has now been stopped by suitable restrictions.</p> - -<p>Taking a long view over the whole history of immigration into the -United States in the century and a half before 1930 one sees that -approximately half of the total was from the countries of northern -and western Europe, which are largely and some distinctly Nordic in -population, and which sent us people who, in most cases, were easily -assimilated by the Native Americans. Most of these came in during the -first century of the Republic's life, as pointed out above.</p> - -<p>After 1890 the tide turned strongly to southern and eastern Europe, the -countries of which in 1913 (the last year of unrestricted immigration) -sent 85 per cent of the total as against 15 per cent from northern -and western Europe. The main contributors to this later stream, often -called the "new immigration" as distinct from the "old immigration" -were, in order of importance, Italy, Austria-Hungary, and the Russian -Empire.</p> - - - -<div class="footnotes"><p class="ph3">FOOTNOTES:</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> The Chinese stood at the head of the list, emigrants from -here exceeding immigrants by 30 per cent—that is, none were coming in -as permanent residents, because of legislative restrictions; and some -of the earlier arrivals were going home to stay. In a number of groups -the outflow was more than half of the inflow—Bulgarians, Serbians, -Montenegrins, 89 per cent; Turkish, 86 per cent; Koreans, 73 per cent; -Rumanians, 66 per cent; Magyars, 66 per cent; Italians (South), 60 per -cent; Cubans, 58 per cent; Slovaks, 57 per cent; Russians, 52 per cent. -</p> -<p> -The lowest rate of re-migration was that of the Jews, 5 per cent. The -Irish showed 11 per cent; Scotch and Welsh, 13 per cent; Armenians, 15 -per cent; Dutch and Flemish, 18 per cent; Mexican, 19 per cent; English -and French, 21 per cent; Scandinavian, 22 per cent; Syrian, 24 per -cent; Lithuanian, 25 per cent; and Finnish, 29 per cent.</p></div></div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span></p> - -<p class="ph2"><a name="XIII" id="XIII">XIII</a></p> - -<p class="center">THE TRANSFORMATION OF AMERICA</p> - - -<p><span class="smcap">Under</span> the impact of the "new immigration," most of it dating from the -beginning of the present century, the complexion of the States which, -as repeatedly shown, was almost wholly Nordic and Protestant, began to -change rapidly. As concerned their native-born population, most of the -States followed the rule, often mentioned in these pages, that a State -is populated, in the first instance by its own increase, and secondly -by movements from the States directly adjacent to it.</p> - -<p>Maine, according to the 1930 census, with about one-tenth of the -population of New England, is only five-eighths native stock, <i>i.e.</i>, -native white of native parents. These were mostly people born in Maine, -with a few from surrounding States. Of its foreign stock, three-fourths -were French Canadians.</p> - -<p>New Hampshire presents a similar picture, with a slightly higher -percentage of native Americans from nearby States.</p> - -<p>Vermont's native population, aside from that portion born in the State -itself, came from New Hampshire or Massachusetts and even more from New -York. As in the two States previously mentioned,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span> most of the foreign -stock is from French Canada, and that which was not from Quebec is -mostly Irish.</p> - -<p>The Slavs and Italians have made little inroad in these three States.</p> - -<p>Massachusetts in 1930 was more cosmopolitan, with 300,000 residents -from other New England States and nearly 100,000 from New York. The -old white stock, however, now makes up but one-third of the population -of the Bay State. French Canadians, Irish, Italians, Poles, Russians, -and Scandinavians, in the order named, have completely overwhelmed the -native stock—even such a small country as Lithuania is represented in -Massachusetts by more than 50,000 people.</p> - -<p>Rhode Island's population, similarly, is now only one-third from the -old stock. Its complexion is similar to that of Massachusetts. French -Canadian Catholics control the government in many communities.</p> - -<p>Connecticut, like Rhode Island, has about one-third old American stock. -Here the Italians are the dominant element in number, with Irish, -Slavs, and French Canadians almost equally numerous.</p> - -<p>Thus New England, with its more than 8,000,000 population, has been -virtually lost to the native Americans. Their birthrate in that area -has long been far below the level necessary to prevent its dying out, -and migration to the west is not now caused by the region's increase, -as in Colonial times, but by an actual uprooting of families whose -place is taken by others who in race, language, religion,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span> culture, and -institutions are quite out of harmony with American traditions.</p> - -<p>A similar picture is observed when one turns to the 26,000,000 -inhabitants of the Middle Atlantic States—the most populous, the -wealthiest, and in many ways the most powerful section of the country.</p> - -<p>The old stock makes up but one-third of New York's population. For -its composition every State in the Union has been drawn on, with -Pennsylvania and New Jersey furnishing the largest contingents. The -State has well on to half a million Negroes—mostly in Manhattan, -though the ratio of increase of Negroes in some of the other cities of -the State vastly outstripped the ratio of increase of Whites between -1920 and 1930. Thus while the Whites of Buffalo increased 11 per cent -in the decade, the Negroes increased 200 per cent; in Syracuse they -increased twice, in Utica four times, in Rochester seven times, in -Albany eight times, as fast as the whites—due, of course, to the -migration of great numbers of mulattoes from the Southern States -northward.</p> - -<p>With its two million Jews, its million and a half Italians, its million -Germans, and its three-quarters of a million each of Poles and Irish, -together with substantial contingents from almost every other country -on the map, the Empire State is scarcely able to meet the requirements -of the Founders of the Republic, who, like Thomas Jefferson, feared -above everything else the formation of an alien, urban proletariat as -creating a condition under which a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span> democratic form of government could -not function successfully.</p> - -<p>Three-eighths of New Jersey's population were still of the old native -stock in 1930, though half of these were born in other States, -particularly New York and Pennsylvania. The rest of the population was -a heterogeneous mixture of half a million British (largely Irish), half -a million southern Italians, a quarter of a million Poles, a somewhat -larger number of Germans, and so on down the list.</p> - -<p>Pennsylvania makes a somewhat better showing, with more than half of -its population still old native Americans. Of the later arrivals the -largest number, well on to a million, was of British (including Irish) -extraction. Italy and Poland each sent more than half a million, -Germany not much less, Russia and Czechoslovakia each more than 200,000.</p> - -<p>In both these divisions, then, the New England and the Middle Atlantic -States, containing as they do more than a third of the entire -population of the United States, the old American stock is now reduced -to a minority. Fortunately, this cannot be said of any of the other -major divisions of the country, though it is true of a few other -individual States—Wisconsin, Minnesota, and North Dakota—where the -foreign-born or their offspring are in a slight majority, but of good -Nordic stock. On the whole, it is the northern and central parts of -the Atlantic Coast that have become the worst un-American parts of -the Union. The South Atlantic States play a much less important part -nowadays than they did a cen<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span>tury ago, in furnishing population to the -rest of the country; but they are still American. In the following -discussion their Negro population is ignored, and consideration is -limited to the Whites, unless otherwise stated.</p> - -<p>Delaware, with more than three-fifths of its people belonging to the -old stock, has drawn no great additions in late years except from its -neighbors on the west and south, Pennsylvania and Maryland. Its alien -element is a cosmopolitan one in which no single group particularly -preponderates.</p> - -<p>Maryland is three-fourths native. Its industrial and commercial life, -centered in Baltimore, has drawn a population from an unusually wide -area, and this tendency has been greatly accentuated because many -of the cosmopolitan group in Washington, D.C., actually reside in -Maryland. Thus in addition to the heavy contingents from Pennsylvania -and Virginia, it has groups of a thousand or more each from half the -States in the Union. The bulk of its foreign population is made up of -Germans, Poles, Russians (including Jews), and Italians, in addition to -the British.</p> - -<p>The District of Columbia, as the seat of the Federal Government, -naturally draws its residents from every part of the United States, -the largest element of what may be called its permanent population -being from Virginia and Maryland. There is no large foreign element, -but the Negroes, more than one-fourth of the whole, are nowhere more -aggressive. It is generally understood that the reason Congress<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span> has -never been willing to grant the residents of the district the right -to vote, even in local affairs, is that it would be likely to put -the political control in the hands of this Negro block, which would -always find unscrupulous white politicians ready to forget their own -birthright and truckle to it.</p> - -<p>Virginia is almost purely of old native stock, Virginian born. Its -seaports and its proximity to the District of Columbia account for some -residents from other States. After dealing in quarter millions and half -millions to describe the foreign-born of the North Atlantic States, -it is with something like incredulity that one notes only 23,000 -foreign-born Whites of all sorts in the Old Dominion. The number who -are native-born of foreign or mixed parentage, and therefore classified -as "foreign stock," is twice as large; but many thereof are British. -With Virginia, one reaches the region where the old native American -holds his ground.</p> - -<p>North Carolina makes a still more striking picture. In its population -of more than three million, the 1930 census enumerators found scarcely -25,000 foreign-born or of foreign parentage. North Carolina is an -active industrial State, yet it has been able to attain to its modern -development from its own resources. Its neighbors on the North and -South, together, have supplied a hundred thousand citizens; other -regions have contributed a few; but the old white American stock -in this State, as in many others of the South, has been largely -self-sufficing.</p> - -<p>South Carolina is not only of the American stock,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span> but has had few -outsiders, even from adjacent States. In addition to natives, a -very few British and Germans, a very few Northerners, and moderate -contingents from the nearby States make up its white population, which -is still but slightly larger than the Negro element in the State.</p> - -<p>Georgia fits into the same pattern, though it has attracted a few more -of the "new immigration"—Slavs and Italians; and a few more Yankees, -so that its population, on the whole, is somewhat more cosmopolitan.</p> - -<p>Florida, on the other hand, has had an influx both of Northerners, -who have almost changed the political complexion of the State; and of -the foreign stock, largely Nordic, it is true, but with a West Indian -element that is less assimilable. Of its million Whites, a sixth are of -foreign stock, including almost every one of the nationalities found -anywhere in the United States. But despite this somewhat cosmopolitan -nature of its population, the State is overwhelmingly Nordic, like the -other Southern commonwealths.</p> - -<p>West Virginia, cut off from the Old Dominion by a technically -questionable move at the beginning of the Civil War, showed by this -very "secession" of its own that its population differed widely from -that of the Tidewater. As pointed out earlier, the latter region was -English and the mountains were Ulster Scotch, with a widely different -outlook on life. The western part of the State had never been a great -slave-holding region, partly because of the sentiment<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span> of the people, -partly because there was little for a slave to do there that a free -white could not do much better. To this day only one in sixteen of -the population of West Virginia is colored, and it is still largely -native white, despite the coal mines, which in other regions have come -to depend largely on the labor of Slavs. In the 10 per cent of its -foreign-stock population West Virginia has a scattering of Slavs, as -also of almost every other people, but the largest element is British, -the next German.</p> - -<p>Kentucky offers no exception to the rule that the Southern States are -still almost wholly native white. The only important foreign element -is a small German one. It still retains a little of the tendency which -made it, a century or more ago, one of the chief colonizing States, for -it has more of its native sons scattered throughout the Union, than has -almost any other Southern State.</p> - -<p>Virginia still sends out a surplus population, and Georgia notably has -done so, though mainly to the States nearest at hand. Kentucky and -Tennessee have sent out pioneers to more distant regions. At present, -for instance, they have as many representatives on the Pacific Coast as -have all the South Atlantic States together.</p> - -<p>Tennessee's racial make-up is very similar to that of Kentucky, -although there is still the marked contrast in the "atmosphere" of the -two States, which has existed from the beginning.</p> - -<p>Alabama's composition is not very dissimilar to the two just mentioned, -save that the Italian element<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span> is a little larger. Its main foreign -stocks, however, are British and German.</p> - -<p>What has been said of these States applies almost literally to -Mississippi. The Whites, forming a little less than half of the total -population, are almost all of the old native stock. The emigration of -Whites (and of Negroes, too, for that matter) from the cotton States -during the last fifteen or twenty years has been largely due to the -ravages of the boll weevil, which made cotton less profitable and -prevented many small farmers from making even their expenses.</p> - -<p>Georgia has been hit harder than any other State, probably, by this -movement out of the State and thousands of acres of good farming land -are now lying idle there, for lack of hands to work them. The same -holds good to some extent in other States of the region. Many of the -small farmers have moved westward, first perhaps to Texas or Oklahoma, -and then on to the Pacific Coast, the automobile now taking the place -of the covered wagon of their forebears.</p> - -<p>Arkansas differs in no important respect from Mississippi, save in -having a much smaller proportion of Negroes. Its old white population -has likewise begun to move, though more often northward, as to Missouri -or Kansas. But Oklahoma and, also, Texas have been the great outlets -for the Arkansas farmers.</p> - -<p>The climate and resources of Louisiana have attracted some 50,000 -Italians—a small element com<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></span>pared with those in the Northeastern -States, but large for the South. Louisiana has always been more -cosmopolitan than any of the other Southern States, and this is -still the case, yet 85 per cent of its Whites are of the old native -stock. Most of those not born in the State have come from States -directly adjoining. While to a certain extent there has been the usual -interchange, Louisianians going to other nearby States, mainly Texas, -nevertheless Louisiana has been relatively unimportant in settling -other States since the Civil War.</p> - -<p>Its population is less homogeneous than most of the Southern States. -The northern part of the State, with a majority of the inhabitants -and with political control, is made up largely of Nordic Protestants -who have come in from Arkansas, Mississippi, Tennessee, or elsewhere, -and who differ little from the inhabitants of those States. The -southern part of Louisiana, on the contrary, is largely Roman Catholic -in religion, and to a large extent French-speaking. In some towns -there are no public schools. The parochial schools teach the children -in French, and the Catholic Church has made particular efforts to -perpetuate the use of that language. The State Convention which -revised the constitution in 1921 made the literacy qualification for -the exercise of the electoral franchise, the ability of a citizen to -write his application for registration "in the English language <i>or his -mother tongue</i>."</p> - -<p>The State has the highest rate of illiteracy of any in the Union, -whether one considers the total popu<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span>lation including Negroes, or -limits the figures to the native Whites. It has been part of the United -States for one hundred and thirty years, but United States officials, -when going into many parts of it, still have to be accompanied by -an interpreter. With only two or three exceptions, every bishop who -has been in charge of Catholic interests in Louisiana since Thomas -Jefferson's day has been foreign-born and foreign-trained.</p> - -<p>For such reasons the feeling of separate interests and lack of unity -and national identity have tended to continue; and when the "Cajan" -representatives attend the State legislature at Baton Rouge, they -address the House in eloquent English, but among themselves, discuss -their program in a French patois.</p> - -<p>Oklahoma, due to its peculiar history, is one of the cosmopolitan -States. When the territory was thrown open to settlement in the great -land rush of April 22, 1889, speculators from all parts of the United -States were attracted to the scene. But most of the settlers in the -northern part came from Kansas or Missouri and in the southern, from -Texas or Arkansas. In the next year, when the territory was formally -organized, one-third of its population was Indian or Negro. Subsequent -land allotments and colonization tended to perpetuate this dual origin -of the settlers, but after the State became a famous oil field, in the -early years of the present century, the population became so mixed -that this distinction was partly lost. Meanwhile the Indian population -was not only swamped by the Whites, but largely inter<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</a></span>married with -them, partly because Indian women had titles to valuable oil land. At -present Oklahoma is still credited with nearly 30 per cent of all the -Indians in the United States, though it is supposed that not more than -one-fourth of these are full-blood, and many of those who are legally -counted as Indians have but a negligible amount of Indian heredity. The -Creeks and a few others have mixed to some extent with Negroes, but -this has not been general.</p> - -<p>Texas, Missouri, Arkansas, and Kansas are still the principal -sources of Oklahomans, in the order named; but there is not a State -in the Union which is not represented here, many of them with large -contingents. The foreign stock is of equally cosmopolitan background, -but makes up only one-sixteenth of the whole. Considering the -geographical location, it includes a surprisingly large number of -Canadians.</p> - -<p>Texas contains nearly half a million people of foreign stock, the -German element being by far the largest. Second in importance among -the foreign stocks is a Czechoslovakian population which has settled -largely in the southeastern part. The Germans are mainly to the west of -them. The State began to attract Italians just before the World War. -The British element is important, while Galveston has long been largely -dominated by Jews.</p> - -<p>North Texas enjoyed a boom in 1875 and 1876 when a flood of homeseekers -poured in with their emigrant wagons. Many of these were farmers from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</a></span> -the Middle West who had been impoverished by the great grasshopper -plague.</p> - -<p>Western Texas was settled late, and periods of drought, such as that at -the time of the World War, largely depopulated some sections, farmers -packing up what they could carry and abandoning everything else to move -into a region where nature was less reluctant to aid them.</p> - -<p>Texas is still the offspring of the lower Mississippi Valley States, -but commercial development and the oil industry have brought in many -Northerners, particularly from the Central States. On the other hand, -the State's contribution to Oklahoma dwarfs all the other streams that -have gone out from it; but it has also contributed liberally to New -Mexico and Arizona and in recent years to California.</p> - -<p>Turning back now to the East North Central States, which comprise those -originally carved out of the Northwest Territory of 1787, one again -encounters the full tide of the so-called "new immigration." Here the -old native stock is scarcely more than a numerical majority—fourteen -million out of twenty-five, to be more exact; a striking contrast to -the Southern States, which we have just been considering, where it -still forms nine-tenths or more of the total white population.</p> - -<p>Five millions of the later arrivals in the North Central States are -Nordics, but a number almost equally large are Alpines. Half a million -Mediterraneans are present in the Italian immigration, while the area -from which the congress of the Confedera<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</a></span>tion, as one of its last acts, -declared that Negro slaves should be forever excluded, has acquired -nearly a million free Negroes.</p> - -<p>Ohio is still two-thirds native, and its great industrial development -has drawn population from all sides, though four out of five of its -citizens still find their names on the birth records of the State -itself. Besides giving population to all its neighbors it has, like the -other States of this region, sent a stream westward, not merely to such -places as Kansas and Colorado, but particularly to the Pacific Coast.</p> - -<p>While the German element in Ohio which, half a century ago, made such -cities as Cincinnati centers of Teutonic kultur, is still the most -important numerically, it is outnumbered by the Poles, Czechoslovaks, -Hungarians, Yugoslavs, Lithuanians, and the like, if they are taken -together. The easy access across the Great Lakes has given Ohio, like -her sister States, an important Canadian element.</p> - -<p>Indiana, most American of States in its early period, still makes an -excellent showing, with nearly 85 per cent of its population native -white of native parentage. In the interchange of inhabitants it still -continues, as it did in the days of its founding, to draw an important -Southern element from across the Ohio River. The State of Ohio does the -same. The population still tends to move westward, not eastward, from -Indiana, taking with it some of the best of American family lines and -the purest of American traditions.</p> - -<p>The half million of foreign stock within the bor<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</a></span>ders of the State are -at least half Nordic. No single group of the Slavs or Mediterraneans -is represented heavily, although there are a few of all those national -elements.</p> - -<p>The people of Indiana deserve recognition for the way they have -preserved their heritage. It is no accident that the "Indiana school" -of writers has long sounded the authentic American note in literature, -in striking contrast to the decadent tone of the output in some of the -Atlantic Coast centers where the dominant element is quite un-American.</p> - -<p>Illinois, by contrast, is barely more than half native, and the -scandals of its politics in regions where the alien vote is -self-conscious, have long been manifest to every newspaper reader. -With 329,000 Negroes, according to the 1930 census, Illinois ranks in -this respect only after Pennsylvania and New York, among the Northern -States; but corrupt political rings have made of the Negro an important -factor in the government of Chicago, as he has not been in New York or -Philadelphia.</p> - -<p>Of its foreign-born stock, Nordics are far below a million, as compared -with a million and a half of Alpines and a quarter of a million of -Mediterraneans. Under the pressure of this competition, the old native -stock has shown a strong tendency to move West and South. Texas and -Arkansas, for example, have drawn more heavily from Illinois than they -have from any other Northern State, and Illinois has also been the -greatest single contributor to the development of the Pacific Coast.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</a></span></p> - -<p>Michigan is now just half native. Its geographical location has -attracted more than half a million Canadians, many of them belonging to -the French Alpine stock there. In the foreign stock as a whole, Alpines -outnumber Nordics not far from two to one. Among the 100,000 Italians -are many Northerners in the copper mines—big fellows so unlike the -Sicilian and Neapolitan to whom the American on the Atlantic Coast is -accustomed, that he does not recognize them as Italians. These northern -Italians, as previously noted, are not Mediterraneans, but mostly -Alpine with remnants of Nordic blood from the days of the Lombards and -Goths.</p> - -<p>Wisconsin has almost escaped the Negro invasion of the North, so its -three million inhabitants are at least white; but the native stock -is in a minority, due largely to the great German inrush of the last -century. With this came many Scandinavians.</p> - -<p>From 1860 to 1880 the immigrant nationalities ranked in the -order—German, Norwegian, Dane, and Swede. The only difference since -then is that they rank in the order—German, Norwegian, Swede, and -Dane. The great Swedish tide of immigration in the last half of the -nineteenth century did not acquire full force until the Norwegian had -passed its crest.</p> - -<p>As late as 1900, three-fourths of the people of Wisconsin were of -foreign parentage, and the Germans made up half of these. Milwaukee, -with its Socialist administration, had long been conspicuously the -center of German influence in the United States.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</a></span> Up to 1843, was a -Yankee village, earnestly trying to supplant Chicago as the center of -the Midwest. By 1856 a third of its population was German. By 1890 -one-half of its population was of German parentage and one-fourth -actually of German birth. That census year, however, saw the high tide -of Germanism in Milwaukee. Poles, Russians, Slovaks, and Italians have -modified since then the racial character of the city, which is only -one-third German at the present time. In the characteristic political -color of the State some students profess to see evidence of the fact -that many of the German immigrants were revolutionists fleeing from the -Fatherland.</p> - -<p>In Minnesota, the Germans outnumber any single group, although less -numerous than the three Scandinavian groups put together, so the -State is correctly thought of as Scandinavian. Considerably less than -half of its population is of the old American stock, but the State is -overwhelmingly Nordic, the 150,000 Slavs who have invaded it in recent -decades being of little account in its 2,500,000 population. Since -the days of its founding, Minnesota has drawn from Canada a desirable -element, and has given freely in exchange.</p> - -<p>Due partly to its relatively late settlement, the State has not been -one of those which have contributed heavily to its neighbors. Its -greatest outflow has been to the Pacific Coast, as its inhabitants -became prosperous enough to move to a milder climate in their old age.</p> - -<p>Iowa, of about the same population as Minnesota,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</a></span> is two-thirds native -and equally Nordic. It has contributed heavily to the prairie and -mountain States, and also to the Pacific Coast, but the standing joke -which ascribes to Iowa the parentage of all Southern Californians seems -to be not quite exact—at least California as a whole has received more -of its population during the past generation from Illinois, Missouri, -New York, and Ohio, than from Iowa, which stands only fifth in the list.</p> - -<p>Iowa, being pre-dominantly agricultural, has felt particularly the -unfavorable status of agriculture since the World War. During the -decade 1920-30, three out of every five of the villages in the State -actually lost in population, the people having either moved into the -cities or "gone West." Here as elsewhere, the small village seems -unable to meet the needs of the inhabitants. One of the real problems -of statesmanship in the near future is to work out a social and -economic system under which a larger part of the old native stock, and -particularly the most intelligent portion of it, can live under the -favorable biological conditions of the small village.</p> - -<p>Missouri has nearly a quarter of a million Negroes, in contrast -with such States as the three last discussed, in which the colored -population is negligible. But of its white population, three-fourths -is native, the rest mostly German. Slavs and Italians have only begun -to get a footing. On the whole, the State is strongly Nordic and sends -out large contingents of Nordics to Illinois on the East, to Kansas -and Oklahoma, and to the mountain and coast States<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</a></span> westward. The -importance of the Missouri stock, coming to a large extent from that of -Virginia, has been much greater than is generally recognized, in the -settlement of the whole West.</p> - -<p>The great rush into Dakota took place in the decade after 1875. The -Red River country was opened up by the Northern Pacific Railway, and -the model farms which were established were advertised far and wide, -so that the population of 6000 in this district in 1875 increased more -than 2000 per cent in the following ten years.</p> - -<p>In 1889 the territory of Dakota was divided on the 45° 55´ parallel, -and North Dakota was admitted as a State with approximately 170,000 -population. Its subsequent growth has kept it fairly homogeneous from -a racial point of view, the State being almost wholly Nordic. Apart -from the old native Americans the main elements have been British -from Canada, Germans, and Scandinavians. The Norwegian immigration -which began in the early '90's was particularly noteworthy. Norwegians -now form about one-fourth of the total population of the State. An -interesting small group is that of the Icelanders, representatives of -one of the oldest, most highly cultured, and most stringently selected -of all Nordic peoples.</p> - -<p>The Russians in the State, approaching a hundred thousand in number, -are mostly German-speaking. They are farmers whose ancestors were -invited to South Russia several centuries ago, but who retained their -speech and culture to a marked degree.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</a></span></p> - -<p>After the discovery of gold in the Black Hills, the country which is -now South Dakota had a rush in 1876 and for some years following, much -like that of Nevada and Montana during the Civil War and of California -in 1849. This frequently does not result in a well-balanced permanent -population, and the real settlement of South Dakota dates from the -succeeding period when its prairie lands were taken up by wheat growers -from the States of the upper Mississippi Valley. The wheat industry in -Wisconsin gradually died during the decade of 1870-80, and many who -found the ground unprofitable there moved farther west, as did others -with similar motives from western New York and the States of the old -Northwest Territory.</p> - -<p>South Dakota has a slightly higher percentage of old Americans than -its sister to the north; otherwise the two differ remarkably little -in size, composition, and resources. In 1920, half of the inhabitants -of North Dakota claimed South Dakota as a birthplace; while half of -the inhabitants of South Dakota claimed North Dakota as theirs. Of all -the forty-eight States, these two are unmistakably the Tweedledum and -Tweedledee.</p> - -<p>Nebraska after the Civil War continued to attract mainly the old -American pioneer class, but it also became a haven for several foreign -groups. It is said to contain about one-eighth of all the Bohemians -in the United States. The serious permanent settlement of the State -began in the early '70's. Many discharged soldiers seeking to make a -new start<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</a></span> went West with their families. It was only a few years later -that the foreign tide began to reach these prairies and thereafter the -State attracted large fractions of the Bohemian, Scandinavian, and -German immigrations. Like some of the other prairie States it also -received many settlers who were listed as Russian because of their -nationality, but who, in fact, were Germans whose ancestors had gone to -Russia and failed to prosper there. Nebraska, therefore, though less -than three-fourths native, is overwhelmingly Nordic.</p> - -<p>Kansas is still four-fifths native and nine-tenths Nordic. It has -received the same foreign contributions as Nebraska, but in much -smaller quantities. At the same time it has continued to receive -settlers from the Mississippi Valley, and even from Eastern States, -such as New York and Pennsylvania.</p> - -<p>On the whole, the prairie States have been notably successful in -assimilating their immigrants and maintaining an American tradition. -The newcomers were not segregated in slums but scattered on farms. -It was almost a necessity for them to learn the speech and adopt -the customs of their hosts. While some of the Scandinavians, as in -Minnesota, have tried to have their children learn the language and -preserve the traditions of the "old country," these have at least been -Nordic traditions, and any feeling of aloofness or separateness is -rapidly disappearing.</p> - -<p>The mountain States date largely from the Civil War, when another of -the country's waves of mi<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</a></span>gration and settlement broke loose from its -moorings and started westward.</p> - -<p>The first great migration of the American stock began immediately after -the Revolution, and resulted in the creation of Kentucky and Tennessee -by the Southerners, the transformation of western New York by the New -Englanders, and a mingling of these two streams as they crossed the -Ohio River to open up the Northwest Territory.</p> - -<p>The second great migration reached its crest with the panic of 1819. It -completed the settlement of the Ohio Valley and of the States along the -lower Mississippi and the Gulf.</p> - -<p>The third great migration reached its height with the feverish land -speculation promoted by Andrew Jackson's experiments in banking and -broke with the collapse of the prosperity which Martin Van Buren -inherited from his predecessor. It witnessed the settlement of the -Mississippi Valley throughout almost its entire length; together with -the Nordic absorption of Texas.</p> - -<p>The fourth wave, slightly more diffuse, washed over the "great plains" -and broke on the crests of the Rocky Mountains during the Civil War, -though a heavy splash had meanwhile reached the Pacific Coast. It -began with the settlement of Kansas, motivated in part by land hunger, -but also by definite political calculations. Meanwhile the conquest -of California, the discovery of gold there, the settlement of Oregon, -and the Mormon appropriation of Utah, brought into existence an active -traffic across<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</a></span> the plains, which was the beginning of Nebraska's -existence.</p> - -<p>The Rocky Mountain States grew up in the first place out of this -traffic, then by the mining discoveries within their limits, and the -fact that there was a restless population on the Pacific Coast, ready -to surge back eastward, together with a footloose population to the -East ready to move into any part of the West.</p> - -<p>This Eastern contingent received its impetus from the panic of 1857, -when many men, bankrupt or dislocated, were prepared to make a new -start. The mining activities in the Far West encouraged adventurers -to try their hand at the gold pan, and the country was full of -prospectors, some of them professional but mostly amateur. Men who had -no jobs at home thought they might as well seek a fortune in this way; -it would not cost them much to live, and they could at least see the -country. A similar renaissance of prospecting and small-scale mining -took place all over the mountains of the West when the depression of -1929 was well under way.</p> - -<p>To this element was shortly added another composed of people getting -away from the Civil War. Some of these were actual deserters from -military service; others went West to escape the pressure of public -opinion toward enlistment; others in the border States, ruined by the -conflict or unwilling to cast their lot with either combatant, simply -started in motion as their fathers and grandfathers had done before -them.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</a></span></p> - -<p>The population of the mountain States varied remarkably from month to -month, as the crowd moved from one reputed bonanza to another. The -government at Washington showed itself unusually ready to set up new -governments in that region, because it was on the whole of unquestioned -Union loyalty and, if the South, at the close of the war, should be -brought back into the Union on the old terms, as President Lincoln -evidently planned, a dozen new senators from half as many new Western -States could easily be secured, leaving the South in the minority and -breaking that deadlock of almost half a century which had been the -source of so many compromises and the occasion of so many conflicts.</p> - -<p>Colorado, at that time a part of Kansas, was an almost unknown "Indian -territory" when prospectors struck gold in the neighborhood of Denver -in 1858 and 1859. The rush from Kansas and Nebraska, when the legend -"Pike's Peak or Bust," lettered on the sides of emigrant wagons, became -traditional, disclosed how little was known of the country. Pike's -Peak, though not near the gold diggings, was the only place in Colorado -of which most Americans had ever heard.</p> - -<p>In 1861 there was enough population to justify territorial government. -Statehood was not attained until 1876. From then on until the -agricultural period, the history of Colorado was the history of its -fluctuating mining camps. But by 1930 the State had reached a permanent -basis and a population of more than a million, of which two-thirds was -native<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</a></span> and the other third a heterogeneous lot, partly Nordic but -containing strong Slav, Italian, and Mexican elements. So far as the -native American population was concerned, its geographical origin still -represented a fan spreading out from Pike's Peak until it reached the -Atlantic Ocean. In large or small proportions, emigrants from most of -the older States had converged on the Rockies.</p> - -<p>Wyoming, first explored by trappers and fur traders, became important -because it was traversed by the Oregon Trail; but it was merely -a place to pass through, until the arrival of the Union Pacific -Railway and the discovery of gold in the same year (1867) gave it a -life of its own. Nearly 6000 persons spent the following winter in -Cheyenne—a cosmopolitan crowd of adventurers and speculators. After -its organization as a territory in 1859, agriculture had begun, stock -raising became important, there were local gold rushes, and the region -slowly developed until admitted to the Union in 1890.</p> - -<p>Wyoming's population, smaller than that of any other State with the -single exception of Nevada, is less than two-thirds native stock, and -this represents a blend from all parts of the United States. Iowa, -Missouri, Illinois, have all contributed more inhabitants than either -of its neighbors, Colorado and Utah. In these mountain States the -general rule that a State is settled by its neighbors, quite breaks -down. Its foreign stock is equally mixed; while much is Nordic the -State has also attracted its quota of Slavs and Italians, and even of -Mexicans.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[Pg 260]</a></span></p> - -<p>Idaho, after small Mormon settlements of farmers, owed most of its -early population to its mines. During the Civil War it grew remarkably, -but the fact that it could be reached more easily from the West than -from the East, due to access by the Columbia River, made its settlement -somewhat anomalous in American history, for it was settled largely by -Westerners moving east from Oregon, Washington, and northern California.</p> - -<p>In Idaho the development of Mormon colonies has given Utah a strong -influence in the State. Apart from this, its population is made up -nowadays more from the Mississippi Valley than from the mountain and -Pacific Coast States. It is only three-fourths native, but most of the -remainder is Nordic, British and Scandinavians both having sought its -opportunities. A territory in 1863 and a State in 1890, Idaho now has a -population of nearly half a million.