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diff --git a/old/60135-0.txt b/old/60135-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 2090bfa..0000000 --- a/old/60135-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,11238 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook, Mexico and Her People of To-day, by Nevin O. -(Nevin Otto) Winter, Illustrated by Nevin O. Winter and C. R. Birt - - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - - - - -Title: Mexico and Her People of To-day - An Account of the Customs, Characteristics, Amusements, History and Advancement of the Mexicans, and the Development and Resources of Their Country - - -Author: Nevin O. (Nevin Otto) Winter - - - -Release Date: August 21, 2019 [eBook #60135] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - - -***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MEXICO AND HER PEOPLE OF TO-DAY*** - - -E-text prepared by the Online Distributed Proofreading Team -(http://www.pgdp.net) from page images generously made available by -Internet Archive (https://archive.org) - - - -Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this - file which includes the original illustrations. - See 60135-h.htm or 60135-h.zip: - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/60135/60135-h/60135-h.htm) - or - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/60135/60135-h.zip) - - - Images of the original pages are available through - Internet Archive. See - https://archive.org/details/mexicoherpeopleo02wint - - - - - -MEXICO AND HER PEOPLE OF TO-DAY - - - * * * * * * - -Uniform with This Volume - - - Panama and the Canal $3.00 - BY FORBES LINDSAY - - Cuba and Her People of To-day 3.00 - BY FORBES LINDSAY - - Brazil and Her People of To-day 3.00 - BY NEVIN O. WINTER - - Guatemala and Her People of To-day 3.00 - BY NEVIN O. WINTER - - Mexico and Her People of To-day 3.00 - BY NEVIN O. WINTER - - Argentina and Her People of To-day 3.00 - BY NEVIN O. WINTER - - Bohemia and the Čechs 3.00 - BY WILL S. MONROE - - In Viking Land. Norway: Its Peoples, Its Fjords - and Its Fjelds 3.00 - BY WILL S. MONROE - - Turkey and the Turks 3.00 - BY WILL S. MONROE - - Sicily, the Garden of the Mediterranean 3.00 - BY WILL S. MONROE - - In Wildest Africa 3.00 - BY PETER MACQUEEN - - L. C. PAGE & COMPANY - 53 Beacon Street, Boston, Mass. - - * * * * * * - - -[Illustration: A BELLE OF TEHUANTEPEC (_See page 180_)] - - -MEXICO AND HER PEOPLE OF TO-DAY - -An Account of the -Customs, Characteristics, Amusements, -History and Advancement -of the Mexicans, and the Development -and Resources of Their -Country - -by - -NEVIN O. WINTER - -Illustrated from Original Photographs -by the -Author and C. R. Birt - -New Revised Edition - - -[Illustration] - - - - - - -Boston -L. C. Page and Company -MDCCCCXII - -Copyright, 1907, -by L. C. Page & Company -(Incorporated) - -Copyright, 1912, -by L. C. Page & Company -(Incorporated) - -Entered at Stationers’ Hall, London -All rights reserved - -Second Impression, May, 1908 -Third Impression, June, 1910 -New Revised Edition, January, 1912 - -Electrotyped and Printed by -The Colonial Press -C. H. Simonds & Co., Boston, U.S.A. - - - - - TO - My Mother - AND THE MEMORY OF - My Father - - - - -PREFACE TO REVISED EDITION - - -Since the first publication of “Mexico and Her People of To-day,” Mexico -has seen stirring times, and there has been a radical change in the -government. Revolution again broke forth, and the long dictatorship -of Porfirio Diaz has ended. These conditions have made advisable a -completely revised edition of this work, which the public and the press -have stamped with their approval to a degree that has been most pleasing. -To both public and press the author desires to return his most sincere -thanks, and he has in this revision endeavoured to be as accurate and -painstaking as in the original preparation. Furthermore, another trip -to that most interesting country has enabled the author to give a -description of a section but briefly treated in the previous edition. -New appendices have been added, consisting of a bibliography and a few -suggestions for those contemplating a trip to Mexico. - - NEVIN O. WINTER. - - TOLEDO, OHIO, _January, 1912_. - - - - -PREFACE - - -Many books have been written about Mexico, but several of the best works -were written a quarter of a century ago and are now out of print. This -fact and the developments of the past few years leads the author to -believe that there is a field for another book on that most interesting -country; a book that should present in readable form reliable information -concerning the customs and characteristics of the people of Mexico, as -well as the great natural resources of the country and their present -state of development, or lack of development. - -It has been the aim of the author to make a complete and accurate -presentation of the subject rather than to advance radical views -concerning and harsh criticism of our next-door neighbours. With -this idea in mind he has read nearly every prominent work on Mexico -and Mexican history, as well as other current periodical literature -concerning that country during the two years devoted to the preparation -of this volume. It is hoped that the wide range of subjects, covering -the customs, habits, amusements, history, antiquities, and resources -will render the volume of value to any one interested in Mexico and her -progress. - -If this volume shall aid in any way to a better understanding of Mexico -by Americans, or in furthering the present progressive movement in that -country, then the author will feel amply repaid for the months of labour -devoted to its preparation. - -The author wishes to make special acknowledgment of obligation to his -friend Mr. C. R. Birt, his companion during the greater part of his -travels through Mexico, and to whose artistic sense in selection and -grouping the excellence of many of the photographs herewith reproduced is -due. - - TOLEDO, OHIO, _September, 1907_. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - CHAPTER PAGE - - I. AZTEC LAND 1 - - II. ACROSS THE PLATEAUS 22 - - III. THE CAPITAL 46 - - IV. THE VALLEY OF ANAHUAC 74 - - V. THE TROPICS 90 - - VI. A GLIMPSE OF THE ORIENTAL IN THE OCCIDENT 111 - - VII. THE ISTHMUS OF TEHUANTEPEC 128 - - VIII. IN THE FOOTSTEPS OF THE ANCIENTS 144 - - IX. WOMAN AND HER SPHERE 162 - - X. THE PEON 183 - - XI. CUSTOMS AND CHARACTERISTICS 201 - - XII. HOLIDAYS AND HOLY-DAYS 225 - - XIII. A TRANSPLANTED SPORT 243 - - XIV. EDUCATION AND THE ARTS 257 - - XV. MINES AND MINING 274 - - XVI. RAILWAYS AND THEIR INFLUENCE 290 - - XVII. RELIGIOUS FORCES 308 - - XVIII. PASSING OF THE LAWLESS 328 - - XIX. THE STORY OF THE REPUBLIC 343 - - XX. THE GUIDING HAND 369 - - XXI. THE REVOLUTION OF 1910 396 - - XXII. THE SIERRAS AND BEYOND 415 - - XXIII. THE RUINED CITIES OF YUCATAN 438 - - XXIV. THE PRESENT AND THE FUTURE 456 - - APPENDICES 479 - - INDEX 485 - - - - -LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS - - - PAGE - - A BELLE OF TEHUANTEPEC (_See page 180_) _Frontispiece_ - - SNOW-CAPPED POPOCATAPETL 4 - - GENERAL MAP OF MEXICO 6 - - AN INDIAN MAIDEN 10 - - “THE LAND OF BURROS AND _SOMBREROS_” 22 - - MARKET SCENE IN SAN LUIS POTOSI 30 - - COCK-FIGHTING IN MEXICO 33 - - THE _MAGUEY_ 41 - - MAP OF THE VALLEY OF MEXICO 46 - - THE PATIO OF AN OLD RESIDENCE 48 - - THE CATHEDRAL 60 - - A PICTURESQUE PULQUE SHOP 66 - - THE CALENDAR STONE 77 - - SCENES ON THE VIGA CANAL 82 - - CASTLE OF CHAPULTEPEC 86 - - BRIDGE AT ORIZABA.—THE BUZZARDS OF VERA CRUZ.—AVENUE OF PALMS, - VERA CRUZ 98 - - AN INDIAN HOME IN THE HOT COUNTRY 104 - - RICE CULTURE 109 - - THE AQUEDUCT, OAXACA.—A FOUNTAIN IN OAXACA 116 - - THE MARKET-WOMEN OF OAXACA.—THE POTTERY-MARKET, OAXACA 118 - - CROSSING THE RIVER ON MARKET-DAY 121 - - THE MARKET, TEHUANTEPEC 132 - - ENTRANCE TO THE UNDERGROUND CHAMBER, MITLA.—NORTH TEMPLE, - MITLA.—HALL OF THE MONOLITHS, MITLA 157 - - A ZAPOTECO WOMAN 161 - - “PLAYING THE BEAR” 170 - - WASHING ON THE BANKS OF A STREAM 177 - - A PEON AND HIS WIFE 184 - - A CARGADOR 198 - - MAKING _TORTILLAS_ 215 - - A MEXICAN MARKET 218 - - CANDY BOY AND GIRL 220 - - BURNING AN EFFIGY OF JUDAS AT EASTER-TIME 233 - - CANDLE BOOTHS IN GUADALUPE 240 - - BEGGARS OF THE CITY OF MEXICO 242 - - PLANTING THE _BANDERILLAS_ 250 - - AN AZTEC SCHOOLGIRL 266 - - PEON MINERS AT LUNCH 280 - - ALONG THE MEXICAN SOUTHERN RAILWAY 300 - - WAYSIDE SHRINE WITH AN OFFERING OF FLOWERS 312 - - A _RURALE_ 332 - - ARMY HEADQUARTERS, CITY OF MEXICO 336 - - A VILLAGE CHURCH 364 - - A COMPANY OF _RURALES_ 370 - - SR. DON FRANCISCO I. MADERO 411 - - A GROUP OF PEONS 419 - - TARAHUMARI INDIANS 421 - - CRUMBLING RUINS OF THE ANCIENT MEXICAN CIVILIZATION 441 - - AN OLD CHURCH 451 - - PRIMITIVE TRANSPORTATION 457 - - PRIMITIVE PLOUGHING NEAR OAXACA 465 - - - - -MEXICO AND HER PEOPLE TO-DAY - - - - -CHAPTER I - -AZTEC LAND - - -Prescott says: “Of all that extensive empire which once acknowledged -the authority of Spain in the New World, no portion for interest and -importance, can be compared with Mexico;—and this equally, whether we -consider the variety of its soil and climate; the inexhaustible stores of -its mineral wealth; its scenery, grand and picturesque beyond example; -the character of its ancient inhabitants, not only far surpassing in -intelligence that of the other North American races, but reminding us, by -their monuments, of the primitive civilization of Egypt and Hindoostan; -or, lastly, the peculiar circumstances of its conquest, adventurous and -romantic as any legend devised by Norman or Italian bard of chivalry.” - -Mexico is a country in which the old predominates. The American visitor -will bring back more distinct recollections of the Egyptian carts and -plows, the primitive manners and customs, than he will of the evidences -of modern civilization. An educated Mexican whom I met, chided the -Americans for this tendency, for, said he, “all that is written of Mexico -is descriptive of the Indians and their habits, while progressive Mexico -is ignored.” This is to a great extent true, for it is the unique and -ancient that attracts and holds the attention of the traveller. For this -reason tourists go to Egypt to see the pyramids, sphinx and tombs of the -Pharaohs. - -It is not necessary for the traveller to venture out upon perilous seas -to see mute evidences of a life older than printed record. In this land -of ancient civilization and primitive customs, there are cities which -stand out like oriental pearls transplanted to the Occident from the -shores of the Red Sea. Here in Mexico can be found pyramids which are -no mean rivals to those great piles on the Egyptian deserts; crumbling -ruins of tombs, and palaces, and temples, ornamented in arabesque and -grecque designs, not unlike the structures along the banks of the mighty -Nile; and the same primitive implements of husbandry which we have -viewed so often in the pages of the large family Bible. Then, as an -additional attraction, there is the actual presence of the aborigines, -Aztec, Zapotec, and Chichimec, speaking the same language, observing the -same ceremonies, and following the same customs which were old when the -foreigners came. - -There is no history to enlighten us as to the age of these monuments, -and there are few hieroglyphics to be deciphered upon which a Rosetta -Stone might shed light. The student is led to wonder whether the Egyptian -civilization antedated the Mexican, or whether the former is simply the -Mexican learning and skill transplanted to the Orient and there modified -and improved. It is quite possible, that, while our own ancestors were -still barbarians, and little better than savages, swarming over northern -Europe, the early races in Mexico had developed a civilization advanced -and progressive. They knew how to build monuments which in masonry and -carving teach us lessons to-day. They made beautiful pottery and artistic -vessels, and they used gold for money and ornaments. - -Notwithstanding the fact that for a thousand miles the republics of -Mexico and the United States join, the average American knows less -concerning Mexico than he does of many European countries; and it is much -misunderstood as well as misrepresented. Mexico possesses the strongest -possible attractions for the tourist. Its scenic wonders are unsurpassed -in any other part of the globe in natural picturesqueness; and no country -in Europe presents an aspect more unfamiliar and strange to American -eyes, or exceeds it in historic interest. - -Vast mountains including snow-capped Popocatapetl and Ixtaccihuatl, the -loftiest peaks on the American continent, are seen here amid scenes -of tropical beauty and luxuriance. Great cities are found with their -customs and characteristics almost unchanged since they were built by the -Spaniards; and there are still more ancient cities and temples which were -built by prehistoric races. - -[Illustration: SNOW-CAPPED POPOCATAPETL] - -It is a land of tradition and romance, and of picturesque contrasts. -At almost every turn there is something new, unique, interesting, and -even startling. It has all the climates from the torrid zone to regions -of perpetual snow on the summits of the lofty volcanic peaks, and is -capable of producing nearly every fruit found between the equator and -the Arctic circle. The softness and sweetness of the air; the broken -and ever-varying line of rugged hills against a matchless sky; the -beautiful views between the mountain ranges; the care-free life which -is omnipresent each add their charm to the composite picture. Dirt is -everywhere and poverty abounds, but even these are removed from the -commonplace by the brilliant colour on every hand. - -F. Hopkinson Smith in “A White Umbrella in Mexico” epitomizes this -marvellously attractive country as follows: “A land of white sunshine, -redolent with flowers; a land of gay costumes, crumbling churches, and -old convents; a land of kindly greetings, of extreme courtesy, of open, -broad hospitality. It was more than enough to revel in an Italian sun, -lighting up a semi-tropical land; to look up to white-capped peaks, -towering into blue; to look down upon wind-swept plains, encircled by -ragged chains of mountains; to catch the sparkle of miniature cities, -jewelled here and there in oases of olive and orange; and to realize -that to-day, in its varied scenery, costumes, architecture, street life, -canals crowded with flower-laden boats, market plazas thronged with -gaily-dressed natives, faded church interiors, and abandoned convents, -Mexico is the most marvellously picturesque country under the sun. A -tropical Venice! A semi-barbarous Spain! A new Holy Land.” - -Mexico contains a greater area than is generally understood. It is shaped -very much like a cornucopia with an extreme length of nineteen hundred -miles, a breadth of seven hundred and fifty miles, and an area of nearly -eight hundred thousand square miles. At its narrowest point, the Isthmus -of Tehuantepec, it is only one hundred and twenty-five miles across -from ocean to ocean. There is a double range of mountains, one near the -Pacific coast and the other near the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, between -which lie the great table lands, or plateaus, which constitute a large -part of the surface. - -[Illustration] - -Three distinct climates are found in Mexico determined by altitude. -Those regions six thousand feet or more above sea level are called the -_tierras frias_, or cold lands. This is only a relative term, for the -cold does not correspond with that of our own northern states. Though -termed “cold,” the mean temperature is not lower than that of Central -Italy. Those lands lying at an altitude of six thousand feet, down to -three thousand feet, above sea level are termed the _tierras templadas_, -or temperate lands. This is a region of perpetual humidity and is -semi-tropical in its vegetation and temperature. An altitude from four -thousand to six thousand feet in Mexico gives a most delightful climate. - -Along both the Atlantic and Pacific coasts there is a more or less -broad tract called the _tierra caliente_, or hot land, which is a truly -tropical region. Forests of dense growth cover the soil, so thick that it -is impossible to penetrate them without blazing your way as you go, and -in the midst of which tower trees of magnificent size, such as are to be -seen only in the tropics. Here it is that nature is over-prodigal in her -gifts; and here it is that the _vomito_, as yellow fever is called, lurks -with fatal effect. The winds from the sea generally mitigate the fierce -heat, especially if one can remain out of the sun during the middle -of the day. Sometimes these winds on the Atlantic coast acquire great -velocity, and burst forth upon the unprotected shores with terrific fury -as the so-called “northers.” There is no true winter here, but there is a -rainy season from June to October, and a dry season from November to May, -the former being the colder. - -“In the course of a few hours,” says Prescott, “the traveller may -experience every gradation of climate, embracing torrid heat and glacial -cold, and pass through different zones of vegetation including wheat and -the sugar-cane, the ash and the palm, apples, olives, and guavas.” The -dwellings vary also. In the hot lands the habitations are constructed -of bamboo and light poles open to sun and wind, for the only shelter -needed is protection from the elements; in the temperate region the huts -are made of heavier poles, and are somewhat more durable; in the higher -lands they are built of adobe or stone. Sugar cane and coffee, and even -the banana, will grow up to four thousand feet. Wheat grows best at six -thousand feet and pines commence here too. At seven thousand feet cactus -appears, and the _maguey_, ushering in an entirely different zone. Mexico -is a country of extremes of heat and cold, poverty and riches, filth and -cleanliness, education and extreme ignorance. - -Every schoolboy knows of Loch Katrine and Loch Lomond in bonnie Scotland, -and most people are familiar with the location of Lago di Como, in Italy. -And yet I should not be surprised if fair-sized towns could be found in -the United States where no one could tell whether such a body of water -as Lake Chapala existed or not. As a matter of fact it is ten times -as large as all the lakes of Northern Italy combined; and it embraces -islands larger than the entire surface of Loch Lomond. Its steely -blue waters and rugged shores need only the magic pen of the novelist -or poet to tell of its beauties and invest each nook and glen with -romance, and the charming villas of Como to make Chapala as picturesque -and fascinating as those better known lakes. It is almost a hundred -miles long and thirty-three miles wide at the widest point, and covers -fourteen hundred square miles. Patzcuaro and Cuitzeo are also lakes of -considerable size near Chapala, and all of them are six thousand feet -or more above sea level. They only await development and advertising to -become popular resorts. - -The vast majority of the inhabitants of Mexico are descendants of Indian -races who were found there by the Spanish conquerors, and mixtures -of those natives with European settlers. Of the fourteen millions of -inhabitants only about nineteen per cent. are white; of the remainder, -forty-three per cent. are Indians and thirty-eight per cent. mixed. There -is a greater resemblance of the Mexican Indians to the Malay races of -Asia than to the American Indians. Their intensely black hair and eyes, -brown complexion, small stature, and even a slight obliquity of the eyes -bear a strong resemblance to the Japanese. I have seen it stated that, -if a Japanese is dressed in Mexican costume, and a Mexican in Japanese -dress, it is difficult to tell which is the Jap and which the Mexican. -Students of languages say that there is a strong similarity between the -Mexican tongues and oriental languages. The different tribes do not -mingle much and seldom intermarry, and this fact may contribute to their -physical deterioration. - -[Illustration: AN INDIAN MAIDEN] - -Whence came this people? No one can answer. It is generally supposed that -the Aztecs came from what are now the south-western states of the Union, -and wandered into the Valley of Mexico. They were defeated by the tribes -then dwelling there, and sought refuge on the shores of Lake Texcoco. -There they beheld a golden eagle of great size and beauty resting on a -prickly cactus and devouring a serpent which it held in its talons, and -with its wings outstretched toward the rising sun. This was the sign for -which they had been looking, and there they proceeded to erect their -capital. They first built houses of rushes and reeds in the shallow -water and lived upon fish, and constructed floating gardens. As the -waters receded somewhat they built more durable structures, including -great palaces and temples. They extended their sway over neighbouring -races beyond the Valley and conquered tribe after tribe, although never -claiming dominion over more than a small portion of the present confines -of Mexico. The legend of the eagle and the cactus is still preserved in -the coat-of-arms of the present republic. - -Of the Aztecs and their history prior to the conquest little is known, -except that the country was called Anahuac. Prescott has made his -“Conquest of Mexico” as fascinating as a novel, but he has shown the -romantic side based upon knowledge of the most fragmentary character. The -writings which pass for history were either written by bigoted priests -who could not see anything good in an idolatrous people, and who, to -please the leaders, painted the Aztecs in blackest colours to justify the -cruel measures taken, or they were written by Spaniards who never visited -the country of which they presumed to write. As it has been said, “a -most gorgeous superstructure of fancy has been raised upon a very meagre -foundation of fact.” Their civilization was in many respects marvellous -and far ahead of that of any other race on the western hemisphere. Under -the Montezumas they had grown into a powerful nation, and their rule was -one of barbaric splendour and luxury. - -The Aztecs succeeded an older race called the Toltecs who were also far -advanced in civilization. They were nature worshippers and not only did -not indulge in human sacrifices, but were averse to war and detested -falsehood and treachery. A Toltec noble is said to have instructed his -son after the following manner before sending him away from home: “Never -tell a falsehood, because a lie is a grievous sin! Speak ill of nobody. -Be not dissolute, for thereby thou wilt incense the gods, and they -will cover thee with infamy. Steal not, nor give thyself up to gaming; -otherwise thou wilt be a disgrace to thy parents, whom thou oughtest -rather to honour, for the education they have given thee. If thou wilt be -virtuous, thy example will put the wicked to shame.” - -Both of these races were also great builders and sculptors and had -cultivated the art of picture-writing. They were well housed, decently -clothed, made cloth, enjoyed vapour baths, maintained schools, and had a -large assortment of household gods. They mined some, and in agriculture, -at least, were far ahead of the Mexicans of to-day. - -The vandalism of the Spaniards in destroying the writings and other -records of the early races is rebuked by Prescott as follows: “We -contemplate with indignation the cruelties inflicted by the early -conquerors. But indignation is qualified with contempt when we see them -thus ruthlessly trampling out the sparks of knowledge, the common boon -and property of mankind. We may well doubt which has the strongest claim -to civilization, the victor or the vanquished.” - -The Mexico of to-day cannot be understood without looking for a -moment at its settlement and the manner of the conquest. The Spanish -_conquistadores_ who flocked to these shores with Cortez were a different -race from those early settlers, who, persecuted and denied liberty of -conscience in the land of their birth, sought a new home on our own -hospitable shores. With the union of the crowns of Castille and Aragon -by the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella, and the discovery of the New -World, Spain had suddenly leaped to the front, and become, for a time at -least, the greatest nation of the day. Ships were constructed in great -numbers and sent out, filled with voyagers, “towards that part of the -horizon where the sun set.” - -In the sixteenth century she had practically become the mistress of the -seas and the most powerful nation in the world. Her soldiers were brave -and the acknowledged leaders of chivalry, but the curse of the Spaniards -was their thirst for gold, and her decay was rapid. When Cortez and his -band of adventurers came to the court of Montezuma, and saw the lavish -display of vessels and ornaments made of the precious metal, they thought -they had discovered the land of gold for which they were searching. -Attracted by the glowing reports of untold wealth, thousands of Spaniards -soon followed the first bands of _conquistadores_, and they rapidly -spread over the entire country occupied by the Aztecs, ever searching -for the mines from whence this golden harvest came. While the leaders -were imprisoning and torturing the Aztec chieftains to force them to give -up the hiding places of their treasures, the priests, who everywhere -accompanied the soldiers, were baptizing thousands into the new faith and -using the confessional for the same end. Thus religious bigotry and the -mania for worldly riches went side by side, and ever ringing in the ears -of both priest and warrior was the refrain: - - “Gold! Gold! Gold! Gold! - Bright and yellow, hard and cold.” - -Shortly after the conquest all the desirable lands were parcelled out -among the invaders and the few Indian _caciques_ who had helped, with -their powerful influence, in their subjugation. The Spaniards rapidly -pacified the country, for the Aztec masses, however warlike they may have -been before the coming of the Spaniards, were subdued by one blow. They -were soon convinced that opposition to the power of Spain was useless. -The priests, also, through their quickly acquired influence, taught -submission to those whom God, in His infinite wisdom, had placed over -them. Chiefs who would not yield otherwise were bribed to use their power -over their vassals in favour of the Spaniards. Thus by force, bribery, -intrigue, diplomacy, treachery, and even religion, the Indians were -reconciled and the spirit of opposition to the Spaniards broken. The -result was a new and upstart nobility who ruled the country with an iron -hand in the course of a few decades; and the natives, with the exception -of the chiefs, were made vassals of these newly made nobles. - -An era of building followed, in which great palaces after the _grandiose_ -ideas of Spain were constructed by Indian workmen. Churches were built -with lavish hand, for these nobles thought to atone for their many -misdeeds by constructing and dedicating places of worship to Almighty -God, who, according to the teaching of the priest, was the God of the -poor, oppressed Indian as well as the God of the haughty Spaniard who -had enslaved him. As one writer has said: “When John Smith and his -followers were looking for gold mines in Virginia and the Pilgrims were -planting corn in Massachusetts, an empire had been founded and built up -on the same continent by the Spaniards, and the most stupendous system -of plunder the world ever saw was then and there in vigorous operation.” -Cortez was searching for “a people who had much gold” of which he had -heard. It was not God but gold that drew him in his campaign over Mexico. -He did not aim to Christianize the natives so much as enrich himself and -acquire empire for his sovereign, and religion was a subterfuge plausible -and popular in that age. - -“I die,” said the patriot Hidalgo, when about to be executed in 1811, -“but the seeds of liberty will be watered by my blood. The cause will -not die; that still lives and will surely triumph.” His prediction -came true, and freedom from the Spanish yoke of three centuries was -secured ten years later after the shedding of much blood. Peace did -not follow at once, however, for in the fifty years succeeding the -declaration of independence the form of government changed ten times, -and there were fifty-four different rulers, including two emperors and a -number of dictatorships. Special privileges are difficult to eradicate -when established by long usage, and those enjoying them yield only to -force. The Church, which had imposed on the people such a vast number -of priests, friars, and nuns, and had acquired the most of the wealth -of the country, clung with the grip of death to its privileges and -property. The changes came gradually, but it has been a half-century -since the Church and State were formally separated by constitutional -amendment. The bigoted and despotic Romanism, which was allied with the -Spanish aristocracy, has at last been subdued. A more tolerant spirit is -springing up towards other forms of religious faith through the efforts -of a powerful and liberal government. Education is also freeing the -people from the superstitious ignorance which has hitherto prevailed -in most parts of Mexico. There are occasional outbursts of fanaticism, -but they are quickly suppressed, and the government is making an honest -effort to preserve freedom of worship to all faiths. - -The United States of Mexico is a federation composed of twenty-seven -states, three territories, and the federal district in which the -capital is located. The states are sovereign within themselves and are -held together under a federal constitution very much like our own. -This constitution was adopted on the 5th of February, 1857, and its -semi-centennial was recently celebrated with a few of the original -signers present. There is a congress composed of two bodies, the Senate -and Chamber of Deputies which meets twice each year. Each state is -represented in the former by two senators and in the latter by one -representative for each forty thousand of population. The right of -suffrage is restricted so that only a small proportion of the population -can exercise that privilege. They have not really reached popular -government, and politics, as we know them in the United States, do not -exist. A presidential election scarcely caused a ripple on the surface. -President Diaz was no doubt the popular choice, but comparatively few -votes were cast at his last election. The rule of the Diaz government -although decidedly autocratic was beneficient, and has redounded to the -good of the country. Though practically an absolute ruler, President Diaz -always acted through the regularly organized channels of a complete form -of republican government, and outwardly, at least, there was no semblance -of a dictatorship. - -Mexico is a country of great natural resources and possibilities which -have been only partially developed. Its soil is remarkably fertile and -could support five times, and, if water could be found on the plateaus, -ten times the present population. And I say this notwithstanding the -fact that one man has said that Mexico is the poorest country south -of Greenland, and north of the south pole. The flora of the country, -among which are many useful and medicinal plants, is exceedingly rich -and varied. More species of fibre plants are found there than in any -other country, and the commercial utility of these plants is not yet -fully appreciated. In no country has there been greater waste of natural -resources than the Spanish conquerors caused in Mexico. It is as a mining -country that Mexico has been best known and the Mexican silver mines have -been famous ever since the discovery of the New World, and they are -still the greatest single source of wealth. Some of them which have been -worked for centuries are still yielding small fortunes in the white metal -each year. - -The Mexican has his own view of the United States and does not call our -boasted progress and much-vaunted civilization, with its hurry, brusque -ways and the blotting out of the finer courtesies, an improvement. He -appreciates our mechanical contrivances and electrical inventions, but -prefers to enjoy life after his own fashion and in the way he thinks -that God intended in order to keep men happy. The civilization received -by Mexico in the sixteenth century was looked upon as equal to the best -in existence, and to this was added an ancient civilization found in -the country. From these sources a manner of living has been evolved -which bears evidences of culture and refinement. This system has flowed -on through the intervening centuries, undisturbed by the march of -progress, until the last quarter of a century. Things cannot be changed -to Anglo-Saxon standards in a year, or two years, or even a generation. -To Americanize Mexico will be a difficult if not impossible undertaking, -and there are no signs of such a transition. Americans who live there -fall into Mexican ways and moral standards more frequently than Mexicans -are converted to the American point of view. The influence of traditions, -customs, and climate, and the centuries-old habit of letting the morrow -take care of itself is too great to be overcome. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -ACROSS THE PLATEAUS - - -The traveller going to Mexico by rail will discover that that country -begins long before the border is reached. While travelling over the great -state of Texas, where the dialect of the natives is as broad as the -rolling prairie round about, he is reminded of our southern neighbour -by the soft accents of the Spanish language, or by the entrance into -the coach of a Mexican cowboy with his great hat and picturesque suit. -Leaving beautiful San Antonio, which is a Spanish city modernized, it is -but a few hours until the train crosses the muddy Rio Grande at Laredo -and, after passing an imaginary line in the centre of the stream, enters -the land of burros and _sombreros_, a land of mysterious origin and vast -antiquity. - -[Illustration: “THE LAND OF BURROS AND _SOMBREROS_”] - -The custom officials are very polite and soon affix the necessary label -“despachado” to the baggage. “_Vamonos_” (we go) replaces the familiar -“all aboard,” and the train moves out over a country as flat and dreary -as a desert. By whichever route the traveller enters Mexico, the -journey is very uninteresting for the first half day. There is nothing -to relieve the monotony except the telephone and telegraph poles, with -their picturesque cross-arms standing out on the desert waste like giant -sentinels. There is no vegetation except the prickly pear, cactus, and -feather duster palms, for frequently no rain falls for years at a time. -It seems almost impossible that anything can get moisture from the -parched air of these plains. But nature has strange ways of adapting -life to conditions. A good illustration of this is seen in the _ixtle_, -a species of cactus whose leaves look as if they could not absorb any -moisture because of a hard varnish-like coat. Whenever any water in the -form of dew or rain appears, however, this glaze softens and the plant -absorbs all the moisture available and then glazes over again as soon as -the sun comes out. - -There is very little life here. Sometimes at the stations a few adobe -huts are seen where dwell the section hands, and a few goats are visible -which, no doubt, find the prickly pear and cactus with an occasional -railroad spike thrown in for variety, much more satisfying than an -unchanging diet of tin cans such as falls to the lot of the city goat. -The mountain ranges then appear, and never is the traveller out of -sight of them in Mexico. On either side, toward the east and toward the -west, is a range with an ever varying outline, sometimes near, then -far,—advancing and retreating. At a distance in this clear atmosphere -their rough features are mellowed by a soft haze into amethyst and -purple; nearer they sometimes rise like a camp of giants and are the most -fantastic mountains that earthquakes ever made in sport, looking as if -nature had laughed herself into the convulsions in which they were formed. - -The Mexican National Railway follows a broad road that was formerly an -Indian trail, and the track crosses and recrosses this highway many -times. By this same route it is probable that early Mexican races entered -that country and marched down toward the Valley of Mexico. It was by this -way that General Taylor invaded the country during the Mexican War and -several engagements took place along the line of this railroad. - -The first town of any size is Monterey, capital of the state of Nuevo -Leon, the oldest and one of the most important cities in Northern -Mexico. It lies in a lovely valley with high hills on every side. It is -at a lower altitude than the cities farther south on this line and enjoys -a salubrious climate. Monterey is a very much Americanized town and has -great smelters, factories, and breweries, but it also boasts of beautiful -gardens and some old churches. The Topo Chico hot springs only a few -miles away have a great reputation for healing. Here it was, in 1846, -that General Taylor overcame a much superior force of the enemy under -General Ampudia in a desperate and stubbornly disputed battle lasting -several days, the contest being hotly fought from street to street. The -Mexican troops entered the houses and shot at the American soldiers from -the windows and roofs. It is now a city of more than fifty thousand -people. - -Leaving Monterey, the road soon begins a gradual ascent to the higher -plateaus and reaches the zone called _tierra fria_, or cold country. This -name would seem a misnomer to one who hails from the land of snow and -ice, for the mean temperature of this “cold land” is that of a perpetual -spring such as is enjoyed north of Mason and Dixon’s line. It is properly -applied to all that part of Mexico which is six thousand feet or more -above the level of the sea and the greater part of the immense central -plateaus comes within this designation. These plains which comprise about -two-thirds of the entire country, are formed by the great Andes range of -mountains which separates into two great _cordillerias_ near Oaxaca and -gradually grow farther and farther apart as they approach the Rio Grande. -The western branch crowds the shore of the Pacific and the eastern -follows the coast line of the Gulf of Mexico, but the latter keeps at -a greater distance from the sea, thus giving a wider expanse of the -hotlands. They are not level tablelands, these _mesas_, as they always -slope in some direction. The arid condition follows as a natural course, -for the lofty ranges cause the rain to be precipitated on the coast lands -except during certain seasons in the year when the winds change. When the -rains do come, a miracle is wrought, and the sombre landscape blossoms -into a lively green dotted with flowers. It is rare to find such great -plains at so high an altitude. Although now almost barren of trees it is -probable that in early times these tablelands were covered with a forest -growth principally of oak and cypress. This is evidenced by the few -groves that yet remain, in which many of the trees are of extraordinary -dimensions. The Spaniards completed the spoliation that had been begun by -the earlier races. - -Saltillo, the next important town, is the capital of the State of -Coahuila. It is interesting to Americans, as just a few miles from here -and near the railway took place the battle of Buena Vista, at the village -of that name. Here the Americans under General Taylor sent double their -number of Mexicans under the notorious Santa Anna, flying on February -23rd, 1847. - -Still climbing, the road continues toward the capital, passes through -a rich mining district, and after the Tropic of Cancer is crossed the -traveller is in the Torrid Zone, the spot being marked by a pyramid. -Plains, seemingly endless, where for a hundred miles the long stretch -of track is without a curve, are traversed, and so dry that wells and -water-tanks are objects of interest. It is mostly given up to vast -_haciendas_. Some of these estates still remain in the hands of the -original families as granted at the time of the conquest. - -It was on these vast, seemingly barren plateaus that the _hacienda_ -reached its highest development. One does not go far south of the Rio -Grande before the significance of this institution in Mexican life -becomes apparent. Sometimes when the train stops at a little adobe -station with a long name, the traveller wonders what is the need of a -station; for there is no town and only a few native huts clustered around -the depot. However a glance around the horizon will reveal the towers and -spire of a _hacienda_ nestling at the foot of the hills perhaps several -miles away. In the olden times they took the place of the feudal castles -of the middle ages in Europe and in these sparsely settled regions they -were especially necessary. Within the high walls which often surround -them for protection were centralized the residence of the owner and all -of his employees and the necessary buildings to store the products of -the soil. The _hacendado’s_ home was a large, roomy building, for, since -there were no inns, the traveller must be entertained and hospitality -was of the open-handed sort. The travel-worn wayfarer was welcomed and -no questions asked. His wants were supplied and at his departure the -benediction “Go, and God be with you,” followed him. Even yet at some of -these great _haciendas_, where the old-time customs prevail, the bell is -rung at mealtime and any one who hears it is welcomed at the table. - -The term _hacienda_ has a double meaning, for it is applied both to -the great estates and to the buildings. It is a patriarchal existence -that is led by these landed proprietors. A thousand peons and more are -frequently attached to the estate. Near the station of Villa Reyes is a -great _hacienda_ which once controlled twenty thousand peons. These must -be provided with homes, but a room fifteen feet square is considered -sufficient for a family, no matter how large. Little furniture is needed, -for they live out of doors mostly, and mats, which can be removed during -the day, take the place of cumbersome beds. The _administrador_, who may -be an Indian also, and other heads, live better and are housed in larger -quarters. A church is always a part of the estate and a priest must be -kept to furnish spiritual solace, as well as a doctor to administer to -those whose bodies are infirm. Schools are also maintained by most of the -proprietors to-day. The peon must be provided with his provisions each -week and a little patch of ground for his own use. Around the buildings -lie the cultivated fields, and from early morn until the shades of night -have fallen, lines of burros are constantly passing in and out laden with -wood, corn, vegetables, poultry, boxes of freight, and all the other -items of traffic which are a part of the life of this great household. - -After piercing another of the mountain ranges which intersect the country -from east to west, and traversing miles of fertile fields and gardens -bearing semi-tropical fruits and vegetables, the road enters a valley -and the city of San Luis Potosi is reached. Every country has its Saint -Louis, but only one has a Saint Louis of the Treasure, and that is -San Luis Potosi, the capital of the state of that name. It lies in a -spreading plain of great fertility—made so by irrigation—whose gardens -extend to the encircling hills that are rich in the mineral treasures -which give the city its name. The San Pedro mines near here alone produce -an annual output of several millions. These mines were revealed to -Spaniards by an Indian who had become converted to Christianity. There is -a mint here that coins several millions of dollars each year. - -[Illustration: MARKET SCENE IN SAN LUIS POTOSI] - -San Luis Potosi is not a new city nor has its growth been of the mushroom -variety. Founded in the middle of the sixteenth century, it preserves -to-day in wood and stone the spirit of old Spain transplanted by the -conquerors to the new world. Drawn hither by the reports of gold, the -Spanish cavalier stalked through the streets of this town in complete -mail before the _Mayflower_ landed on the shores of Massachusetts. The -priests were chanting the solemn service of the church here long before -the English landed at Jamestown. Dust had gathered on the municipal -library, which now contains a hundred thousand volumes, centuries before -the building of the first little red school house in the United States. -Before New York had been thought of, the drama of life was being enacted -here daily after Castillian models. - -It is a cleanly city and the bright attractive look of its houses -is refreshing. A city ordinance compels the citizens to keep up the -appearance of their houses, and the colours remind one of Seville. It is -pleasant to walk along these streets and through the plazas with their -trees and flowers and fountains. - -I will never forget my arrival in this city. We reached there about -midnight, having been delayed by a wreck; and a number of _mozos_ pounced -upon the party of Americans who had been dropped by the belated train, -each one eager to carry some of the baggage. We were marched through the -Alameda, which, for a wonder, adjoins the station, on walks shaded by -broad-leaved, tropical plants, down narrow streets and around several -corners to the hotel. Arrived here it was only after several minutes -of vigorous knocking that a sleepy-looking porter opened the door, -and we entered the hotel and walked down the hall through a line of -sleeping servants. The room finally assigned to my friend and myself was -thirty-four feet long, sixteen feet wide and about twenty-five feet high, -and there were four great windows extending nearly from ceiling to floor -and protected by heavy iron bars which made them look like the windows -of a prison. It had doubtless been some church property at one time, but -whether monastery or convent I did not learn. - -[Illustration: COCK-FIGHTING IN MEXICO] - -Not all this city is pretty however, for distance often lends -enchantment, and a closer scrutiny takes away much of this charm. I -saw filth on the streets here that can only be duplicated in old Spain -itself. There are numerous churches and several of them are quite -pretentious and contain some fine paintings. On the façade of one -church there is a clock presented by the king of Spain in return for -the largest piece of gold ever found in America. San Luis is a thrifty -city as Mexican towns go and has numerous manufacturing establishments, -including a large smelting works, the Compania Metallurgica, and is an -important railroad centre. It is distant from the City of Mexico three -hundred and sixty-two miles, and has a population of seventy thousand -souls. - -This city claims quite a number of American families as residents and -many of the storekeepers have been somewhat Americanized, for they -actually seem to be on the lookout for business. The state capitol is -a very interesting building. While looking through this palace I saw -the “line up” of petty offenders who were being sent out to sweep the -streets. They were the worst looking lot of _pulque_-drinkers I ever saw -and were clothed in rags. Each one was given a handful of twigs with -which he was obliged to sweep the streets and gutters, and they were sent -out in gangs, each under a police officer. The vices of these people are -generally more evident than their virtues. They are inveterate gamblers. -Wherever one goes (not alone in San Luis Potosi) fighting cocks are -encountered tied by the leg to a stake with a few feet of string. Or they -may be carried in the arms of young would-be sports who brag of their -birds to any one who will listen. One day I saw a man with a cock whose -head was one bloody-looking mass. He had just cut off the rooster’s -comb. When I stopped and looked, the Indian laughed as though it were a -great joke and said he was “much sick.” This was done so that in a fight -his opponent could not catch hold of the comb. Itinerant cock-fighters -who travel across the country carrying their birds in hollow straw tubes -are popular fellows. - -Leaving San Luis Potosi at noontime the traveller catches his last -glimpse of this city where - - “Upon the whitened city walls - The golden sunshine softly falls, - On archways set with orange trees, - On paven courts and balconies.” - -The train soon enters a rich agricultural belt and the country becomes -more populous. Giant cacti towering straight and tall to a height of -fifteen or twenty feet are a common sight. - -Dolores Hidalgo where the patriot-priest first sounded the call to -liberty and revolution is passed. Then comes Querétero, which occupies a -prominent place in Mexican history and is the last city of any size on -the way to the capital. Here the treaty of peace between Mexico and the -United States was negotiated. In this city Maximilian played the last -act in the tragedy of the empire. He was captured while attempting to -escape on June 19th, 1867, and was shot on the Cerro de las Campañas, a -little hill just outside the city. With him were shot Generals Miramon -and Mejia. Maximilian died with the cry of “_Viva Mexico_” on his lips. -There is a magnificent aqueduct here which, because of the high arches, -looks like the old ruined aqueduct seen on approaching Rome. The tallest -arch is nearly one hundred feet. The entire length of the aqueduct is -about five miles and it is still in use. There are a number of factories -for cotton goods. Among them is the great Hercules Mill which employs -more than two thousand hands. The grounds are laid out in elaborate and -beautiful style. - -After climbing the mountain range again until an altitude of nearly ten -thousand feet has been reached, the descent begins and the beauty of the -Valley of Mexico unfolds. Fleeting glimpses of the scene may be caught -through little gaps in the mountains until finally the train enters a -pass and the traveller has his first view of the City of Mexico. Beyond -the glittering towers and domes of the modern city on the site of the -ancient Aztec capital lies the bright expanse of the lakes, and still -further in the distance is seen the encircling girdle of mountains like -a protecting wall around this enchanted scene. - -There are many other cities situated on these vast plateaus, for the -_tierra fria_ has always maintained the bulk of the population in spite -of the extraordinary richness of the lowlands. They are growing in size -as manufacturing establishments become more numerous. A number of them -like Chihuahua, Aguas Calientes, Zacatecas, Guanajuato, Durango, and -Leon are interesting cities of from thirty to forty thousand inhabitants -and all of them are old. Chihuahua (pronounced Che-wa-wa) is the capital -of the state of that name which is the largest state in the republic -and is twice as large as the state of Ohio. It has a population of less -than four hundred thousand. This will serve to give a little idea of the -vastness of these great tablelands and the sparseness of population. It -is chiefly devoted to great ranches where hundreds of thousands of cattle -are grazed. - -It may be interesting to note that cattle ranching originated in this -state. All the terms used on the range and roundup are of Spanish origin -and are the same that have been employed for centuries. One man here -is the owner of a cattle ranch covering seventeen million acres. The -traveller might journey for days and cross ranges of mountains and not -pass beyond his princely domain. There are a number of cattle ranches of -from one to two million acres and a few Americans are now entering the -field here since the public domain in the United States has dwindled so -much. - -Two cities, Guadalajara and Puebla, have long disputed for the honour -of second city in the republic. Puebla is situated southeast of the -capital and is a city of tiles, for tiles are used everywhere from the -domes of churches to floors for the devout to kneel upon. It is the -capital of the richest state in the republic and has probably seen more -of the vicissitudes of war than any other city. It has been captured -and occupied successively by Spaniards, Americans and French and by -revolutionists times without number. This city was the scene of General -Zaragossa’s victory on May 5th, 1862, when he repulsed the French forces -just outside the city’s gates. This victory is celebrated each year as -the “_cinco de Mayo_” (Fifth of May) and is the great anti-foreign day. -Formerly foreigners did not show themselves on the street on this day, -but that antagonistic sentiment has disappeared. In 1906 because of -labour disturbances for which American agitators were blamed trouble was -feared on this day, but it passed off without an unpleasant incident. -This city was founded as early as 1532. Its history is romantic and full -of legends recounting the many visits of the angels. Angels appeared -one night and staked out the city. Again, while the cathedral was being -built, the angels came after nightfall when the city was wrapped in -slumber and built a great part of the tower. At another time the angels -were marshalled in mighty hosts just over the city. The people can even -point out to you the very places where the angelic visitors roosted. -The ecclesiastical records vouch for these appearances of the heavenly -visitors and the people devoutly believe in them. - -Puebla has wide streets—for Mexico—and many beautiful plazas with -flowers and fountains. It is also noted for its bull-fights and has two -bull-rings. These are in use nearly every Sunday and frequently for the -benefit of or in honour of some church feast or departed saint. The -public buildings are very creditable and the city contains good schools -and hospitals. A goodly number of foreigners live here, especially -Germans. I have noticed that the Germans affiliate with the Mexicans -much better than Americans generally do. One reason is that they come -here to establish their permanent residence, while Americans, like the -Chinese, desire to make their fortunes and then return to the land of -their birth to spend their later days. - -Puebla has become quite a manufacturing city and especially of cotton -goods, paper, flour and soaps. Onyx and marble are quarried near here, -and a large number of workmen are employed in the quarries and in -the establishments preparing these materials for the market. Several -railroads now reach this city, and its importance as an industrial centre -is increasing each year. - -All kinds of grains that are produced in the temperate zones will grow on -the tablelands of Mexico wherever there is sufficient rain or water to -be obtained by irrigation. A constantly increasing amount of acreage is -being made available through the extension of the irrigation system, but -its possibilities are only beginning to be realized. Corn, which is such -a great article of food with the Mexicans, is by far the most valuable -agricultural product and several hundred million bushels are produced -each year. Wheat was first introduced in Mexico by a monk who planted a -few grains that he had brought with him. This grain is now raised quite -extensively in some districts but frequently there is not enough for even -local consumption. Cotton is also produced in a number of the states. - -[Illustration: THE _MAGUEY_] - -Mexico is especially rich in fibre-producing plants and no country in the -world has so many different varieties. All of these belong to the great -cactus, or _agave_, family. The value of the cactus has never been fully -appreciated but new uses are being found for it constantly, and new kinds -with valuable qualities are being discovered in Mexico almost yearly. -Perhaps the most valuable plant of this family that is being cultivated -in Mexico to-day is that species of the _agave_ that produces the -valuable henequen fibre of commerce. This plant very much resembles the -_maguey_ and grows on the thin, rocky, limestone soil of Yucatan. From -this fibre is made most of the binder twine and much of the rope used in -the United States. It has the threefold qualities of strength, pliability -and colour. In the past twenty years the cultivation of henequen has -grown to enormous proportions, and some of the planters have become -millionaires almost rivalling the famous bonanza kings of olden times. -The amount of henequen, or sisal, fibre exported to the United States -from 1880 to 1905 was nine million, two hundred and nineteen thousand, -two hundred and fifteen bales at an estimated value of $300,988,072.66. -In 1902 the exports reached a maximum, and amounted to $34,185,275. All -of this fibre is exported through the port of Progreso. - -Several species of the cactus family are being experimented with, and it -is claimed that they will produce an excellent quality of paper pulp. -This may help to solve the problem that now bothers paper manufacturers -as the forests of spruce disappear before the woodsman’s ax. The graceful -_maguey_, the _agave americana_, is cultivated almost everywhere on the -plateau lands. It also produces a valuable fibre, but this plant is not -cultivated primarily for that purpose. The ancient races used the thorns -for pins and needles; the leaves furnished a kind of parchment for their -writings and thatch for their roofs; and the juice when fermented made -a—to them—most delicious drink. On the plains of Apam just east of the -Valley of Mexico and north of Puebla the cultivation of the _maguey_ has -reached the highest development. - -The good housewife in the United States who carefully nourishes the -century plant, hoping that at least her descendants will have the -pleasure of seeing it blossom at the end of a hundred years, would be -surprised to see the immense plantations consisting of thousands of this -same plant growing here. The plant, commonly called the _maguey_, is a -native of Mexico and grows to great size. It flourishes best in rocky -and sandy soil and is quite imposing in appearance. Its dark green, -spiked leaves which lift themselves up and spread out in graceful curves, -sometimes reach a length of fifteen feet, and are a foot in breadth and -several inches thick. It requires from six to ten years for the _maguey_ -to mature on its native heath. When that period arrives a slender stalk -springs up from the centre of these great leaves, twenty to thirty feet -high, upon which a great mass of small flowers is clustered. This supreme -effort exhausts the plant and, its duty to nature having been performed, -it withers and dies. - -This is not the purpose for which the _maguey_ is raised on the big -plantations where the rows of graceful century plants stretch out as far -as the eye can reach in unwavering regularity. On these plantations the -_maguey_ is not permitted to flower. The Indians know, by infallible -signs, almost the very hour at which it is ready to send up the central -stalk, and it is then marked by an overseer with a cross. The stalk is -now full of the sap which is the object of its culture. Other Indians -follow up the overseer and, making an incision at the base of the plant, -extract the central portion, leaving only the rind which forms a natural -basin. Into this the sap, which is called _agua miel_, or honey-water, -and which is almost as clear as water and as sweet as honey, collects. So -quickly does this fluid gather that it is found necessary to remove it -two or three times per day. The method of gathering this sap is extremely -primitive. The Indian is provided with a long gourd at the lower end of -which is a horn. He places the small end, which is open, in the liquid -and, applying his lips to an opening in the large end, sucks the sap up -into the gourd. The sap is then emptied into a receptacle swung across -his back which is made of a whole goat-skin or pig-skin with the hair -on the inside. The _maguey_ plant will yield six or more quarts of this -“honey-water” in a day and the supply will continue from one to three -months. It is then exhausted and withers and decays. However, a new shoot -will spring up from the old roots without replanting. - -This innocent looking and savoury sap is then taken to a building -prepared for the purpose and there poured into vats made of cowhides -stretched on a frame. In each vat a little sour liquor called “mother of -_pulque_” has been poured. This causes quick fermentation and in a few -hours the _pulque_ of the Mexican is ready for the market. It is at its -best after about twenty-four hours fermentation. It then has somewhat -the appearance and taste of stale buttermilk and a rancid smell. After -more fermentation it has the odour of putrid meat. The skins in which it -is carried increase this disagreeable odour. The first taste of _pulque_ -to a stranger is repellant. However, it is said that, contrary to the -general rule, familiarity breeds a liking. Great virtues are claimed for -it in certain ailments and it is said to be wholesome. However this is -not the reason why the peons drink _pulque_ in such great quantities. -Several special trainloads go in each day to the City of Mexico over -one road, besides large amounts over other routes and it is a great -revenue producer for the railroads. The daily expenditure for _pulque_ -in the City of Mexico alone is said to exceed twenty thousand dollars. -Physicians say that the brain is softened, digestion ruined and nerves -paralyzed by a too generous use of this liquor. Many employers of labour -will not employ labourers from the _pulque_ districts if they can -possibly get them from other sources. _Tequila_ and _Mescal_ are two -forms of ardent spirits distilled from a juice yielded by the leaves and -root of the _maguey_. They are forms of brandy that it is best for the -traveller to leave alone. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -THE CAPITAL - - -The City of Mexico represents progressive Mexico. In it is concentrated -the wealth, culture and refinement of the republic. It is the political, -the educational, the social and the commercial centre of the whole -country. It is to Mexico what Paris is to France. In fact it would -be Mexico as Paris would be France. The same glare and glitter of a -pleasure-loving metropolis are found here, and within the same boundaries -may be seen the deepest poverty and most abject degradation. - -[Illustration: MAP OF THE VALLEY OF MEXICO] - -“Wait until you get to the City of Mexico,” said an educated Mexican -to me as we were crossing the sparsely-settled tablelands of northern -Mexico, where the only inhabitants are Indians. The Mexicans are proud of -their city and are pleased to have it likened to the gay French capital, -for their ideals and tastes are fashioned after the Latin standard -rather than the American. The French, they say, have the culture and -can embrace _a la Mexicana_, which is done by throwing an arm around a -friend whom they meet and patting him heartily on the back. They prefer -the easy-going, wait-a-while style of existence to the hurried, strenuous -life of an American city. No people love leisure and the pursuit of -pleasure more than our neighbours in the Mexican metropolis. They work -during the morning hours, take a noon _siesta_, close up early in the -afternoon and are ready for pleasure in the evening until a late hour. - -In appearance the capital resembles Madrid more than any other city I -have ever seen. The architecture is the Moorish-Spanish style, into which -some Aztec modifications have been wrought by the new-world builders. -The light, airy appearance of an American city is absent for there are -no frame structures anywhere. The square, flat-roofed buildings, with -walls thick enough to withstand any earthquake shock, are two or three -stories in height and built round a _patio_, or courtyard, the centre of -which is open to the sky. The old architects were not hampered by such -paltry considerations as the price of lots, and so they built veritable -palaces with wide corridors and rooms lofty and huge. Through many of -these rooms you might easily drive a carriage. There are parlours as -large as public halls, and throughout all one notes the _grandiose_ ideas -of the race. The houses, of stone or brick covered with stucco, are built -clear up to the sidewalk so that there is no tinge of green in front. The -Mexican is not particular about the exterior of his home, but expends -his thought and money on the open court within. The plainness of the -outside is relieved only by the large gate, or door, which is also the -carriage drive-way, and the neat little, iron-grated balconies on which -the windows open from the upper stories. - -[Illustration: THE PATIO OF AN OLD RESIDENCE] - -These balconies afford a convenient place for the women of the household -to see what is passing on the street, and also for the _señorita_, or -young lady, to watch the restless pacing to and fro of the love-stricken -youth who is “playing bear” in front of the house. The great doorway, -which is carefully barred and bolted at night, and strictly guarded by -the porter during the day, is the only entrance to the _patio_, which, -in the better class of homes, is adorned with pretty gardens, statuary -and fountains. Many of them contain an open plunge bath. Through the -wide windows one catches glimpses of fascinating interiors, and through -the broad doorways the passer-by on the street gets many a pretty view -of the courtyards, and of these miniature gardens. One or two rows of -living-apartments extend around and above the court, with broad corridors -in front handsomely paved with tile, protected by balustrades and adorned -with flowers and vines. Above, the red tiles of the roof add a little -additional colour to the scene. There are no cellars nor chimneys. The -latter were never introduced because of the mildness of the climate. In -the courts protected from the winds, the people keep on the sunny side -when it is cool and hide from the same orb when it is hot. Charcoal fires -are used for cooking and heat when it becomes necessary. Cellars are made -impossible because of the marshy nature of the soil. - -It will be recalled that Tenochtitlan, the Aztec capital, has been called -the New World Venice, whose streets were once canals. It must have been -a gay and picturesque scene when the fair surface of its waters was -resplendent with shining cities and flowering islets. The waters have -since receded until Lake Texcoco, at its nearest point, is three miles -distant. Mexico is now a more prosaic city of streets and cross-streets -which extend from north to south and from east to west. Some of the -principal thoroughfares are broad, paved with asphalt and well kept; -but many are quite narrow, and especially is this true of the streets -called lanes, though devoted to business. There is no exclusive residence -section, except in the new additions, and many of the homes of the old -families are found sandwiched in between stores. It is a difficult matter -to become familiar with the names of the streets, for they are more than -nine hundred in number, and a street generally has a different name for -each block. If several blocks have the same name, as, for instance, Calle -de San Francisco, one of the finest streets, and on or near which are -some of the largest hotels, finest stores and richest private dwellings, -then it is First San Francisco, Second San Francisco, etc. - -A few years ago the streets were re-named. All the streets extending -east and west were called _avenidas_, and the north and south streets -_calles_, each continuous thoroughfare being given but one name. -The people, however, in this land of legend and tradition, clung so -tenaciously to the former designations that they have practically been -restored. Some of the old names of streets commemorated historical -events, as, for instance, the Street of the _Cinco de Mayo_, which is in -remembrance of the victory of the Mexicans over the French at Puebla in -1862. Others are named in honour of men noted in the history of Mexico. -Many religious terms appear, such as the street of Jesus, Sanctified -Virgin, Holy Ghost, Sepulchres of the Holy Sabbath, and the like. Others -owe their names to some incident or legend, which is both interesting and -mysterious. Of the latter class may be mentioned the Street of the Sad -Indian, Lane of Pass if You Can, Street of the Lost Child, Street of the -Wood Owls, Lane of the Rat, Bridge of the Raven and Street of the Walking -Priest. The Street of the Coffin Makers is now known as the Street of -Death. It is a thoroughfare of one block, and is one of the few streets -that still preserves its ancient caste, for it is devoted exclusively -to the makers of coffins. All of the coffins are made by hand. It is a -gloomy street and there are cleaner spots on the face of the earth. - -Mexico is a very cosmopolitan city. Its three hundred and seventy-five -thousand inhabitants include representatives from nearly every nation -of the earth. The Indians are vastly in the majority, and they are -the pure and original Mexicans. The Creoles, who are descendants of -Europeans, generally Spanish, call themselves the Mexicans and rank -second in number. They form the real aristocratic body from whom come -the representative Mexicans. They are not all dark, but a blonde is a -rare specimen. Most of them have an olive-brown colour, thus showing -the mixture of Indian blood, for in early days it was not considered a -_mesalliance_ for even a Spanish officer of high rank to marry an Aztec -maiden of the better class. - -The old families cling tenaciously to the great estates, or _haciendas_, -many of which have remained intact for centuries. Quite a number can even -trace their estates back to the original grants from the king of Spain. -Many of these _hacendados_, or landed proprietors, enjoy princely incomes -from their lands, and nearly all of them own residences in the capital. -They maintain elaborate establishments and keep four times as many -servants as would be found in an American house. - -The average Mexican does not care for business. Neither is he an inventor -or originator, for he is content to live as his ancestors have lived. -Nearly all lines of commerce and industry are in the hands of foreigners. -The Germans monopolize the hardware trade; the French conduct nearly -all the dry goods stores; the Spaniards are the country’s grocers; and -the Americans and English control the railroad, electric and mining -industries. All these interests centre in the City of Mexico. Railroads -are not very numerous until you approach the Valley of Mexico where -they converge from all directions. The hum of industry is apparent here -as nowhere else in the whole republic. The Mexicans boast of their -capital, but they often forget the debt they owe to foreigners, for all -the modern improvements have been installed by alien races and outside -capital. It is another foreign invasion but with a pacific mission. -The American colony alone in that city numbers more than six thousand -persons, and the number is constantly increasing. Hatred of the American -has almost disappeared, and the incomers are cordially welcomed. There -are two flourishing clubs around which the social life of the expatriated -Americans centre. - -The society of the capital, and indeed of the whole country, is very -diverse. What might be said of one class would not apply to another. The -differences of dress and customs alone make known the heterogeneousness -of the population. They all use the same language and all classes are -brought together on a common level in their religion. No other nation has -ever made such complete conquests as Spain. She not only subjugated the -lands but forced her language, as well as religion, upon the conquered -races. The English have succeeded in extending their sway over a large -part of the world, but in no instance have they been able to accomplish -these two results with the native population. The priests of Spain went -hand in hand with the _conquistadores_, and, within a few generations -after the conquest of Mexico by Cortez, the Spanish language was -universally used and the Indians were at least nominal Catholics. - -The climate of the City of Mexico is delightful. It is neither hot nor -cold. It is too far south to be cold and the altitude, seven thousand, -four hundred and thirty-four feet above the level of the sea, is -too great to be hot. The temperature usually ranges from sixty-five -to eighty-five, but sometimes goes as high as ninety, and as low as -thirty-five, and frosts occasionally are experienced. The mornings and -evenings are cool and at midday it is always hot. There is a great -difference in the temperature between the sunny and shady side of the -street. Only dogs and Americans take the sunny side, the Mexicans say. -The rainy and dry seasons occur with great regularity, the former -lasting from May to October. It is the best season in the year although -most visitors go there in winter. The rains always occur in the afternoon -and usually cease before dark. At this time, too, all nature takes on a -beautiful shade of green which replaces the rather dull landscape of the -dry season. There is also a brisk, electric condition of the atmosphere -that is decidedly exhilarating and a good tonic. - -This mildness of climate has greatly influenced the life of the capital. -The streets, except during the noon _siesta_, are full of people at all -times. To judge from the crowds, one might think the capital a city of -a million people. In the morning the women go to mass garbed in black, -generally wearing a black shawl over the head. Occasionally a black lace -mantilla is seen half-concealing, half-exposing the olive-brown face, and -bright, sparkling eyes of a _señorita_. Shoppers are out and business -is active. The women of the wealthier classes sit in their carriages -and have the goods brought out to them, or go to a private room where -articles are exhibited by clerks. They think that it is unbecoming to -stand at the counters, although the American plan of shopping is becoming -quite popular in recent years. - -About the middle of the afternoon the crowds again appear, and a -little later the streets begin to fill with carriages. Nowhere, not -even in Paris, have I observed so many carriages as can be seen here on -any pleasant afternoon. They form one continuous, slow-moving line of -many miles. The procession moves out San Francisco Street through the -Alameda, along the Paseo de la Reforma, and then into the beautiful park -surrounding the Castle of Chapultepec which is set with great cypresses, -said to antedate the conquest. The cavalcade winds around through the -various drives at the base of the rock, along the shores of the lake, -past the castle and back to the city. The carriages go out on one side -and return on the other, leaving the central portion for riders. It -is a sight that never wearies for one to sit on a bench and watch the -motley throng of people driving, riding on horseback and promenading. -An oriental exclusiveness is observed by ladies of the upper class who -always ride in closed carriages. All kinds of vehicles are to be seen, -from fine equipages with liveried drivers and footmen, to the poorest cab -in the city with its disreputable driver and broken-down horses, fit only -for the bull-ring. - -There are many horsemen and the Mexicans are always excellent riders. -Their horses are Lilliputian in size but fast and enduring. The saddle, -bridle and trappings are frequently gorgeous with their silver ornaments -and immense stirrups fancifully worked and shaped. The rider is often a -picture wonderful to behold from the heavy silver spurs which he wears, -to the sombrero of brown or yellow felt with a brim ten to fifteen inches -wide and a crown equally as high, the whole covered with heavy gilt cord -formed into a sort of rope. Then there is the dude or fop, who is well -named in Mexico. He is called a “_lajartija_” which means a “little -lizard.” He used to dress in such close-fitting and stiff costumes that -he had not much more freedom of motion than the stiff little lizard. -Now he is the dandy who is generally seen standing on a public corner, -wearing a French cutaway suit, American patent leather shoes and an -English stovepipe hat, with his fingers closed over the indispensable -cigarette. - -In the evening the populace attend the theatre or some social function. -Sunday is the day of all others for recreation, and, with the average -inhabitant of Mexico, is one continuous and eternal round of pleasure. -After morning service the entire day is devoted to pleasure. Band -concerts are always given by the military bands on the Plaza in the -morning, in the Alameda early in the afternoon, and at Chapultepec about -five o’clock. Then there is the bull-fight which occurs only on Sundays -and holidays. - -The average crowd in the City of Mexico is a good natured and peaceable -one. The city Indian and his country cousin, the peon from the -plantation, join the crowd on a feast day with their numerous progeny. -They are not the pleasantest neighbours in the world for both have -the odour of garlic and _pulque_ and their baths are of the annual -variety. That the little brown man is a peon is no fault of his. His -uncleanliness is, in a measure, the result of centuries of neglect, and -more particularly of a scarcity of water at his home. It is possible that -if he had the water his condition would be just the same. Though he is -poor and down-trodden, there is nothing of the anarchist about him. He is -absolutely devoid of envy or malice; and withal his spirits are gay and -he is as generous to his family or friends as his finances permit. The -artificial refinements of modern civilization have not yet spoiled him, -and there is a pleasant, even if malodorous, naturalness about him. - -In no city do ancient and modern customs come into such intimate -contrast as in the City of Mexico. Nowhere is a greater mixture of races -to be seen than here. There are many tribes of Indians speaking scores -of dialects, and there are _mestizos_ of various degrees of mixture with -African, American and European blood. Types of four centuries can be seen -in any group on one of the plazas. The Plaza Mayor is a great, imposing, -central square of fourteen acres in the centre of the city, and on its -walks all the types can be seen at their best. Men and women come into -the city through the streets lighted by electricity, bearing immense -loads on their heads and backs rather than use a wagon. Peddlers carry -around jars of water for sale just as in the olden times. Indians, who -are almost pure Aztecs, pass along, taking the middle of the street in -Indian file. Well dressed men in black broadcloth suits and wearing silk -hats go by. The women of the middle class add colour to the scene with -the red and blue _rebosas_, sometimes covering the head, or tied across -the chest and holding an infant at the back. Nearly all the passers-by -show in their colour that they can claim kinship with the hosts of -Montezuma. The general effect is kaleidoscopic but entertaining. The -great cathedral on the north side of the Plaza is the one place where -all are brought together and class distinction obliterated. Visit the -cathedral any day and you may see an Indian with his pack on his back -side by side with a young woman who may inherit a dozen titles. There -are no select, high-priced, aristocratic pews for rent, but all meet by -a common genuflection before the sacred altars. The poor Indian may not -understand all the pomp and ceremony, the music of the vested choirs, -or the solemn chanting by the priests, but it fills a deep want in his -nature and he is satisfied. - -At one side of the Plaza Mayor once stood the great Aztec _Teocalli_, the -Temple of Sacrifice. This was a high imposing altar reached by a flight -of more than a hundred steps. From the top was a magnificent view of -the entire valley, and it was from this point that the envious eyes of -Cortez looked out upon this beautiful scene. The altar was dedicated to -the Aztec war god Huitzilopochtli, and here, to appease the wrath of this -terrible god, human sacrifices were offered. The breast was cut open and -the heart, still palpitating, plucked out and placed upon the altar. The -bodies were cast down to the ground, whence they were taken and prepared -for the banquet table. - -[Illustration: THE CATHEDRAL] - -A part of the space once covered by this gruesome but majestic pile, is -now occupied by the Monte de Piedad, or “mountain of mercy,” one of the -most unique charities in the world. It is nothing more or less than a -gigantic pawn-shop, but it is one of the most beneficient institutions -in the country. The Count of Regla, a noted personage in Mexico, founded -this institution by a gift of three hundred thousand dollars. He did -this in order that the poor and needy, and the impoverished members of -families once genteel, might secure small sums upon personal property at -low rates of interest, instead of becoming involved in the meshes of the -blood-sucking vampires who prey upon this class of unfortunates. About -three-fourths of the actual value of the property pledged as fixed by -appraisers, will be loaned. If the interest is not paid, the property is -kept for seven months, when it is offered for sale at a fixed price. If -not disposed of in another five months it is sold at auction. - -The truly remarkable feature of this establishment is, that if a greater -sum is realized than the amount of the loan and interest, the excess is -placed to the credit of the owner, or his heirs, and will be kept for -one hundred years, after which time it reverts to the institution. Many -old heirlooms of former grandees, Aztec curios, diamonds, gold ornaments -and even family gods have passed through this organization of charity. -For more than a century it has existed, having survived all the civil -wars, revolutions and changes of government. The original capital has -been more than doubled by the forfeitures, and many branches of this -parent institution are operated in the capital and in several of the -large cities of the republic. It is an example that might be suggested to -some of our multi-millionaires who do not know what to do with their vast -accumulations of wealth. - -Even the funerals are conducted in a strange way. With the exception of -funerals among the wealthy, the street cars are universally used. The -enterprising owner of the street car system some years ago acting on the -trust idea, bought up all the hearses and introduced funeral cars. After -a short time the people became accustomed to the new plan, which seemed -to give satisfaction. Now, trolley funeral cars of the first, second and -third class are furnished at a price varying from five dollars for the -cheapest class, to a hundred dollars or more for a first-class car. Some -of the poor rent coffins which are returned after the burial. The very -poor may be seen carrying their dead on their shoulders to the _Campo -Santo_, or holy ground. Graves are usually sold only for a certain number -of years, after which, unless the relatives pay the prescribed fee, the -bones are taken up and the ground made ready for a new occupant. The -dead are soon forgotten. A pile of bones in a corner of the cemetery -represents all that is mortal of the generations who passed away not many -years ago. There is an entire lack of reverence for the mortal remains of -the departed, such as one is accustomed to find in our own country. One -is reminded of the couplet - - “Rattle his bones over the stones, - He’s only a pauper, whom nobody owns.” - -The City of Mexico is not the healthiest city in the world. On the -contrary the death rate is unusually high. The average duration of life -is said to be only twenty-six years. This is due in a great measure to -infant mortality. Typhoid and malarial fevers are prevalent because -of the accumulated drainage of centuries, which lies just a few feet -beneath the surface. Pneumonia is common and regarded as very dangerous -because of the rarefied air, and patients suffering from this disease are -immediately transported to lower altitudes for treatment. The entire -lack of hygiene and sanitary conditions among the peon classes is in a -great measure responsible for the unusual percentage of mortality. Few -other cities in the world have such a high rate of deaths compared with -the population. - -Strange it is that the capital was ever built on this low, marshy soil -when higher land was available and near at hand. It was one of the great -blunders of Cortez, for Mexico might have been made a healthy city. No -exigency of commerce dictated its selection, for it is far from the -sea coast on either side and was difficult of access before the day of -railroads. The new city was built on the site of the old, and the temples -of the Christian religion were raised on the sites of the old pagan -altars wherever possible. A plan of moving the city to higher ground -was strongly agitated at one time but the vested interests succeeded -in killing this project. It is hoped and believed that when the plans -for sewerage are completed, the health conditions will be placed on a -par with that of most cities. The authorities are making an honest and -earnest effort to carry out these commendable projects. - - “Know ye not pulque, - Liquor divine, - The Angels in heaven - Prefer it to wine.” - -Thus sings the lower class Mexican to whom this liquor has become a -curse. To it is due much of his poverty and many of his crimes. For it he -will neglect his family and steal from his employer. It does not contain -a large percentage of alcohol, but, taken in large quantities, as is -customary among these people, it puts them in a dopy condition which they -sleep off. One railroad brings in a train-load each day, and, besides, -large quantities are brought in by other lines. There are sixteen hundred -pulque saloons in the capital, but they are all closed at six o’clock by -a law which is strictly enforced. The pulque-shop betrays itself by its -odour, as well as by the crowds of poorly dressed and even filthy men and -women who surround its doors and press around the counter. It is a gaily -decorated affair and is oftentimes adorned in flaring colours inside and -out, with reds, blues, greens and yellows predominating, and frequently -with a huge, rude painting on the outside walls. In some of the shops you -will find a curious string knotted in a peculiar manner or strung with -shells. This is a survival of the Aztec method of counting by means of -beads, or shells, strung together. - -As one writer says, “the pulque shop, notwithstanding its evil influence -upon the life of the people, presents a very picturesque appearance to -the tourist who has never seen anything like it before. The dress of -the people, the curious, vivid colours of the walls of the building, -the semi-barbaric appearance of the decorations within, the curious -semi-symbolic pictures upon the walls, the unaccustomed groupings of the -people, all combine to attract the attention of the stranger in Mexico.” - -[Illustration: A PICTURESQUE PULQUE SHOP] - -In the naming of the pulque-dens the imagination is allowed full play. -I quote from a Mexican periodical the names of some of these resorts: A -place in the suburbs of Mexico is termed the “Delight of Bacchus.” One -is called “The Seventh Heaven,” another “The Food of the Gods,” while -still another bears the euphonious title of “The Land of the Lotus.” “A -Night of Delight” is another place near “The Heart’s Desire.” The above -names are commonplace by the side of the following: “The Hang-out of -John the Baptist,” “The Retreat of the Holy Ghost,” “The Delight of the -Apostle,” “The Retreat of the Holy Virgin,” “The Mecca of Delight,” and -“The Fountain of the Angels.” Nothing disrespectful is intended by these -appellations but they sound very sacrilegious to us. - -There is, however, a brighter side to the Indian life in the City of -Mexico. In one corner of the Zocalo, and covering a part of the site -formerly occupied by the great sacrificial altar, is the flower-market. -This flower-market is always attractive and a never-ending source of -interest to the tourist. Immense bouquets of the choicest flowers are -sold so cheap that the price seems almost absurd. By judicious bargaining -a few cents will purchase a large and varied supply of roses, violets -and heliotrope, which only dollars could buy from a New York florist. No -hot-houses are needed here at any season, for in this climate flowers -bloom all the year round, and one crop succeeds another in a never-ending -succession. The Mexican Indian is a lover of flowers. It is one of the -redeeming traits of his character. He is not always particular as to his -personal appearance; he may be unkempt and untidy to look upon; but he -loves flowers, is prodigal in his use of them and shows good taste in -their arrangement. This taste is innate, is no doubt inherited from his -Aztec ancestors, and has survived the oppressions and exactions of the -succeeding centuries. This love for flowers finds expression even in his -worship, and it is no uncommon thing to find flowers before the image of -the Virgin, and such an offering is one of the expressions of his good -will. When we consider that our forefathers were taught to worship God -with the first fruits of their husbandry, it is not surprising that this -primitive and ignorant race should still find use in their worship for -these beautiful products of a prodigal nature. - -The gardens and parks of the City of Mexico attain a luxuriant growth -that cannot be equalled in our northern cities. These breathing-places -where one can sit amid scenes of tropical verdure, and admire the bright -tints of the flowers while shielded from the hot sun by the broad-leafed -foliage of the plants, are truly delightful spots for an American to -visit. They contrast so strongly with the cheerless appearance of the -streets. In the centre of the large Plaza Mayor lies the Zocalo, a little -green oasis in the great paved waste. It is in the very heart of the -city’s throbbing life, and everything either has its beginning or ending -on this imposing square. - -On one side of the Plaza lies the Palacio Nacional which has stood there -for more than two centuries. It covers the site of the ancient palace -of Montezuma, and has an imposing façade of nearly seven hundred feet. -Over the main entrance hangs the Liberty Bell of Mexico which was rung -by Hidalgo on the first call to independence at Dolores, where it had so -often summoned the people to mass. The immense windows which look out -upon the Plaza open into the various rooms where the official business of -the executive department of the republic is transacted. Other parts of -this immense structure, for it is almost a square building enclosing an -open court, are occupied by the legislative chambers and barrack rooms -for several regiments of soldiers. - -A few blocks away from the Plaza lies the Alameda, which is the park -of the better classes. Every city has an alameda, as the visitor soon -learns, but this is _the_ alameda of Mexico. It is a pretty place, and, -with its beautiful trees, flowers and fountains, forms a resort for the -fashionable people, who congregate here on Sundays and feast days to -listen to the military bands. The visitor can almost lose himself in this -part, for the view is circumscribed on every hand by the dense shrubbery. - -It is on the subject of the Paseo de la Reforma that the Mexican becomes -enthusiastic. This beautiful boulevard extends for a distance of two -miles from a place near the Alameda to Chapultepec. It is a smooth -thoroughfare averaging five hundred feet in width, with promenades on -each side shaded by trees under which are stone seats, and with paved -driveways in the centre. Here and there the Paseo widens into circles, -called _glorietas_, in the centre of which are placed statues. Those -already erected include statues to Charles IV of Spain, Columbus and -Cuautemoc, the Aztec warrior and emperor. To Maximilian is due the credit -for the Paseo, and a more beautiful boulevard cannot be found in Europe -or America. - -I have purposely described the old features of the city and the unique -characteristics before touching upon the more modern innovations. The -average visitor would follow that plan, for he would be more interested -in the unusual than in that with which he is more or less familiar. -Like all capitals and large cities affected by commercialism, the City -of Mexico is fast becoming cosmopolitan. The traveller who visited it -ten, or even five, years ago would be astonished at the changes wrought -by improvements. The fine system of electric lights, the excellent -electric traction lines with modern, cars, the asphalted streets and the -attractive new suburbs of an entirely foreign architecture, link the old -with the new, the sixteenth with the twentieth century. A city hindered -by a racial conservatism, and obstructed at every turn by tradition, -does not become entirely modern in a decade, but the trend is there and -its progress has been really remarkable. It will never be a city of -skyscrapers for a hard stratum is not encountered until a depth of a -hundred and forty feet is reached. - -A new and modern hotel is more needed than anything else. There are -plenty of hotels of the Mexican kind, where it is almost impossible to -find a room with an outside window. All the rooms simply have an opening -on the _patio_ which answers for both door and window. In cool weather -which is sometimes experienced here, there is no means of heating these -rooms except by an open pan of coals, which is not very satisfactory to -one accustomed to modern steam-heated hotels or a good stove. - -The national government controls the federal district within which is -situated the City of Mexico, much the same as the District of Columbia, -in our own land, and is assisted by a city council. Plans have been drawn -for fifty million dollars’ worth of public buildings, many of which -are already under way. The fine new post-office which has been building -for several years is now occupied by that department. It is a beautiful -structure of the medieval Spanish style, and is a striking departure from -the other public buildings. It is four stories high, equipped with every -convenience and is finished within and without in elaborate style. - -A new legislative palace is under construction, which is the most -pretentious building yet planned. Its estimated cost is $20,000,000. -Opposite the post-office a national theatre is being erected to cater to -the amusement lovers, which is designed to be the finest theatre in the -new world. An entire block is being razed to make room for the Panteon -Nacional—a resting place for Mexico’s illustrious dead. Within the -marble walls of this unique memorial will rest all that is mortal of her -heroes. An army and navy building, a museum of art and a department of -public works are among the other improvements planned for the capital. -These buildings are being scattered over the city instead of following -the group plan as designed at Washington. The reason for this has been -a desire to have every section of the city benefited and beautified by -these public structures. The year 1910 marked the centennial of Mexican -independence. The month of September was almost wholly given up to -celebrations of this event in the capital. A number of public buildings -were dedicated during the celebrations. Among these were a new insane -asylum and several fine new public school buildings, which greatly added -to the educational facilities of the city. A magnificent new monument -to independence, recently erected on the Paseo, was dedicated with -great ceremony. A number of gifts were made by foreign colonies and -governments. Not the least of these was a monument to Washington, which -was presented by the resident Americans. The ceremonies and functions of -the centennial celebration were very elaborate, and the capital has been -beautified in many ways as a result. - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -THE VALLEY OF ANAHUAC - - -The dim traditionary history of Mexico shows us shadowy tribes flitting -across the stage, each acting its part like the different performers in -a vaudeville show, and then making way for other actors. The Valley of -Mexico, or Anahuac, meaning “near the water,” seems to have been the -centre of the civilization of these early tribes. It is a beautiful -valley nearly sixty miles in length and thirty in breadth, and is -enclosed by a wall of mountains which circumscribe the view in every -direction. Six shallow lakes lie in this hollow: Texcoco, Xochimilco, San -Cristobal, Xaltocan, Zumpango and Chalco, of which the first named is the -nearest to the city and lies distant about three miles. It is easy to -believe that the waters of these lakes at one time entirely surrounded -the ancient city of Tenochtitlan, for within historic times their shores -have greatly receded. - -The history of these early races rests mostly upon tradition; yet a -diversity of architectural ruins, and the few meagre records that remain, -present certain general facts. These positive proofs leave no doubt that -this valley was inhabited from a very early period by tribes or nations -which made distinct advances in civilization. These tribes had developed -certain of the useful arts and had evolved a social system that exhibited -some refinement. The first of these races of whom we have reliable record -are the Toltecs, who appeared in the Valley of Mexico in the seventh -century at almost the same time that Mohammed was spreading his religion -over Asia and Africa. Their sway lasted about five centuries, when they -disappeared as silently and mysteriously as they came. - -These peaceful and agricultural people were succeeded by the Chichimecs, -a more barbarous race, who came from the north. They in turn were -followed by the Nahuals. Lastly came the Aztecs, who entered the -valley about 1196, and reached a higher state of civilization than any -of their predecessors. War was their choicest profession, for they -considered that warriors slain in battle were immediately transported -to scenes of ineffable bliss. They offered human sacrifices to their -gods. Prescott tells us of a procession of captives two miles long, and -numbering seventy thousand persons who were sacrificed at one time. This -is incredible, for at that rate the population would soon have been -exhausted even in this prolific land. Furthermore we know that the Aztecs -were not always successful in war, and may have furnished victims from -their own numbers, for sacrifice to the gods of the other nations in the -same land. - -[Illustration: THE CALENDAR STONE] - -The Aztecs were clever workers in gold and silver, and were acquainted -with a number of arts that are lost to-day. Their picture writings bear -witness to a clever fancy and fertile invention of symbols. The numerous -idols show their skill in carving and a true artistic instinct. Many -antiquities have been exhumed from the swampy soil on which the capital -city is built, in making excavations for improvements. The National -Museum is a treasure house of these relics and it would take a volume to -describe them. The huge Sacrificial Stone, which is generally supposed -to have been placed on the top of the great altar, is preserved there. -It also houses the horrible image of the god Huitzilopochtli, and a -varied assortment of inferior gods, goddesses, and other objects of -worship. But the most celebrated antiquity—the one showing the greatest -advancement—is the Calendar Stone. This stone was buried for centuries, -and when resurrected was placed in the west tower of the cathedral. From -this place it was removed a few years ago and placed in the museum. It -is a mighty stone, eleven feet and eight inches in diameter, and weighs -more than twenty tons. The Aztecs divided the year into eighteen months -of twenty days each, and then arbitrarily added five days to complete the -year. - -“Let us follow the cross, and if we have faith we will conquer,” was -the motto on the banner of Cortez. It was with this spirit that he led -his little band over the mountains and into the heart of the empire -of Montezuma, late in the fall of 1519. He was met by that sovereign, -tradition says, on the site of the present Hospital of Jesus, with every -manifestation of friendliness. For several months they were the honoured -guests of the Aztec chief, but at length the aggressions of the Spaniards -changed friendship to hate and the Aztecs, rising in their wrath, chased -the invaders from the city. Driven before the infuriated natives like -sheep, they fled over the present road to the suburban village of Tacuba, -and many were those who fell. This rout of the Spaniards has been -painted with wonderful vividness by Gen. Lew Wallace in “The Fair God.” - -It was an awful night of despair, that first day of July, 1520, and the -Spaniards who escaped named it La Noche Triste, “the sorrowful night.” -The pursuit stopped at the little town of Popotla. In this village is a -great cypress tree whose branches are blasted by the storms of centuries. -For a moment the strong will of Cortez gave way and he sat down upon a -stone under the spreading branches of this tree and wept. Whether he -wept most for his fallen soldiers or disappointment over his ignominious -defeat, we are not told by the chroniclers. This tree is now noted as _el -arbol de la noche triste_, or “the tree of the sorrowful night.” A high -iron fence protects the ancient relic from the souvenir vandals. - -The Spaniards retreated beyond the valley to their allies, the -Tlaxcalans, at Cholula. Reinforcements and supplies arriving, -they returned a few months later and began the memorable siege of -Tenochtitlan, and made a triumphal entry into that city on the 13th of -August, 1521. Then Guatemotzin, the last of the Aztec emperors, wept in -his turn, because the sacred fires of the temple had for ever gone out, -and his people would henceforth be slaves. “Take that dagger,” he said, -“and free this spirit.” But, no, torture must come before death, for -Cortez fain would learn where the gold was hidden that had so suddenly -disappeared. To-day, in the City of Mexico, a statue stands in one of the -circles of the famous Paseo, which commemorates this great warrior and -his torture by the Spanish chieftain. This monument is greatly cherished -by the Indians, who hold annual festivals in his honour and decorate it -with a profusion of flowers and wreaths. - -The great Valley of Mexico is without a natural outlet, and this fact -has caused seven inundations of the capital during exceptionally rainy -seasons. One of the lakes, Zumpango, is twenty-five feet higher than -the city and drains into Texcoco, from which the waters spread over the -city. When the first serious inundations came in 1553, 1580 and 1604, the -project of removing the city to a higher level was strongly agitated. -It was only the loss of millions of dollars of property that prevented -this action. Then the idea of draining this valley was definitely adopted -and the work was begun in 1607. A tunnel was decided upon and fifteen -thousand Indians were set at work sinking shafts and driving the tunnel -in both directions. Within a year a tunnel four miles long had been -completed. This tunnel eventually caved in, so that very little good -was realized from it and efforts were made to convert it into an open -cut. But this undertaking was not finished until two centuries later. It -is a great trench, however, with an average depth of from one hundred -and fifty to two hundred feet, and from three hundred to seven hundred -feet in width at the top. It is called the _Tajo de Nochistongo_, or -Nochistongo cut, and its only use now is as an entrance for the Mexican -Central railway. Even this waterway did not drain the valley, remarkable -engineering feat as it was, but a new canal was constructed by American -engineers a few years ago which successfully accomplishes the work of -draining these shallow lakes and carrying off the sewerage of the city. - -The first Aztecs who settled in this valley lived almost entirely in the -marshes and lakes, we are told, because of the hostility of their fierce -neighbours. They were thus obliged to depend almost wholly upon the -products of these watered lands for their sustenance, and they acquired -some strange and—we would say—depraved tastes. A reminder of those days -is seen in the cakes made of the eggs of a curious marsh-fly, which are -sold in the market of the City of Mexico to-day. The flies themselves -are pounded into a paste and sold after being boiled, but the eggs are -preferred. The Indians collect the eggs in a systematic manner. Bundles -of a certain kind of sedge are planted in Lake Texcoco and the insects -deposit their eggs thereon in great quantities. These bundles as soon as -covered are shaken over pieces of cloth and replaced for another supply. -The eggs thus collected are made into a paste and form a favourite -article of food, especially during Lent. - -It is interesting to learn what different races regard as toothsome -dainties. In Southern Mexico I have seen bushels of common grasshoppers -sold in the markets as a delicacy, reminding one of the locusts and -wild honey used as food in Biblical times. In other parts of Mexico -the honey-ant is greatly sought after for food. The natives of Central -America are partial to the iguana, a large lizard sometimes reaching a -length of three or four feet, and prefer it to beef. After all there is -no accounting for tastes. A man who eats snails might criticize another -who relishes oysters. And perhaps the man who want his cheese “ripe” -should not criticize the poor Indian who has inherited a taste for the -eggs of the fly. - -[Illustration: SCENES ON THE VIGA CANAL] - -There are many places of interest round about the City of Mexico which -are easily reached. One should not fail to visit the famous _jardines -flotandos_ or “floating gardens” where the beautiful flowers sold in -the market are grown. These gardens, called by the Aztecs _chinampas_, -are reached by the Viga Canal. The inquirer is told to take a gondola -and float down to them. The name gondola excites pleasant anticipations -of a delightful trip. Entering a mule-car at the Plaza Mayor the canal -is soon reached after traversing a number of narrow streets which would -not especially delight the fastidious traveller. The gondoliers take -the stranger almost by force and urge him into one of the flea-infested -boats that abound at the landing, and which more resemble a collection of -mud-scows than any other kind of floating fleet. Instead of using oars -these queer gondoliers with the picture hats pole the boat through the -muddy waters of La Viga, stirring up odours which cause the passenger -to wish that he was not gifted with the sense of smell, or that he -could temporarily dispense with breathing. However, there is life in -the stream and on the banks that is typically Mexican, for boats are -constantly passing up and down. Occasionally a load of Indians will -float by playing native airs on guitars and other string instruments, -with the light-heartedness and gaiety peculiar to this race. On the bank -are scattered many native thatch huts around which idle natives group. -Along the road pass men and women going to and from the city with loads -on their heads or on their backs. The “floating gardens” are always just -beyond. They are first at Santa Anita but, when this place is reached, -they are at Mexicalcingo. Arrived there the visitor is sent to Ixtacalco, -and then he is forwarded to Xochimilco, and so the real floating gardens -are never reached. The fact is that they do not float and perhaps never -did. This characteristic only exists in the imagination, for it sounds -romantic to speak of gardens that can be moved around and anchored at -will. - -Disembarking at an unattractive mud and thatch village bearing the -charming name of Santa Anita, self constituted guides are waiting to -conduct you to the object of your visit, something which does not -literally exist. Yet the “floating gardens” are all about you at this -place. They are simply marsh lands with canals leading in and out and -crossways by means of which the gardener can reach all parts in his -boat. The earth may yield somewhat if you step upon it, but they do -not float. It is possible, and historians so assert, that floating -gardens did exist in reality during the Aztec invasion. These people -were frequently driven to dire extremities to secure food. They may have -adopted the plan of making floating gardens which could be moved about -as necessity compelled. This was done by culling masses of vegetation -with its thick entwined stems and pouring upon this mat the rich mud -dredged from the bottom of the lake. Then, as the masses settled, more -mud was put on until the whole anchored upon the bottom of the lake and -became immovable. The gardens look beautiful, covered as they are with -the many-coloured blossoms. By means of the canals the roots are kept -thoroughly moist at all times, and the plants thrive luxuriantly. - -This canal of La Viga was formerly a great trade route, for a large part -of the natives came to the City of Mexico by this way. It leads back into -regions where dwell full blooded Aztecs who speak a language that is said -to be almost the pure ancient tongue. These natives can be distinguished -from all others on the street and in the market by their features and -peculiar dress. They are clannish and keep by themselves, except in the -intercourse made necessary by barter and trade. They are proud of their -lineage and rejoice in the fact that they have not mingled with the other -native races. - -Tacuba, distant only a few miles, is an interesting little village, and -has many gardens and a fine old church. It is a good place to study the -people and get snap-shots of quaint life. Its principal distinction is -that it was a proud city when Tetlepanquetzaltzin was king once upon -a time. Texcoco at the time of the conquest was the capital of the -Tezcucans, who were a race in alliance with the Aztecs, but it is now -principally in ruins, for its glory has passed away. El Desierto was once -the home of the Carmelite monks and is frequently visited now in its -decay. Coyoacan was the first capital of Mexico, for Cortez established -the seat of government there for a time while the new city was being -built. - -Tacubaya is the home of the wealthy as well as the sporting element. It -has beautiful gardens within the adobe walls surrounding the homes of -the opulent. It is on higher ground and should have been the site of the -capital city itself. It is also called the Monte Carlo of Mexico, for -gamblers of all sorts and conditions congregate here in booths or under -umbrellas, and you can lose any sum at games of chance as at that famous -resort along the shores of the blue Mediterranean. Games, music, dancing, -cock-fights, and bull-fights are a few of the attractions to amuse and -entertain the visitor, and relieve him from the burden of carrying around -the weighty silver pesos. - -[Illustration: CASTLE OF CHAPULTEPEC] - -In all this beautiful and historic Valley of Mexico there is no more -beautiful spot, or none around which so many memories cling, as -Chapultepec, the Hill of the Grasshoppers. Historic and beautiful -Chapultepec! A great grove of noble cypresses draped with masses of -Spanish moss surrounds this rock, and between the trees and along the -shores of a pretty little lake wind enchanting walks. One grand old -cypress called Montezuma’s tree rises to a height of one hundred and -seventy feet. It is a magnificent breathing spot—with which no park -that I have ever seen in America compares. Legend says that on the top -of this rock was situated the palace of Montezuma, and it is probably -only legend. No doubt that emperor often rested himself under the -friendly shade of the great _ahuehuete_, and reflected on the glory of -his empire before the disturbing foreigners came. The present Castle of -Chapultepec dates from 1783 when it was begun by one of the viceroys. -Later viceroys, presidents and an emperor added to the original building -until now it is a palace indeed but not a beautiful structure. Ill-fated -Maximilian made this his home and added greatly to the beauty of the -grounds. It is now the White House of Mexico although occupied only a -part of the year by the president. - -Perhaps nowhere in the world does there exist a more beautiful scene -than that which unfolds to the view from this rock. All around is the -great sweep of plain with its wealth of cultivated fields; the distant -mountain range with its ever varying outline; the snow-capped twin peaks, -Popocatapetl (seventeen thousand, seven hundred and eighty-two feet) and -Ixtaccihuatl (sixteen thousand and sixty feet), standing like silent -sentinels and dominating the horizon; the silver line of the lakes; and -beneath us the fair City of Mexico, the ancient Tenochtitlan. Legend -says that Popocatepetl, “the smoking mountain,” and Ixtaccihuatl, “the -woman in white,” were once living giants but that having displeased the -Almighty they were changed to mountains. The woman died and the contour -of her body covered with snow can be traced on the summit of the smaller -peak. The man was doomed to live for ever and gaze on the sleeping form -of his beloved. At times when his grief becomes uncontrollable he shakes -with his great sobs and pours forth tears of fire. - -As I stood on that historic rock I thought of the New World Venice -described by Prescott, “with its shining cities and flowering islets -rocking, as it were, at anchor on the fair bosom of the waters.” Rising -above all was the great sacrificial altar upon which the sacred fires -were ever kept burning. Beneath this rock under the friendly branches -of the giant cypress Montezuma has no doubt sheltered himself from the -hot sun. Cortez here rested himself after his severe marches. French -zouaves in their quaint uniforms have bivouacked in the grove. American -blue-coats stacked their arms here after the victory of Molino-del-Ray. -And Mexicans now take their siestas under the same friendly shade while -other races are robbing them of their wealth. - -Yes, historic scenes and tragedies have taken place on this plain. -Nations have come and gone. Victors have themselves been led away -captives, and taskmasters have in turn become slaves. How finite is man -or his works in the presence of this great panorama of nature! Races -have come and gone but the mountains endure. Human tragedies have been -enacted here but the sky is just as blue and the sun just as bright, -as when Cortez looked with envious eyes upon this beautiful valley. -The mimic play of men, and women and races upon this amphitheatre has -scarcely left its imprint. The only occasions when the calm serenity of -nature has been disturbed were when the giant Popocatapetl, overcome with -grief at the loss of his beloved, has shaken this whole valley with his -sobs and poured forth plenteous tears of fire over its fair surface. - - - - -CHAPTER V - -THE TROPICS - - -In no country in the world is it possible to move from one extreme of -climate to the other in so short a time as in Mexico. Within less than -twenty-four hours one can travel from the sun-baked sands of the Gulf -coast to the snow-covered, conical peak of one of the great extinct -volcanoes, thus traversing every zone of vegetable life from the dense -tropical growth of the former to the stunted pines of the latter. By -railway it is a journey of only a few hours from the plateaus, at an -altitude of eight thousand feet, to the sea level, and a most interesting -ride it is. The Mexican Railway, which is the oldest railway in the -republic, runs from the capital to Vera Cruz and is the best route, for -its wonderful engineering feats and beautiful scenery have drawn tourists -from all parts of the world. Leaving the capital, the road skirts the -bank of Lake Texcoco, through a pass in the mountains surrounding the -Valley of Mexico, and across the Plains of Apam, the home of the maguey, -for a hundred and fifty miles before the exciting part of the trip is -reached. - -The descent begins at Esperanza, which lies at the very foot of Mt. -Orizaba. Esperanza means “hope” and it is well named for the traveller -can “hope” for better things as the train approaches the coast. Noah’s -Ark rests near here, for I saw it with my own eyes labelled in plain -letters, _Arc de Noe_, but it is now—sad to tell—devoted to the sale of -pulque. Esperanza is eight thousand and forty-four feet above the sea -and one hundred and twelve miles from Vera Cruz as the track runs, but -much nearer as the crow would fly. There is a drop of four thousand, one -hundred feet in the next twenty-nine miles and it is one of the grandest -rides in the world. In places the road seems like a little shelf on the -side of a towering mountain while a yawning chasm awaits the coach below. -As soon as Boca del Monte (Mouth of the Mountain) is reached, only a few -miles from Esperanza, the downward impetus is felt and all the energy of -the curious double-ended English engines is devoted to holding back the -heavy train with its human cargo. - -Passing through a tunnel here, the scene bursts upon the traveller -without any warning or prelude, in all its grandeur and magnificence. -The engine accommodatingly stops for water so that the passengers have -an opportunity to view this wonderful panorama. Maltrata nestles in the -hollow, a dozen miles away by rail, yet the red tiles of the roofs, a -red-domed church and the ever-present plaza gleam in the sunshine two -thousand feet directly underneath. The valley is almost flat and is -divided into squares by hedges and walls and, reflecting every shade -of green, looks like a checker-board arrangement of nature. Beyond the -valley, hill succeeds hill until they are lost in the purple haze of the -horizon, or are overtopped by snow-capped Orizaba. Indians appear here -with beautiful bouquets of roses, tulips and orchids, with their yellow, -pink and red centres, for sale. The train passes on over a narrow bridge -spanning a deep chasm and down the mountain until Maltrata is reached, -where the same Indians will greet you with the same bouquets, for they -have climbed down the two thousand feet in less time than it took the -train to reach the same level. - -Leaving Maltrata the road enters a cañon called _El Infernillo_, the -Little Hell, goes through a tunnel and another beautiful valley, -running through fertile fields and by wooded hills, until Orizaba, the -border-land of the tropics, is reached. - -This city at an altitude of four thousand feet is in the _tierra -templada_, the temperate region. This zone is as near paradise in the -matter of climate as any location on earth could well be. It retains most -of the beauties and few of the annoying insects and tropical fevers of -the hot zone. It has the moisture of the lowlands with the cool breezes -of the uplands and is well named “temperate zone” because of its fine -climate and equable temperature. - -Orizaba is a town of thirty-five thousand people and a very beautiful and -interesting place with its palm-shaded streets and low Moorish buildings. -Its Alameda is a quaint, shady park with an abundance of flowers and -blooming trees. Along the street the orange trees thrust their laden -branches out into the highway over the low adobe walls. On the banks of -the stream the washerwomen beat their clothes to a snowy white upon the -smooth round stones. Life moves along in smooth, easy channels with these -people. And it is not to be wondered at, for there is - - “A sense of rest - To the tired breast - In this beauteous Aztec town.” - -Between Orizaba and Cordoba, a distance of sixteen miles, is perhaps the -best cultivated section in Mexico. The products of all the zones are -mingled and corn and coffee grow side by side as well as peach trees and -the banana. Cordoba is just on the border of the _tierra caliente_, or -hot country proper, and is a much smaller city than Orizaba. It is a very -old town and was founded as a place of refuge from the malarial fevers -of the coast lands. This region is noted for its fine coffee, and there -are numberless coffee plantations as well as many sugar _haciendas_. The -Mexican of the tropics can be seen here dressed in immaculate white. -Leaving Cordoba dense tropical forests of palm and palmetto begin to -appear. These alternate with groves of coffee and bananas, gardens of -mangoes, fields of pineapples and other tropical fruits. Nature begins to -manifest herself in her grandest productions. Birds of brilliant plumage -are seen. The towering trees, rocks and entire surface of the soil are -covered with bright flowers such as orchids, oleanders and honeysuckles -and luxuriant vines. These and the dense jungles are all reminders that -the tropics have been reached at last. Soon the train enters Vera Cruz, -the city without cabs, the landing-place of the great conquistador and -his cohorts. - -The principal port now, as it has always been since the landing of Cortez -on the twenty-first day of April, 1519, is Vera Cruz, or, as he named -it, _La Villa Rica de Vera Cruz_—the Rich City of the True Cross. Most -Americans who pass through here leave by the very first train or boat -for fear of pestilence. I met one fellow-countryman there who was almost -beside himself because the boat he had expected to take was delayed a -couple of days. This city is reputed to be the favourite loafing-place of -the _stegomyia fasciata_ whose bite results in the _vomito_, or yellow -fever. If all the sensational reports sent out concerning this city were -true then “Pandora’s box was not a circumstance to the evils which Vera -Cruz contains.” I had read in Mr. Ober’s excellent work on Mexico of an -American consul who died here just thirteen days after reaching the port -that his ambition had led him to; and of the terrible ravages of the -scourge when deaths were averaging forty per day. I arrived there after -night had set in. Eating a light supper and seeing that my name was duly -posted on the big blackboard bulletin according to the custom prevailing -there, I retired to my room, and only breathed freely after securely -drawing the mosquito netting around my bed so that it would be impossible -for a _stegomyia_ to get through. - -It was almost a surprise on the following morning to find able-bodied -Americans and husky Englishmen pursuing their avocations in an -unconcerned way as though such things as yellow fever or smallpox were -not to be thought of. Then, again, I was alarmed at the numerous red -flags hanging out, which I took to be quarantine flags, for everything -is different here. Upon investigation this alarm was dispelled, for -those places proved to be pulque-shops and the flag meant that a fresh -supply of the “liquor divine” had just been received. It is probably -true that Vera Cruz was a hot-bed for the _vomito_ a few years ago, but -Mexican statistics report only twelve deaths in 1904 and one hundred -and twenty-two in 1905 from this disease, which is not bad for a city -of thirty thousand people, where a large proportion of the population -cannot be made to obey the ordinary laws of sanitation. I doubt whether -the death rate is much greater than in our own cities on the Gulf coast. -This change is due to the better situation that has been brought about -by the authorities. - -An adequate supply of pure water was the first important step in this -move for improved conditions. This was secured by utilizing the water -of the Jamapa River at a point about twelve miles distant and passing -this water through several filtering beds before turning it into the -mains which supply the city. A sewerage system has been constructed, -by means of which the sewerage is carried out and discharged into deep -water so that the harbour will not be contaminated. Disinfecting stations -have been established and a plant for the disposition of garbage. Then -in addition to the regular force of health officers, there is a large -volunteer street cleaning brigade. These volunteer forces are not on the -pay-roll and yet they do their work in a thorough manner even if their -methods cannot be approved. Their only reward is the enforcement of a -fine of five dollars for the protection of their lives. By the natives -these street cleaners are called _zopilotes_ but to an American they are -plain, every-day buzzards. Hundreds of these birds can be seen perched on -the roof-tops or waddling through the streets. - -For centuries the port of Vera Cruz was the bane of vessel owners for -there was no protection from the severe “Northers” so prevalent on the -Gulf and it was one of the most inconvenient and dangerous harbours on -that coast. It was for this reason that Cortez destroyed the vessels -which had brought his forces over from Cuba. An excellent harbour has -been constructed at great cost and ocean-going vessels can now anchor -alongside of the main pier and unload. A large new union station will -at once be erected by the four railways entering this city on a site -adjoining the pier, which will further increase the facilities of this -port. - -[Illustration: BRIDGE AT ORIZABA - -THE BUZZARDS OF VERA CRUZ - -AVENUE OF PALMS, VERA CRUZ] - -The fortress of San Juan de Ulua, now a prison, and which is reached -by a short sail through the shark-infested harbour, is an interesting -structure and has seen many vicissitudes. Used as a fort for several -centuries by the Spaniards, it has successively been occupied by the -French, Americans, and again by the French and their allies in the war -of the intervention. The buildings in Vera Cruz are nearly all low, -one-storied structures of adobe, and the walls are tinted in red, yellow, -blue and green, thus furnishing to the eye a pleasing variety and, with -the bay, reminding one of Cadiz in old Spain. There is an attractive -plaza and an imposing avenue of the cocoanut palm. Vera Cruz is the -gateway to the capital and many millions of imports and exports pass -through here each year, as much as at all the other ports of Mexico -combined, leaving out Progresso, on the Yucatan coast, through which the -henequen traffic is carried. - -Tampico is the second Gulf port in importance and on the completion -of a direct route to the capital will be a close rival to Vera Cruz. -Coatzacoalcos is the Gulf port of the Tehuantepec railway and will become -an important port. The Pacific coast affords better natural harbours. -Acapulco is one of the finest natural land-locked harbours in the world. -Though now of secondary importance because of the absence of railroad -connections, at one time this picturesque harbour sheltered the old -Spanish galleons engaged in the East India trade. Their freight was -unloaded there and transported overland on the backs of burros and mules -to Vera Cruz and re-shipped to Spain. Manzanillo is an important seaport -on that coast and will soon be connected by rail with the capital, when -its importance will be greatly increased. Other important ports on that -coast are Mazatlan, Guayamas, San Blas and Salina Cruz, the Pacific port -of the Tehuantepec route, where the great harbour is nearly completed. - -The _tierra caliente_ comprises a fringe of low plains which extend -inland from the coast a distance varying from a few miles in width to a -hundred or more. From thence it rises by a succession of terraces until -the great inland plateaus are reached. The higher the altitude the lower -the temperature, and it is estimated that there is a change of 1.8 degree -Fahrenheit for each sixty feet of elevation in this region. This zone is -characterized by the grandeur and variety of vegetable life, and it is -an almost uninterrupted forest except where it has been cleared. A ride -through the tropics is a revelation of what nature can do when aided -by a never-ending succession of warm sunshine and abundant rain upon -rich soil. Trees of great height and size are interspersed among plants -which are generally of a tree-like nature, and are conspicuous for the -development of their trunks and ramifications. The innumerable species of -reeds and creeping plants that entwine themselves in a thousand different -ways among the trees and plants make a passage almost impossible. It -is for this reason that the natives always go around armed with the -_machete_, a long blade very much like a corn-cutter, for it enables -them to cut their way through the dense undergrowth, and is a protection, -should any danger be encountered. The palms which are ever associated -with the tropics are seen in great profusion and in countless varieties. -Millions of ferns and broad-leaved plants which would be welcomed in the -gardens and groves of northern homes are wasting their graceful beauty in -these jungles and wildernesses. Trees are covered with beautiful orchids -and vines coil about the trunks and limbs like great snakes, and then -drop down to the earth and take root again in the damp soil. - -To those who know them the tropics are not so terrible, treacherous -though they may seem. Some enter this zone with a feeling of creepiness -as though they were entering a darkened sick-room sheltering some -malignant disease. They hesitate to breathe for fear that the very air -is poisonous and they may take in the germs of some malady with an -unpronounceable name. They shrink from nature as though she had ceased to -be the kind mother to which they were accustomed in the colder climates. -It is true that there is something horribly creepy and uncanny about this -inevitable tropical growth, which is so frail and fragile outwardly -but seems possessed of an unconquerable vitality. And yet in many of -the so-called unhealthy places, there is scarcely more danger to health -than elsewhere, if one but observes the same rules of right living. -Continuous hard labour, such as the northern farmer is accustomed to -devote to his little farm, is not possible. Exposure to the intense heat -of the sun at midday and the heavy rains will bring on fevers and malaria -just as surely as it produces the luxuriant vegetation. For this reason -the tropics will probably never be suited for colonization by the small -farmer who is fascinated with the possibilities offered by land capable -of producing two or three crops in a single year. - -In general, Mexico is poorly supplied with rivers. However, along the -Atlantic coast they are very numerous and large, although not navigable -for any great distance, or for vessels large enough to be of much aid to -commerce. The size of the rivers is due to the great amount of rainfall, -which varies from seventy to one hundred and eighty inches annually. -When this is compared to an annual rainfall of twenty to forty inches in -the northern states of the United States, the conditions in the tropics -are better understood. This excessive rainfall washes down earth from -the higher ground and this, together with the layers of vegetable mold, -have formed soil from eight to fourteen feet in depth thus making it -practically inexhaustible. The temperature varies from 70° to 100° -Fahrenheit. The Pacific coast has a higher temperature and less rainfall -than the Gulf coast. However, there is a stretch of land extending north -of Acapulco along the coast and from eight to thirty miles wide that is -unrivalled for tropical beauty and productiveness. There are many rivers -and streams that traverse this land on the way from the great mountains -to the Pacific. - -There is a charm about the life in the hotlands that is missing in -other parts of Mexico. Of all the inhabitants of that country, the -life of the people in the hot country is the most interesting. This is -probably due to the fact that these people have always had more freedom -than the Indians on the plateaus who were practically slaves for a -couple of centuries. The great estates there required sure help and -the natives were reduced to serfs. In the mines they were worked with -soldiers set over them as guards. In the hotlands it was easier to make -a living, for a bountiful nature supplied nearly all their wants. And -yet many employers of labour say that the peon from the hot country -makes the most satisfactory workman. These Indians seem like a superior -race. For one thing they are scrupulously clean which, in itself, is -a pleasing contrast to the daily sights in Northern Mexico. Water is -abundant everywhere; the extreme heat renders bathing a great comfort -and their clothes are kept immaculate. They are fond of social life and -almost every night groups can be seen gathered together in some kind of -entertainment. - -[Illustration: AN INDIAN HOME IN THE HOT COUNTRY] - -Their homes are different from those in the colder lands. The houses -of the middle and lower classes are built of bamboo or other light -material found in the tropical jungles, and thatched with palm leaves. -The upright bamboo poles are often set an inch or more apart thus giving -a free circulation of air. An Indian village generally consists of one -long, winding, irregular street lined on each side by these picturesque -huts, and bearing a strong resemblance to a village in the interior of -Africa. Down these streets swarm in equal profusion half-naked babies -and children long past the childhood stage dressed in the same simple -way, and hungry looking dogs. The hot country is sparsely populated in -comparison with the plateaus and there are no large cities, although -archeologists tell us that the earliest civilization seems to have been -located there. It could support a population many, many times larger with -ease. - -The most productive parts of the world are found in the _tierra caliente_ -which instead of being given up to impenetrable jungles, the homes of -reptiles and breeding place of poisonous insects, should be made to -produce those luxuries and necessaries which contribute to make civilized -life tolerable. All over the world the fruits and other articles of -the tropics are coming into greater demand each year. In the year 1906 -the United States imported fruits and other food products of tropical -countries, not including coffee, to the value of more than $150,000,000, -or nearly two dollars for each man, woman and child in the country. Of -the purely tropical products, sugar was by far the largest item on the -list. Bananas to the amount of $11,500,000 were brought in, and were -second on the list with cacao a close rival for this place. - -As yet Mexico supplies but a small portion of these articles to the -United States. Yet the possibilities of agriculture here are equal -to those of any similar lands, and this, together with superior -transportation facilities and a stable government, ought to greatly -increase the trade. In addition to the above items, this soil is well -adapted to the following fruits and useful products, all of which are -native to the soil: oranges, lemons, limes, pineapples, grapefruit, -vanilla bean, indigo, rubber, coffee, tobacco and many drug-producing -plants. It is difficult for the small farmer to succeed, as he cannot do -all his own labour in that climate and cannot get satisfactory help just -when it is needed. He could not afford to hire a force of labourers by -the year. Successful farming in the tropics can only be done on a large -scale with a regular force of labourers maintained on the plantation. -The title to the soil can be purchased cheaply but the first cost of the -land is probably not more than one-third of the ultimate cost by the time -it is cleared, planted, and the necessary improvements made. Furthermore -many tropical plants such as coffee, rubber and cacao require several -years of care before there is a profitable yield. - -Coffee and banana culture go hand in hand, for the broad leaves of the -banana provide the shade so necessary to the young coffee trees. The -banana also furnishes a little revenue during the four or five years -before the coffee trees have fully matured. The coffee region is very -extensive, for it will grow at a height of from one to five thousand -feet, and flourishes best at an altitude of two to three thousand feet. -It requires plenty of warmth and moisture. The coffee, which is a tree -and not a bush, is set out in rows several feet apart, and will grow -twenty feet tall if permitted, but is not allowed to grow half that -height. The tree is flowering and developing fruit all the time but the -principal harvest is in the late fall. It is not allowed to ripen on -the tree, for when the green berries have turned a bright red, they are -gathered, dried in the sun, hulled and then marketed. The states of Vera -Cruz and Chiapas produce the choicest coffee, but it is cultivated all -over the republic where it is possible. Coffee was introduced into this -country from Arabia by Spanish priests and was found to be adapted to -the soil. The best grades are sent to Europe, for it is a common saying -throughout Mexico and Central America that only the poor grades of coffee -are sent to the United States. This is rather a slur on the tastes of the -American people, but such is our reputation down there. - -“Looking at it from my point of view—the lazy man’s outlook—I can see -nothing so inviting as coffee culture, unless it be a fat ‘living’ in -an English country church,” says a writer. For myself, the one thing -that appealed to me above all others was the cultivation of the banana. -The returns are quick, the income regular and the profits large. I -travelled through the banana region of Honduras, where for thirty miles -the railroad passed by one plantation after another of the broad-leaved -banana plants growing as high as fifteen feet. Great fortunes have been -made by the banana-growers of that country and Costa Rica. This fruit -flourishes best in the lowlands. The preparation of the ground is very -simple, for the young banana plants are set out among the piles of -underbrush left after clearing and which soon decay in that climate. -After nine months or a year the plants begin to bear, and each stalk -will produce one bunch of bananas. The stalk is then cut down and a new -one, or several, will spring up from the roots and will bear in the same -length of time. Thus a banana plantation that is carefully looked after -will produce a marketable crop each week in the year, so that there -is a constant revenue coming in to the owner. The cultivation of this -delicious fruit, for which there is an ever-increasing market, brings the -quickest return of any tropical product. - -[Illustration: RICE CULTURE] - -Sugar cane can be raised profitably as the stalks grow high with many -joints and have a greater percentage of saccharine than in most countries -where it is cultivated. Furthermore it does not require replanting so -frequently. Cacao is another truly tropical product. It is from the cacao -bean that chocolate is made. The trees are usually transplanted and -bear in about four years and the beans are gathered three or four times -a year. They are then removed from the pods and dried in the sun. The -trees will bear for many years. Orange culture along modern scientific -lines, such as are used in California and Florida, would be profitable, -for the crop matures earlier and could be marketed long before the fruit -has ripened in those states. The Mexicans are great rice eaters and -there is a good field for its culture. The cocoanut palm offers good -returns as there is a good market for its fruit. Rubber grows wild and -many plantations have been set out in rubber trees. In the past year -Mexico has shipped more than two million pounds of crude rubber, and the -production is increasing. Vast tracts of mahogany are found down toward -Guatemala in the states of Campeche and Tabasco. These great trees are -cut down, hewn square and then hauled by mules to a waterway where they -are formed into rafts and floated down to the ports. There is much waste -in the present crude way of cutting and marketing this valuable wood. -Logwood and other dyewoods are found in the same forests. The world’s -supply of chicle also comes from the same source. - -What the Mexican tropics need is men of energy backed by capital -sufficient to utilize large tracts of this rich soil. It is true that -many plantations are now being cultivated and it is equally true that -many have been abandoned as failures after unsuccessful attempts at -cultivation. The fault has not been poor soil but poor management. -Promotion and success are not synonymous terms, and much of the promotion -has been done by unscrupulous persons whose only purpose was to dispose -of stock to the gullible. Richer soil cannot be found anywhere, but it -must be cultivated with intelligence and good judgment the same as in any -other part of the world, or failure will result. - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -A GLIMPSE OF THE ORIENTAL IN THE OCCIDENT - - -Some two hundred miles south of the City of Mexico lies Oaxaca -(pronounced Wa-hâ-ka). The Valley of Oaxaca was looked upon by the -Spanish conquerors as El Dorado, the traditional land of gold. The Aztecs -told them that the gold of Montezuma came from the sands of the rivers -in this and the connecting valleys, and that immeasurable treasure was -to be found there. Believing these tales, Cortez secured large grants of -land from the crown, and, with the consent and approval of his sovereign, -assumed to himself the title of Marquis of the Valley of Oaxaca. - -The cupidity of the Spaniards led them to employ every subterfuge to -induce the natives to reveal the source of their plentiful supply of -gold. The Indians, after considerable urging,—so we are told,—offered to -conduct one man to this place, if he would submit to be blindfolded for -the trip. This was agreed to and the party set out on their journey. -Thinking that he would mark the way, the Spaniard dropped a grain of corn -every few steps. After they had travelled a long distance, the Spaniard -had the bandage removed from his eyes and he was allowed to look around, -when he beheld such wealth as mortal vision never before had seen. His -eyes glittered with the greed of his covetous nature, but his countenance -soon changed when a dusky warrior stepped up and handed him a vessel -which contained every grain of corn that he had dropped by the way. For -this reason he was never able to retrace his steps to this wonderful -region, and the wily Spaniards were again outwitted by the simple natives. - -Oaxaca is reached by the Southern Railway which starts at Puebla. This -road penetrates one of the richest sections of the republic, with -abundance of timber and minerals, and unlimited beds of onyx and marble. -Little of this wealth is seen from the railroad, as this line follows -the narrow valleys, through one cañon into another, furnishing scenery -as grandly picturesque as the great passes of Colorado. The mountains -in places are lifted up thousands of feet with crags and peaks which -the storms have cut into fantastic shapes and whose walls drop almost -perpendicularly to the water’s edge. Then again the cañon widens, and the -panorama extends across the valley where gigantic rocks, stained in all -colours by the oozings of the metals of the earth, form far-away pictures -not unlike the battlements of an ancient fortress. The sun tinges each -a different hue, with deeper tones in the near ones which fade as they -approach the horizon, until all seem to blend into the intense blue of -the sky. - -As the train leaves the City of the Angels, just at daybreak, a wonderful -panorama is opened up to view. Look in any direction, and the tiled domes -of the churches rise above the plain, for each village and _hacienda_ has -its own. The forts erected on the surrounding hills which are emblematic -of the force that subjugated this valley, are seen, and near them the -pyramid of Cholula erected by those who were overcome. Over all tower -those mighty monuments of nature, the white-capped peaks of Popocatapetl, -Ixtaccihuatl, Orizaba and old Malintzi, with the morning sun reflected on -their snowy heads. The road ascends and descends, and then ascends again -before it takes a dip down into the _tierra caliente_. A number of native -villages are passed but only one town of any size, Tehuacan, noted for -its mineral springs. It is a pretty little city, and in the centre of a -rich agricultural district. The road finally enters a wide, open country -with rich valleys which extend to the hills beyond. At last, after a -twelve hours’ journey, our train rolls into this occidental Eden. - -More than three centuries ago a Spanish writer described Oaxaca as -“not very big, yet a fair and beautiful city to behold, which standeth -three-score leagues from Mexico in a pleasant valley.” It is located -at the junction of three valleys and on the bank of a broad river, -which meanders through a billowy sea of cornfields toward the Pacific. -Whichever way the eye may turn the view is bounded by hills covered with -forests. Viewed from one of these hills the city looks like a broad, -flat-covered plain of stone buildings above which are seen many domes, -and the whole scene has a truly oriental touch. - -The people that the Spanish found in possession of these valleys were -an industrious race. They had tilled the soil centuries before the -Spaniards, in their lust for gold, despoiled these beautiful valleys. -There is not a hollow, or knoll, where it is possible to scrape a little -soil with a hoe, that has not at some time been cultivated. These early -races had even constructed irrigation works which kept green their fields -during the dry season. The rich basins filled with alluvium are now owned -by the rich _hacendados_, or landowners, whose white buildings dot the -landscape here and there and, with their trees, orchards and cultivated -fields, lend life and colour to an otherwise dull prospect. The poor -Indians are forced to work for these landlords who claim title to the -land formerly owned by their ancestors, or retire to the hills where, -well up toward the crests, they cultivate their little fields of corn -and beans. There is one tribe of Indians that dwell in the mountains of -Oaxaca who have never acknowledged either Spanish or Mexican sovereignty, -and maintain their own tribal form of government. They can be seen at -Oaxaca on market days. - -We find Oaxaca to be a city of about thirty-three thousand people of whom -three-fourths or more are Indians. It is laid out with narrow streets, -down the centre of which runs a stream of water, from which rise at -times odours not the most agreeable. The houses are low and one-storied, -with grated windows after the style of architecture introduced by the -Spaniards, and by them adopted from the Moors, who copied it from the -Persians. The water supply is abundant, being brought in from the hills -by an aqueduct. Fountains are located at numerous places, and a constant -succession of Rebeccas with heads enveloped in their shawls, and carrying -great earthen water-jars pass to and fro from them. - -Oaxaca contains many fine churches of which one, Santo Domingo, has been -both monastery and fortress, and has just been restored at a cost of -$13,000,000 (silver) so it is claimed, making it the most costly church -in Mexico, if not in North America. The gold on the walls was so heavy -in former times, that the soldiers quartered here during revolutionary -uprisings employed themselves in removing it. This city has been the -scene of troublous times, and has been captured and re-captured by the -combating forces. It has given to the country two great presidents, -Juarez and Diaz, of whom it may well be proud. Of these two men, great -in the annals of Mexico, the former was a full-blooded Indian, and the -latter has a fair percentage of the same blood in his veins. A monument -to Juarez has been erected, and some day—may it be far distant—when -nature has claimed her own, this city will raise a memorial to her still -greater son. - -[Illustration: THE AQUEDUCT, OAXACA - -A FOUNTAIN IN OAXACA] - -Oaxaca has a pleasant plaza, called the Plaza de Armas, adorned with -various semi-tropical trees and shrubs, in the centre of which is the -ever-present band-stand. The Cathedral and municipal palace face this -square. My visit here was during a _fiesta_ and this plaza was the -favourite resort of the Indians as well as myself. The Indians living -in the hills took undisturbed possession at night, and groups of tired -_Indios_ wrapped themselves in their _sarapes_, or shawls, and stretched -their tired limbs out on the cold stones; or propped themselves against -the walls of a building to rest. A number of catch-penny devices were -running during the evening and the favourite seemed to be the phonograph. -The Indian would pay his _centavo_, put the transmitter in his ears and -listen without a sign of expression on his stolid face. Nevertheless, -he enjoyed it, because he would repeat the operation until his stock of -coppers was considerably diminished. - -Saturday is market day in this city, and a visit to this popular place is -worth a trip to Mexico. The atmosphere of the market is truly oriental, -for these people have a genius for trading as the innumerable little -stands where crude pottery, rough-made baskets, home-made _dulces_, etc., -are sold, fully proves. The entrance takes one past the dealers in fried -meats, where bits of pork and shreds of beef are dished out sizzling hot -to the peons under the big _sombreros_ by women cooks who crouch over -earthenware dishes placed on small braziers containing a charcoal fire, -and a three course meal can be obtained for a few cents. There is always -a crowd around this department, for these people are ever ready to eat, -and their capacity is only limited by their purse. - -[Illustration: THE MARKET-WOMEN OF OAXACA - -THE POTTERY-MARKET, OAXACA] - -Next is encountered the fruit and vegetable stands. The finest fruits and -vegetables, and especially the latter, that I saw in Mexico, were right -here in this market and this was in the month of December. Generally -the vegetables in Mexico are not large, but here were fine potatoes, -great red tomatoes, gigantic radishes and elephantine cabbages. Oranges, -bananas, limes, plantains and pineapples were plentiful, as well as the -less-known fruits such as _zapotes_ (a kind of melon), _aguacates_ (a -pale green fruit and vegetable combined), granaditas, mangoes, granadas -and pomegranates. The cocoanut of the hotlands is mingled with the -_dunas_, the fruit of the prickly pear, of the higher lands. With these -a great many drinks called _frescas_, or sherbets, are flavoured, the -merits of which are announced