</p> - -<p>Montana, in the winter of 1862 and 1863 had a total population of 670 -inhabitants of whom <i>The Chronicle</i> complacently says: "Fifty-nine -were evidently respectable women." Like Idaho, it attracted an element -of Southern men escaping from the draft into the Confederate Army, -but from then on a large part of its population was from the Northern -States. Its growth of population was closely linked up with the -fortunes of the mining industry.</p> - -<p>Territorial status was given Montana at the time of the great gold -discoveries in 1864, and the character of its population fluctuated a -good deal, both as to quantity and quality, between that date and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[Pg 261]</a></span> 1889 -when it was admitted to Statehood. It has now more than half a million -inhabitants, nearly half of whom are of foreign stock and largely Roman -Catholics. Most of the natives are from the Central States; most of the -foreigners are Irish, Germans, or Canadians, though Montana has also -attracted more than 50,000 Scandinavians.</p> - -<p>Utah's population is now about the size of that of Montana, and but -slightly more native in character (three-fifths). These natives are -to a large extent born in the State, the descendants of the Mormon -pioneers. The "Gentiles" are of widely scattered origin. The foreign -stock is mostly English or Scandinavian, the Mormon missionaries having -worked diligently in those kingdoms. Utah, therefore, represents -a Nordic population, and one with a high birthrate, whence it is -evidently destined to continue spreading steadily in the Great Basin.</p> - -<p>Nevada sprang almost full grown from the desert, as Venus did from -the waves. It scarcely existed, though on the maps as a transmontane -part of California, until the gold rush of 1849 brought settlements -into existence to take care of the travellers. Then it was attached -administratively to Utah, which was also inconveniently distant. The -discovery of silver in the fabulously rich Comstock Lode (1859) led -to the establishment of Virginia City, and to the inrush of a torrent -of miners, particularly from California, where the gold deposits were -becoming exhausted.</p> - -<p>In 1861 Nevada was established as a separate ter<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[Pg 262]</a></span>ritory, and Lincoln's -administration pushed it through to Statehood in 1864 to get the -advantage of two more friendly senators. With the exhausting of the -silver deposits in a quarter of a century, Nevada had a severe decline, -many of her inhabitants moving away. There was another mining boom in -the first ten or fifteen years of this century, but the State has never -made a steady and substantial growth, and the 1930 census credited it -with no more than 91,058 inhabitants. Not much more than half of these -were of the native stock. The foreigners were a scattered lot, with an -unexpectedly large Italian contingent.</p> - -<p>Arizona was cut loose from New Mexico in 1863, and, after the Civil -War, became a typical Western mining community, with a fluctuating -frontier population. A district might be active one year and a few -years later abandoned.</p> - -<p>The Mormons made some of the early settlements in the State and still -form a significant part of its population. Like Colorado, Arizona -has more than its share of Mexicans, while some of the other Western -States, Utah and Nevada for instance, have only negligible numbers of -them. The presence of more than 100,000 Mexicans in 1930 gave Arizona, -with less than half a million inhabitants all told, a bad position as -to its proportion of native stock. If one takes account only of the -Whites, 80 per cent are natives of native parentage, the others mostly -British or German, with again a surprisingly large Canadian contingent, -considering how far removed the two<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</a></span> regions are. The American -population is of notably cosmopolitan origin, people having gone there -from every State in the Union, in connection with mining, or for -reasons of health. But Texas is by far the largest single contributor, -with California a poor second.</p> - -<p>New Mexico stands in the anomalous position of having an almost -unparalleled percentage of its population born not merely in the -United States, but within its own borders; and yet of having an -unparalleled proportion of its population speaking an alien language. -An official interpreter is still required in its State legislature, -so that the local statesmen who boast of their Americanism but -cannot speak English, can make their views known to the Americans. -Since the "Spanish-Americans" are classified by the census as white, -three-fourths of the population are listed as native white of native -parentage. There were also, in 1930, about 60,000 Mexicans born south -of the line, hence aliens. The other residents of foreign stock are -scattering, with no one nationality greatly predominating.</p> - -<p>California, which in 1860 had the highest percentage of foreigners, -had not changed this situation strikingly in 1930, despite the great -influx of old American stock from the Central States. Of its 5,677,251 -residents, just over a half were native Whites of native parentage. The -general character of the migration to California since the beginning of -this century is too well known to require extended comment. Every part -of the Union has contributed;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[Pg 264]</a></span> even Florida is credited with a couple -of thousand converts. On the whole, this influx has been of the purest -Nordic stock, but if a constitutional convention were now to be called, -its make-up would perhaps not differ greatly from that of 1849, which -was attended by delegates born in thirty different States of the Union.</p> - -<p>The foreign element in California is equally heterogeneous, though -largely Nordic, so far as it is white at all. Canada has sent a quarter -of a million, nearly all of English ancestry. Italy has contributed -nearly a quarter of a million, who make an important part of the -population in the northern half of the State. Unlike their fellow -nationals in the Atlantic States, these California Italians are mostly -from the northern part of that kingdom. Between North and South -Italians there is not great sympathy—representatives of the two groups -avoid intermarriage. They also avoid migrating to the same territories -and, if the Neapolitan occupies the Atlantic States, the Genoese will -push on to the other side of the continent. These northern Italians -have played a much more prominent rôle around San Francisco than one -would anticipate who knows only the southern Italian in New York or -Boston.</p> - -<p>The State has also attracted 150,000 Russians, partly refugees since -the Bolshevik revolution, but mostly agriculturists of an earlier -period; more than half a million British, including Irish, more than -300,000 Germans, more than 200,000 Scandinavians.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[Pg 265]</a></span></p> - -<p>It is the non-white element that has attracted attention most -continuously from the outside world. California had nearly half a -million Mexicans, until the exodus which began after the depression of -1929 had made their manual labor less valuable.</p> - -<p>It had 45,000 Filipinos, who created serious problems in some regions, -both by competing with native labor, and by paying attention to white -girls, which is resented by the Americans.</p> - -<p>The State's population of 37,000 Chinese is declining steadily. The -memorable agitation of the '70's for Chinese exclusion is now only a -historical event, but it was important as helping to lay the foundation -for a wise immigration policy in the United States. Mining, war times, -and the building of the transcontinental railway had kept up inflated -conditions for years. Chinese were pouring in, partly to the mines, -and partly to the railway, which used them in construction work. Some -15,000 of these Oriental laborers, turned out of work by the completion -of the Central Pacific Railway, principally in 1869-70, poured into -San Francisco and made their presence unmistakable. A decade of -dissatisfaction followed, particularly among American workingmen. The -most conspicuous agitator was the Irish drayman, Dennis Kearney. In -1879 the State voted against the further immigration of Chinese by a -majority of 154,638 to 883. There have been few issues in American -history carried by a more nearly unanimous vote. In the same year -the Federal Congress passed an exclusion act which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[Pg 266]</a></span> established the -principle that an unassimilable people may be shut out entirely, if -necessary to protect American standards.</p> - -<p>Agitation along similar lines sprang up about 1906-7, due to the -rapid increase of Japanese in the State. It was settled, first by a -"gentlemen's agreement" between the United States and Japan, by which -the latter undertook to prevent the emigration of its laboring class to -the Pacific Coast States; second, by a law later adopted in California, -which prevented alien Japanese from owning land; third, by a final -exclusion of all Orientals through national legislation.</p> - -<p>The hundred thousand Japanese shown in the 1930 census are no -longer increasing rapidly, in spite of a fairly high birthrate. -The existence of these second-generation Japanese (and the same is -true, in proportion, of the Chinese) has, however, created a serious -problem all its own, since they are not accepted by either race. They -usually do not speak the Japanese language. They are inclined to look -down upon its institutions, and admire those of America. Hence the -real Japanese element both dislikes them, and does not employ them -because of the language barrier. On the other hand, the American does -not accept them as Americans, and they cannot be employed easily -alongside of and in competition with white natives of the United -States. The second-generation Oriental is practically a man without -a country. Because of these special racial problems, California has -had difficulties that some of the other<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</a></span> States have not fully or -sympathetically understood.</p> - -<p>Oregon's million inhabitants are two-thirds native Whites of the old -stock. Canada, the British Isles, Germany, and Scandinavia, have been -the other large contributors. The American population is largely from -the Central States.</p> - -<p>Washington now has more than a million and a half inhabitants, 56 per -cent of whom are of old native stock. Eastern Washington felt a boom in -1862 when it began to accumulate population attracted partly by mines -and partly by farming possibilities, until it reached an equilibrium -with the Puget Sound end of the State which has always been an -important political factor. Many settlers at this time were immigrants -from the "border States" of the Civil War, who became disgusted with -the guerrilla warfare to which they were subjected, and who were -not enthusiastically for either side. During the '80's, the rapid -construction of railway lines brought the population of Washington up -to a respectable figure in a very few years.</p> - -<p>The present Whites are mainly from the States of the upper Mississippi -Valley. Canada has furnished 100,000 more of British ancestry, and a -slightly larger number has come direct from the British Isles. Germany -has contributed 100,000, Scandinavia 175,000. As against this, Italy is -represented by less than 25,000, and the Slav countries altogether by -not much more than 60,000. Hence Washington is entitled to claim that -it is one of the most Nordic of the States.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[Pg 268]</a></span></p> - - - - -<p class="ph2"><a name="XIV" id="XIV">XIV</a></p> - -<p class="center">CHECKING THE ALIEN INVASION</p> - - -<p><span class="smcap">During</span> the earlier part of the immigration period, the tradition of -an "Asylum for the Oppressed" of all nations was the ruling principle -in the national attitude towards aliens, though even then there was -occasional objection to the undesirable character of some of the -immigrants.</p> - -<p>Various States adopted their own restrictions. Massachusetts, Maryland, -Pennsylvania, and others tried to control the flow of new arrivals by -head taxes and administrative regulations, while foreign governments -sometimes opposed these measures, as in the case of Wurtemberg in 1855. -The United States having sent back some paupers who had been dumped -on its shores, public resolutions are said to have been passed by the -Wurtembergers, protesting at this lack of hospitality. If the paupers -were returned, they complained bitterly, "we shall have defrayed the -expense of their journey in vain." But the right to deport undesirable -aliens had been set forth by the famous Alien and Sedition Acts of -1798, and the Federal Government has never wavered in its assertion of -this right.</p> - -<p>For a generation before the Civil War, the undesirability of -unrestricted immigration was debat<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[Pg 269]</a></span>ed, but without definite action. -The first federal restriction was the law of 1875, excluding foreign -convicts and prostitutes. President Roosevelt in 1907 appointed an -Immigration Commission which made a long investigation and a voluminous -report that served as a base for future measures and by 1914 most of -the undesirable classes, except illiterates, were formally excluded.</p> - -<p>The opposition to restriction was from the steamship companies, whose -interest was obvious, and from the large employers of cheap labor, -who were likewise not at all disinterested. It also arose among alien -groups in the United States, that wished to get more of their own -people into this country.</p> - -<p>The most active forces in its favor were, primarily, organized labor, -which wished no more competition from floating aliens with a wholly -un-American standard of living and, most of all, the native American -groups, eugenists and others who were far-sighted and unwilling to -see the racial character and national unity of America destroyed and -republican ideals endangered and undermined.</p> - -<p>The first attempt at a general restriction to improve the quality of -immigration was the adoption by Congress of the literacy test, which -provided that those who could not read and write some language should -be excluded. This was vetoed by President Wilson.</p> - -<p>Meanwhile the outbreak of the World War had, for the time, put a -virtual stop to international movements of population, and the nation -had a breathing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</a></span> space to consider its future policies. In 1917 -the Burnett Act consolidated the existing provisions for excluding -undesirables, and included the literacy test. President Wilson vetoed -it also, but it was passed over his veto.</p> - -<p>At the close of the war, there was widespread apprehension that the -unsettled and impoverished peoples of Europe would begin a new mass -migration westward. Before the war we had been receiving a million -immigrants a year; travellers and consular agents predicted that we -might look forward to receiving two million or more annually. It was -felt that the literacy test, and the provisions against mental and -physical defectives, would not be enough to stop this flood. Congress -met the emergency by the Quota Act of 1921, which provided that the -number of aliens of any nationality admitted in any one year should -be no more than 3 per cent of the number of foreign-born persons of -such nationality residing in the United States in 1910. This law was -intended to preserve the <i>status quo</i>. What the nation was in 1910, -that it should be forever.</p> - -<p>Such a solution could not satisfy the native Americans, whose people -had made the country great. Fortunately, the demand for a more -scientific approach to regulation found an adequate representative -in the Hon. Albert Johnson, a member of Congress from the State of -Washington, under whose leadership the whole system was revised in the -famous act of 1924.</p> - -<p>Administratively, the proceedings were made more<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[Pg 271]</a></span> workable and more -intelligent by placing on the United States consuls abroad the duty -of approving passports, without which no immigrant could enter. When -the quota was exhausted, the consul was required to refuse his visa on -passports until the next year. There was no longer any possibility of -hardship and apparent injustice.</p> - -<p>Restrictively, the quota was reduced from 3 per cent to 2 per cent, -and based not on the 1910 census, but on the 1890 census. The purpose -of this was, frankly, to encourage new arrivals from the countries of -the "old immigration,"—the countries of northern and western Europe -who had contributed most to the American population and whose people -were, therefore, most easily assimilable in the United States; and, -conversely, to discourage immigration from the countries of southern -and eastern Europe, most of whose nationals had come here since 1890.</p> - -<p>This law reduced the total possible immigration under quota to 167,750 -as against 357,800 permitted by the act it supplanted, and favored the -European Nordic whose people made the United States what it is, as -against the European Alpine and the Mediterranean who were late comers -and intrusive elements. Unfortunately it did not apply to the western -hemisphere, hence offered no obstacle to the Indian peon from Mexico -nor to the Negro from the West Indies, nor were the Filipinos barred.</p> - -<p>The most interesting provision of the law of 1924 and, in one sense, -the reason for the existence of this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[Pg 272]</a></span> present book, was a provision -that the quotas should be based only temporarily on the 1890 census. -That basis had been justly criticized on the ground that it made the -immigrants of recent times, rather than the old native stock, the -determinants of the future composition of the United States. The -quotas, it was argued, should be based not on the number of aliens here -in 1890, or in any other year; but on the ratio of these aliens to -the whole population. The law therefore embodied the National Origins -provision—one of the decisive events in the racial history of America.</p> - -<p>An investigation was ordered to find the proportions of the various -national (not <i>racial</i>) groups in the United States at the time of -the 1920 census. The general quota to apply from July 1, 1927 (later -delayed one year), was fixed at a total of 150,000. Each nationality -was to be assigned such proportion of this 150,000 as the number of -its people here in 1920 bore to the total population. Thus, if it -should transpire that 10 per cent of the total population in 1920 was -of Swedish ancestry, Sweden would receive a quota of 10 per cent of -150,000 or 15,000. Or if it were found, for example, that 2 per cent -of the total population in 1920 derived from France, the French quota -would become 3000.</p> - -<p>While a committee of experts went to work on the necessary research -for this purpose, an amusing competition began among the alien groups -and hyphenates, to exaggerate as much as possible their claims so that -their relatives and compatriots might<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[Pg 273]</a></span> benefit by an increase in their -nation's quota. The Irish were perhaps the most industrious in this -occupation, for they could take advantage of the confusion, due to the -fact, pointed out in these pages time and again, that the territory -now composing the Irish Free State had long taken credit for every one -who has passed through Ireland. Actually the "Irish" immigration in -Colonial times was, as already shown, not Irish at all, but for the -most part Scotch, though taking shipping from Ulster; and the Free -State Catholics had few representatives in America at the time of the -Revolution. Such facts were conveniently ignored by the Irish patriots, -who wrote books to demonstrate that the "Irish" not only fought and won -the Revolution, but that they made up the predominant element at the -present time. "It has been estimated by good authorities," affirmed one -such enthusiast, "that at least 25,000,000 of our present population -have more or less Irish blood coursing through their veins. We" -(<i>i.e.</i>, the population of the United States), he went on, warming up -to his job, "are no more Anglo-Saxon than we are Hindu!"</p> - -<p>If the Irish Catholics were inclined to claim something like one-fourth -of the total population, the Germans were prepared to claim anything -up to one-third. The quota based on the 1890 census had, in fact, been -extraordinarily favorable for the Germans, since they were the group -that had been coming into the country in greatest number just before -that date, hence they had the largest number of ac<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[Pg 274]</a></span>tual foreign-born -here present in that year. Their allotment on that basis was almost -one-third of the quota for the entire world. The obvious unfairness of -basing future immigration on such conditions, and of ignoring almost -entirely the English and Scotch stock which was the overwhelming -element in the building of America, but which together received only 20 -per cent of the quota, was generally recognized.</p> - -<p>Scarcely had this injustice been removed and the National Origins -measure gone into effect, however, when business depression began to -throw men out of work, and it was universally felt that no new seekers -for jobs should be brought into the country to displace the workers -already here. Administrative restrictions, therefore, cut down the -incoming flow of aliens to almost nothing. At the same time, many -recent arrivals went back home, thinking they could weather the storm -better among their own people.</p> - -<p>A direct benefit from the depression, then, was that it practically -stopped foreign immigration. When the time comes for consideration -of the renewal of present administrative restrictions, the National -Origins Act will be on the statute books as a protection. Meanwhile -Americans can consider what further measures they need to take to -extend the quota provision to the western hemisphere.</p> - -<p>The actual contribution of the alien groups to the population of the -United States is based not merely on their net immigration, but also -on their fecundity after they settle here. Many familiar studies show<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[Pg 275]</a></span> -that, in general, the immigrant women are more fecund than the old -stock. They marry earlier, show a lower percentage of sterility, and -have larger families.</p> - -<p>The fact that women are in a minority among most of the recent -immigrant groups has, however, tended to cut down their contribution. -Of the whole foreign-born group, men and women have in late decades -been in the ratio of about five to three. This means that the group, as -a group, will make a smaller contribution than it would, had each man -brought a wife with him. On the other hand, the surplus males usually -marry women of other groups, their descendants being thus assimilated -into the population more quickly, whether for good or for ill.</p> - -<p>Again, the increase of the foreign-born groups is cut down by the fact -that for the most part they have a higher rate of infant mortality. -Variations among the races are striking. Thus while the native white -has an infant mortality rate of 94 per 1000 births, that of the -American Negro is 154, that of the Poles about the same, that of the -French Canadians 171, that of the Portuguese 200, as shown in some -extensive studies made by the Federal Children's Bureau.</p> - -<p>In the second generation, the fecundity of the alien groups begins -to decline. It is generally said that the immigrant's daughter bears -one less child than did her mother. Hence if immigrants are let in -slowly, they are not likely to swamp the native stock; and as to those -already here, although some of them,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[Pg 276]</a></span> particularly the Italians, have -remarkably high birthrates, they will probably lose this advantage -within the next couple of generations.</p> - -<p>The question is often raised, whether the population of the United -States would not be just as large today, if immigration had been -permanently excluded in 1790. In other words, if no alien had arrived -since the founding of the United States, would the descendants of the -Colonial population have produced as many citizens as there are now -here? This hypothesis, often known as Walker's Law, assumes that the -fecundity of a group is cut down by the competition of immigrants, and -that the latter do no more than fill the places which would otherwise -have been filled by natural increase.</p> - -<p>No one would claim that such a generalization is exact, but as a -general tendency it seems to be near the truth. The United States would -have grown large and strong, had immigration been shut off a century -ago. It will continue to grow large and strong, with immigration shut -off at the present time. That does not mean that the rate of growth -which has been maintained during the last century will continue for -another century. The Nordic civilization is at present near the end of -a cycle of growth, and its rate of multiplication is slowing in every -civilized country. In most of the Nordic nations, the population does -not now replace itself. When the women now of child-bearing age pass -from the scene, they will not leave enough daughters to take their -places.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[Pg 277]</a></span></p> - -<p>The influence of the "newer immigration" and its offspring is great -enough to carry forward the United States population expansion a little -longer, but all signs indicate that, assuming <i>all</i> immigration ceased, -the numerical growth of the United States would come to a standstill at -the end of two or three generations, probably at a figure not higher -than 150,000,000 of population, and no more are needed.</p> - -<p>All the greater is the need, then, that this stock should be sound in -quality. A memorable step toward this goal was taken by the Federal -Supreme Court in 1923, when it held that only white persons and persons -of African descent are eligible to citizenship.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>In 1790 Congress enacted the first naturalization statute, the terms of -which confined its benefits to "free white citizens." The restriction -remained in force until extended in 1870 by statute giving the right -of citizenship to persons of African descent. At present, then, only -Whites and Negroes are eligible for naturalization. Interpreting the -statute of 1790, the Supreme Court held that the term "free white" must -be understood in its common meaning as used by the framers, and could -not include a Hindu (Sikh) or, in another case, a Japanese.</p> - -<p>Meanwhile the immigration act of 1924 provides that "no alien -ineligible to citizenship shall be admitted to the United States." -The Supreme Court decisions in the cases mentioned mean that this law -excludes all colored and Oriental races—all, in short,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[Pg 278]</a></span> save "free -Whites" and Negroes. Another safeguard is thus thrown around the -American stock.</p> - -<p>The three millions of Whites of 1790 have increased to 109 millions in -1930. Of this number, one-third are either foreign-born or the children -of such. One wonders how many of the 109 millions are the undiluted -descendants of Colonial stock. While mathematical exactitude cannot be -expected in such calculations, the census experts have figured that -about one-third of the population is of such ancestry.</p> - -<p>There are many others who have one parent Colonial and the other going -back perhaps to an immigrant of 1850. Such latter, these experts -claim, is the equivalent of half of a Colonial descendant. Two of -them together they count as equivalent to one Colonial descendant. By -this device the experts calculated that the "numerical equivalent" -of the Colonial stock amounts to nearly one-half of the entire white -population.</p> - -<p>The investigations necessary to put the National Origins provision -into effect, and to defend it from partisan criticism, brought out -the salient facts concerning the composition of the population -today—again, of course, subject to such margin of error as is -inevitable. The white population of 1920 was apportioned as follows:</p> - -<table summary ="countries" width="45%"> -<tr><td>England, Scotland, Wales, and -North Ireland</td> <td align="right">39,242,733</td></tr> -<tr><td>Germany </td> <td align="right">14,833,588</td></tr> -<tr><td><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[Pg 279]</a></span>Irish Free State</td> <td align="right">10,378,634</td></tr> -<tr><td>Poland<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a></td><td align="right"> 3,626,692</td></tr> -<tr><td>Italy</td> <td align="right">3,566,396</td></tr> -<tr><td>Russia</td> <td align="right">2,108,283</td></tr> -<tr><td>Sweden</td> <td align="right">2,024,434</td></tr> -<tr><td>France</td> <td align="right">1,970,189</td></tr> -<tr><td>Netherlands</td> <td align="right">1,835,959</td></tr> -<tr><td>Czechoslovakia</td> <td align="right">1,623,438</td></tr> -<tr><td>Norway</td> <td align="right">1,431,292</td></tr> -<tr><td>Austria</td> <td align="right">976,248</td></tr> -<tr><td>Switzerland</td> <td align="right">961,406</td></tr> -<tr><td>Belgium</td> <td align="right">790,928</td></tr> -<tr><td>Denmark</td> <td align="right">735,083</td></tr> -<tr><td>Hungary</td> <td align="right">703,409</td></tr> -<tr><td>Yugoslavia</td> <td align="right">440,518</td></tr> -<tr><td>Finland</td> <td align="right">338,036</td></tr> -<tr><td>Lithuania</td> <td align="right">293,100</td></tr> -<tr><td>Portugal</td> <td align="right">272,104</td></tr> -<tr><td>Greece</td> <td align="right">185,836</td></tr> -<tr><td>Rumania</td> <td align="right">185,423</td></tr> -<tr><td>Spain</td> <td align="right">181,658</td></tr> -<tr><td>Latvia</td> <td align="right">144,844</td></tr> -<tr><td>Turkey</td> <td align="right">138,389</td></tr> -<tr><td>Danzig</td> <td align="right">81,522</td></tr> -<tr><td>All other quota countries</td> <td align="right">262,216</td></tr> -<tr><td>Non-quota countries<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></td> <td align="right">5,488,757</td></tr> -<tr><td></td><td align="right">—————</td></tr> -<tr><td></td><td align="right">94,820,915</td></tr> -</table> - -<p>The United States is no longer 99 per cent Protestant, as it was in -1790; but it is still 80 per cent Protestant. Its white inhabitants are -no longer 90 per cent Nordic, as after the Revolution; but they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[Pg 280]</a></span> are -still 70 per cent Nordic.<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a><a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> Its future course must be guided in -the light of a consideration of these facts.</p> - -<div class="footnotes"><p class="ph3">FOOTNOTES:</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> It must be remembered that these figures show national -origins, not <i>racial</i>. The numbers credited to such countries as -Poland, Russia, and Austria-Hungary therefore include very large -proportions of Jews.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> These are the countries of the Western Hemisphere, of -which Canada and Mexico have been the largest contributors.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> This would, of course, include all Germany.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> The Hoover Committee on Social Trends, in re National -Origins, says that "about 85 per cent of the Whites in the United -States in 1920 were from strains originating in northwestern Europe -where Nordics predominate."</p></div></div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[Pg 281]</a></span></p> - -<p class="ph2"><a name="XV" id="XV">XV</a></p> - -<p class="center">THE LEGACY OF SLAVERY</p> - - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> most essential element in nationality is unity. This unity can be -based on race, on language, on religion, on a long tradition held in -common, or on several or all of these.</p> - -<p>In the past century the United States has to some extent lost its -unity of religion, of race, and of language. In the same period it has -acquired a number of unassimilable elements brought in as cheap and -docile labor to develop its industries or else allowed to enter through -the false humanitarianism of the so-called Victorian Era. It had been -forgotten that a cheap man makes a cheap job.</p> - -<p>In the South manual labor was performed by the Negroes, but in the -North, where there were no slaves, manual labor was chiefly performed -by Americans, and it still is in the districts where there are no -aliens. The moment that cheap alien labor was introduced to build -railroads or dig canals, such labor became distasteful to the native -American, because it was done by lowly foreigners whom they despised.</p> - -<p>Among the various outland elements now in the United States which -threaten in different degrees our national unity, the most important is -the Negro. Unlike the other alien elements the blacks were brought into -the country against their will. They brought with them no persisting -language, religion,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[Pg 282]</a></span> or other cultural attribute, but accepted these -elements from their masters.</p> - -<p>At the time of the first census (1790) the Negroes numbered 757,208, -being 19.3 per cent of the total population. They were naturally mostly -in the Southern States. In 1860 the Negroes numbered 4,441,830 and -constituted 14.1 per cent of the population. They were still in the -South. In 1930 the Negroes numbered 11,891,143 and constituted 9.69 -per cent of the population, but there had been a distinct migration -from the agricultural districts of the South to the large cities of the -North.</p> - -<p>When, after the Civil War, the Negroes were granted the franchise the -Negro problem was greatly complicated. This ill-advised measure was -forced on the country by a wave of feeling aroused by the wanton murder -of Lincoln. The North feared to entrust the government of the country -to those who had lately been in armed rebellion, so they conferred the -voting power on the Negroes and thereby greatly increased the electoral -vote of the South. If the franchise had been confined to the Whites -only, the influence of the "Solid South" after the Civil War would have -been much less than it now is. The purpose of the measure was to make -the South Republican, its actual effect was to enhance the power of the -South in Congress and in the Electoral College and make that section -definitely Democratic. In the words of the late Chancellor Von Bismarck -this was worse than a crime—it was a blunder.</p> - -<p class="center"> -<img src="images/illus7.jpg" alt="pic" /> -<a id="illus7" name="illus7"></a> -</p> -<p class="caption"> NEGRO POPULATION<br /> - -1930<br /> - -<i>11,891,143</i></p> - -<p>The Southerners understand how to treat the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[Pg 283]</a></span> Negro—with firmness and -with kindness—and the Negroes are liked below the Mason and Dixon line -so so long as they keep to their proper relation to the Whites, but in -the North the blocks of Negroes in the large cities, migrating from the -South, have introduced new complications, which are certain to produce -trouble in the future, especially if Communist propaganda makes headway -among them.</p> - -<p>In the Negro section of Harlem a further problem is arising from -crosses between Negroes and Jews and Italians. These and other -Mulattoes are showing a tendency toward Communism. During the World War -a Communistic and racial movement was started there and a situation -developed which was controlled with some difficulty, though without -publicity.</p> - -<p>The increase in the relative number of Mulattoes to Blacks is growing -greater in the Northern States, as is obvious to any observer in the -Negro districts of the larger cities. There can be seen many yellow and -light-colored individuals, who are Negro in every other respect. Many -of our dark immigrant Whites are themselves darker in color than the -yellow Negroes and this enables some of these light Negroes to "pass" -as Whites. This problem is one which will increase in gravity.</p> - -<p>Evidence does not exist to show whether the number of Mulattoes being -produced by primary union of Whites and Negroes is now larger than it -was fifty or one hundred years ago. But evidence does exist to show -that the intelligence and ability of a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[Pg 284]</a></span> colored person are in pretty -direct proportion to the amount of white blood he has, and that most -of the positions of leadership, influence, and prominence in the Negro -race are held not by real Negroes but by Mulattoes, many of whom have -very little Negro blood. This is so true that to find a black Negro -in a conspicuous position is a matter of comment. E.B. Reuter has -calculated that a Mulatto child has a better chance than a black child -to achieve prominence in the ratio of thirty-four to one.</p> - -<p>Such a situation naturally puts a premium on white blood in the minds -of Negroes, and therefore puts a prize on bastardy, discouraging any -tendency to cultivate pure racial values on the part of the Blacks -themselves. The black man who acquires wealth, at once wishes to show -visible evidences of his affluence by acquiring a light yellow or -"pink" wife, and the black girl is at a heavy discount matrimonially.</p> - -<p>Even in adoption the same tendency is found. Child-placing societies -may seek in vain to find a home for the pickaninny with black -skin and curly hair, but the light-colored baby, despite other -disqualifications, is eagerly adopted by darker Negro parents.</p> - -<p>The religious world, the political world, and the educational world -alike seem to have conspired to give all the rewards to the Negro with -white blood and to make the bulk of the race feel that white blood is -the greatest possible good for a Negro. Such a condonation of race -mixture is an insidious<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[Pg 285]</a></span> and far-reaching menace to the racial and -ethical standards of both races.</p> - -<p>How much white blood now circulates in the veins of our Negroes cannot -be told. It is generally considered, however, that at least one-third -of all those classed as Negroes in the United States have, in fact, -some white blood and the proportion is probably larger.</p> - -<p>The "pass-for-white" does so purely by virtue of his physical -characters which approximate those of his white ancestors. His -intellectual and emotional traits may insidiously go back to his black -ancestry, and may be brought into the White race in this way.</p> - -<p>Mentally and emotionally the Negro is the product of thousands of -years of evolution under the most stringent natural selection in the -hot lands of Africa. He is notably lacking in just those qualities -necessary for success in a modern Nordic industrial civilization, -as for instance in self-control and in capacity for co-operation. -Physically he is the product of the same circumstances. His tough skin -gives him an advantage over the White in resisting some diseases. His -lower vital capacity puts him at a disadvantage in others. Thus the -Negro is liable to succumb to tuberculosis or pneumonia, and is less -prone to cancer and skin affections. With the aid of white sanitation -and hygiene, the Negro is holding his own, even gaining ground in the -Northern cities where it was formerly supposed he would die out.</p> - -<p>Natural selection, therefore, in view of the present vital statistics -of the two races, can no longer be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[Pg 286]</a></span> relied upon to solve the problem by -a gradual elimination of the Negro in America. Comfort has been found -in the fall of the ratio of the Negroes to the total population; but -their absolute increase goes on just the same.</p> - -<p>No satisfactory solution of the problem has been suggested. At present, -from a study of past history, there appear to be but three possible -solutions.</p> - -<p>First, slow amalgamation with the Whites and an ever-increasing -number of Mulattoes, who little by little will "pass" for Whites. -This amalgamation might easily assume serious proportions in the near -future, with an increase of mixed breeds all over the United States. -But if the sentimental views about Negroes engendered by the Civil -War can be lived down, it may be that the oncoming generation will -resolutely face this Mulatto menace. Otherwise the absorption of 10 per -cent Negroes and Mulattoes, to say nothing of East and South Europeans, -in addition to Mexicans, Filipinos, and Japanese will produce a racial -chaos such as ruined the Roman Empire.</p> - -<p>A second solution would be deportation, which was seriously suggested -a hundred years ago. At that time it might have been possible to -re-transport the then slaves to Africa, and such action would have -involved only a fraction of the cost of the Civil War. This was -considered as a possible remedy by some of the wisest statesmen in the -years immediately preceding the Civil War. Today it is not possible, -because Africa, with the exception of Liberia,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[Pg 287]</a></span> is under the control -of white states, which certainly would not welcome such an enormous -addition to their own color problem, aside from all other practical -considerations.