by the dark-eyed, be-shawled vendors. The -women merchants, many of them smoking cigarettes, sit around on the -floor so thick in places that it is almost impossible to work your way -through the mixed assortment of peppers and babies; corn, lean babies -and peas; charcoal, beans and fat babies; naked babies, knives and -murderous-looking _machetes_; hats, laughing babies, shawls and other -useful articles; turkeys, crying babies, chickens, dirty babies, ducks, -squawking parrots in cages, pigs and other live stock, including babies -of all kinds and descriptions. - -The pottery market presided over by the solemn-faced, oriental merchants -is a never-ending place of interest, and these artistic vessels are -carried over the mountains on the backs of the Indians. Crude baskets -and mats made of the palm fibre are found in abundance as well as brooms -which bear no union label. - -No one could afford to miss the flower department where flowers are so -cheap that it seems almost a sin not to buy them. Here are velvety sweet -peas, purple pansies, tangled heaps of crimson and white roses, azure -forget-me-nots, pyramids of heliotrope and scarlet geraniums. For a -few cents one can buy almost a bushel of these, or, if preferred, can -substitute marguerites, carnations, poppies, or violets. An American will -probably have to pay twice as much as a native, even after the shrewdest -bargaining. - -Outside the market enclosure caravans of over-loaded donkeys jostle each -other as a great solid-wheeled cart yoked to a couple of meek-eyed oxen -creaks by, or a tram car drawn by galloping mules thunders noisily along -to an accompaniment of loud cracks of the whip, and a constant repetition -of “_mulas_” and “_arres_” the “rrs” being brought out with a long trill. - -[Illustration: CROSSING THE RIVER ON MARKET-DAY] - -The Indian will travel for days on his way to market at Oaxaca. On the -day before market I drove out the south road for a number of miles, and -the entire distance was literally black,—or perhaps it would be better -to say brown,—with the natives coming to town bearing the “brown man’s -burden,” and travelling along in the middle of the road at a rapid pace. -These Indians were coming from the “hot country” farther south and -were bringing oranges, bananas, cocoanuts and other kinds of tropical -fruits, besides chickens, eggs and other poultry. Most of them were on -foot, though the more fortunate had donkeys to carry the load; but they -themselves walked and drove the animal. The women bore large baskets on -their heads, which they balanced gracefully, although sometimes the loads -are exceedingly heavy. They will carry one hundred pounds or more in -this manner. Frequently a baby is swung across the back as an additional -burden. The little mites are good natured in this uncomfortable position, -and do not make half as much trouble as American babies in their -rubber-tired, easy-springed perambulators. - -A small pot, a basket of tortillas, a few fagots and plenty of coffee -complete the outfit of the man. Perhaps the value of his load is not -over a dollar or two in gold, but his entertainment along the way -costs little, for he sleeps out of doors, carries his food, makes his -own coffee and needs to buy nothing except perhaps a little fruit and -_aguardiente_ (brandy). The entire family sometimes accompany him, for -the wife is afraid to have her man go away alone for fear he may desert -her. - -On the opposite side of the city from the road just described is another -main highway. I stood here for several hours by the river bank on the -afternoon of a market-day, when the people were leaving for home. The -sight never grew tiresome or monotonous, as there was a constant -succession of pictures, which a moving-picture machine alone could -adequately portray. Although there is a bridge across the stream, no -one used it, for by making a short cut across the river bed a hundred -yards or more was saved. The pedestrian would remove his sandals to wade -through the shallow water, and then replace them on reaching the opposite -bank. The Indians going this way had more burros, and, as their load was -disposed of, the family rode. Frequently a poor, diminutive burro carried -as many persons as could sit on his back, in addition to the large -baskets. Many of the great carts drawn by one or two yoke of oxen passed -this way. The cattle are all yoked by the horns, which seems a cruel way, -for their heads are brought down almost to the ground, and it looks as -though every jar must cause them suffering. - -So this unique panorama continued all the afternoon. I could not think -of anything but Palestine, as I gazed at this unceasing procession of -donkeys, Egyptian carts, women with their shawls folded and worn on their -heads in Eastern fashion; and in the background the white walls, red -tiled roofs and domes of the churches of Oaxaca. For a moment I wondered -if I were not mistaken, and had suddenly strayed into some corner of -the Orient, and found myself involuntarily looking for the mosque, and -listening for the cry of the muezzin calling the faithful to prayer. - -A trip around about the valley near Oaxaca only served to strengthen -the oriental cast of the picture. The types of buildings, and the signs -of water and fertility in the midst of widespread aridity (for this was -the dry season) are eastern. I saw many flocks of goats herded by the -solitary shepherd in the truly old-fashioned way. Then, a slow-moving -team of oxen followed by a peon guiding a one-handled, wooden plough -deepens the picture. How powerful must have been the Moorish influence -in Spain, for this is the plough of Egypt and Chaldea which was carried -along the coast of Barbary into Spain, and left there as a heritage to -the Spaniards who introduced it into the new world. - -Yes, Oaxaca is an El Dorado, a land of treasure to the searcher after -the picturesque. The real wealth lies in its delightful climate. The -temperature is mild and does not vary more than twenty or thirty degrees -during the year. The altitude is a little less than five thousand feet -and the air is fresh and bracing. There is also an abundance of good, -pure water. Some day this city will be known as a health resort for -people from cold climates. They will find relief from the strenuous life -in quiet, restful, oriental Oaxaca. - -There is no more picturesque _hacienda_ in all Mexico than that of Mitla -a few miles away. Because of the bleak and rough nature of the country it -has retained its early characteristics. The little store is a revelation -of the simple and primitive life of these people. Evening is sure to -find Don Felix, or his black-eyed son, behind the counter waiting on the -groups of Indians who are constantly coming in to buy a couple of cents -worth of _mescal_, or _tequila_, or cigarettes. One Indian woman came -in to purchase a _centavo_ (one-half cent) of vinegar, another of lard, -and others an equal amount of honey, soap, sugar or matches. They would -invariably buy only one article at a time, then pay for it and watch the -copper disappear down a slot in the counter. Outside the door was an old -Indian who had brought a load of wood down from the mountain, and the -good housewives were noisily bargaining with him for a centavo’s worth of -wood, and trying to get an extra stick or two for that sum. - -Bargaining is a part of the education of these people. A young Indian -came in hatless and wanted a _sombrero_ (hat). He was shown one -with thirty cents worth of brim by the merchant. The Indian offered -twenty-eight cents which was accepted and he went away happy over his -bargain. An old Indian,—and an old Indian is but a child in worldly -wisdom,—brought a large cassava root, which, after considerable haggling, -the merchant purchased for five cents. He bought a package of sixteen -cigarettes for three cents and told the young _hacendado_ that he had -another “_mas grande_” (larger), which he would sell for seven cents. He -went away but returned in a few minutes with the other root, and looked -around at the crowd with a grin. The merchant took it but told him it was -“_mas chico_” (smaller), and he could only allow four cents. The Indian -came down to six and the deal was closed at five cents, the same price as -the first one was sold for. He bought a glass of _mescal_ for two cents -and vanished in the night air, with a smile of complete satisfaction on -his face. It is a simple life that these people lead, and the same scenes -may be witnessed any day in the year at this little _tienda_ at the -Hacienda of Mitla. - - “When twilight falls, more near and clear, - The tender southern skies appear.” - -Twilight is very brief in this land. Scarcely has the sun dropped out -of sight, when the moon appears on the opposite horizon, almost a -counterpart of the former in its descending glory. Then the stars appear -by hundreds, and myriads, and the night in all its magnificence is upon -you, where, but a few minutes before, was the brightness of day. And the -overhanging canopy of the heavens seems so much brighter, and clearer, -and nearer than in our more northerly land. - -As the hour grew late, I wandered forth from the little store and walked -through the narrow, winding streets of the village. It was one of those -brilliant tropical nights when the southern skies seemed ablaze with the -light of innumerable stars, and the Queen of the Night was in her glory. -It was such a night as would have appealed to the astronomers of old. -The streets were silent except for the howling of some dogs near by. The -porch of the _hacienda_ was crowded with reclining figures wrapped in -their _sarapes_. A belated traveller came up and with a sigh of relief -deposited his load, and joined the sleeping crowd. A match illumed a dark -face for a moment as he lit a cigarette. Finally, all voices ceased and -quiet reigned supreme. It was a silence as deep and mysterious as that of -the ruined city that lay but a few rods away. - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -THE ISTHMUS OF TEHUANTEPEC - - -A trip from Vera Cruz to the Isthmus of Tehuantepec takes the traveller -into the very centre of the tropics in Mexico. It is a most interesting -ride. The entire journey is within the _tierra caliente_ region and -throughout the whole distance of two hundred and fifty miles there are -only slight undulations that could hardly be truthfully called hills. It -is not all jungle for there are plains that are sometimes several miles -in width which furnish rich pasture for great herds of cattle. Here again -is seen the picturesque Mexican cowboy riding his pony and carrying the -ever-present lasso. The heavy saddles in this hot climate and especially -the twisted bits which are universally used upon the horses in Mexico -seem like a cruel imposition upon their faithful steeds. With this -combination of rings and bars a rider could almost break the jaw of a -horse. It is absolutely impossible for an animal to drink with this bit -in his mouth. - -This leads me to remark that the finer sensibilities with regard to the -treatment of domesticated animals and fowls are generally absent among -Mexicans. The poor burros which are obliged to travel day after day with -great sores on their backs that are continually chafed by the loads they -are carrying, and saddle mules with similar sores, excite no compassion -from the average Mexican. No doubt many of these animals are obliged -to work for months and possibly years, when every step under a load or -the weight of a man must cause them suffering. They are seldom shod, -and many an animal is obliged to travel over the rough trails until his -hoofs are worn down to the sensitive part. Cruel spurs are jabbed into -his sides until they are raw. I have already spoken of the bull-fight and -cock-fighting. From a book “On the Mexican Highlands” I quote another -form of cruelty:—“The stocky, swarthy Indian woman calmly broke the thigh -bone of each leg and the chief bone of each wing, so that escape might be -impossible, and proceeded right then and there to pick the chicken alive. -She was evidently unconscious of any thought of cruelty. The legs and -wings were broken in order that the bird might not run or fly away. The -sentiment of pity and tenderness for dumb things had not yet dawned upon -her mind, and the fowl destined for the pot received no consideration at -her hands.” - -There are many villages along this route but no cities. Several broad -rivers and innumerable small streams are crossed. The engines burn -wood, and it is necessary to stop on several occasions and load up the -tender with fuel. At Tierra Blanca are located the shops and division -headquarters of the road. As the Isthmus is approached the tropical -swamps become more frequent and the train passes through miles of -territory where “still stands the forest primeval,” a jungle of trees -and shrubs intermingled with countless varieties of palms; impenetrable -forests with creepers and parasites hanging from the boughs of trees, -and replanting themselves in the moist earth. Within these jungles -the “tigre” roams and beneath the heavy undergrowth, horrid, venomous -snakes crawl. Overhead fly noisy parrots and paroquets in couples and -flocks with all of the colours of the rainbow reflected from their gaudy -feathers. Then in the waters of these streams live hundreds of repulsive -alligators. - -At certain seasons of the year the Indians live almost entirely upon -the wild products of the forest. Nature furnishes fruits, and with the -blow-gun or other weapon enough game can be killed to fill the larder. -With a natural laziness and in an enervating climate the natives prefer -existence of this kind to the more artificial one made necessary by -labour. - -The Vera Cruz and Pacific Railway connects with the Tehuantepec railway -at Santa Lucrecia, a small village with a poor hotel. Here it was my lot -to be obliged to spend Christmas Eve and the greater part of Christmas -day. My companions were an Englishman and a Scotchman. The Englishman -rummaged around in the little store and found a canned plum pudding, -which rather cheered him and his compatriot and I was invited to share -in their good fortune. However the heavens seemed to open up and let the -water pour down in torrents and the mud was apparently bottomless so -that our explorations were confined to the hotel porch. In spite of the -plum pudding my spirits were rather low and I was reminded of Touchstone -wandering in the Forest of Arden, when he says:— - - “When I was at home I was in a better place, - But travellers must be content.” - -It was a real pleasure to step into a fine American coach drawn by an -American engine and run by an American crew bound for the chief town of -the Isthmus and the one that gave it its name. - -[Illustration: THE MARKET, TEHUANTEPEC] - -Tehuantepec is a place where some twenty thousand souls are trying to -solve the problem of existence under favourable skies. In this city of -a hot midday sun and little rain the strenuous life has few disciples. -It is situated on the Pacific slope of the Cordillera on both banks of a -broad river and only a few miles from the ocean. It is composed of low, -one-storied buildings, many of which show cracks that are the result -of the earthquake shocks which sometimes visit here. The streets are -narrow and the centre of the town is the market plaza. Until the opening -of the railroad, which runs through the centre of the town, strangers -were almost unknown and the quaint customs, costumes and habits still -remain. The market and the river furnish the only life. The latter -is always made lively and interesting to the stranger because of the -crowds of bathers in the stream and washerwomen on the banks. It is an -animated scene and has an air of naturalness devoid of any false ideas -of modesty. These Indians belong to the Zapotec tribe and they are among -the cleanest people in the world, as a race, as the long lines of bathers -of both sexes from early dawn until nightfall attest. Woman’s rights are -recognized and undisputed among these people. The women run the place -and do ninety per cent. of the business. The wife must vouch for the -husband before he can obtain credit. In the market place where most of -the bartering is done she reigns supreme. - -The Isthmus of Tehuantepec is the narrowest neck of land in Mexico -between the two great oceans and, with the exception of the Isthmus of -Panama, is the narrowest point on the continent. The soil is extremely -rich and the natural products and resources of the Isthmus are numerous -and varied. All products indigenous to the tropics grow here. Different -sections, according to elevation, are especially adapted to the -cultivation of corn, cacao, tobacco, rice and sugar cane. Medicinal -plants, spices, all tropical fruits, vanilla, indigo and cotton also will -grow profitably in this climate. Cochineal dye has for a long time come -from the Tehuantepec region, but this industry has been displaced by the -more recent chemical dyes. - -The forests abound in game and the rivers and lagoons in fish. The -forests yield useful timbers, such as mahogany, also dyewoods and trees -producing gums and balsams. Oil in paying quantities has been discovered -in several places and the Tehuantepec National Railway, which crosses -the isthmus, is one of the few roads in the world that uses oil for -fuel. There are also profitable salt deposits. A great deal of American -and European capital has been sunk in unsuccessful plantations along -this route. This has been due to illogical and dishonest promotion. -The fertile soil will produce immense crops of the things adapted for -cultivation. With this fact in view it seems strange to see one abandoned -plantation after another as you journey over the two hundred miles -separating Coatzacoalcos and Salina Cruz, the two termini of the Isthmus -of Tehuantepec trans-continental and inter-oceanic railroad route. In the -matter of climate the Mexicans claim a great superiority for Tehuantepec -over Panama, because of the strong winds that blow constantly from ocean -to ocean. - -For centuries this isthmus has attracted a great deal of attention from -explorers and engineers in the effort to discover or provide the most -convenient and economical route between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. -Cortez first realized the necessity of such a route and explored this -whole section in the hope of finding a natural strait. It is even claimed -that he conceived the idea of a canal across this narrow strip of land. -Failing in these projects he planned a carriage road from coast to coast, -which was finally constructed by the Spaniards. Many of the miners who -flocked to California during the gold excitement went by this highway. -Later civil engineers proposed and advocated a canal by this route even -before the Panama route was seriously considered. The distance from ocean -to ocean is only one hundred and twenty-five miles in a bee line. The -land is comparatively level and the rise on the Atlantic side is very -gradual culminating in the Chivela Pass at a height of seven hundred and -thirty feet. From here to the Pacific the descent is more abrupt. A ship -railway was at one time seriously considered and liberal concessions -were granted by the Mexican government to the American engineer James B. -Eads and his associates. This project although considered feasible by -engineers has never been able to enlist capital for its construction. - -The Panama Canal under French control was a colossal failure. A project -which for a time seemed to promise a solution of the problem for a quick -and economical route between the East and West ended in lamentable -disgrace and for a long time remained in what one of our former -presidents would have called, a condition of “innocuous desuetude.” When -the United States undertook this great enterprise, the completion of this -desirable waterway was placed at ten years or even less. Now at the end -of four years we are credibly informed that little has been done except -the completion of plans, surveys, purchase of machinery and necessary -sanitation. All of these preliminaries were essential and will greatly -facilitate the real work when once started. All loyal Americans believe -in the ultimate successful completion of this great undertaking. Yet, -instead of ten years, we can see that fifteen years, or even twenty years -would be a more accurate statement of the time necessary to complete the -severing of the two continents. In the meantime, what? - -While other countries have been planning, the Mexican government with -the characteristic foresight shown by President Diaz has been quietly -preparing to meet the problem of a short and economical route between -the two oceans. This has been done without the blowing of horns and few -people were aware until recently of what was being done and what had -really been accomplished. The government of Mexico decided upon the -plan of constructing a railway across the Isthmus from Coatzacoalcos, -on the Gulf of Mexico, to Salina Cruz, on the Pacific Ocean, a distance -of one hundred and ninety-four miles. Most railroads in tropical lands -are narrow gauge but this line is constructed of standard width and was -completed in 1895. When first opened to traffic the road was in a very -imperfect condition. In 1899 a contract was entered into between the -government and the English house of Pearson and Sons whereby the two -parties became joint owners of the road for a period of fifty years and -the net earnings should be shared on an equitable basis. - -The construction was of a difficult character because the route passed -through some cañons, rocky cuts and a great deal of swampy soil. The work -has been well done and it is one of the best roads in Mexico to-day, with -good equipment and traffic managed in an up-to-date and business-like -manner. Already large orders for equipment have been placed and plans -for double-tracking the entire road have been drawn. The headquarters -and general offices are at Rincon Antonio, which is at the highest point -and has the appearance of a typical new English town with its red brick -terraces. This town receives the full benefit of the winds constantly -blowing across the isthmus and enjoys a pleasant and salubrious climate. -The shops and roundhouse for the railroad have been built at this place -also and the employees are all comfortably housed. Some of the officers -have built very commodious homes of their own, with every possible -convenience. This town is in marked contrast with the old Mexican towns -and villages along the route. - -The general officers of the road and head men in the port works at both -termini are all English and Americans. Formerly they were English, but in -recent years the Americans have been replacing the English, as they have -been found more satisfactory and better adapted for the work. - -The government soon learned that the railway without good harbours was a -poor proposition. The plans of the government were then made to include -immense port works and safe, commodious harbours at Coatzacoalcos and -Salina Cruz. At the former place the river forms a natural harbour of -an average depth of fifty feet at low water. The only problem here was -to remove a sand bar and construct piers. The work of removing the bar -has been completed and several large steel wharves and warehouses have -already been constructed and others are in course of construction. -The total frontage of the wharves when completed will be over three -thousand feet. It is intended to have a minimum depth of thirty-three -feet alongside of the wharves which will be equipped with every modern -contrivance for unloading cargo quickly and economically from ships, and -transferring to the railroad and vice versa. - -The work at Salina Cruz presented far greater problems. It has demanded -the maximum of engineering skill and an immense sum of money. Here nature -had aided in no way and everything had to be done by human effort. On -account of severe wind storms it was deemed necessary to construct both -an outer and an inner harbour in order to make a perfectly safe anchorage -at all times and the work was begun in 1900. The outer harbour is being -formed by thrusting two massive breakwaters like immense arms out into -the bay with an entrance six hundred feet wide. The longest of these -breakwaters will be three thousand feet, consisting of three sections, of -different angles, with the convex sides toward the sea. The other is only -one-half as extensive. The foundation for these breakwaters is started -thirty feet below low water mark and in some places is two hundred -feet in width. Upon a rubble foundation immense blocks of concrete and -natural rock are placed at random. Then on top are placed regular rows of -forty-ton concrete blocks. The amount of material already used and needed -to complete this work is almost inconceivable. More than three-fourths -of the largest breakwater is already completed. The inner basin will be -wholly artificial and will occupy in part the site of the old town of -Salina Cruz with an entrance ninety feet wide. Immense dredges are now at -work on this basin which will be large enough to accommodate whole fleets -of the largest vessels afloat. From two thousand to four thousand men -have been and are still employed, the majority being natives. - -Although the harbour at Salina Cruz is still incomplete, this route was -formally opened on January 23rd, 1907. In the presence of a great throng -of notables, including the representatives of twenty nations, President -Diaz touched a lever which set in motion a steam winch that was used to -carry the first load of cargo from a steamer to a freight car. After this -car had been loaded it was transferred to Coatzacoalcos and the President -touched another lever that set in motion the machinery for unloading the -car and transferring the freight to a waiting steamer. In this manner was -opened a route that is destined to take a prominent part in the handling -of the world’s commerce, and which has cost the Mexican government more -than $25,000,000 in gold, and the end is not yet. After four hundred -years the dream of Cortez has come true and the isthmian highway is open -to the world. - -What advantages are claimed for this route? The benefit to Mexico is -self-evident. It will greatly facilitate the commerce between the two -long coast lines of the republic. This great undertaking was not begun -for the national trade alone. It is intended to compete for all that -traffic which has heretofore gone around Cape Horn, through the Straits -of Magellan, or across the Panama railroad. The Tehuantepec route is -one thousand, two hundred and fifty miles shorter between New York and -San Francisco than the Panama route. The average freight steamer would -require from four to five days to cover this distance. The managers of -the Tehuantepec National railroad propose to unload a cargo, carry it -across the isthmus and reload it in two days. It will probably require -one day for a vessel to pass through the Panama canal. This would make -a net saving of from three to four days for the Tehuantepec route. The -extra cost of loading and unloading would be made up by the saving of -canal dues and expenses of the ship for that period. Thus there will be -a net saving of three to four days in shipment, which might be quite a -feature with many classes of freight. In cheapness of transportation, the -continental railroads of the United States could not compete. Already -contracts have been made with a line of steamers which have heretofore -run between San Francisco, Hawaii and New York via Cape Horn to transfer -their freight by this route. The government claims to have more freight -in sight for 1907 than the Panama railroad has ever carried in a single -year. - -This route has been lost sight of in the enthusiasm over the Panama -canal. It will be completed several years before the canal, and will -during that interim, at least, have a great advantage over the present -Panama railroad route. The same necessity of transhipment exists there, -but without the fine, safe harbours, modern and commodious docks, and the -quick loading and unloading machinery with which the Tehuantepec route is -equipped. - - NOTE TO REVISED EDITION. The success of the Tehuantepec - National Railroad has greatly exceeded expectations, and it - was found necessary to double track the entire length of the - road. The improvements at Salina Cruz and Coatzacoalcos (now - officially called Puerto Mexico) have been completed. Both - cities have been made ports of call for all lines of steamers - passing near. Through Pullman service is now maintained between - the City of Mexico and Salina Cruz. Since writing the original - edition of this book the writer has visited Panama and gone - over the canal route with Colonel Goethals, the engineer in - charge. It is a pleasure to record an appreciation of this - great work, and to know that it will be ready for the world’s - fleets by 1915, and probably a year earlier. There will still - be a wide field of usefulness, however, for the Tehuantepec - National. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - -IN THE FOOTSTEPS OF THE ANCIENTS - - “Builded on the ruins of dead thrones - Whose temple walls were old when Thebes was new; - On altars whose weird sacrificial stones - With ghastly offerings were crimsoned through; - Oblivion hides and holds thy secrets fast— - The dust of ages lies upon thy past, - All wonderful, mysterious Mexico.”[1] - - -Mexico is a land of ruins and the footprints of former races can be -traced all over the southern half of the country. These ruins teach -us that it must have taken many centuries to develop the land into -the condition in which it was found by the Spaniards. It was not only -the growth of a long time, but it was the product of the civilization -developed by many different races and tribes. Otherwise Mexico would -not be filled to-day with a hundred tribes speaking as many distinct -dialects. There are many ruins of cities extending from the Valley -of Mexico to the remotest corner of Yucatan, and many of them show -evidences of wonderful structures that are the amazement of even the -present generation. Not buried beneath volcanic lava, like Pompeii and -Herculaneum, yet all are silent cities, for their inhabitants departed -hundreds, perhaps, thousands of years ago. A few broken columns now -remain where doubtless whole cities once stood. - -Nothing is known of the history of these cities. The Spanish priests, -with fanatical frenzy, destroyed all of the picture writings of the -Aztecs that they could lay their hands upon. So many were destroyed, -some chroniclers say, that great bonfires were made. What light these -manuscripts might have cast upon the history of these early races cannot -even be conjectured. As Prescott says, “it is impossible to contemplate -these mysterious monuments of a lost civilization without a strong -feeling of curiosity as to who were their architects and what is their -probable age.” They are undoubtedly very old, and some claim they are as -old as the architecture of Egypt and Hindoostan. They have marked Eastern -characteristics, as in the hieroglyphical writings at Palenque, in -Yucatan, where are ruins of a palace and supposed holy city, with many -sculptured figures of human and animal beings. The same is true of Uxmal, -also in that same quaint and interesting corner of Mexico. These writings -never have been and probably never will be deciphered. Then at Palenque -can be traced the outline of the Roman cross which has greatly mystified -antiquarians. We can only speculate on the origin of these monuments; -whence came the people who constructed them; and in what period of the -earth’s history they were built; but speculation proves nothing and -convinces nobody. - -East of the City of Mexico about twenty-seven miles lies the village -of San Juan Teotihuacan. Near this hamlet are traces of a great -city covering more than four square miles, and remains of walls and -fortifications, a part of the wall that still stands being more than two -hundred feet thick and thirty-two feet high. The most marked features -of these ruins are the numerous pyramids, great and small, which lie -scattered over the plain. Teotihuacan means “City of the Gods,” and -doubtless these pyramidal structures were a necessary part of a holy -city in the eyes of the race that constructed them, and were mounds of -worship. Otherwise why would a race build such great structures at such -an infinite cost of labour? - -The largest of these numerous pyramids is called the “Pyramid of the -Sun,” which has a base seven hundred feet square, and a height of one -hundred and eight-seven feet. The next largest is the “Pyramid of the -Moon,” which is one hundred and thirty-seven feet high, and has a -base four hundred and fifty feet square. At a distance the pyramids -seem rather insignificant, and their outlines resemble an ordinary -steep-sided hill, but on nearer approach they are better appreciated. The -comparison with the noted pyramids of Egypt would, at first glance, seem -unfavourable, for the vegetation and vines that cover the sides rather -hide the pyramidal outline. They were probably higher originally, but -the destructive work of man and action of the elements have reduced the -size. Recent investigation shows that these pyramids are built in layers -of volcanic rock, cement, pottery and sun-dried brick. There are five -layers—each layer being a complete pyramid in itself. - -It is supposed that on the summit of each pyramid was a platform which -supported great golden images of the sun and moon respectively, but no -vestige of any such image has ever been discovered. If made of gold, -and the Spaniards set their eyes on it, it would not have remained long. -Authorities differ as to whether the Toltecs, or a race that preceded -them, erected these mighty structures. The Mexican government has -undertaken the work of restoring the two pyramids, and has appropriated -a large sum of money to carry on the work. Several hundred labourers are -now engaged in denuding them of the soil and growth of centuries that -covers them. - -Near Puebla, and situated in a rich and beautiful valley, of which -mention has been made elsewhere, is the most noted pyramid in Mexico—that -of Cholula. Legend says that it was built by a race of giants who -intended to raise it to the very heavens themselves, but that the gods -became displeased and destroyed them. It is very similar in nature to -the Hebrew story of the Tower of Babel. Because of its great base, which -is more than a thousand feet on each side, and covers twenty acres, and -has a height of only one hundred and seventy-seven feet, it looks like a -natural elevation that has been squared in places and levelled at the top -rather than a pyramid. Like the other pyramids the sides are overgrown -with trees and bushes. Examination shows that it has been constructed -of sun-dried brick, clay and limestone. I quote the dimensions of two of -the most famous Egyptian pyramids in order that the reader may better -understand the comparative height and base of those and the Mexican -structures: - - HEIGHT. BASE ON - EACH SIDE. - - Cheops, 448 feet 728 feet - Mycerinus, 162 ” 580 ” - Cholula, 177 ” 1,000 ” - Sun 187 ” 700 ” - Moon 137 ” 450 ” - -This valley was sacred in early times. Cortez says he counted four -hundred towers in the city of Cholula (a much larger city then than now), -and no temple had more than two towers. Above the city loomed the great -pyramid, on the summit of which stood a sumptuous temple in which was the -image of the mystic deity, Quetzalcoatl. He had “ebon features, wearing a -mitre on his head waving with plumes of fire, with a resplendent collar -of gold around his neck, pendants of mosaic turquoise on his ears, a -jewelled sceptre in one hand, and a shield curiously painted, the emblem -of his rule over the winds, in the other.” This was the god who drew -pilgrims and devotees by the thousands from the farthest corners of -Anahuac. - -This god was credited with power over rains, and was appealed to -especially in time of drouth. Bandelier, who made an exhaustive study -of this district, translates an early Spanish writer as follows: “To -this god they prayed whenever they lacked water, and sacrificed to it -children from six to ten years of age, whom they captured or bought for -the purpose. When they sacrificed, they carried the children up the hill -in procession, whither went some old men singing, and before the idol -they cut the child open with a knife, taking out the heart, and they -burnt incense to the idol and afterwards buried the baby there before the -idol.” Thus it is seen that the Nahuatl tribe, who occupied this valley, -pursued the same bloody rites as the Aztecs. - -The first act of Cortez was to destroy this temple and erect a Christian -church on the spot, so that spires and crosses have replaced the pagan -towers. All over the valley are many great churches so conspicuous in -comparison with the humble homes of the natives. The view from the summit -of this ancient structure is grand and imposing. John L. Stoddard is -inspired by this scene and speaks as follows: “Whatever else of Mexico -may be forgotten, I shall remember to my latest breath that wonderfully -impressive vision from Cholula. Before me rose, against the darkening -sky, a mighty cross, the sculptured proof that here Christianity had -proved victorious; and as I lingered, my feet upon the Aztec pyramid, my -hand upon the symbol of the conqueror’s faith, my eyes turned towards -that everlasting pinnacle of snow, I thought the lesson of Cholula -to be this: that higher, grander, and far more enduring than all the -different religions of humanity are the Eternal Power they imperfectly -reveal; and that above the temples, pyramids, and crosses, which -mark the blood-stained pathway of our race, rises a lofty mountain -peak, whose glory falls alike upon the Aztec and the Spaniard, and in -whose heaven-born radiance all races and all centuries may find their -inspiration and their hope.” - -The Valley of Oaxaca seems to have been the favourite dwelling place of -one or more of the early races of Mexico. All over the vales that centre -at Oaxaca, and on the surrounding hills, are ruins of former cities -and palaces that strongly resemble in outline and decoration the works -of the Ptolemies and Pharaohs. Next to Mitla, the most noted ruins in -this valley are those of Monte Alban. The site of this ancient city -is four miles from Oaxaca on the summit of a mountain, about eleven -hundred feet above the valley. The ruins extend for a distance of more -than a mile along the ridge, and enclose a great rectangular, depressed -court nine hundred feet long, and three hundred feet in width. There -are some well-preserved, sculptured stones with pictorial inscriptions, -and images of gods. Because of its situation, which commands a complete -view of these valleys in every direction, it is supposed that this place -was intended for defence and a place of refuge in troublous times. The -view from the summit is magnificent and well repays the traveller for a -couple of hours’ ride on the back of that sadly-wise, and much-maligned -animal—the Mexican mule. - -The village of Mitla is situated about twenty-five miles southeast of -Oaxaca. It is best visited from that city by coach or mules. We hired a -coach and driver, an unprepossessing looking outfit, and started on the -journey. - -“How long will it take?” I asked the driver. - -“_A las doce_,” he replied in idiomatic Spanish, meaning that we would -arrive at twelve o’clock. As we had started at seven o’clock, that made -it a five hours’ journey. - -About an hour’s ride out of Oaxaca is the village of Tule, where, in the -churchyard, and overshadowing the sacred structure, stands the famous Big -Tree of Tule which deserves a passing notice. Although not a ruin, it is -a relic of prehistoric days long gone by. This venerable giant is one of -the largest trees in the world, exceeding in circumference the famous -redwoods of California, and equalling the largest reported specimens -of the gigantic baobab of Africa. This great tree is one hundred and -fifty-four feet in circumference six feet above the ground. Twenty-eight -people with their hands outstretched, and touching their finger tips, -can just encircle its great girth. The height is one hundred and sixty -feet, and the spread of the branches one hundred and forty feet. It is -a species of the cypress called by the Aztecs _ahuehuete_. The great -traveller, Humboldt, visited this tree about the middle of the last -century and affixed a tablet containing his name and an inscription. As a -proof that this old cypress is still growing, one sees that this tablet -is now almost grown over with bark nearly a foot thick. Tule is a quaint -village where the thatched huts are enclosed by fences of the prickly -cactus, called _organo_, because of the resemblance of its branches to -the pipes of an organ, and the lanes are shaded by trees. Underneath the -higher trees grow the orange and lemon, while the oleander and other -flowering bushes add their brightness to the scene. - -After being held up for a road charge of seven cents by the officials of -the village, which we paid, the driver is allowed to proceed. We pass -through villages with the poetical names of Tlacolulu and Tlacochahuaya. -As the coach bounces along the rough highway, over the road on a hillside -are seen caves where human beings live who are literally cliff-dwellers. -Then the valley opens up, and far ahead is seen San Pablo Mitla a typical -Indian village built around the _hacienda_ of Don Felix Quero, who is a -sort of feudal lord over the neighbouring peons. Good entertainment is -furnished for the traveller, and it is delightful to rest within the high -walls of this hospitable stopping-place. - -The first mention of the ruins at this village is by a Spanish writer -nearly four centuries ago. His description would not be much amiss -to-day. It is as follows: “We passed through a pueblo which is called -Mictlan, signifying ‘hell’ in the native tongue, where were found some -edifices more worth seeing than anything else in New Spain. Among them -was a temple of the demon, and the dwelling of its attendants—very -sightly, particularly one hall made of something like lattice work. The -fabric was of stone, with many figures and shapes; it had many doorways, -each one built of three great stones, two at the sides and one at the -top, all very thick and wide. In these quarters there was another hall -containing round pillars, each one of a single piece, and so thick that -two men could barely embrace them; their height might be five fathoms.” - -To what purposes were these truly magnificent structures dedicated? Were -they palaces, temples, tombs, fortresses, dwelling places, storehouses -or places of refuge? Neither archeologists nor antiquarians have -satisfactorily answered these questions. According to many of the leading -archeologists they are the most interesting and best preserved ruins in -North America. Here was a great city built by a race prior to the Aztecs, -for that race could tell the Spanish conquerors nothing of its builders. -The secrets guarded by the huge monoliths of stone, and the high -mosaic-covered walls of Mitla are safe from prying eyes. Not one city -alone stood here, for there are many remains of walls, columns and huge -monoliths thrown down similar to these, scattered all over this valley. -The best authority says that they were used for tombs but this could -not have been the only use. They were probably also used for places of -worship, public purposes, or cities of refuge, or perhaps for all those -purposes. - -[Illustration: ENTRANCE TO THE UNDERGROUND CHAMBER, MITLA - -NORTH TEMPLE, MITLA - -HALL OF THE MONOLITHS, MITLA] - -A close investigation shows that there are five distinct groups of the -ruins, but some of them are in badly preserved condition. The village -covers the site of a part of them. There is a similarity in the structure -of all, as the outer walls are composed of oblong panels of mosaic -forming arabesques and grecques. At first sight, or at a distance, it -looks like sculptured designs on the walls. Closer inspection reveals the -fact that this mosaic is formed of pieces of stone accurately cut and -fitted into the face of the walls. These pieces are about seven inches in -length, one inch in thickness, and two in breadth. The patterns cannot -well be described as they are so complicated. All the ornamentation -consists of geometrical figures, either rectangular or diagonal, and -differs from all other ruins in Mexico, in that there are no human or -animal figures. - -There is an underground chamber beneath one of the temples, built in -the shape of a cross with each arm about twelve feet long. The sides -are worked into the same mosaic pattern as the rest of the walls. It -is generally believed that these chambers were tombs, although some -contend that they were the entrance to subterranean passages leading long -distances away. If so, the passages were filled up long ago. - -The northwestern group is in the best state of preservation. One of -the buildings here covers nearly eight thousand square feet, and has -all its massive walls intact with scarcely a stone thrown down. The -characteristic entrance, consisting of three doors, side by side, is seen -here also, fronting the interior of the court. The lintels are immense -blocks of stone eighteen feet long, five feet wide and four feet high. -How these immense stones were transported to this spot and raised without -the aid of machinery, is as great a mystery as similar accomplishments -by the Egyptians. Through these doors the famous Hall of Monoliths, -or Columns, is reached. This is a wonderful relic of prehistoric -architecture. The six monolithic columns, still standing in this room -are each twelve feet in height and almost nine feet in circumference. -They are plain stones having neither pedestal nor capital and are unique -among the ruins of the world. - -Torquemada, an old Spanish historian, writes of this hall in the -following quaint style: “There was in those Edifices, or Square of the -Temple, another Hall, all framed around Pillars of Stone; very high and -so thick that scarce might two Men of good height embrace them so as to -touch finger tips the one with the other. And these Pillars were all of -one piece; and they say that all the Pillars and Columns, from top to -bottom, was four Fathoms. The Pillars were very like to those of St. -Mary, the Greater, of Rome, all very well and smoothly wrought.” This -hall is more than a hundred feet long, and twenty feet wide. These great -stones may have supported a roof formerly but there is no evidence of it -at the present time. - -From the Hall of the Monoliths a dark, stone-covered passage leads into -a room called the Audience Chamber. This is a splendid room with its -walls in carved mosaics, or a setting of tiles, after the Grecian models. -There are four long, narrow rooms, or corridors, on either side of -this main chamber without other entrance except the one just mentioned. -One of these, the West room, is most beautiful and is nearly perfect, -as scarcely a tile is broken or missing from its exquisitely inlaid -walls which at first inspection look like stucco work. The tiles are so -accurately inlaid that no mortar was used, or needed, to hold them in -place. This is the Corridor of the Mosaics. There are also traces of a -lustrous, dark, red paint, used on a hard cement plaster. It is quite -probable that all the buildings in the five groups were as carefully -constructed and as exquisitely ornamented as this one, but they have been -destroyed by succeeding races. - -North of this group was another ruin on the walls of which a Christian -church has been built. Most of the materials used in its construction -came from this old temple or palace. The sacristy of this church is -formed in part of a portion of the old building, and covered with a tile -roof. This structure was the largest of all in size, extending over a -space nearly three hundred feet long by one hundred feet wide, and with -walls from five to six feet in thickness. One room is now used as a -stable, and contains some strange hieroglyphics done in a lustrous red -paint which have never been deciphered. These are the only semblance to -anything like writing, or historical inscriptions, that appear anywhere -in the ruins. In the centre of the main court is a hard cement pavement -laid out in the form of a square with a cut stone border. This may have -been intended for ornament or for human sacrifices. The latter conjecture -might not be erroneous, knowing, as we do, the customs of those early -Mexican races. - -There are many other evidences of ruins near Mitla. Clay idols, or -images, made of terracotta are found all over the neighbourhood. Children -hunt for specimens and bring them to tourists for sale. It is also said -that many stone wedges, and copper chisels and axes, have been discovered -here but I did not see any of them. - -[Illustration: A ZAPOTECO WOMAN] - -Who built these ruins? Bancroft, the historian of Mexico, says that they -were built by the Zapotecs at an early period of their civilization. -The Indians now inhabiting this valley are Zapotecs and they are a -primitive, simple and harmless race. If these people, who now dwell in -thatch hovels and caves, were the once proud race that erected these -magnificent structures, then we must say, “How have the mighty fallen.” -What must these structures have been in the heyday of their prosperity -that they are now so glorious in their mellow decay? The famous Palace of -the Alhambra, glorious monument to the genius of the Moor, is scarcely -more magnificent than these ruins lying here within the little Indian -village of Mitla. The traveller can give his imagination full play for -there is no written history to destroy the scenes he creates. He can in -fancy re-create these beautiful structures; people these courts and halls -with royalty, priests or warriors; make the air vocal with the chants of -priests or shrieks of the victims of human sacrifice; and there is no one -or no record to rebuke him. - - - - -CHAPTER IX - -WOMAN AND HER SPHERE - - -The life and position of woman in Mexico varies much by reason of the -heterogeneous character of the population. Because of the absence of a -clearly defined middle class it is a fairly safe proposition to say that -there are but two classes in Mexico, Creoles and Indians. Creoles include -all those who are Europeans or in whom the European blood predominates. -Domestic life among the Creole class savours of the East. The ideas with -respect to women are Moorish rather than American. Although not obliged -to appear on the street with face enshrouded in a shawl or veil, yet the -young woman who has respect for her good name would not go abroad without -the _duenna_, or some female companion. Another reminder of Oriental -exclusiveness is seen in the life of the ladies of the wealthier classes -who always drive in closed carriages even in this land of balmy air and -splendid sunshine and, when shopping, do not deign to leave the carriage. - -On account of the restrictions against the appearance of women in -public, the custom grew up in Spain and Mexico of allowing them to use -the windows and balconies for observation. In the cool of the evening -the windows on the streets are opened and women, especially the young -ladies, appear there to watch the carriages and passers-by and nod to -their friends. The home life and social restrictions toward women are -inherited from Spanish ancestors who were at one time the aristocracy and -ruling class of Mexico. Nowhere is the sentiment of home stronger than -among the Creoles. There may be no such word as home in his vocabulary -but the _casa_, or house, of the Mexican is his castle and he protects -it in every way from prying eyes. One writer has expressed his view as -follows:—“The intense feeling of individuality which so strongly marks -the Spanish character and which in the political world is so fatal an -element of strife and obstruction, favours this peculiar domesticity. -The Castillian is submissive to his king and his priest; haughty and -inflexible with his equals. But his own house is a refuge from the -contests of out of doors.” - -In the home the father is absolute lord and master and all bow to him. -There never comes a time when the children are not subject more or less -to parental authority. Yet, in general, the sway is so mild that it is -readily yielded to and is scarcely felt. Grown-up sons and daughters -do not forget the respect and obedience that was expected of them when -they were children. The reverence for parents increases with the passing -of the years. A man never grows too old to kiss the hand of his aged -mother. The old lady dressed in sombre black and who looks like a poor -relation may be the one whose wishes rule. Harmony does not exist in -every family and the exceptions are striking ones. Where quarrels and -family dissensions do occur, the pride and jealousy of the race renders -them the bitterest and fiercest in the world. These vindictive feuds in -families frequently led to duels and stabbing affrays to defend personal -honour and dignity in former days. A man and wife will often live for -years beneath the same roof without speaking. They cannot be divorced but -neither will speak the first word and each rather admires the grit of the -other. - -The home life is jealously shielded from curious eyes. In no place in the -world is the social circle more closely guarded than among the higher -classes in the City of Mexico. The thick walls, the barred, prison-like -windows and the massive, well-guarded doors prevent intrusion and perhaps -serve to foster this inclination to lead exclusive lives. Cultured -Americans, unless in the official set, who have lived there for years -have found it impossible to break into these exclusive circles. Whether -this action is due to jealousy, diffidence, a feeling of superiority, -or aversion to aliens the fact remains that they are very loth to -admit Americans into the privacy of their homes. The foreigner has few -opportunities of judging intelligently of the women for they are immured -so closely within the four walls of their dwellings. Social life in the -semi-public, gregarious ways of American cities is unknown and would not -suit these privacy-loving, domestic women. - -In “The Awakening of a Nation” the author, Mr. C. F. Lummis, gives a -very good description of the Creole woman: “Always and everywhere the -Spanish-American female face is interesting; at least as often as in -other bloods it is beautiful. Photographs tell but half the story, for -complexion is beyond them. But a certain clearness of feature, the -almost invariable beauty of the eyes and fine strength of the brows seem -as much a Spanish birthright as the high-bred hand and foot. Not even -the Parisian face is so flexible in expression, so fit for archness, -so graphic to the mood. Yet there is a certain presence in it not to -be unnoticed, not to be forgotten. To no woman on earth is religion -a more vital, ever-present, all-pervading actuality; and that is why -you meet the face of the Madonna almost literally at every corner in -Spanish-America. And it is not a superficial thing. There is none to whom -the wife-heart, the mother-heart is truer-womanly.” - -The Mexican men are passionate admirers of the fair sex. Perhaps it is -because of the bewitchery of their black, sparkling eyes. Certainly it -is not on account of the white paste which is plastered over their faces -or the rouge on their lips. Nor have they added to their attractiveness -by the substitution of the Parisian hat for the graceful lace mantilla -which lent itself so well to the gentle art of coquetry. There are many -handsome women among the Creoles but they are not all beautiful as some -writers would lead the reader to infer. They are bright, vivacious and -naturally clever. They have a quick understanding which only needs to -be cultivated and perhaps this intelligence is quicker and more active -than that of the men. They can weave and embroider with taste and skill. -They know a little music and a little French but, in the American sense, -they are not well educated. The real intellectual element is wanting and -the understanding is uncultivated. The higher education for women has not -received the stamp of approval in this land of “to-morrow” and the sex -has not yet become an important factor in the business or professional -world. “If only learned wives,” says one, “are responsible for that poor, -down-trodden, pitiable specimen of man called the henpecked husband, then -a timid man would be safe in choosing a Mexican wife.” The patriarchal -element of society in which man is recognized as lord and master is still -in force among these people. The question of woman’s rights has never yet -agitated the bosoms of these gentle women. - -Domestic freedom in the sense understood by Americans is absent. The -daughters are closely watched by their mothers who seldom permit them -out of their sight unless accompanied by some older woman or faithful -servant. Such a thing as permitting a daughter to have a young man call -on her or accompany her to the theatre would never enter the mind of the -Mexican mother. In her estimation the men do not deserve any confidence -until they are married. The man, of course, thinks that these precautions -are unnecessarily cruel. Nevertheless mammas think they are essential, -pater familias approves and so the custom remains. Perhaps it is these -restrictions that are responsible for the reputation the _señoritas_, -or young women, have of being flirts or coquettes. They are overflowing -with life and spirits and their black eyes look so full of mischief that -sometimes they seem to be just spoiling for a flirtation. They are very -animated in conversation and in talking keep time with hands, knees, -shoulders, elbows and face. Their talk is full of the most extravagant -and seemingly profane expressions. - -“Oh, Jesus!” says one girl, “what a fetching hat.” - -“Mary Most Pure,” replies her companion, “it must have cost five pesos.” - -They can stare an American out of countenance and look him straight -in the eye but it is only a look of curiosity. The social pleasures -resulting from the intermingling of the sexes that are so common with -us are not enjoyed by them. At a dance the men retire to one side of -the room after a number and the women take seats on the opposite side. -Marriages among the wealthier classes are generally made by the parents -without consultation with the principals in an affair supposed to be of -the hearts. After the formal engagement the intended husband is allowed -to call on his fiancée in the presence of the entire family and may take -her out to the theatre when accompanied by the mother and all the female -members of the household. Marriage is a formidable undertaking for the -groom must furnish the entire bridal outfit, in addition to the house -and its furnishings. Two ceremonies become necessary, too, if the couple -wish to be married by the rites of the church. The civil ceremony is -absolutely essential and cannot be dispensed with for under the law this -is the only legal marriage. And yet with all these inconveniences to -courtship and matrimony, bachelors are less numerous than they are where -every facility is granted for love making. - -Love and religion are practically the only two subjects with which -a _señorita_ is expected to concern herself. She is, probably, not -intentionally or by nature a flirt and she might scorn to inveigle in -her meshes the heart of an admirer, but she cannot refrain from using -her irresistible eyes or entirely avoid the coquettish use of the -indispensable fan with its wordless telegraphy. The Mexican lover pays -extravagant homage to his sweetheart and a woman nowhere else is paid -such delicate and elaborate compliments. The Spanish method of courtship -in which the lady is pictured as sitting at a barred window or leaning -from a balcony to listen to the honeyed phrases of her lover or the music -of his guitar has reached its highest state of perfection in Mexico. - -In the current language of that country a man who is courting a woman is -“playing the bear.” It is so named from the restless walking to and fro -of the love-stricken youth in front of the window of his inamorata, in a -manner not unlike a captive bear in a cage. The same method pursued in -the United States would either result in a man being sent to the lunatic -asylum as suffering from a “brain storm” or to the workhouse. - -[Illustration: “PLAYING THE BEAR”] - -A young man who sees a young lady on the street whom he admires, begins -by following her home although it may be days or weeks before he will -venture to speak to her. Having reached her _casa_ he will begin the -_hacer el oso_, or “playing the bear,” by walking back and forth in -front of the house or standing on the street with his eyes fixed upon -her windows or balconies for hours at a time, days and nights alike. The -young lady, if interested at all, will remain back of the curtain and the -slightest movement of the curtains or blinds is a sign that she is not -entirely indifferent. After a day or two she may show her face or wave -her hand as a further mark of encouragement, and after several days she -may appear on the balcony for a few moments. If she goes to church the -lover is probably not far behind and an occasional smile or glance from -her eyes of midnight is given him as a reward for his faithfulness. Next -come daily salutes and smiles when the lover appears. Flowers are sent -by the aid of the water-carriers or charcoal-vendors in which notes are -concealed. A system of wireless-telegraphy communication is established -by means of a fan on one side and a cigarette on the other. This medium -of communication has been developed until it has become an elaborate -code. Letters become more and more endearing. When the courtship has so -far advanced that the lovers will talk, the moonlight nights are all -devoted to the love-making and several pairs of lovers can be seen on -almost any street by the late home-comer—he on the sidewalk, she at the -window. This courtship frequently extends over a period of years and the -lover who makes himself so ridiculous sometimes loses the girl then. -Jacob’s seven-year probation has many counterparts among the Romeos of -Mexico. - -A young woman of my acquaintance and her sister recently visited a family -in one of the large cities in Mexico. Like all young women they soon -became interested in the subject of Mexican courtship and began to sigh -for a “bear.” Every time they returned from a trip down town a watch -was kept from the window to see if a “bear” followed. At last one of -these creatures appeared and began to pace in front of the house with -his eyes bent upon the window opening out on the balcony. Contrary to -all precedents and to the surprise of the neighbourhood, these women -could not resist the temptation to go out on the balcony on this first -occasion. This was such marked encouragement that the man came day after -day to see _las Señoritas Americanas_ and was still coming when their -visit ended. - -American women who have married Mexican husbands have found the -ideas of the two races so radically opposed that the unions have not -been harmonious. Their verdict is that a Mexican man makes an ideal -lover because of his delicate attentions and consideration, but an -unsatisfactory husband since he does not make his wife a companion and -confidante such as an American woman considers her right and privilege. - -The individuality of the woman is not so completely merged in that of -her husband at marriage as in the United States. The woman retains her -own name but adds that of her husband. Miss Mary Smith who marries Mr. -John Jones becomes Mrs. Mary Smith de Jones, and she is not called so -exclusively by her husband’s name. However, when the Mexican woman is -married she accommodates herself to the station in life provided by her -husband. The wife usually accepts whatever condition fate has provided -for her and bears it with patience and fortitude. They endure the petty -ills of life with great cheerfulness. They do not go into society much -as custom keeps them from attending mixed assemblages frequently. Their -world is generally confined to their home, husband and children. An -American woman would sigh for liberty if compelled to live this life. -The Mexican woman in America shrinks from the freedom prevalent here and -desires the seclusion of her native land. Families are usually large -so that home duties require a great deal of attention. The respect and -courtesy paid by children to their parents is truly delightful to witness -and shows a real goodness of heart in them. - -The mother cannot bear to see her family separated. She wants them all to -stay close together so that each one can stop in and see her every day. -The mothers are loving and tender and idolize their boys. It is regarded -as a terrible thing, scarcely to be borne, for their sons to go out into -the world as American youths do. To go to a distant city is like being -transported to Australia. Even when they remain near home the mothers are -very solicitous for fear they will work too hard. On each saint’s day, -which is religiously observed, presents are given and an old-fashioned -dinner, to which all the cousins, aunts and uncles are invited, is -served. In starting on a journey to a not-distant city, the youth must -visit all his relatives in the neighbourhood and bid adieu. - -It is interesting to notice these traits in an age of growing -indifference; but not a little of the lack of progress in Mexico can -be attributed to this unwillingness to sever home ties. Many of these -young men could do better for themselves away from home but a mother’s -pleadings and a mother’s tears keep them at home. Even after marriage -they frequently continue to live under the same roof. - -The religious element enters very largely into the life of women. Their -very names are a constant reminder of their worship. Many of them are -christened Mary with one of the attributes of the Virgin or some incident -in the life of the Virgin added such as Conception, Annunciation, Sorrows -or Assumption. Or there are the attributes such as Mary of the Sorrows, -of the Gifts, Miracles, Tears, etc. Religion is sustained by the women -and you will seldom see men at the services unless it is some poor -Indian. They are very pious in their way and attend to their religious -duties with the same interest that they perform their toilet. The -concrete symbols and observances of the church have a great influence -over them. At mass these pious worshippers always dress in sombre black. -They are very particular in training their children in the principles -of the Church. Formerly great faith was placed in the healing power of -certain shrines and relics but this is now dying out under the advance -of modern physicians and their healing remedies. They are still great -believers in signs, omens and other supernatural manifestations. - -Above all these women are kind hearted and charitable. Though carefully -guarding their homes, yet if a stranger is admitted into the family he is -received with a generous welcome. Should he return after long absence, -he is greeted almost as one of the family and without reservation. He -is not only permitted but encouraged to call all the members by their -given names and to use the pronoun _tu_ or “thou” in his intercourse with -them. This is an especial privilege among Spanish people who are very -particular about familiarity in address. They will oftentimes deprive -themselves for a friend. They have their faults too. Although smoking is -not countenanced in public it is said that many of them smoke in their -boudoirs and in the company of friends of their own sex. A great deal has -been said of their lack of morality but this is a subject upon which only -those very familiar with the facts should dare to speak, for it cannot -be treated lightly, or solely with the intention of casting a slur on -another race. - -[Illustration: WASHING ON THE BANKS OF A STREAM] - -The lives of the Indian women of Mexico present a far different picture. -Instead of living in great palaces, their homes are in little adobe -cabins of one room, perhaps without the luxury of a window, or in bamboo -huts covered with plantain leaves without chairs or table and only a mat -of husks for a bed. There is no seclusion in their lives and the real -duties of life begin at a very early age. I cannot call them serious -duties for it is doubtful if these people regard any of the obligations -of life as very serious. Their early experiences are with its hard -realities. They can be seen on the streets and around their homes with -baby brothers or sisters swung across their backs when they themselves -are so small that the burden seems far too heavy for them. On the banks -of the streams they can be seen doing the family washing with a great -amount of rubbing and pounding and wringing. To the fountains and wells -they come carrying earthen jars on their heads, which they fill with -water and replace with a grace and charm that excites admiration. - -Some of the Indian maids are handsome. Yet you can tell just what their -future lives will be by observing those of the parents. They will live -in the same squalor, the same poverty as their ancestors have dwelt -for centuries. They will go through life bareheaded and barefooted and -empty-minded just as the generations which preceded have done. At -twenty they have begun to fade and at thirty they retain scarcely a -trace of their beauty. This is due to hard labour and deprivations. At -fourteen few are unmarried or at least unmated. The marriage ceremony is -frequently omitted because of the high charges of the priesthood, yet -both parties are usually faithful. The number of children among this -class is truly marvellous. More than one half of the younger women when -seen on the street have infant children with them. - -No people could be more poorly housed or more poorly equipped for -domestic duties than these small brown women; and none use the little -they have to better advantage or are more loyal to the man they call lord -and master. They frequently live and sleep on the bare ground and possess -no more clothing than they have on their bodies. They will pound away at -the _metate_, or stone kneading-board, all day making the _tortillas_ -which are both bread and meat to the peon class. These comely Indian -women will bend their lithe, active bodies for hours washing clothes on -large round stones which serve as wash-boards. - -Their clothes are simple and the latest fashion has no attraction. The -_rebosa_ is a universal garment and answers for a shawl, a carry-all -for babies and bundles, and a covering for the owner at night. These -black-eyed women with their half-concealed faces, sober, unemotional -manners, high-coloured garments and curious Egyptian-shaped pottery -might well be from the shores of the Red Sea. Their love of warm, bright -colours is even seen in their love for flowers since the many-hued, -brilliant-coloured blossoms are everywhere. Mignonettes and roses, -flowering geraniums and scarlet poppies, gigantic oleanders and dainty -pansies share attention with the brilliant-hued tropical birds in gayest -colours which usually hang beside the open door in a home-made cage of -dried rushes. They are faithful workers in fancy work and will follow -the most intricate design and reproduce it with fidelity and ease. Their -art needle work on handkerchiefs and other linen articles is extremely -fine and their drawn work is praised everywhere. It is not the work of -the dainty fingers of educated women but of very humble and ignorant peon -women in floorless cabins of adobe and of hands accustomed to drudgery. - -The women of Tehuantepec are remarkable for their beauty of face and -form. They are easily the finest looking Indian women in America and -in beauty of figure will compare with any race in the world. They are -dark-skinned, almost a soft olive-brown, with sparkling dark eyes, masses -of wavy hair, exquisite features and beautiful teeth, which are kept -clean and white. Their carriage will attract attention, for they walk -erect and with a peculiar stride probably due to the prevailing habit -of carrying baskets and water jars always on the head, where they are -carefully balanced. They are small in stature, with fine limbs, and seem -born models for an artist. - -The “Tehuanas” wear a quaint head-dress called “huepil,” which is made of -coarse white lace. It is arranged in three different ways according to -the occasion. At a dance it is wound round the neck and stands out like -a huge Elizabethan ruff. In church it is put on the head something like -a Boulogne fish-wife’s cap. For ordinary wear it is simply laid back on -the hair and the folds hang down the back resembling somewhat the feather -head-dress of a North American Indian chief. It is indeed curious but is -quite befitting. They always dress becomingly, with the quaint little -short jackets which expose a section of brown back above the skirt band -and are cut low about the neck in a fashion that women the world over -have found graceful, and with extremely short sleeves. On extraordinary -occasions this short jacket, or waist, is of richer material embroidered -in handsome designs of brilliant colours. Some of the designs show -oriental characteristics. The skirt of the dress is of soft material, -linen or cotton, to the knees and below the knees is of a heavy lace or -embroidery starched very stiff. The material used is not the usual cheap -and gaudy fabrics sold to the Mexican Indian, but is of good quality and -specially made by a certain Manchester house for these people. - -These belles of Tehuantepec have a great liking for American gold coins -which are worn on necklaces. British sovereigns or French napoleons are -usually not desired, but a big premium will be paid for the eagle, half -eagle, or double eagles of Uncle Sam. Every centavo that a woman can save -goes into her fund for purchasing gold pieces. The gorgeous necklace with -the gold coins attached makes a showy and rather beautiful ornament. The -fortune and standing of a “Tehuana” is indicated by the number of gold -coins on her necklace. One Tehuantepec heiress has—it is said—a necklace -which is valued at three thousand dollars. The most striking feature in -the dress of these women is that not one will wear shoes. Dressed in all -her finery, head-dress, starched skirt, polka-dot waist, necklace and -smile, she will appear barefooted—a strange anomaly. Without shoes they -will dance over a stone floor, or even a dirt, gravel-bestrewn surface, -with a grace that violates all rules of art. These dusky princesses will -be found as graceful as gazelles on all occasions. - -A visit to Tehuantepec will long be remembered for it is an experience -not easily forgotten. The quaint costumes, the striking dress, and the -proud people combine to make a memory worth carrying away. - - - - -CHAPTER X - -THE PEON - - “And I have said, and I say it ever, - As the years go on and the world goes over, - ’Twere better to be content and clever - In tending of cattle and tossing of clover, - In the grazing of cattle and growing of grain, - Than a strong man striving for fame or gain; - ... - For these have the sun, and moon, and air, - And never a bit of the burthen of care; - And with all our caring what more have we?” - - -The distinction between the American and Mexican Indian is not one of -colour alone. There is also a difference in nature. The American Indian -has never been fully subdued, but the Aztecs were conquered by one -overwhelming blow and their spirit crushed. The conquest wrought vast -changes in the lives of these people who once roamed over large estates -which they could call their own. The lands then tilled by their slaves, -they themselves now cultivate for others. Yet they are a satisfied -people, and no one ever hears them complain. Though poverty is their lot -they are content, believing that some people are born rich and others -poor, and that this contrast is in the very nature of things. - -Centuries of neglect have not improved either the moral or physical -condition of the peon, but it has not made a misanthrope of him. -Neither has the fact that he bears no part in the government made him -an anarchist or filled his pockets with bombs. So long as a beneficent -providence provides present needs he is supremely content. The mania -for the almighty dollar has not yet entered into his life so that envy -of others does not exist. It is this envy that makes poverty a menace -and element of danger in our own land. The peon neither feels shame for -his own lowly condition nor desires pity from others in more prosperous -circumstances. - -[Illustration: A PEON AND HIS WIFE] - -Fully one-third of the population of Mexico are full-blooded Indians -and another one-half are _mestizos_, those of mixed blood. Many of the -latter and a number of pure-blooded Indians have reached high positions. -A number of the presidents also, including Guerrero and the noble -Juarez, were pure Indians, and more of them are representatives of the -_mestizos_. This is proof that there is no prejudice against the Indians -as a race such as the anti-negro sentiment in the Southern States. These -illustrious examples are, however, the striking exceptions. Most of them -are in about the same category as the southern negroes,—a race without -ambition. Content to be the servants of another race they neither court -nor welcome change. - -These people make up the great peon class of Mexico who constitute the -bulk of the population. They are the descendants of those who were -enslaved by the early conquerors. The Aztecs were an industrious people -as the great structures erected by them, the irrigating works still in -use, and the evidences of judicious and careful cultivation of every foot -of tillable soil bear mute witness. Poverty was almost unknown among them -and rigid laws existed against begging. Among some of the early tribes of -Mexico one-third of the land was divided equally among the able-bodied -men in proportion to the families they had to sustain. Provision was made -by the State for the sick and other classes of unfortunates. No doubt the -enslaving of these people had a weakening effect upon their character. - -A natural laziness, ignorance and a lack of interest will probably always -keep down the peon’s efficiency as a worker. The few and simple wants -of his nature and his general contentment eliminate to a great extent -the desire to improve his condition and accumulate property. Then, too, -the evenness of the climate and the fact that at all times some crop is -being harvested, thus making it unnecessary to lay up for an unproductive -season, has had its influence. The labourer is usually given a certain -task for his day’s work. Nothing can induce him to do more than that task -except the assurance that the excess, or over-time, will be credited to -some future day so that he will get a longer holiday. These labourers -are cheap and it requires many of them to accomplish much but there are -millions to be had. They are happy-go-lucky and are unconcerned for the -future. Yet the very fact that they do not possess self-control and are -always willing to follow a leader who understands how to make an appeal -to their prejudices or fanaticism, renders this class a serious obstacle -to a progressive government and one that must be intelligently studied. - -The little brown man in the tall, broad-brimmed hat which seems to give -an unusual height to his sturdy frame is a picturesque figure and the -landscape is not complete without him. In the presence of strangers -his face is solemn, but among others of his own kind he is gay and -light-hearted, his face easily bursting into smiles. He will wrap his -tattered shawl about him with as much dignity as the Spanish cavalier -his richly-embroidered _manta_. The act of lighting a cigarette is a -matter of studied ceremony. He will light a match, and first offer it to -a friend with punctilious politeness. The recipient of the favour never -fails to return _muchas gracias_ (many thanks), señor. In fact, this -elaborate politeness between these untidy, ill-clad Indians becomes a -farce-comedy at times. He is polite and never fails to say _con permiso_ -(with your permission) if he is obliged to pass by another person, -whether that person be in silks or rags. His own inferiority is admitted -by calling a white man a _gente de razon_ or “one who reasons,” as -distinguished from himself,—a peon. - -The peon is indispensable in Mexico for he is not only the labourer, but -the body servant as well. In the latter capacity, if he becomes attached -to his employer, he will not think of his own wants until the master is -provided for, and will be faithful unto death, if necessary. His wages -are always small, but he is satisfied with the little he gets. Gambling -is a natural trait and he loses or gains with a stoicism worthy of -greater things. His money is likewise spent freely at the pulque shop so -that his finances are never embarrassed by a surplus. A little money will -make him very full of liquor, and a little liquor will sometimes make him -a bad man to handle. - -The tenacity with which these people cling to an environment is a most -notable trait. The peon is a lover of locality. Seldom can these Indians -be induced to go away from their accustomed habitations. It is this trait -that has made peonage an easy system to maintain in Mexico. They do not -apply much intelligence to their work. Scratching the surface of the soil -with a crooked stick is the perfection of ploughing in their estimation. -The peon does not know and does not care to learn any different way of -doing his work than the one taught him by his fathers. The possibility of -earning more money by the use of labour-saving devices does not possess -the same attraction as for the American labouring man. - -Peonage, which is a mild form of slavery, is in force in Mexico. Earning -from eighteen to fifty cents (silver) wages per day and improvident by -nature, it is only natural for the peon to want at some time a little -more money than that earned. An unscrupulous employer can easily involve -the poor, ignorant Indian in a net of debt. After a while a debt of $50 -to $100 has accumulated and the worker is in bondage until this amount -is paid. It is an impossible sum for him to save out of his small wages, -for live he must and support a family, which is usually large. The price -of freedom is the total amount of the debt. Until that is paid the law -compels him to work for his creditor, but he is free to get some one else -to advance this money and change masters. He cannot be separated from -his family, nor compelled to leave the plantation on which the debt was -incurred without his consent. The owner may, however, sell the plantation -and transfer the debt to his successor, and the peon must serve the new -master under the same conditions. - -On the immense _haciendas_ of the uplands the peons are almost as much -of a fixture as the buildings themselves. It is a strange adaptation of -the old feudal relation and the idea of changing their abode never occurs -to them. They were born in debt, always remain in that condition, and -transmit the same burden to their posterity. This condition is usually -entered into voluntarily by the Indians, so that in the beginning he -has only himself to blame. An Indian who desires work will apply to the -manager of a plantation or ranch for a retainer which seldom exceeds -thirty dollars. He then signs a contract which binds himself, his family -and his posterity to work until this advance is liquidated. Only a small -part of the weekly wages may be applied on the debt, and it is tacitly -understood that the debt may be increased after a time. The employer is -obliged to furnish medical assistance free in case of sickness, and to -advance the necessary fees for marriage, baptisms, confirmations and -burials. Furthermore, whenever overtaken by old age and no longer able -to work, the peon must be taken care of and furnished the necessities of -life. - -Holidays, feast-days and saint-days are many, and the peon insists on -celebrating them all. Whether he understands much of the ritual and -doctrines of the Catholic Church or not, he understands full well the -meaning of a feast-day or “_fiesta_” for on that day he rests from his -labours. It would not be patriotic to work on a national holiday (and -they are numerous) so he abstains from labour on these occasions. Sundays -are rest days and it generally requires Monday to recuperate from the -effects of the _pulque_ or _tequila_ imbibed on that day. Then as each -person has a patron saint, he insists on celebrating the saint-days of -the master, mistress and each one of their family, of his own family, his -father, mother, his wife’s father and mother, and, last, but not least, -his own saint-day. Then each marriage, birth or death in the family gives -occasion for another off-day. After this list is gone through with there -remains only about two hundred working days for the average labourer. -The peon is a philosopher. Knowing that it was a curse that man should -earn his bread by the sweat of his brow, he tries to avoid as much of the -curse as possible. - -The system of peonage or contract labour in the tropics is revolting and -often inhuman. The peon of the hot country is more independent, is fond -of social life and is not so industrious as his brother in the uplands. -Hence it becomes necessary to transport hundreds of labourers for work -on tropical plantations. These are secured through contract agents who -make this work a business. These agents pick them up over the country and -deliver them in hundred lots to the plantation managers. The contractor -advances from thirty to fifty dollars in silver to each labourer, and -this amount together with his own fee, is then charged up against the -peon who has contracted to work six months at perhaps fifty cents per -day in the same white metal. The plantation manager binds himself to -furnish rations, which usually consist of little more than _tortillas_ -(unleavened corn cakes), beans and rice and a little meat for Sunday, -and a big palm hut will furnish accommodation for fifty or more men. But -little space is allowed each worker, and here he spends all his time when -not at work, for these contract men are, on many plantations, kept under -guard night and day by armed overseers. Many of these poor fellows come -from cities on the plateaus and soon fall a victim to tropical fevers. -Many are men who have been convicted of petty offences and sign a labour -contract in return for the payment of their fines by the contractor’s -agent and consequent release from confinement. All, however, are treated -alike on the plantations and are worked under the lash if necessary. -At the end of the six months, there are not many dollars due the poor -peon after deducting the price of the drinks and cigarettes which he has -purchased at the company’s store. After drawing his money he is likely to -make for the first town and drink or gamble it away. Then, not having -funds enough to get home, he is again at the mercy of the contract agent -or plantation owner. - -The little brown man with back bent under a load has a countenance -which is as full of rest and patient philosophy as a modern financier’s -face is of care and wrinkles of anxiety. It is almost unfair to the -simple-minded, patient and docile peon of Mexico to speak of him as an -Indian for he is at once confused with the bloodthirsty redskin of the -north. He is a peaceful, if improvident, character, and is a child in -nature. He represents cheap labour and is one of the great attractions -that brings wealth to Mexico. After a day’s work he is content to share -his little adobe hut with the pigs and chickens, and can even find room -for the chance wayfarer. A family of three or four generations, and -numbering twenty people, will live in a hut that would not be considered -a fit habitation for a donkey in the north. One American writer who was -obliged to seek shelter in one of these huts gives an amusing account of -his experience which shows the harmony and good-fellowship that exists in -these households between the human and brute members. “I took an account -of the stock before I turned in, and found there were three dogs, eleven -cats, seven children, five men (not including five of us), three women -and a dozen chickens, all sleeping, or trying to sleep, in the same room, -under the one roof. And when I gave up sleeping, or trying to sleep, and -wandered out into the night, I stepped on the pigs and startled three -or four calves that had been sleeping under the porch.” So it is not -surprising that a village of fifty huts may contain a thousand souls. - -A cigarette given in proper spirit every day will more effectually keep -his friendship than a present of a new suit of clothes. The latter will -not be remembered long while the former keeps the memory ever fresh. -They have been called the best and the poorest servants in the world. -A trusted servant is, however, usually an honest one. These wholly -satisfied people with whom our essentials are non-essentials rather -disprove the theory that modern civilization is necessary to true -happiness. Will the peon in the future wearing shoes, eating prepared -breakfast foods and sleeping in a bed, be any happier than he is now -barefooted and sleeping on a rush mat spread on an earthen floor? - -A constantly increasing number of the peon class are moving to the -industrial centres. Slowly but surely the leaven is working, and the -opportunity for better wages is withdrawing the labourers from the -plantations. The railroads, the mines and the factories are paying much -higher wages than formerly prevailed, and find it difficult to secure -sufficient labourers. Only the selected men can fill these positions -for the average peon has not sufficient intelligence. He has a great -imitative faculty and can learn a task, but is not a success in an -employment that needs the exercise of reason and judgment. In many lines -of work more is accomplished at less expense by peons with the rudest -methods than by the use of the latest labour-saving machinery operated by -peon labourers. Education will no doubt work great changes in the lives -and habits of these people, but this will be a slow process in this land -of “to-morrow.” The present conditions are interesting to one who desires -to see how the rest of the world lives, and it will be a long time before -the peon class will change very materially. - -There is one class of the Indian worker that deserves more extended -mention. This is that time-honoured institution called the cargador. -As you meet him at every place throughout Spanish North America it may -be interesting to the reader to learn something of his history and -his accomplishments. It is not necessary to institute a search for the -cargador. At the station you will be besieged by a small army of them -and the hotel entrance may be blocked by them. When travelling across -the country there is a never-ending succession of these picturesque -characters singly and in groups. Sometimes the entire family is along. -In such cases the boys, even down to little tots, carry a small package -on their backs and the wife and girls balance a basket on their heads. -Perhaps all their earthly belongings are contained in these various -bundles. - -The cargador of Mexico and Central America claims an ancient and -honourable lineage. His occupation may be a humble one, but he can -trace his ancestry back to the followers of that haughty Aztec emperor, -Montezuma, or even to the still older race of the Toltecs. Not many -years ago almost everything in these countries was carried on the -backs of cargadors. Even now in the City of Mexico the cargador is an -indispensable factor in the carrying trade, though there are many express -and transfer companies engaged in that business. In the smaller places -of Mexico, in the mountain districts, and in Central America he holds -his old-time prestige and, with the cargo mule, monopolizes the carrying -business. - -The strength of these little, brown-skinned cargadors is wonderful. Short -in stature and with thin legs and arms they look very insignificant. They -cannot lift a very heavy weight, but they can make their fairer-skinned -brother cry out in astonishment at the load they will carry when it is -once adjusted on their back. The average load for a cargo mule is one -hundred and fifty pounds. A cargador will start on a journey of two -hundred or more miles with such a load and will cover more miles in a -day over a rough mountain trail than a mule. At the station you will see -the little cargador pick up a heavy trunk that you can scarcely move and -start off with it at a faster pace than you care to walk. They always -move in a peculiar jog-trot, and can usually keep it up for a long time. -Up and down hill they go at an even pace, and will average about six -miles per hour. For short distances some cargadors will carry as great a -load as five hundred pounds, a seemingly impossible burden for so slender -a body. - -The strength in the back is a matter of training extending over many -centuries. The Aztecs had no beasts of burden and the baggage of their -armies was always carried by cargadors. The Spanish conquerors were -obliged to adopt the same methods. Now, although there are mules and -burros in great numbers, the cargador is still the great burden bearer -and takes the place of the fast freight in the commerce of those sections -away from the railway lines. A traveller can take his mule and send his -baggage by a cargador, and the latter will reach the same stopping place -each night and sometimes ahead of the man on the mule. Many cargadors -carry their loads in a frame, supported by a broad leather band across -the forehead. When thus loaded they cannot turn their heads and they do -not seem to hear well, so that I have feared many times they would be -run over by the careless drivers. If there are several together they -trot along in the middle of the road in Indian file. If going on a long -journey they carry along enough tortillas for the entire trip, and must -always be given enough time to make these preparations. Several times a -day they will stop and make a fire, prepare their coffee, and eat their -tortillas and fruit if it can be obtained. At night they will sleep out -in the open air under a porch, if possible; if this shelter cannot be -had, then they will lay themselves down to rest under the brilliant -starlit canopy of this tropical clime. - -[Illustration: A CARGADOR] - -Many of the Indians are very swift runners. An instance is told in -Guatemala of a runner who carried a dispatch one hundred and five miles -into the interior and returned with an answer in thirty-six hours, making -the trip over mountains and a rough trail at an average speed of six -miles an hour, including stops and delays. It is said that fish caught -at Vera Cruz in the evening were served at the dinner table of Montezuma -the following day at his capital near the site of the present City of -Mexico, a distance of nearly three hundred miles by road. This was done -by a system of relay runners stationed about a mile apart, and they -made almost as fast time as the railway train to-day. Whether this is -true or not it is well known that the Aztecs had a wonderful system of -communication. The Spaniards were frequently astonished at the rapidity -with which the news of their movements was spread. These runners were -trained to great speed and endurance from their youth. Hundreds of them -were in constant use, and the Aztec emperors were kept in communication -with all parts of their empire. The Aztecs also used these runners as -spies and they thus took the place of scouting parties in present-day -campaigns. - -So it is that these cargadors come and go. Each generation is like the -last. They are happy in that they want but little and that little is -easily supplied. They are contented because they live for to-day and -worry not for the morrow. They are satisfied to go through life as the -bearers of other people’s burdens. - - - - -CHAPTER XI - -CUSTOMS AND CHARACTERISTICS - - “A land of lutes and witching tones, - Of silver, onyx, opal stones; - A lazy land, wherein all seems - Enchanted into endless dreams; - And never any need they know, - In Mexico, - - “Of life’s unquiet, swift advance, - But slipped into such gracious trance, - The restless world speeds on, unfelt, - Unheeded, as by those who dwelt - In golden ages, long ago, - In Mexico.” - - —EVALEEN STEIN. - - -It is always interesting to know how the rest of the world lives, but an -experience with the customs and characteristics of a people impresses -travellers in widely different ways. Mexico is a land of strange -customs and strong characteristics which are deeply interesting to the -sympathetic tourist. “Oh! the charm of the semi-tropical Spanish life!” -says F. Hopkinson Smith. “The balconies above the patios trellised -with flowers; the swinging hammocks, the slow plash of the fountains; -the odour of jasmine wet with dew; the low thrum of guitar and the soft -moonlight half-revealing the muffled figures in lace and cloak. It is the -same old story, and yet it seems to me it is told in Spanish lands more -delightfully and with more romance, colour and mystery than elsewhere -on the globe.” On the other hand many matter-of-fact, unsympathetic -travellers see only the impractical ways, annoyances and inconvenient -customs like the writer who describes Mexico as “A land of lace and lice -and love, of flowers and fights and fleas; of babies and bull-fights -where pillow slips are open at both ends and where passengers get off the -front end of the street-cars; where keys often six inches in length are -fitted in keyholes turned upside down and invariably turned backward; -where the weather forgets to change from day to day and people sleep -under the same bed cover the year around.” - -The Mexican has learned the secret of daily contentment. This is true -generally of the creole class as well as of the peon. The fact that some -seven thousand families practically own the entire landed estate of the -country does not inspire envy in the bosoms of the other millions. It -is a question whether the Anglo-Saxon and the Teuton can give these -people more than mere mechanical contrivances. Home does not necessarily -consist in an open fire, drawn curtains and frequent visits of curious -neighbours. Here homes are found where privacy is respected, family -affection is strong and there is respect for elders, love for parents -and kindly relations between masters and servants. Such a country is not -uncivilized and barbarous. There may be many odd and nonsensical customs -but a reason can generally be found for them. When studying the natives -it is enough to know that they are “an unselfish, patient, tender-hearted -people; a people maintaining in their every-day life an etiquette -phenomenal in a down-trodden race; offering instantly to the stranger -and wayfarer on the very threshold of their adobe huts a hospitality so -generous, accompanied by a courtesy so exquisite, that one stops at the -next doorway to re-enjoy the luxury.” - -If one has absolutely nothing to do or suffers from the constitutional -ailment of having been born tired, Mexico is the place for him to rest. -Nor will he be lonesome in the occupation of loafing for on every bench -is a wayfarer for company. There is no Mexicanism more pronounced than -that of procrastination. Never do to-day what can be put off until -to-morrow is the revised motto. Nothing is so important that it cannot -wait until _mañana_ (to-morrow). An American, whom I met in Mexico, -and who had lived there a number of years characterized the country -as the land of _mañana_, _esperase_ and _poco tiempo_, or the land of -“to-morrow” and “wait-a-while.” Time is idled away. Nobody expects you -to be punctual and you are not censured should you fail to keep an -engagement. In fact, “you will probably be designated as a bore should -you insist on scrupulously and punctually keeping all your appointments, -for the man who always meets you on the dot is a nuisance in this -southern land. If you have an appointment with a Mexican at noon, go at -four o’clock in the afternoon and you will probably find him waiting -for you. Had you gone on time, he might have been absent. Never be in a -hurry, for constant hustle and bustle are the unpardonable sins. Respect -the native customs and doze or read for a couple of hours after lunch and -get busy as the sun nears the horizon.” The Mexican pays a compliment -to Anglo-Saxon push by adding _a la Inglesa_ to an appointment which is -intended to be kept punctually or “after the English fashion.” It is -impossible to educate the Mexican to American methods, so it behooves the -foreigner who goes to Mexico to make up his mind to do business after -the standards of that country. However lax or disappointing they may be -he must remember that in Mexico his methods are the strange ones and not -theirs, which are centuries old. In society calls lengthen to visits and -last hours and the hurried five-minute calls are happily unknown. The -longer the stay, the greater the compliment for it means that the visitor -is enjoying herself. - -In a country where, until recently, the purchase of a foreign draft -was an all-day operation one cannot expect to do business in a very -strenuous way. The people have breathed the somnolent atmosphere so long -that they cannot be hurried. In fact, in some of the towns, the buzzards -that encircle the town seem to be the only living creatures actually -looking for something to do, for even the dogs would sneak down the alley -to avoid trouble. And yet in the face of all this the Yankee drummer -arrives in a town and scarcely takes time to brush the dust of travel -from his clothes before he starts out to visit his prospective customers. -He expects to round up his orders and take the train on the following -morning for the next town. After running against a few _mañanas_ from -day to day without an opportunity to show his goods he feels about as -disgusted as the enterprising American who, intending to revolutionize -agriculture, took down a large stock of the latest American farming -implements, but after a year’s effort had made no sale. The salesman who -will succeed is not the one who tries to introduce the hurry-up methods -of his own land, but the one who adapts himself to the country and does -not attempt to rush things. It will require days and perhaps weeks to -work a large city. - -I met an Englishman in one of these large Spanish-American towns who was -a fair example of the successful European drummer. He had made this route -for years and was thoroughly conversant with the language and understood -the ways of the people. His methods were a good illustration of the -reason why English and German houses have for many decades controlled -trade in Spanish America. They keep their old men on the route as long as -possible, for a new man will not do much on his first trip. We stopped -at the same hotel and I had a good opportunity of observing his business -methods. For several days after arriving in the town he did nothing -but make social calls on his customers, take them to the theatre and -entertain them in a general way. During the next few days he invited -them to his rooms to inspect his stock which was large and varied. Then -he began to take orders. This method seems like a waste of time but -the orders secured were large and well repaid for the time taken. The -American drummer could not have controlled his impatience to be on the -move and would have made a failure. Many who drop into Mexico on a flying -trip, jump to the conclusion that the Mexican merchant is not so shrewd -a business man as the American. They are apt to mistake the deliberate -methods of the Latin race for poor methods. He consumes more time in -placing his order and there is less rush and bustle about his store, but -an experienced man will tell you that in the end he drives a pretty hard -bargain for he knows the market price of the goods and wants the best -discounts and longest credit. - -Even the legal customs are peculiar and have proven decidedly -embarrassing to many Americans. A number of years ago, before railroads -were so numerous, the local officers always arrested the engineer and -conductor in the event that any one was killed, and they were thrust -into jail “incommunicado.” This means that you are to be incarcerated -seventy-two hours in solitary confinement without bail, at the end of -which time a judicial examination is given. An American whom I met there -told me of his “incommunicado” experience. He was arrested because he had -witnessed an affray and was held as witness, in solitary confinement, but -was released by the official after the judicious use of thirty dollars. -Their theory is that after a man has been kept in confinement for three -days, with only his own thoughts for company, he is much more likely to -tell the truth than if he had been in communication with his lawyers, -friends and the reporters all that time. And who can deny the truth of -their claim? - -It is always best to keep out of the neighbourhood of trouble, or get out -of it as quickly as you can if it comes your way, especially if in the -remote districts, for offender and victim are both liable to arrest and -imprisonment. Most cases are put off from day to day until one party or -the other is weary of the proceeding. An instance which illustrates this -was related to me by a man who was arrested for misdemeanour. Knowing -the custom prevalent in the courts he hired an attorney to appear each -day for him. When the case was called the judge would ask “_Que quiere_” -(what do you want). After the case was explained he would dispose of it -with the simple word _mañana_. The other man appeared each day until -disgusted with the procedure and then dropped the matter. Lawyers charge -so much per word and are paid for each article as it is written. Mexican -notaries are very important personages. They take the place to a great -degree of the old-fashioned, family lawyer. They are regarded in much the -same light as the family confessor and are told the family secrets. To -their credit, be it said, that the notary is usually a man worthy of the -confidence placed in him. - -The ceremonial and punctilious politeness of the Mexican, be he Don or -peon, is interesting and oftentimes amusing. The Spaniard on meeting a -friend on the street will stop and inquire one by one after the health -of his wife, each of his children and the various other members of his -household and then in turn will submit to the same interrogations from -his friend. After witnessing such a scene between two men in silk hats -you can turn down a side street and see a meeting between a poor Indian -in rags and an old withered woman selling lottery tickets. Removing his -tattered _sombrero_ he bows gravely, and, in the softest of Spanish, -says, “_A los pies de usted, señora_” (at your feet, lady). This is -done with a grace and ease of manner worthy of any station in life; and -her answer “My hands are for your kisses, señor,” is said in the same -gracious way worthy of a duchess. Should you ask the man for his name he -would be sure to add “_Su criado de usted_” (your servant). - -The Mexicans are very proud and exclusive, and suspicious of the -newcomer. Seldom indeed is it that an American gains the _entree_ into -their homes but, if he succeeds, they will be found among the most -charming hosts in the world. This reserve is probably very natural. The -Mexican has been educated in the strict Catholic schools and is a victim -of custom old as his country, while the American coming to Mexico is a -mercenary, ambitious person engaged in commercial strife and in the race -for the almighty dollar. Then, the American is of a more matter-of-fact -temperament and does not appreciate the impulsive nature of the Mexican. -Money does not appeal to him except for the pleasure of spending it, and -no person is more lavish in the expenditure of money, if he has it, than -a Mexican gentleman. - -The Mexican is a home lover and yet there is no word in the Spanish -language that corresponds to our word for home. _Casa_, or house, is -the nearest to it and the Mexican always speaks of his house when he -means his home. The exaggerated conventionalities are often carried to -the verge of the absurd. Perhaps there may be as much truth in their -expressions as in the polite but oftentimes meaningless civilities of -our own land. An American, on being introduced to a stranger, will feel -that he has satisfied the etiquette of the occasion by simply expressing -his pleasure in the acquaintance. The Mexican goes a step further and -presents the newly-made acquaintance with his house. - -“_Su casa es numero ——_,” he says with a graceful bow giving the street -and number of his own house, which literally means “your house is number -——,” and usually adds, “It is entirely at your disposal; make yourself -at home.” It is simply a polite way of saying “I am glad to meet you.” -Perhaps five minutes later the incident is forgotten by the giver. One -writer has said that he met fourteen men at a club in Mexico and was -presented with thirteen houses. The fourteenth man was unmarried and not -a householder. Occasionally some one not familiar with the emptiness of -the phrase has presumed on its literal interpretation and called at one -of the houses presented to him but has been turned away without the least -sign of recognition. - -If one expresses admiration for some article worn by another, he is -quickly informed that the article is “at his disposal.” If you happen -upon a Mexican at the dining hour, he will probably offer you his dinner. -If you decline it, the occasion requires that you should do so with -polite wishes for his digestion. These forms of hospitality are derived -from Spanish ancestors and were by them probably copied from the Moors, -after the open hand and open tent customs of the sons of the desert who -meant these expressions literally. It has an empty meaning now, for -nothing is left but the words. With all this seeming inconsistency and -insincerity, the Mexicans are exceedingly kind hearted and will willingly -do favours if approached in the right way; no service is too great -towards those for whom they have formed an attachment. They will often -accompany the departing guest for a long distance over hard roads as a -mark of courtesy and friendship. - -We are all victims of habit more or less. But, whereas the American -welcomes innovations and adapts his habits to them, or forms new ones, -the Mexican does not want any change from the customs of his ancestors. -The expression “_no es costumbre_,” meaning it is not the custom, is a -final and decisive answer that does not admit of argument. You might as -well try to change the colour of the native as his habits. Americans -who keep Mexican servants are for ever running contrary to the customs -or prejudices of their help. For instance an American woman[2] who -lived here a number of years relates the trouble she had to induce her -servant to use a cook stove which she had imported from the United -States. She refused because “it would give her disease of the liver.” In -all seriousness she believed that such would be the result and nothing -could induce her to have anything to do with the new-fangled thing. A -peripatetic merchant came around selling eggs at six for a real. He -refused to sell two dozen for four reals because “_no es costumbre_,” as -eggs are always sold at six for a real, an incontrovertible argument. - -[Illustration: MAKING _TORTILLAS_] - -A household will have difficulty in getting along with only one servant -for it is customary to employ three or four in a small family and from -twenty to forty in a large house. Each servant will do his or her own -particular work cheerfully and will move about so lightly and airily that -you hardly know any one is around. However, ask the man _mozo_ to scrub -the floor, or the cook to make the beds, and you will see a regretful -look of the eye and be met with the ready answer, “_no es costumbre_.” -Marketing is a right jealously guarded too, for _es costumbre_ (it is the -custom) and one of the perquisites of the man servant, since he receives -a small fee from each person of whom purchases are made. The Indian -servants are not accustomed to beds and want nothing but a mat to sleep -upon. The traveller can see these in the halls at the hotel if he comes -in a little late. Here these dusky natives sleep more soundly than do -most Americans on the most luxurious of beds. An American lady in Oaxaca -took pity on her girl servant and bought a comfortable iron bed for her -to occupy. She then explained to her how the bed was used. Several days -later she asked the servant how she liked her bed. The girl said it was -fine—to lay her clothes on. The American woman finally gave up trying -to change the habits of her maid. Servants become very devoted to their -employers and their attachment is sometimes embarrassing. In case of a -death in the family they immediately don black and mourn as though the -lost one was a near relative of their own. - -The economy of housekeeping and especially of the kitchen, even among -the rich, is remarkable. The Indian or _Mestiza_ women rule here and -the customs of a thousand years ago are the customs of to-day. The -_tortillas_, cakes made of maize, are the bread of the country. For -centuries these dusky women of Mexico have ground the corn for their -daily bread between two stones, the grains having first been soaked for -several hours in a solution of lime water. This smoothed, dished-out -stone is called a _metate_, an Aztec word, and the women work for hours -in beating the softened grains to a fine paste. Small pieces of the dough -are then worked between the hands, tossed and patted, and flattened out -until very thin. After this they are thrown upon a flat, iron griddle -over a charcoal fire. They are never allowed to brown and are without -salt or seasoning of any kind. After becoming used to them they prove -very palatable and many prefer them to the ordinary corn bread. - -_Frijoles_, or beans, and generally black ones, are also invariably -served and are eaten twice every day without intermission on the table of -rich or poor. The _chili_, a pretty hot sort of pepper, is a favourite -dish that had better be avoided by the Americans, for the ability to -relish it can only be approached by degrees. _Tamales_ are relished by -the Mexican and can be found for sale in almost any of the markets. I -never see _tamales_ without thinking of the description given of them by -a big Texan in his bread dialect, in answer to a question from me as the -train was speeding across the mesquit prairies near San Antonio. “You -take cawn meal, some hawt (heart), livah and a little peppah and you make -a tamahle, suh.” - -The use of sacred names or names of great personages among these people -is often astonishing. The names of Porfirio Diaz, Juarez and Hidalgo are -as numerous as the George Washingtons among the negroes of the south. -However, when the American stumbles upon a Pius Fifth, St. John the -Evangelist or even Jesus, in a dirty-face brown man clothed in rags, it -seems a strange incongruity. Talk with this humble bearer of a sacred -name or offer him a gratuity, and, as you depart, he will say, “_Vaya -usted con Dios_” (go, and God be with you), in such a simple and benign -manner that you almost feel as though a benediction were following you. - -We are told by the early writers that the Aztecs had few stores, but -that nearly all the trading was done in the markets which were found in -every city, or by the great merchant princes who traversed the country -with their large army of burden-bearers and retainers, compelling -trade as well as seeking it. It is interesting to note the description -of the market in the capital in the time of Cortez written by Bernal -Diaz, one of his followers, and the historian of his expedition. He -expresses his astonishment at the great crowds of people, the regularity -which prevailed and the vast quantities of merchandise on display. -“The articles consisted of gold, silver, jewels, feathers, mantles, -chocolate, skins dressed and undressed, sandals, and great numbers of -male and female slaves, some of whom were fastened by the neck, in -collars, to long poles. The meat market was stocked with fowls, game and -dogs. Vegetables, fruits, articles of food ready dressed, salt, bread, -honey and sweet pastry made in various ways, were also sold here. -Other places in the square were appointed to the sale of earthen ware, -wooden household furniture such as tables and benches, firewood, pipes, -sweet canes filled with tobacco mixed with liquid amber, copper axes -and working tools, and wooden vessels highly painted. Numbers of women -sold fish and little loaves made of a certain mud which they find in the -lakes, and which resembles cheese. The entire square was enclosed in -piazzas under which great quantities of grain were stored and where were -also shops for various kinds of goods.” - -[Illustration: A MEXICAN MARKET] - -This description would answer very well to-day except as to slaves and -feathers. It is to be regretted that the beautiful feather work of that -race is a lost art. The market of the capital is located but a short -distance from the plaza and is an excellent place to study life. The -outer portion is occupied by small shops covered with protecting piazzas -but the central part is wholly occupied by the Indian merchants. During -the morning hours it is so closely packed that it is almost impossible -to force one’s way through the dense throng of humanity. The native, -squatted on the ground on a rush mat, with another mat suspended over him -for protection from the fierce sun, and his stock in trade spread before -him, is a picture worth studying. Many tribes are represented, as their -dress indicates, as well as the products of many different zones from the -cocoanut of the hot lands to the inferior pears of the cold zone. The -pottery from Guadalajara can be distinguished from that of Guadalupe or -Aguas Calientes by its colour and design. Each piece might tell a history -of an art passed down from father to son for countless generations, for -the son usually follows the occupation of his father. They never think -of changing method of manufacture or design. It is quite probable that -the pottery seen in the market to-day is the same as that viewed by -Cortez. Many of the vessels are curious and fantastic in form but always -ornamental in decoration. When one considers that much of this pottery -is made with no tools but pieces of broken glass and a horsehair, the -result is a marvel. With the hair they trim the top and with the glass -smooth off the rough places. The pottery market is an important one, for -articles used in the kitchen and on the tables of the poorer classes are -exclusively of this ware. For a small sum an entire kitchen outfit can be -purchased. - -There are few Jewish merchants in Mexico for the Mexican is even more -persuasive in his mode of selling and his prices are fully as elastic. -In purchasing native articles on different occasions I tried several -dealers in order to discover whether they had a uniform bottom price. -They would invariably ask at least twice as much as they were willing -to accept. I found that if one would only show surprise at the price -asked, the question “What will you give” would immediately follow. They -were perfectly willing to get as much from you as possible but the -lowest price quoted by the various dealers was almost identical. Some -persons have facetiously characterized Mexico as the land of “_no hay_” -(pronounced eye) because it is such a common answer in marketing and -means “there is none.” In fact, the answer will always be “_no hay_” or -“_si, hay_” (yes, I have). - -[Illustration: CANDY BOY AND GIRL] - -There are many quaint and curious characters that one will find around -the market place. The candy man, or, boy, moves around with noiseless -tread crying his wares in a song which never varies any more than his -stock, which is always the same and arranged in exactly the same way. His -_dulces_, however, have merit and it is not necessary to change anything -already good. The _evangelista_, or letter writer, is here with a jug -of ink and pen on a little table ready to write a business letter, or -a _billet doux_ flaming with passion and extravagant phrases for the -unlettered lover. On the corners of the street may be seen the cobblers -ready to cut and fit sandals “while you wait.” His whole stock in trade -consists of a pile of scraps of sole leather and some leather thongs, -while his only tool is a curved, sharp knife. - -In and out of the crowd the faithful _aguador_, or water-carrier, winds -his way bringing the refreshing water to thirsty mortals. He is not only -a very necessary person in this land of little rain, but is a person of -importance and knows the inner life of the household of his customers. -His costume and water vessels vary in the different cities but he is the -same honest character who ingeniously carries the love messages from -the “bear” to his inamorata. After a morning of hard work his faithful -wife brings his dinner of _tortillas_ and _frijoles_ to the fountain or -well, and there he sits and eats his humble meal while she watches her -lord and master until he has finished. Later in the day, tiring of his -work or feeling the burden of prosperity as his stock of copper coins -increases, he resorts to the pulque-shop and there shows his contempt for -the beverage he has been distributing by imbibing large quantities of -his favourite liquor. - -Perhaps in no way is the general superstition and ignorance of the Indian -shown to better advantage than in their ideas of disease and medicine. -The _curandera_, usually a woman, admits having great knowledge of -anatomy and chemistry, and has a pharmacopœia all her own. The accounts -given here are vouched for by a writer in _Modern Mexico_ who is a native -of the country, understands these people and is entitled to belief. -_Aire_ (air), when introduced into the system through blows or unusually -forcible sneezing, causes swellings, sore eyes and nervous tremblings. It -is treated with plasters and bandages and lotions. When the alimentary -canal is obstructed it is _empacho_, which means that undigested food -has adhered to the stomach or the food has formed into balls and marbles -that rattle around inside the stomach or intestines. This disease demands -immediate and heroic treatment, and a drop of quicksilver swallowed at a -gulp is prescribed and will generally dislodge it or kill the patient. -_Tiricia_ is indicated by homesickness, melancholia or insomnia, and -is caused by a subtle vapour produced by the action of the moon on the -dew and is absorbed through the pores. Change of climate, good company -and tonics are a sensible prescription. _Mal de ojo_, or the evil eye, -causes the sufferer to fade away or die of inanition, and is a common -disease of children. Bright attractive objects are hung up to draw away -the attention of the “evil eye.” If a child is slow in talking, a diet -of boiled swallows is prescribed. One writer positively asserts that -blue and red beads ground fine and mixed in equal portions have been -given to persons suffering with paralysis, and the sufferers survived the -treatment. The _curandera_ is also called upon to mix love potions and -poisons that will cause delirium or even insanity and death. - -Another instance is told in the same periodical of a woman who was -very sick with a disease from the effects of which she was practically -helpless. A _curandera_ had told the husband to get a white turkey and -tie it in the house and his wife would get well. When the turkey had -failed to cure her an old man _curandero_ was procured, who promised to -make her well if supplied with plenty of _aguardiente_ (brandy). Four -dollars worth was supplied him, and four dollars will buy a great deal -of poor brandy in Mexico. The old man laid himself down on the ground, -after filling himself up with the fire-water, pounded his head and kept -repeating weird incantations which could be heard a long distance away. -This was continued for several days until the supply of spirits gave out. -In the meantime the patient had improved somewhat and could use her arms -and body as far as the waist. The shrewd old man shrugged his shoulders -and said, “I have cured her as far as I can. You will have to get a -_curandera_ to complete the cure.” The poor woman soon died, because, as -the husband declared, she had been bewitched. - - - - -CHAPTER XII - -HOLIDAYS AND HOLY-DAYS - - -It is impossible to understand Mexico or the Mexicans without knowing -something of their feasts and festivals which play such a large part in -the life of these people. In fact there is very little of the social -life in Mexico that is not the outgrowth of or intimately connected with -the holy-days of the Church. The saint’s day of each member, that is the -day in the church calendar devoted to the saint after whom the person is -named, takes the place of the birthday for gifts and family celebrations. -The _fiestas_, or feast-days, of the church are very numerous and are -pretty well observed, although business is not entirely suspended. -The church holidays are either different from those in other Catholic -countries or are observed in a truly national way in Mexico. - -To one who enjoys mixing with the common people and learning their -customs, habits and ways of thinking, in other words, endeavouring to -get into their real, inner life, it is a perpetual delight to visit -the cities and villages on the _fiesta_ occasions and mingle with the -people in their celebration. This association with a free-hearted, -pleasure-loving people on their gala days unconsciously broadens the -views of a traveller in a new country, and develops a sympathy which can -be awakened in no other way. The crowds jostle each other good naturedly -and will treat the stranger with respect. Too many visitors to this -country try to judge everything from the American standard and find -little to commend. They should remember that Mexico is Oriental rather -than Anglo-Saxon, and that the Spanish-Moorish civilization is here -blended with the Aztec. Such a civilization cannot be without merit and -it must have some inherent good qualities. If one wants to understand a -country rightly, he must first try to enter into the lives of the people -and then look at life from their point of view. - -It would be impossible within the limits prescribed to describe all the -celebrations in honour of the hundreds of saints and the numerous secular -holidays. A description of a few of these occasions, most generally -observed, will give the reader a good idea of the nature of all. - -Christmas celebrations in Mexico are very much different from those -in the United States. There is no merry jingle of the sleigh bells in -this land of Christmas sunshine and skies as blue as those of Naples; -and there are no plans dependent upon whether the day may chance to be -white or green. The few lofty volcanic peaks, on which alone snow is -ever seen, would not tempt the most enthusiastic tobogganist. As there -are no chimneys, the children need not sit up at night until sleep -overtakes them, to see Santa Claus descend with his heavy pack filled -with the things that boys and girls like. Even the time honoured custom -of hanging up stockings is unknown to Mexican children. Perhaps they -enjoy themselves quite as much after their own fashion as we do after -ours. They have good things to eat, and the beautiful flowers are so -cheap that no matter how humble the Mexican home may be, it affords a few -sprays of the scarlet _Noche Bueno_, the beautiful Christmas plant. Their -celebrations are long continued for they begin nine days before Christmas -and last until the Feast of the Epiphany on the 6th of January; and this -entire time is one long delightful jubilee. - -These celebrations, which begin on the sixteenth of December and continue -until the twenty-fifth, are called _posadas_. The word in Spanish means -an “inn,” or abiding place, and while the celebration, in its origin, -was distinctly religious, it is now only semi-religious, and has become -an extremely gay and sociable occasion. The _posadas_ are limited to the -cities but, in those places, the poorest as well as the richest families -hold them and they are a celebration peculiar to this country. - -The origin of the _posada_ is in the gospel narrative of the Nativity. -Because Cæsar had issued the decree that all the world should be taxed, -Mary and Joseph came to Bethlehem to be enrolled. Mary made the journey -mounted upon an ass which Joseph led. As the shadows of the night -descended, they were obliged to ask for shelter, and it is no wonder that -the request was not always granted readily and willingly, but was many -times refused during the trip that is supposed to have taken nine days. - -On the last day, having arrived at Bethlehem, and because the city was -so full of people, they wandered about for a long time without finding -admittance to either private house or inn. At last, being tired and -weary, and because no room could be secured, they took refuge in a stable -where Christ was born. Therefore, it is, that in order to celebrate this -journey fully, the _posadas_ begin with the journey at Nazareth. Each -year a house is chosen in a family circle, or among a group of friends, -and at that house for nine consecutive nights the festival is held. Or, -sometimes, the celebration will be held at different houses during that -period. - -The journey from Nazareth to Bethlehem and the difficulties encountered -on the way, are represented by the first part of the celebration. At the -appointed hour the guests assemble at the house which has been chosen for -the celebration on that particular night. Each person present, members -of the family, guests and servants, is furnished with a lighted candle, -and two and two, they march around the halls and through the corridors -several times chanting the solemn “Litany of Loretto.” As each invocation -is ended the audience chant “_ora pro nobis_” (“pray for us”). At the -head of the procession the figures of Joseph and Mary made of clay or -wax, dressed in gay, incongruously-coloured satins are borne either in -the hands or lying in a basket. Sometimes these figures are dressed -in brilliant costumes of lace with tinselled borderings. At each door -the procession pauses and knocks and begs admittance, but no answer or -invitation to enter is given. When the litany is finished some of the -party enter a room while the rest with the figures of Joseph and Mary -remain outside and sing a chant something like the following:— - - “In Heaven’s Name, - I beg for shelter; - My wife to-night, - Can go no further.” - -The reply to this is:— - - “No inn is this, - Begone from hence; - Ye may be thieves, - I trust ye not.” - -At last, however, the door is opened and all go in and Joseph and Mary -have secured shelter for the night. The pilgrims are placed on an -improvised altar and some prayers are recited, though the religious -exercises are generally hurried through in the quickest manner possible. -Sometimes, to make the scene more realistic, a burro is introduced in the -procession to represent the faithful animal that carried the holy family -in their wanderings. Frequently, on the last night, in a room, or on the -roof, a kind of stable is arranged in which the figures of Joseph and -Mary are placed with the utmost reverence. On this night a figure of the -infant Jesus is also carried. After the litany the party proceed to have -a general good time which is kept up until a late hour. Occasionally, in -the homes of the wealthy, these entertainments are on a very elaborate -scale and costly souvenirs are presented to each guest. Everywhere in -the cities is heard the litany of the _posada_, for it is celebrated -almost universally. It is sung in hundreds and thousands of homes and -the processions wind in and out of the rooms and round the improvised -shrines. The patios are hung with venetian lights, and fireworks blaze -skyward in every direction. In the City of Mexico the _posadas_ are most -elaborate among the official and wealthy families, and the Zocalo plaza -is a bewitching place with its many lights and the multitudes of children -who gather here for celebration. The clergy are now censuring the -“_posadas_” because of the irreverent spirit in which they are celebrated. - -In Mexico the _piñate_ takes the place of the Christmas tree. It is an -oval shaped, earthen jar, handsomely decorated with tinsel and streamers -of tissue paper, made up to represent curious figures. They represent -clowns, ballet girls, monkeys, roosters, various grotesque animals, and -even children almost life sized. The jars are crammed full of sweets, -rattles, whistles and crackers. The breaking of the _piñate_ follows the -litany and is an exciting event, which generally occurs in the patio. -It is suspended from the ceiling and then each person desiring to take -part is blindfolded in turn, and, armed with a pole, proceeds to strike -the swinging _piñate_. Three trials are permitted. Sometimes many are -blindfolded before a successful blow brings the sweets and bon-bons -rattling to the floor. Then there is a race and a scramble for the -dainties. Thousands of these _piñates_ are broken each Christmas season -and the vendors of them perambulating the streets with a pole across the -shoulders on which are suspended the grotesque figures, add life and zest -to the season. Then to see a well dressed, sedate-looking, business man -hurrying home with a grotesque tissue-paper creation of gorgeous hues -with tinselled decorations and gay streamers under his arms is a curious -but not uncommon sight. - -[Illustration: BURNING AN EFFIGY OF JUDAS AT EASTER-TIME] - -Holy week, as the week preceding Easter is called, is celebrated in -an elaborate and truly original way. The religious processions which -formerly attended these celebrations are now prohibited by law. During -these few days the bells, organs and choirs are silent, the stores are -closed and there is a general holiday. As an evidence that vanity is -not entirely absent, on Holy Thursday it is customary for men and women -to turn out in good clothes and many of the ladies appear in handsome -and elaborate gowns. Then on Good Friday everything is changed and the -whole country mourns. Sombre black takes the place of the more brilliant -raiment of the preceding day; downcast eyes and solemn faces succeed the -smiles and coquettish glances of yesterday. - -On Saturday occurs the most grotesque and curious of all the festivals -of the Church. It is the day on which final disposition is made of that -arch-traitor Judas Iscariot, and the day is devoted to his humiliation -and death. Effigies of the traitor are hung over the streets everywhere -and all day long men parade the streets with figures of the betrayer of -Christ upon poles. These effigies range in size from miniature figures to -those of gigantic proportions. Each figure is made of _papier maché_, is -filled with explosives and has a fuse which is generally the moustache. -Hundreds of the images are sold to the children in each city who explode -them with great glee. Judas is represented with folded hands, arms -akimbo, with legs in running posture and in every conceivable attitude. -Some of them bear suggestive mottoes such as “I am a scion of the Devil” -and “Let me give up the Ghost.” Each person must destroy a Judas. - -At ten o’clock as the great bells of the cathedral in the City of Mexico -sound and other bells follow, the fuses to these effigies are lighted. -The great Judases strung across the streets or tied to balconies are -exploded amid great rejoicing. Coins representing the thirty pieces of -silver paid to Judas are sometimes thrown to the crowd from the windows -of wealthy residents or clubs. Every one grows wild and the little folks -become almost beside themselves with excitement. The bells in the towers -ring out their rejoicings and a peculiar apparatus gives out a sound -which represents the breaking of the bones of the thieves on the cross. -The crowds also have innumerable rattles which make a hideous, grating -sound intended to represent the same incident. The noise of the bells, -the explosion of the fire-crackers, and the shouts of the multitude form -a strange, exciting, ludicrous scene never to be forgotten. When the last -Judas has been demolished, the excitement subsides and a good-natured -frolic follows. - -The national holidays, of which there are many, are greatly overshadowed -by those pertaining to the Church, and none of them are so universally -observed. Not all the feasts and festivals of Mexico are of Romish -origin. Some of them are founded upon the remains of Aztec idolatry, for -the priests of the early days with a wise foresight adopted the same -day for feast-days in many instances. Though these Indians probably -could not tell why, yet they have a great reverence for the saints whom -they worship after their own fashion. They are delighted to have more -occasions for decorating themselves and their churches with flowers, -marching in processions, dancing and letting off rockets. - -The _Fiesta de las Flores_, or Feast of the Poppies, celebrated in -April, is held on the Viga Canal and was originally a day devoted to -the worship of the Aztec god Quetzalcoatl, the god of nature with them. -On that day the bloody, sacrificial rites were suspended and all joined -in this festival of flowers. This _fiesta_ has lost all its religious -significance but it is said to be celebrated much the same as in Aztec -times. All day long the canal is filled with boats large and small manned -by the dusky natives. Indian women and nut-brown maids with wreaths of -poppies on their heads and garlands of the same around their necks, -sing the songs of the people and dance as they move along. On the shore -and in the boats the native bands play, and the broad highway along the -banks of the Viga is crowded with long lines of carriages filled with -the aristocracy of the Capital who have come out to witness this unique -celebration. - -Mexico, like each good Mexican Catholic, has a patron saint who presides -over her destinies. This saint has not only been adopted by the -government in times past, but has been proclaimed as the guardian of -Mexico by the Holy See, and only a few years ago was duly crowned as the -Virgin of Guadalupe in ceremonies made memorable by the large number of -church dignitaries present. Her miraculous appearance came at an apropos -time and greatly assisted in attracting the natives to the new worship. - -The Aztecs had long worshipped a deity called Tonantzin, “Mother of -Gods,” who was supposed to reside on the Hill of Tepeyacac, now called -Guadalupe. Tradition says that a devout Indian named Juan Diego, who -resided in the village of Tolpetlac, and who recently had been converted -to Christianity, was passing by this way on the morning of the 9th day -of December, 1531, on his way to early mass. When at the base of this -hill there suddenly burst upon his ears a melody of sweet music, as -of a chorus of birds singing together in harmony. Surprised at this -unusual music he looked up and lo, just above him, rested a cloud more -brilliant than a rainbow and in the centre of the cloud stood a lady. -Thoroughly frightened he fell to his knees, but was aroused by a voice -which proceeded from the cloud and called “Juan.” He looked up and the -lady told him to go to the Bishop of Mexico, and tell him that she wanted -a church built on this hill in her honour. He did so, but the Bishop -was loth to believe this wonderful tale from a poor, ignorant Indian. -A second and yet a third time did the same vision appear to the pious -Juan and make the same request. On this last occasion Juan had passed -on the opposite side of the hill to avoid the woman but to no avail. -Upon the report of the third vision the Bishop told Juan to ask for some -unmistakable sign. The lady appeared again on the following morning and -Juan told her of the Bishop’s request. She told him to go up the hill and -gather flowers from the barren hillside where they had never been known -to grow. As soon as he reached there many beautiful flowers appeared in -a miraculous manner, which Juan gathered up in his tilma, or blanket, -and took to the Bishop. When he had emptied his tilma the image of the -Virgin was found on the blanket in most brilliant colours. - -The Bishop reverently took the tilma and accepted it as an unmistakable -token. He at once began the erection of a chapel where it had been -commanded. As soon as the chapel was completed, he hung the tilma on -the high altar where it has remained ever since except for a few short -periods. It can now be seen under a glass upon the payment of a small -fee. Some persons say that upon examination it proves to be only a cheap -daub upon coarse, cotton material; others say that it was taken out a few -years ago and examined and they could not find any trace of paint, but -that the colours seemed to stay there in some miraculous way. Not being -permitted to make a personal examination, I leave the reader to make his -choice as inclination directs. - -From the time of its origin this legend has had a wonderful and deep -influence upon the Indians. It is even so to-day. Our Lady of Guadalupe -is looked upon by them as their patron and protector. Coming so soon -after the conquest and appearing on a hill already sacred to that race, -it led thousands to the new religion. The main church is very large and -imposing with a nave two hundred feet long and one hundred and twenty-two -feet wide, and cost over two million dollars in gold. The altar is -magnificent and it has a solid silver railing weighing several tons -around the chancel. There is another chapel connected with the cathedral -church. Back of these is the miraculous spring which burst forth from the -very spot on which the Virgin stood at her last appearance. Half way up -the hill are some stone sails erected by a grateful mariner, and on the -top of the hill is another chapel. Back of this is a cemetery in which -Santa Anna and other noted persons are buried. A beautiful view of the -capital and the Valley of Mexico is obtained from the top of the hill -which well repays for the exertion in climbing. - - “From Heaven she descended, - Triumphant and glorious, - To favour us— - La-Guadalupana.” - -Thus sing the Indians on the 12th of December of each year. This is the -day that has been appointed for the great “_fiesta_” in honour of the -Virgin who appeared to Juan Diego. All others fade into insignificance -and are completely overshadowed by the annual celebrations in honour of -Our Lady of Guadalupe. Any one who happens to be in the City of Mexico -on this date, or a few days prior thereto, should not fail to take the -street car for Guadalupe, a suburban town about three miles to the -eastward. The route follows an ancient Aztec causeway which was old when -Cortez invaded this valley. To the merry hum of the trolley, which seems -strangely out of place on this historic highway, the traveller is carried -along. One does not need to be told that something out of the ordinary -is about to take place. The streets of the capital and all the roads -leading to Guadalupe are alive with people on their way to this most -sacred shrine. It is said that many of these Indians tramp hundreds of -miles to be present on these occasions, taking their food with them and -sleeping out in the open air. Tens of thousands of Indians are present at -each annual celebration and the number is said in some years to equal a -hundred thousand souls and more. - -[Illustration: CANDLE BOOTHS IN GUADALUPE] - -In Guadalupe the streets and plazas around the famous church are crowded -with booths for the sale of native wares, candles, images of the Virgin -and for the carrying-on of many kinds of gambling. There are many booths -in which refreshments are served by women in native costumes. The viands -include cold chicken, eggs, tamales, _frijoles_ (beans), cakes and -sweets. For beverages you can take your choice between beer and pulque. A -motley assemblage is present. Indians from the hot lands mingle with the -purer types of the Aztec from the mountains and table lands. The swarms -of Indians fairly crowd the plaza and streets, some eating and drinking, -some sleeping, some making love and some whiling away the time with cards -or other gambling devices. All these people, of course, belong to the -peon class. Mingled with the natives here and there are all types of -Mexicans, and a number of Americans drawn here by curiosity add variety -to the occasion. The lame, the blind and the halt are there too; for alms -are plentiful and Our Lady possesses wondrous powers of healing. Many -testimonials to this fact are seen in the little chapel which shelters -the miraculous spring. Hundreds and thousands carry away with them a -bottle of these healing waters. - -A feeling of reverence pervades the sanctuary. The kneeling figures with -bodies motionless and their eyes and faces fixed upon the high altar, -crowd the floor until it is impossible to move. One can not help being -impressed by this feeling of reverence pervading the church and chapels. -Outside it is different; for here the throng moves around visiting the -booths, eating, drinking and gambling. Indian minstrels play their -weird airs. Beggars cry out to give them something “_por el amor del -Dios_” (“for the love of God”). At night the plaza and streets are one -indistinguishable mass of dark, reclining and slumbering figures wrapped -in their blankets and shawls. The elements are kind in December for it is -the dry season. - -The next day after one of these celebrations I left the capital for -Puebla. For many miles we kept passing Indians singly, in groups, and -whole families together homeward bound. They followed well-worn paths -which were plainly visible. The trails were narrow and all marched -along single file in regular Indian fashion. They would stop and look -at our train as it noisily passed by. Perhaps they were happy in their -simple way in the thought that for one year more, at least, Our Lady of -Guadalupe would watch over and protect them, her humble worshippers. - -[Illustration: BEGGARS OF THE CITY OF MEXICO] - - - - -CHAPTER XIII - -A TRANSPLANTED SPORT - - -The bull-fight as an amusement is the exclusive property of the Spaniard. -It originated in Spain and has never spread beyond the limits of Spanish -conquest. Perhaps it is this very exclusiveness that causes them to cling -to it so tenaciously, though legislatures and governments have made -vigorous efforts to abolish the brutal spectacles. It is, according to a -native writer, a proof of the superiority of the Spaniard, because “the -Spanish men are as much more brave than other men, as the Spanish bull is -more savage and valiant than all other bulls.” Rather, it seems to me to -be a survivor of the ancient gladiatorial contests, or fights between man -and beast in the great amphitheatres of Rome. - -I had never before, even when standing within the historic walls of the -Colosseum, been able to picture in my own mind the scene of the arena -crowded with combatants while the expectant multitude filled the seats -in tier upon tier, until I found myself within the great bull-ring of -Madrid. There was the arena, and round about were the eager throng, a -crowd of fourteen thousand human beings who impatiently and anxiously -awaited the sound of the bugle which would announce the opening of the -spectacle of blood and brute torture. Then it was possible to understand -how, in an earlier and more brutal age, the Roman populace gloated over -the combats where the death of some of the participants was as much -fore-doomed as the fate of the bull who enters the ring to-day with a -defiant toss of his horns. - -If popularity is to be judged by the amount of patronage, then the -bull-fight is the most popular amusement in Mexico to-day. The national -life is permeated with the sport. The Sunday bull-fight is the topic of -conversation in the capital for the following week. Even the children -indulge in imitations of this favourite game in their childish way. It -is only on Sundays and feast days that the _corrida de toros_ occurs. -Six days shalt thou do nothing and on the seventh go to the bull-fight, -runs an old Madrid saying. They probably go on the theory that a good -entertainment is better on that day than any other. It is useless to -argue with a Spaniard or Spanish-American about the brutality or -inhumanity of these spectacles as they will immediately remind us of the -prize-fights within our own borders which frequently result in death. -This is a gentle hint that we should clean our own Augean stables before -telling our neighbours what they should not do. Perhaps it is a rebuke -that is not entirely out of place. - -The Plaza de Toros is always a great, circular building of stone or wood -with little pretence or ornament. It is built for the bull-fight and for -no other purpose. The interior is an immense amphitheatre, with seats in -tiers rising to the top where the private boxes are located. These alone -have a roof, as all the rest of the structure is open to the sky. Half -the seats are exposed to the bright sun and the other half are in shadow. -The seats on the _sol_, or sunny side, generally cost only about half -as much as those in the _sombra_, or shady part. The fights are usually -advertised “if the time and weather permits.” The ring itself is an arena -about a hundred feet in diameter, encircled by a high board fence with -a lower barrier on the inside, which serves as a means of escape for a -_torero_ who is too closely pursued by the irate bull. Sometimes a bull -will leap over this first barrier and then an exciting race follows. - -An American will not soon forget the first sight of the full -amphitheatre. The scene is an exciting one and there is a tension of -the nerves in anticipation of what is to come. The bands play and, if -there is any delay, the thousands of impatient spectators will shout and -yell themselves hoarse. There is usually a cheer when the president