</p> - -<p class="center"> -<img src="images/illus16.jpg" alt="pic" /> -<a id="illus16" name="illus16"></a> -</p> -<p class="caption"> NEGRO POPULATION<br /> - -INCREASE & DECREASE<br /> - -1920-1930<br /> - -Figures in each State show the percentage of increase and decrease.</p> - -<p>Present-day advocates of repatriation argue that lack of native -population is the principal factor likely to hold back the development -of some of the healthiest and most fertile parts of interior Africa. -The American Negro, they say, might well carry there the education -he has received in the United States, and do better for himself than -he could expect to do here, especially if, through a rising race -consciousness among the Whites, they show themselves less hospitable to -his claims for equality.</p> - -<p>The substantial following, gained by the Negro Garvey, who started a -"Back to Africa" movement a few years ago, is cited as evidence that -the Negroes in this country are not necessarily adverse to leaving it. -But much more evidence will be needed before the repatriation of the -Negro can be considered seriously.</p> - -<p>As a third possibility, segregation has been suggested. This would mean -the abandonment by the Whites of whole sections of the country along -the Gulf of Mexico. This has actually happened in some places along the -lower Mississippi River, where the numbers of the Negroes have become -so overwhelming that the few remaining Whites have simply moved out and -abandoned the district to them. It has happened and is happening in the -West Indies. Haiti and Santo Domingo have been entirely turned<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[Pg 288]</a></span> over to -Negroes and other examples of West Indian Islands almost abandoned to -Negroes can be found.</p> - -<p>Whatever be the final outcome, the Negro problem must be taken -vigorously in hand by the Whites, without delay. States which have -no laws preventing the intermarriage of white and black should adopt -them. During the last quarter-century, many such bills, introduced in -Northern legislatures, have been defeated by an organized pro-Negro -lobby. The Christian churches in some parts of the North have also -taken an unwise stand, in trying to break down the social barriers -between Negro and White. This attitude goes back to the days of the -abolitionists, who persuaded themselves that the Negro slave had all -possible virtues and the Southern White man all possible vices. It was -a primary factor in creating the tragedy of "reconstruction" after the -Civil War.</p> - -<p>Senator Roscoe Conkling hit this attitude off neatly when some one -asked him what had happened in the Senate that day. He replied: "We -have been discussing Senator Sumner's annual bill entitled 'An act to -amend the act of God whereby there is a difference between white and -black.'"</p> - -<p>More necessary than legislation is a more vigorous and alert public -opinion among the Whites, which will put a stop to social mixing of -the two races. Social separation is the key to minimizing the evils -of race mixture at the present time. Public opinion might well stop -exalting the Mulatto and thereby putting its stamp of approval on -miscegena<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[Pg 289]</a></span>tion. Negroes should be encouraged to respect their own -racial integrity. Finally, knowledge of methods of Birth Control now -widespread among the Whites, should be made universally available to -the Blacks.</p> - -<p>Compared with the Negro, the American Indian offers no serious problem -to American unity. On the entire continent north of Mexico there are -only about 432,000. The 1930 census gives the Indian population of the -United States as 332,397.</p> - -<p>The distribution of these Indians is remarkably irregular. The West has -the largest number; then comes the South, because of Oklahoma's 92,000, -for the Gulf States have few. North Carolina, on the other hand, stands -seventh in the list of States arranged according to Indian population. -As against 137,000 in the West and 116,000 in the South, the North has -but 78,000. These are widely scattered and often little known to the -general public. New York State still has 7000 Indians, Michigan about -the same number and North Dakota somewhat more; Wisconsin and Minnesota -have 11,000 each, while South Dakota stands fourth on the list of -all the States with its 22,000. In the West the Indian population is -concentrated mainly in Arizona, New Mexico, California, Montana, and -Washington, in the order named.</p> - -<p>These Indians now represent 371 tribes, or remnants of tribes. How -large their numbers were at the time of the first white settlement -in North America has been a matter of interesting conjecture.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[Pg 290]</a></span> Most -estimates are not much above a million, but the population may -have been considerably greater a few hundred years earlier. Since -white occupation a few tribes have increased in numbers. Most have -diminished, and some have become extinct, more frequently from the -white man's diseases and from whiskey than from the results of fighting.</p> - -<p>The densest Indian population at the time of the conquest was on the -Pacific Coast, which did not come into close contact with the Whites -until the last century. This Pacific Coast Indian population was also -of a low scale of intelligence and culture, and remarkably broken up -into distinct groups which could not understand each other. As many -separate languages were spoken by the Indians of this region as by all -the other Indians of the United States together. When the first mission -on the West Coast was founded by the Spaniards, in 1769, the number of -California Indians was computed at 220,000. This has decreased more -than 90 per cent at this date.</p> - -<p>The policy of the Catholic missionaries was to corral the Indians -around the missions. The church considered itself the owner of all the -land, and the Indians worked it as tenants. When the Mexican Government -confiscated the property of the church, it took title to all the -land. Hence the Indians, who had always lived on it, found themselves -illegal trespassers, and until about 1913 they were landless, starving -fugitives. At that time the government began to provide land for the -Indians. While their treatment has decimated them nine times, their -iso<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[Pg 291]</a></span>lation prevented intermarriage with the Whites, so the California -Indians are of relatively pure blood.</p> - -<p>The revolt of the Pueblo Indians of Arizona and New Mexico against the -Spanish in 1680-92 was the beginning of their decline. The Navajos and -Apaches, on the contrary, have increased in numbers, at the same time -avoiding white mixture.</p> - -<p>The Indians of the Atlantic Coast were destroyed partly by disease, -partly by war; and their remnants were pushed westward year after -year by the Whites until they are mostly now west of the Mississippi, -many of them being in Oklahoma. The Iroquois are an exception, and -have perhaps increased in numbers. They got hold of firearms before -their tribal neighbors and were able to destroy many of the latter, -incorporating the remnants in their own tribe. The Sioux of the great -plains are also said to have increased.</p> - -<p>In the Gulf States, on the other hand, the Indians were largely -exterminated before their remnants were moved to the Indian Territory. -The Chickasaws told the French explorer, Iberville, in 1702, that -in the preceding twelve years they had killed or captured for slave -traders 2300 Choctaws, at a cost to themselves of 800 men.</p> - -<p>In the Northwest and Alaska, whiskey and disease have been leading -factors in the reduction of the number of the natives. With this, in -many regions, went a low fertility, due partly to starvation.</p> - -<p>Nearly all of the American Indians lived as hunters. When the Whites -invaded the forests and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[Pg 292]</a></span> drove off or killed the game, the Indian -economic system was broken up, and they had little opportunity to meet -the rapidly changing conditions.</p> - -<p>There has been, since early times, some intermarriage between Indians -and Whites, but it has not been on a sufficiently large scale to be -serious. The estimate however is sometimes made that one-half of the -census population of Indians has white blood. Naturally, there is no -way of proving or disproving such a conjecture. Only in Oklahoma has -such mixing been looked on with favor, and even there some tribes -held themselves largely aloof from white miscegenation and punished -with death any interbreeding of their members with Negroes. The -discovery of oil on Indian tribal lands made the claim to Indian blood -a lucrative one and oil revenues unfortunately covered a multitude of -sins. Throughout the West in general the term "squaw man" is a bitter -reproach.</p> - -<p>Taking the country over, the Whites who have married Indians have not -been of a high class. But the total number of Indians in the United -States is so small that their future is probably that of being absorbed -in the White race through miscegenation, unless it be for a few tribes -cultivating a racial purity of their own and, with favorable economic -conditions, perpetuating themselves for a long time to come.</p> - -<p>The Mexican population is found mainly in the Southwestern States, -but has also assumed relatively large proportions in such States as -Colorado, Kan<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[Pg 293]</a></span>sas, Illinois, and Michigan. The character of this -immigration has been described elsewhere in these pages. It has given -the United States an alien element with a high birthrate and very low -standards of living, with which white laborers cannot and will not -compete.</p> - -<p>The census of 1930 found nearly a million and a half Mexicans in the -United States. It was generally supposed that the number who had -entered the country illegally was greater than those who came through -the recognized routes. To prevent such a nullification of immigration -regulations, mere registration of aliens is not sufficient, for -that is likely to affect only those who have entered legally. Our -entire population should be registered. The advantages of a universal -system of proving identity are many, and extension of the system of -registering births, on the one hand, and of registering voters, on -the other, would take care of this without setting up much new and -expensive machinery.</p> - -<p>The menace of Chinese and Japanese immigration has for the present -been stopped by immigration laws which exclude any one not eligible to -citizenship. A proper application of this rule as established by the -Supreme Court might shut off much of the immigration of Indians from -Mexico.</p> - -<p>Since the end of the World War the immigration of Filipino young men -has become a disturbing problem on the Pacific Coast. The number of -arrivals up to 1930 amounts to nearly 50,000. These, like the Greeks -and some other European immigrant<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[Pg 294]</a></span> groups, bring but few women with -them and therefore form a socially undesirable and racially threatening -element wherever they are located.</p> - -<p>Unlike the Puerto Ricans and Hawaiians, the Filipinos are not citizens -of the United States, with rights of entry that cannot be abrogated. -They are citizens of the Philippine Islands, and permitted to enter -the United States only by courtesy. Congress, therefore, has full -right to adopt legislation which will exclude them, and it should make -immediate use of its power to protect white America from this reservoir -of 10,000,000 Malays and Mongoloids now under the American flag and at -present potential immigrants. If this cannot be done effectively, the -United States will have no alternative but to admit that its adoption -of the islands and its attempt to salvage them after Spanish misrule -was a mistake. As a safeguard to its own racial welfare, it may become -necessary to give the Filipino his independence, commend him to the -benevolence of Providence and the League of Nations, and have nothing -more to do with him.</p> - -<p>In the same way there should be no thought of further acquisition of -territory in the West Indies or in Central America. It is conceivable -that the Central American countries might in a not too remote future be -able to form a stable confederation and stand on their own feet more -successfully than they have done during the last generation. If such -a federation could include the West Indian Islands, the United States -might well donate its possessions there.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[Pg 295]</a></span></p> - -<p>Hindu immigration has so far been nothing more than a threat. The -present immigration restrictions will prevent the immigration of these -people, except for travel and study. Experience in many parts of the -world has shown the folly of allowing white countries to be overrun by -Hindus, and Americans should sympathize with the British possessions -that are trying to maintain white supremacy in their own borders in -this respect.</p> - -<p>In Hawaii the United States has another possible source of undesirable -immigration. The dominant element among its third of a million -inhabitants is the Japanese, who have held themselves aloof from -the other residents and shown little tendency to intermarry. Every -Japanese child born in the islands is an American citizen, with the -full right of entry to the mainland. The greater part of the rest -of the population is a mongrel crowd. Chinese and native Hawaiians, -until quite recently, have shown a marked tendency to intermarry. -Every effort should be made to find some constitutional way by which -Hawaii can be prevented from becoming a continuous source of supply of -undesirable citizens of the United States.</p> - -<p>While the list of unassimilable elements in the United States is a long -one, it must be borne in mind that most of them are still small. A wise -population policy promptly adopted and maintained henceforth will give -the republic an opportunity to grow along sound and fruitful lines.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[Pg 296]</a></span></p> - - - - -<p class="ph2"><a name="XVI" id="XVI">XVI</a></p> - -<p class="center">OUR NEIGHBORS ON THE NORTH</p> - - -<p><span class="smcap">Before</span> dealing with the countries to the north of us, it may be well -to call attention to the fact that there are three major divisions of -Canada. First, the Maritime Provinces, which were acquired by Great -Britain at a later date than the other Atlantic Colonies, as they were -originally claimed by the French. In this division Newfoundland should -be considered. These territories lying east of the United States were -settled directly from England or at the time of the Revolution by -Loyalist refugees from New England. There is a large Scotch element in -the population, which was lacking in New England. On the whole, the -area is thoroughly Nordic, except on the shores of the Gulf of Saint -Lawrence and the Bay of Chaleurs, where the Alpine French Habitants -have infiltrated.</p> - -<p>The second division of the Dominion is French-speaking, Roman Catholic -Quebec, with a fecund population of low cultural status. The French -distrust of the New England Protestants, with whom they had been at war -for one hundred and fifty years, was the predominant cause of their -failure to join with the revolting American Colonies in 1776. Quebec -was known as Lower Canada.</p> - -<p>Like the territories of the United States, the Dominion of Canada of -today represents a part of the Nordic conquest of North America, the -sole ex<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[Pg 297]</a></span>ception being the French population of Quebec Province.</p> - -<p>The country to the west of the Ottawa River constitutes the third -major division and was, after the Revolution, known as Upper Canada. -Its original population was composed chiefly of American Loyalists who -fled there in numbers after the Revolution. The immigration into Upper -Canada from Britain was later very largely Scotch, Scotch Irish, and -North of England. This is true more or less of all English-speaking -Canada, except possibly British Columbia.</p> - -<p>In a measure the Dominion is an offshoot of the United States, and -its development proceeded along lines parallel to those of the States -to the south of the boundary. The character of the population west of -Quebec Province is much the same as that of the United States, lacking, -fortunately for Canada, some of our immigrant elements. The country was -settled without the terrible Indian wars that afflicted our frontier -and without the lawless element so conspicuous in the history of our -Far West.</p> - -<p>The French settlement of Quebec was contemporaneous with the first -English settlement in North America at Jamestown. A majority of the -emigrants were from northern France. So far as one can judge at the -present time by the descendants of this population, the pure Nordic -stock must have been rare among them. They are today in general a -stocky, short-necked people, rather of the Alpine build, with eyes -often rather dark. The blond hair<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[Pg 298]</a></span> and tall stature of the Nordic -are so rare as to attract attention at once. The type suggests the -Pre-Norman population of northwestern France, rather than its Nordic -conquerors. Some of the seigneurs, the explorers, and the adventurers -of the early period apparently were of Nordic stock, but they were -probably always in a great minority and have left few descendants.</p> - -<p>Very little satisfactory research has been done as to the origin of the -Habitants. A recent study of a typical group has given some indication -of the general conditions in Quebec. In this group stature was found to -be five feet and five inches, which is about the general average of the -French. The cephalic index was over 83.0, which is about the mean for -Brittany and is higher than that of Normandy. The hair was rather dark -brown and straight, this straightness is slightly suggestive of Indian -admixture. The eye color was more often brown than mixed blue and -brown. Pure blue eyes were present only in 15 per cent. The tall burly -build of the Norman peasant was very rare.</p> - -<p>The language spoken in Quebec is an archaic Norman patois of the time -of Louis XIV. This fact has given rise to the general belief that the -Habitants came from Normandy, but the more probable reason is that the -Normans were the earliest immigrants and established their patois, -which was accepted by later arrivals. The Normans appeared to have been -far short of a majority of the total number of immigrants and Brittany -supplied still fewer. The bal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[Pg 299]</a></span>ance was divided among the provinces of -the northern half of France.</p> - -<p>The physical type of the Habitants of today suggestive as it is of the -peasants of the interior of Brittany finds confirmative evidence in -their subserviency to the church.</p> - -<p>Throughout the French period the population consisted to a marked -extent of soldiers, traders, administrators, priests, and others -who did not bring their families with them. Efforts of the French -Government to encourage family life were not always either well -directed or successful. Colbert hoped for a large French population in -Canada by intermarriage with the Indians. Administrative regulations -penalized bachelors, who, for instance, were refused licenses to enter -the fur trade, which was the main source of wealth in the country at -that time.</p> - -<p>Many of these restrictions were directed by the priests, doubtless -not so much for eugenic reasons as with the motive of protecting the -morals of the young men by giving them wives. At an early date the -colony fell under the domination of the Jesuits, and maintained for a -long time a religious tone that in its own way was much more stern and -uncompromising than that of the Puritan settlements in New England. -Much of the wealth and effort that might have gone to strengthen the -colony was sunk in sterile monastic foundations. Even today stone -churches are a conspicuous feature of the landscape in the midst of -poverty-stricken villages.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[Pg 300]</a></span></p> - -<p>At one time there was for some years a directed migration of young -women from France, sent out to become the wives of the colonists and -early in the history of the country a policy of bonuses for marriage, -and for large families, which has been repeated at intervals ever -since, was introduced. None the less, the colony grew but slowly and to -the failure to establish it on a sound biological foundation is due the -collapse of French rule.</p> - -<p>In 1665 the first census showed a population of 3215. In the next -hundred years this had increased to somewhat more than 70,000, with -an additional 20,000 in what are now the Maritime Provinces. That the -French could maintain the contest for so long against British neighbors -who outnumbered them twenty to one is to their credit, but their lack -of recognition that their settlement could not be permanent unless -based on a real migration of families ultimately cost them the country.</p> - -<p>One of the chief causes of the failure of French Canada to expand -beyond the narrow limits of the banks of the Saint Lawrence River, -during its first century of existence, was an obscure skirmish which -occurred on the west side of Lake Champlain in 1609. Champlain was -advancing toward the South in company with Canadian Algonquins, when he -encountered a war party of the Mohawks. In the fighting that followed, -some Mohawks were killed and captured. At that time and in that place -began the bitter enmity of the Iroquois Five Nations and the Canadian -French. It was a feud that was never<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[Pg 301]</a></span> allowed to rest and yearly war -parties of Mohawks went north along Lake Champlain and the Richelieu -River and devastated the lower portion of Quebec Province. At the -same time war parties of the Senecas descended the Saint Lawrence and -attacked the French from the West. As long as the power of the Iroquois -lasted, which was all through the seventeenth century, they devastated -a large part of New France.</p> - -<p class="center"> -<img src="images/illus11.jpg" alt="pic" /> -<a id="illus11" name="illus11"></a> -</p> -<p class="caption"> DOMINION <span class="smcap">OF</span> CANADA & NEWFOUNDLAND</p> - -<p>In the meantime, the Dutch and English were growing up in security to -the South and East. Thus Champlain's skirmish with the Iroquois was -the factor that delayed the expansion of France into the region of the -Great Lakes and down the Mississippi Valley until relatively late in -the eighteenth century.</p> - -<p>The French population still centers in Quebec Province, long known as -Lower Canada, but it has spread to other parts of the continent both -south and west of the Quebec boundary. Their expansion in Canada has -been into the neighboring provinces. Emigration to New England began in -the eighteenth century but was not considerable until the nineteenth -century.</p> - -<p>While this French-Canadian population has remained so fecund as to -furnish a stock example for every writer, it, too, has felt the trend -of the times. For a long time the government of Quebec offered a grant -of one hundred acres of land to every man who was the father of twelve -living children by one wife. In less than a single year over 3000 heads -of families availed themselves of this privilege and in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[Pg 302]</a></span> 1907 there -was published a list of 7000 families having at least twelve living -children.</p> - -<p>In spite of this fecundity, the birthrate has been declining for almost -the whole of the historical period. Two hundred and fifty years ago the -average for all women of child-bearing age in Quebec Province was one -child every two and one-half years. By 1850 this ratio had decreased to -one in five years. At present it is one in seven and one-half years. -Under this method of measurement, the rate of natural increase per head -is only one-third of what it was in colonial times. Even the Roman -Catholic "Habitant," therefore, has felt the effect of the general -decline of birthrate throughout the western world in the period since -the beginning of the industrial revolution.</p> - -<p>From the beginning of the nineteenth century there was a small but -steady immigration from the British Isles into Upper Canada, though -interrupted by the Napoleonic Wars. After the close of that conflict a -larger movement of population took place, which brought in an extensive -English population. Theretofore most of the arrivals had been Scotch or -Americans, so that a visitor in 1810 commented on the fact that he met -"scarcely any English and few Irish."</p> - -<p>In 1815 the government began to assist immigrants by giving free -passage and a grant of one hundred acres of land after arrival with -a promise of free rations for the first six or eight months and a -like amount of land to each male child on his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[Pg 303]</a></span> reaching the age of -twenty-one. A wise restriction required a deposit of a little less -than one hundred dollars by the immigrant, to be returned to him after -two years if he had complied with the terms of the contract on his -behalf. These provisions were availed of mainly by Scotchmen going to -Ontario. The scheme, however, had the advantage for our present purpose -of establishing for the first time records of immigration, which -thenceforth can be traced in detail.</p> - -<p>In 1819 the emigration from British ports to Canada was in excess of -20,000, and continued for years at about this rate in spite of the -booms which Australia and New Zealand were enjoying at the same time. -There was a substantial movement of emigration toward Canada in the -years 1830-34. In the nine years preceding 1837, more than a quarter of -a million emigrants from the British Isles arrived at Quebec on their -way westward, more than 50,000 of them in a single year.</p> - -<p>Primogeniture in England has been a powerful factor in building up the -British Commonwealth. The oldest son of a landed family inherited the -estate and the titles, if any, and stayed at home. The younger sons, -left to shift for themselves, were ready to emigrate. The colonies have -thus received a great many more settlers of first-class ability than -would otherwise have been the case. At the same time, the perpetuation -of family continuity, through the preservation of the ancestral home -intact, has been a strong psychological factor in maintaining a -vigor<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[Pg 304]</a></span>ous family life in the upper classes of Great Britain.</p> - -<p>By 1840 the population of Canada was approximately a million and a -half. During the next generation nearly a million more immigrants -arrived from British ports—the great Irish migration changing the -racial character of this movement markedly from about 1845. Prior to -that time the newcomers were pre-dominantly English, with Wiltshire and -Yorkshire largely represented. When the potato famine caused the Irish -to seek refuge elsewhere, they naturally turned their steps to England, -as the most easily and cheaply accessible of havens. Great Britain -could absorb only a limited part of these and began to direct them to -Canada, which, indeed, they preferred to the United States because the -Catholic Church was strong there.</p> - -<p>The emigrants were weak and in 1849 one-sixth of those who started -are said to have died on the voyage. The number of Irish who left the -United Kingdom in that year was 215,000, of whom nearly half were bound -for Quebec. Canada became alarmed at being made the dumping ground of -an enfeebled and destitute population so much in excess of its capacity -to absorb, and, by increased taxes and other means, slowed down this -immigration, which then headed toward the United States. Thereafter -many of the Irish who had already gone to Canada moved on down into the -Union, so that in the end Canada received a smaller part of the Irish -Catholic migration than might be thought.</p> - -<p>The census of 1871 furnishes a convenient point<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[Pg 305]</a></span> at which to take -a review of the population. It then totalled 3,485,761 in the four -original provinces (Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia). -British and French together, in the ratio of two to one, made up 92 per -cent. The only foreign element which contributed as much as 1 per cent -of the whole was the German, numbering more than 200,000 people, or 5.8 -per cent.</p> - -<p>The French Habitants have always formed a somewhat indigestible mass, -but half a century of struggle had resulted in a workable system of -government and compromise in the administrative life of the country. -The dominant element was the British, and save for the great mass of -French there was no large foreign block to menace the country's unity.</p> - -<p>In sharp contrast to the settlement of the West of the United States, -the occupation of the prairie and mountain provinces of Canada has -been marked by law and order. In our West, especially in the mining -districts, law was largely disregarded and its place taken by private -justice, administered by individuals.</p> - -<p>In Canada the Mounted Police have played a most efficient rôle in -controlling both the settlers and the Indians. At the time of the -Klondike rush in 1898, when hordes of gold seekers scrambled over the -passes to the head waters of the Yukon, a handful of Mounted Police -maintained a discipline for which the Americans themselves were very -grateful. In the same way the administration of the mining laws<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[Pg 306]</a></span> of the -Klondike, which is in Canadian territory, was admired and envied by the -Americans there.</p> - -<p>The Canadian treatment of the Indians in the western provinces was -also marked by an absence of the bloody wars which characterized our -westward advance. The only uprising against the Whites was the Riel -Rebellion in Manitoba, in 1869, which was by the half-breeds rather -than by the Indians and which had special underlying causes. All this -has been accomplished without the Whites in any way fraternizing with -the Indians.</p> - -<p>During the French period, the Canadian Indians always sided with the -French against the English, because under the influence of the Catholic -priests, the French Indian half-breed was regarded as a Frenchman and, -as a result, influenced his mother's people in favor of the ruling race.</p> - -<p>There were plenty of offspring of white frontiersmen and Indian squaws -all along our frontier, but these half breeds were everywhere kicked -out and despised as Indians. This attitude toward the lower race has -always characterized our American frontier and while very unpopular -with the natives, has served to keep the White race unmixed, in sharp -contrast to the French and Spanish colonies.</p> - -<p>Canada still has more than 100,000 Indians, four times as many in -proportion to the whole population, as in the United States.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Newfoundland, for geographical reasons, even though it has politically -no relation to Canada, is the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[Pg 307]</a></span> most convenient starting point in -reviewing in more detail the subdivisions of the country.</p> - -<p>Larger than Ireland, the island claims to be the "senior colony" of -the British Commonwealth. John Cabot, a Genoese, sailing from Bristol, -discovered it in 1497, according to the traditional account, and -took possession of it in the name of Henry VII. Within a few years -fishermen, not merely English but French, Spanish, Portuguese, and -Basque, were landing there to dry and cure the enormous quantities of -cod caught on the Great Banks, which still form the principal wealth of -the colony. In fact, some writers believe that the island may have been -discovered long before the time of Columbus, by fishermen. At any rate, -the effective occupation, though scarcely the continuous settlement of -Newfoundland, long antedated the colonization of Virginia and many of -the original English residents came from Devonshire.</p> - -<p>The aboriginal inhabitants, the Beothics, disappeared half a century -ago. They were probably Eskimos, or closely related to them, and are -sometimes spoken of as "Red" Indians, in contrast to the "Black" -Indians, the Micmacs, who have recently immigrated in small numbers -from New Brunswick.</p> - -<p>Newfoundland has nearly a quarter of a million inhabitants, but its -backward stage of development still makes it little known to the -outside world.</p> - -<p>On the mainland a long strip of the Atlantic Coast and a large triangle -of land behind it are attached to Newfoundland administratively, under -the name of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[Pg 308]</a></span> Labrador. Because of its scanty population it may well be -disregarded in the present discussion.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Nova Scotia during Colonial days was almost a New England colony. It -was known to the French as "Acadie" and was ceded to England in 1713.</p> - -<p>Interposed between New England and French Canada, Acadia suffered -heavily from the warfare that went on between the two regions. -The existence of a large French population was always a source of -irritation, and of danger, to the English. Finally in 1758 the French -were cleared out, about 6000 of them being distributed throughout the -English colonies, and the remainder escaping to Canada. Those who came -to the thirteen colonies suffered hardships, but on the whole were more -humanely treated than were those who fled to their co-religionists in -Quebec Province. The place of the exiled Acadians<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> was largely taken -by New England emigrants.</p> - -<p>The American population of Nova Scotia was further greatly augmented -at the time of the Revolution by an influx of Loyalists. These came -in such numbers as to disturb the colony seriously, but formed an -invaluable addition of the best sort of British stock. This general -trend has continued so that, even in 1921, of the foreign-born -population of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[Pg 309]</a></span> Nova Scotia, that which originated in the United States -was twice as large as all the rest of the foreign-born population put -together.</p> - -<p>The Scotch immigration which has exercised such an important influence -on the eastern counties of Nova Scotia began about 1760 with the -arrival of Scots and Ulster Scots. In 1772 a contingent of Highlanders -direct from Scotland took up land alongside an American group from -Philadelphia. From then on until about 1820, a steady stream of -Highlanders came into the region; Gaelic is still spoken in parts -of the colony. Nova Scotia with the other Maritime Provinces still -represents the most purely British of all the Canadian provinces, and -as shown, an important part of its population came to it through the -United States.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>New Brunswick was established on August 16, 1784, out of a part of -ancient Acadia. It also received an important number of Loyalists -at the time of the Revolution—indeed it might be said to owe its -existence to the arrival of some 10,000 expatriates from the United -States. But the bulk of the population is Scottish with a strong -Highland contingent. There are few foreign-born other than a small -element from the United States.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Prince Edward Island is similar as to its population and is the most -purely "native" of all, only one in each one hundred in this province -being foreign-born. The Roman Catholics there include a consid<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[Pg 310]</a></span>erable -number of Scotch Highlanders and number nearly a half of the population.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Quebec is still the stronghold of the French-Canadians, more than -half of whom are unable to speak the English language. The French -stock still numbers one-fourth of the entire population of the entire -Dominion of Canada. On the northern frontier of Quebec there was some -mixture with the Indians, but the half-breeds are probably not numerous -enough to form a substantial part of the old population. In addition to -their great movement to New England the French-Canadians have spread -into Ontario, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island to some extent.</p> - -<p>The French-Canadian stock is the most highly inbred of any of the -large groups of the New World. It is based on original immigrants who -numbered a good many less than 10,000. In the course of three centuries -this nucleus has multiplied to 3,000,000, with virtually no additions -of fresh arrivals from abroad. They have lived a New World life longer -than have most of the Whites of the Western Hemisphere, and must be -put in a class by themselves. They are not French, in spite of their -language—an archaic speech at which the true Frenchman laughs. In -every way they differ from the present-day French, more indeed than -New Englanders of Colonial descent now differ from the present-day -Englishman. From the cradle to the grave they are surrounded by the -influence of the Roman Catholic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[Pg 311]</a></span> Church to an extent almost as unknown -to the present-day French as it is to the present-day Americans. Of -late years not only those who have come to New England, but some of -those living in Quebec Province have shown a disposition to break away -from the church because of its heavy and inexorable taxation.</p> - -<p>The French-Canadians, in Quebec and the neighboring provinces, were, to -an extent, disloyal to the British Empire in the Great War. Under the -influence of their priests they resisted the draft in several instances -and there was bloodshed in Quebec on this account. As has been said -elsewhere, these Frenchmen would not fight for the British Empire, -which had guaranteed them extraordinary privileges as to their language -and religion, nor would they fight for France, which they claimed as -motherland, but which they now regarded as atheistic. Neither would -they fight for Belgium, which is pretty nearly as clerical as they are. -In short, their conduct during the World War was contemptible and in -sharp contrast to the militant and effective patriotism of the more -westerly provinces of Canada.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Ontario, called Upper Canada in distinction to French-speaking Lower -Canada, received its first important population from the United -States when Loyalist refugees, including many Highland Scots, mainly -from northern and western New York, settled there and became known -as the United Empire Loyalists. Among these immigrants, were the -dis<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[Pg 312]</a></span>banded frontier regiments which had been organized by Sir John -Johnson, including abundant Macdonalds from Glengarry and Inverness, -together with Camerons, Chisholms, Fergusons, MacIntyres, Russells, and -Hamiltons, who opened up the region constituting the present counties -of Glengarry, Stormont, and Dundas.</p> - -<p>In 1785, almost the entire parish of Knoydart, Glengarry, emigrated -direct from Scotland and settled in a body in Upper Canada. In 1793 a -contingent from Glenelg settled at Kirkhill. In 1799 came many Camerons -from Lochiel, and in 1803 another delegation of Macdonalds arrived, -with more people from Glenelg and Kintail. Thus Ontario, which in 1791 -was set off from (French) Lower Canada and given its own government -under the name of Upper Canada, became almost as much entitled to -consider itself a "Nova Scotia," as did the Maritime Province of that -name.</p> - -<p>At the end of the American Revolution, Upper Canada was supposed not -to contain as many as 10,000 inhabitants. By 1811 it had 83,000 and -by 1817 it was estimated to have 134,000. While many Irish came at a -somewhat later period, most of these eventually went on to the United -States.</p> - -<p>The interference with British immigration caused by the Napoleonic -wars led to Upper Canada's offering special attraction to settlers -from the United States. The lack of sympathy of these with the British -Government during the War of 1812 was an embarrassment to Canada, just -as the loyalty of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[Pg 313]</a></span> United Empire group, which prevented Canada from -being conquered by the United States, was in turn a serious annoyance -to the American Government.</p> - -<p>The later settlement of Ontario was largely from Scotland and the -northern English counties, and was pre-dominantly Presbyterian. There -were enough Ulster Scots to make it an active center of the American -Protective Association of forty years ago and it is definitely, at the -present time, a Nordic territory.</p> - -<p>During the present century it has received thousands of Austrians, -Poles, and Italians, who introduced racial elements not easily -assimilated.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Manitoba began to be settled shortly after the War of 1812, when Lord -Selkirk established his Red River Colony. The Scotch Highlanders, -Swiss, and others whom he planted there did not prosper, and many of -them eventually drifted down into the United States, taking an active -part in the formation of Minnesota. Around this nucleus, however, -there gradually grew an incongruous and isolated settlement made up -of three elements that had almost nothing in common; the Scotch, the -French-Canadians, and the half-breeds. In 1849 the Red River Settlement -was credited with 5391 people. With the establishment of steam -navigation on the Red River, and the official creation of Winnipeg, -both of which occurred in 1862, development began on a larger scale.