for -the occasion and his companions take their seats. At length the gates -opposite the president are opened and a gaily caparisoned horseman, -called the _alguacil_, appears. He asks permission to kill the bulls. -This being granted, the president tosses him the key to the bull-pen, -which he catches in his hat. He is cheered if he does catch it and hissed -if he fails. The gate opens again and the gay company of bull-fighters is -announced by the blast of trumpets. These men arrayed in costumes of red, -yellow, green and blue silks, satins and velvets, glittering with beads, -jewels and gold braid, form a brilliant spectacle as they march across -the arena to salute the president, after the manner of the gladiators of -old. Every one taking part in this exhibition appears in this procession, -from the _matador_ to the men with wheelbarrows and shovels who clean up -the arena after each performance. I said all, but the principal character -himself is reserved until later. After saluting the president the company -march around the ring to receive the plaudits of the people. - -The bull-fight is a tragedy in three acts. After the company have -withdrawn, the door through which the bull enters is unlocked and the -first act begins with a flourish of trumpets. The bull rushes out from a -dark stall into the dazzling light, furious with rage and trembling in -every limb. This is an intense moment and all eyes are centred upon the -newcomer. As he enters, a barbed steel hook covered with flowing ribbons -is placed in his shoulder. The ribbons indicate the ranch or _hacienda_ -from whence he came. Even the street urchins can recognize the colours of -a _hacienda_ which has the reputation of producing animals that are noted -for their belligerent qualities. - -Startled by the intense light and enraged by the stinging of the steel -hook, the bull stands for an instant recovering his senses. Sometimes he -will paw the earth, toss the dust over his back and bellow his defiance. -Around him in the ring are the _capeadores_, men on foot carrying red -capes, and _picadores_, men on horses armed with lances. These latter -sit motionless as statues upon their steeds that are blindfolded ready -for the sacrifice. - -After a moment of uncertainty, the bull dashes either at a _capeador_ -or _picador_. The former quickly runs to the barrier and nimbly leaps -over, leaving the bull more infuriated than ever. The horse attracts -his attention next and there is no way of escape for this poor, old, -broken down servant of man. The _picador_ makes no effort to save his -steed, which is blindfolded so that he may not see his danger, but simply -plants his blunt spear-point in the shoulder of the brute. Sometimes this -will save the horse, but it does not please the audience for a certain -number of horses must be sacrificed. More frequently the bull will, with -a single toss of the horns, overthrow both horse and rider in a heap. -The _capeadores_ then hover around with their cloaks and distract the -attention of the bull from the prostrate rider who is helpless because of -his iron armour. Once I saw a rider fall on the back of the bull much to -the surprise of both. It is seldom that a _picador_ is killed, for the -bull will nearly always leave him and chase a red cloak. - -Fortunate, indeed, is the horse that is instantly killed. If able to -walk, he is ridden around in the ring again with blood streaming from -his wounds and trampling upon his own bowels. Or the poor brute may be -sewed up in a crude, surgical way in order to enable him to canter around -the ring a few more times. Once, only, in an experience covering several -bull-fights in several countries, have I seen a horse drop dead from the -first blow. The fight is not complete without the shedding of the blood -of horses, and sometimes the crowd will clamour for more horses before -this act is closed. There must be enough, for economy in this feature -will place the people in a bad mood. The audience must be catered to, -for if disappointed they are likely to demolish the ring and tear up -the seats as a method of showing their displeasure. This, in itself, is -sufficient to prove the debasing and brutalizing influence of this sport. - -In the second act the _banderilleros_, men who plant the _banderillas_ -in the neck of the bull, appear in the arena. This is the most artistic -and most interesting act in the entire performance, for great skill is -displayed and little blood spilled. These men come in the ring without -cape or any means of defence and depend entirely upon their skill and -agility for safety. They are finely dressed and are usually superbly -built fellows with lithe and muscular bodies. The _banderillero_ takes -with him a pair of barbed darts about two feet long and covered with -fancy coloured paper with ribbon streamers. He shakes these at the bull, -thus provoking an assault. Then, just when he seems to be on the bull’s -horns and the novice turns his face away to avoid the scene, he plants -the darts in the gory neck of the bull and steps lightly aside. These -darts re-enrage the bull, who has been getting rather tired of the whole -affair. He attacks whatever engages his attention. It may be only a dead -horse which he will then tear open, being aroused to fury by the smell of -the blood. - -[Illustration: PLANTING THE _BANDERILLAS_] - -There are usually two of these men and each plants four darts in the -bull’s neck. They must be placed in front of the shoulder and so firmly -inserted that they will not be shaken out. If successful in these -particulars, then the _banderillero_ who is a favourite will receive -prolonged applause and a perfect volley of complimentary comments. Even -the _matador_ himself ofttimes deigns to take part in this act. If so, he -performs the act in some daring and novel way. They will sometimes sit in -a chair and thus plant the darts, or take a pole and vault over the bull -after placing them. Occasionally a bull is cowardly and will not fight. -Then “fire” is called for and darts filled with powder which explodes in -the flesh are used. This will cause the bull to dance and skip around in -his agony, which is very pleasing to the audience and furnishes variety -to an otherwise monotonous exhibition. - -The trumpet sounds the last act. This is the duel,—the death. Everything -has been done with reference to this act. The first two acts have been -intended to madden the animal and tire him by the violent exercise and -loss of blood. He is panting, his sides heave as though they would burst, -his neck is one mass of blood over which, as if in mockery, hang the -many-hued darts. The man with the sword would not stand much show with -a fresh and unwearied animal. This actor is the _matador_, or _espada_, -and, if known as one who kills his bulls with a single stroke of the -sword, he will receive great applause on entering. He steps forward to -the president’s box and makes a little speech, offering to kill the bull -to the honour of Mexico. Throwing his hat to some one in the seats, -(for it is considered an honour to hold any of his apparel) the hero -advances sword in hand toward the bull, who, during this by-play, has -been entertained by the cape-bearers again. He bears in his left hand a -staff, called the _muleta_, over which is a red flag, and in the right -a keen-edged sword. The flag serves both as a lure to the beast and a -protection to the man. He is usually pale and always alert, and studies -the animal for a moment to ascertain his disposition. This can not be -prolonged for the audience will not brook delay. The tension of nerves is -too great. As the bull makes a rush for the red flag, with head lowered, -the _matador_ plunges the keen blade into the bull’s shoulders up to the -hilt. The bull staggers and dies. - -It is wonderful to see how excited and enthusiastic the crowd becomes -when the _matador_ has made a skilful killing. They rise and cheer and -wave their handkerchiefs. As he passes around the ring to receive their -applause, a perfect volley of hats, coats, handkerchiefs, and cigars are -thrown toward him. These are tossed back except the cigars or any money -that may have been included. If the killing has been poorly made, or in -a bungling manner, hisses replace cheers and boards or chairs may be -thrown instead of hats and cigars. At a fight in Guatemala City I saw one -_matador_ chased out of the ring, and he did not return again during that -performance. This was done after he had made three unsuccessful attempts -to kill the bull and had plunged two swords into the poor, tortured -animal without striking a vital spot. - -Then comes the finale. Teams of gaily-decked mules are brought in to -drag out the dead bull and horses. The bloody places are covered over -with sawdust in order to prevent slipping. Even before the dead animals -are removed, the two or three _picadores_ appear on other sorry-looking -steeds, even worse than the first ones if such a thing were possible. The -trumpet sounds, the door flies open and another bull comes rushing in -to meet the same fate as the first. The play begins again with the same -variety of sickening incidents. Others follow in regular order until the -usual number of six bulls have been dispatched. The management is usually -very careful not to promise more than will be performed, for they know -the temper of the audience too well. At a bull-fight in Madrid, which I -attended, the management had promised ten bulls in its posters but the -tickets only called for eight. After the eighth bull had been dispatched -the end was announced, but the crowd refused to leave. All over the vast -amphitheatre rang the cry “_otro toro_” (another bull), repeated over -and over again in one swelling cadence with ever-increasing volume. -The management was obdurate and the multitudes left muttering their -maledictions. - -Formerly gentlemen of the court mounted on the finest horses in the -kingdom entered the arena and fought the bull like the knights of old. -Now the sport has degenerated and is performed by professionals hired for -the purpose. I once had the opportunity of witnessing a bull-fight by -the Portuguese method. This is the bull-fight deprived of its disgusting -details. It is even more exciting and dispenses with the killing of both -bull and horses. The men with the red cloaks are employed just the same -but the men who place the _banderillas_ are mounted on horses. They are -not broken-down hacks, but magnificent, well-trained animals and good -care is taken that the bull does not make sausage meat of them. As a -further protection, the points of the bull’s horns are covered with balls -to prevent injury to the horses. Their sport consists in riding past -the bull, and placing the darts without permitting the bull to touch -the horse. It is a feat that requires great skill and a steady nerve. -After the bull is thoroughly tired out, a number of oxen are driven in -the ring, the exhausted bull is taken out and another one brought in to -continue the sport. In any form bull-fighting is bad enough, but if a -line can be drawn between degrees of evil, the method of the Portuguese -is the least to be condemned. - -Tauromachy has many devotees who follow the fights in all their features -as the base ball fan watches the sporting page of the American newspaper. -In some places the spectacles are reported in all their most minute -details, even down to the number of minutes it took the bull to die -after receiving the fatal stroke. The killing of bulls is a science -and there are many different schools which have been founded by great -masters. A renowned _matador_ receives as much attention as the champion -prize-fighter in English speaking countries. They receive great sums of -money but are almost invariably improvident and save little. The fights -are not unattended by danger, for deaths are not infrequent and serious -injuries are a common occurrence. - -Ladies attend these spectacles and seem to derive as much pleasure as -those who are supposed to be made of sterner stuff. Their black eyes -sparkle with excitement and they shower their appreciation upon the -successful one without reserve. It is the place for dress as the opera -is in other lands. All the gallantry in the Spanish nature comes to the -front on the way to and at the bull-fight. The enthusiasm, the manners, -the expressions—all are distinctly national. - -In Mexico the light on the horizon seems to be growing brighter, and the -beginning of the end of this brutal and un-American sport is apparently -in sight. It is not in favour with the present officials in the national -capital and in many of the state capitals. Three of the most important -states absolutely forbid the bull-fights, and heavy penalties are -provided for any violations of the law. Statutes to prohibit them have -been enacted in the federal district on more than one occasion, but they -have been as often repealed so great was the popular demand for them. The -best people do not now attend the performances in the City of Mexico but -this fact has made little diminution in the crowd. Their places are taken -by foreigners resident there, many of whom are among the most ardent -supporters of the sport. I predict that within the next decade there will -be few states in the Republic of Mexico that will permit the bull-fight -within their borders. Such action may curtail a profitable industry and -remove a good market for worn-out horses, but these material losses -will be more than compensated in the development of those elements of -character which can not be measured by the low standard of mere dollars -and cents. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV - -EDUCATION AND THE ARTS - - -Any one who is acquainted with the conditions existing in Spain or any -part of Spanish America would naturally surmise that education in New -Spain is at a low ebb. What education does exist is confined to a few. -When you know that districts can be found in Spain to-day where scarcely -ten per cent. of the inhabitants have mastered the art of reading or -writing, it is not surprising to learn that after three centuries of -the rule of Spanish governors and viceroys, ninety-five per cent. of -the population of Mexico still remained in profound ignorance. Learning -for the masses was regarded as prejudicial by those representatives -and misrepresentatives of the home government. One viceroy voiced this -sentiment by saying that only the catechism should be taught in America. -Students are not likely to go beyond the learning of their teachers, -and these were obliged to pass examination in only the most elementary -branches. As a natural result, instruction soon fell into the hands of -the incompetent. Teaching did not attract the bright minds. Those who -cared for scholastic attainments prepared for the church or law. Others -became soldiers or adventurers. - -The first viceroy, Mendoza, was a broad-minded man and interested in his -new empire. At his death he left a sum of money with which to establish -a university to be open to all classes. This institution was actually -established as early as 1551. - -Very few of the aborigines attained much culture, although a few of the -Aztec nobles were notable exceptions. Education was in general left to -the church but was neglected by that institution. The Jesuits, whatever -their faults may have been, were interested in education, and at the -time of their expulsion in 1767 conducted a large number of colleges and -seminaries. - -In the seventeenth century the City of Mexico was looked upon as a great -seat of learning and a literary centre. Even before the Shakesperian -era of English writers, literature had its beginnings in that city. -Bishop Zumarraga, the first “Bishop of the Great City of Tenuchtitlan,” -encouraged writers as well as miraculous visitations such as the Virgin -of Guadalupe. Through his efforts, the first printing press of the -new world had been set up in this seat of ancient Aztec civilization, -in 1535, about a hundred years before one was in use in the British -colonies. A dozen books had been printed in the City of Mexico before -1550, and almost a hundred before the close of the sixteenth century. -Some of these were printed in the Indian languages including the Mixtec, -Zapotec, Nahuatl, Huaxtec, Tarascan and others. - -The very first book printed on this first press bore the following -impressive and “elevating” title: _Escala Espiritual para llegar al -Cielo, Traducido del Latin en Castellano por el Venerable Padre Fr Ivan -de la Madalena, Religioso Dominico, 1536_. Translated into English it -means the Spiritual Ladder for reaching Heaven, Translated from Latin -into Spanish by Father Ivan, Dominican. This book was written especially -for students preparing for the priesthood, and no copies of it are in -existence so far as is known. The second book was a Christian Doctrine, -printed in 1539 “to the honour and glory of Our Lord Jesus Christ and -of the Most Sacred Virgin, His Mother.” It was published in the native -language also “for the benefit of the native Indians and the salvation -of their souls.” A few of the books departed from a strictly religious -character, but all of them drew deep religious truths from every event. -One of the early books was an account of a great earthquake in the City -of Guatemala which, as the title page suggests, should be an example that -“we amend our sins and be prepared whenever God shall be pleased to call -us.” Nearly all of these early books were written by Spanish priests and -members of the religious orders. The first music of the new world was -printed here also in the old illuminated style, as well as the first -wood-engraving. - -The first newspaper in Mexico was the _Mercurio Volante_, or The Flying -Mercury, established in 1693. From that time until the present day, -newspapers have existed, but they were so hampered and restricted in -their utterances that their influence and circulation was small until -long after independence had been proclaimed. Now there are a great many -newspapers and periodicals of all kinds and descriptions published in the -capital. However, no American would class them with our own newspapers, -for the reason that they do not seem to have the “nose for news” of the -American journalist. A Mexican reporter would not think of invading -the sanctity of the home even for a “scoop” over his competitors. -Likewise the family skeleton is generally safe, which is certainly a -commendable feature. Not one of the many newspapers published could -be classed as sensational or of the “yellow” stripe. Mexico’s reading -public is comparatively small even to this day because of the still large -illiterate class. _El Imparcial_, the leading daily and official organ -of the government, does not have a circulation exceeding seventy-five -thousand, scattered all over the republic. Its editor is an influential -member of congress. It publishes an afternoon edition called _El Mundo_ -(the world). The _Popular_ is second in circulation. _Tiempo_ (times) is -the leading Catholic daily. Other papers are _Pais_ (country), _Patria_ -and _Sucesos_ (events). There are two English newspapers published in -the capital of which _The Mexican Herald_ is the leading one and is the -best newspaper in the country. It is widely read by both foreigners and -official and influential Mexicans. There is an illustrated weekly, _El -Mundo Illustrado_, an agricultural paper, _The Heraldo Agricola_ and -many other periodicals of various kinds. _Modern Mexico_ is an excellent -illustrated monthly magazine edited in the City of Mexico and published -in New York. It is printed in both Spanish and English and is devoted to -Mexican interests in general. Many of the cities have daily newspapers, -but they are generally inferior and uninfluential publications. The best -paper published in Vera Cruz could not compare with an American newspaper -published in a little hamlet. - -Mexico has produced many writers and some of them have been very prolific -in their productions. It can not be said that there was much originality -to the early writers when they departed from historical lines, but there -is a sprightliness and rhythm in their epics that holds the attention of -the reader. The bright spots in the history of literature for the first -generation after the conquest are made by a group of Indian writers, -bearing the unpronounceable names of Ixtlilxochitli, Tezozomoc and -Nitzahualcoyotl. These men recorded the glory of their ancestors in prose -and poetry. Although their Spanish is faulty, their genius is clear. -Bernal Diaz, the early companion of Cortez and afterwards governor of -Guatemala, wrote from the latter place his “True History of the Events of -the Conquest of New Spain.” It is a very readable work and a fascinating -account of an interesting country and a primitive race. The writings of -Las Casas have been much criticised but they deserve mention. Other -chroniclers are Bustamente, Alvarez and Iglesias. - -Poetry has always had a leading place in the literature of Mexico for the -Spanish language is well suited to verse and their love poems have the -highest rank. Some of the modern writers are better known in Europe than -on this continent. The two leading poets are Juan de Dios Pesa, called -the Mexican Longfellow, and José Peon y Contreras. The latter is foremost -in the ranks of living poets. - -Literary talent is much encouraged by the government and any one showing -marked literary ability is almost sure to be offered some government -position. An instance of this is seen in the career of Vicente Riva -Palacio, a well known novelist and dramatist who has been governor, -cabinet member and Justice of the Supreme Court. Another example was -the poet Prieto who served in the cabinet of several presidents and -died a few years ago. The Minister of Fomento (encouragement) can issue -deserving books from the government press, if he so desires, and a number -of works, especially historical treatises, have been issued in this way. -The reason is, I suppose, because the reading public is not yet very -large and a meritorious book would possibly have only a limited sale. -These conditions are fast passing away. The drama and the tragic have -ever filled a large place in the life of the Mexican people. A number of -their dramatic books have become well known in Spanish-speaking countries -but have not been translated into English. - -After the struggle for independence, nothing was done in the way of -education until almost the middle of the last century. The colleges and -schools already established had begun to languish. Even after that date -little was done, because the church was so occupied in retaining its own -foothold, and each successive government inherited only a burden of debt -from its predecessors. Juarez had the desire to establish schools but -not the means. Maximilian would no doubt have promoted education but his -throne was never secure. - -The development of the school system is so recent that it may safely -be said to date from the first inauguration of President Diaz in 1876. -Listen to what this so-called republican despot says upon this subject, -which expresses the attitude of the present government: “Education is our -foremost interest. We regard it as the foundation of our prosperity and -the basis of our very existence. For this reason we are doing all that we -can do to strengthen its activity and increase its power. I have created -a public school for boys and another for girls in every community in the -republic. Education is such a national interest that we have established -a Ministry of Public Instruction to watch over it. We have learned from -Japan, what we indeed knew before, but did not realize quite clearly, -that education is the one thing needful to a people; if they but possess -it, all other distinctions are added unto them.” - -The educational system has been revolutionized, it might be said created, -within a little more than a quarter of a century under the guidance of -one man except for a period of four years. The schools are non-sectarian -and the teaching of religion is absolutely prohibited. “That” says Diaz, -“is for the family to do, for the state should teach only scholarship, -industry and patriotism.” The schools in the Federal District, which -includes the City of Mexico and suburbs, and the territories of Tepic -and Lower California, are under the direct control of the executive. The -Federal District alone has nearly four hundred schools, and a number -of fine new school buildings have been erected in the past four years -after American models. The idea of a school building without a play -ground is strange to an American, yet in Mexico none, except the new -ones, have any recreation ground whatever, and they are housed mostly -in the old church properties that reverted to the government after the -disestablishment. Another strange idea to the American mind is the -separation of the sexes which is almost universal. The girls’ schools -contain fewer pupils, for the parents, if possible, send them to private -institutions or employ private teachers. Within the past year several -million dollars was appropriated by congress for the erection and -equipment of new buildings in the Federal District. Commissioners have -been sent to the United States to study school systems, and we find their -schools divided very much as our own. - -[Illustration: AN AZTEC SCHOOLGIRL] - -The schools in the various states are under their own control, and the -number and condition varies accordingly.[3] In most of them primary -instruction is compulsory. There are not many hamlets except in remote -mountain regions where primary schools have not been established, -although in many places greatly inadequate, if all those of school -age should attend. In the cities, schools for the higher education -corresponding to our own high schools are maintained at public expense. -The English language is a compulsory study in certain grades, and one -can almost see the time in the future when there will be two idioms in -Mexico. Free night schools are maintained in some places for the benefit -of those who can not attend during the day. The duties of citizenship are -particularly impressed upon boys, and some feminine work is taught to the -girls even in the primary schools. In addition to the government schools, -the churches and private associations support many schools for pupils of -all ages. - -Perhaps nowhere are the results of the campaign for education seen to -better advantage than in the soldiers’ barracks and penal institutions. -The soldiers are mostly recruited from the Indians and are without -education. The same is true of those who fill up the jails and -penitentiaries. However much they may deserve their punishment, humane -methods prevail. Attendance upon classes is compulsory upon both -soldiers and convicts, and instruction is given in practical morals, -civil government, arithmetic, natural science, history of Mexico, -geometry, drawing and singing. If the prisoner is studious and obeys the -rules of the institution, he is graduated and given his freedom. This -little insight into a better life has made a good citizen out of many a -former convict, and a better one out of a soldier who has completed the -term of his enlistment. The native Mexicans are bright and intelligent, -but self-culture is not common because of natural indolence. The Indians, -and especially the _Mestizos_, are promising and quick to learn. Although -there are no accurate statistics, it is estimated that nearly one-half of -the adult population can at least read and most of that number can also -write. - -The first college established in North America was founded in Mexico -in 1540 and is now located at Morelia. The federal government supports -normal schools for the preparation of teachers, and schools of music, -agriculture, dentistry, medicine, law, mining, fine arts and trades -for both sexes. There are also schools for the blind and mutes, and -reform schools for incorrigibles. The medical college has had a greater -reputation than any of the other institutions of higher learning. This -college now occupies the old home of the inquisition. The staffs of -these schools are generally finely educated men, and will compare -favourably with the staffs of similar institutions in other countries. - -The Biblioteca Nacional, or National Library, occupies a magnificent -building that was formerly a noted monastery. It contains several hundred -thousand volumes, and is a storehouse of ancient documents and volumes -of the colonial periods. When the monastic orders were suppressed, more -than one hundred thousand volumes were added to the national library -from these institutions. Although most of their books and pamphlets were -religious works, yet many of them are extremely valuable and almost -priceless. There are a few books here that date back before the discovery -of America by Columbus, and many rare old documents on vellum and -parchment. A few of the picture writings of the Aztecs are also preserved -in this interesting library. The National Museum is a vast storehouse of -the antiquities of the country. One can wander around through the rooms -and corridors for hours and days and continually find some new object of -interest in the vast collection of relics of the prehistorical races. - -Like all Catholic countries Mexico has the traditional reverence for -religious art. This love has caused a careful preservation of all the -paintings that have been brought to the country, and the names of the -donors as well. Nearly every church is adorned with some cherished -painting, most of which are copies of works by the noted masters held in -the great collections of Europe. However, here and there will be found a -Michael Angelo, a Velasquez, a Guido, a Murillo or a Rubens. Perhaps the -most cherished canvas in the entire country is a Titian at the village -of Tzintzuntzan on the shores of Lake Patzcuaro. It is a large canvas on -the walls of a little dilapidated church and represents the entombing of -Christ. The room that contains it has but one outside opening and that an -unglazed window. - -Mexico herself has developed some expert copyists but few talented -artists. One of the most noted was Cabrera, a Zapotec Indian, who has -been called the Rafael of Mexico. He was architect, sculptor and painter, -and has done some fine work in each line. Politics has in times past -absorbed too much of the time of the young men of Mexico so that the arts -have been neglected. - -The Escuela National de Bellas Artes, or National School of Fine Arts, -in the City of Mexico is an excellent institution and is liberally -supported by the government. - -Charles Dudley Warner says: “It was a marvellous time of original and -beautiful work that covered Mexico with churches, and set up in all the -remote and almost inaccessible villages towers and domes that match the -best work of Italy and recall the triumphs of Moorish art.” - -No one with even the slightest love of architecture can help but be -impressed with the great variety of design and grandeur of construction -of the churches of Mexico. Though designed by Spanish architects and -retaining the Moorish characteristics of that period, they are the work -of native workmen and have received some Aztec touches. On the façades, -towers and portals are designs and figures made by these workmen which -are doubtless Indian legends or traditions of a prehistoric age. They -resemble strongly those strange symbols of the ancient Egyptians and -Persians. Some of the churches which the traveller encounters in villages -consisting of low adobe huts fairly overwhelm one with their splendour. -In places a great church will loom up in the horizon with scarcely a sign -of human habitation near it. Only in the tropics are these great houses -of worship wanting. The danger of earthquakes precluded the building -of lofty structures there, and the priests of the conquering age, which -was the great era of construction, rather avoided the hot lands for the -cooler plateaus. - -The beauty and originality in the churches is principally in the -exterior. This is the reverse of the architecture in the homes, for there -the outside walls are plain, and skill and ornamentation are devoted to -the decoration of the patio. The interior is generally quite commonplace, -and a church in one city is very much like a church in another. The -ornamentation of the exterior is very elaborate and of the rococo or, -as some would call it, the over-done style. However when looking upon -the extreme richness of detail, one can see and appreciate the beauty -and merits of the style, even if there is a certain floridness and -flamboyancy present. The towers resemble the towers which are a part of -the mosques in Moslem countries from which the call to prayers is made -by the priests. As Mr. Warner says: “There is a touch of decay nearly -everywhere, a crumbling and defacement of colours, which add somewhat -of pathos to the old structures; but in nearly every one there is some -unexpected fancy—a belfry oddly placed, a figure that surprises with its -quaintness of its position, or a rich bit of deep stone carving; and in -the humblest and plainest façade, there is a note of individual yielding -to a whim of expression that is very fascinating. The architects escaped -from the commonplace and the conventional; they understood proportion -without regularity, and the result is not, perhaps, explainable to those -who are only accustomed to our church architecture.” - - - - -CHAPTER XV - -MINES AND MINING - - -Humboldt speaks of Mexico as the treasure house of the world. It is one -of the most richly mineralized regions ever discovered, and has produced -one-third of the world’s supply of the white metal. Mexico, together -with Peru, furnished the wealth that enabled Spain to build up her great -empire. And many a real castle in Spain was built with the gold and -silver taken out of these rugged mountains of New Spain. The thirst for -gold became a disease among Spanish adventurers. The mind of Columbus was -distracted by the sight of natives along the coast of Honduras, who were -wearing pure gold suspended around their necks by cotton cords, and he -temporarily gave up his voyage of discovery to search for the source of -this great wealth. - -No country can compare with Mexico in the amount of silver of pure -quality that has been produced. The largest lump of silver ever found, -weighing two thousand seven hundred and fifty pounds, was discovered by -a poor Indian in the State of Sonora. Because of a dispute as to the -ownership, the crown solved the question by appropriating the entire -amount. In fact the crown at first claimed two-thirds of all the precious -metals mined which was afterwards reduced to one-fifth. Some authorities -estimate the amount of silver that has been produced in Mexico at the -enormous sum of $6,000,000,000, but two-thirds of that sum is probably in -excess of the real value. The Taxco, Tzumepanco and Temezcaltepec mines -date from 1539 but the greatest number of the “bonanzas” were discovered -between 1550 and 1700. Many of them were located by priests, who, urged -on by a fanatical zeal to convert the natives, pushed forth into unknown -regions, and literally stumbled upon the rich ore-bearing quartz. The -Spanish viceregal government kept an accurate account of the silver mined -in their red-tape method, for the royal one-fifth was carefully and -jealously looked after. Mine owners were compelled to make their reports -regularly and correctly. A reference to these reports shows a record of -almost untold wealth when it is remembered that this was long before the -depreciation of silver. - -The story of the bonanza kings makes interesting reading. They made money -so fast that it was almost impossible to spend it except over the gaming -table, in those days before the invention of modern surplus-reducing -luxuries. One man, Zambrano, discovered a mine that made him extremely -wealthy. Although he lived in the various capitals of Europe as -extravagantly as the age permitted, yet he left a comfortable little -fortune of $60,000,000 for his heirs to fight over. He even proposed to -lay a sidewalk of silver bars in front of his house, but the authorities -objected. He took out fifty-five million ounces of silver from one mine -in twelve years as is shown by the government records. - -Many of those who accumulated great fortunes were made grandees of Spain -and some of the present titled families in that country are descendants -of the famous bonanza kings of Mexico. Juan de Oñata who colonized New -Mexico at his own expense, founding Santa Fe, and became its first -governor about 1598, was a son of one of the mining kings, and the wealth -dug out of the earth in old Mexico by his father furnished the means for -founding that state. - -Joseph de la Borda was one of the romantic characters of this age. He -was a wandering Frenchman who came from Canada in the first half of -the eighteenth century and no one ever learned anything further about -him. He made three fortunes and lost two of them because of his lavish -gifts, most of which went to the church. He built several large churches -in what is now the state of Hidalgo. After losing his second fortune, -the Archbishop of Mexico gave him permission to sell a magnificent -diamond-studded ornament that he had given to the church in Tasco. From -this he realized $100,000, and after a great deal of prospecting, finally -discovered another rich mine which yielded him many more millions. - -Pedro Romero de Terreros, from a humble shopkeeper, became Count of -Regla, after acquiring great wealth from his mine, La Viscayne. He built -two large ships, one of one hundred and twelve guns, and presented them -to his sovereign. He also loaned the crown $1,000,000 as freely as a man -gives a friend a dollar, which sum the king never found it convenient to -repay. In later life he founded the national pawn-shop, which he called -the Mount of Piety and which has grown to be such a great humanitarian -institution in the capital and other cities. - -The Conde de Valenciana who discovered the famous Valenciana mine of -Guanajuato is reported to have made and spent $100,000,000 in a few -years. One man discovered a rich mine on his ranch near Durango that -rendered him immensely wealthy. He sent a present of $2,000,000 to the -king of Spain and asked permission to build galleries and _portales_ of -silver around his fine new home. This was refused on the ground that such -display was the privilege of royalty only. - -A Guanajuato miner paved the street with silver ingots for a distance of -sixty yards for the procession to pass over on their way to the church -on the occasion of the christening of his son. Another story is told of -a mining king who, on a similar occasion, paved the main aisle of the -church with bars of silver for the baptismal party to walk upon. After -the ceremony he wanted to remove the silver bars, but the wily priest -told him that it would be an act of impiety which the Almighty would -surely punish. It was not done and the occasion proved to be an expensive -christening for the crœsus. Godfathers became so reckless in throwing -away money that one viceroy issued a proclamation forbidding them to -fling handfuls of money in the street as had been their custom, because -such acts encouraged improvidence. - -I have seen the statement that there is one man at Mazatlan to-day who -owns a mine whose entrance is protected by massive walls and gates. -Whenever he wants a hundred thousand or so of lucre, he simply takes in a -few miners and digs out the ore and then gambles it away. - -There is one noted mining king of to-day, Pedro Alvaredo, a full-blooded -Indian, who is known as the peon millionaire. A few years ago a mine that -he owned “bonanzad,” as they call it, and he became immensely wealthy. -However, he and his wife still dress in the peon clothes to which they -were accustomed. He has built a mansion and furnished it with every kind -of musical instrument to be obtained, including many makes of pianos. A -few years ago he announced that he would pay off the national debt, but -he found it a little too large. - -The Spaniards worked only the very richest of the mines. They would not -touch ore that did not yield nearly a hundred ounces to the ton. Their -early methods were of the very crudest sort until the “_patio_” process -was discovered and came into general use. If difficulties were met with -in mining, these men simply worked around them and left great amounts of -rich quartz untouched. The ore was so plentiful that they did not attempt -to do their operations in a thorough manner. However they protected -the entrance by building great fortifications around the shafts, that -look like the walled cities of old and were patrolled by armed guards. -Vast shafts were constructed down which run ladders. The poor peon toils -up these ladders which sometimes aggregate more than a thousand rounds -carrying a rawhide sack on his back containing two hundred and fifty -pounds of ore without a rest, and will make several trips a day. In early -times the natives were compelled to work in these mines to all intents -and purposes as slaves, and were beaten and flogged even to death if -they refused to obey their taskmasters. At night each peon was searched -for fear he might conceal some of the precious metal. However as their -costume was exceedingly simple the search was a very easy matter. The -mines were cleared of water in the same way by the peons carrying it -up these long ladders in rawhide buckets. Many mines were abandoned on -account of water in those days long before their wealth was exhausted. -Transportation was slow and expensive, and the mountain trails were -kept dusty by the long trains of pack mules transporting treasures and -supplies. - -[Illustration: PEON MINERS AT LUNCH] - -Until within the last few years since American capital has undertaken -to develop many of the Mexican mines, only the most primitive methods -were in use. Even to-day many are operated in the same old way, although -modern machinery is being rapidly introduced. The expense of fuel has -been a great drawback in the less productive mines, and the shafts many -hundreds of feet deep are worked with a windlass and mule power. Coal -costs as high as $15 (gold) per ton at the mine and is then cheaper -than wood at $14 (silver) per cord. At these prices steam power becomes -very expensive. In those early days only those ores could be mined at a -profit that could be treated at the mine, because of the great expense of -transporting the ore-laden rock on the backs of mules. - -The patio process of amalgamating silver is still generally used. This -first came into use in 1557, being discovered by Bartolome de Medina, a -miner. The ore is first crushed into a powder by an immense rolling stone -that is revolved by teams of mules. This powder is then carried into a -patio, or paved court, by a stream of water until the mass is about two -feet deep. Quicksilver, salt and blue vitriol are then thrown into it -and several teams of mules are driven around and around until the mass -is thoroughly mixed, which requires several weeks. This is then thrown -into troughs of water, where the amalgam of silver and quicksilver will -sink to the bottom. By a process of distillation the silver is then -separated from the quicksilver. Within five years after the discovery of -this process Zacatecas alone had thirty-five of these reduction works -in operation. It is claimed that not over ten per cent. is lost by this -simple method. The poor mules eventually become horrible looking sights -from the action of the vitriol on their legs. This patio mud has been -used in the construction of the huts of the peons. A company was formed -to tear down a whole row of these huts in Guanajuato just to extract the -little metal that was left in them. The crown retained a monopoly on the -quicksilver, and realized great profits upon this necessary metal in -treating the silver ore. - -The first bonanza mines were discovered at Zacatecas in 1546 by Juan de -Tolosa. So rich were they and so great was the influx of miners, that -the place was made a city forty years later. For two hundred and fifty -years fabulous sums of silver were taken from the hills surrounding this -quaint city. Some of the richest mines of the country have been located -near Pachuca. More than three hundred silver mines are found there and -in the near-by districts of Regla and Real del Monte. One mine, The -Trinidad, is said to have yielded $50,000,000 in ten years. There was -very little stock speculation with the mines in the early days. There was -at least one exception where an English company bought an old producing -mine and the $500 shares rose to $80,000 but in the end the mine proved -to be a failure. Catorce is also a rich mining town, and the mines have -produced many millions of silver ore. The State of Oaxaca is likewise -rich in gold and silver bearing quartz. None of the great bonanzas were -found there, but a steady stream of gold and silver has been produced by -the Oaxaca mines. I heard an interesting story of a young prospector who -had spent several years and all his money in the search for wealth near -Ejutla in that state. Having only a few dollars left he invested his all -in dynamite and placed it in the lode with a prayer for luck. The blast -revealed a rich “lead” which he sold for $600,000 a few days later. - -The richest mineralized section in the whole republic is probably -that in and around Guanajuato, the “hill of the frogs.” This district -was discovered by two mule drivers in 1548 who were on their way from -Zacatecas to the City of Mexico, and from that date until the present -time a billion and a half dollars’ worth of silver has been produced. A -hundred years ago Guanajuato was one of the largest cities and it is -admitted by all travellers to be one of the most picturesque cities in -the New World. Its wealthy mine owners lived like princes and spent their -money like drunken sailors. Fortunes were made and lost. About a hundred -years ago two mines there were producing four million ounces of silver -annually. These mines were worked by the Aztecs long before the Spaniards -came. This is called the La Luz district. - -To-day Guanajuato is a much smaller city than it was a half century -ago because of the decrease in mining activity. The Theatre Juarez is -a beautiful building and was built and is owned by the state, which -seems strange to an American. The state or municipal ownership of -theatres in Spanish-American countries is quite common. The Republic of -Guatemala takes more pride in its national theatre, the Teatre Colon -(Columbus), than in any other public building. A curious sight in this -city of Guanajuato is the panteon, or crypt, where bodies are buried -for five years. If burial fees are not paid again at the end of that -time, the bones are thrown in a heap. However, many of the bodies are -found mummified and these are placed against the wall making a horrible, -gruesome sight,—one that will not be soon forgotten by the traveller. It -is like the crypt underneath the Capuchin Church in Rome. - -The Spanish conquerors mentioned nothing of silver among the Aztecs, -but all their ornaments were of gold. The value of the presents of gold -ornaments given to Cortez by Montezuma is estimated by Prescott at more -than $7,000,000. The source of this great gold supply has never been -discovered, for, although gold in small quantities is found in many -places intermingled with silver, yet the amount mined was very small -in comparison with the value of the silver. In more recent years owing -to improved methods of separating the precious metals from the quartz, -the proportion of gold produced has been increasing. From 1810 to 1884 -mining reached a very low ebb because of the unstable form of government -and constant revolutionary movements. The crude methods formerly in use -became unprofitable, and foreign capitalists were afraid to invest money -for fear that a change in the government might occur over night and -wipe out everything. The old mines had been worked to such a depth that -they were flooded and could not be kept in workable condition by the -bucket brigade. The disturbed political conditions had developed large -and bold bands of robbers; and as all traffic had to be carried over -lonely mountain trails, mining became very insecure and consequently -unprofitable. - -Since the extension of the railway systems and the establishment of a -stable government, mining is again attracting a great deal of attention. -The government encourages foreign investments in the mines. Many of the -old bonanzas have been taken over by new companies with both good and -bad results for the investors. The introduction of modern machinery has -so reduced the cost of mining that lower grade ores can be profitably -worked. Even the dumps that have been accumulating for centuries are -being worked over at a fair profit. Smelters and mills for the cyanide -process are springing up in all of the mining regions. Modern pumps are -taking the place of the mule and windlass in keeping the mines free -from water. The fame of the old bonanzas has no doubt aided in fleecing -the gullible through fake companies organized by unscrupulous and even -criminal promoters. American miners and prospectors are met with all -over Mexico in the mining districts. It is safe to say that the majority -of them have either met with disappointment or are living in hope of a -“strike.” These conditions are the same in every mining district the -world over. - -The mining laws are simple and practical. Boards are established in every -mining community who look after the mining interests. Any one discovering -a claim can “denounce” it before this board and he is protected. -Foreigners have the same rights as citizens in “denouncing” a claim. A -mining claim is called a “_pertenencia_” and is one hundred metres square -thus consisting of ten thousand square metres. The surface ground must be -settled for with the owner. A tax of ten dollars must be paid annually -to protect the claim from forfeiture. More than twelve thousand claims -are now on record as shown by government statistics. The government only -claims a one-twenty-fifth instead of the royal one-fifth exacted by Spain. - -The number of men employed in the mines at the present time is about two -hundred thousand. Wages are low and average about fifty cents for common -labour and one dollar for native miners in Mexican money. However, in -recent years wages at the mines have had a tendency to rise. Mexico’s -annual production of silver amounts to from $30,000,000 to $35,000,000 -in gold value and gives it first place. As the price of silver is -advancing, the production will no doubt be further stimulated. It now -occupies fifth place in the production of gold, being exceeded only by -the Transvaal, Australia, United States and Russia. The production of -Mexico in 1906 reached a value of $15,000,000. - -Many other minerals are found in Mexico. Perhaps the most valuable, next -after gold and silver, is copper of which there are a number of rich -deposits. In 1906, one hundred and thirty-five million pounds of copper -were mined. When this is compared with a production of nine hundred and -fifteen million pounds in the United States for the same period it is not -a bad showing for Mexico. Iron is not generally distributed but there is -a mountain of nearly ninety per cent. pure iron ore at Durango. Tradition -says that the Indians first led the Spaniards to Durango by tales of a -mountain of gold where the yellow metal sparkled on the surface. When -they arrived at this mountain, now called Cerro del Mercado, they pointed -to the outcroppings of pyrites which the ignorant natives thought—or -pretended to think—were of the same metal that these strange white men -had come across the unknown seas in search of. A little coal has been -found but not in quantities sufficient for local consumption, so that -considerable coal and coke are imported each year from England and -the United States. Lead is found in large quantities, and most of the -graphite used in the United States is imported from Mexico. The greatest -development in recent years has been in the production of petroleum. Some -of the most remarkable flowing wells in the world have been struck near -Tampico. Great rivalry has resulted between the English and American -interests, and the Mexicans have profited by it. Another profitable field -has been found on the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. The total production for -the year 1910 exceeded four million barrels. Several of the railways have -already adopted this fuel. - -Wonderful progress is being made in developing the mineral resources -of this country, and it is possible that greater discoveries will yet -be made. The wealth of Mexico to-day is not being squandered after -the manner of many of the bonanza kings; but it is being spent along -legitimate lines, and is one of the greatest aids in building up a strong -republic and developing a nation of intelligent and liberty-loving -citizens. - - - - -CHAPTER XVI - -RAILWAYS AND THEIR INFLUENCE - - -A work upon Mexico would be incomplete without a description of the -railways and the present progressive railway movement. Nothing has -contributed in such a degree to the great progress that has been made -in the last quarter of a century in Mexico, as the rapidly increasing -railway lines. This is true not only of the influence these advance -agents of progressiveness have had upon commerce, but they have enlarged -the intercourse with other nations, especially with the United States. -Through this means the dormant energies and ambitions of the Mexican -people have been awakened, and a new era has dawned in our Latin -neighbour. - -The centres of population in Mexico have always been situated in the -great central plateaus in the interior. Only a very small proportion of -the population live on, or near the coast. Communication with the ports -was over long, narrow and rough trails. The transportation of commerce -was slow and expensive, and required great droves of slow-moving pack -mules and patient burros, and whole armies of cargadors. Furthermore, -the very isolation of the people and difficulty of communication kept -them aloof from modern progress, and left them content with things as -they were, with no ambition for anything more advanced or better than -had been enjoyed by their forefathers. It also prevented the development -of a real, national spirit, because one community was, in a true -sense, not familiar with the neighbouring cities, and took a special -pride in its local interests rather than in the idea of a homogeneous, -strongly-centred whole. - -So jealous were those employed in the business of transportation in the -old crude way, that, in order to placate them, some of the earlier roads -were obliged to commence construction at the point furthermost from the -port, in order to give employment to these people in transporting the -material from the port to the place of beginning. Those who are familiar -with the great development of the west, since the construction of our own -trans-continental lines, will better appreciate the change that railroad -construction has wrought in Mexico. There is this difference, however, -that the people were in Mexico before the railroads were built, and, -instead of a newly-developed country it is a rejuvenated old country. - -Prior to the beginning of the railway movement, Mexico was noted chiefly -for its minerals. Now, although only a small portion of the mineral -wealth has been dug out of the earth, mining has become of secondary -importance. The increase in commerce and manufacturing, and the stimulus -to agriculture brought about by these avenues of communication, have -swelled the general wealth of the country far more than the millions of -white metal extracted from old mother earth each year. Manufacturing -plants have sprung up on every hand, and the products of the mills are -increasing in volume and variety each year. Mexico could, probably, after -a fashion, supply all the wants of her people without any imports from -the outside world. The factories include almost every line of trade from -the making of articles to adorn the outward man to the solid and liquid -goods which cheer and sustain the inward man. - -The railroads have tended to enlarge the wants of the people by throwing -them into contact with other civilizations and have raised the general -standard of wages so that the people have more money to expend for -material needs and luxuries. The abolishment of the _alcabales_, or local -customs, was the logical result of the development of railways and was -almost revolutionary. From the time of the Spanish conquest each city had -collected a local tariff on all goods brought into the town for sale, and -had raised a great part of its revenues in this way. Changes come slow in -this country, but are nevertheless sure. It may be that at some time in -the future the brown back of the burden-bearing cargador will be relieved -of its load. It is a question, however, whether this change would be -welcomed by the dusky descendants of Montezuma. - -The encouragement given to railroad construction has been done with a -lavish but well-directed hand. It is estimated that more than one hundred -and fifty million dollars have been spent by the Mexican government in -subsidizing railroads and in developing harbours, and the end is not in -sight yet. Perhaps the motive has not been altogether unselfish for no -one influence has assisted so much in centralizing the power in the hands -of the Diaz government or been such a potent force in tranquillizing a -naturally turbulent people, as the railways and the telegraph lines -which always accompany them. Instant notice would be sent of any -embryonic revolutionary movement and troops could be hurried to the -affected district at once. There were at the close of 1906, according to -government report, twenty-one thousand six hundred and eleven kilometers -of railway track in Mexico, or about thirteen thousand five hundred -miles, and this is increasing at the rate of several hundred miles each -year. The subsidies on the principal lines have averaged from $10,000 to -$15,000 per English mile, with the provision in most instances that after -a certain period (generally ninety-nine years) the roads shall revert to -the government at a certain fixed valuation. Construction is either of -such a difficult character, or over such long stretches of semi-desert -territory with poor and scattered population, that most of these roads -would never have been built except for government assistance. - -After the manner of the Romans and with equal truthfulness, the Mexicans -say that all roads lead to the City of Mexico. This saying is almost -literally true. The Valley of Mexico is traversed from every direction -with the _ferro carriles_, or roads of iron, converging toward the -capital. It now has direct communication by rail with almost every part -of the republic except Yucatan and the Pacific slope, and can reach this -coast at one point by a roundabout way to Salina Cruz. - -The back-bone of the extensive railway system is formed by the two -great trunk lines which reach out to the north from the City of Mexico, -gradually diverging until at the places where they cross the muddy Rio -Grande they are several hundred miles apart. These railways traverse the -broad central plateau of which Humboldt, the great traveller, wrote, -“so regular is the great plateau and so gentle are the slopes where -depressions occur, that the journey from Mexico to Santa Fe, New Mexico, -might be made in a four-wheeled vehicle.” There are hundreds of miles -where construction work was exceedingly easy, as it consisted simply -of shovelling up a slightly raised bed and laying the ties and rail. -Rough mountain construction in other places, and especially in entering -the Valley of Mexico, required the work of the very best engineers. By -whichever route the traveller enters Mexico it would be well if he could -sleep over the first two hundred miles while the train is passing over -the semi-desert plains of Northern Mexico where the dust filters through -the car windows in clouds. - -The government of Mexico has entered the railway field for economic -reasons. It is simply another indication of the intention on the part -of President Diaz to control the railway situation in behalf of the -people by preventing excessive rates through the pooling of interests. -The spectre of railway consolidation similar to the merging of the -great systems in the United States influenced the officials more than -anything else, and the government did not want the railway situation in -Mexico controlled by any of the large American companies. The project -was begun only a few years ago by actual purchase in the open market -of a controlling interest in the National railroad. This purchase was -made by a select firm of New York brokers, and the real buyer was not -revealed until sufficient stock had been secured to insure control of the -properties. These lines are now known as the National Lines of Mexico -and have a mileage of about eight thousand miles. They will be held by a -corporation with a capital of $250,000,000, organized under the laws of -Mexico, the control of which will be vested in the Mexican government, -although there will be a minority board in New York. They include one -hundred and sixty miles of track in the United States from Laredo to -Corpus Christi, Texas. - -The main line of the system is the former National Railroad extending -from Laredo to the capital, a distance of eight hundred and thirty-nine -miles, several hundred miles shorter than the Central. It passes through -the important cities of Monterey, Saltillo, San Luis Potosi and Celaya. -Originally constructed as a narrow gauge line, it has been changed to -standard width throughout its entire length. The Mexican International -Railroad, which enters Mexico at Eagle Pass and runs through Torreon -to Durango with a branch to Monterey, has been added. The Interoceanic -Railway, whose main line connects the capital with Vera Cruz, passing -through Puebla, the third largest city in Mexico, is also now a part -of this system. At the present time this line is narrow gauge, but -preparations are now being made to widen it to standard gauge. Quite -recently the government purchased the Hidalgo Railroad, which extends -from the City of Mexico to Pachuca, State of Hidalgo. It is the intention -of the government to extend this line immediately to Tampico, thus making -a short and direct route to this port. - -In December, 1906, the government announced the purchase of the Mexican -Central Railway, its only large competitor, and this road will be added -to the system known as the National Lines. The reasons for this purchase -were stated by Minister of Finance Limantour to be “the aggressive -attitude assumed by certain great railway systems in the United States.” -It was feared that the great railways of the United States would step -in and absorb this important line, and saddle upon the people the -trust evil. The Mexican Central is the largest railway system within -the republic and owns more than three thousand five hundred miles of -track. The main line extends from El Paso, Texas, to the capital in -a southeasterly direction a distance of one thousand two hundred and -twenty-four miles. This was the first road constructed to the United -States border and received the largest subsidy of any line, amounting to -$15,200 per mile. Construction work was begun in 1880 at both terminal -points and rushed to completion so that through trains were running -less than four years later. This made an average of nearly one mile for -each working day. It traverses sections rich in agriculture and mineral -resources and passes through many of the important cities. Among these -are Chihuahua, Torreon, Zacatecas, Aguas Calientes, Leon, Irapuato, -Celaya and Querétero. It reaches a population of several millions on the -table lands. - -Two important branches of the main line run to the gulf port of Tampico, -which is second only in importance to Vera Cruz. One of these lines -branches off at Aguas Calientes passing through San Luis Potosi, and the -other at Torreon, passing through Monterey. At Irapuato a branch line -runs west to Guadalajara, the second largest city in Mexico, and is being -extended through to Manzanillo, a good harbour on the Pacific coast. It -is expected that this road will be completed January, 1908, and will give -the capital what has long been needed—a direct route to the Pacific. The -difficulty and great cost of construction in reaching this coast has -delayed the various projected lines, for the drop from the high plateaus -to the sea level is very abrupt. It is estimated that the last hundred -miles of this extension will cost $5,000,000 in gold. Another branch of -this system extends south from the capital through ancient Cuernevaca to -the Balsas River, with an ultimate destination of Acapulco, the finest -harbour on the Pacific Coast of either North or South America. There are -also numerous smaller and less important feeders. - -The Mexican Railway which connects the port of Vera Cruz with the -City of Mexico is the oldest railroad in the republic. It was first -incorporated under the empire in 1864 as the Imperial Mexican Railway and -exceedingly favourable concessions were granted. Owing to the political -disturbances it was not completed until 1873. It was built with English -capital and cost a fabulous sum. The monopoly which it held for years -enabled it to pay big returns to its owners for a long period and even -now its earnings compare favourably with our own western lines. This road -is noted as one of the most picturesque railways in the world, for in a -few hours one is transported from the high plateaus to the sea level. - -[Illustration: ALONG THE MEXICAN SOUTHERN RAILWAY] - -The Mexican Southern Railway is another English road extending from -Puebla south to Oaxaca, which was opened for traffic in 1893, a -distance of 227 miles. This road received a bonus of about $10,000,000 -in government bonds, and well it needed such an inducement, for the -traveller wonders in passing over the line where the profit can come -from, as there are only a very few places of any size between the two -terminal points. It opens up a rich agricultural and mineral section -in the Valley of Oaxaca, and will probably develop into a profitable -property in the future. As the line runs through narrow ravines a great -part of the way, following streams, the traveller does not see the best -part of the country traversed. - -The Southern Pacific has a branch which runs from Benson, Arizona, to -Guaymas, the chief port on the Gulf of California, passing through -Hermosillo, the capital of the State of Sonora, the home of the Yaqui -Indians. It passes through an intensely interesting country, possessing -a wealth of scenery and natural resources. This line is being extended -farther south, with an ultimate destination of Guadalajara or possibly -the capital city. - -Another important link in the system of railroads in Mexico, and one -which is practically owned by the government is the Vera Cruz and Pacific -Railway. This road extends from Vera Cruz to Santa Lucrecia, a station on -the Tehuantepec National Railway which is described in another chapter. -A branch line also extends to Cordoba, there connecting with the Mexican -Railway, and forms what is at present the only all-rail route from the -capital to a Pacific port. This road runs through the heart of the -tropics and alternately passes over prairie and through tropical jungle. - -A trip over this road is a revelation to the traveller who has never -visited a tropical land. No one except those who assisted in the work -fully appreciates the enormous difficulties that had to be overcome. I -doubt if even mountains present more perplexing problems in railroad -construction than these level prairies and swamps, where there is no -solid rock or gravel and the country is deluged with an annual rainfall -of from twelve to sixteen feet. The surface is a soft clay unfit for -roadbed or ballast. After heavy rains the ties and often the rails would -sink into it until completely covered. For a few years the road was -practically abandoned for several weeks during the heaviest rainfall. -The track would sometimes slip sideways, or in a cut the banks would -slide in and cover it. In the two hundred and forty-two miles of the main -line, the road crosses six large rivers, whose size is due to the amount -of rainfall rather than the extent of territory drained. These rivers -and many smaller streams require an average of more than one bridge for -each mile of track. The uncertainty and inefficiency of native help and -difficulty of getting skilled American labour to go there because of the -fear of tropical fevers, rendered the work of the contractor no easy -task. Even an American workman could not accomplish more than about half -as much as in a colder climate. - -I made this trip when it required twenty-six hours to cover the two -hundred miles from Vera Cruz to Santa Lucrecia. No one asked the engineer -to go faster, and we considered ourselves in luck not to run off the -rails, which in many places resembled the track made by a wobbly wheel -after we had passed over it. It has now been placed in better condition, -and the run is made in much quicker time. No one must expect quick time -on Mexican railroads, for twenty-five miles an hour is fast travelling -and the average is nearer fifteen miles. The section traversed by this -road must inevitably be the richest part of Mexico in the near future, -now that it has an outlet. It passes through the region best adapted for -tropical plantations where the soil is inexhaustible. - -One of the dreams of the late James G. Blaine was a Pan-American railroad -or all-rail route from the United States to the southernmost republics -of South America. President Arthur appointed a commission in 1884 -which was sent to the republics of Central and South America along the -proposed route. At the first Pan-American conference held in Washington, -this projected railway was discussed at considerable length. All the -representatives were in favour of it and a survey was decided upon. -Several parties of surveyors were set to work at different points along -the proposed route, and a complete survey was made from Oaxaca, Mexico, -to the northernmost point reached by the railways of the Argentine -Republic. The proposition excited a great deal of interest and discussion -at the time, but little has been heard of it in recent years. There is -one man in Mexico, however, who has not lost sight of the great project, -and that man is J. M. Neeland. He organized a company to build the -Pan-American Railroad from San Geronimo, a station on the Tehuantepec -National Railroad to the boundary of Guatemala, a distance of about three -hundred miles. The Mexican government promised a subsidy of $10,000 gold, -per mile. He has followed the base of the mountain range in order to -lessen the expense of construction, and render it easy to connect with -the ports by means of branch lines. It follows as nearly as possible an -old military road constructed by the Spaniards. - -Quietly and unostentatiously this line has been pushed forward until -it has been completed to Pijijiapam, only one hundred and twenty-six -miles from the Guatemala boundary, and a contract has been let for -its completion by the close of the year 1907. The importance of this -line to Mexico can hardly be overestimated, for it connects the seat -of government by an all-rail line with the most remote corner of the -republic. It also opens up the rich coffee lands in the State of Chiapas, -the best coffee territory in Mexico. The ports along this coast are all -open roadsteads without piers, and freight is carried to and from the -steamers in lighters. At one time a steamer on which I was a passenger -lay at San Benito, the most southerly Pacific port of Mexico and on the -line of this railway, three days in order to load a few thousand bags -of coffee. This part of the country has been so isolated heretofore -that it has never been developed to any extent. The completion of this -Pan-American railroad will greatly increase the influence of Mexico in -the little Republic of Guatemala, and will have a tendency to render that -country less turbulent. The promoters aim to continue this road through -all the republics of Central America, clear to the Isthmus of Panama. -They have already secured a concession with the promise of a good subsidy -from Guatemala, and will utilize a portion of a railroad now in operation -in that country. A remarkable fact in connection with this road is that -it is already meeting its operating expenses and fixed charges, which is -an unusual showing for a newly-built Mexican railroad. - -The government is now endeavouring to have a railroad constructed from -some point on the Pan-American Railroad to connect with the railways of -Yucatan. This road and the other lines already under construction will -connect all parts of the republic with the bands of steel, with the -single exception of Lower California. It will not be many years before -this great plan of a great president will be a reality. Step by step -progress has been made but the improvement has been permanent. In some -places the innovation was not welcomed at first, because of extreme -conservatism. Now everyone reaps some benefit from it. Before the days of -railroads each community lived by itself, and the poor natives were at -the mercy of the rich plantation owners in the dry years which sometimes -occurred. Now, transportation is cheap and quick, and everyone can have -food at a reasonable cost. The paternal character of the government in -this respect was shown a few years ago, when the corn crop was a partial -failure and a “corner” was attempted by the dealers. The government -immediately removed the tariff, imported great quantities of grain, and -sold it to the people at cost. This could not have been done except for -the facilities afforded by the railway lines. The traffic does not seem -large, and there is only one train per day each way on most of the lines, -and on the branches this is frequently a mixed passenger and freight -train. The tonnage is increasing each year as the wants of the people -increase, and money to purchase things heretofore regarded as luxuries -becomes more abundant. - - NOTE TO REVISED EDITION. In 1911 the railway mileage of Mexico - exceeded 15,000 miles. The Pan-American Railroad is now - completed to Mariscal, on the Guatemala border. Work on the - connecting link with the lines of that republic, only about - thirty miles, is progressing, and it is estimated that within - a year it will be possible to travel by rail from New York to - Guatemala City. The Pan-American and the Vera Cruz and Pacific - Railroads are now a part of the National Lines. The name of the - latter has been changed to the Vera Cruz and Isthmus Railroad. - The Manzanillo branch was completed almost on time. The - extension of the Southern Pacific as far as the city of Tepic, - and the Kansas City, Mexico and Orient Railway are described in - a succeeding chapter. - - - - -CHAPTER XVII - -RELIGIOUS FORCES - - -The Aztecs, who originally believed in one supreme invisible creator, -Taotl, adopted the gods of conquered races, like the Romans of old, and -became polytheists. The Toltecs, one of the vanquished people, were -nature worshippers, and made offerings of fruits and flowers to their -deities. After their defeat, the peaceful gods of the Toltecs, who took -pleasure in the offerings of the fruits of the soil, soon took a place by -the side of the terrible god of war of the Aztecs, Huitzilopoxtli, and -shared with him the offerings of human sacrifices. This repulsive deity -is portrayed as a hideous idol with broad face, wide mouth and terrible -eyes, but was covered with jewels of gold and pearls and girt with golden -serpents. At the altars hung censers of incense and braziers filled with -the hearts of the victims offered in sacrifice. It is said that this god -was ministered to by more than five thousand priests. - -When the Spanish conquerors came, the policy of Cortez left the Mexicans -no alternative but the adoption of the Christian religion. “Conversion” -and “Baptism” became interchangeable terms and the baptized pagan was -immediately considered a good Christian even though the conversion -only followed the judicious use of the fire and rack. One of the -priests boasted that his “ordinary day’s work was from ten to twenty -thousand souls.” Within a few years after the conquest baptism had been -administered to more than four million Indians. Dreams of avarice swayed -the minds of the conquering legions, for it was believed that from the -unknown, western world was to come the gold that was to make every man a -Crœsus. But first these ungodly people must be converted to Romanism. As -the unlettered Indians could not understand the real spirit and meaning -of this new religion, visible symbols and pictures were substituted for -the former idols. Humboldt, the traveller so often quoted because of his -careful research, says: “The introduction of the Romish religion had no -other effect upon the Mexicans than to substitute new ceremonies and -symbols for the rites of a sanguinary worship. Dogma has not succeeded -dogma, but only ceremony to ceremony. I have seen them marked and -adorned with tinkling bells, perform savage dances around the altar while -a monk of St. Francis elevated the Host.” It soon became a religious duty -for the Spaniard returning from Europe to bring paintings and statues of -saints to adorn the newly-erected churches, and holy relics of the saints -to place therein. In this way these cruel invaders no doubt sought to -satisfy their consciences for their outrages upon a mild and unresisting -people. It is little wonder that the Indians could not fully appreciate -the humanity of the lowly Nazarene when represented by such ferocious -invaders. - -A few of the Aztec gods blossomed out as Christian saints soon after the -Conquest, through the ingenious schemes of the early priests who adopted -this method to make the new religion accepted. They brought with them -into the Roman Church the particular characteristics and powers which -they were credited with as gods. As for example, the goddess of the rains -who was much worshipped in the regions of little rain can be recognized -in Our Lady of the Mists, or Our Lady of the Rains of the Mexican church. -These saints are appealed to for the much-needed rain and are believed -to have the same power to bring it which they, as Aztec or Toltec gods, -were supposed to have had. In many places there are shrines erected to -these saints of the Church who are supposed to have power over the rain. -It has been proven that, in most instances, in Aztec times, a temple -existed on the same spot dedicated to the goddess of the rains or mists, -as the case might be. - -These schemes of miraculous appearances upon scenes already sacred -made the transition from the native ceremonies to the ritual of the -Catholic Church easy to a people who were accustomed to outward show and -symbolism. The striking ceremonies of the Catholic Church, as practised -in Mexico, and its impressive services in an unknown tongue, seemed in -harmony with the rites of the Aztecs, and it was not hard for Cortez to -force his religion upon the simple and superstitious mind of the poor, -conquered Indian, who was more interested in form than sentiment. The -religion of the Roman Church in Mexico is not free from pagan features -even to this day. As one writer expresses it “paganism was baptized, -Christianity paganized.” Outward display means more than spirituality and -piety with the ignorant who constitute a very large proportion of the -population. - -One can still recognize in the rites of the Catholic Church, as practised -to-day in Mexico, a tinge of the Aztec worship. A noted French Catholic -prelate, Abbe Domenech, in 1867 wrote of that church as follows: “Mexican -faith is a dead faith. The abuse of external ceremonies, the facility -of reconciling the devil with God, the absence of internal exercise of -piety, have killed the faith in Mexico. The idolatrous character of -Mexican Catholicism is a fact well known to all travellers. The worship -of saints and madonnas so absorbs the devotion of the people that little -time is left to think about God. The Indians go to hear mass with their -poultry and vegetables, which they are carrying to market. The gobble -of the turkeys, the crowing of the cocks, the mewing of the cats, the -chirping of the birds in their nests in the ceiling, and the flea-bites -rendered meditation impossible to me, unaccustomed to live in such a -menagerie.” - -[Illustration: WAYSIDE SHRINE WITH AN OFFERING OF FLOWERS] - -In remote caves of mountain regions it is claimed, and, I believe, -truthfully, that the ancient deities are still worshipped. It is no -infrequent occurrence to see a bouquet of flowers before the image of the -virgin in the churches or wayside shrines. Sometimes even offerings of -wheat or fruits are found, the gift of some poor peon in whose mind the -conception of the Saviour and his mission on earth is very vague. Several -writers assert that they have personally seen Indians on their way to -the mountains to sacrifice lambs, chickens and flowers to their gods, -thus proving that the grosser forms of paganism have not been stamped -out entirely. The priests, of course, do not approve of this, and try in -every way to stop these practices, but without success. - -The Catholic Church used to be all-powerful in Mexico. It held the wealth -and the learning, and the priests preyed upon the people as well as -prayed for them. They were taxed to the utmost, and “Pay or pray” was the -motto affixed to the cross by the priests. Rich men gave freely of their -substance. Poor peons—and they are vastly in the majority—went clothed in -rags that the Church might be benefited. The favourite method was by the -sale of indulgences. General Thompson, United States Minister to Mexico -in 1845, wrote as follows: “As a means of raising money, I would not give -the single institution of the Catholic religion (in Mexico) of masses and -indulgences for the benefit of the souls of the dead for the power of -taxation possessed by any government. I remember that my washerwoman once -asked me to lend her two dollars. I asked her what she wanted with it. -She told me that there was a particular mass to be said on that day which -relieved the souls in purgatory from ten thousand years’ torture and that -she wished to secure the benefit for her mother.” It is like the harangue -that so aroused Martin Luther: “The very moment the money clicks on the -bottom of this chest the soul escapes from purgatory and flies to Heaven! -Bring your money, bring money, bring money!” - -Shrines and chapels were so numerous that the true believer passed -through the streets with head uncovered and hat in hand, for fear -that he might pass one unobserved and not remove his head covering as -piety demanded. During the latter years of Spanish rule in Mexico, the -Church became so enormously rich that it was reported to have in its -possession one-third of all the wealth in Mexico. In addition to the -power the Church naturally held, this immense wealth gave its leaders -great prestige in governmental affairs, for wealth everywhere commands -power and respect among those in authority. At one time the clergy held -property to the value of about $180,000,000, yielding an annual income of -$12,000,000, according to reliable authorities. Some have estimated the -wealth at more than $600,000,000. - -It had secured control not only of the wealth, but also much of the best -agricultural land within the republic, owning eight hundred _haciendas_ -and more than twenty-two thousand city lots. All this was tied up and -became useless and non-productive. The Church used its great influence to -oppose all progress. The opposition finally broke forth, and the immense -wealth of convents, shrines and monasteries was poured forth with lavish -hand in what the Church considered a holy war against heretical ideas -and persons. Reformers set envious eyes upon this property, and numerous -attempts were made to dispossess the Church of it. An edict aimed at the -power of the Church was issued by Commonfort in 1857, but the Indian -reformer and president, Juarez, was the first to actually accomplish the -separation of church and state several years later. The establishment -of the empire with Maximilian as Emperor was simply a reaction, and -an attempt to establish a government in which the interests of the -Church would again be paramount. It is not much wonder that the native -population yielded so readily to the overthrow of the priestly power. In -accomplishing the complete overthrow of church and state, Mexico only -did what Italy did a few years later, and what France is endeavouring -to do at the present time. Even in Spain, the handwriting on the walls -seems to point to the same ultimate result. And yet it is strange to see -a nation so rigidly and even unmercifully regulating a church to which -ninety-five per cent. of the people belong. - -The reactionary movement on the part of the Church under the guise of -French intervention failed. The reform anti-clerical movement prevailed -once more, even though opposed by the enormous wealth of the Church. The -greater portion of the property once owned by the Church has been lost. -The country abounds in ruined churches and convents. The law went so far -as to prohibit the Church from holding the title to property, and if it -wished to own property, it must be in the names of individuals. Priests -were forbidden, under penalty of fine and imprisonment, to appear in the -streets in their clerical dress. Religious processions outside the walls -of the church, or churchyard, were prohibited. Civil ceremonies were -made obligatory to render a marriage valid. Sisters of Charity and the -Jesuits were sent out of the country, and even the ringing of bells was -regulated by law. It has now lost not only its property but its prestige -as well. - -The property was confiscated, or “denounced,” and sold for beggarly sums -in numerous instances. Many hotels are now located in former churches or -convents, and schools and barracks innumerable occupy former homes of -nuns. Even the famous prison of Belem in the City of Mexico, where more -than three thousand offenders (most of them justly no doubt) have been -incarcerated at times, was the old convent of that name; and the military -prison, Santiago de Tlalteloco, was one of the oldest churches in Mexico, -having been founded by the first viceroy. Protestant services are held -in a number of places that were former Catholic churches, the buildings -having been purchased by these organizations, or the use of them granted -by the authorities. The rich silver plate and the altar rails were looted -from the sacred edifices, or were sold for small sums by the officers. - -For many years Mexico has thus gone along the line of reform. The -ambition of the Church has been held in check but not killed. They are -regaining some of their former power, and recovering much of their former -property, so it is claimed by good authority.[4] The average Mexican -is superstitious. He is boastful and bold in times of peace, but craven -when the time of trial comes. Consequently, when sick and about to die, -he will send for the priest, no matter how he may have fought the Church -when in health. The priests, or some of them at least, claiming that the -Catholic Church, as the chosen of the Lord, has a lien on all earthly -goods, refuse to administer the sacrament without some restitution. If -the dying man owns a confiscated church property, he must restore its -value before he can get a clear title to a home in Heaven. With the -persistence characteristic of the Mexican Catholic priests, they are -ferreting out their former property and again accumulating wealth for -their beloved Church. Their fees are utterly out of proportion to the -earning capacity of the people. Marriage costs $14.00, baptism $2.25 -and plain mass $6.00. Many of the poor peons are obliged to forego the -services of the Church because of these high charges, for all services -must be paid in advance. - -They are also openly disregarding the established laws in some of the -restrictions imposed. I travelled for two days on the railroad with the -Bishop of Tehuantepec who wore his purple robes of office all the time. -At nearly every station priests met him, and he was given a continuous -ovation. A few months ago, according to a Mexican periodical, a well -known priest, in defiance of the law which prohibits public religious -processions, authorized such a procession, and blessed at the altar -those who arrived with it. In many of the more remote districts the -law requiring marriage ceremonies to be made by civil authorities is -completely disregarded. The priests tell the people that the religious -ceremony is all that is necessary. Although the Church upholds such -marriages, in law they are absolutely null and void, and it is a deceit -upon the contracting parties. Some priests go so far as to tell their -people that the civil marriage is positively impious. And yet nothing -is done to punish the above violations of the established laws. The -government probably does not consider that these infractions of the -strict letter of the law have reached a serious phase. - -If the Roman Church of Mexico to-day, with its wealth confiscated, its -public voice muzzled, its political powers annulled, has still power so -that it can openly violate some of the fundamental laws of the country, -we can have some faint idea of its power when it ruled the country with -an iron hand. Those who see trouble ahead because of the avariciousness -of some of the clergy, are fond of quoting the old Spanish proverb “The -devil lurks behind the cross.” Nevertheless, I believe that the clergy -in Mexico to-day are superior to those who served prior to the change in -status. Many of them are noble men striving to uplift the people and aid -the government in its campaign for the enlightenment of the masses. The -strife has purified them and they think less of the perquisites than the -duties of their office. The well meaning priest no doubt suffers for the -sins of his predecessors as well as those of his contemporaries who are -blinded by the past glory of the Church. The Church as an institution is -probably to some extent the victim of the ignorance and fanatical zeal -of its early founders in Mexico. The Church will thrive far more when -placed on the same footing as all churches are in the United States, and -people and priest accept that condition. As one prominent American priest -has recently said in commenting on the struggle in France: “Everywhere -that church and state are united, the church is in bondage. Nowhere is -the church so free and untrammelled, or so progressive, as in the United -States.” - -The churches in all the cities are numerous and their capacity far -greater than the number of those attending. Puebla, the City of the -Angels, so called because of the many miraculous visits of the angels -who even, on their first visit, measured off the city and fixed the site -of some churches, is called the city of churches as it has the greatest -number in proportion to the population of any city in the republic, many -of them being erected in honour of the various angelic visitations. The -City of Mexico contains the largest and most pretentious church building -in the new world—the cathedral. It is also one of the largest church -edifices in the world. This grand cathedral begun in 1573 was ready for -service about three-quarters of a century later but the towers were not -completed until 1791. It is four hundred and twenty-six feet long and -almost two hundred feet wide with walls of great thickness, and reaches a -height of one hundred and seventy-five feet in the dome. The towers are a -little more than two hundred feet high. Then adjoining this building is -another church, the Sagrario Metropolitano, which, to all appearances, is -a part of the main structure, although of an entirely different and less -beautiful style of architecture. - -Within these two edifices were concentrated for centuries the pomp and -ceremony of the Church of Rome and within their walls much of Mexico’s -history was made. It is still the headquarters of the church party -while across the plaza is the National Palace, the official home of the -government which conquered in the long struggle between the two forces. -The estimated cost of the cathedral is $2,000,000, but that represents -only a fraction of the actual cost if the labour is figured at a fair -rate and the material had all been purchased at market value. There are -some paintings by famous artists on the walls and dome. A balustrade -surrounds the choir which is made of composite metal of gold, silver and -copper and is so valuable that an offer of a speculative American to -replace it with one of equal weight in solid silver was refused. Within -the walls there are fourteen chapels dedicated to the various saints, -and candles are kept constantly burning before the images, and in these -chapels are kept many gruesome relics of these same saints. The remains -of many of the former viceroys and some of the other noted men in Mexican -history lie buried here. This, the greatest church in the western world, -is also built on the foundations of the greatest pagan temple of the -continent—the imposing _Teocalli_ of the Aztecs. From the top of the -towers we can look upon the same valley that Cortez viewed when Montezuma -took him by the hand after ascending the great altar, and pointed out -the various places of interest. The lakes have receded, the architecture -is different, but our admiring eyes see the same majestic hills on every -side. - -Listening to the bells in the towers of this cathedral, once so powerful, -one, who is a “dreamer of dreams,” can almost imagine them lamenting -the changed times in the words of the last poem written by the poet -Longfellow: - - “Is then the old faith dead,” - They say, “and in its stead - Is some new faith proclaimed, - That we are forced to remain - Naked to sun and rain, - Unsheltered and ashamed? - - “Oh bring us back once more - The vanished days of yore, - When the world with faith was filled; - Bring back the fervid zeal, - The hearts of fire and steel, - The hands that believe and build. - - “Then from our tower again - We will send over land and main - Our voices of command, - Like exiled kings who return - To their thrones, and the people learn - That the Priest is lord of the land!” - -The very first movement on the part of Protestant organizations to -evangelize Mexico was made by the American Bible Society when they sent -out one of their representative with the American army in 1846. This man -distributed several thousand copies of the scriptures between Vera Cruz -and the capital which afterwards bore fruit. A few years later a woman, -Miss Matilda Rankin, who had been engaged in missionary work in Texas, -crossed over the border and held services in Monterey. In 1862 a Baptist -missionary, Rev. James Hickey, also began work in Monterey. However, no -organized effort was made by Protestant bodies until the years from 1869 -to 1880, when missionaries were sent by the following denominations: -Protestant Episcopal, Methodist Episcopal, Methodist Episcopal South, -Presbyterian, Baptist, Christian and Congregational. Bishop H. C. Riley -obtained an old church for the use of the Protestant Episcopal Church and -Rev. William Butler purchased a part of the convent of San Francisco, in -the heart of the city, for the Methodist Episcopal Church. - -_Dios y libertad_ had been the watchword of the reform movement, but it -had not been put into practice until the time of President Juarez, who -encouraged mission work, and exerted himself to protect the missionaries -from fanatics. However frequent attacks upon these workers were made -in provincial towns and one foreign missionary, Rev. J. L. Stephens, -of the Congregational Church, was slain at Ahualuco in 1874. A number -of native converts and preachers have met with serious, and even fatal -injuries, but no other Americans have been killed. President Diaz has -also encouraged these ministers when they were downhearted. Rev. William -Butler quotes an interview which several missionaries had with him in -which the President expressed himself as follows: “I have seen this land -as none of you ever saw it, in degradation, with everything in the line -of toleration and freedom to learn. I have watched its rise and progress -to a better condition. We are not yet all we ought to be and hope to be; -but we are not what we once were; we have risen as a people, and are now -rising faster than ever. My advice is, do not be discouraged. Keep on -with your work, avoiding topics of irritation and preaching your gospel -in its own spirit.” The president has no warmer supporters than the -Protestant missionaries and their little bands of adherents. - -Their numbers to-day after thirty years of aggressive work seem small, -as the ten Protestant denominations who maintain missions in Mexico -only claim about twenty-five thousand members, or about one hundred -thousand adherents including those who attend the Sunday-school and -other services. The Presbyterians are working in fourteen different -states. They have fifty organized churches and two hundred and twenty-two -outstations which are served by twenty-one foreign missionaries and -one hundred and one native workers. The Methodist Episcopal Church has -twenty-nine missionaries in the field and one hundred and twenty-two -native workers, and is holding services at more than a hundred different -places. The various denominations have divided up the field and are -working together in harmony. The Methodists, for instance, are working in -Guanajuato, Leon, Pachuca, Puebla, Silao, and Oaxaca. The Presbyterians -have centred their efforts in Aguas Calientes, Zacatecas, Saltillo, San -Luis Potosi and Jalapa. All denominations have missions in the City of -Mexico. The Methodists, Baptists, Presbyterians and Congregationalists -have their own publishing houses and issue periodicals and a great -deal of printed matter in Spanish. There are in all about two hundred -and fifty foreign missionaries in Mexico serving about seven hundred -congregations. Many of these workers are medical missionaries who are -doing a vast amount of good, and others are teachers who are instructing -the youth. The Protestant bodies own property in Mexico valued at nearly -two million dollars. - -An era of at least tolerance toward Protestants is dawning in this land, -and religious liberty is an actual fact. The Young Men’s Christian -Association has a strong organization in the capital. A fund has recently -been raised to erect a splendid new building for the association. The -President and his cabinet have also attended some special memorial -services in the Protestant churches. This may seem a small thing, but -a quarter of a century ago it would have been incredible. Some of the -broad-minded Catholic clergy are even displaying a kindlier feeling -toward the Protestant workers. It may not be many years before Catholic -clergy and Protestant ministers may unite together in working for a -common cause—the betterment of the morals and conditions of the people. - - - - -CHAPTER XVIII - -PASSING OF THE LAWLESS - - -A rude wooden cross set up in a pile of stones is one of the striking -features of Mexican landscape that is frequently seen. As the train -whirls along through a narrow pass, high up on the mountain sides the -cross is seen outlined against the sky; or, if you are pursuing your -journey by horse or mule, in the remote districts away from the railways, -your reverie is suddenly interrupted by coming upon one of these silent -sentinels unawares. These crosses are mute reminders of an age that is -passing away. Each one marks the spot where a murder has taken place in -times past. It is an appeal for the good Catholic to mutter a prayer -for the soul of the murdered one, who was thus without preparation -thrust into the world beyond. There was a time, and that not more than -a generation ago, when the murderous and lawless classes were numerous -in Mexico. The Mexican bandit was so much feared, that, even to this -day, some hesitate to travel in that country, and many more make walking -arsenals of themselves before turning their faces toward our southern -neighbour. - -If the traditionary history that has come down to us is to be believed, -these robber clans can trace their lineage back to the peregrinating -merchants of the Aztecs, and Toltecs. The rich merchant of those days -travelled over the country visiting the various cities with his wares. -For self protection they were obliged to carry with them a large force of -armed retainers. This knowledge of their own power led them to violence. -If, for any reason, these merchants became angered at a town, or, if the -people refused to trade with them, they would attack it, pillage it and -carry off the inhabitants to be sold as slaves in other remote places, or -hold them for ransom. This course generally proved far more remunerative -than the more prosaic occupation of barter and trade. It was indeed a -strong town in those days that could afford to refuse to trade with some -of the powerful merchants. If one trader was not strong enough himself, -he could easily enlist the assistance of another of his class, as the -loot and slaves would be sufficient to remunerate both very well for the -undertaking. - -Later came the freebooters, who, in early Spanish days, had things very -much their own way. Although many of these were well known, they would -visit the cities armed to the teeth and no one would dare to molest them. -It is even claimed, and with good reason, that many officials were in -league with these knights of the road, and gave them information, and -assisted them in their plans to waylay wealthy inhabitants. So long as -the outlaws did not interfere with matters of government, their immunity -was practically secure. There is one city in the northern part of Mexico -named Catorce, the Spanish numeral for fourteen, because, for a long -time, it was the stronghold of fourteen of the boldest, bravest and worst -bandits that Mexico ever produced, who terrorized the country round about -and could not be captured or subdued. - -After independence, came a series of revolutions and uprisings for more -than a half century. The bandits then became guerillas, fighting on -whichever side offered the greatest advantage. They would loot a church, -or rob the hacienda of some wealthy landowner, with equal cheerfulness. -The place or person robbed depended upon whether the guerillas were -enlisted in the cause of the clericals, or anti-clericals. By reason -of the many turmoils and fights that took place, these guerillas became -a numerous and powerful class with their rendezvous in the mountains, -which, in no part of Mexico, are far distant. Before the advent of the -railroads and telegraph it was a difficult matter to cope with these -robber bands in Mexico because roads were lacking, and their haunts were -almost inaccessible. This was one of the first problems attacked by -President Diaz when he came into power, and he did it with the boldness, -originality and dash for which he was noted. - -This new leader found the army a disorganized band of guerillas led by -a few men, not always over-scrupulous, and many parts of the country -overrun by bands of outlaws with whom the local authorities were utterly -unable to cope. Having some veteran troops after his many campaigns, Diaz -sent them after the bandits whenever opportunity afforded. They were -hunted and trailed into their mountain fastnesses. The soldiers were -instructed never to take captives. A little heap of fresh dirt, or a few -stones, marked the place where a living and breathing bandit had once -stood. This war of extermination made welcome to many the proposition -of Diaz. This was that he would furnish employment to those outlaws who -should surrender, and would grant to them protection. The President -being known as a man of his word, this proclamation had its effect and -large numbers formerly under the ban of law, surrendered. - -[Illustration: A _RURALE_] - -From this class of men the first companies of _rurales_ were formed. -Finding it was more profitable, or at least safer, to be in favour with -this aggressive government than under its ban, they willingly entered -this service. These men were brave and thoroughly familiar with all the -mountain retreats and haunts of the outlaw bands. They hunted down their -former confederates until a live bandit was a rare specimen. Travelling -once more became secure, and now there are few places in Mexico where -it is not perfectly safe for a traveller to journey. The companies of -rurales, of which there are many, form one of the most effective forces -for preserving order ever devised by any government. Like the famous -_guardia civil_ of Spain, the rurales patrol the remote mountain trails -and great plains of the central plateaus, and are in reality a body of -rural police. Many a lonely traveller has been made glad by the sight -of the gray uniform of this band. They are generally kind hearted, and -will do everything in their power for a foreigner. Their uniform is -the typical riding costume of the country, and differs from the French -appearance of the uniforms of the regular army. They are fine horsemen, -expert in the use of pistol and carbine, and form one of the most -picturesque cavalry bodies in the world. - -There is no sickly sentimentality wasted upon law breakers, and the -highwayman, or robber, gets little sympathy. Few criminals get a second -opportunity to commit their outrages through the pardoning process. The -old _ley fuga_, or law of attempted escape, which was in force under -Spanish rule, under which Indians or slaves attempting to flee were shot, -was revived. Orders were promulgated to shoot highwaymen on sight, and -all other prisoners if escape was attempted. Few attempts to escape are -now made by prisoners, for the guards have a reckless way of sending -bullets after fleeing prisoners, so that no chains are needed to secure -them. The bullets are swift and any one in custody, even though held as -a witness, will be followed by the quick, death-dealing messengers, if -an attempt to escape is made. Gangs of convicts may be seen in various -places working on the streets, or on the roads, under military guard but -without shackle. The only report necessary in the event a prisoner is -killed is that he attempted to escape. It may be a harsh proceeding, -but it saves the state a great deal of money, and conviction is sure. -Furthermore, it relieves judge, jury and prison officials of much hard -work and annoyance. - -A few years ago the Mexican army consisted of a few thousand irregular, -nondescript soldiers so common in Spanish-American countries. Such men it -was who placed Porfirio Diaz in power in 1876, the same year that we were -celebrating the first centennial of our independence. In promoting peace -this man of Mexico has not forgotten the arts of war. The army has been -improved until it has ceased to be made up of the comic-opera type of the -barefooted, half-naked soldier, and is now a well fed, well equipped, and -well clothed organization to which Mexicans can point with pride. To the -American eye the soldiers appear rather indifferent and insignificant, -because of their smaller stature and brown skin, which reveals the fact -that the regular soldier is generally drawn from the lower classes of -Mexicans. - -Although Mexico might be termed a military nation, as military service -is made obligatory by the law of the country, yet in times of peace this -service is not enforced. It is said that the majority of the enlistments -are not even voluntary, but that recruits are drawn from the ranks of -those who are persistent law breakers—those guilty of petty criminal -offences which we would term misdemeanours. Many of these peon soldiers -who before enlistment never knew what it was to have regular meals and -wear clean clothes every day, leave the service after a few years much -better citizens, and possessing a better education, for schools are -maintained in connection with all the barracks where instruction is given -in reading, writing and mathematics. The pay is about forty cents per -day, in Mexican silver, and is good pay for that country when you take -into consideration the fact that the soldier has absolutely no expenses -except for such luxuries as he may want. - -The standing army of Mexico consists of thirty thousand men and three -thousand two hundred officers. Of this number the infantry number -twenty-two thousand six hundred, cavalry five thousand five hundred, -artillery two thousand, engineers and other branches of the service -making up the remainder. This gives a soldier for every five hundred -inhabitants, as compared with one for every fifteen hundred inhabitants -in the United States. Both infantry and cavalry are equipped with the -Spanish Mauser rifles and carbines. The headquarters of the army -are in the City of Mexico, and several battalions of infantry and -regiments of cavalry are stationed there at all times. The country -is divided into a number of districts, at the headquarters of each -of which are stationed large bodies of troops. Nearly every town of -any size has a _commandancia_ where a few troops are quartered. This -general distribution of the military forces has been made with a prudent -foresight in order to prevent any local uprising. - -[Illustration: ARMY HEADQUARTERS, CITY OF MEXICO] - -In addition to the regular standing army, there are a number of armed -forces which would swell the number of available troops in time of war. -First and foremost are the _Rurales_ who number about three thousand five -hundred by actual count, but double that number in effectiveness. The -Fiscal Guards number about one thousand and are in the revenue service. -The police of the states and cities are compelled to undergo military -drill also, and could be drafted into the army as trained soldiers. These -several forces would constitute another army almost equal in number to -the regular standing army. Militia organizations have been provided for -by law similar to those organizations in our own country, but as yet -little has been done. When these plans are perfected, it is designed -to have the total war footing number a force of one hundred and fifty -thousand drilled and disciplined men. - -The President of Mexico is the commander-in-chief of the army and navy. -The “West Point of Mexico” is located next to the presidential residence -and is called the Chapultepec Military Academy. It was founded in 1824. -During the war of 1847 Chapultepec was successfully stormed by the -American forces, but heroically defended by the cadets. A monument now -stands at the foot of the hill in memory of those cadets who fell in -that engagement, and a graceful tribute is paid to the memory of those -youthful patriots on each fourth of July, when wreaths are placed on -the monument by the American residents of the capital at the same time -that they decorate the graves of American soldiers who are buried near -the city. This school now ranks high as a military school, and more than -one-third of the commissioned officers of the army are graduates of this -institution. The graduate leaves this school with the rank of lieutenant. -The student must bind himself to serve seven years in the army, if he -takes the technical courses, and, if he is discharged, or refuses to -serve, must repay to the government $16 for each month he remained -in the academy. If war should occur, all retired graduates would be -compelled to report for service. - -Not a generation ago the capital itself was the home of innumerable -thieves. In fact, a goodly percentage of the people were either thieves, -robbers or beggars. These were drawn from the _mestizo_ class, and formed -a picturesque but filthy group of blackguards. They would make love to -any one’s pocket, and argue with one another at the point of a long, -sharp knife. Each one carried a knife and revolver. “Unfortunate men, -women and children, the legitimate heritage of wrong, oppression and -misgovernment, thronged the streets begging in daytime, and committing -petty robberies by night. They slept by hundreds in doorways, on benches -in public parks, in ruined houses, and in the dirtiest of apartments. A -score or more of filthy beings of all ages and both sexes would sleep -together in one small room reeking with the miasma that rose from sewers -and unclean cobble-stone pavements.” - -Vice was the natural outcome of such conditions. All natural feelings of -delicacy and shame were deadened. Morality was unknown, and they lived -like animals rather than human beings. Marriages were unthought of, and -children knew not their parents, for even their mothers deserted them. If -not deserted, they were frequently maimed and turned out into the street -to beg. Pulque and mescal added its touch to the picture. Disfiguring -diseases were added, and the name _leperos_ attached to them. Brantz -Mayer, a writer on Mexico, has given the following definition of the -_lepero_. “Blacken a man in the sun, let his hair grow long and tangled -and become filled with vermin; let him plod about the streets in all -kinds of dirt for years, and never know the use of a brush, or towel, or -water, even, except in storms; let him put on a pair of leather breeches -at twenty and wear them until forty without change or ablution; and over -all place a torn and blackened hat and a tattered blanket begrimed with -abominations; let him have wild eyes and shining teeth, features pinched -by famine into sharpness, and breast bared and browned; combine all these -in your imagination and you have a recipe for a Mexican _lepero_.” - -These _leperos_ were the thieving class. They frequented all parts of the -city. Even the churches were not exempt and you were just as likely to -be robbed by some apparently devout, kneeling worshipper saying his _ave -marias_ in a sacred edifice as on the street. In the less frequented -streets many hold-ups took place, and the bodies of those murdered would -be found on the pavement in the morning. It was hardly safe to move about -the street after night had fallen. The thieves’ market was well known and -did a thriving business. Here were the pawn-brokers who did a profitable -business acting as “fences” for the thieves. Many instances are told by -foreigners who were robbed, and, in a few hours, found their property -exposed for sale in this market. They were obliged to pay considerable -sums to recover their own property. - -All these types are now disappearing, and even the beggars are less -numerous. The former lawless _leperos_ are now seen in the poor venders -of lottery tickets who crowd every public place. Begging is forbidden -in most parts of the city. Vice has not disappeared, it is true, nor -has it in American cities. The poor peon still gets intoxicated and is -dirty, but he is more law-abiding than formerly. Conditions, which are -the result of neglect and misrule of centuries, can only be overcome -entirely by education, immigration and the infusion of saner ideas, and -this is a gradual process. A whole city, or a whole country, can not -be plowed up and re-sown in a season, as the corn fields of last year -were transformed into the waving fields of golden grain this year. A -generation is even too short a time. The change actually wrought has been -almost a miracle. Work can now be had by all who are willing to work, -and the government is making strenuous efforts to get rid of the idle -classes. It is a long and hard task, but another decade under present -conditions will work wonders. - -An excellent police system is found in the capital and all the other -cities. A policeman is not hard to find. One is stationed at nearly every -street intersection. During the day he stands like a statue, occasionally -leaning against a door post. At night the policeman brings a lantern and -a blanket, and sets the lantern in the centre of the crossing, while he -stands beside it or not far away. The joker says the lantern is intended -to aid the thief in avoiding the officer of the law. Sometimes after the -people quit passing, he may lean up against a building and fall asleep, -but you can locate his vicinity by the lantern. As the windows are all -heavily barred, and the doors are heavy oaken affairs that it would take -a stick of dynamite to move, and as fires are infrequent, his lot is -not a very hard one. The police are very numerous, however, because the -government wants to keep informed in order that a revolutionary movement -may not gain any headway. One seldom hears of knock-downs now, and pocket -picking is about the only kind of robbery. - -These guardians of the peace are generally called _serenos_. This name -clings to them from the old Spanish watchman whose duty it was to call -out the time of the night and state of the weather. As this was usually -clear, the watchman would say “_tiempo sereno_” meaning “weather clear.” -From the frequent repetition of this term the watchmen were dubbed -_serenos_. The Mexican _sereno_ is generally a faithful and reliable -official and is obliging to a stranger. They have made the streets in the -City of Mexico as safe as in Paris. The senses of sight and smell may be -offended more often, but purse and life are just as secure. - - - - -CHAPTER XIX - -THE STORY OF THE REPUBLIC - - -There is a strange fascination about the history of Mexico, and no one -can thoroughly understand the country or the people without a little -insight into those stirring events that preceded the establishment of the -present republic. With the increasing friendly regard and the growing -commercial intercourse between the two countries, a few pages devoted -to this subject will not be amiss; and the prospective traveller, as -well as the one who has already travelled in that country, will find an -additional interest in Mexico and the Mexicans. - -However we may feel inclined to criticize Cortez, the fact remains that -he thoroughly subjugated the country, and presented to Spain the fairest -jewel of her domain. Having been made the first governor of New Spain, -he was too busy with fresh conquests and the task of keeping order to -make a successful ruler. In order to reform the various abuses that had -grown up, and represent in every way possible the person of the king, -King Charles V sent the first viceroy in the autumn of 1535. This first -of a long line of viceroys, reaching down to the year 1821, was named -Antonio de Mendoza, himself of noble descent, a man of ability, and one -who had at heart the best interests of the colonists and the welfare -of the Indians. The latter had been subjected to many humiliations and -hardships all of which were removed by him, and they were encouraged in -the cultivation of the lands. - -The colonists themselves were a source of great trouble for they were -mostly adventurers and were not, like the early American colonists, men -who were seeking religious liberty. The arm of the church was stretched -just as strongly in new Spain as in the land of their birth, and to the -religious orders was due in great measure the firm foundation upon which -the Spanish government was established. During the rule of this man and -his successor, Velasco, the country prospered, agriculture was stimulated -and a number of industries suitable to the climate of the country -encouraged. - -At the close of the sixteenth century, Spain underwent great changes. The -line of able rulers had passed away, and the government fell into the -hands of profligates who were favourites of the reigning sovereign. The -line of viceroys continued in rotation, and most of them were fair men -who probably governed the best they knew how, but their knowledge on that -subject was not very great. They were poor rulers when compared with the -first two above mentioned. The church retained its firm grasp. As one -writer has put it, during the first century of Spanish rule the church -was a blessing to the country, during the second an indifferent quantity -and during the third an actual menace. The inquisition—that terrible -institution—had been established in Mexico as early as 1570. The first -_auto-da-fé_ was celebrated in 1574, when “there perished twenty-one -pestilent Lutherans.” Indians were exempt from this institution and it -was only aimed at heretics of other nations. Large numbers were burned in -the capital and other cities. In Puebla, the old house of the inquisition -was remodelled within the last half-century, and a number of walled-up -cells opened in which skeletons were found—no doubt remains of victims -who had been buried alive. The inquisition was not formally abolished -until the beginning of the last century, just prior to the beginning of -the movement for independence. Even this concession, and the promise -of correcting other abuses, did not stop the growing discontent, for -generations had grown up who had few ties linking them to the mother -country; who had intermarried with native races; and who would be -satisfied with nothing but complete severance of their relations. - -The beginning of the nineteenth century opened with a feeling of unrest -in all European nations and their colonies. When Napoleon overturned -monarchies, the idea of the divine right of kings received a shock. -Among the countries thus affected was Spain, which had dropped down from -the high pedestal it had formerly occupied. The eyes of the people of -Mexico were opened by the events in Europe, and also by the successful -revolution of the American colonies. All the offices of profit in Mexico -were held by Spaniards, and the policy of the mother country toward her -dependents was well expressed by one of the viceroys as follows: “Let -the people of these dominions learn once for all that they were born -to be silent and to obey, and not to discuss nor to have opinions in -political affairs.” The spirit of revolution and liberty was in the air -and restraint became more and more galling. The events leading to the -independence of Mexico, and the stirring times subsequent thereto, can -best be treated by a glance at the men who were in the limelight during -the various periods. - -When Miguel Hidalgo, curate of the little village of Dolores, sounded the -“grito” of independence by ringing the bell of the parish church early on -the morning of the 16th of September, 1810, a struggle for independence -was started that lasted for eleven years, and during which much of the -soil of Mexico was crimsoned with the blood of those slain in battle -or executed by the authorities as traitors. At the outset no people -were less prepared for such a contest. They knew nothing of military -tactics; their weapons were primitive and their leaders were without -military training. No more righteous cause ever existed for rebellion -against tyranny and usurpation. The first two leaders were consecrated -representatives of the church that had assisted a despotic government in -bringing about such an unfortunate state of affairs. These two martyrs -who were excommunicated by the church, and executed by the government -as traitors, are now honoured with resting places in sacred ground by a -grateful nation. - -The first revolt was headed by a picture of the patron saint of the -country, and shouts of “Viva Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe” and “Viva -la Independencia” were intermingled. Hidalgo and his compatriots were -compelled to begin their movement before thoroughly prepared, because -their plans had been discovered and betrayed to the government. On the -morning of the memorable day above mentioned, Hidalgo addressed the -people from the pulpit of the church where he had so often celebrated -mass, and, leading his followers forth, released the prisoners in -the town, and captured the principal Spaniards. Soon afterwards this -priest-warrior patriot, who had been named Captain-General, followed by -a few hundred of human beings (they can not be called soldiers), marched -forth to conquer Mexico and give “death to the Spaniards.” - -It was a motley crowd armed with stones, lances, _machetes_, arrows, -clubs and swords, whose numbers and enthusiasm were ever increasing as -they marched across the country without meeting resistance. San Miguel -and Celaya, Irapuato and Querétero, yielded, and the army which by this -time numbered tens of thousands marched towards Guanajuato. The governor -of that province assembled the terror-stricken populace in the now famous -Alhondiga de Granaditas, built for storing grain but now a prison, as -noted in that city as the Bastille of Paris. Upon a refusal to surrender, -Hidalgo and his followers attacked this fortress with fanatical zeal, and -captured it by the mere force of numbers. This supplied him with plenty -of food and a million dollars in money which furnished the sinews of war. - -Terror struck the hearts of the Spaniards and every town yielded to -this new leader, who now bore the title of Generalissimo, as the army -approached the City of Mexico. One terrible battle occurred at Monte -las Cruces and both forces withdrew. Hidalgo—and this was probably -his greatest error—retreated, and his fortune immediately turned. The -volatile nature of the people asserted itself and his followers deserted -by the thousands. He started for the United States, but was betrayed -and captured, and was executed at Chihuahua on July 31st, 1811. For ten -years his head was suspended by a spike from one of the corners of the -Alhondiga de Granaditas, once occupied by him as conqueror, as a warning -to revolutionists, but was afterward buried with great ceremony in the -cathedral at the capital. - -It was around a disciple of Hidalgo that the forces of discontent and -patriotism rallied upon the death of their first leader, and that man -was also a priest, Jose Maria Morelas. Of low birth and poor, this man -drove mules until thirty years of age before an opportunity presented -itself for education to fit himself for the priesthood, which was his -ambition. In that time he had acquired the qualities of patience and -cool calculation from the animals he drove. A student under Hidalgo, he -had imbibed a love for independence, and leaving his church upon the -sounding of the “grito,” offered his services to the Generalissimo. -He was an abler leader than Hidalgo and showed great military skill, -winning a series of victories clear across the country from Acapulco, on -the Pacific Coast, to Cuautla not far from Vera Cruz. At Cuautla he was -besieged for over two months, and then successfully withdrew with all -his forces by night. Returning to Acapulco he summoned the first Mexican -Congress, which met at Chilpantzingo, a small town near that city. -This congress met on the 14th of September, 1813, and on the following -day issued its famous declaration of independence, as follows:—“The -Congress of Anahuac, lawfully installed in the city of Chilpantzingo, -of North America, solemnly declares, in the presence of God, arbitrator -of kingdoms and author of society, who gives and takes away according -to the inscrutable designs of his providence, that, through the -present circumstances of Europe, it has recovered the exercise of its -sovereignty, hitherto usurped, its dependence upon the throne of Spain -being thus forever disrupted and dissolved.”[5] - -This congress provided a form of government with a military executive -called Generalissimo, and Morelas was elected to this position for -life, or “so long as he was worthy.” Shortly after this his forces were -defeated at Valladolid, now called Morelia, and his power began to wane, -though resistance was kept up for some time afterwards with varying -success. Spanish troops had arrived, and stronger leaders were in charge -of the government forces and the cause of independence looked dark. -The plans of Morelas were betrayed to the enemy and he was captured. -The ecclesiastical tribunes covered him with ignominy. He was then -sentenced to death by the military authorities, and shot in the little -village of San Cristobal Ecatepec, near the capital, on December 22d, -1815, dying the death of a hero. This muleteer-priest-warrior was an -able leader, an honest man and a patriotic citizen. He seemed devoid of -personal ambition, although accepting title for the sake of the cause -he fought for. He was possessed of restless energy and great piety, for -he always made confession before entering battle. To-day, he is second -only to Hidalgo in the affections of the people, and worthily fills that -position. Over the door of the house once owned by him in Morelia appears -the following inscription:— - - “Morelas the illustrious - Immortal Hero. - In this house honoured by thy presence - Salute you the grateful people of Morelia.” - -The revolution was seemingly crushed at the death of Morelas but a few -patriots retired to the mountains, and there kept alive for better -days the sacred fire of liberty. Guerrero was one of those heroes who -showed an unwearying activity, and kept up a constant warfare upon the -government forces. The next prominent name in succession among those -leaders of the movement for freedom was Agustin de Iturbide, a former -active and able officer of the royalist forces, and to whom more than -anyone else was due the failure of Morelas. Deserting the cause of Spain, -because he thought injustice had been done him, General Iturbide issued -the “Plan of Iguala” on the 20th of February, 1820, composed of three -articles: preservation of the Roman Catholic church; independence of -Mexico under a monarchical form of government with a prince of the royal -house of Spain as ruler; union and equality of Spaniards and Mexicans. -From this proclamation his army became known as the army of the three -guarantees. His act was full of duplicity, for he had obtained the -largest force possible from the Viceroy Apodaca in order to turn them -over to the new scheme. - -Before the viceroy could recover from his surprise, Iturbide, who -had been joined by most of the insurgent leaders, had started on his -victorious campaign. Valladolid, Querétero and Puebla succumbed. The -viceroy tried by suppressing liberty, and enforcing enlistments in the -royal army, to stem the tide but in vain, and he was deposed. O’Donoju, -the sixty-fourth and last viceroy, arrived about this time at Vera Cruz, -but was intercepted by Iturbide and entered into the treaty of Cordoba in -which the independence of Mexico was recognized with a sovereign to be -selected from the royal house of Spain, and a provisional Junta formed. -Iturbide was selected as president of this Junta, and made a triumphal -entry into the City of Mexico on the 27th of September, 1821. This ended -three hundred years of Spanish rule in Mexico. Iturbide had accomplished -in a little more than a year, and with little bloodshed, what ten years -of strife had failed to do. He can not be classed with Hidalgo and -Morelas as a pure patriot, but he has been officially designated as the -“Liberator of Mexico.” - -The rejection of the treaty of Cordoba by the Cortes of Spain gave -new impetus to the smouldering ambitions of Iturbide. The second -Mexican Congress having been called, Iturbide at a packed session was -declared Emperor by a majority of four to one of those voting, but -not a constitutional majority, and he took the office as Agustin I. -When he was crowned and anointed in the cathedral with much form and -solemnity, on the 21st of July, 1822, the ambition of this self-made -emperor had reached its full. The saying that uneasy lies the head -that wears a crown never had better application than in this instance. -Other leaders in the cause of liberty felt that they had been slighted, -and every discontented person made common cause against the Emperor. A -republic was proclaimed at Vera Cruz in December of the same year by -Santa Anna, who was commander of a regiment stationed there, and he -issued a _pronunciamento_. This plan failed, but it encouraged Bravo, -Guerrero and other revolutionary leaders, and rebellion sprung up in a -number of places. Iturbide had dissolved congress and this increased the -dissatisfaction. A more formidable revolt arose, and on March 19th, 1823, -Iturbide abdicated without attempting to retain his position by force of -arms. - -A few weeks later the ex-Emperor left Mexico and sailed for Italy, having -been granted an annual sum of $25,000 for his services. He soon went to -England and wrote the government from there that the republic was in -danger, and he would come back to help fight the battles of his country. -He did not know that his death had been decreed by congress, and so -he set sail upon his last voyage. When he arrived at Vera Cruz he was -captured, and after some delay was executed at Padilla on the 19th of -July, 1824, as a traitor, in his forty-first year. His body was buried in -a roofless old church and lay there until 1838, when it was removed to -the Cathedral. - -Opinion is very much divided as to the rank that should be accorded -Iturbide. He was able, brave, honest so far as is known, and probably -fell a victim to his ambition like many a man before him. The relative -regard in which he is held is shown in the fact that the town which -gave both him and his former vanquished foe, Morelas, birth, is now -called Morelia, and a state is also named Morelas. In contrast to this -there is neither city nor state named after Iturbide, and the famous -Iturbide Hotel in the capital city, once his residence, is the only -institution perpetuating his name so far as I could learn. The only -things accomplished by him during his brief reign were the settlement of -the titles by which he and his family should be addressed, the succession -to the throne, order of precedence among the dignitaries, allowances of -himself and family, and the creation of the Order of Guadalupe to bestow -honours upon his followers. - -At last a so-called republic was established, and Guadalupe Victoria was -inaugurated as the first president on the 10th day of October, 1824, -and served until 1828. When the fort of San Juan de Ulua at Vera Cruz -lowered its flag, in 1825, the last vestige of Spanish power was gone, -and the red and yellow striped banner of the Iberian peninsula was not -to be seen on Mexican soil. And Mexico, as then constituted, was a big -country, containing almost twice as much territory as to-day. From the -end of the administration of President Victoria until after the death -of Maximilian, there was not a year of peace in Mexico. Revolutions, -_pronunciamentos_, “plans” and restorations followed each other in quick -succession. Generals, presidents and dictators sprang up like mushrooms, -and their position was as evanescent. The congress unwisely decreed the -expulsion of the Spaniards, and their departure took much of the wealth -of the country. Revolutions were an every-day affair. A man in position -of authority did not know when his time to be shot might come. A sudden -turn of fortune might send him either to the national palace, or before a -squad of men with guns aimed at his heart. - -A good illustration of this uncertainty of affairs is seen in the -treatment and fate of the grim old patriot Guerrero. Born of very low -Indian parents he had climbed to the front and borne many of the burdens -of the struggle with Spain. He cheerfully yielded his command to the -renegade Iturbide, and fought valiantly under that leader for liberty. -By a turn of fortune he became the third president in 1829. A few months -later he was compelled to flee, but was soon afterwards betrayed and -captured at Acapulco. At a farcical trial he was condemned to death -as “morally incapable” to act as president, and shot on the 15th of -February, 1831, at Cuilapa. Soon afterwards he was declared a martyr -and his body removed to the capital with honours. Two monuments to this -martyr now adorn that city, and a state has been named after him. Under -his short rule slavery was abolished by statute. - -Elections eventually became a farce. The unfortunate habit was acquired -of appealing to arms instead of submitting to the result of the ballot. -The trouble was that the people had copied the letter, and not the -spirit of the American constitution. Liberty was interpreted as license, -after their exaggerated ideas of the former. The scheming politicians -would hesitate at nothing—revolution or civil war—to attain private ends -or personal aggrandizement. A general indolence of character, and the -hindrances to the acquirement of property among the masses, made the -people more willing to yield to disturbing and designing politicians. -They are impetuous by nature, impatient of restraint and easily fired up. -The rapid changes in government can be seen when you read that there were -five different presidents in each of the years 1846 and 1847, and four in -1855—not an evidence of tranquillity at least. The two leading parties -constantly at war were the “progresistas” and “retrogrados.” - -During this period a few prominent names are constantly recurring, and -by far the most prominent one is that of the notorious Santa Anna, -who, for more than fifty years, occupied a prominent, but not always -honourable, place in Mexican affairs. Earlier in life his restless energy -was expended in a fairly commendable way, and he fought some battles -in defense of the rights of the people. During the war of intervention -with France in 1838 he lost his leg in the defense of Vera Cruz. Ever -afterwards, when in trouble, he would flourish his severed limb and -remind the people how he had been mutilated in the defense of his -country, with the effect of restoring himself in public favour. As he -grew older his naturally quarrelsome disposition increased, his vanity -knew no bounds, and when at the height of his glory, he declared himself -dictator and ordered all people to address him as “most serene highness.” -Never honest except as a matter of policy, his cupidity became more -pronounced, until, near the close of the war with the United States, he -offered to appoint commissioners and confirm a treaty of peace for the -sum of one million dollars. First elected president in 1833, he was -again either chosen to, or assumed the office, in 1839, 1846, 1847, -1853 and 1855, but did not serve long at any time. On one occasion his -amputated leg was buried with great ceremony, but afterwards fickle -sentiment changed, and the martyr part of this hero was brought forth by -the rabble, dragged through the streets of the capital, and insulting -epithets heaped upon the former idol. - -Santa Anna led the forces against the Texas insurrectionists, and was the -man responsible for the Alamo slaughter, when one hundred and forty brave -Texans were trapped and slain. Visitors to that place are still shown the -stains made by the blood of that brave frontiersman, Davy Crockett, and -the cry of “Remember the Alamo” still has potency. This insurrection was -soon followed by the war between Mexico and the United States. - -Franklin says, there never was a good war nor a bad peace. The United -States can not be justified in warring upon Mexico, though the results -have perhaps been for the best with both nations. Bancroft does not mince -words in his treatment of the subject for he says: “It (the Mexican -War) was a premeditated and predetermined affair; it was the result -of a deliberately calculated scheme of robbery on the part of the -superior force.” The result was a foregone conclusion, for Mexico, torn -by internal dissensions, impoverished by the expense of revolutions and -official robbery, and with a government changing with every change of the -seasons, had neither armies, money nor supplies for such a conflict. The -people were used to the smell of powder but were not trained soldiers, -and the “generals” were simply a few of the twelve thousand recipients -of military commissions that had been distributed by various presidents -in the preceding three years. “Plans” promulgated by one party were -bombarded with “pronunciamentos” from another. This was the condition of -affairs when General Taylor assumed the offensive and fought the battle -of Palo Alto. - -Mexico might have sued for peace at this time, but no government was -in power long enough to negotiate a treaty. A special envoy sent from -Washington at the request of one president was refused an audience by a -new one, who had usurped the office before his arrival. Generals Taylor -and Fremont subdued Northern Mexico, and General Scott later began his -memorable march toward the ancient Aztec capital, from Vera Cruz, like -Cortez of old. Santa Anna, who had been “recuperating” from public -unpopularity at Havana, returned and state after state immediately -“pronounced” in his favour. He issued a manifesto assuming the executive -control and took the field against the invaders. He first tried to secure -$15,000,000 from the Church, but although the priests hated the “northern -heretics” they were loth to give up the coin, and little was secured. -Vera Cruz fell after two weeks’ bombardment, and Puebla yielded to the -Americans. Patriotism was finally aroused to save the City of Mexico, -but the victories of Chapultepec, Chorubusco and Molino del Rey were -followed by the triumphal entry of General Scott into the capital. The -treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo ceded to the United States more than six -hundred thousand square miles of the Mexican domain, including some of -the richest mineral lands of the republic. Disgraced and humiliated as -Mexico had been, it was, I believe, the beginning of better things for -that country. - -Santa Anna went into voluntary exile to Jamaica. The first president -after the war, Herrera, actually served the appointed time of his office, -but disorder soon began under his successor. “Pronouncing” became -popular again, and Santa Anna returned. He was made dictator for a short -time by his favourites. This was the last office held by this selfish -politician. He exiled himself to St. Thomas again, and afterwards in -Elizabethport, New Jersey. During the second empire he tried to curry -favour with both sides, but neither would listen to him. Discouraged and -disheartened he lived abroad, until, burdened by the weight of eighty -years, he sought and obtained permission to return to the capital, and -died on the 20th of June, 1876. Thus passed a man who had lived in -stirring times, was most intensely hated, had been president six times, -military dictator four times, had upset fifteen governments, had been -marked for the assassin’s bullet many times; and yet he lived to a ripe -old age and died a natural death. However, all his glory had faded, and, -blind, lame and infirm, he spent his last days in extreme poverty. - -Here is a picture of this man drawn by Rev. William Butler,[6] who -visited him about a year before his death: “Santa Anna was living in an -obscure street, neglected and forgotten by all parties. On entering the -apartment we found the old man sitting on a sofa, behind which hung a -picture of his wife ‘her serene highness, Dolores Tosta de Santa Anna’ -arrayed as a vice-queen. The magnificence of the painting contrasted -sadly with the poverty-stricken aspect of the room and furniture. To him, -however, this could make but little difference, as we soon saw that he -was totally blind as well as feeble and broken in spirit, with a tendency -to mental weakness.” He was buried in the cemetery at Guadalupe without -honours or recognition by the government, and his remains still rest -there. As I gazed upon his tomb I could not help thinking what a contrast -between his career and that of the patriots Hidalgo, Morelas, and Juarez. - -The early constitution had declared that the Roman Catholic religion -should perpetually be the religion of Mexico. Nevertheless a struggle -had been growing up between the clericals and liberals for many years -with increasing intensity. It finally centred in a struggle over the -sequestration of the church property, and became wider and wider until -the whole country was involved and divided into two great parties. The -liberals were probably just as good Christians as the others but thought -the Church had too much wealth. - -[Illustration: A VILLAGE CHURCH] - -At this juncture there arose a pure Indian, of lowly parentage, who -never saw a school until he was twelve years of age. His name was Benito -Juarez. Although ever professing devout faith, he early espoused the -cause of the anti-clerical party. He was banished by Santa Anna and -fled to New Orleans, but opinion changed and his sentiments became the -popular views. The new constitution of 1857 declared the separation of -church and state. Juarez had been elected President of the Supreme Court -under Comonfort. The latter was compelled to flee the country and Juarez -became president under the constitution, in 1857. Congress passed a law -confiscating church property and civil war was begun. Juarez took the -field in person and did not reach the capital until three years later. -These three years have been called the years of horrors. The liberals -were excommunicated by the church, and the papal delegate and several -bishops were ordered out of the country in turn by Juarez. Ministerial -crises and resignations became chronic. Guerillas and robbers were bold -and attacked many aliens, and foreign obligations were unpaid because of -the impoverished condition of the country. - -Juarez alone remained cool in the midst of all these disturbances. The -convention entered into between France, England and Spain for a joint -intervention in Mexican affairs on the 31st day of October, 1861, brought -new embarrassment to the Indian reformer. Underneath these acts of -the convention the crafty hand of Napoleon can be seen. The man who -had accomplished one _coup d’Etat_ was a sworn enemy to all republican -institutions. The pretext for this intervention was the collection of -some money claims and reparation for alleged offences. Spain no doubt -looked forward to a little revenge. The Spanish fleet occupied Vera Cruz -on the 14th of December, 1861, followed by the other armies. A conference -took place at Orizaba with Juarez who acknowledged the money claims, and -Spain and England withdrew their forces. The French remained, secretly -supported and encouraged by the extreme church party, and advanced to and -captured Puebla. Distracted and disheartened by the state of affairs, the -prospect of a stable government made the way easy to place Maximilian -upon the throne as Emperor of Mexico, and this was done. He and the -empress arrived on the 28th of May, 1864. Maximilian was a liberal ruler -and the Empress Carlotta won the people by her charming personality and -benevolences. - -As long as the French forces remained his throne was secure. The prompt -and decisive action of Secretary Seward sounded the death knell of -Maximilian’s ambitions. Napoleon withdrew his troops, and Maximilian -might have easily escaped had he not wavered between ambition and -discretion,—the former eventually winning. He met death with dignity and -said “May my blood be the last spilt for the welfare of the country.” - -During all of these years Juarez maintained a semblance of authority and -kept a cabinet under appointment although he was finally driven to the -American border. Yet he could wait, for he had inherited from his dusky -ancestors the qualities of patience, endurance and imperturbability. -He also had executive ability and an abundance of good sense. After -the execution of Maximilian he made a triumphal entry into Mexico. The -country was impoverished. The short empire had added a national debt of -$187,000,000. More than one thousand battles and skirmishes had occurred -between 1863 and 1867, and a hundred thousand Mexicans had been killed or -disabled. The people were still restless and an increasing element began -to say that he had been president long enough. He was unmoved, but kept -steadily on his way trying to better the condition of the people, improve -the finances and bring prosperity to his country. The iron constitution -finally gave way and he died on the 19th of July, 1872, beloved and -honoured by his country. He deserves to be called the Washington of -Mexico, for the real liberty of a republican form of government began -with him. He had prepared the way for his successors to bring peace, -prosperity and liberty to a country that for centuries had been groping -and striving after such a condition. Juarez lies buried beneath a -magnificent monument in the Panteon de San Fernando, in the City of -Mexico. - -Upon the death of Juarez the constitutional succession to the chief -magistracy fell upon Lerdo de Tejada, who occupied that office for four -years. The subsequent history of Mexico, however, centres around the -personality of Porfirio Diaz, and the events of his long administration -and final downfall are treated in the two following chapters. - - - - -CHAPTER XX - -THE GUIDING HAND - - -“I should like to live fifty years to see the result of the seed I have -planted,” said Porfirio Diaz a number of years ago. It is not within the -limit of human possibility that such a boon could be granted this amiable -“republican despot” but he had lived long enough to see the good results -of the policies established by him for the upbuilding of his country. - -Succeeding to a government that had been in the throes of revolution ever -since the patriot-priest Hidalgo first proclaimed independence on the -16th of September, 1810, President Diaz at once restored peace to the -country that has lasted for thirty years. Inheriting a bankrupt treasury -from his predecessors, and a large foreign debt that had on several -occasions brought about foreign intervention, he succeeded in placing the -finances of the country in a prosperous condition and has accomplished -more for Mexico than had been done in three centuries of Spanish rule. -He organized the army along modern lines and established the _rurales_ -which insured the safety of life and property. Railroads under the -wise system of encouragement inaugurated by him have increased from -three hundred and fifty miles to thirteen thousand five hundred miles; -telegraph lines from four thousand five hundred miles to thirty-five -thousand miles; the number of post-offices now number two thousand three -hundred