</p> - -<p>A provisional government was given to the territory in 1869, and from -time to time land was gen<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[Pg 314]</a></span>erously allotted to the early white settlers, -to the half-breeds, and to the Hudson's Bay Company. Thereafter the -province grew slowly, from the natural increase of its founders and -from a Nordic migration from Ontario and from the neighboring parts of -the United States, until the mixed European immigration of the last -half-century changed somewhat the character of the population. These -latter now account for one-third of the whole.</p> - -<p>The proportion of these non-Nordic Europeans, from southern or central -Europe, is three times as great as the European immigration from either -northern or western Europe. If this immigration continues in like -proportions, Manitoba, like the other prairie provinces, is in danger -of being lost to the Nordics.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Saskatchewan has a larger American-born population than Manitoba, one -resident in every eight having first seen the light of day under the -American flag. But it has a still larger recent European immigration -amounting to nearly 40 per cent of the total population of the -province. A bare half of the people of Saskatchewan are of British -origin.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Alberta has both a somewhat smaller European element and the largest -American-born contingent of any of the provinces, amounting to one in -six. Many English of a fine type have settled there.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>In all the Prairie Provinces the French-Canadian<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[Pg 315]</a></span> represents scarcely -more than one in twenty of the population.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>British Columbia has prided itself with justice on its British origin, -and is exceeded in this respect only by the Maritime Provinces. Of its -European immigrants (one in eleven of the whole), approximately equal -numbers are Nordics from northern or western Europe, and Alpines or -Mediterraneans from southeastern and central Europe. During the World -War its young men showed great attachment to the mother country, and -the loss from death was correspondingly great. Because of its great -distance from the ports of entry, it was long avoided by immigrants. -Not until about 1907 did it begin to get its fair share. Since then, it -has held its own, about half of its new arrivals however coming from -the United States.</p> - -<p>The province also has its Asiatic problem, which has been the source -of hard feeling on several occasions. One of the great hindrances to -its more rapid development was shortage of labor, and it was natural -that the Orient, which could reach British Columbia more easily and -cheaply than could either Europe or even the Atlantic provinces of -Canada itself, should be called upon to meet the need. Chinese soon -began to enter, until stopped by a head tax of $500. Japanese came in -considerable numbers, not merely in the fisheries but for day labor in -railway construction. Some 6000 Hindus likewise found their way there. -Orientals now amount to one in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[Pg 316]</a></span> every seven of the total population. -There is a real Asiatic question here and the Whites are beginning to -look to the United States for protection.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Canada's immense arctic area, the Yukon and the Northwest Territories, -may be neglected in this discussion because of the lack of population. -Those who see in the mosquito-infested tundra of "The Land of Little -Sticks," with its months of winter darkness, a future populous area of -agricultural and livestock industry are destined to wait long for the -realization of their dream.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>So far as the British element in Canada is concerned, it has been -pointed out above in several places that the country is to a certain -extent an offspring of the United States. This contribution has -continued up to the present time. During the 1880's there was another -great period of migration from the Union to the Dominion. At that time -nearly twice as many entered Canada from this country as from Great -Britain, and six times as many as from the continent of Europe.</p> - -<p>Not all of these Americans were of the old native stock. It has been -calculated that at least half of this contingent was of British -extraction, the other half being made up of various European -nationalities who, after becoming acclimated to the New World in the -United States, passed on to Canadian soil. Thus the contribution from -the United States during that period did not represent a purely Nordic -accession.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[Pg 317]</a></span></p> - -<p>The 1890's represented a period of British immigration. But, with -the turn of the century, Canada began to share in the great influx -of miscellaneous peoples who were already deluging the shores of the -United States. During the first twelve years of the twentieth century, -Canada received 2,000,000 people, of whom 800,000 were British. About -700,000 others came from the United States, but more than a third of -these are calculated to have been Continental arrivals who merely -passed through the United States for convenience. In 1901 there were in -Canada some 650,000 of "foreign stock"—that is, of neither British nor -French origin. In 1921 there were more than twice as many. Since the -beginning of the century Canada has acquired more than 100,000 Jews.</p> - -<p>After the World War the Empire Settlement Act began to make itself -felt, reducing markedly the proportion of immigrants from the United -States into Canada while from 1900 onward Ireland began to figure -heavily in the immigration statistics.</p> - -<p>In 1930 there were, on the other hand, over 1,200,000 Canadian-born, -both of British and French stock, in the United States and during the -preceding eight years 300,000 had returned to Canada.</p> - -<p>Not only have the western provinces, then, been thrown violently into -a disequilibrium by the population changes of the last generation, but -the stability of the whole Dominion has been menaced. Canada, like the -United States, has taken on a great liability in the admission of the -hundreds of thou<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[Pg 318]</a></span>sands of non-Nordics, who will be hard to assimilate, -even if it be assumed that they would become valuable when assimilated, -which is by no means always the case. One of Canada's advantages, on -the other hand, is the negligible proportion of Negroes, and it might -well erect barriers even now against them, as it has already done -against the Asiatics.</p> - -<p>With its immense territory and more than 10,000,000 inhabitants, Canada -is still to be credited to the Nordics, though, if the population -trends that began with this century should continue, the balance would -change rapidly. While the United States has contributed by far the -largest number of foreign-born, Russia has contributed the second -largest number of immigrants, Saskatchewan receiving more of these than -any other province. Ontario, Quebec, and Manitoba have received about -equal numbers, in each case one-third less than went to Saskatchewan. -Those of Austrian birth, who are third in the list, are concentrated in -the two provinces of Manitoba and Saskatchewan in about equal numbers, -each of these provinces having almost twice as many Austrian-born as -Alberta or Ontario. The Chinese stand fourth in numbers among the -foreign-born of the Dominion, but most of them are concentrated in -British Columbia. Ontario has almost as many Italians as all the rest -of Canada put together, and it has also the largest number of Poles.</p> - -<p>Because of the great body of French-Canadians, the Roman Catholic -Church is proportionately twice as strong as in the United States.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[Pg 319]</a></span></p> - -<p>The 1921 census showed the population to be made up as follows:</p> - -<table summary="census" width="35%"> -<tr><td></td><td align="right">PER CENT</td></tr> -<tr><td>British origin</td> <td align="right">55.40</td></tr> -<tr><td>French</td> <td align="right">27.91</td></tr> -<tr><td>Other European</td> <td align="right">14.16</td></tr> -<tr><td>Indian</td> <td align="right">1.26</td></tr> -<tr><td>Asiatic</td> <td align="right">.75</td></tr> -</table> - -<p>This computation distributes the immigrants from the United States -according to their racial stock; thus the main part would be classified -with those of British origin, a smaller part as "other European," and -so on.</p> - -<p>From the foregoing it is evident that Canada is now less than 60 per -cent Nordic—probably less Nordic than the United States.</p> - -<p>Canada has been the great obstacle to extending the American -immigration quotas to the countries of the Western Hemisphere. The -majority of its inhabitants are our own kinsmen, many of whom have -already contributed elements of great value to our population. Others -would be most welcome if they chose to come.</p> - -<p>Our nation has been unwilling to put the slightest restriction on -Canadian immigration, by applying a quota; and it was thought it would -be invidious and discriminatory to apply a quota to the countries south -of us, and not to the one to the north. That difficulty will have to be -met firmly in the near future. One proposed solution has been to admit -from Canada only those whose mother tongue is English.</p> - - - -<div class="footnotes"><p class="ph3">FOOTNOTES:</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> Acadie in the Micmac language means "place." Henry -Wadsworth Longfellow's pathetic poem, "Evangeline," embodies the -anti-English sentiments of the early nineteenth century in New England -and is founded largely on an error of spelling, which made "Arcadia" -out of the Indian word. The expulsion of the French in 1758 was by -Bostonians under Colonel John Winslow, and was justified by the refusal -of the French to accept loyally the rule of the English.</p></div></div> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[Pg 320]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="ph2"><a name="XVII" id="XVII">XVII</a></p> - -<p class="center">OUR NEIGHBORS ON THE SOUTH</p> - - -<p><span class="smcap">Unlike</span> Canada on our north, the countries south of the Rio Grande have -been relatively little influenced by Nordic culture, to say nothing -of anything resembling a Nordic conquest. The outlying territories of -Mexico which were annexed to the United States were nearly empty lands -and present Mexican influences in the Southwest are matters of more -recent date.</p> - -<p>Latin America is one of the major divisions of the World, and from the -present point of view should no more be discussed as a unit than could -Europe or Asia. Its original population represents one of the great -racial divisions of mankind. Its twenty different nations now speak -several different languages, and embrace representatives of all the -important races of both hemispheres.</p> - -<p>The general area gets such unity as it possesses from the Latin and -Roman Catholic aspect of its culture as contrasted with the Protestant, -Anglo-Saxon culture of America north of the Mexican border. This Latin -civilization was originally Spanish (in Brazil Portuguese), but since -the era of the revolutions which threw off the Spanish yoke, the -Spanish influence has become more and more neg<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[Pg 321]</a></span>ligible, and locally has -been somewhat supplanted by the French, and, to a small extent, by the -Italian influence.</p> - -<p>Latin America was never colonized at all in the sense that North -America was colonized. English settlers with their families came to the -New World to found homes, but the early history of Latin America was -that of a series of plundering and proselyting expeditions, and such of -the adventurers as tarried were usually men without families who had -no desire to stay a day longer than was necessary to acquire a fortune -and return to Europe. Add to these the military forces who came under -compulsion, and the missionaries, administrators, and concessionaires -of all kinds and one has the bulk of the early European immigration.</p> - -<p>Under these circumstances the number of women who came with their -husbands was naturally small, and most of the Europeans took Indian -wives, frequently several of them, thus laying the basis for the -half-breed population of the present day. In Paraguay, for instance, -some of the colonial rulers are said to have had fifty or a hundred -native concubines. If every descendant of these matings carries the -Spanish name but has married mainly with Indian stock in the ten or -fifteen generations since, it is easy to understand that present-day -families may bear the names of hidalgos, of whose genetic traits they -have virtually none.</p> - -<p>The number of European immigrants was never large. During the sixteenth -century, a period of ac<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[Pg 322]</a></span>tive exploitation, the entire movement from -Spain to America is thought to have represented only about 1000 or 1500 -persons a year. With a high death rate, and the disposition on their -part to return as soon as possible, there was no opportunity for the -Spaniard to establish the basis of a civilization built upon his own -race.</p> - -<p>By 1553 foundling half-breeds numbered thousands in Spanish America -and the viceroy Mendoza was obliged to establish an orphan school for -them. Even at the end of the eighteenth century, when Humboldt visited -Mexico City, he remarked that of the European-born Spaniards there, not -one-tenth were women. The proportion of women must certainly have been -still smaller in the provincial towns and on the frontiers.</p> - -<p>So far as the present population goes back to the early days of Spanish -dominion, it may be said to be Spanish by name and Indian by blood. The -families, which in many Spanish American countries have social prestige -because of descent from the conquerors and rulers of the Colonial -Period, must therefore attach all importance to the family name, and -little or none to the many other lines of descent which have entered -into the composition of their present generation.</p> - -<p>Honorable exception should be made in almost every one of the Spanish -American republics of a small group of Whites that has consistently -maintained its racial integrity and upheld intelligent ideals of racial -progress, under most difficult conditions.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[Pg 323]</a></span> In many of the countries, -too, there are groups of far-seeing intellectuals who are working -for the adoption of wise immigration policies, presenting sound and -constructive measures of eugenic reform, and striving to awaken their -fellow countrymen to the fact that a nation's capital is, in the last -analysis, biological, and that permanent and satisfactory progress is -possible only to a people with a healthy family life.</p> - -<p>In many of the Latin American countries the Whites, or those who pass -as such (for they have, in most cases, a large proportion of Indian -blood) form an oligarchy or ruling caste occupying the higher positions -in the political and ecclesiastical worlds. They also constitute the -land-owning and professional classes, while commerce and industry are -largely in the hands of foreigners or their descendants. In many cases -these foreign immigrants marry into the best native families, and thus -their children become a part of the ruling caste.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Mexico. The restriction of European immigration into the United -States under the National Origins Quota cutting off what had been the -principal source of unskilled labor had an unexpected and undesirable -effect in encouraging immigration from nearby countries of the Western -Hemisphere, which were not under the quota, and particularly from -Mexico. Industries accustomed to depend upon cheap, ignorant, and -docile workers from Mediterranean or Alpine countries turned to the -illiterate<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[Pg 324]</a></span> Indians on the South as a ready substitute. The stream of -arrivals across the border, more illegal than legal, soon brought into -the United States more than a million Mexicans. Only the unexpected -depression beginning in 1929 stemmed this tide and apparently prevented -Mexico from reconquering peacefully, by an immigrant invasion, the -territory it had lost by the decision of war in 1848.</p> - -<p>Since the sixteen million residents of Mexico are the nearest large -body of people in a position to supply immigrants to the United States -and ready to do so, a study of their composition is of the highest -importance at the present time. Mexico at the time of the Spanish -Conquest had seen the rise and fall of several relatively high native -civilizations, and that of the Aztecs, which was destroyed by the -Spaniards, had many noteworthy features. The combination of brutality -and piety which dominated the conquerors led to the extermination as -far as possible of every salient feature of the native culture. The -country was, thereafter, exploited ruthlessly by the Spaniards, but the -Spanish civilization, such as it was, did not succeed in establishing -itself in this foreign soil. The history of the last four centuries -has been a history of the gradual absorption of the foreigners by the -Indian element. This is true alike of race and culture.</p> - -<p class="center"> -<img src="images/illus12.jpg" alt="pic" /> -<a id="illus12" name="illus12"></a> -</p> -<p class="caption"> MEXICO CENTRAL AMERICA AND THE WEST INDIES</p> - -<p>The large native population found here by the Spaniards was quickly -reduced in numbers. A Spanish priest enumerates ten plagues which had -decimated the people during his time, that is, during the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[Pg 325]</a></span> first -quarter of a century after the conquest. First the smallpox, brought -by a Negro in one of Narvaez' ships. It is said to have destroyed more -than half of the people in many of the provinces. The others were: the -slaughter in the capture of Mexico City, the famine resulting from -the widespread warfare; the abuses of overseers of the towns given in -vassalage; the heavy tributes; the tremendous abuses in connection -with the mines; the reconstruction of Mexico City by forced labor; -the traffic in branded slaves; the abuses of transportation, with -Indians as human beasts of burden; and the factional warfare among -the Spaniards themselves, in which the Indians bore the brunt of the -fighting. To these should be added particularly the other infectious -diseases that the Spaniards introduced, such as tuberculosis and -syphilis, as to which the aboriginal inhabitants had not the slightest -immunity or resistance, through previous racial experience.</p> - -<p>Under such conditions the native population of the hemisphere was -probably reduced by 50 or 75 per cent in a few generations, and in -the West Indies it was exterminated. Since then it has been steadily -regaining ground on the mainland, though not in the islands, in many of -which the Negro has replaced it.</p> - -<p>The number of Spaniards who came at any time to Mexico is placed at -300,000 at the outside. Many of these certainly did not remain in the -country and few of them brought their families. Under the conditions -that existed in Mexico and the other con<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[Pg 326]</a></span>quered territories, it was -universally recognized that the situation was not suitable for a white -woman. While the Spanish Government encouraged men to take their wives -out from Spain, few of them cared to do so, and probably most of the -men who came to the colonies were unmarried. Spain put insuperable -difficulties in the way of unmarried women who wanted to emigrate, -so that Spanish women throughout the history of Mexico were few. The -resulting population is therefore made up of the offspring of the -Indians and of a few Spanish men mated to Indian women. Most of the -Mexican population is still pure or nearly pure Indian. There is a -considerable hybrid element which does most of the talking, and a -negligible element that can be considered white in the strict sense of -the term.</p> - -<p>Mexican statistics commonly designate about 10 per cent of the -population as white. But most of these have much Indian blood, and -recent students doubt whether 3 per cent are properly to be described -as white. Much of this genuine white element is in Mexico City, though -the various states have their local and reputable white aristocracies, -of which that in Yucatan is conspicuous for the maintenance of high -standards of racial integrity.</p> - -<p>The Mexican revolution which began in 1810 dislodged the overseas -Spanish and substituted exploitation by the local hybrid group. Since -then the general trend has been toward the rise to control of the -Indians. The last period of revolution, which began in 1910 and may -be said to be still in progress, has<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[Pg 327]</a></span> been marked by attempts to take -away from the hybrid oligarchy the immense land properties which it had -obtained and to distribute them to the Indians. While this has met with -many difficulties, and has been realized only to a small extent, it has -been at least the avowed objective of most of the revolutionists in the -past two or three decades.</p> - -<p>During recent years there has been a glorification of the Mexican -Indian and his culture by North American writers. No doubt the Mexican -Indian is well suited to his environment, and his traditional habits -are well suited to him. This does not mean, however, that either has -any important contribution to make to the United States which would be -realized by a northward mass migration of agricultural and industrial -serfs. On the contrary, the Mexican immigration to the United States, -which is made up overwhelmingly of the poorer Indian element, has -brought nothing but disadvantages. It has created, particularly in the -Southwestern States, an exploited peasant class unconformable with -the principles of American civilization. This population, neither -physically nor mentally up to the prevailing standards, is producing a -large contribution to the future American race, since every one of its -numerous children born in the States becomes an American citizen by -birth.</p> - -<p>Tests made in the schools of southern California, in which the language -handicap was discounted as far as possible, indicate that the average -Mexican child was about as far below the average Negro<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[Pg 328]</a></span> child in -abstract intellect as the average Negro child was below the average -white child.</p> - -<p>Physically, the race is conspicuous by its low resistance to -tuberculosis, which has exterminated so large a part of the native -population of the Western Hemisphere during the last four centuries. -The New World had not been subject to tuberculosis and therefore -offered a fertile field for the germs of this disease. The population -of the Old World had been ravaged by it for many centuries, and in each -generation the low resistants had been killed off so that a more immune -stock had been gradually produced by natural selection.</p> - -<p>Such studies as have been made in the Southwestern States indicate -that the average Mexican family is at least half again as large as -the average white family. Thus there is every reason to expect that, -without a sharp limitation of such immigration, the Southwest will -become more and more Mexicanized.</p> - -<p>By 1928 Los Angeles County had more than a quarter of a million -Mexicans, and the City of Los Angeles had the largest Mexican -population of any city in the world, with the exception of Mexico -City. Whole industries and whole agricultural areas had come to -think themselves largely dependent on Mexican labor, while millions -of American citizens were out of employment in every State of the -Union. The dependence of agriculture in the Southwestern States on -cheap Mexican labor, largely of a migratory nature, is particularly -disastrous from a racial point<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[Pg 329]</a></span> of view, since the maintenance of -American civilization depends largely on the maintenance of a healthy -and prosperous farm population.</p> - -<p class="center"> -<img src="images/illus13.jpg" alt="pic" /> -<a id="illus13" name="illus13"></a> -</p> -<p class="caption"> DISTRIBUTION OF MEXICANS<br /> - - - -<i>The figures represent distribution of Mexicans by states per 100000 -of population in 1930</i><br /> - -Distribution of Mexicans by States. Except in the border States -Mexicans are chiefly concentrated in large urban centers.</p> - -<p>Nearly all of the Mexicans who came to the United States were seeking -to better themselves economically and to avoid the murder and plunder -that had been going on in their country for a score of years under -the guise of revolution. Most of them intended to return home as soon -as conditions became more satisfactory, but as conditions from year -to year failed to improve, the Mexican population tended to become a -permanent one. At the same time few of the Mexicans became American -citizens, and in every community where they settled in racial groups -there were unsatisfactory standards of education and sanitation.</p> - -<p>Most of the Mexicans come with their families, thereby differing -markedly from some of the other foreign groups, as the Bulgarians, -Greeks, Spanish, and Filipinos, which consist mainly of unmarried men. -These latter either return home after making money, or else intermarry -with the other immigrant groups. The Mexican community, on the other -hand, perpetuates itself and increases without much intermarriage with -the other population.</p> - -<p>Since the depression beginning in 1929 there has been a repatriation of -a portion of the Mexican immigration of unknown size but undoubtedly -considerable. Lack of work has led many to go home where they can live -more economically and be among friends, and at the same time American -authorities<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[Pg 330]</a></span> began to offer free transportation back to Mexico for -those dependent on public charity, and willing to leave. Thus trainload -after trainload returned, and at the same time a tightening of the -immigration restrictions and procedures on the border cut down the flow -of immigrants to almost nothing.</p> - -<p>While the census of 1930 counted nearly a million and a half Mexicans -in the United States, it is probable that the number has since then -diminished, and it is of highest importance that it should not be -allowed to increase. The Mexican Indian has no racial qualities to -contribute to the United States population that are now needed, and -if he has any cultural contribution to make it will not be made by -the immigration of hundreds of thousands of illiterate and destitute -laborers.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Guatemala. More than half of the population of Guatemala is still pure -Indian, and the half breed class which plays such an important part in -Mexico and other countries is relatively less conspicuous there. The -inconsiderable white population is made up in part of the descendants -of old Spanish families and in part from more recent immigrants, -especially Germans.</p> - -<p>The proportion of Teutonic names among the rulers of Guatemala during -the last generation has been growing steadily. With two million -population Guatemala is the most powerful of the Central American -countries, but the Indians tend to be little more than a subject race -exploited by others, and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[Pg 331]</a></span> general progress of the country is -therefore in some ways slow.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Honduras suffers partly from its tropical situation but still more -from the mixture of races, and the large amount of Negro blood in -the population of the lowlands. By contrast with Guatemala the -Indian element is here unimportant, and the people are Negroes and -half-breeds, or a little of each. With its 600,000 population largely -of mongrel origin, the Republic has been a backward member of the -Central American group throughout most of its history. British Honduras -is an unimportant area with much the same characteristics. The -so-called Caribs along the coast are now scarcely distinguishable from -pure Negroes.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Salvador. Smaller than the State of New Jersey, Salvador has an -importance out of proportion to its size because of the dense -population and large amount of cultivable land together with a smaller -amount of Negro mixture than in the adjoining Republics. With a -population estimated at a million and a half (such a thing as a real -census is almost unknown in Latin American countries), its people are -largely of mixed blood with the Indian predominating, but the number of -pure-blooded Indians is not large compared with Guatemala.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Nicaragua, a synonym for turbulence in the minds of Americans, has also -a population of highly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[Pg 332]</a></span> mixed character. The Indians did not remain a -distinct group as in Guatemala, nor were they largely exterminated as -in Costa Rica. They were absorbed into a half-breed population of more -than 600,000 which has also in the lowlands a large Negro admixture.</p> - -<p>The upper classes of more or less remote European ancestry have -maintained a semi-feudal political dominance that has been disastrous -to the welfare of the country, and it is doubtful whether the Yankee -influence, which during the last generation has been stronger in -Nicaragua than in any of the other Latin American states except Panama, -has been particularly useful.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Costa Rica has always prided itself on being the whitest of the Central -American Republics, and its history of relative peace and prosperity -reflects this fact. Apart from a fringe of Indians and Negroes in -the lowlands, the population of nearly 500,000 is concentrated in a -beautiful and healthful inland region. The Indians of the country -having been driven out or destroyed at an early day, the settlers of -Costa Rica were unable to live as parasites exploiting serfs as did the -upper classes in some of the other Central American countries, but were -forced to settle on the land and work out their own salvation. While -they were therefore considered in colonial days to be in a pitiable -situation, the result was highly advantageous in the long run, for it -has given the country a more nearly genuine population of citi<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[Pg 333]</a></span>zens -prepared to contribute to the progress and welfare of the country.</p> - -<p>A large part of the Spanish blood in Costa Rica is supposed to be -Galician, and therefore to have a considerable Nordic infusion. The -Gallegos, as natives of this part of the Iberian Peninsula are called, -are one of the most law-abiding and hard-working of the numerous -peoples that comprise the Spanish Republic, and their descendants in -Costa Rica reflect credit on their origin. In most of the other Latin -American countries the Spanish element is supposed to be largely from -Andalusia and therefore quite different in make-up, with a noteworthy -Moorish element.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Panama with its hybrid population of half a million, largely Negro in -composition, is unimportant in the picture of Latin America. North -American influence has transformed it economically, but cannot change -mongrels into a sound and vigorous stock.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Colombia has large numbers of Negroes in the hot lowlands, but the -bulk of the six million population is Indian with a slight infusion -of European blood. The upper class of Colombia represents the results -of geographical isolation, the region until recently having been -inaccessible; and by virtue of a sort of intellectual inbreeding it has -long been the most conservative and least touched by foreign influence -of all the Latin American "aristocracies." The upper-class Colombian -prides himself with rea<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[Pg 334]</a></span>son on the purity of his Spanish blood, and -still lives to a large degree in the memories of the ancient colonial -period. In Bogotá there is an intense anti-Negro social sentiment. The -isolation of the half-breeds in Colombia has come nearer to producing a -new racial group than is to be found elsewhere in Latin America.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Venezuela, in spite of its nearly three million inhabitants, is an -unimportant country, largely hybrid with extensive Negro infiltrations. -As in many other Latin American countries, the number of Whites is -officially put down as about 10 per cent, but as in most such instances -it is doubtful whether one resident in fifty can properly be called a -white man, except by courtesy.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Guiana. The three Guianas, British, French, and Dutch, represent one of -the least attractive parts of South America in almost every way.</p> - -<p>British Guiana has 300,000 inhabitants of whom one-third are Negroes, -another third Orientals, mostly Hindu, and the remainder is largely -made up of crosses between these two elements, of a few thousand native -Indians, and of a handful of Whites.</p> - -<p>Dutch Guiana has a population well under a hundred thousand, largely -Orientals imported to furnish coolie labor and including Hindus, -Javanese, and Chinese. There are many Negroes and a couple of thousand -Whites.</p> - -<p class="center"> -<img src="images/illus14.jpg" alt="pic" /> -<a id="illus14" name="illus14"></a> -</p> -<p class="caption"> SOUTH AMERICA</p> - -<p>French Guiana differs from the Dutch settle<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[Pg 335]</a></span>ment mainly in being -smaller, its population being not much more than 30,000, including -many convicts or ex-convicts, for this has long been a French penal -settlement.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Brazil with a territory larger than the continental United States -differs from its neighbors in many striking ways, apart from the fact -that it was settled by Portuguese, not Spanish, and that its language -and culture are therefore Portuguese rather than Spanish.</p> - -<p>The Indian population was killed off or driven westward by the early -settlers just as in the United States, so that it is now confined -largely to the untracked and almost unpopulated forests of the -Amazonian Basin, where perhaps a couple of a million aborigines may -still exist.</p> - -<p>To provide labor the Portuguese imported slaves from Africa, and -then fused with them to produce the present-day pre-dominantly Negro -population. The Portuguese here thus repeated the experience of the -mother country. During the great years of Portuguese exploration and -colonization in the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries, -it has been estimated that a million Portuguese, mainly young men, -went to the tropics, and for the most part never came back. Negroes -were imported to take their places and to do the work of the country. -Intermarriage of these Negroes with the old population left Portugal -with a larger amount of Negro blood than any other European country, -and greatly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[Pg 336]</a></span> impaired its ability to contribute to the progress of -civilization. Thus Portugal, which, when dominated by the Nordics, had -set an extraordinary example of progress in many ways, now contributes -relatively little to such progress and only the rebirth of a reasonable -pride of race, and the application of a sound eugenics program will -enable it to regain a position of leadership.</p> - -<p>History has repeated itself in Brazil. The salvation of Brazil has been -the arrival during the past century of European immigrants. Thousands -of Germans poured into the Highlands of the Southern States where large -regions have an almost Teutonic civilization at the present time. If a -false interpretation of the Monroe Doctrine had not helped to interfere -with this process, the results for South America might have been most -beneficial.</p> - -<p>But the main currents of immigration have been from Latin countries of -the Old World. During the past century Brazil has received more than -four million foreigners, of whom a million and a half were Italians, -a million and a quarter Portuguese, and half a million Spanish. Thus -more than three-fourths of the immigration has been from the Latin -countries, and only about a quarter of a million from Germany and -Austria. Since the World War this overwhelming migration from the Latin -countries has slowed down. The German migration has, on the contrary, -increased.</p> - -<p>Brazil thus consists of two distinct areas: a relatively small, -fertile, and healthful highland region in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[Pg 337]</a></span> the south, where the main -activities of the country are carried on largely under the influence -of Mediterranean and Alpine immigrants; and a huge tropical area given -over mainly to the Negro and Mulatto element and the Indians.</p> - -<p>With a population of somewhere around 30,000,000 Brazil is not only the -largest of the South American republics, but nearly as large as all the -rest of them put together.</p> - -<p>The future of Brazil depends largely on the nature of its immigration -policy during the next generation or two and on the acceptance of a -workable program of eugenics. Fortunately, no South American country -has taken up such a policy with more interest than has this great -republic. It still possesses an aristocracy which has maintained its -racial purity, but this is probably too small a nucleus alone to -regenerate the whole body politic.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Uruguay. Crossing the boundary from Brazil to Uruguay, one sees a new -picture. Uruguay is almost entirely white. Indeed, this whole region -of La Plata is one of the future dominant areas of the New World. It -contains less Negro blood than does, relatively, the United States. Not -only have Negroes been largely kept out, but the remnants of Indian -tribes have become inconspicuous, as on the plains of the Mississippi -Valley, where the Indians, mere nomads with a negligible culture, were -driven back by the march of civilization. The striking parallel between -the settlement of this region and that of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[Pg 338]</a></span> the Western States of North -America is often pointed out. Each was a sheep and cattle country, and -then farmers took up land and developed it into a region of prosperity -and great potentialities.</p> - -<p>Uruguay has a cosmopolitan population almost wholly of European -origin. Since the World War it has attracted not only a large part of -the Spanish emigration but also large numbers of Italians, French, -Germans, and others. The earlier immigration was largely of North -Italians, mainly of Alpine blood with slight Nordic infusion. The total -population of the country is now well over a million and a half.</p> - -<p>A wise selection of immigration from now on will still further increase -the influence of this small republic, and set a good example for all of -South America.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Argentina represents one of the striking examples of a nation built up -rapidly by foreign immigration. Nearly 85 per cent of its people are -foreign-born or the descendants of recent immigration, with Italians -forming by far the largest group. Moreover, the Argentine Republic -has attracted the vigorous population of North Italy, which racially -is mainly Alpine but still has a Nordic element, and forms a striking -contrast to the population of South Italian and Sicilian immigrants -that have filled up the slums of North American cities. The North -Italians are more akin to the Swiss and the South Germans than they are -to the South Italians.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[Pg 339]</a></span></p> - -<p>Non-whites do not amount to 5 per cent of the population. The total -population of something like 10,000,000 makes the Argentine Republic -second only to Brazil in size in South America, and in every respect, -except size, it easily takes first rank.</p> - -<p>The racial composition of this extraordinary nation with its -ultra-modern civilization, and its get-rich-quick atmosphere, deserves -more extended treatment than can be given here. The English, though not -the most numerous, have taken the first place in its financial world. -French immigrants, though fewer in number, have become a very important -factor in the progress of its civilization. A hundred thousand Germans -have settled in the country and form the backbone of many regions.</p> - -<p>Since the war Argentina has been one of the principal destinations of -citizens of the former Central Empires who were going overseas. The -spirit of the civilization has attracted many Jews. More than 160,000 -immigrants during the last two generations are credited to Russia, -and almost an equal number to Turkey. These last, however, were Turks -only by force and were actually Christian Syrians from the Lebanon who -became so completely identified with the retail trade of the country -that the colloquial name for a small grocery store is "Turco."</p> - -<p>All of these elements together do not begin to measure in importance -with the Spanish and Italian elements. But in recent years new currents -have set in which, if continued, will profoundly modify the character -of the country by introducing a large num<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[Pg 340]</a></span>ber of Slavs, particularly -Poles, Yugoslavs, Czechoslovaks, and Lithuanians, together with the -Slavic element among the Germans. Before the World War the immigration -to Argentina was about seven-eighths from the Latin countries, but -since then these have furnished only about two-thirds.</p> - -<p>Argentina therefore represents a white population largely Alpine and -Mediterranean with a considerable Nordic element. It is doubtful -whether it stands to gain by allowing Alpines to increase, particularly -if this brings in different types of culture and traditions. Argentina -might well profit by the mistakes of the United States and immediately -orient its immigration policy along sound logical and constructive -lines.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Chile, unlike the Indo-Spanish countries just south of the United -States, is also a white man's country. The pure Indians are a vanishing -minority. The Spanish and dominant element is largely made up of -Basques, but there has been a substantial addition of British, whose -influence is important in commerce and industry, and of Germans, who -have dominated the army and education, and have been an important -factor in agriculture. Chile, with four million population, is -therefore the least Latin of any of the countries south of the United -States. The progressiveness and prosperity of the region have long -attracted the attention of every traveller.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Bolivia is another of the pre-dominantly Indian<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[Pg 341]</a></span> countries which have -made little contribution to the world. The number of Whites here is -negligible. Immigration has never been important and the Bolivian has -developed a provincial arrogance and hostility to foreigners which is -as prejudicial to his own interests as it is unwarranted. Scarcely -one-fifth of the people even speak Spanish in their daily life, and -two-thirds are primitive Indians, the others being hybrids of varying -degrees.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Paraguay is an Indian republic which has not only avoided the Negro -influence common elsewhere but has almost escaped the infusion of -white blood. There are scarcely any pure Whites. The Guarani Indians -of this region were not highly civilized like the Mayas and Incas, and -therefore took on a Spanish culture instead of retaining one of their -own. It would have been extremely interesting to see what an Indian -republic could amount to in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. -Unfortunately the course of experiment was obstructed by one of the -most sanguinary wars in history (1864-69) in which Paraguay carried on -a contest with Brazil and Argentina until the greater part of its male -population was destroyed. At the beginning of the war, the population -of Paraguay was officially said to be 1,337,437. Even if this were -extraordinarily inaccurate and exaggerated, the figures afterward were -no less so, for the calculation after the close of hostilities credited -the country with a loss of more than a million. More exactly, the -population was returned<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[Pg 342]</a></span> as 221,709, of which 86,079 were children, -106,254 women, and only 28,746 men. Nothing like this situation has -ever before been recorded in a large population. Whole regiments had -been made up of boys under sixteen. In more than half a century since -then, the country has not begun to recover. Even now its population is -less than a million. Immigrants from Europe have always avoided it. -Paraguay is in a class by itself.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Peru's four or five million inhabitants are mostly pure Indians, while -the remainder are nearly all hybrids. Chinese and Japanese as well as -Negroes have contributed to the mongrelization of the mass, and not -one in ten even claims to be white, which here, as elsewhere in Latin -America, by no means guarantees anything more than a homœopathic -dose of European blood.</p> - -<p>The aboriginal civilization is often described as remarkably high but -seems to have been the work of peoples who antedated the Spanish by a -long period; and the Conquerors themselves apparently considered the -Peruvian Indians to be less intelligent than those they had encountered -in Mexico. The number of Indians decreased during the early Spanish -regime until some districts were almost depopulated and the loss -of leaders especially was irreparable. Whether or not the present -inhabitants are the descendants of the Incas, they have not been able -to develop a strong and progressive state.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Ecuador is an isolated and unimportant re<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[Pg 343]</a></span>gion inhabited largely by -backward Indian tribes. Probably not less than two-thirds of the -2,000,000 population are pure Indian. The handful of Whites and the few -hundred thousand hybrids rule the country. The Negro element, never -large, is gradually being absorbed and is leaving its stamp on the -whole population.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>The West Indies are more important to the United States immigration -policy than would be expected from their size, because of their close -proximity to American ports of entry.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Cuba has always received its immigrants pre-dominantly from Spain, -and the imported Negro element, numbering about 800,000 of its three -millions of population, is not increasing in importance. The island is -considered less white than Puerto Rico, but more than a quarter of a -million of the inhabitants are Spanish-born, these comprising nearly -three-quarters of all the foreigners.</p> - -<p>As in many other Latin-American countries, the Chinese have taken a -strong hold, beginning nearly a century ago, and are intermarrying with -the Whites.</p> - -<p>Cuba does not represent a desirable or needed source of immigration to -the United States, and should be put under a proper quota.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Puerto Rico has a population of nearly a mil<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[Pg 344]</a></span>lion and a half. The fact -that this dense population cannot make a living under the present -and backward conditions on the island, and that it is continually -exercising its right of entry to the United States, is one of the most -serious features of the present immigration policy.</p> - -<p>The Negro and Mulatto element makes up a majority of the population but -is relatively losing ground—partly from high death rates and partly by -absorption in the mass. The Indian stock is extinct. Immigration from -abroad has been negligible for a long time.</p> - -<p>As the island is a territory, the inhabitants are citizens of the -United States and cannot be prevented from coming freely into the -mainland. The number of Puerto Ricans in New York City was at one time -estimated as high as 100,000. If economic conditions are attractive -there is nothing to prevent half a million of them from migrating to -the continent and adding their traits to the much-overloaded "melting -pot."</p> - -<p>It is now clear that the United States made a great mistake, after the -war with Spain, in taking over territories that were already populated -by aliens. Previously the territory that was acquired was largely -empty and suitable for settlement by the old stock. What has been done -is not easy to undo, but it may at least serve as an emphatic lesson -against any further acquisitions of inhabited territory in the future. -Meanwhile there is an embryonic movement for independence in Puerto -Rico, which may have to,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[Pg 345]</a></span> indeed should, be encouraged in order to give -the United States protection from its own folly.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>The Virgin Islands, which the United States bought from Denmark in -1917, have, like other West Indian islands, a population almost -exclusively Negro or Mulatto.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>The British West Indies are overwhelmingly black, though many of them, -such as New Providence, Barbados, Bermuda, and the Bahamas, have -substantial English aristocracies that guard jealously their racial -heritage. These British islands, particularly Jamaica and Barbados (the -latter one of the most densely populated spots in the whole world) have -been fertile sources of black emigration to other islands and to the -mainland.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Haiti is a purely Negro Republic, and offers a good illustration of -what the Negro accomplishes if left to himself, even though given all -the advantages of easy access to European civilization. The republic of -Santo Domingo occupies the other part of the same island; its hybrid -population has more Spanish and less Negro blood but it is not by any -means civilized.</p> - -<p>In general the islands of the West Indies now contain nearly 8,000,000 -people, the descendants of Negro slaves with a very small but -undiscoverable admixture of Indian blood and a somewhat larger but -still unimportant admixture of European<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[Pg 346]</a></span> stock. They present a standing -menace to the United States immigration policy, and afford one of the -principal arguments for extending stringent restrictions to the Western -Hemisphere. The whole Caribbean is in the process of becoming a Negro -territory. Such a result may be inevitable, but adjacent nations which -desire to remain white must protect themselves while there is time.</p> - -<p>In broad outline, the picture of Latin-America is the picture of a -diversified region occupied by some 80,000,000 people, mainly Indians, -but with varying proportions of White and Negro blood, the former -usually small in amount, the latter often large. The few countries that -may properly be called white are not emigrant-exporting countries, -and their inhabitants are for the most part non-Nordic, therefore not -particularly well adapted to incorporation in the United States.</p> - -<p>In conclusion, it may be remarked at this point that each successive -revolution in Latin America has tended toward hastening the elimination -of European blood and influence. It is usually the half-breeds who -revolt and they, in turn, are subject to the increasing self-assertion -of the pure native.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[Pg 347]</a></span></p> - - - - -<p class="ph2"><a name="XVIII" id="XVIII">XVIII</a></p> - -<p class="center">THE NORDIC OUTLOOK</p> - - -<p><span class="smcap">In</span> the preceding chapters we have seen the unity of the nation greatly -impaired in race and religion and threatened in language, but the -country is still 70 per cent Nordic and 80 per cent Protestant, and -no one foreign language seriously threatens our English speech. There -are nearly 50 per cent of Old-Native American Whites in the country at -large, although they have been swamped by aliens in New England and in -the industrialized States of the Northeast.</p> - -<p>The great majority of the senators of the United States are still -of old American stock and so are the members of the House of -Representatives. The leaders of the nation in science, education, -industry, and in the Army and Navy are still overwhelmingly Nordic, -so that with these elements in our favor we are still in a position -to check the increase of the other elements and contend against their -deleterious effects upon our institutions.</p> - -<p>Much of the immigration during the last century has been identical -with the old British stock in all respects. The English and the Scotch -who have come over here, as well as the Scandinavians and most of -the Germans, and perhaps some other elements, are to be regarded as -reinforcements of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[Pg 348]</a></span> older stock. On the other hand, most of the -people from southern and eastern Europe must be regarded as distinct -menaces to our national unity.</p> - -<p>The remedy is first and foremost <i>the absolute</i> suspension of all -immigration from all countries; and the signs of the times indicate -that such suspension is inevitable. Such a total suspension of -immigration would remove all grounds for charges of discrimination -against Asiatics, which now embarrass our foreign relations. At the -very least, the same quota limitations should be imposed on the -countries to the south of us as are enforced against Europe.</p> - -<p>In view of the fact that during the great depression which began in -1929 we had millions of unemployed of our own people here, we should be -deaf to sentimental pleas for the admission of relatives of any kind. -If families are separated, it has not been through the fault of the -American people, and the immigrant can return whence he came, if he -wishes to join his family. As a matter of fact, it is only one or two -groups which are so vigorously clamoring for the admission of relatives.</p> - -<p>Not only should European immigration be entirely stopped but still -more, all immigration of every sort from countries to the south of us -should be barred. In the islands and on the coasts of the Caribbean, -and in Mexico and in Central America, to say nothing of the countries -farther south, we have a vast reservoir of Negroes, and of Indians in -the interior, who sooner or later will be drawn toward<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[Pg 349]</a></span> the United -States by the high wages of common labor. The strictest legislation -at this time is necessary to prevent this impending invasion before -it assumes the dimensions of a flood, such as has already happened -in the case of the Mexican Indians. If immigration be not absolutely -prohibited, at very least, no one should be allowed to enter the United -States, unless a visitor or traveller, except white men of superior -intellectual capacity distinctly capable of becoming valuable American -citizens.</p> - -<p>The law of 1790 providing that no one could become a citizen of the -United States except free Whites was the law until the aftermath of the -Civil War added the word "black" or "of African descent" to those who -could be naturalized. This last provision should be repealed and the -blacks with the South American and Central American Indians put on the -same footing as the Orientals.</p> - -<p>All Filipino immigration should be stopped before it becomes a serious -menace. If possible, half-breeds from Hawaii should not be allowed -entry and absolute restriction should be placed on the entrance of -Negroes and Mulattoes from Puerto Rico. There are now swarms of them -in the Harlem District of New York. This last is simple justice to the -American Negroes.</p> - -<p>The increasing use of machines calls for less and less common labor, -and even in normal times there will be a surplus of man power for the -factories and the farms. Why should outsiders be allowed to come in and -take the jobs and lower the living standards<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[Pg 350]</a></span> of American labor? This -is one of the greatest questions before the American people and the -depression following 1929 has brought this truth home.</p> - -<p>We have now in this country over five million aliens who are not -citizens, more than a million of whom are said to be illegally here. -These last should be deported as fast as they can be located and funds -made available. There can be no better means of relieving unemployment -present or future than by such wholesale deportation. We should begin -with those aliens who have violated our laws or who have become public -charges and all such, now in our penitentiaries and asylums, should be -deported forthwith. When that has been done and done fully, it should -be followed by the deportation of unemployed aliens.</p> - -<p>Registration is necessary for the carrying out of any proper system -of deportation. Why any one should object to registration as a proper -means of identification is a mystery, unless there is a sinister motive -behind the desire to conceal identity.</p> - -<p>A storm of protest will arise from the vociferous and influential -foreign blocs and from the radicals and half-breeds claiming to be -Americans, who will all rush to the defense of their kind. It is -strange to find how sensitive we are to any foreign criticism of things -American, but how prone we are to listen respectfully to local aliens, -who are urging their own interests at the expense of the national -welfare.</p> - -<p>In order to curb the influence of these aliens and to prevent their -pernicious control by politicians, it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[Pg 351]</a></span> would also be wise to suspend -all naturalization for a generation at least. Our citizenship in the -past has been made of little value by the absurd way that it has been -thrust upon foreigners. Nothing can be more ill-advised politically -than the Americanization programs of some worthy people. An American -is not made by conferring upon him the franchise, but by the alien's -voluntary and genuine acceptance of our language, laws, institutions, -and cultural traditions.</p> - -<p>Even though the foregoing program were put into effect, which would, -possibly, be a "Counsel of Perfection," we would still have with us -an immense mass of Negroes and nearly as many southern and eastern -Europeans, intellectually below the standard of the average American. -The proper extension to and use by these undesirable classes of -a knowledge of birth control may be in the future of substantial -benefit, and the practice of sterilization of the criminal and the -intellectually unfit, now legally established in twenty-seven States, -can be resorted to with good result.</p> - -<p>The fundamental question for this nation, as well as for the world at -large, is for the community itself to regulate births by depriving -the unfit of the opportunity of leaving behind posterity of their -own debased type. Our civilization has mercifully put an end to the -cruel, wasteful, and indiscriminate destruction of the unfit by -Nature, wherefore it is our duty, as exponents of that civilization, -to substitute scientific control, that civilization itself may be -maintained.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[Pg 352]</a></span> Down to date the American stock has only just begun to -intermarry with the immigrant stock. When this process has gone -further—and it will go further—it will be more difficult to control -the destinies of the nation. It is therefore the duty of all Americans, -and such of the immigrant stock as are in sympathy with them, to face -the problem boldly and to take all eugenic means to encourage the -multiplication of desirable types and abate drastically the increase of -the unfit and miscegenation by widely diverse races.</p> - -<p>So much for our internal problems. The problems outside of our country -are a different matter. In the last century the world has grown -smaller, and, perhaps, in the long run America must take her part in -international affairs.</p> - - -<p class="center"><span class="smcap">The White Man's Burden</span></p> - -<p>As Americans we are faced with the necessity of assuming our share of -a burden which has been carried by Great Britain for the last three -centuries—that is "the White Man's Burden,"—the duty of policing the -world and maintaining the prestige of the white man throughout the -Seven Seas. Due to the change in the industrial situation all over the -world and to the spread of the fatal sentimentalism of the Anglo-Saxon, -the lower races in Europe and elsewhere are beginning to assert -themselves. Everywhere from one end of the world to the other is heard -the cry of self-determination.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[Pg 353]</a></span></p> - -<p>Americans already have much the same problem in the Philippines.</p> - -<p>The attitude of the Imperial Government in London toward the native -races in its various Dominions has been in the past and still is not -unlike that of the Federal Government in Washington toward the Negroes -in our Southern States.</p> - -<p>Americans must sympathize with the firm resolve of the handful of white -men in South Africa (less than a million and a half) to control and -regulate the Negro population there—numbering some seven millions and -in the midst of which they live. The same problem arises in Australia -and New Zealand where the Whites are determined that their civilization -shall not be swamped by Orientals.</p> - -<p>We must also sympathize with the Whites in Kenya Colony in their -opposition to a filling of their country with cheap Hindu labor. As -Americans we can understand the Negro and recognize his cheerful -qualities, but we can have little sympathy with the Hindu whom we -have expressly barred from our Pacific Coast. These Hindus, with -the Chinese, have ruined the native races of many of the Polynesian -Islands. They have been for ages in contact with the highest -civilizations, but have failed to benefit by such contact, either -physically, intellectually, or morally.</p> - -<p>Similar dangers exist on the Pacific Coast of Canada. The struggle for -the maintenance of the supremacy of the white man over the native, or -for that matter over the non-European, until now has<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[Pg 354]</a></span> been maintained -by Great Britain alone. Her ruling class has given the world the -greatest example since the days of Rome, of a just, fearless, and -unselfish government, but apparently the native does not desire such a -government.</p> - -<p>The old imperial instinct that enabled Great Britain to retain control -of the white man's world appears to be coming to an end. The weary -Titan seems willing to turn over the burden of government to the -Dominions as fast as the latter demand it. This is evidenced also by -the proposal to give up the naval base at Singapore. If this base -is ever actually abandoned, it means England's withdrawal from the -supremacy of the Pacific. In such event, whether we Americans like it -or not—whether we intend it or not—the burden of the control of the -Pacific will pass in great measure to America. The future lies in the -Pacific rather than in the Atlantic, and with the completion of the -Panama Canal, America is brought face to face with Oriental problems.</p> - -<p>Australia and New Zealand, still more British Columbia, look for -co-operation and leadership to the United States as well as to Great -Britain, and we must be prepared to accept this responsibility.</p> - -<p>We have our own troubles in respect to the Philippines. The swarming of -the Filipinos into the Pacific States brings with it a repetition of -the Chinese problem of sixty years ago. California is determined that -the white man there shall not be replaced by the Chinese, the Japanese, -the Mexican, or the Filipino. The Eastern States should face this -problem understand<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[Pg 355]</a></span>ingly, and recognize the simple fact that the white -men on the Pacific Coast of the United States and Canada are determined -to maintain a white ownership of the country, even though the East has -been willing to see New England swamped by French-Canadians and Polaks, -and the industrial centers of the North filled to overflowing with -southern and eastern Europeans.</p> - -<p>When we talk about the maintenance of the white man's ideals and -culture and about the supremacy of the white man, we are talking -about two distinct things. One is the determination of the white -man to keep for himself his own countries, the United States, Great -Britain, Canada, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, and many of -the smaller islands. With this determination Americans sympathize and -sooner or later we may be called on to help protect the White race -and the English language in these countries. It seems to be a part of -our destiny. The other phase of white supremacy is the white man's -effort to benefit the backward races and raise them to civilization by -instilling his language, his religion, and his culture into Asiatics -and Africans. This is the tendency of foreign missions, and it leads -sooner or later to a challenge by the natives of the control of the -Whites.</p> - -<p>To rule justly, as the English have in India and Burma, is for the best -interest of the native. For example, the United States should either -firmly govern the Philippines, which, in the last analysis, is for the -interest and enrichment of the Filipinos, or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[Pg 356]</a></span> else abandon them to -their own devices. If Japan ever gets hold of these islands, she will -keep them without regard to the wishes or interests of the native, as -that Empire is not greatly troubled with sentimentalists and native -sympathizers such as flourish in the United States.</p> - -<p>The Japanese, the Chinese, the Hindus, and the Moslems have cultures, -customs, religions, arts, literatures, and institutions of their own, -which for them may be, and in many cases probably are, as good as -our own. The writer does not see any gain in destroying these native -elements of culture or replacing them indiscriminately with the -institutions of the white man to which those races are, for the most -part, unfitted. Democracy is an excellent example. It simply will not -work among Asiatics. In fact, its success is yet fully to be proven in -the Western World.</p> - -<p>But the other side of the problem—whether we, the White race, shall -surrender our own culture, our own lands and our own traditions, -good or bad, to another race—presents a very different question. -Fortunately, in this case, Reason and Sentiment march hand in hand.</p> - -<p>The prestige and strength of Europe and Great Britain have been greatly -impaired since the World War and Western civilization sooner or later -may be forced to hand on the Torch to America.</p> - -<p>We see the Nordics again confronted across the Pacific by their -immemorial rivals, the Mongols. This will be the final arena of the -struggle between<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">[Pg 357]</a></span> these two major divisions of man for world dominance -and the Nordic race in America may find itself bearing the main brunt.</p> - -<p>In the meantime, the Nordic race, that has built up, protected, and -preserved Western civilization, needs to realize the necessity of its -own solidarity and close co-operation. Upon this mutual understanding -rest the peace of the world and the preservation of its civilization.</p> - -<p>Let us take thought as to how we can best prepare for our share of the -task before us—that is, bear our share of the White Man's Burden.</p> - - - - - - -<p class="ph2"><a name="BIBLIOGRAPHY" id="BIBLIOGRAPHY">BIBLIOGRAPHY</a></p> - - -<blockquote> - -<p>Abbott, John S.C., <i>Peter Stuyvesant</i>. 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München, 1837.</p></blockquote> - - - - -<p class="ph2"><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX">INDEX</a></p> - - -<p> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Aberdeen,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_379" id="Page_379">[Pg 379]</a></span> <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Abolitionists, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Acadia, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">"Acadie" (Nova Scotia), <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Achæans, invasions into Greece, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Nordics in West as, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Osco-Umbrians, kin to, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Africa, Negro slaves in, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Christianity in, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">(Ethiopia) early races in, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Alabama, settlement in, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">heart of Cotton Kingdom, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Scotch and English blood in, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">1930 census native population, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Alans, the, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Alaska, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Albanians, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Albany (N.Y.), <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Ulster Scots in, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">increase in Negroes in, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Albemarle, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Alberta, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Alemanni, the, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Alemannish dialect, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Alexander the Great, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Alien Act of 1798, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Aliens, public sentiment in America, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">attitude toward, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">restrictions of, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">opposition to restrictions of, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">literacy test for, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Quota Act of 1921, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">National Origins Act, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Alleghanies, Ulster Scots west of, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"poor whites" in, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Allentown (Pa.), <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Alpine race, characteristics of, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">origin of, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">similarity to Mongols, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">extent of domain, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Turanians, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Armenians, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">increase in Central Europe, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">in United States, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Alpine Slavs, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Alsace, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Amazonian Basin, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">America, Catholics in, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Jews in, 4, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>-227;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">South Germans in, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">relative diminution of Anglo-Saxon blood in, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">whites and blacks in, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">origin of American Indians in, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Norman element in, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Ulster Scots in, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">sentiment for France in, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">naval war with France in 1798, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">motive of early settlers in, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">migration from Leinster to, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Scotch Irish" of, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">emigration from Ireland to, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Huguenot migration to, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">North German Nordics in, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">opportunities for British race in, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">migration toward Pacific Coast, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">emigration of Scottish farmers to, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">emigration of Southern England farmers to, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">emigration of Irish to, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">emigration of Germans to, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">South Irish Catholics in, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">freedom of speech and press in, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">waste in, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">ratio of criminals in, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">alien invasion in, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>-234;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">migration following the Revolution, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">migration with panic of 1819, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">migration at time of land speculation by Andrew Jackson, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">minority of women among recent immigration groups in, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">solutions of Negro elimination in, <a href="#Page_285">285</a> ff.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;"><i>See also under</i> United States.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">American colonies, Nordics in, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">American Indians, Mongols and Alpines ancestors of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Mongolian blood in, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">American Protective Association, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">American Revolution, the influence of Massachusetts during, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">loss of population during, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">increase in migration following, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">New York State after, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">migration after, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">troops from New York and Massachusetts, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Calvinistic, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Amerinds, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Amish, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Andalusia, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Andover, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Angles, the, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Anglicans, Quakers become, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Angora, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Annapolis, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Apache Indians, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Apennines, the, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Appalachian valleys, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">lawlessness in, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Apulia, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Arabia, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">the Mediterraneans of, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Arabs, in Spain, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">race mixture among, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">period of expansion, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">ruined by Negro women, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Aral Sea, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Argentina, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">racial composition of, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Argonauts, the, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Argyllshire, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Arians, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Arius, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Arizona, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Mexicans in, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">separated from New Mexico, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Mormons in, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Texans in, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Indians in, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Arkansas, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">settlement in, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">growth of, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">British stock in, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Arkansas River, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Armenians, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Armorican language, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Aryan language, Centum group, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>-25;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Satem group, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>-25.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Ashkanazim Jews, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Asia, Christianity in, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Mongoloid tribes of northeastern, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">expansion of civilization in southeastern, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Asia Minor, Nordic Gauls in, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Turks in, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Asiatics, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Assyria, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Assyrians, cruelty of, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">"Asylum for the Oppressed," <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Atlas Mountains, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Attila, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Aurora (N.Y.), <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Austin, Moses, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Australia, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Negroids in, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">racial tangle in, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Australoids, the, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">compared to Alpines, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Austria, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Austrian Empire, languages in old, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Aztecs, the, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Babylonia, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Bactria, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Bahamas, the, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Baltic Sea, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Baltimore (Md.), growth of, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">cosmopolitan population in, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Baltimore, Lord, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Barbadoes, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Basques, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Bath (N.Y.), <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Baton Rouge (La.), <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Bavaria, Alpines in, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Bay of Chaleurs, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Beaker Makers, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Belcher, Thomas, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Belfast, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Belgæ, the, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Belgium, languages in, 5;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">the Flemings of, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Beothics, the, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Berbers, the, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">in Atlas Mountains (North Africa), <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Berkeley, Governor (Virginia), <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Berkshire, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Bermuda, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Bethlehem (Pa.), Moravians in, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Bigot, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Binghamton (N.Y.), <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Black Hawk Purchase, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Black Hawk War, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Black Hills, gold in, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Blacks, the, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">advance in America, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Blue Ridge, the, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Bogotá, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Bohemia, Czechish in, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">rise of nationalism in, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Mongolian characters in, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Bolivia, population of, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">"Bonnie Prince Charlie," <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Boone, Daniel, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Boone, Daniel Morgan, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">"Boone's Lick," <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Boston (Mass.), <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Huguenots in, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Braddock, General, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Bradford (postmaster), <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Brandenburg, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Branford (N.J.), <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Brattleboro (Vt.), <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Brazil, Portuguese in, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">European immigrants in, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">size of, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Bristol, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Britain, Celts in, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">invaded by Saxons, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">invaded by Angles and Jutes, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Norman conquest in 1066, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">British Columbia, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Asiatic problem in, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">British Commonwealth, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">British Empire, abolition of slavery in, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">British Honduras, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">British Islands, mixture of Nordics and Mediterraneans in, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">British Isles, racial composition of, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">British West Indies, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Brittany, Armorican language in, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Bronze Age, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Alpines in, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Brooklyn (N.Y.), <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Brythons, the, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Buckingham, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Buffalo (N.Y.), <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">increase in Negroes in, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Burgundians, the, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Burlington (Iowa), <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Burlington (N.J.), <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Burma, Sanscrit in, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">English rule in, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Burnett Act, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Bushmen, the, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Byrd, Colonel, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Byzantine Empire, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Cabot, John, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Cæsar, Julius, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">campaigns in Gaul, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Caithness, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">"Cajans," <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Calabria, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Calhoun, John C., <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">California, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Mexicans in, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Indians and Spaniards in, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">annexed to United States, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Spanish blood in, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">increase in Americans in, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">gold in, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Chinese in, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">contrasted with other United States frontiers, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">foreigners in, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>-267;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">migration to, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Nordic element in, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">decline of Chinese in, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">vote against Chinese immigration, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">racial problems in, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Indians in, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">California gold rush, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Camoens, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Campbelltown, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Canada, French language in, <a href="#Page_5"> 5</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">migration of Loyalists to, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">annexed to the Union, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">divisions of, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Maritime Provinces, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Quebec, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>-301;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Upper Canada, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">inducements to immigrants, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">population in 1840, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Irish Catholics in, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">population in 1871, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">British and French in, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Mounted Police in, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Indians in, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">migration from United States to, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>-319;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">British immigration in, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"foreign stock" in, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Jews in, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">few Negroes in, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Nordic element in, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">strength of Roman Catholic Church in, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">1921 census, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Canandaigua (N.Y.), <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Canary Islands, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Cape Cod Bay, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Cape Fear River, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Cape May, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Caribbean Sea, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Caribs, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Carlisle (Pa.), <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Carpathians, the, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Carroll, Jesuit John, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Carter, Colonel John, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Caspian Sea, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Caucasus, the, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">beauty of women in, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Cayuga, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Celtiberians, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Celtic Nordics, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">conquest of Spain by, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">in British Isles, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Celtic-speaking tribes, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Celtic tribes, in Gaul and Britain, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Q" and "P," <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Central America, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a> ff., <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Central Asia, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Central Pacific Railway, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Cervantes, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Chaldea, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Chalons, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Battle of, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Champlain, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Charlemagne, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">the Franks under, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">conquest of Saxons, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Charles I, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Charleston (S.C.), <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Ulster Scots enter colonies through, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Charlestown (Mass.), <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Chesapeake Bay, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Chester, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Cheyenne (Wyo.), <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Chicago (Ill.), <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Chickasaw Indians, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Chile, white races in, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">China, rise of nationalism in, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Mongols of, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Chinese, the, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">in California, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Choctaws, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Christian Syrians, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Christianity, Unitarian form of, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">orthodox, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Christy, Howard Chandler, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Cid Campeador, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Cimbri, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Cincinnati (Ohio), <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Circassians, the, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Cisalpine Gaul, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">City of Brotherly Love (Philadelphia), <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Civil War, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>-176, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Irish in, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">influence of "Solid South" after, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Civilization, development of, <a href="#Page_22">22</a> ff.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Clark, General George Rogers, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Clay, Henry, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Cleveland (Ohio), <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Coast cities, inhabitants richer than frontiersmen, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Colbert, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Coligny, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Coligny, Admiral, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Collinson, Peter, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Colombia, population of, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Colonial times, racial population in, 2;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">religion in, 4;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">intermarriage during, 8.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Colonies, original racial complexion of, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Ulster Scots in, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Color, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Colorado, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Daniel Boone's grandson in, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Southeastern, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">gold in, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Nordics in, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Mexican population in, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Columbia River, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Columbus, Christopher, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Commonwealth, Puritans under the, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Comstock Lode, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Confederate Army, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Congregationalists, hostile to Presbyterians, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Conkling, Senator Roscoe (quoted), <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Connecticut, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">early settlement of, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">growth of, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Western Reserve of, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">foreign-born in, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">1930 census native population, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Connecticut River, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">migration to, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Connecticut River Valley, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"forts" of Dutch in, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Constitution of the United States, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Constitution of 1835, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Continental Congress, religion of, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Continentals, the, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Convention of 1787, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Cornwall, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Corsica, Vandals in, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Costa Rica, population of, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Nordic infusion in, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Creek Indians, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Creeks, the, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Crefeld, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Creoles, French spoken by, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Crete, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Crimea, the, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Cromwell, Oliver, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">and Irish Rebellion, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Crown Point, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Crusades, the, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Cuba, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">population of, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Cumberland Gap, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Cumberland Presbyterian Church, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Cymric, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Dacia, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Dacian Plains, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Dakota, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">rush into, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Dante, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Danube, the, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Da Vinci, Leonardo, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Davis, John (quoted), <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Dayton (Ohio), <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Declaration of Independence, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">religion of signers, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Dedham, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">de Lapouge, Count, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Delaware, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">1930 census native population, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Delaware River, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">English settlers along, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">French Huguenots along, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">surrounding land colonized by Quakers, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Democracy, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Denmark, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">de Saussure, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Detroit (Mich.), <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Devonshire, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Dippers, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">District of Columbia, residents of, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Negroes in, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Dorchester (Mass.), <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Dorchester Society, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Drummond, James, the Earl of Perth, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Dubuque, John, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Duke of Liegnitz, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Duke of York, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Dundas (Ontario), <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Dunkards, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Dutch East India Company, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Dutch settlement, <a href="#Page_102">102</a> ff.</span><br /> -<br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">East Anglia, Puritan emigration from, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">East Jersey, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">stronghold of Scotch Presbyterians in, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Ecuador, Indian tribes in, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Edict of Nantes, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">revocation of, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Egypt, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">rise of nationalism in, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Libyans in, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Elbe, the, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Electoral College, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Elizabeth (N.J.), <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Elizabethtown (N.J.), <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Elizabethtown Association, the, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Emigration Society Land Company, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Emmet, Robert, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Emmet, Thomas A., <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Empire Settlement Act, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">England, Norman element in, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Norsemen in, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Puritan emigration from, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Palatines in, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">population at time of Revolution, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">English Quakers, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">English Whigs, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Episcopalians, strength of, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Ericson, Leif, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Erie Canal, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Erse language, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Eskimos, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Ethiopia (Africa), <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">early races in, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">true Negroes in, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Euphrates, Valley of the, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Eurasia, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">development of civilization in southwestern, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">racial groupings in, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Negroids in, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Negritos in, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Europe, intermingling of peoples in, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">racial mixtures in, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">saved from Mongols, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Nordics in, at time of discovery of America, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">monopoly of land ownership in, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;"><i>Evangeline</i> (Longfellow), <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Fairfield (Conn.), <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Fall Line, the, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Falmouth, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Fayetteville, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Federal Children's Bureau, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Federal Government, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Federal Supreme Court, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Filipinos, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Finland, Ural-Altaic language in, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Finlanders, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Firbolgs, the, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Flemings, in New York, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Florida, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Spanish in, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">South Carolinians in, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">settlement in, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>-194;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">ceded by Spain to England, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">second Nordic invasion of, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">slow development of, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">small population in, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Negroes in, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">1930 census native population, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Forbes, General, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Foreign missions, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Fort Orange (N.Y.), <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Fort Schuyler (N.Y.), <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Fort Snelling, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Fort Stanwix (N.Y.), <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Founders of the Republic, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">France, races in,<a href="#Page_4"> 4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">unity of national feeling in,<a href="#Page_4"> 4</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Alpines in, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">decrease of Nordics in, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Alpines in, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">as a Nordic land, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">eldest son of the church, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">(southern) Gothic names in, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">variety of names in, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Franklin, Benjamin <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">(quoted), <a href="#Page_118">118</a>-120.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Franks, the, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">in Gaul and western Germany, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">had support of Roman Church, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">in Belgium, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">in northern France, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">conquer Franconia, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">seize northern Italy, under Charlemagne, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Frederick County (Md.), <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Free State Catholics, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Freehold (N.J.), <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">French, the Nordics and Alpines among the, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">in Quebec province, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">emigration from Quebec to New England, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">French Canadians, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">influence of Roman Catholic Church on, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">French Huguenots, in New England, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">in New York, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">in South Carolina, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">in North Carolina, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Friesland, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Frontier, the, character of, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">history of, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">effect of Indians on, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Gadsden Purchase, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Gaelic, spoken in Scotland, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">spoken in Nova Scotia, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Galatia, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Gothic blood in, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Galatians, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Galena, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Galicia, Mongolian characters in, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Gallegos, the, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Garvey, the Negro, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Gaul, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Celts in, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">remnant of Visigoths in, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Gauls, the, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Gelderland, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Gendron, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Geneva (N.Y.), <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Genoa, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">"Genoese," <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Genseric, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">"Gentiles," the, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Georgia, racial complexion in, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Palatines in, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">settlement of, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">benefited after Revolution, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">1930 census native population in, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">idle farming in, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Georgians, the, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Gepidæ, the, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">German Jews, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Germans, among Roman Catholics in the colonies, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">forced to the West, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">in Pennsylvania, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">in the colonies, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Germantown (Pa.), founded by Mennonites, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Germany, quota of immigrants from, 2;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">races in, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Nordics in eastern, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Revolution of 1848, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">immigrants in America, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">peak of emigration in, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Gettysburg (Pa.), <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Ghetto population, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Glenelg, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Glengarry (Ontario), <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Gloucestershire, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Gobi desert, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Goidelic, the, conquer the Neolithic Mediterraneans in Ireland, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Goidels, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Gold, discovered in California, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">caused increase in California population, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Gothia Septimania, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Goths, the, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">in South Russia, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">"Great American Desert," <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Great Britain, emigration from New England to, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"White Man's Burden" in, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Great Lakes, the, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Great Salt Lake, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Great Wall of China, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Greece, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">invasions of Achæans into, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Nordic conquest of, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Green Mountain Boys, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Greenwich (Conn.), <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Guadalquivir, the, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Guarani Indians, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Guatemala, population of, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Guiana (British), <a href="#Page_334">334</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">(Dutch), <a href="#Page_334">334</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">(French), <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Guilford (N.J.), <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Gulf of California, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Gulf of Mexico, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Gulf of Saint Lawrence, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Gulf States, extermination of Indians in, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Habitants, the, origin of, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">physical type of, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">effect of decline in birthrate on, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Haiti, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">loss of white control in, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">barbarism in, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Negro Republic, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Hamitic language, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Hamburg, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Hampshire, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Hamptons, the, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Hansen, Professor, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Hartford (Conn.), <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Hawaii, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Japanese element in, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">possible source of undesirable immigration, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Hawaiians, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Henry, Patrick, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Henry VII, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Highlands, the, mixture of races in, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Hindus, the, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Aryan speech among, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Hittites, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Holland, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Palatines in, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Holland (Mich.), <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Holstein, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Holston settlement, the, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;"><i>Homo sapiens</i>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Honduras, population of, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Hottentots, the, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Hudson, Henry, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Hudson (N.Y.), <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Hudson River, New Englanders and Germans along, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Dutch settlements along, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Hudson River valley, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Dutch in, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">growth of towns in, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Hudson's Bay Colony, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Huger, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Huguenot French, during the Revolution, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Huguenots, migration to America, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Humboldt, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Hungary, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Ural-Altaic language in, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Huns, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Hunter, Governor (N.Y.), <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Hussites, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Iberian Peninsula, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Iberians, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Iberville (French explorer), <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Idaho, first settlement in, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">part of Washington territory, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">growth during Civil War, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Nordic strength in, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Illinois, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">settlement of, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>-176;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">boom in, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Erie Canal access to, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">lead mines in, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">dominated by Ulster Scots, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">population at beginning of Civil War, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">represented in Westward migration, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Germans in, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Irish in, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">English in, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Mormons in, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Scandinavians in, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Mexican population in, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">native population in, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Negroes in, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Illinois Central Railway, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Immigration Commission (1907), <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Incas, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">India, rise of nationalism in, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Sanscrit in, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Aryans in, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">passing of Nordics in, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Pre-Dravidians of, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">English rule in, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Indian War of 1855-1856, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Indiana, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Southerners in, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Ulster Scots and Quakers in, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Underground Railroad" in, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">settlement of, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>-170;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Nordic influence in, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">population in, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">influence of Germans in, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">native population in, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Indianapolis (Ind.), <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Indians, American, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">origin of, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">culture of, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">cruelty of, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">effect on the frontier, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">1930 population in United States, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">distribution in United States, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">on Pacific Coast, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">on Atlantic Coast, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">lived as hunters, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">intermarriage with Whites, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Indus, Valley of the, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Inquisition, the, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Inverness, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Inverness-shire, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Invincible Armada, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Iowa, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">delay in settlement, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Southerners in, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">foreign immigrants in, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">entered Union as a State, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Nordic and Anglo-Saxon, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">native population in, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">agricultural, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Iranian, division of Aryan languages, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">distribution in Asia, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Ireland, quota of immigrants from, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Erse in, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">potato famine in, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">rise of nationalism in, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">attacked by Norse and Danes, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Norsemen in, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Neolithic Mediterraneans in, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">the Goidelics in, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Norse and Danes in, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">English language in, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">religion in, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">the Reformation in, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Protestants in, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">emigration to North America from, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Irish Free State, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Irish Rebellion in 1652, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Iroquois Five Nations, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Iroquois Indians, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Isle of Man, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Italians, immigration in United States, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">high birthrate of, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Italy, races in, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">invasions of Osco-Umbrians in, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Ostrogoths in, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">northern, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">emigration from, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Jackson, Andrew, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Jamaica, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">results of abolition of slavery in, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">James I, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">James II, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">James River, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Jamestown (Va.), settlement of, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Negroes in, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Japan, Christianity in, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"gentlemen's agreement" with United States, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Japanese, in California, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Jefferson, Thomas, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Jews, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Johnson, Honorable Albert, <a href="#Page_1">1</a> n.; <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Johnson, Sir John, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Johnson, Sir William, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Johnston, Gabriel, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Johnston, Sir Harry H., <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Jordanes, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Judaism, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Jutes, the, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Jutland, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Kansas, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">slavery in, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Daniel Boone's son in, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Kansas-Nebraska settlement, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">battleground for slavery and free-soil elements, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">few New England settlers in, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">increase in emigration from Free States, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">of British complexion, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">native population in, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">settlement of, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Mexican population in, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Kassites, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Kearney, Dennis, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Kent, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Kentaro, Baron Keneko, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Kentucky, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Boone in, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">settlement of, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">growth of, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">English atmosphere in, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">admitted as a State, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Alpines in, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">1930 census native population, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Kenya Colony, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Khozars (Alpine), <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">King Philip's War, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Kingston (Ontario), <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Kintail, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Kirkhill, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Klondike gold rush, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">"Know Nothings," <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">principle of, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Knoydart, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Korea, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Krim, Götisch, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Kurds, the, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Labadists, the, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Labrador, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Lafayette, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Lake Champlain, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Lake Erie, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">first steamboat on, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Lake George, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Lake Ontario, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Lancaster (Pa.), <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Land Act (1818), <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Languages, in West Indies, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Hamitic, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">spoken by Alpines, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Aryan, <a href="#Page_24">24</a> ff.;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Erse, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;"><i>See also under</i> various languages.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Lanier, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">La Plata, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Latin America, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Amerinds in, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Indians in, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Whites in, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Laud, Archbishop, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Laurens, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Law, John, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">League of Nations, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Lebanon (Pa.), <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Lebanon, the, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Lee, Richard, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Lehigh Valley, Germans in, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>-121.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Leicester, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Leinster, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Leinster Protestants, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">LeSerrurier, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Liberty Loans, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Libyans, in Egypt, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Liegnitz, Battle of, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Lincolnshire, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Literacy test, for aliens, vetoed by President Wilson, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">passed over veto, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Lithuania, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Lithuanian language, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Liverpool, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Lochiel, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Lombards, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">in Italy, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">overthrown by Franks, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">London, Puritan emigration from, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Imperial government in, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Londonderry, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Lone Star Republic, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Long Island, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Lord Baltimore, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Los Angeles (Calif.), Mexicans in, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Los Angeles County, Mexicans in, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Louis XIV, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Louisiana, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">French language in, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">settlement in, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>-189;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">French in, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Acadian refugees in, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Nova Scotians in, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">cosmopolitan population in, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">religious groups in, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">illiteracy test, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Louisiana Purchase of 1803, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Lower California, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Loyalists, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Episcopalians as, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">expulsion in the North, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">in Boston, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">leave colonies for Canada, England, and English West Indies, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">flee from colonies, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">migration from New York State after the Revolution, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">in New York State during the Revolution, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Scotch Highlanders as, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">United Empire, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Lynn (Mass.), <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Magna Græcia, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Maine, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">scattered settlements on coast of, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">1930 census native population, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Malay Peninsula, Negroids in, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Malays, the, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">in the Philippines, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">in Japan, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Man, ancestry of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Manhattan, Negroes in, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Manhattan Island, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Manitoba, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Riel Rebellion in, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">settlement of, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Russians in, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Mann, Elizabeth, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Manx, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Marcellus (N.Y.), <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Marietta (Ohio), established by New England Company, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Maritime Provinces, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Nordic element in, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">population in, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Maryland, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">settlement of, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">religious groups in, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Negroes in, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Acadians in, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">population at time of Revolution, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">thoroughly Anglo-Saxon at time of first census, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Alpines in, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">1930 census native population, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">attitude toward aliens, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Mason and Dixon line, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Massachusetts, first inhabitants of, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">expansion in, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">naming of cities in, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">population pushed westward, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">as parent of all New England, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">settlement west of Connecticut River in, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">influence during Revolution, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">loss of population in, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">growth in interior of, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Revolutionary troops from, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">cosmopolitan population in 1930, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">attitude toward aliens, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Massachusetts Bay, early permanent settlements around, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Governor Winthrop's fleet in, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Massachusetts Bay Colony, antecedents of, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">social status of English founders of, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Mather, Cotton, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Maverick, Rev. John, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Mayas, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Maynard, Lord, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Medford (Mass.), <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Mediterraneans, the, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">characteristics of, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">range of, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">in southern Italy, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Celtic-speaking, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">on British Isles, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Melanesia, Negroids in, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">racial tangle in, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Mendoza, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Mennonites, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">in Germantown, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Mesopotamia, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Mexican Indians, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Mexican revolution, in 1810, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">in 1910, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Mexican War, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">California annexed to United States as result of, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Mexicans, in California, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">in Southwestern States, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">lack of intelligence, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">in United States, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>-330.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Mexico, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Nordics in, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Spaniards in, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Indian blood in, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Mexico City, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Humboldt in, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Michaelangelo, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Michigan, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">French atmosphere in, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">State Constitution, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">population in 1836, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Dutchmen in, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">native population in, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Canadians in, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Indians in, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Mexican population in, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Micmacs, the, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Middle Atlantic States, powerful section of America, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Middlefield (Mass.), varied population in, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Milan, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Milford (N.J.), <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Milledgeville (Ala.), <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Milwaukee (Wis.), <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Germans in, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Minnesota, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">settlement in, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">treaties with Indians, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">first official census in, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Scandinavians in, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Germans in, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Anglo-Saxon in character, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Indians in, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">native population in, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Miocene, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Mississippi, heart of Cotton Kingdom, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">settlement in, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>-189;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Negroes in, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">1930 census native population, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Mississippi Bubble, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Mississippi River, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">territories west of, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>-207.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Mississippi Valley, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Norway and Sweden immigration to, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">settlement of, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Missouri, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Boone in, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">settlement in, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>-192, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Kentuckians in, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Nordic American stock in, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">native population in, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Negroes in, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Mitanni, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Mobile (Ala.), <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Mohammedan Arabs, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Mohammedanism, and the Negro, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Mohawk River, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Loyalists and Scotch along the, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Mohawk Valley, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Mohawks, the, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Mohenjo-Daro, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Mongolia, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Mongoloid race, physical characteristics of, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">as distinguished from Alpine race, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Mongoloid tribes, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Mongoloids, the, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Mongols, the, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">similarity to Alpines, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">traits in, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">ancestors of American Indians, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Asiatic, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">confront the Nordics, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Monongahela country, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Monroe, James, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Montana, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">few settlers in, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">mining industry and growth of, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">admitted to statehood, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">foreign stock in, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Indians in, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Montcalm, overthrown at Quebec, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Montgomery (Ala.), <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Moors, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Moravia, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Mongolian characters in, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Moravian Brothers, in North Carolina, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Moravians, in Georgia, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Mormon Church, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Mormon Utah settlement, converts from England, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Mormonism, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Mormons, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">in Nebraska, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">in Utah, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Morocco, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Moscovia, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Mulattoes, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">in Virgin Islands, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">migration northward, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">intelligence of, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Myjerka, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">"Myth of the Melting Pot," <a href="#Page_1">1</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Naples (N.Y.), <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Napoleonic Wars, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Nashville (Tenn.), <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Natchez (Ala.), <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Natchez (La.), <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">National Origins Act, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">National Origins provision, 2.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">National Origins Quota, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Navajo Indians, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Naval war in 1798, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Neapolitan, the, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Nebraska, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">settlement in, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Mormons in, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">transients in, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">permanent settlers in, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">attracted pioneers after Civil War, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Bohemians in, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Nordic influence in, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Negrillos (or Pigmies), <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Negritos, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">in Eurasia, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Negro slavery, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Negroes, the, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">in Virgin Islands, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">and Mohammedanism, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">among Roman Catholics in the colonies, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">increase in New York State, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">manual labor in South by, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">in United States according to census, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">in the North, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">treatment by Southerners, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">in the North, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">tendency toward Communism, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">advantages of "white blood," <a href="#Page_284">284</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">in Central American countries, <a href="#Page_330">330</a> ff.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Negroids, in Eurasia, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">in Melanesia, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">in Tasmania, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Neolithic Mediterraneans, in Ireland, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">conquered by the Goidelic, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Nevada, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">discovery of silver in, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">growth of, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">admitted as a State, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">decrease in population, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Nevis, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">New Amsterdam (Manhattan Island), <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">New Bern, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">New Brunswick, Scottish population in, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">French-Canadians in, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">New Brunswick (N.J.), <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">New Castle County (Del.), <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Scotch settlements in, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">New England, Pilgrim and Puritan migration to, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">early religions in, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Episcopalians as Loyalists in, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">at war with France and Canadian Indians, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">early settlements in, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">natural increase in population of Whites in, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">emigration to Great Britain and West Indies from, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Nordic character in, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Indian population of, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">smallpox in, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">golden age of, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">vigor of Nordics in, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">French-Canadians in, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">increase of Anglo-Saxon stock in, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">decline in white stock birth rate in, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">New England Company, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">New England Emigrant Aid Company, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">New Hampshire, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">settlements in, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">growth of, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">1930 census native population, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">New Iberia, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">New Jersey, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">settlement of, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">small Dutch element in, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">English in, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>-114;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">East Jersey, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">West Jersey, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">population at time of Revolution, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Alpines in, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">foreign-born in, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">1930 census native population, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">New London (Conn.), <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">New Mexico, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Spanish language in, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">native and Mexican Indians in, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">population in, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Mexicans in, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Indians in, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">New Netherland, Dutch settlement of, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">New Orleans (La.), <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">New Providence, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">New Rochelle (N.Y.), <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">New York City, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">inferiority of, at time of Revolution, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">beginning of commercial greatness of, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">arrival of French Huguenots in, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Puerto Ricans in, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">New York State, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">small Dutch population in, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">French Huguenots in, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">foreigners in, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Flemings in, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">as unimportant colony, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">New England colonization of, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Palatines in, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">invasion of New Englanders after the Revolution, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Ulster Scots in, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Loyalist migration from New York State after the Revolution, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">large quantity of Revolutionary troops from, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Alpines in, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">foreign-born in, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">increase in Negroes in, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">race mixture in, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Indians in, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;"><i>New York Tribune</i> (quoted), <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">New Zealand, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Newark (N.J.), <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Newark Bay, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Newfoundland, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Newport (R.I.), <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Newton, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Nicaragua, population of, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Niebelungenlied, the, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Nile, valley of the, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Nordic Frisians, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Nordic race, peculiar characteristics of, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">red-haired branch of, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">importance in United States, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">necessity of close co-operation by, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Nordics, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">jealousy of, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">originators of Aryan group of languages, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">in India, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">and the caste system, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">passing of, in India and Persia, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">expansion of Alpines at expense of, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">development of, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">mixture with Mediterraneans in British Islands, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">question as to homeland of, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">as aggressors, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">in Scandinavia, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">around Baltic and North Seas, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Celtic, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Teutonic, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">in West as Achæans, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">in Mesopotamia, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">in Italy, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">in France, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">and the Crusades, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Goidels, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">in American colonies, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">weakened as a race, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">in Mexican territory, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">favored in Quota Act of <a href="#Page_192">192</a>1, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">confronted by the Mongols, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Norfolk, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">the Angles in, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Norman conquest in 1066, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Normandy, religion in, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Normans, the, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Norse, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">in Scotland, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Norsemen, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">North, the Revolution in the, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">North Africa, the Berbers of, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">North Carolina, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">extended to Mississippi River, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Scots in, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Moravian Brothers in, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">English and Ulster Scots in, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Boone in, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">settlement of, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">varied races in, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>-140;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">1930 census native population, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Indians in, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">North Dakota, native population, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">admitted as a State, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Nordic element in, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Indians in, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">North German Nordics, in America, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">North Sea, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Northampton (England), <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Northamptonshire, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Northern Abolitionists, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Northern Pacific Railway, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Northmen, the, in Scotland, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">as Danes, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">conquer Normandy, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Northwest Territory (old), <a href="#Page_163">163</a>-182;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">French in, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Mexicans in, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Ohio, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>-167;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Indiana, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>-170;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Illinois, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>-176;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Michigan, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>-178;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Wisconsin, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>-182.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Norwalk (Conn.), <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Nova Scotia, the French in, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Loyalists in, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Gaelic spoken in, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Offnet race, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Oglethorpe, Governor, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Ohio, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">migration to, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">settled by New England Company, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Pennsylvania emigration to, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Nordics and Pennsylvania Dutch in, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">German and Irish immigrants in, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">settlers of northern Indiana in, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">native population in, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Canadians in, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Ohio Legislature, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Ohio River, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Oklahoma, pride of Indian blood in, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">cosmopolitan population in, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Indians in, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>-292;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Canadians in, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Old Charles Town, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Old Pretender, the, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Oneida Community, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Ontario, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Roman Catholic Scotch Highlanders in, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"United Empire Loyalists" in, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">French-Canadians in, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Loyalist refugees in, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">increase in population, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Nordic element in, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Poles and Italians in, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Russians in, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Orange County, Ulster Scots in, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Oregon, settlement in, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">native population in, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Oregon Trail, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Orient, revolt against European control in the, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">missionaries in, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Osco-Umbrians, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">invasions into Italy, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Ostrogoths, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Ottawa, French language in, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Ottawa River, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Pacific Coast, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">migration westward to, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">restless population on, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Indian population on, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">immigration of Filipinos on, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Pacific States, America's future in, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Philippines in, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Palatinate, the, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Palatine Germans, along the Hudson River and Mohawk valleys, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Palatines, the, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">in Holland and England, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">in New York State, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">in Pennsylvania, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">in Georgia, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Paleolithic Period, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Palmer, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Palmyra (N.Y.), <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Panama, population of, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">North American influence in, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Panama Canal, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Papua, racial tangle in, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Paraguay, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">population of, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">war with Brazil and Argentina, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Paris, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Peace of Paris, the, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Pelham, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Penn, William, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Pennsylvania, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">French Huguenots in, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">settlement of, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Germans in, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Palatines in, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">religious denominations in, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">invasion of Palatinates in, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">English alarmed over Palatine invasion, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Ulster Scots in, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>-122;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">increase in population, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">races in, at end of Colonial period, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Delaware part of, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">foreign-born in, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">1930 census native population in, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">attitude toward aliens, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Pennsylvania Dutch, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;"><i>Pennsylvanische Deutsche</i>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Perpetual Emigrating Fund, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Persia, passing of Nordics in, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Negro admixture in, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Persians, Islamized, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Perth Amboy (N.J.), <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Perthshire, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Peru, Indian race in, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Peruvian Indians, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Philadelphia, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">English Quakers and Welsh around, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Ulster Scots enter colonies through, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">strength of Church of England in, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">as metropolis of United States, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Philippines, the, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">rise of nationalism in, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">American problem in, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">in Pacific States, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">United States should govern, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Phrygia, Nordic conquest of, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Picts, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Piedmont, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Piedmont (Italy), <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Pigmies (or Negrillos), <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Pike's Peak, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Pilgrim Fathers, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Piscataqua (New Brunswick, N.J.), <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Pittsburgh, Ulster Scots in, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Pleistocene glaciation, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Plymouth, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Plymouth colony, settlers of, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">antecedents in, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Plymouth Rock, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Po valley, as Cisalpine Gaul, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Polaks, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Poland, rise of nationalism in, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">migration of German Jews into, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Polish Jews, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>-226.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Polk, James K., <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Polygamy, as racial curse, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Polynesia, Malay blood in, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Polynesian Islands, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Pomerania, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Port of New York, Dutch population outside, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Portland (Maine), <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Portsmouth (R.I.), <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Portugal, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Portuguese, in Brazil, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Prairie Provinces, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Prince Edward Island, native population of, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">French-Canadians in, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Princeton University, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Protectorate, the, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Protestant Episcopal Church, the, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Protestant House of Orange, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Providence (R.I.), <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Huguenots in, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Prussia, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Pueblo Indians, revolt against Spanish, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Puerto Ricans, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Puerto Rico, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">results of abolition of slavery in, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">population of, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Puget Sound, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Puritan emigration, from England, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Puritans, New England, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">as refugees in Virginia, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Putnam, General Rufus, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">"Q" Celts, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Quakers, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">along Delaware River, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">become Anglicans, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">in Albemarle, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Quebec, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">French language in, 5;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Habitat" French of, 8;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">intermarriage of French and Indians, 9;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">overthrow of Montcalm at, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">stronghold of French Canadians, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Russians in, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Quebec Province (Lower Canada), <a href="#Page_301">301</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">French settlement of, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">physical characteristics of settlers, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">language in, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">domination of Jesuits in, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">centre of French population, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Quota Act of 1921, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">favored the European Nordic, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Race, in United States during Colonial times, <a href="#Page_2">2</a> ff.;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">at present time, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">definition of, <a href="#Page_21">21</a> ff., <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">distinction between language and, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Mediterranean, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Alpine, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Nordic, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Alpine Slavs, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Mongols, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">in Ireland, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;"><i>See also under</i> various races.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Railroads, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Ravenal, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Reading (Pa.), <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Red River, steam navigation on, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Red River Colony, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Red River country, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Reformation, the, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">lack of hold on Ireland, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">"Refuge for the Oppressed," <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">"Regulators," rebellion in North Carolina, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Reuter, E.B., <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Revolution, the American, hatred in New England of mother country during, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">political and social, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">loss of Nordic blood in America during, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">and expulsion of Iroquois Indians, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Germans unloyal during, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Protestants in United States after, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Nordic invasion of Florida during, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">migration following, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Revolution (French), <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Revolution of 1689, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Rhode Island, settlements in, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">source of colonization, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">1930 census native population, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Richelieu River, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Richmond (N.Y.), <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Richmond (Va.), <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Riel Rebellion, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Rio Grande, the, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Robinson (clergyman), <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Rochester, increase in Negroes in, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Rock Island and Pacific Railway, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Rocky Mountain States, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">varying population in, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Roderick, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Roman Catholic church, growth in America, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">hostility of Know Nothing Party to, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">strength in Canada, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Roman Catholics, population in the colonies, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Negroes and Germans among, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">many colonies legislated against, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Rome, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">sacked by Gauls, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Roosevelt, Theodore, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Roxbury (Mass.), <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Royalists, in Virginia, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Russia, Varangians in, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Sahara Desert, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Saint Croix, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Saint Kitts, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Saint Lawrence River, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Saint Louis (Mo.), <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">as French outpost, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">marked German tinge in, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Saint Mary's (Md.), <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Saladin, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Salem, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Salvador, population of, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Salzburg, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">San Antonio (Texas), <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">San Francisco (Calif.), <a href="#Page_216">216</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Oriental laborers in, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Sanscrit, in Burma, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">in India, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Santo Domingo, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">loss of white control in, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">barbarism in, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Saracens, at Tours, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Saskatchewan, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Russians in, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Savannah (Ga.), <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Saxons, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">invaded Britain, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Scandinavia, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">first Nordics in, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Nordic immigration from, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Schenectady, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Schuylkill valley, Germans in, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Schwankenfelders, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Scituate, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Scotch Highlanders, importation of Roman Catholics, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">"Scotch Irish," <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Scotch Rebellion of 1670, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Scotland, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Nordic population in, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">invaded by Danes, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Scrooby, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Sedgmoor, Battle of, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Sedition Act of 1798, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Selkirk, Lord, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Seneca Falls (N.Y.), <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Seneca Lake, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Sephardim, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Seven Seas, the, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Seven Years' War, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Sevier, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Shakers, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Shawneetown, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Shays's Rebellion, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Sheffield, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Shenandoah Valley, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Scotch Germans in, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Sicily, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Sidonius, Appollonius, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Sierra range, the, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Silesia, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Singapore, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Sioux Indians, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Skrellings, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Slavery, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">results of abolition on British Empire, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">in South Africa, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">in Jamaica, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">in Puerto Rico, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">and the Civil War, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">in South Carolina, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Slavs, Alpine, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Smith, Captain John, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Société des Amis des Noirs, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Sogdians, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">"Solid South," <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Somaliland, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Somerset, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">South, the, religion in, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">decline of leadership in, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">South Africa, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">results of abolition of slavery in, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">South Carolina, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">racial complexion in, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">settlement of, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">large-scale agriculture in, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Ulster Scots in, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">slavery question in, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Nordics and loyalists in, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Dorchester Society in, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Negroes outnumbered whites, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">1930 census native population, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">South Dakota, rush in 1876 in, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Indians in, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">South Irish Catholics, 7.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">South Italy, Negroid element in, 9.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">South of Portugal, Negro slave element in, 9.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">South Russia, Aryan language in, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">the Goths in, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">"South Sea," the, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Southern frontiersman, religion of, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Southwest, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>-194;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Alabama, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Mississippi, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>-189;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Louisiana, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>-189;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Arkansas, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>-190;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Missouri, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>-192;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Florida, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>-194.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Soviet Russia, Alpines in, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Spain, conquered by Celtic Nordics, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Visigoths in, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">ceded Florida to England, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Spaniards, in Mexico, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Spanish Conquest, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Spanish Main, the, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Spencer, Herbert (quoted), <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Stamford (Conn.), <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Statehood, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Steamboat, first on Lake Erie, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">"Stony Mountains," <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Stormont (Ontario), <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Straits of Gibraltar, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Stratford (Conn.), <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Suevi, the, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Suffolk, the Angles in, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Sumner, Senator, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Surrey, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Susquehanna River, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Swabia, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Sweden, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Swedes, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Switzerland, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">national unity in, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">various languages in, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Symmes, Judge T.C., <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Syracuse, increase in Negroes in, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Syria, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Tasmania, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Negroids in, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Taunton (Mass.), <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Tennessee, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Scotch and Germans in, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">settlement of, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>-149;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Alpines in, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">racial make-up of, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Teutonic, branch of the Nordic race, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">as a term, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Teutonic Nordics, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Teutons, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">collapse of Roman Empire under, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">physical characteristics of, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Texas, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Mexicans in, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">American settlement in, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">importance as slave-holding territory, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">growth of population at time of Mexican War, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Negroes in, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">German emigration (Alpines) in, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">foreign elements in, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Nordic absorption of, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;"><i>The Chronicle</i>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">"The Land of Little Sticks," <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">"The Provisional State of Deseret," <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">"The Refuge of the Oppressed," <a href="#Page_1">1</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Theodoric, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Thirteen Colonies, the, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Thirty Years War, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Thomson, David, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">"Three Notch Road," <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Tioga River, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Tokarian language, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Toulouse, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Tours, the Saracens at, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Transcontinental Railway, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Treaty of Paris, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Trenton (N.J.), <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Troubadours, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Tucson (Ariz.), <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Turanians, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">"Turco," <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Turkestan, Ural-Altaic language in, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Turks, race mixture among, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">in Asia Minor, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Ukraine, the, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Ulster, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Presbyterians in, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Ulster Presbyterians, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Ulster Scots, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">in America, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">hatred of England, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">forced to the West, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">in North Carolina, Kentucky and Tennessee, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">in California, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">in Ireland, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">in Orange County, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">established church in Albany, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">west of Alleghanies, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">in Pittsburgh, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">in Maryland, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">in South Carolina, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">in Georgia, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">animosity during Revolution, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Union, the, requirement for admission to, in 1818, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Union Pacific Railway, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Unitarian form of Christianity, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">"United Empire Loyalists," <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">United Irishmen, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">United States, mixture of racial groups in, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">effect of sentimentalism on Nordic survival in, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">slavery in, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">first census, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">distribution of free land in, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">little Dutch blood in present population of, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">population at time of first census, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Protestant majority in, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Catholic hierarchy in, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Nordic race in, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Alpine race in, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">census of 1860, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">German settlement in, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Nordics in, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">national unity in, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Nordic immigration from Scandinavia, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>-230;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Alpines in, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">European immigration to, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">early Germans in, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Norwegians in farming land of, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">immigration of English and Irish in, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">immigration of Italians, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">percentage of alien emigration and immigration in, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"gentlemen's agreement" with Japan, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">white population in 1920, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">percentage of Protestants in, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">percentage of Nordics in, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">loss of unity in, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Negroes in, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">increase of electoral vote in the South, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">1930 Indian population, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">distribution of Indians in, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Mexicans in, according to 1930 census, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Hindu immigration prevented in, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Irish Catholic migration from Canada to, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Mexicans in, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">disadvantages of Mexican immigration to, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">percentage of Nordics and Protestants in, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">immigration during last century, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">restriction of immigration, <a href="#Page_348">348</a> ff.;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">aliens in, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">international affair, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"White Man's Burden" in, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">trouble with Philippines, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">should govern Philippines, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Upland (Chester), <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Upper Canada, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">immigration from British Isles to, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">increase in population, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Ur, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Ural mountains, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Uruguay, white races in, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">cosmopolitan population in, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Utah, Mormons in, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Nordic population in, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">native population in, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">foreign stock in, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Utica, increase in Negroes in, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Vaal River, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Valens, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Valley of the Syr-Daria, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Van Buren, Martin, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Vandals, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Varangians, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Varini, the, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Venezuela, population of, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Vermont, dispute over ownership of, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">settlement of, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">as a frontier, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">migration from Massachusetts to, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">as an independent state, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">growth of, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">1930 census native population, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Victorian Era, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Vigot (or Bigot), <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Vincennes (Ind.), <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Virgin Islands, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Negroes and Mulattoes in, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Virginia, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">early settlements, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Mother of States in Colonial times, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">tidewater population, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">extended to Mississippi River, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">English settlement, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">natural increase in population of whites, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Pocahontas tradition in, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">as exploitation of adventurers, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">mixed classes of immigrants in, <a href="#Page_132">132</a> ff.;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Cavaliers in, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">refuge of Puritans during Stuart period, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Royalists in, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Kentucky veterans in, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">1930 census native population, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">surplus population, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Virginia City (Nevada), <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Visigoths, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">in Gaul, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">in Spain, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Vistula, the, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Von Bismarck, chancellor, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Waldenses, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Wales, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Norsemen in, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Iberians in, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Walker's Law, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Walla Walla Valley, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Walloons, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">War of 1812, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">causes of, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Warwick (R.I.), <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Washington, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">an independent territory, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">native population, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">population increased by railways, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Nordic element in, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Washington (D.C.), <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Washington Bicentennial in 1932, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Washington, George, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Watauga settlement, the, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Watertown (Mass.), <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Welsh, in England, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Wends, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Wessex, Puritan emigration from, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">West Central Asia, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">origin of civilization in, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">West India Company, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">West Indies, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">languages in, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Nordic settlement, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Negroes in, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Loyalists flee to, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">South Carolinians in, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">fate of colonists in, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">West Jersey, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">West Scotland, high stature in, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">West Virginia, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">1930 census native population, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Wethersfield (Conn.), <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Whiskey Rebellion, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">"White Man's Burden," <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Whites, the, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">slaves injurious to, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Whitesborough, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Whitman, Marcus, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Wilderness Road, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">William III, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Williams, Roger, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Wilmington (Del.), <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Wilson, Woodrow, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Wiltshire, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Windsor (Conn.), <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Winnipeg, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Winthrop, Governor, arrival of fleet in Massachusetts Bay, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Wisconsin, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">lead mines in, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">settlement of, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>-182;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">growth, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">foreign element in, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">climate, soil, and forest lands, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Germans in, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>-181;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">non-Nordic population, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">native population, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">foreign element in, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">waning of wheat industry, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Indians in, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Woodbridge (N.J.), <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Worcester, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">World, the, racially, <a href="#Page_26">26</a> ff.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">World War, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">immigration law as result of, 1, 2;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">foreigners in draft list, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">immigration from Scandinavia since, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Wright, J.K., (quoted), <a href="#Page_40">40</a> n.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Wurtemberg, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Wusuns, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Wyoming, admitted to Union, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">native population, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">foreign stock in, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Wyoming Valley of Pennsylvania, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Yadkin valley, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Yarmouth, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Yiddish (language), <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">York (Pa.), <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Yorkshire, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Young, Brigham, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Young Pretender, the, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Zuyder Zee, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</span><br /> -</p> - - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's The Conquest of a Continent, by Madison Grant - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CONQUEST OF A CONTINENT *** - -***** This file should be named 60145-h.htm or 60145-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/0/1/4/60145/ - -Produced by Tim Lindell, Graeme Mackreth and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet 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