and fifty instead of seven hundred and twenty as it was in 1876. -Imports and exports have doubled several times, and the annual balance -sheet now shows a comfortable surplus instead of a deficit as in former -days. All this has been done and old obligations met in spite of the -serious loss in exchange due to the depreciation in silver, and the fact -that the heavy foreign obligations had to be met in gold purchased with -silver at a low and constantly varying valuation. - -[Illustration: A COMPANY OF _RURALES_] - -The life of Porfirio Diaz is fascinating. It savours of the days of -knighthood and romance. We are reminded of those heroes of old around -whom time has cast a glamour, for he has had adventures as exciting, -escapes as miraculous and a life seemingly as charmed as any hero created -by the masters of romance, and his life may well be termed “stranger -than fiction.” One is naturally inclined to be rather eulogistic in his -treatment of such a character. - -The present President of Mexico was born in the city of Oaxaca in an -unimposing house on the Street of La Soledad, that is now used as a sugar -factory, on the 15th of September, 1830, a day already celebrated in -Mexican annals. His father, Captain José Faustini Diaz, was of Spanish -descent and followed the occupation of innkeeper, but died when Porfirio -was only three years of age. His maternal grandmother was a Mixteca -Indian. The church and law were the only two occupations open to an -ambitious youth in those days, and this young lad was intended for the -former. He chose the law much to the disgust of his relatives but never -followed that calling. The fighting blood in him impelled him to the -sanguinary conflicts on the field rather than the bloodless battles in -the courts between contending counsel. - -About this time the war with the United States broke out and the future -president, a youth of seventeen, volunteered but saw no fighting, -although he thus early in life showed his genius for organization by -forming his fellow-students of the academy into a battalion for the -defence of his home city. Benito Juarez, afterwards president, was -attracted by this youth and invited him to read law in his office, -which offer was accepted. Thus was begun an association between two -men who were destined in later years to occupy such a prominent place -in Mexican history. Through the influence of Juarez, the younger man -was made assistant librarian and by the aid of the salary attached to -this position, and money earned as tutor, he completed his course, and -received his law degree. - -Politics and war seem to have divided the attention of Diaz from the very -first with a preference for the latter in early life. Diaz was a military -genius. I can say this in all seriousness. Although he never commanded a -large army yet, under his hands, the rawest recruits soon became valuable -troops. He is possessed of a personal magnetism and the quality of -_simpatica_, (which can not be translated into English) that draws people -to him and, when once aroused, they become his enthusiastic partisans. -In a land of lethargy and procrastination his movements were quick and -decisive, and he soon became noted for night marches and early morning -attacks. He never was overcome except by superior forces, and then only -after his stores and ammunition were exhausted. Even when beaten and his -army captured or separated, a few days of freedom would again place him -at the head of a respectable force ready to take aggressive stand against -the enemy. Had he been in command of a hundred thousand men, he would -have met the situation with the same tact and ability. - -The first of the many political offices held by Diaz was that of Jefe -Politico, or mayor, of the little Indian town of Ixtlan when only -twenty-five years of age. Here he devoted his time to organizing the -Indians into a company of militia, and this little body of soldiers -formed a nucleus that proved a great help to him in the troublous times -which followed. Later he was made Jefe of Tehuantepec where he showed -great administrative ability. Soon afterward, in 1861, he was elected a -deputy to congress from Oaxaca, but at that time would not sacrifice the -excitement of war for the more prosaic duties of law-making. - -Captain Diaz had seen his first military service in the revolts against -the notorious Santa Anna, of Alamo fame. He had the courage to sign a -remonstrance against this usurper, and was compelled to fly for his life. -Later, in the campaigns against Santa Anna, he was so successful that -he had become almost a hero in the eyes of his fellow Oaxacans. At the -beginning of the French invasion, the rank of general of a brigade had -been conferred upon him at the early age of thirty-two years, and he was -assigned to the defense of Puebla under General Zaragoza. It was due to -his tactics more than anything else that the way was paved for the great -victory of _Cinco de Mayo_, 1862, when an inferior force of Mexicans -defeated a numerically larger army of veteran French troops. It was -nearly a year later before the armies of the allied French and Austrians, -greatly augmented by new arrivals, were able to capture Puebla after a -two months’ siege, the ammunition of the Mexicans had been exhausted. -General Diaz refusal to give _parol_ and was made prisoner but escaped -after a short confinement. - -Because of the approach of the invading armies toward the capital, -President Juarez had removed the seat of government to San Luis Potosi. -He made General Diaz commander-in-chief of the armies south of the Valley -of Mexico. Returning to his favourite haunts in Oaxaca, he soon gathered -together an army and some money and marched forth on the offensive. By -this time General Diaz had become such a formidable opponent that General -Bazaine himself, later of European fame, leader of the French forces, -took the field against this young leader with the determination to crush -him. He finally shut him up in Oaxaca and captured that city in 1865. The -French general had carefully laid his plans for this campaign, having -transported a large number of guns, and was at the head of an army, Diaz -claims, of sixteen thousand. The fame of this general and his large force -created a panic among the troops of Diaz and his little army had dwindled -to a few hundred. General Diaz was captured and taken to Puebla by his -captors where he was prisoner for more than seven months in a former -house of the Jesuits in that city. His escape is celebrated in Mexican -annals, and his own account is as follows, although I have greatly -abbreviated it:— - -“After taps for silence had been sounded for the night, I went to a room -which was roofless and which on that account was used as a yard. I had -with me three ropes, wrapped up in canvas, and I threw them onto the -roof. I also had another rope, and I succeeded in throwing it around -a projecting stone spout which seemed to be sufficiently firm. When I -had satisfied myself that the support was sufficient, I climbed up by -the rope to the roof. My progress along the roof to the corner of San -Roque street, where I had made up my mind to descend, was attended with -much danger, for on the roof of the church a detachment and sentries -were stationed to keep watch. Gliding on all-fours I made towards the -point where I was to let myself down. I often had to stop to feel my -way, for the roof was strewn with many fragments of glass which sounded -when touched. Moreover, there were frequent flashes of lightning, which -exposed me to being discovered. - -“I finally reached the wall of the church. In order to arrive at the -corner of the street of San Roque it was necessary to pass through a -portion of the edifice which was occupied by the priest in charge of the -church, and I was aware that shortly before he had denounced to the court -martial some political prisoners who had bored a hole through their place -of confinement into his dwelling, and as a consequence they had been shot -the next day. - -“I let myself down into an upper yard of the priest’s house at the moment -when a young man who also lived there had come in from the street; he had -probably been to the theatre, for he was in gay humour and was humming -an air from an operetta. He did not see me as he passed, and I remained -quiet until he had entered his room. When I considered that sufficient -time had elapsed for him to get into bed, and perhaps to fall asleep, I -climbed to the roof of the convent on the opposite side to that by which -I had descended and pushed forward to the corner of the street of San -Roque, and I arrived there at last. There is at the corner, in a niche, -a statue of St. Vincent Ferrer which I proposed using to fix the rope -by which I was to descend. The saint wobbled when touched, but probably -there was inside the statue an iron spike to hold it. In any case, in -order to be more sure, I adjusted the rope around the pedestal of the -statue which seemed to be quite firm. I resolved to alight in a vacant -lot which adjoined and which was only fenced in. I did not know that -there was a drove of hogs in this yard. As when I began the descent I -turned somewhat with my rope, my back struck against the wall, and the -impact caused a poniard which I carried at my waist to fall from its -sheath among the hogs, probably wounding one of them, for they set up a -grunting which grew louder as they saw me descending among them. I had -to wait for some time for them to quiet down. I then climbed to the top -of the partition separating the lot from the street, but I had at once -to bob down again for just at that moment a gendarme was passing on his -round, seeing if the doors were well fastened. When he had retired I -sprang into the street.” - -In a few days he had rallied around him a few faithful followers and -captured the small garrison of Tehuitzingo. From this time his career was -a succession of victories until the capture and execution of Maximilian. -These victories and the firm stand of the United States government -re-established republican supremacy. Early in 1867 preparations were made -to regain Puebla which city was defended by a force of several thousand -French troops. On April 2nd he made a feint with a few hundred men on -the convent of “El Carmen” which caused the army of the defenders to -be concentrated there. Then a concerted attack followed from several -points, and the soldiers of Diaz drove back the hardened troops of the -third Napoleon, and the flag of liberty waved over the city in the early -dawn. He followed up the fleeing foreigners and a series of engagements -followed in which Diaz was victorious. The war was ended by the capture -of the City of Mexico after a siege of several assaults. - -From boyhood until the close of the empire in 1867, General Diaz had -worked against great odds. He was by this time easily the most popular -man in Mexico. One party at the general elections of that year nominated -him for president, but he refused to run against his old friend and -patron, President Juarez. He even refused an office and resigned his -commission in the army. In search of rest he retired to the place of -his birth, and his trip from the capital was a triumphal journey. The -citizens of Oaxaca received him with open arms, and presented him with -the estate of La Noria near that city. Hither he went with the wife -whom he had married by proxy during the war and spent a few years in -comparative quiet. In 1871 another presidential election was held. -Juarez, who had failed both mentally and physically, had advocated -a number of unpopular measures, but was determined to have himself -reëlected to office. Diaz was also a candidate. When Juarez was declared -elected, the “Porfiristas” declared a revolution with the slogan “less -government and more liberty.” However Juarez died in a few months and the -executive power temporarily fell upon the president of the Supreme Court, -Lerdo de Tejada, who was afterwards elected to that office to serve the -unexpired term. - -General Diaz refused reconciliation with this government, and, fearing -trouble before the next presidential election, for Lerdo was an active -candidate, he sold his estate and left for the United States after a -“_pronunciamento_,” called the “Plan of Tuxtepec,” had been issued to -which he gave his allegiance, if he was not the author of it. This “plan” -declared a president ineligible to succeed himself. By the time the -revolution was well underway in several states, General Diaz had crossed -the Rio Grande at Brownsville, Texas, with forty followers. These forty -men increased to four hundred in a few days and they captured Matamoros -on April 2nd, 1876. - -Learning that a large force had been sent after him, General Diaz decided -to return south. He went to New Orleans and took a steamer from there, -called the City of Habana, sailing for Vera Cruz, and passed himself -off as a Cuban doctor. He was not suspected until some of the troops he -had captured at Matamoros a few weeks before got on board the ship at -Tampico. They immediately made arrangements to secure him on arriving -at Vera Cruz. Although the ship was four miles from land, Diaz jumped -overboard and attempted to swim ashore. He was picked up after nightfall -in an exhausted condition, and taken on board the ship again. However -the purser was won to his cause and concealed him in a wardrobe, where -he remained for several days on a diet of ship’s biscuit and water. -The purser, as a matter of policy and in order to disarm all suspicion, -invited the Lerdist officers into his cabin, where they would spend hours -in playing at cards. Oftentimes the chair of the one sitting in front -of the wardrobe would be tilted back against the door behind which was -the man they would have given almost anything to catch. From his cramped -position General Diaz was in torment. He could not stand upright, nor was -he able to sit down. When the _City of Habana_ arrived at Vera Cruz the -chief of the coast guard service, who was the fugitive’s friend, managed -to smuggle in to him a dilapidated sailor’s suit and a very old pair of -boots. At the same time the chief sent word that a rowboat, in charge of -a man he would recognize by certain signals, would come alongside for -him. When the ship began to unload bales of cotton into barges, this boat -appeared among them, and the noted prisoner made his escape to land. - -After several exciting adventures on the way, General Diaz again appeared -at Oaxaca among his friends and ardent supporters. His popularity and -prestige in Oaxaca have always been remarkable. Never did he appeal to -his neighbours and friends of that state in vain. It was not long until -he was at the head of an army of four thousand “Porfiristas”—men who -would follow their leader to the death if need be, and many of whom had -fought with him at Puebla and elsewhere. The news of the escape of Diaz -brought gloom to the “Lerdistas.” Lerdo immediately marched his army -southward. The two armies met on the 16th of November, 1876, at Tecoac, -and for a few hours the battle waged hotly and bitterly. The Lerdist -army, which was considerably larger, began the engagement with every -prospect of success. At the last moment Diaz led a charge in person -which routed the enemy, and the result was a complete triumph for the -“Porfiristas.” - -Flushed with victory, and determined to press his advantage to the -utmost, General Diaz promptly proceeded toward the capital with his -augmented army. Panic seized Lerdo and his followers. He took all the -public funds available, and, with his ministers, fled to Acapulco. Upon -arriving there he embarked for San Francisco, and made no further effort -to impede the progress of the Diaz forces. Iglesias, President of the -Supreme Court, upon whom the succession legally fell upon the death or -resignation of the President, established headquarters at Guanajuato and -issued a proclamation assuming the office of chief executive. Diaz at -once marched upon Puebla, which he entered without opposition. City after -city sent representatives announcing their adherence to his cause. The -onward march was continued without a halt until Guadalupe, about three -miles from the capital, was reached. Here he halted for a day in order to -get his forces into presentable condition to make a triumphal entry into -the historic capital. - -It was on the 24th of November, 1876, that General Diaz made his -memorable march into the City of Mexico. Riding at the head of an army -of several thousand armed men he made a triumphal entry into that -ancient capital, while thousands gathered along the route to see this -new adventurer—as he was styled by his enemies. The Plaza was packed -with the populace. This son of an innkeeper, this man with the blood -of the Indian in his veins, this hero of many battles passed through -the portal of the National Palace and became master of Mexico. From -there he issued a proclamation assuming the provisional presidency of -the republic, until an election could take place in regular form and a -constitutional ruler should be chosen. This was held in December. With -the government in his hands the result of that election was never in -doubt. After a three months’ campaign his authority was recognized over -the entire republic. Since that time Porfirio Diaz occupied that high -office continuously, except for an interval of four years from 1880 to -1884, when Manuel Gonzalez held that title, until May 25th, 1911, when he -resigned. Diaz himself became a victim of the “Tuxtepec Plan,” forbidding -two consecutive terms, and gracefully retired at the end of his first -term, although urged by a large following to remain at the head of the -government. For the first time in Mexican history was seen the spectacle -of one President voluntarily relinquishing the sceptre to his successor, -and returning to private life without an effort to retain himself in -power. Gonzalez entered the office one of the most popular men in Mexico, -having been elected by an almost unanimous vote. Four years later he left -it under a cloud of almost universal execration and contempt. During the -four years of Gonzalez’s administration Diaz was not idle, but served in -the cabinet, as governor of Oaxaca and senator from Morelas. Isolated -disturbances have arisen at times, but no formidable opposition arose -against him until 1910. This revolution is treated in the succeeding -chapter. The law limiting the succession was revoked during his second -term, and the length of office was subsequently extended to six years. At -the various elections the reported vote was almost unanimous for Diaz. -On December 1st, 1910, he was inaugurated President for the seventh -consecutive term, or eighth term in all. - -Immediately upon first assuming the executive office after the flight -of Lerdo, Diaz issued a statement in which he set forth in clear terms -his intention to restore constitutional order and institute reforms. He -invited all factions and cliques to coöperate with him. This soon won -the regard of the intelligent and honest partisans of all factions, and -he early showed his impartiality by selecting his advisers irrespective -of party. It was not long until most of the Lerdistas and Juaristas were -won to his cause. By this skilful handling of the leaders, he secured -the good will of Congress in furthering his plans for reforms, and in -organizing the finances on a better basis. New treaties were negotiated -with foreign nations and able diplomatic representatives sent abroad. - -It has been said that the best peacemakers are those who have made war. -Those who detest powder most are generally those who have smelled it -on the field of battle. To them—more than all others—are known the -horrors and hardships of war, and what it entails upon the innocent and -guilty alike. Even though a battle-scared hero may have profited by the -advantages gained by military success, the tragedy of empty homes and -nameless graves is known to and acknowledged by him. General Sherman -said: “The main thing is to deal as hard blows at the enemy’s forces -as possible, and then cause so much suffering to the inhabitants that -they will long for peace.” A similar belief animated President Diaz. He -himself has said in explaining his actions in suppressing brigandage: -“Sometimes we were harsh to the point of cruelty. But it was all -necessary to the life and progress of the nation. If there was cruelty, -the results have justified it. It was better that a little blood be shed -that much blood be saved. The blood that was shed was bad blood; the -blood that was saved was good blood.” Almost before they knew what was -happening the professional malcontents found themselves in the grip of -this masterful new leader. It was to this quality of firmness that he -owed his pronounced success during the first years of his presidency. - -Several scattered uprisings occurred during the first term, most of them -being fostered by the “Lerdistas.” Lerdo issued a proclamation on the -24th of February, 1877, from New York, claiming to be the constitutional -President, and, a few months later, Iglesias did the same thing from New -Orleans. Neither of these manifestos were looked upon seriously by the -Mexicans, but they were in a great measure responsible for the tardy -recognition of the Diaz government by the United States and other foreign -powers. One revolt is worthy of mention because of its novelty. A part of -the crew of the armed vessel _Trinidad_ mutinied during the absence of -the commander at Vera Cruz. They headed for a Campeche port, where they -seized several thousand dollars of public funds. While the leaders of the -mutiny were ashore enjoying the money, a counter mutiny was led by the -boatswain, who took the ship back to Vera Cruz and returned it to the -government. - -Judging this man at a distance, we, who live in a country where even -a third term is a “bogie,” are inclined to smile at these successive -elections to the presidency, and dismiss the matter with the charge of -“dictator” and “republican despot,” with all the odium that those terms -imply. President Diaz was both. But, above all, he was, I believe, a -true patriot. Whatever may have been his original motives in seeking this -high office his later actions prove the statement. Responsibility will -often develop a man, and that may have been true with Diaz. In securing -the control by driving out Lerdo, and assuming the provisional presidency -over Iglesias, who was the official designated by the constitution in -case of a vacancy, he only did what many had done before. Whether his -retention of the office for so long was a good or bad thing for the -country, the historian of the future will be a better judge. - -The accomplishments of Diaz were many. It would require a long -enumeration to give them in detail. The very fact that he succeeded -to a government which had seen fifty-four different rulers, including -two emperors and a number of avowed dictators, in the fifty-five years -preceding his own accession, and ruled the country for more than a -generation, is in itself sufficient to stamp him as an extraordinary man. -Those were indeed troublous times in Mexico while we were celebrating -the centennial of our independence. The strong spirit of Juarez had -been broken by the long strain from 1857 to 1872, during which time -he was nominally President. His successor was a weak, ambitious man -who accomplished little. Disorder everywhere, the country overrun with -bandits and a worse than empty treasury were the conditions when Diaz -grasped the reins. It was not until nearly two years afterward that his -government was formally recognized by the United States. Few men could -have steered the country through such a state of affairs so successfully. -He did it without repudiating any valid claims. He established credit -by paying foreign obligations rather than the salaries of government -employees. He surrounded himself with an able cabinet, and started the -machinery of government in a business-like way. - -I do not subscribe to the doctrine of Shakespeare that all the world -is a stage, and that each person is a player, for that would take away -sincerity. Porfirio Diaz has been accused of only acting a part. He -could not always be acting, for his course was too consistent under many -and diverse circumstances. As a young man he refused pay for military -services because the government was so poor. He declined promotion over -the heads of men older in the service for fear of jealousies. He refused -remuneration after the close of the war of intervention, although not -a rich man at that time. He turned a deaf ear to the emissaries of -Maximilian, who wanted to place him in command of the Mexican army when -that ruler abdicated, which would practically have made him President. He -was a humane adversary, as is shown by his treatment of prisoners of war. -He disregarded ceremony as much as is possible in a Latin country. He -declined to live in the National Palace, but resided in a private house -the most of the time, and at Chapultepec a part of the year. - -It is not to be wondered at that the man who rules with a strong arm -will make bitter enemies as well as warm partisans. Likewise such a -policy will always have its defamers as well as its supporters. Opinion -is still divided upon Napoleon, and whether his high-handed methods -wrought more good than evil. Hence it is that some can see nothing in -Diaz but a tyrant, an enslaver of his people, and a man unfit for even -life itself. They forget that peonage was not originated by Diaz, but was -inherited from the Spaniards and supported by the voters of the country. -They do not look into the conditions faced by Diaz when he first became -President, nor the bloody history of the republic before that time. I -believe that Diaz would have been permitted to serve his term had it not -been for his efforts to control the vice-presidency, and the fact that -his choice fell upon a man who was very unpopular. Knowing that at his -age the President’s span of life was uncertain, the politicians wanted to -control this office because of the succession. For this reason discontent -and jealousies had been growing for several years. Diaz had publicly -declared his intention not to seek another term, so that those ambitious -for that office took him at his word and began their wire-pulling. This -was in February, 1908. Then, in the spring of 1910, he announced that -yielding to importunity he would accept another term. This was the one -great mistake in his political career. Had Diaz adhered to his previous -declaration, he would have retired from the office of chief executive -full of honours. As it is he resigned under pressure, and left the City -of Mexico unannounced and accompanied only by his family and a few -friends. He boarded a steamer in the harbour of Vera Cruz and sailed for -Spain, where he has quietly resided since that time. - -The personality of this dictator-president, who has filled such an -important place in the world’s history, is most interesting. As I sat -in the great salon of the National Palace, awaiting the appearance -of President Diaz, I spent the intervening fifteen or twenty minutes -in examining the room. On the high walls were pictures of General -Washington, the father of liberty in the whole of the two Americas; of -the patriot-priest Hidalgo, who first raised the standard of revolt in -Mexico, and of Diaz himself. Then Diaz appeared—a man tall for a Mexican, -solidly built, with white closely cropped hair and white moustache. He -approached with an elastic, graceful and springy step entirely belying -his almost eighty years. The Indian blood could easily be traced in -his complexion and features. The most striking feature of this man is -his eyes, which seem to look into the very soul of all he meets. It is -probably this intuitive perception that has been one of the key-notes -of his success. He has always been a democratic sort of man and easy -of approach, and impresses his sincerity on all those who talk with -him. Diaz was always a tireless worker and methodical in his habits. He -is abstemious, and it is probably due to this characteristic and his -methodical habits, that at eighty years of age he remained as active and -energetic as the average man twenty years younger. He kept in touch with -the most remote parts of the republic, even to the most distant village. -His advisers were often surprised at the vast knowledge he displayed in -all matters of state. The private life of Diaz has always been above -reproach. He has been twice married. His first wife was Delfina Ortega -y Reyes, who died in 1880 before sharing in the full greatness of her -husband, leaving a son and two daughters, all of whom are still living. -Three years later he was married to a daughter of Romero Rubio, whose -full name is Señora Doña Carmen Romero Rubio de Diaz. She is a woman who -by her sweetness of character, kindly disposition and charities won a -warm place in the affections of the Mexican people. - -The end of the political career of Diaz is not without a touch of pathos, -as well as an element of personal dignity. Broken in health, and deserted -by many of his former friends, he resigned the office of President in the -following letter addressed to Congress:— - - “SEÑORES: The Mexican people, who have generously covered - me with honours, who proclaimed me as their leader during - the international war, who patriotically assisted me in all - works undertaken to develop industry and the commerce of the - republic, to establish its credit, gain for it the respect - of the world and obtain for it an honourable position in the - concert of the nations; that same people has revolted in armed - military bands, stating that my presence in the exercise of the - supreme executive power was the cause of this insurrection. - - “I do not know of any facts imputable to me which could have - caused this social phenomenon; but acknowledging as possible, - though not admitting, that I may be unwittingly culpable, such - a possibility makes me the least able to reason out and decide - my own culpability. - - “Therefore, respecting, as I always have respected, the will - of the people and in accordance with Article 82 of the Federal - Constitution, I come before the supreme representatives of - the nation in order to resign, unreservedly, the office of - Constitutional President of the republic with which the - national vote honoured me, which I do with all the more reason, - since in order to continue in office it would be necessary to - shed Mexican blood, endangering the credit of the country, - dissipating its wealth, exhausting its resources and exposing - its policy to international complications. - - “I hope, señores, that, when the passions which are inherent - to all revolutions have been calmed, a more conscientious and - justified study will bring out in the national mind a correct - acknowledgment, which will allow me to die carrying engraved in - my soul a just impression of the estimation of my life, which - throughout I have devoted and will devote to my countrymen. - - “With all respect, - - “PORFIRIO DIAZ.” - - - - -CHAPTER XXI - -THE REVOLUTION OF 1910 - - -The year 1910 marked the completion of one hundred years of Mexican -independence. In September of that year this event was celebrated with -all the pomp and pageantry customary in Latin countries. Nearly the -whole month was given up to public functions in various parts of the -republic, and especially in the City of Mexico, the national capital. -Representatives of all the great nations of the world were sent there -to assist in the ceremonies incident to the celebration. Dedications -of public buildings, magnificent balls, public fêtes and exercises -commemorative of independence and of the national heroes, who led the -struggle against the Spaniards, were numerous. The 15th and the 16th of -September were the great gala days of this centennial anniversary. The -further fact that added lustre to the event was the eightieth anniversary -of the birth of President Diaz, who had established a substantial -government after the many years of strife through which the country had -passed between the years 1810 and 1876. In all the speeches made by -foreign representatives the great work of this man was extolled, as well -as the progress that had been made by the nation itself. - -The culmination of the centennial ceremonies was on the night of the -15th, just a little while before midnight. By half past ten o’clock -the immense Plaza, which faces the National Palace, was filled with an -immense crowd of Mexican dignitaries, distinguished foreigners and the -population of the city. It was a mass of living, breathing, expectant -humanity. The many coloured lights formed veritable rainbows of colour, -and this added an additional attraction to the teeming, seething crowd. -The door leading to the central balcony on the front of the National -Palace opened, and President Diaz appeared. An intense stillness fell -upon the crowd. In his right hand the President carried the national flag -of Mexico, and immediately on his appearance the red, white and green -lamps (the national colours) surrounding the old bell with which Hidalgo -first sounded the call to liberty, and which has found a permanent -resting place here, flashed into a radiant glow. As the strains of -the national anthem floated out on the breeze, the President waved his -flag, rang the bell and shouted “Viva Mexico!” The great crowd went wild -with excitement. The cry of “Viva Mexico!” was taken up by the crowd -near to the President, and then by those farther away, until the great -shout might have been heard all over the capital. The bells of the grand -old cathedral pealed forth their loudest tones, the factory whistles -shrieked, sky-rockets were sent up in the air and every noise-making -device was turned loose. Pandemonium reigned. “Viva Diaz!” and “Viva el -Presidente!” were mingled with the cry of “Viva Mexico!” - -In the light of later events this wonderful celebration seems to have -been a sham, or at least only on the surface. At that time a political -volcano was simmering all over the republic, and was just ready to -break forth into violent eruption. Diaz had already been re-elected for -the eighth term, but the inauguration was not to take place until the -fifth of December. In November the first outbreaks against the civil -authorities occurred. An abortive rising occurred in Puebla in which -blood was shed. Armed bodies appeared in the states of Chihuahua and -Sonora, in the northwestern part of the republic. These bodies attacked -the outlying _haciendas_, robbed the owners of horses and foraged at will -to secure supplies for themselves and their horses. The country in which -these outbreaks occurred is ideal for the guerilla warfare that followed. -Both of those states are mountainous and thinly settled, so that it was -comparatively easy for even a small band of armed men to make a great -deal of trouble and escape from a much larger force that might attempt to -pursue them. - -Government troops were promptly dispatched to the scene of trouble, -but it was difficult to catch up with the marauders and engage them in -battle. Their outbreaks would first be heard of in one neighbourhood, -and a few days later reports of trouble would be received from sections -quite remote. Additional armed bodies appeared in other sections, and it -was not many weeks until the trouble began to present a serious aspect. -Many of the government troops sent against the insurrectos were either -cowardly or were in secret sympathy with those opposed to the government. -Whenever actual engagements did occur the outcome was generally in favour -of the Federal troops, but the defeated ones were always able to escape -into the country, where it was difficult for them to be followed. The -first battle of any note was fought at Mal Paso, when the Federals were -routed, but a battle at Ojinaga a few days later was a decided defeat -for the revolutionists. The failure of the government to stamp out the -trouble promptly gave encouragement to all the disaffected ones, and the -old spirit of lawlessness that once prevailed seemed about to break forth -with all its animus and disregard of the rights of private property. - -The predominant figures among the insurrectos were the Maderos, a -wealthy family that owned great estates near the city of Torreon. In -the presidential campaign that had just passed, Francisco Madero had -been a candidate for the presidency. He was thrown into prison, as that -family asserted, simply because he dared to oppose the dictator who had -held power for so long. The reason given out by the government was, of -course, far different. Nevertheless all the disaffected factions of the -republic rallied around this family, which did the principal financing -of the revolutionists. A propaganda was conducted in the United States -by the Maderos, and they obtained a great deal of encouragement from the -majority of the newspapers of the United States, which had recently taken -a position extremely antagonistic to the Diaz government. Francisco -Madero established a revolutionary junta in El Paso, and large quantities -of ammunition were sent across the border. A warrant for his arrest -having been issued because of violation of the neutrality laws, Madero -with a handful of followers crossed into Chihuahua and entered actively -into the campaign. - -“No re-election” and “effective suffrage” were the two catch-words of -Madero. It was very similar to that of Porfirio Diaz when he swept -everything before him. At no time were there, according to the best -reports that can be obtained, more than a few thousand men enrolled -under the Madero banner. These troops were scattered throughout northern -Mexico, from Ciudad Juarez to the Pacific Ocean. Into their ranks were -drawn many soldiers of fortune from the United States, as well as from -Europe. A part of these men were no doubt really patriotic in their -motives, while others simply grasped the chance of engaging in an -exciting campaign because of the freedom of action which was offered, and -also partly because of the rewards that were promised by those at the -head of the revolution. An eye-witness of the engagement at Tia Juana -says that not over ten per cent. of the insurrectos who captured that -town were Mexicans, the remainder being made up of Americans, including -some negroes, Germans, English and other nationalities. This engagement -occurred on May 8th and 9th, 1911. The Federals threw up breastworks -of bags of sand, and the women and children were sent out of town to -the American side. The fighting was severe and many were killed on both -sides. On the second day the government forces yielded, and the rebels -immediately pillaged the town and stores. - -Most of the engagements took place at towns near the border, at Ciudad -Juarez, Nogales and Douglass, as well as Tia Juana. Two reasons were -probably responsible for this fact. One was that it gave the insurrectos, -in case they were defeated, an easy escape across the border, and another -was that they were anxious to capture the custom-houses in order to -secure the revenue from that source. This would also enable them to set -up a _de facto_ government, which might secure for them recognition from -countries that looked upon them with favour. Because of these fights on -the border, and the reckless shooting by the combatants, no fewer than -twenty citizens of the United States were killed and twice that number -wounded upon the American side, including men, women and children, none -of whom had taken any part in the conflict. The camps of the Maderistas -at all times contained numerous American correspondents, and the reports -of the majority of them were favourable to the cause of that faction. The -battle of Casas Grandes was all but decisive. In this engagement Madero -took part and was slightly wounded, while the opposing leader lost an -arm. But Madero was soon in the field again at the head of his forces. -The movement had likewise spread, and the government faced trouble in the -country even as far south as the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. - -The aim of the Maderistas was to secure recognition as belligerents -from the government of the United States, and it was also the desire of -the government to put down the insurrection in order to prevent action -by the United States to suppress the trouble because of the complaint -of many Americans whose property had been destroyed, or was in danger -of destruction. Railroad tracks were torn up, mines were tampered with -and much other interference with the property of foreigners followed. -European governments did not dare to interfere because of the Monroe -Doctrine, and pressure was brought upon the government at Washington to -restore order. On May 8th there was great excitement in the United States -following orders issued by the Department of War for the mobilization of -American troops along the Mexican border. Almost twenty thousand troops -were sent to Texas and centralized at San Antonio. From there they were -sent to various places along the international border, but with positive -instruction to take no part in the trouble on the other side of the -Rio Grande. The press looked upon this action as preliminary to armed -intervention, but no such result followed. This movement of troops was no -doubt actuated by the motive of showing what the United States could do, -and of impressing both sides to the conflict that foreign property must -be left undisturbed and the rights of neutral parties carefully observed. - -Several attempts were made by the Maderistas to capture Ciudad Juarez, -the prosperous city directly opposite El Paso. The Federal troops in the -city were under the command of General Navarro, while the insurrectos in -the final siege were commanded by Gen. Pascual Orozco. After a battle of -several days, including considerable street fighting, General Navarro -surrendered his command of fifteen hundred men to General Orozco on -the 10th of May. Shortly after this Madero himself entered the city as -victor, and immediately set up a provisional government, giving himself -the title of Provisional President. This gave the insurrectos control of -the important custom house at Ciudad Juarez, and was a great victory for -their cause. “On to Mexico” then became the popular cry, and preparations -began to be made for that long march. Torreon had fallen, and Pachuca, -only forty miles from the capital, had been taken possession of by the -revolutionists. Chihuahua and a number of other cities were besieged by -them. - -At this stage Diaz and his advisers asked for an armistice in order that -negotiations might be conducted. Each side appointed commissioners, -and efforts were made to agree upon terms for settling the trouble -into which the country had been plunged. The Maderistas refused to -consider any terms which did not involve the resignation of President -Diaz, Vice-President Corral and the entire cabinet. President Diaz, in -order to avoid further bloodshed, the outcome of which would be very -uncertain, finally acceded to these terms and agreed to resign before -the end of the month. His resignation was delayed, however, for some -time, and disorder again broke out in several places. Even in the City -of Mexico mobs formed, and practically took possession of the city on -the 24th and 25th of May. Before the close of the latter day President -Diaz handed in his resignation, as the Vice-President had previously -done, and the government was turned over to Francisco de la Barra, who -had been agreed upon as the Provisional President until a new executive -could be chosen at a special election. President Diaz secretly left the -City of Mexico, and embarked on a vessel at Vera Cruz for Europe. A new -cabinet was selected by Acting-President Barra, the majority of whom were -suggested by Francisco Madero. A wiser selection than Dr. de la Barra it -would have been difficult to make for such a troublesome position. He -had represented Mexico at Washington just prior to the troubles of his -country, and commanded great respect among the officials in that city. - -With the downfall of Diaz the real troubles of the Maderistas began. -It is almost always true that the victorious are impatient to secure -the fruits of their victory. Extravagant promises had been made by the -leaders of the revolution, which included free land, lower taxes, higher -wages and a decreased cost of living. It was impossible for the leaders -to do these things at once, as it would take several years to work out -such a program. Although Francisco Madero held no office, he had been -designated as an adviser of the new government, and no appointments were -made by the Provisional President without his approval. This brought -about jealousies among the ambitious leaders, and there has been more or -less fighting in various sections of the republic in which much blood has -been shed. A few generals deserted the standards of Madero and have kept -up fighting on their own account. A serious outbreak occurred in the city -of Puebla in which many were killed. Many political parties followed, -as it had been many years since there was a definite party organization -in Mexico. Some of these were very small, being made up simply of -factional groups. The Church party again became prominent and started -to take an active part in the approaching election. Bernardo Reyes, who -had been sent on a mission to Europe by Diaz in order to get him out of -the country, returned, and a strong party known as the Reyesistas arose -and wanted to nominate him for the presidency. He left the country, -however, before the final elections, claiming to be in fear of his life. -This voluntary expatriation of General Reyes on September 28th, when, -disguised as an invalid, he walked up the gang-plank of a steamer at Vera -Cruz, bound for New York, removed the only obstacle in the path of Sr. -Madero. The election, which was held on Sunday, October 1st, 1911, was -as peaceful as such an event could be in most parts of Mexico. It does -not necessarily mean that they were not inclined to fight, but there was -nothing to fight about. The result was that the electors chosen were -almost unanimous for Francisco Madero. - -To an American this election would seem almost farcical. For the purpose -of the election the country was divided into districts, with one -presidential elector for every five hundred inhabitants. Before election -day two officials were appointed in each district. One of these officials -compiled a list of the voters in his little subdivision. When he had -looked up the voters in his district, and the names were printed and -posted on some convenient street corner, this official’s duties ended. -Any one whose name did not appear on the printed list had a right to go -to the proper authorities and state his case. All those qualified to vote -received a ballot on which they were to write the names of the electors -they wished to vote for. The second official appointed took charge of -the election booth on the morning of the election, and these booths were -generally placed at the entrance to business houses or even in the parks. -The voting places were supposed to open at 9 o’clock. The first seven -voters who appeared, with the one commissioner appointed, constituted -the election board. In American cities one could imagine a great rush of -voters to be among the first seven, but in many of the Mexican booths -that number did not arrive until half an hour or an hour after the time -the booth was supposed to open. The commissioner in charge sat at the -table with a list of the voters beside him, and, as the voters appeared, -they indicated the names of the electors for whom they wished to vote, -and the commissioner then communicated this information to the other -members of the board in an audible voice. As a general rule there was no -closed ballot box, but the ballots were merely laid in an open pasteboard -box with a paperweight on top to hold them down. Of secrecy or an attempt -at secrecy there was none. Some citizens sent their wives to vote for -them with the information that they themselves were indisposed, and these -ballots were accepted. It is claimed that the peons generally abstained -from voting, partly because of pride because they were not able to write, -but more likely because of indifference since they had never been allowed -such a privilege before. - -[Illustration: SR. DON FRANCISCO I. MADERO. - -Courtesy of the Bulletin of the Pan-American Union.] - -The only real contest in the election was over the choice of a -Vice-President. Dr. Vasquez Gomez, who had been the principal aid of -Sr. Madero in the revolution, had been cast aside by him in favour of -José Maria Pino Suarez. The cause of the disagreement between these -two leaders of the revolution was in part over the name of the party. -Dr. Gomez insisted upon the original name of the revolutionist party, -which was Anti-reelectionista, while Sr. Madero decided upon the name of -Constitutional Progressive. Dr. Gomez continued as a candidate under the -name chosen by him. Many also voted for the Acting-President, although -he was not an active candidate. Other names of parties with tickets in -the field were Pure Liberal Party, Red Liberals, Evolutionist Party -and Reyesistas. An active campaign was carried on by several of the -candidates, and Señor Madero visited many of the states in a speaking -tour. Everywhere he was received with respect and at many times with real -enthusiasm. Soldiers were present at the voting booths in many places on -election day to prevent trouble, but there was very little disturbance -in any part of the country. - -On the 6th of November, 1911, Francisco Indalecio Madero was inaugurated -President of Mexico with elaborate ceremonies, and Pino Suarez was -inducted into the office of Vice-President. The new chief executive -of the republic was born on the Hacienda del Rosario, in the state of -Coahuila, on the 4th of October, 1873, and is still a young man. He is -the eldest of a family of thirteen children, and both of his parents -are members of wealthy land-owning families. It is estimated that the -revolution cost the Maderos more than a million dollars, but they -could well afford it. He married Señorita Sara Pérez, the daughter of -a prominent Mexican, in 1900. For several years President Madero has -been the leader of the opposition in the republic. His appearance is -not that of a leader, for the new President is barely five feet four in -height and weighs less than one hundred thirty-five pounds. His figure is -slight, with small hands and feet, and he wears a full beard. By way of -preparing for his campaign Madero wrote a book entitled “The Presidential -Succession in 1910,” which created such a tremendous sensation that -it was finally suppressed by the Diaz government. It was a fearless -arraignment of what he considered to be the evils of that administration. -On June 7th, 1910, he was arrested at Monterey and imprisoned for several -weeks, not being released until after the election had been held. It was -then that he published his political platform known as the “Plan of San -Luis Potosi,” which was issued from that city on the 5th of October. -Among the reforms advocated by him were a more equitable distribution of -the lands of the republic, free restitution of lands wrested from the -Yaquis and a return of that tribe to their native state, and an abolition -of the practice of admitting malefactors into the national army. - -It is impossible to predict the outcome of the Madero administration. -If the people stand by him many needed reforms may be accomplished. The -main difficulty to be overcome will be that personalism enters so much -into Mexican politics. If parties backed by real and genuine principles -and not dependent for their strength upon a single personality, shall -arise, then peaceful conditions will return and President Madero will -be permitted to work out his program. He showed himself humane and -considerate during the revolution, although he did not distinguish -himself especially as a strategist or military leader. He broke all -precedents in yielding the provisional presidency to Dr. de la Barra, -instead of seizing that office himself as he might easily have done. In -his speeches he has counselled moderation among his followers. He has a -difficult task before him, but it is the hope of the writer that he will -not disappoint those who have raised him to power. - -President Madero has been accused of being anti-American in his -sympathies. As an answer to this I quote from an authorized statement by -him in an American newspaper: - -“I am glad at this time to have the opportunity to assure the American -people of my great friendship and regard for them, and to assure them -that I will do all in my power during my administration to strengthen -still more the already strong friendly relations existing between the two -nations. I feel very sure that during my administration the bonds which -unite the sister republic will become far stronger than they have ever -been. I am a great admirer of the American people, for I went to school -in the United States and I have travelled much in your country. I will -welcome Americans to Mexico at all times. I want to see American energy, -American brains and American capital come to this country and assist in -its development and progress, and Americans will always find a friend in -me and my government.” - - - - -CHAPTER XXII - -THE SIERRAS AND BEYOND - - -“Las Madres,” says the Mexican, whenever he is asked the name of the -lofty range of mountains that runs through the western part of the -northern half of Mexico, and which separate the lofty interior plateaus -from the Pacific Ocean and the Gulf of California. This range of -mountains effectually cuts off the west coast from the best developed -part of Mexico, and for that reason this section is not so well known -as those parts which are visited by travellers. At the present time no -railway has been completed across this range of mountains, but it will -not be long until this disadvantage will exist no longer. This district -includes the great states of Sonora and Sinaloa, the territory of Tepic, -and a large part of the states of Chihuahua and Durango. To-day it is -almost a counterpart of what California was before the gold rush of -1849—little known, isolated and undeveloped—but with just as great -natural advantages. Dense jungles cover the lower levels along the coast, -where water is plentiful, while great areas in the north are semi-arid. -In the higher altitudes vast forests of pine and oak crown the serrated -peaks. The population is generally sparse and scattered. - -In the future the main gateways to reach this part of the country from -the United States will be El Paso, and Benson, Arizona. From El Paso it -is a distance of a little more than two hundred miles to Chihuahua. The -traveller has no sooner crossed the Rio Grande than the change is seen -in the Mexican town of Ciudad Juarez, formerly Paso del Norte. This city -was the objective point of the revolutionists in the late trouble in -that country, and was the scene of a great deal of fighting before it -was finally captured. After its capture it was the seat of the temporary -government of the Maderistas. For several hours on the journey southward -there is nothing to be seen but the chaparral and desolate-looking hills, -with just enough novelty in the little towns that may be passed to make -the trip strange and rather old-fashioned. Big-hatted, shiftless peons -stare at you from their leaning positions against the station walls. The -“hee-haw” of a lone burro or the “cough” of a gasoline engine will be -the only sounds to break the silence. - -The train rolls along through a narrow valley which is quite level, -and with high tablelands all about. Then the route reaches the land of -_haciendas_, where herds of cattle, sheep and goats may be seen. It is a -land of deep valleys, with glimpses of majestic mountains, and sometimes -with broad spreading plains as well, but the mountains are always in -view. At length, after a ride of a little more than half a day, the train -reaches Chihuahua, which is the principal city and metropolis of this -section of Mexico. Chihuahua is not a very beautiful city; nor is it as -attractive as many of the other Mexican cities, for its location and the -climate are not such as can greatly be recommended. It is destined to be -a much larger city than at present, however, by reason of the mineral -wealth surrounding it, and also because it is the starting point for -what will ultimately be the principal trade route between the United -States and northwestern Mexico. Like Monterey this city has become very -much Americanized, and that influence is noticeable in both people and -architecture. - -Chihuahua is on the line of the Kansas City, Mexico and Orient Railway, -which, when completed, will form a direct route from Kansas City, -Missouri, to Topolobampo, a new port on the Pacific. At the present time -trains are running from Wichita, Kansas, almost to the Mexican border, -and two detached sections are in operation in the Republic of Mexico. One -of these starts from a point near the Rio Grande and runs to Chihuahua. -From Chihuahua westward this railroad, in conjunction with the Mexican -Northwestern Railway, traverses one of the finest grazing sections of -the republic. Broad prairies which are covered with grass stretch out -on either side to the foothills, and form rich grazing lands. The vast -ranges, the temperate climate and a fair average rainfall makes this -almost an ideal country for cattle. Upon them are fattened the beef -that feeds the country, and many animals find their way to the markets -of the United States. It is a region of immense _haciendas_, which -form almost empires in themselves, for they are larger than some of -the principalities of Europe. One estate near Chihuahua would make a -commonwealth as large as the states of Massachusetts and Rhode Island -combined, with a small farm of a million acres besides. The Zuloaga -family own a _hacienda_ directly on this line of railway, which is -thirty-five miles wide and nearly one hundred miles long, and includes -about two million acres. Most of this estate consists of fine grazing -land, and it ships about forty thousand head of cattle each year, as -well as from three to six thousand mules and horses. A few years ago the -late proprietor of this estate bought an adjoining farm for two hundred -thousand dollars, and his method of paying for it is a good illustration -of Mexican business methods. He secured silver coin for this amount, -which weighed nearly six tons, and hauled it over to the seller in two -great carts. - -[Illustration: A GROUP OF PEONS] - -The buildings of the Zuloaga _hacienda_, which I visited, lie about -fifty miles west of Chihuahua, in one of the most beautiful locations -that could be found anywhere. They are near the foot of a range of low -mountains, and in front projects out a plain that gently slopes down to -a lake a couple of miles distant. Beyond the lake is another range of -wooded hills which seem to complete the picture. Within the walls are -the home of the _hacendado_, the church, the stables and a store. The -church is a beautiful structure, artistic in its details, and all of the -materials used in its construction were secured upon the plantation; -and all of the work, including some magnificently carved woodwork and -some creditable paintings, was done on the premises and by those living -there. The buildings are all one-storied in height, with walls thick -enough to withstand any earthquake. The rooms are large and airy, with -extremely high ceilings, through which you might drive a carriage, -and the parlours are nearly as large as public halls. More than three -thousand peons are employed on this _hacienda_, most of whom live in -buildings arranged in big hollow squares just outside of the walls of the -family’s quarters. - -[Illustration: TARAHUMARI INDIANS.] - -There are a number of small towns along this trans-continental line of -railway, the principal of which is Miñaca, a quaint little old-fashioned -place. The inhabitants would rather attend a chicken fight than work -or go to mass. From Miñaca this road begins the real climb over the -divide on its way to the Pacific coast. For scenic beauty it equals any -railroad in Mexico, not excepting the ride over the Mexican railway -from the City of Mexico to Vera Cruz, hitherto described. Deep cuts, -high hills, and tunnels succeed each other, as the railroad climbs up -on its way toward the line of perpetual snow. It passes through one of -the best timber sections of Mexico, where tall pine trees, straight as -an arrow, rise up for a hundred feet or more without a limb. Huge crags -of fantastic outline, tall pines silhouetted against the low-hanging -clouds and the mysterious depths of the barrancas combine to form scenes -of awe-inspiring grandeur. At dangerous points crosses on the trail tell -the story of tragedies—of riders who have probably stumbled into eternity -without a moment’s warning. - -This Sierra region of Mexico should appeal to the sportsman, for much -game abounds. At nearly all elevations may be found the white-tail -deer. The mountain lion, called _tigre_, lurks in the fastnesses of -the mountains. The bear may be found wherever there are good feeding -grounds. The wild turkey is plentiful in many sections. The Mexicans do -not hunt much, so that there are many game birds. Quail are numerous in -the foothills, and wild duck, snipe and curlew are exceedingly numerous -on the lagunas and marshes of the coast, as well as in the lakes of the -mountain region. Hunting is inexpensive, and it is strange that more -Americans do not visit this unhunted region. - -One of the strangest of the many tribes of Mexican Indians inhabit -the valleys and barrancas of this part of the republic. These are the -Tarahumaris, a timid race who rather shrink from contact with the white -people to any greater extent than is necessary. Occasionally these -Indians may be seen on the streets of Chihuahua, whither they go to buy -some things, or, perhaps, to carry a message for a Mexican or American. -But they do not linger any longer than is necessary. They can always be -distinguished from the other Indians because the men almost invariably -have their legs absolutely bare in all kinds of weather. They also wear -their hair long, and it hangs down over the shoulder like our red men, -while the Mexican Indians usually wear their hair short. Their features -are coarse, but their bearing has a kind of native dignity about it -that attracts. One of their medicine men once cut his hair to get some -new ideas. While the new hair was growing he kept his head tied up to -prevent his thoughts from escaping. I mention this to give an idea of the -primitiveness and simplicity of these strange people. - -The Tarahumaris pay no taxes or tribute to the Mexican government. They -are quiet and inoffensive, however, and for that reason they are allowed -to inhabit the mountain slopes and inhospitable barrancas in peace. Their -houses are very simple. They are usually made by setting up forked poles -across which other straight poles are laid, and then roughly-hewed -boards are set up along the sides. Sometimes they are made entirely of -small rocks. Many of them live in the natural caves which abound in that -region, and of which I have seen scores. They are nomadic and change -their domicile frequently, although the new location may be only a few -hundred rods away from the old. Store-houses may be seen in which the -family stores its surplus supply of corn and beans, which are the only -food supplies cultivated by these people. Upon the mountains the men kill -deer and squirrels, and these, together with fish, rats and little ground -animals which abound in that region, constitute their principal meat -supply. - -The Tarahumaris are not a sociable people, nor are they industrious, for -they like too well to lie on their backs or breasts in the hot sun. They -are great runners and have been known to run day after day, stopping -only to eat and secure some necessary sleep. When they are travelling -across the country one will seldom see them walking. Even on a mountain -trail they usually keep up a trot. I have seen them running up a steep -path where most of us would not want to walk very long without stopping -to rest. The chief men of the tribes carry canes as their emblem of -authority. If a man is charged with an offence a messenger is sent to -him, armed with a cane made of red Brazil wood, and the person summoned -would not dare to disobey the order. No writ issued by any court in a -civilized land commands greater obedience. It is generally the older -men who are entrusted with this badge of authority, and they are very -jealous of the privilege. This method of designating authority is quite -common among the aborigines of the Americas. The Tarahumaris are very -superstitious. They are afraid to travel after night because the dead are -supposed to be abroad at that time. The _shaman_, as the medicine man is -called, is a man of great importance among these superstitious people. -He is always present at all family celebrations, such as weddings and -funerals, and he is generally called in when there is sickness in the -family. - -About one hundred and fifty miles southwest of El Paso, in the state -of Chihuahua, is a colony of considerable interest to Americans. After -travelling that number of miles of semi-desert land over the Rio Grande -and Sierra Madre Railway from Ciudad Juarez, as dreary a landscape as -one could imagine, the appearance suddenly changes as one approaches -the lands of the Mormon colony that has settled here. Fearful of the -results of the anti-polygamy agitation in the United States a few hundred -followers of Brigham Young banded together, and sought a new “promised -land.” They travelled in caravans that contained all their worldly goods -until they crossed the border into Mexico. Here they were welcomed, -for farmers are what northern Mexico needed, and religious or ethical -questions did not disturb the Mexican government. The colonists were -exempted from taxes for ten years, and their implements were allowed -free entry. Each colonist was granted a certain number of acres at low -interest and on easy terms. - -The original colony has expanded into several settlements numbering -more than five thousand persons. The principal colony is named Colonia -Juarez, and it is a few miles from the station of Casas Grandes. The -Mormons are splendid agriculturalists, and they sell large quantities of -alfalfa, grains, potatoes and dairy products. They use the very latest -of American agricultural machinery on their farms. Every village has a -graded school supported by a voluntary tax, and a large central academy -is also maintained for higher education. They are devout followers of -the Mormon prophets,—these colonists across the Rio Grande,—although -they claim that no open polygamy is practised. Each man will deny the -possession of more than one wife. The excess of women with families over -the men, however, and the fact that the Mormon man is thoroughly at home -in more than one house would easily lead one to a different conclusion. -To this must be added the knowledge that these Mormons left good homes -in Utah for a tract of almost desert land in Mexico, mainly because of -the efforts of the government of the United States to stamp out plural -marriages. - -The other main route to the Sierra regions is an extension of the -Southern Pacific Railroad, which is known as the Sonora Railway. This -railroad extends from Nogales, and it is destined to run to the city of -Guadalajara, a distance of about eleven hundred miles. Nogales is a city -of about three thousand inhabitants, half of which lies on either side -of the border line. A simple glance without any explanation would show -the visitor which part of it belongs to the United States, because of the -difference in the buildings and the energy of the inhabitants. From there -the railroad runs south through Magdalena and across some fertile plains -until, at a distance of almost three hundred miles from the border, it -reaches Hermosillo, the capital of the state of Sonora, which is the -second largest state in the republic. Much of this state is useless for -agriculture, as it is dry and arid, and a part is very mountainous. In -other sections the soil is extremely fertile, and irrigation would render -it invaluable. Such projects could be carried out if there was as much -enterprise on that side of the border as on the northern side. Near the -Yaqui River the soil and climate are as well adapted to fruit culture as -southern California. There are many large mining enterprises, the largest -being at Cananea, and nearly all are American enterprises. The trouble -with the Yaqui Indians has greatly hindered development in Sonora during -the past decade. Several parties of American prospectors and miners -were attacked and a number of Americans killed. The government finally -deported thousands of the Yaquis to other sections of the republic, and -their depredations then ceased. - -Hermosillo is situated on the Sonora River, in the midst of an -agricultural district and surrounded by rugged mountains, where there -are many mines of gold and silver. It is the seat of a Catholic diocese, -for which a fine new cathedral has been built, and also has some very -creditable buildings. It is a city of perhaps ten or twelve thousand -people, and is the largest city in the state. From Hermosillo this -railroad runs to the port of Guaymas, which is quite an important -commercial town, and less than a hundred miles from the capital. The Bay -of Guaymas is one of the best on the Pacific coast, and the marine trade -is quite important. For a long time this town was the terminus of this -railroad, but it is too far up the Gulf of California to ever become a -very important ocean port. Within the last few years construction work -has been rapidly pushed southward at a little distance from the coast, -and through trains are now running as far as the city of Tepic, on the -way to Guadalajara. - -Not a great distance south of Guaymas the Sonora Railroad enters Sinaloa, -a state nearly as large as Indiana. This state is destined to be a -great agricultural state, as it is well watered and contains a number -of fine rivers. Besides the Fuerte, Sinaloa, Culiacan and Elota Rivers, -there are a hundred or more smaller streams traversing it. It stretches -along the Pacific coast for a distance of nearly four hundred miles, -and has an average breadth of eighty miles. One-half of the state is -little known, and is traversed only by obscure and difficult trails. -Cane and corn culture have been the chief industry, but it offers good -inducements for the raising of almost all kinds of grains. In undeveloped -natural wealth, both agricultural and mineral, and in its splendid water -powers, Sinaloa is unsurpassed by any Mexican commonwealth. An American -land company has recently opened up a tract of two million acres, and -is establishing a colony that promises good results. The capital is -Culiacan, a short distance from the coast. Heretofore the only outlet for -this city of fifteen thousand has been a miserable railroad to its port, -Altata, but the new line enables passengers to go by Pullman cars to all -points in the United States. It is an old city, for the Spaniards found a -considerable settlement there. They immediately established a town which -was well fortified. The present city is quite attractive and possesses a -little manufacturing. It is the residence seat of quite a colony of rich -and cultured Mexicans, and a number of Americans interested in mining -also reside there. - -Mazatlan, a little further down the coast, is the largest city and -principal port of Sinaloa. It is a picturesque place, with its cathedral -spires outlined against the sky, and cocoanut palms and thatched roofs -below. The blue Cordilleras in the distance complete the picture. A -lighthouse at the north entrance is said to be the highest lighthouse in -the world, with the exception of the one at Gibraltar. It is a city of -about twenty thousand inhabitants, and the largest city on the Pacific -coast. Although a great deal of shipping is done in Mazatlan, the harbour -is poor and offers no protection to vessels. Plans have been approved for -a safe harbour, to cost several million pesos, in order to prepare it for -the anticipated increase in business. Whether the internal troubles will -stop the building of this much-needed west coast railroad improvement -remains to be seen. Its completion will not only give an outlet for this -rich region to the United States, but also to the City of Mexico, and the -stimulus can already be seen wherever the railroad is in operation. There -is not a richer section in the whole republic than these coast lands, -but because of their isolation everything has been backward, and all -work has been done in the very crudest and most primitive ways. The only -development that has taken place is in mining, and most of the mines are -even yet operated in the old-fashioned ways, because of the difficulty -of transporting machinery and fuel. - -The territory of Tepic is almost as large as the states of Massachusetts -and Connecticut combined. In natural resources it will compare with -Sinaloa, for it is well watered and affords fine opportunities for -agriculture. Some day the jungles will be transformed into orange groves -and banana plantations, while the higher lands will produce rich harvests -of grain and coffee. The water power could be utilized to turn the wheels -of factories or to run the railroads which are so much needed. - -The capital city of Tepic, a municipality of fifteen thousand people, -has been asleep, but will now be awakened daily by the noise of the -locomotive. At an elevation of three thousand feet the air is fresh and -invigorating. The climate is pronounced almost ideal by those who live -there, and it is free from the fevers that prevail in the low coast -lands. It does not differ in general appearance from many other Mexican -cities, but is a quaint and interesting town. - -Separated from the mainland of Mexico by the Gulf of California and -the Colorado River, lies that little known territory of Baja (lower) -California. It is a long narrow peninsula that projects about eight -hundred miles southeasterly from the southern border of California. -Its width varies from about thirty to over one hundred miles, with an -irregular coast line over two thousand miles long bordered by numerous -islands, and in size is a trifle larger than the state of Iowa. Lower -California is mainly mountainous, with irregular plains along the Pacific -coast, and smaller plains and valleys along the north coast and in some -parts of the interior. In climatic and other physical features the -northern part of the peninsula is very similar to southern California, -with some local modifications. The southern end of the Colorado Desert -crosses the border, and continues down along the northern coast for some -distance. Along the Pacific coast a low range of mountains recedes a -short distance inland, and continues for some distance. In the southern -part of the peninsula they become higher, forming the San Pedro Martir -Mountains, which reach a height of over ten thousand feet above the sea. -Vast desolate plateaus of black lava, which surround little gem-like -valleys, are succeeded by extensive stretches of desert upon which -nothing but the cactus will grow. The western coast is bathed by cool -waters and fogs, while the eastern shores are washed by the waves of a -warm inland sea, and have almost continuous sunshine. - -Lower California was one of the early discoveries of the Spaniards, -and was promptly placed in charge of the Jesuits, whose missionaries -were quite successful. They explored all parts of the peninsula and -established missions among the Indians, and at the same time introduced -many of the crops and fruits of the Old World. They established three -main trails throughout the length of the peninsula, one following each -coast and the other running near the centre. These roads are to-day the -only routes of travel, and, except for short distances, can only be -pursued on mule-back. Most of the Indians who formerly inhabited the -peninsula have disappeared, and the population to-day is very small. -Some of the old mission churches are still in use, while others are -represented simply by fragments of ruined walls and choked-up irrigating -ditches. - -Agriculture has never flourished to any great extent in Lower California. -Numerous colonies have been practically failures, with the exception -of some recent ones near the international border, where water for -irrigation has been obtained from the Colorado River. All of the -peninsula has been traversed many times by prospectors in search of -gold, silver and other minerals, and a number of valuable mines have -been located in various places. The general climate is hot and arid, as -is evidenced by the vegetation, although in the southern regions there -are districts which have regular summer rains. As a consequence of the -arid conditions the surface water is scarce, and is limited to isolated -waterfalls or to springs from which small streams sometime flow for a -short distance, and then sink into the earth. - -The country is divided for administration into the northern and southern -portions, with Ensenada, a small port on the west coast as the capital -of the northern part, and La Paz, on the eastern coast, the capital of -the southern portion. La Paz is the only city of any particular size, -and is a place of about six thousand people. The streets are well laid -out, and there are some excellent stores and many comfortable houses. The -gardens are filled with palms and various tropical trees, so that the -city has quite a decided tropical appearance, although it is surrounded -by an arid district. It is the seat of the pearl fisheries, which are -quite flourishing in the Gulf, and the output of pearls is quite an -important item. Tia Juana (Aunt Jane) is a small town on the border not -far from San Diego, and it is, perhaps, better known than any other town -on the peninsula. Several skirmishes took place within its borders during -the recent revolution led by Madero, and many of the participants were -Americans. - -Magdalena Bay, concerning which there has been considerable talk of -the United States trying to secure as a coaling station, is the finest -land-locked harbour on the Pacific coast, with a narrow entrance which is -protected by the high headlands. The bay is about fifteen miles across, -with low sandy shores, and would furnish a fine protection for scores -of the largest vessels. It is also within sight of the regular sailing -route of steamers bound for Panama. For that reason it would be a very -advantageous possession of the United States, if it could be obtained by -negotiations with the Mexican government. - -The plant life of Lower California is different from that of any other -part of the world—so naturalists say. There is a veritable riot of -strange forms of cacti and other plants which manage to live without -rainfall. The cacti vary from giant forms, which raise their massive -fluted trunks to a height of fifty to sixty feet, to little straggling -species which are too weak to stand upright. Another peculiar form is -the creeping devil cactus, as it is called, which has the appearance -of gigantic caterpillars crawling in every direction. These plants -do actually travel away from a common centre, as the stem sends down -rootlets every little distance, and then the older stems in the rear die -about as fast as it advances in the front. There are not many species of -birds or animals, and only such kinds as can live where water is scarce -will be found. It is said that some animals have been found that never -drink water, and even in captivity can not be taught to drink, as it does -not seem necessary to their existence. - -Owing to its desert character the peninsula is very thinly peopled, -and there are extensive sections where not a single inhabitant will be -found. The most populous section is that south of La Paz, where the -rains are more regular. A few small towns or villages will be found -scattered around the coast, with a limited number of prospectors and -miners gathered in the interior. The effort to colonize Lower California -has been a tale of unbroken failure for more than fifty years. A few -rainy years will cause apparent prosperity, but the succeeding years -may be rainless and disaster follows. Those who have studied Lower -California say that it is not all a hopeless desert, but that there are -possibilities of agriculture through irrigation in many parts. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIII - -THE RUINED CITIES OF YUCATAN - - -The Mayas (pronounced My-yah) were an ancient people of whom little is -known. They dwelt on the broad plains of Yucatan and Central America, -and built many cities, or governmental centres, for no ruins of private -dwellings have yet been found. The groups of buildings resemble in no -way our cities of the present day. They consist everywhere of temples -and palaces of the reigning princes or caciques, of public buildings -scattered about apparently at random, covering a vast area, with cemented -roads and gardens intervening. The centres of the towns were occupied -by the public squares and temples; around these were the palaces of the -priests and lords, and the outskirts were evidently allotted to the -lower classes. Religion and government seem to have gone hand in hand -among these primitive Mexicans. The Maya civilization had reached a -height unexcelled by any people of the western hemisphere prior to the -coming of the white man. They were skilled in architecture, in sculpture -and in writing. The priests had developed the science of astronomy to -a considerable extent. They had studied with some success the solar -system. They had developed a calendar system and created a chronology. So -far as these chronological accounts have been worked out they run back -three thousand years or more. They reckoned time much as we do, from a -fixed date, namely, the birth of Christ. The later dates of the Quirigua -inscriptions are generally believed to be somewhere about the beginning -of the Christian era. - -The oldest of the ruins of the Maya race is said to be that of Copan, -which is situated in Honduras, just across the border from Guatemala. It -also seems to have been the southernmost point of their migration, as -Tula was the northerly terminus of their wanderings. Then comes Quirigua, -in Guatemala, which is one of the most remarkable and inexplicable of -all the ruins. Tradition sheds no light whatever on these ruins of Copan -or Quirigua. The mysterious silence that surrounds these forms a void in -the history of the human race. There are doubtless other ruins awaiting -the traveller and explorer in the wilderness around Lake Peten, in the -northern part of Guatemala. The founder of the race was Izamat-Ul. “To -him were brought,” says an old writer, “the sick, the halt and the dead, -and he healed and restored them all to life by the touch of his hand.” -Hence he was generally known as the Miraculous Hand, and in inscriptions -is frequently represented by a hand only. - -[Illustration: CRUMBLING RUINS OF THE ANCIENT MEXICAN CIVILIZATION] - -In the extreme southeastern part of Mexico, on a small peninsula known as -Yucatan, is a section which was at one time the abode of this progressive -and migrating race known generally among anthropologists as the Mayas. -This distant province deserves far more mention than it usually receives -from passing travellers. Though possessing few natural attractions -Yucatan is a never-ending source of interest for the anthropologist -and archeologist. The whole peninsula is a vast limestone formation, -with little or no surface water. Rain is infrequent in most parts, and -one might travel for miles without crossing a river or brook, or even -chancing upon a spring. In most sections of this peninsula the water is -at least seventy feet below the surface of the ground. At the present -time windmills aid the inhabitants of that section where the henequen, -from which binder twine is made, is raised, but centuries ago such -facilities were unknown. There were, however, in some places natural -wells which reached down to the depth of what seem to be underground -rivers, and it was near these that several ancient cities were located. -At least a score of these ancient cities have been explored, of which -the best known and most important are Palenque, Uxmal and Chichen Itza. -It is known that since the Spaniards first set foot on this peninsula -many monuments and practically entire cities have disappeared. At one -time, a contemporary writer asserts, there were destroyed in Yucatan -five thousand idols of various forms and dimensions, thirteen huge -stones which were used as altars, twenty-two smaller stones of various -shapes, one hundred and ninety-seven manuscripts of all kinds, including -twenty-seven written on deer skins. - -Chichen Itza, which is generally interpreted to mean “the mouth of the -wells of the Itzas,” seems to have been the leading city, and it was -located near two of the largest natural wells, which are immense natural -pits with perpendicular sides. It is probable that these phenomena -attracted the Mayas in their northern migration. As the tribes quarrelled -different factions separated from the original body and established new -cities as capitals. Thus Chichen Itza came into being. On this desolate -soil, - - “ ... buried ’mid trees, - Upspringing there for sunless centuries, - Behold a royal city, vast and lone, - Lost to each race, to all the world unknown, - Like famed Pompeii, ’neath her lava bed. - ... - At every step some palace meets the eye, - Some figure frowns, some temple courts the sky.” - -Before Cortez landed on Mexican soil the star of these ancient peoples -had already set. Their oldest cities had their birth so far back in the -twilight of time that not even tradition was able to tell the history -of the tribes, the causes that led to their decay or the time of their -disaster. Some traditions were told to the Spaniards, but they are of -such uncertain origin that very little credence can be placed in them. -Upon the walls are sculptures which speak to us in an unknown language; -hieroglyphics, and the chiselled types of a people long since departed. -The hieroglyphics would probably explain all, but no interpreting key -has yet been discovered to give an explanation to the writings. Some -authorities assert, however, that Chichen Itza was inhabited at the -time of the Conquest. A Spaniard by the name of Aquilar was wrecked on -this coast and lived with a powerful cacique for several years, but he -left behind him no written memoirs. At any rate, it is known that the -Spanish forces occupied this place for at least two years. At first the -submission of the natives was complete, but after a time they rallied -from their stupor, tiring of ministering to the insatiable wants of their -conquerors, and much severe fighting followed. - -Of the two great wells at Chichen Itza one was used for the general water -supply, the _cenote grande_, and the other was reserved for religious -use exclusively, the _cenote sacra_. Picturesque indeed must have been -the throngs of white-robed women who peopled the steps of the _cenote -grande_ at all hours of the day to fetch water for household purposes. -They probably carried double-handled urns on their hips or shoulders -just as their descendants do at this present day. From far and near all -over Yucatan pilgrimages were made to the sacred well, which was on -the outskirts of the city, just as pilgrimages are made to-day to holy -shrines by Catholics and Mohammedans. It was this that gave the city its -holy character. Offerings of many kinds were made to the deities. It -is said that in time of drouth offerings of precious stones and other -valuables were thrown into it, and in specially protracted cases human -beings were thrown into it as sacrifices. Even after the time of the -Spanish conquest there are recorded instances of pilgrimages to the -sacred well for the purpose of sacrificing slaves to relieve a drouth. -These victims were supposed to live even after they had disappeared -beneath the sacred waters. A Spanish writer of the time asserts that this -was done as late as 1560. - -The Chichen Itza of the olden times, filled with pilgrims from far and -near, would scarcely be recognized in the place of to-day. The jungle -has gradually crept its way into the very holy of holies. Columns have -been overthrown, and some of the structures have been almost lost in -a tangle of thorns and creepers. Even in the last half century the -destruction and disintegration has been very noticeable. To reach the -place it is necessary to ride about fifteen miles over a rough and -wearisome road. All around lie buried in thick jungle ruins of palaces -and other buildings. Pyramid-like structures seem to have been one of -the favourite forms of building. The most imposing of these on this site -rises sixty-eight feet above the plain, and each side is almost one -hundred and seventy-five feet in length, the whole covering about an acre -of ground. This structure is called the Castillo, although it was really -a temple. It is made up of nine terraces of faced masonry, narrowing -toward the top, each one elaborately panelled to relieve the monotony. On -each side there is a broad stairway, with a flight of ninety steps, with -stone balustrades, which are generally carved to represent reptiles. A -stone building almost forty feet square crowns the summit. The northern -façade must have been very striking before time and the destroying hand -of man wrought their work. There were no doors on any of the buildings, -and no traces of hinges have been found. At the western base of the -pyramid is the walk that leads to the sacred well. It is believed that on -the top of this pyramid the sacred rites of the priests of their faith -were performed, and it is said that the sacrificial victims were led -down these stairways, then along the causeway and finally cast into the -sacred well. It is easy for the imagination to picture the scene in all -its splendour of white-robed priests, smoking censors, and—saddest of -all—the victims bedecked with garlands of flowers. - -There are ruins of colonnades, courts, buildings and other structures -of which many columns are standing at Chichen Itza, and it has been -called “the city of a thousand columns” by some writers. One of the most -important monuments is the Nun’s Palace, as it is called. It is not so -large as others, but contains a greater number of apartments. It is -said to have been the custom of these people to educate girls of noble -birth to the service of the gods, on their attaining the age of twelve -or thirteen. Their service was similar to that of the Vestal Virgins, -although the vows were not always perpetual. It was their duty to keep -the altar supplied with fresh flowers and to sweep the temples. One group -of structures is called the Ball Court, as it is believed to have been -used for a game similar to the modern basket ball. It consists of two -perpendicular parallel walls from north to south thirty-two feet high, -three hundred and twenty-five feet long and one hundred and thirteen feet -apart. The ends of this quadrangle are each occupied by a small temple. -In the centre of each wall, about fifteen feet from the ground, there are -two stone discs with holes through the centre, which seem to have had -a part in this or some other game. The vast proportions of this court, -or tlachtle, would seem to indicate that this game was very popular -with the Yucatecos. Some of the well preserved ruins present beautiful -sculptured façades, to which names have been given because of the fancied -resemblance to something. For instance, one has been called the ruins of -the “House of the Tigers,” because of a frieze of stalking tigers divided -by richly fringed shells; another round building, known as El Caracol, -“The Snail,” is the best preserved building at Chichen; “The Red House,” -and the “House of the Dark Writing,” are still other structures. In all -directions for several miles the bush is strewn with ruins. Crumbling -walls and courts overgrown with jungle growth are encountered on every -side, but because of the disintegration these once splendid palaces and -temples are now little more than shapeless masses of crumbled masonry. -The human figures seen on these monuments have the usual types of the -Toltec carvings on the plateaus of Mexico. The total area covered by -these ruins has been estimated by some investigators as high as ten -square miles. - -The next largest and most interesting city of ruins is known as Uxmal, -which was the capital of the Tutal Xiu branch of the Mayas. This city -is located between low ranges of hills, perhaps one hundred miles from -Chichen Itza. When seen from an eminence a dozen or more imposing -structures of white limestone are presented to view. This city, no -doubt, supplied a very important part in the early history of Yucatan—at -least if one is to judge from its size. It is believed that this was the -original city of the Toltecs. A dozen or more imposing structures of -considerable size still stand here that can be identified, in addition -to the large numbers of ruins which can scarcely be outlined. The most -notable sanctuary of Uxmal, which is now known as the “House of the -Dwarf,” is over fifty feet high, and also surmounts a steep-sloped -pyramid one hundred feet in height. Two stairways on opposite sides lead -to this building. It is so named because the natives say it was built by -a savage dwarf in a single night. Long after the city was abandoned this -temple was held in especial veneration. The Spanish priests used to find -offerings of cocoa and copal on it, and they attributed this to devil -worship. Two lines of parallel walls, parts of which are still standing, -enclose a court or quadrangle, which is similar to the Ball Court at -Chichen. The group of buildings around it encloses more than one hundred -rooms. All of the buildings seem to have been built on low platforms -or terraces. There is also at this place a high terrace, or platform, -that covers over three acres of ground, and on which is a second and a -third terrace, upon the latter of which is the ruin of a building known -as the Governor’s Palace. This building is one of the finest samples -of early American architecture still extant. It stands at an elevation -of forty-four feet above the plains, and commands a splendid view of -the city. Its exterior walls are decorated with sculptured masonry, in -the making of which it is estimated there are upward of twenty thousand -sculptured pieces of stone. The building is three hundred and twenty-two -feet long, and is divided into three parts by two arcades which pass -clear through. It is built entirely of stone without ornament to a -height of ten feet, then comes a cornice, above which is a wall that -is a bewildering maze of beautiful sculpture. This frieze has a row -of colossal heads, and is divided into panels which are alternately -filled with grecques in high relief, and diamond or lattice work. All -the lintels of the building here are of wood in an excellent state of -preservation. - -[Illustration: AN OLD CHURCH] - -At Uxmal there is a building called the “House of Turtles,” because -of a row of turtles used as ornaments in the upper cornice. It is the -freest from ornamentation of any of the structures. The turtles are -found sculptured at various places along the cornice. The “House of -the Pigeons” is the name of another building, because of the fancied -resemblance to a dove-cote. The crest of the roof is perforated with -many rectangular openings—but the resemblance for which the name is -given is very fanciful. At this site there were none of the natural -wells described at the other city, but these people constructed some -natural reservoirs a short distance from the town in which the rainfall -was collected, and which gave the necessary water supply for the people. -Furthermore, some of the buildings seem to have had subterranean cisterns -of large size under them. Heavy rainfall occurs here for about one-half -the year, but during the other half there is practically no rainfall, -and water becomes very scarce and valuable. The so-called “House of the -Nuns” is the largest building and bears the richest and most intricate -carving at Uxmal. It is composed of four buildings, the largest of -which is two hundred and seventy-nine feet in length. The four buildings -enclose a great court, with sides two hundred and fourteen and two -hundred and fifty-eight feet in length, the entrance to which is through -a high triangular-arched gateway. This building originally contained no -less than eighty-eight apartments of various sizes. A number of writers -believe that many of these buildings at Uxmal are comparatively recent, -because of the appearance of the stone and the well-preserved character -of the wood used in the construction. - -These structures are only a part of the ruins that still remain, for -the jungle on either side hides the remains of what were once imposing -buildings. Many of these have been literally torn asunder by trees, whose -roots have forced themselves between the stones and pried them apart. No -doubt this city once housed many thousands of people, but to-day it is -without inhabitants. The pomp and glory of former times have disappeared; -and all is silent save for the birds that nest in the trees and bushes. - -The third city of ruins, Palenque, is situated at a considerable distance -south and west of the two just described, and not far from San Juan -Bautista. Palenque, according to Charney, was a holy city—a place for -pilgrimage. In the carvings neither sword, spear, shield nor arrow -appear. The representations are all of peaceful subjects, usually a -personage standing with a sceptre and with prostrated acolytes at his -feet. From the expression one would judge that they were worshippers, and -not slaves or captives. Their expression is always peaceful and serene -and that of worshippers and believers. The city is built in the form of -an amphitheatre, on the lowest slope of the lofty Cordilleras beyond. -Its high position affords a magnificent view over the forest-covered -plain below stretching as far as the sea. In all the structures the -builder levelled out the ground in narrow terraces, on which artificial -elevations of pyramidal forms were reared, and the hillside was faced -with hewed stones. At Palenque there are in all ten buildings in view, -each one crowning an elevation artificially made. As one enters the -grounds there are several buildings to the right and left, but directly -in front are the remains of the Palace. At one time this building has -been very large and imposing. Remains of a broad flight of steps that led -to the imposing entrance corridor are in plain evidence. Flights of steps -led down to the first patio, which was surrounded by lofty corridors -with roofs of pointed arches and which led into small apartments. -There were two of these patios in the Palace of irregular size. Double -galleries which made a sort of cloister surrounded them. Gloomy entrances -from these corridors lead to underground chambers, where there are tables -which are called altars, beds and dining tables by different writers. A -lack of system seems to prevail in the building of the Palace. On top of -one of the walls two immense forest trees are now growing. In the central -portion are the ruins of a tower, of which three stories are still -standing, with many windows. It is a square tower ornamented to the north -with pointed niches; otherwise it is almost devoid of ornamentation. -On the contrary the galleries are richly ornamented with medallions, -probably representing priests and priestesses. Many human figures are -sculptured in low relief representing priests with mitres on their heads -and in uncomfortable attitudes. The faces are oftentimes defaced in order -to give an appearance of ferocity. Some of the figures of the deities are -fantastic, monstrous and even terrible. - -The Temple of Inscriptions stands on a hill about fifty feet high. A -magnificent view of the ruins is afforded by this elevation, as well as -the broad tablelands surrounding. There are three large mural tablets -covered with picture writing and hieroglyphs, supposed to be copies -of the laws of these ancient people, in the building. Across a little -valley over which an aqueduct leads the land rises in terraces, and is -surmounted with artificially made hills on which are the ruins of more -buildings—two Temples of the Cross and the Temple of the Sun. The Temple -of the Sun is almost perfectly preserved. The interior is one large room -with a sanctuary at one end. In each of these are mural tablets which -contain what is known as the Cross of Palenque. The cruciform shape, -such as the swastika and other forms, is not uncommon among aboriginal -people, but this is what is known as the Latin cross. Whether this arose -by chance through the invention of the artist, or the cross had some -religious significance among these people, still remains an absolute -mystery. Charney asserts that it is one of the symbols of Tlaloa, the god -of rain, but other writers differ with him. The body of the cross, which -rests on a hideous head, is sculptured in the centre, and at the upper -end are two human figures. On one there is an inscription of sixty-eight -characters, which doubtless explain the ceremony represented by the -sculpture. Again it is surmounted by the sacred bird of the Mayas, the -quetzal. In another this place is taken by a representation of the sun -with its spreading rays. Where did the Mayas get their idea of the cross -so sacred among Christian people? No one has yet been able to answer this -question satisfactorily. - -Who built these structures? For what purpose were they reared? Various -are the theories, and many are the speculations covering them. But -authentic information is absolutely wanting, and the passing years shed -little light. The modern Yucatecos are an attractive people. No people -in the world are pleasanter or have more delightful manners than they. -The young women have a winning grace and charm that is peculiarly their -own. Their costume is not greatly unlike that of the Tehuanas—and it is -fully as unique and becoming. It is quite probable that their customs and -characteristics have not changed much since the Spanish occupation. They -have always been an independent people, and have caused much more trouble -than the majority of the aboriginal tribes of Mexico. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIV - -THE PRESENT AND THE FUTURE - - -The old-fashioned Don, accustomed to ox-carts, wooden ploughs, and a -horde of men ready to serve him, no doubt views with dismay the changes -being wrought by steam and electricity. The younger generation has been -educated abroad, or in the States, and rather welcomes the innovations. -The spirit of revolution and political unrest that prevailed for the -first sixty years of the republic has lessened, even if it has not -entirely passed away. Education and immigration have worked wonders -in the country; and, above all, the establishment of a government -that for almost a third of a century commanded obedience at home and -respect abroad is responsible for the mutation in Mexico. It was an -absolute republic and under a strong controlling hand. It was the family -government applied to the state, for it was very paternal in its rule. - -[Illustration: PRIMITIVE TRANSPORTATION] - -Mexico is a human country and is not without its faults. The greatest -of these are, however, the result of conditions for which the present -generation of nation-builders are not responsible. A transformation -can not be wrought in a decade, nor in a generation. And yet the real -accomplishments of the past twenty-five years in Mexico are marvellous. -Americans who have lived there during that time wax eloquent in -describing the great change for the better. Whereas formerly people -hesitated to invest money for fear of political changes, investments in -that country are now looked upon as safe, and Mexican securities are -given a fixed value on the bourses of the world. - -Modern luxuries and conveniences are being introduced everywhere. The -people are simply installing in a hurry the things that other countries -have been acquiring for the half of a century. Every city is bestirring -herself, and electric light plants, modern sewerage systems and water -works are being constructed as rapidly as things can move in this land -of procrastination. Old and crude methods of power are being replaced -by up-to-date machinery in mines and manufactures. Electric railways -are replacing the mule tram lines, and the merry hum of the trolley is -fast succeeding the bray of the long-eared motor just mentioned. Mexico -lagged behind so long that she has had quite a distance to go, and it -will be a long while before she can entirely catch up with the head of -the procession. Material wealth is increasing. Better wages are paid, -and the surplus is being expended for more and better goods. The wants -of the great bulk of the people are so few, that it must be a long time -before there will be a great change in their method of living; but their -children are being educated, and that in itself works wonders in their -uplifting. - -For more than twenty years the finances of the government have shown a -surplus. What a contrast to all the years of the republic before that -time. In 1876 the total revenue of the government was but $19,000,000 -silver. For the fiscal year ending June 30th, 1910, this had increased to -$53,164,242 United States gold. From a yearly deficit a surplus has been -evolved which annually amounts to several million dollars. The total cash -in the treasury at the date of the above report amounted to $37,042,857 -gold. This statement shows a healthy condition of affairs. The government -now finds willing buyers for its bonds, and all its obligations have been -met promptly for a number of years. - -Finance Minister Limantour, who held that position for many years, proved -himself to be a Napoleon of finance, and his reputation extended to every -financial centre in the world. Establishing the gold standard was a great -achievement. Just a few years ago Mexican silver varied from $2.05 to -$2.40 for a gold dollar, and all business was unsettled as a result. -Now the government has established a rate of exchange of two silver -dollars for one of gold, and all this was done without any friction or -disturbance. It is to be hoped that the new administration will maintain -the same high standard of financial integrity that has been handed down -by its immediate predecessor. - -The foreign trade of Mexico runs into big figures. The total -extra-territorial trade of the republic for the year ending June 30th, -1910, amounted to $227,456,025 in United States gold. Of this amount -$130,023,135 represented exports and $97,432,890, imports. Of the exports -$78,260,037 were of mineral products, while vegetable products were -less than half that amount. An analysis of the imports shows by far -the largest items were included under manufactured articles, such as -machinery, textiles, chemical products, etc. Arms and explosives imported -exceeded a million and a half dollars in value, thus showing that the -government and people were even then preparing for the struggle to -follow. By far the largest proportion of exports and imports was with the -United States. Imports from the United States amounted to the tidy sum -of $56,421,551, an increase of twelve million dollars over the preceding -year, and the exports to the United States were $98,432,859, an increase -of almost an equal amount. The United Kingdom is the nearest competitor -in the foreign trade with our neighbouring republic. While the imports -from the United States showed an increase of twenty-four per cent. over -the preceding year, the increase from the United Kingdom and Germany was -only twelve and eighteen per cent. respectively. Imports from the mother -country, Spain, were less than three per cent. of the whole. - -In the matter of trade, as is shown by the trade statistics, the -United States is easily the predominant factor. The proximity of the -country has probably been the cause of this, as it has led Americans to -investigate the natural resources and invest money in railroads, mines, -public works and many other enterprises. The same influence can be seen -in the banking interests. There are a number of very strong banks in -Mexico, of which the Banco Nacional, or National Bank of Mexico, is the -most influential. This bank was established in 1881, at a time when the -financial condition of the country was anything but prosperous, and its -growth has been continuous and at times almost phenomenal. This bank and -one other are the only institutions that have the privilege of issuing -bank notes in the Federal District, although some banks in other parts -of the country have the same privilege. The Bank of London and Mexico, -originally a British concern, but now owned by French capital, ranks -next in importance, although it is very closely followed by the United -States Banking Company, an American enterprise with a number of branches -throughout the republic. There are many other banks, some of them under -the banking laws of the republic, and others private enterprises, which -gives Mexico very good facilities for the transaction of all kinds of -banking and commercial business. In 1893 there were only eight banks -in the entire republic, but now there are more than sixty. They have a -circulation of nearly $100,000,000, and a capital in excess of that sum. -The American influence, and the banks controlled by Americans, have aided -greatly in the development of business between the two countries, and it -is the writer’s belief that similar establishments throughout the rest -of Latin America would be one of the greatest aids to the extension of -American influence and commerce that could be devised. - -The increase of manufacturing has been quite noticeable in recent -years, and eventually will cause a diminution in the imports of certain -articles. Quite a number of cotton factories have been established in -certain sections of the country, and the labour has been found quite -well adapted to that class of manufacturing. Establishments for the -preparation and curing of meats have also been built under government -concessions, while tobacco factories, which work up the very excellent -tobacco grown in the country, and breweries have been established in many -sections of the country. The Mexican tobacco is said by those who pose -as experts to have a very excellent flavour, and by many is claimed to -be superior even to the Cuban article. The product grown in the state -of Vera Cruz has the best flavour, but a number of other states produce -large quantities of the weed. - -The greatest enterprise now operating in Mexico, excepting only -the railroads, is the Mexico Light and Power Company, a Canadian -corporation. This group of men own the electric light and gas plants and -the tramways of the City of Mexico, Puebla and a number of other cities. -As a part of their enterprise they have built a great dam by means of -which the waters of the Necaxa River are utilized for the production -of the electricity. This is distant ninety-six miles to the northeast -of the capital. Fed by springs this river becomes a good sized stream -before it plunges over a precipice of four hundred and sixty feet, and -a short distance beyond is one of a still greater fall. The main dam is -one hundred and ninety-four feet high and about thirteen hundred feet -wide, and contains an immense amount of material. It is built of stone -and concrete. By means of this and the auxiliary dams a valley has been -made into an immense reservoir, so that the dry season might be provided -for when the natural flow of water would be insufficient. It is claimed -that enough water can be stored to run the power plant through two years -of continual drouth. The water is carried to the turbines by means of -pipes which pierce the mountain, bringing to each turbine a stream of -water six feet in diameter and carrying all the force of a drop exceeding -one thousand feet. The total transmission lines reach a length of more -than two hundred miles, and the capacity of the plant is two hundred and -fifty thousand horse power. At the present time this company supplies all -the electric power in the capital, as well as several mining enterprises, -and as soon as the plant is wholly completed, will supply Puebla and -other cities. Its franchise is from the Mexican government and is in -perpetuity. This simply gives an indication of what can be done in the -development of the natural resources of Mexico. In a country where fuel -is scarce and high priced, the value of the water power is accordingly -increased. There are many other waterfalls awaiting development, and it -only needs the necessary capital, and a combination of far-sighted men, -such as those who compose the Canadian corporation above mentioned, to -supply the great need of Mexico for cheap and satisfactory power. - -[Illustration: PRIMITIVE PLOUGHING NEAR OAXACA] - -It is unfortunate for Mexico that mining has absorbed almost all of her -energies, and agriculture has been allowed to drop into a secondary -position. One cause for this has been the Spanish characteristic, -as represented by the original conquerors, of seeking quick wealth -instead of attempting to coax out of mother earth the treasure that -she possesses. There are labourers in plenty, if they are properly -instructed, but the _hacendados_, as well as labourers, adhere to the -most primitive methods. It has been said that “earth is here so kind -that just tickle her with a hoe and she laughs with a harvest.” This -is not true of all parts of the country, of course, for much of it is -mountainous and of a broken character, but the statement will apply to -large portions of the republic. - -The government of Mexico has endeavoured to improve agricultural -conditions by disseminating information as to scientific methods of -cultivation, irrigation and fertilization, but very little of it has had -a noticeable effect. The government has also distributed large quantities -of seeds and plants with little effect. In most parts of the republic the -land is tilled just as it was four centuries ago. It is really surprising -that, in spite of these antiquated methods, the results have been so good -as they are. As mentioned heretofore the wooden plough with a small iron -shoe, which merely scratches the surface of the earth, is still used; men -may be seen cutting wheat with the sickle, and much of the threshing is -done by driving horses and mules around a ring covered with grain, just -as it was done in the old Biblical days. The winnowing is accomplished -by tossing the wheat and the chaff into the air, and then the grain is -hauled to the _haciendas_ or markets in clumsy and ponderous two-wheeled -carts. - -A _hacienda_ run upon modern American methods would certainly be a much -more profitable enterprise than when conducted after this style. In a -few sections of the country, one will find a plantation here and there -where some new methods have been introduced and American machinery -employed, but these are rare. Even in the Valley of Mexico, not far from -the City of Mexico, the most antiquated methods will be seen employed -at all times. The richness of the land and its cheapness has caused the -floating of many land companies in the United States. They can show -great prospects on paper, but the trouble is that many of them have -been floated by unscrupulous men, who care nothing for the interests of -the stockholders, but are looking simply for promoters’ profits. When -the real buyers reach the land they discover that things are not as -represented, do not find conditions of living to their liking, and in -a very short time the whole enterprise is dropped. Many have probably -lost practically all of their savings. These things, of course, cannot be -entirely guarded against, and they certainly fail to prove that Mexico is -not a rich agricultural country. They simply demonstrate what fraud can -be perpetrated upon people in a country where the land is teeming with -fertility. Land values have undoubtedly advanced in the past few years, -and some enormous tracts have been purchased by Americans, which are -already showing profits for the owners. - -There has been much criticism heaped upon the Mexican courts, and a great -deal of it has been deserved. The judicial system of Mexico is copied -rather after the French and Spanish than the Anglo-Saxon system. In -recent years the procedure has been improved greatly, but it still needs -other changes in order to bring it up to the twentieth century standards. -In years past American railroad engineers, who were unfortunate enough -to run over some one, received harsh treatment in Mexican jails. The law -of _incommunicado_, by which an accused person is locked up for three -days, is still in force. It used to be that a wounded person could not -be touched or moved before the arrival of the authorities, which caused -much suffering; but this at least has been abolished. The judicial -system, which includes supreme courts, district courts, circuit courts, -police courts and other minor courts, is intended to give justice to -the defendant in a criminal action, and to both parties in a civil -action, but in many cases—to an American—the result does not seem to be -satisfactory. - -The jury system is in use in Mexico, and nine persons compose a jury. -The jurymen may consist of both natives and foreigners, but the members -must have some occupation, education or independent means. The law -provides that the accused must be acquainted with the names and number -of his accusers, and must be confronted with the witnesses who testify -against him. The testimony is all taken down in longhand writing, which -is a tedious process, as followed out in Mexican courts. In criminal -cases it is generally read over to the witness and signed by him, which -method, although it is cumbersome, sometimes gives a degree of certainty -and correctness to the testimony. It is true that in many cases the -points that are raised by the accused are treated with very little -consideration. This is not the fault of the law, but is the result of its -maladministration by the officials, just as similar instances are the -world over. Arrests of natives are made for all sorts of offences, many -of which are trivial, and they are generally kept in jail for several -days before they are finally given a hearing. Foreigners are usually -treated with great consideration and substantial justice is done them. It -probably is not good policy for citizens of another country to criticise -Mexico, when there are so many blots upon the administration of justice -in every civilized country, and the United States is not an exception. -Local conditions, public clamour and other things influence the action of -courts in Mexico, just as they do in every other country. - -In addition to the railroad connections the steamship lines form a very -important part in the national transportation of Mexico. The long coast -line on both the Pacific Ocean and Gulf of Mexico provides many ports. -The national traffic between these ports is quite a considerable item, -but the foreign commerce is still greater. At the present time Mexico has -direct steamship connection with the United States, Canada, Europe, South -America, Central America, the West Indies and the Orient. The principal -ports are Tampico, Puerto Mexico (formerly Coatzacoalcos) and Progresso -on the Gulf, and Salina Cruz, Acapulco, Manzanillo, and Mazatlan on the -Pacific. There are in all more than twenty steamship lines that have -contracts with the government for carrying the mails, and nearly all -of these enjoy subsidies of large or small amounts or enjoy certain -privileges or concessions. - -The most important company operating is the one known as the Ward -Line, which conducts a weekly service between several Mexican ports, -Havana and New York. This company has some very good boats, and does -a large business between all of those ports. The Mallory Line, the -Mexican-American Line and the Munson Line have regular service between -Mexican ports, Galveston and New Orleans. There are also several -companies that make regular trips between Vera Cruz, Tampico and European -ports. On the Pacific coast the Kosmos Line, operated by the Hamburg -American Company, have a regular service from Seattle down the west -coast of the United States, Mexico, Central America and South America -to Europe by the way of the Straits of Magellan. The Pacific Mail -Steamship Company operate about three boats a month from San Francisco -to Panama, where connections are made for New York and West Coast ports -of South America. The American-Hawaiian Company have boats which sail -between Hawaii and Salina Cruz. There are also, in addition to these -mentioned, a number of coast lines on both the Pacific and Atlantic -side, which do a considerable traffic between the various ports. The -Canadian-Mexican Pacific Steamship Company recently began to operate -boats between Victoria, British Columbia and Salina Cruz, and gives a -monthly service between those ports. In order to develop and facilitate -this coast traffic the Mexican government has spent a great deal of money -in providing harbours and docks at a number of the smaller ports, in -addition to the larger enterprises that have heretofore been described. - -Mexico has not a great number of navigable rivers. On the Pacific side -the Mayo, the Yaqui, the Balsas, the Rio Grande de Santiago and one or -two others are classed as navigable streams, but because of bars and -other obstructions they can be used only by boats of comparatively light -draft. On the Atlantic side, just below the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, is -the Grigalva River, which is a broad and imposing stream. Large boats -ply regularly up this stream to San Juan Bautista, a distance of about -seventy-five miles. Small boats go up still farther, the boat traffic -extending clear to the mountains. The Usumasinta River is an affluent of -this stream, and is navigable for small boats even beyond the Guatemala -border. The Coatzacoalcos River, which flows into the Gulf at the town -of the same name, is quite an important stream, and furnishes an outlet -to a considerable territory. The Papaloapan River, which flows into the -Gulf of Mexico near Vera Cruz, has been dredged and made navigable for a -considerable distance into the interior. It has proved a great benefit to -many small towns and plantations there situated. - -North of Vera Cruz are the Soto La Marina, the Tuxpan and the Panuco -Rivers, all of which are navigable for a hundred miles or more. As an -adjunct to the navigable streams and the deep water ports the government -is now building an intercoastal canal, which is similar to the one -proposed along the Gulf coast of Louisiana and Texas to connect the -Mississippi and Rio Grande Rivers. There are a series of lagoons and -small lakes that lie just a short distance within the coast line, and -which can be connected and deepened. They will then form a convenient and -safe waterway for navigation. The government is spending several million -dollars on the first link of this system, which will connect the ports of -Tampico and Tuxpan, a distance of about a hundred miles. Half of this -section is already finished and in operation, and it is estimated that in -three or four years more this part of the canal will be finished. This -waterway has a width of seventy-five feet and a uniform depth of ten and -one-half feet, and will connect the mouths of the Panuco and the Tuxpan -Rivers. The Panuco, near Tampico, is fifty feet deep, and the deepest -draft ocean vessels can come in and unload at the docks of Tampico. The -section of the canal already opened is constantly filled with long and -narrow boats, manned by natives, which are propelled by means of long -poles when the wind fails. - -The opening of this section of the canal has worked wonders in the -development of this part of the coast land, because it places the -products of the plantations and ranches within easy reach of the -markets. It has also served to drain thousands of acres of land, which -were formerly considered to be of no use whatever. On this route the -canal passes through Lake Tamiahua, which is seventy-nine miles long -and from five to twenty miles wide. Lake Tampamachoco, a much smaller -lake, will also be traversed by this canal. The water in these lakes -is comparatively shallow, and it has been necessary to deepen them -considerably in order to make the canal of uniform depth with the other -portion. The distance between Tampico and the mouth of the Rio Grande -is about three hundred miles, but a number of salt water lagoons, which -lie near the coast, can be utilized as a portion of the canal. If this -project, and the similar one planned by the United States, are completed, -it will furnish a very long inland waterway for the coast region. It -will serve the double purpose of draining and making more healthful that -portion of the country, and likewise giving an outlet for the development -that will surely follow. The land when once drained has been proved to be -of unusual fertility. - -The influence of the Anglo-Saxon in Mexico has been very marked. What the -English have done in Argentina and many parts of the world, the Americans -have done in our neighbouring republic. It is a significant fact that -the Spanish influences have been perceptibly disappearing, while that of -the Anglo-Saxon has been in the ascendency. This change can be noted in -a great many ways, both in thought, customs and foreign relations. This -transition has not been promptly recognized, and in some quarters it has -been strongly objected to by the extreme conservative elements; but, -nevertheless, it has been steadily marching on. Many of the Mexicans -prominent in the political and business life recognize this trend and -encourage it, for they feel that Mexico needs Anglo-Saxon methods and -ideas in order to develop the country, and give it the prestige that its -importance deserves. There are perhaps twenty or twenty-five thousand -Americans who permanently reside in Mexico, and, in addition, there -is the effect of the many millions of American money invested in the -country, and the thousands of tourists and business men who annually -cross the borders. - -There is, doubtless, a strong prejudice against the American and his -methods in many parts of Mexico, and this feeling seems to have been -somewhat intensified in the recent revolution. It is not to be wondered -at that such a feeling exists. From first to last Mexico has ceded to -the United States almost one million square miles of territory, which is -almost one-third more than the present size of the republic. First came -the separation of Texas, which was undoubtedly due to the intriguing -of Americans who had crossed over into that section of Mexico. These -pioneers and adventurers brought about the declaration of independence by -the Lone Star State. A few years later that territory was admitted into -the United States as one of its integral parts. Then came the Mexican -War, which most of us admit was an unjust war, and which resulted in the -cession of more than half a million of square miles of territory. A few -years later, by the Gadsden Purchase, which was due to disputes over the -boundary line, another block of territory, as large as the state of Ohio, -was added to the domain of the United States. - -In the revolution of 1910 many Americans crossed the border, joined -the forces of the revolutionists, and aided in the troubles of the -then existing government. Furthermore, very many American tourists who -visit Mexico make themselves disagreeable by their actions and their -criticisms, which also add to the anti-American feeling. So many include -all Mexicans under the general title of “greasers,” and can see no good -in anything that is not American. It is a fortunate thing that the good -people of Mexico understand very little English; otherwise they would -frequently be excited to anger, if they could hear the remarks that are -made by Americans in visiting their churches, battle fields and other -places surrounded by sacred associations. They are not fools, however, -and even if they do not understand the words they can catch the trend -of remarks by the gesture and laugh that accompanies them. As the -Spanish race are exceedingly sensitive this lack of sympathy and almost -open contempt cannot result otherwise than do injury to a general good -feeling. Some Americans grumble at everything, get mad because all the -waiters and porters do not understand English, complain about the hotels -because they cannot obtain everything just like they would in a Fifth -Avenue hotel, and, in fact, find fault with everything that they see. As -a contrast to this one might consider the attitude of Mexicans. It is -difficult to do justice to the innate courtesy of officials and people -when Americans show them so little. You can murder his beloved Spanish -in attempting to address a Mexican, and he will listen with infinite -patience and never a smile of amusement or expression of vexation on his -face. The Mexican is polite not only to his superiors and equals, but to -his servants as well. - -The republic of Mexico has passed through dark days. It has suffered from -the evil government of foreigners and from the reckless ambitions of -its own rulers. The burdens of former mistakes still remain, and there -is a lingering distrust of the powerful republic to the north in many -places. This distrust has been fanned into greater intensity by recent -political agitators. The good sense of the leaders will quickly reassert -itself, however, and a more perfect understanding will surely result. -American intelligence and capital have done too much in bringing about -the material prosperity of the country for such conditions to exist -permanently. Mexico needs capital for the development of her resources, -and American capital is most available for that purpose. Americans -will even be interested in the moral and material advancement of their -neighbours across the Rio Grande. - -To the reader who has followed this narrative to the end, I give my -valediction, _a la Mexicana_: - -_Adios! Vaya usted con Dios._ - - -THE END. - - - - -FOOTNOTES - -[1] “Wonderful, Mysterious Mexico,” by Madge Morris. - -[2] Mrs. Gooch in “Face to Face with the Mexicans.” - -[3] Mexican statistics of public instruction show that the state of -Jalisco has one school for every 2,354 inhabitants; Aguascalientes, one -for every 3,103; Campeche, one for every 1,236; Coahuila, one for every -2,090; Chihuahua, one for every 2,731; Durango, one for every 2,468; -Guanajuato, one for every 4,596; Hidalgo, one for every 1,020; Michoacan, -one for every 2,888; Morelos, one for every 687; Nuevo Leon, one for -every 1,158; Puebla, one for every 886; Queretaro, one for every 1,444; -San Luis Potosi, one for every 2,592; Sinaloa, one for every 1,041; -Sonora, one for every 1,092; Tabasco, one for every 1,018; Tamaulipas, -one for every 1,777; Tlaxcala, one for every 700; Vera Cruz, one for -every 1,268; Yucatan, one for every 792; Zacatecas, one for every 1,316, -and Mexico, one for every 936.—_Modern Mexico._ - -[4] F. A. Ober in “Travels in Mexico.” - -[5] This citation and some of the other quotations in this chapter, as -well as a number of the historical facts, are from the “Story of Mexico,” -by Susan Hale, published by G. P. Putnam’s Sons of London and New York. - -[6] “Mexico in Transition” by William Butler. - - - - -APPENDICES - - -I - -The following table gives the area and population of the various states, -territories of Tepic, Quintana Roo and Lower California, and the Federal -District; also the name of the capital and number of its inhabitants, the -figures being for the year 1900:— - - State. Sq. Miles. Population. Capital. Inhabitants. - Aguas Calientes, 2,950 101,910 Aguas Calientes, 35,052 - Campeche, 20,087 84,218 Campeche, 17,109 - Coahuila, 63,569 280,899 Saltillo, 23,936 - Colima, 2,700 65,026 Colima, 20,698 - Chiapas, 29,600 363,216 Tuxtla, 10,982 - Chihuahua, 87,802 327,004 Chihuahua, 30,405 - Durango, 42,200 371,274 Durango, 31,092 - Guanajuato, 12,300 1,065,317 Guanajuato, 41,486 - Guerrero, 24,996 474,594 Chilpanzingo, 7,497 - Hidalgo, 8,917 603,074 Pachuca, 37,487 - Jalisco, 31,846 1,137,311 Guadalajara, 101,208 - Mexico, 9,247 924,457 Toluca, 25,904 - Michoacan, 22,874 935,849 Morelia, 37,278 - Morelos, 2,773 161,697 Cuernavaca, 9,584 - Nuevo Leon, 23,592 326,940 Monterey, 62,266 - Oaxaca, 35,382 947,910 Oaxaca, 35,049 - Puebla, 12,204 1,024,446 Puebla, 93,521 - Queretaro, 3,556 228,489 Queretaro, 33,152 - San Luis Potosi, 25,316 582,486 San Luis Potosi, 61,019 - Sinaloa, 33,671 296,109 Culiacan, 10,380 - Sonora, 76,900 220,553 Hermosillo, 10,613 - Tabasco, 10,072 158,107 San Juan Bautista, 10,543 - Tamaulipas, 32,128 220,253 Victoria, 10,086 - Tlaxcala, 1,595 172,217 Tlaxcala, 2,847 - Vera Cruz, 29,201 960,570 Jalapa, 20,388 - Yucatan, 20,203 227,264 Merida, 43,630 - Zacatecas, 24,757 496,810 Zacatecas, 32,856 - Tepic, 11,257 149,677 Tepic, 15,488 - Lower California, 58,328 47,082 La Paz, 5,046 - Federal District, 463 530,723 City of Mexico, 344,721 - Quintana Roo, 15,000 85,000 Santa Cruz de Bravo, 2,000 - - -II - -The broken character of the surface of Mexico is shown by the many high -mountain peaks which are scattered over the country. Most of these peaks -are extinct volcanoes, although one of them, Colima, is in constant -eruption. The following table gives the name, location and height of all -the peaks over ten thousand feet in height:— - - Mountain. State. Elevation. - - Popocatepetl, Mexico, 17,782 ft. - Orizaba, Vera Cruz, 17,362 ft. - Ixtaccihuatl, Puebla, 16,060 ft. - Toluca, Mexico, 15,019 ft. - Colima, Jalisco, 14,263 ft. - Ajusco, Federal District, 13,660 ft. - Cofre de Perote, Vera Cruz, 13,641 ft. - Zapotlan, Jalisco, 12,743 ft. - Tancitaro, Michoacan, 12,653 ft. - Zempoaltepec, Oaxaca, 11,141 ft. - Pico de Quinco, Michoacan, 10,900 ft. - - -III - -SUGGESTIONS FOR TRAVELLERS - -The visitor to Mexico will find few inconveniences in the way of railway -travel. The coaches are, with only occasional exceptions, of American -manufacture, and the through trains on most of the railroads have Pullman -coaches at fares that are considerably lower than in the United States. -It is well to make the trip going and coming to the capital by different -routes, choosing the El Paso route for one trip and the Laredo gateway -for the other. If the visitor is from the eastern part of the United -States, a sea voyage from either New York or New Orleans to Vera Cruz -makes a pleasant variation to the monotony of railroad travel. If bound -for San Francisco one can travel through the republic to Salina Cruz, -and there embark for that city. When the Southern Pacific extension is -completed to Guadalajara this will also furnish another good way either -to enter or leave Mexico. - -The Mexican customs examination is a very formal affair and causes very -little inconvenience to the traveller, for the officials are usually very -courteous. An ignorance of the Spanish language will not cause a great -deal of trouble to the experienced traveller in the cities, as it is a -very easy matter to find some one who can speak English. In the remoter -districts more trouble will be encountered, so that one should have at -least a few stock phrases to use. - -The money of Mexico is easy for one to familiarize himself with, as the -peso is equal to fifty cents in American money. The only inconvenience at -times is the trouble of carrying so many of these pesos, each of which is -the size of one of our American silver dollars. The minor coins are all -on the decimal system, the peso counting as one hundred centavos. - -Hotel accommodation in the cities is fair, although it will take -the traveller some time to get used to the large rooms that he will -oftentimes be placed in. The charges are generally based on the European -plan, but occasionally one will find a hotel on the American plan, and -the charges are reasonable. On arriving at a hotel the guest is usually -shown a room, and, if it is accepted, he may then register and his name -is written on a blackboard with his room number. The cab charges are -usually reasonable. In the City of Mexico there are three classes of -cabs, indicated respectively by blue, red and yellow flags, the latter -being the cheapest class. The driver always expects a small fee in -addition to the regular fare. - -Good stores will be found in the cities, and the prices are not -excessive. Most people are interested in things that may be purchased as -souvenirs of the country. The famous drawn work can be bought to the best -advantage in northern Mexico, and especially at Aguas Calientes. Mexico -is also noted for her onyx, opals and the turquoise. - -The proper clothing to be worn is that used in the United States for -spring or fall in the higher altitudes, and a light coat should be a -part of the wardrobe. In the lower levels lightweight summer clothing -can be worn at all seasons of the year. Most people visit Mexico during -the winter months, but summer, which is the rainy season, is likewise -delightful. - - -IV - -BIBLIOGRAPHY - - BALLOU, M. M.: Aztec Land. Boston, 1890. - - BANCROFT, H. H.: History of Mexico. 6 vols. San Francisco, 1888. - - BANDELIER, A. F.: Report of an Archeological Tour. Boston, 1885. - - BEART, LUCIEN: The Aztecs, their History, Manners and Customs. - From the French. Chicago, 1900. - - BISHOP, W. H.: Old Mexico and Her Lost Provinces. New York, - 1883. - - BROOKS, N. C.: History of the Mexican War. Philadelphia, 1849. - - CHARNAY, DESIRÉ: Ancient Cities of the New World. Translated - from French. New York, 1887. - - CONKLIN, HOWARD: Mexico and the Mexicans. New York, 1883. - - CREELMAN, JAMES: Diaz: Master of Mexico. New York, 1910. - - DIAZ DEL CASTILLO, BERNAL: The True History of the Conquest of - Mexico. Written in 1568. Translation. New York, 1803. - - EDWARDS, WILLIAM SEYMOUR: On the Mexican Highlands. Cincinnati, - 1906. - - FLANDRAU, C. M.: Viva Mexico. New York, 1908. - - GADNOW, HANS: Through Southern Mexico. New York, 1908. - - GOOCH, FANNIE C.: Face to Face with the Mexicans. New York, - 1887. - - GRIFFIN, S. B.: Mexico of To-day. New York, 1886. - - HALE, SUSAN: Story of Mexico. New York, 1889. - - HAVEN, GILBERT: Our Next Door Neighbor: A Winter in Mexico. New - York, 1875. - - HUMBOLDT, ALEXANDER VON: Political Essay on the Kingdom of New - Spain. London, 1822. - - KIRKHAM, STANTON DAVIS: Mexican Trials. Boston, 1909. - - LUMHOLTZ, CARL: Unknown Mexico. 2 vols. New York, 1902. - - LUMMIS, CHARLES F.: The Awakening of a Nation. New York, 1899. - - MARTIN, PERCY F.: Mexico of the Twentieth Century. London, 1907. - - MAYER, BRANTZ: Mexico as It Was and Is. London, 1844. - - NOLL, A. H.: A Short History of Mexico. Chicago, 1903. - - OBER, FREDERICK A.: Travels in Mexico. Boston, 1885. - - PRESCOTT, W. H.: Conquest of Mexico. 1843. - - ROMERO, MATIAS: Mexico and the United States. New York, 1898. - - SMITH, F. H.: A White Umbrella in Mexico. Boston. 1889. - - STARR, FREDERICK: In Indian Mexico. Chicago, 1908. - - STEPHENS, JOHN L.: Incidents of Travel in Yucatan. New York, - 1843. - - STEVENSON, SARA: Maximilian in Mexico. New York, 1899. - - TWEEDIE, MRS. ALEC: The Maker of Modern Mexico: Porfirio Diaz. - London, 1906. - - WALLACE, DILLON: Beyond the Mexican Sierras. Chicago, 1910. - - - - -INDEX - - - Acapulco, 99, 299, 382. - - Agriculture, 464-467. - - Agave Americana, 41. - - Aguador (water carrier), 221. - - Agua miel (honey-water), 43. - - Aguas Calientes, 36, 219, 298. - - Aqueduct of Oaxaca, 116; - of Querétero, 35. - - Ahuehuete (cypress) of Chapultepec, 86; - of Popotla, 78; - of Tule, 153. - - Alameda, The, 56, 69. - - Alamo, Battle of the, 360. - - Alcabales, Abolishment of, 293. - - Alhondiga de Granaditas, The, of Guanajuato, 348, 349. - - Altata, 429. - - Alvaredo, Pedro, 279. - - American Capital in Mexico, 280. - - American Colony, 53. - - Anahuac, Valley of, 74 _et seq._ - - Apam, Plains of, 41, 91. - - Architecture, Mexican, 47, 271-273. - - Army, The Mexican, 334-337. - - Art in Mexico, 270. - - Auto-da-fé, The first, 345. - - Aztecs, History of the, 11, 75; - Subjugation of, 14-16; - Descendants of, 183 _et seq._; - Markets of, 217-218; - Celebrations of, 235. - - - Banana, Culture of the, 106-108, 431. - - Baptism of Indians, 309. - - Baptist Missions, 324-326. - - Bargaining, 125, 220. - - Barra, Francisco de la, 406, 413. - - Bear, Playing the, 48, 170-172. - - Beggars, Mexican, 242, 340. - - Belem, Prison of, 317. - - Boca del Monte, 91. - - Bonanzas (meaning mines worked at great profit), 275 _et seq._ - - Books, first printed in Mexico, 259. - - Borda, Joseph de la, 276. - - Buena Vista, Battle of, 27. - - Bull-fight, 243 _et seq._ - - Bull-ring, 245. - - - Cacao, 105, 109. - - Campo Santo, 63. - - Capitals, Population of the, 479. - - Cargadors (burden-bearers), 195-199. - - Cart, Mexican, 120. - - Casa (meaning home), 163, 210-211. - - Casas Grandes, 403, 425. - - Cathedral of Capital, 60, 321-323. - - Catorce, 283, 330. - - Cattle ranches, 36, 128, 417, 418-419. - - Celaya, 297, 298. - - Celebrations in honour of the Virgin of Guadalupe, 236 _et seq._ - - Cemeteries, 63. - - Centennial of Independence, 1910, 73, 396-398. - - Central Railway, 297-299. - - Cerro (a hill) de las Campañas, 35. - - Chalco, Lake, 74. - - Chamber of Deputies, The, 18. - - Chapala, Lake, 9. - - Chapultepec, 86; - military academy, 337. - - Chiapas, State of, 304. - - Chichen Itza, 441-447. - - Chihuahua, City of, 36, 298, 405, 417-419, 422; - State of, 36, 398, 401, 415, 424; - Execution of Hidalgo at, 349. - - Chinampas, or floating gardens, 82. - - Chilpantzingo, 350. - - Cholula, 78, 148; - Pyramid of, 113, 149, 150. - - Chorubusco, 363. - - Christmas celebrations, 227-232. - - Churches, Mexican, 271-273. - - Church, The Mexican, 308 _et seq._ - - Cinco de Mayo, Victory of, 37, 374; - Street of, 50. - - Ciudad Juarez, 401, 402, 404, 405, 416, 424. - - Climate of the Capital, 54-55; - Variety of, 8; - of Oaxaca, 123. - - Coahuila, State of, 27. - - Coal, 288-289. - - Coatzacoalcos, 99, 137, 139. - - Cock-fighting, 33. - - Coffee culture, 94, 106, 431. - - Colonia Juarez, 425. - - Comonfort, President, 315. - - Congress, First Mexican, 350; - Second, 354; - of to-day, 18. - - Congregational Missions, 324-326. - - Conquest, Manner of the, 14-16, 77. - - Conquistadores (conquerors), Vandalism and nature of, 13. - - Contrasts, A land of, 45. - - Copper, Production of, 228. - - Cordillerias, The, 26. - - Cordoba, 94, 301; - Treaty of, 353. - - Corral, Hon. Ramon, 405. - - Cortez, 77, 111; - Defeat of, 78; - as governor, 343; - Landing of, 95; - and his followers, 13-16. - - Cosmopolitan character of City of Mexico, 59. - - Coyoacan, 85. - - Creole, The, 51, 162; - women, 165-166. - - Cuautla, Battle of, 350. - - Cuernevaca, 299. - - Cuilapa, 358. - - Cuitzeo, Lake, 9. - - Culiacan, 429. - - Curandera (native doctor), 222-224. - - Currency reform, 459. - - Customs, Domestic, 167; - Strange, 201 _et seq._; - officials, polite, 22, 482. - - Cypress of Noche Triste, 78; - of Chapultepec, 86; - of Tule, 153. - - - Denouncing a mining claim, 287. - - Desierto, El, 85. - - Diaz, Bernal, 262. - - Diaz, Porfirio, 18-19; - Birthplace of, 116; - and education, 264; - encouragement of railroads, 296; - and Protestantism, 325; - organizes _Rurales_, 331-333; - Sketch of, 369 _et seq._; - Revolution against, 396 _et seq._ - - Diego Juan, Vision of, 236-238. - - Dolores Hidalgo, 34, 347. - - Douglass, 402. - - Dude, The Mexican, 57. - - Dulces (Mexican candy), 220. - - Durango, 36, 278; - Mountain of iron in, 288; - State of, 415. - - - Easter, Celebration of, 232-234. - - Education in Mexico, 257 _et seq._; - of soldiers, 335. - - Ejutla, 283. - - El Paso, 401, 404, 416, 481. - - Embrace, A Mexican, 47. - - English language, Teaching of, 267. - - Ensenada, 434. - - Esperanza, 91. - - Evangelista (letter-writer), 220. - - Exclusiveness of Mexicans, 164, 210. - - Exports and imports, 459-460. - - - Farming in the tropics, 106; - Antiquated, 123, 465. - - Feasts and festivals, 225 _et seq._ - - Feather work, Aztec, 218. - - Federal District, Schools of, 265. - - Ferrocarriles Mexicanos, 294 _et seq._ - - Fibre-producing plants, 40. - - Fiesta, 190, 225; - at Oaxaca, 117; - at Guadalupe, 236 _et seq._; - de las Flores, 235. - - Finances of Mexico, 458-459. - - Floating gardens, 82-84. - - Flower market, The, 67. - - Frijoles, 216. - - Funeral cars, 62. - - - Germans, Affiliation of, 38. - - Goat raising, 417. - - Gold of Aztecs, 285; - Production of, 288. - - Gomez, Vasquez, 410. - - Gondola, The Mexican, 82. - - Gonzalez, Manuel, 384. - - Graphite, 289. - - Grasshoppers as food, 81. - - Gringo, a term of derision originally applied to foreigners. - - Grito, The, 347. - - Guadalajara, 37, 219, 299, 426, 428. - - Guadalupe, Town of, 240-242; - Church of, 238; - Virgin of, 236-242. - - Guadalupe-Hidalgo, Treaty of, 363. - - Guanajuato, 36, 277, 283; - Battle at, 348, 383. - - Guatemotzin, eleventh and last Aztec Emperor, 78. - - Guaymas, 99, 301, 428. - - Guaxaca (_See_ Oaxaca). - - Guerrero, The patriot, 352, 357. - - Guatemala City, Bull fight in, 252; - Earthquake in, 260; - Theatre of, 284. - - - Hacienda, The, 27-30; - of Mitla, 124-128; - of Zuloaga, 418-420; - Labour on, 189. - - Hacendado, The, 28, 52. - - Henequen, 40-41. - - Hermosillo, 301, 427-428. - - Hidalgo, Miguel, 347-349, 392, 397. - - Hidalgo Railway, 297. - - Holidays, 190, 225 _et seq._ - - Home, Regard for, 163, 210. - - Horsemen, Mexican, 57. - - Huamantla, 381. - - Huitzilopoxtli, 308. - - - Iglesias, 382-383, 387, 388. - - Improvements, Contemplated, in Capital, 71-73. - - Independence, Declaration of, 350. - - Indians, 183 _et seq._, 421-424; - habits and characteristics, 58; - of the hotlands, 103; - cargadors, 195-199; - market, 120-122; - Independent tribe of, 115; - miners, 280. - - Inquisition, Establishment of the, 345. - - International Railway, 297. - - Interoceanic Railway, 297. - - Irapuato, 298, 299. - - Iron, 288. - - Irrigation, Benefits of, 39. - - Iturbide, Agustin de, 352-356; - Hotel, 356. - - Ixtaccihuatl, Volcano of, 87, 113. - - Ixtlan, 373. - - Ixtle, 23. - - - Japanese, Resemblance of Mexicans to, 10. - - Jardenas flotandas, 82-84. - - Jesuits, The, 258. - - Juarez, Benito, Birthplace of, 116; - attitude toward education, 264; - crushes temporal power of the Church, 315; - favours Diaz, 371; - sketch of career, 364-368, 388. - - Judas, Burning of, 233. - - Judicial System, 467-469. - - - Labourers, Mexican, 183 _et seq._ - - Lajartija, (Mexican dude), 57. - - La Paz, 434, 436. - - Laredo, 481. - - Las Madres, 415. - - Lead, 289. - - Legal customs, 207-209. - - Leon, 36, 298. - - Leperos, 339, 340. - - Lerdo, 368, 379, 382, 385, 387, 388. - - Liberty Bell, The, of Mexico, 69. - - Library, National, 269. - - Limantour, Minister of Finance, 298, 459. - - Literary men, 262 _et seq._ - - Literature, Mexican, 258 _et seq._ - - Lovemaking, Mexican, 170-172. - - Lower California, 306, 431-437. - - - Madero Family, 400, 411. - - Madero, Francisco, 400, 401, 403, 404, 406-408, 410-414, 435. - - Madrid, Bull-ring of, 244; - Bull-fight in, 253. - - Magdalena, 426. - - Magdalena Bay, 435. - - Maguey, 41-45. - - Mal Paso, 400. - - Maltrata, 92. - - Mañana, The Land of, 204. - - Manzanillo, 99, 299. - - Markets, Ancient, 217-218; - of capital, 218; - of Oaxaca, 117-119; - of Tehuantepec, 132. - - Marsh-flies as food, 81. - - Matamoros, 380. - - Maximilian, 264, 315, 366-367, 390; - Execution of, 34-35. - - Mayas, The, 438 _et seq._ - - Mazatlan, 99, 279, 429-430. - - Mendoza, Viceroy, 258, 344. - - Merchants, Aztec, 329. - - Mesas, 26. - - Mescal (native brandy), 45. - - Mestizos, 184. - - Metate, 178, 215. - - Methodist Missions, 324, 326. - - Mexican races, Origin of, 10. - - Mexican, Conservatism of, 52, 174; - his view of Anglo-Saxon, 20. - - Mexican Central Railway, 80, 297-299. - - Mexican National Railway, Route of, 24 _et seq._, 297-298. - - Mexican Railway, 90 _et seq._, 299. - - Mexican Southern Railway, 112-114, 300. - - Mexico, Antiquity of, 3; - Resources of, 19; - The United States of, 18. - - Miñaca, 420. - - Mines of Mexico, 274 _et seq._, 427, 434. - - Missions, Protestant, in Mexico, 324-327. - - Mitla, Village of, 152; - Ruins of, 152 _et seq._; - Hacienda of, 124-127, 154. - - Molino del Rey (the king’s mill), 88, 363. - - Monte de Piedad, 61. - - Monte las Cruces, Battle of, 349. - - Monterey, 24-25, 297, 299, 417; - Battle of, 25. - - Montezuma, 199. - - Moon, Pyramid of the, 147. - - Morelas, Jose Maria, 350-352. - - Morelia, 268, 351, 352. - - Mormon Colony, 425-426. - - Mountains, 24, 415 _et seq._ - - Mozo, a servant. - - Museum, National, 269. - - - Nahuals, 75. - - National Palace, The, 322. - - National Railway, 297. - - Navarro, General, 404-405. - - Newspapers and periodicals, 260-261. - - Noche Bueno, 227. - - Noche Triste, Tree of, 78. - - Nochistongo cut, 80. - - _No es costumbre_, 213-214. - - Nogales, 402, 426. - - _No hay_, 220. - - “Northers,” The, 7, 98. - - Notaries, Mexican, 209. - - Nuevo Leon, State of, 24. - - - Oaxaca, 111 _et seq._, 300, 371, 381; - Markets of, 117-119; - Valley of, 111, 151-152; - Mines of, 283. - - O’Donoju, Viceroy, 353. - - Ojinaga, 400. - - Oñata, Juan de, 276. - - Oranges, 109, 431. - - Orient, Resemblance to, 1-3, 121-123. - - Oriental habits of women, 162. - - Orizaba, 93, 366; - Volcano of, 91, 113. - - Orozco, Pascual, 404-405. - - - Pachuca, 282, 297, 405. - - Padilla, 355. - - Palace, The National, 68-69. - - Palenque, 441, 451-455. - - Palo Alto, Battle of, 361. - - Panama Canal, A competitor of, 136 _et seq._ - - Pan American Railroad, 303-305. - - Panteon of Guanajuato, 284; - National, 72. - - Paseo de la Reforma, 56, 69. - - Patio (courtyard) in houses, 47. - - Patio process, 279, 281. - - Patzcuaro, Lake, 9, 270. - - Pawnshop, The National, 61. - - Peon, The, 183 _et seq._; - as a soldier, 334-335. - - Peonage, 188-189, 191-192, 390. - - Pertenencia, a mining claim, 287. - - Petroleum, Production of, 289. - - Piedad, Monte de, 277. - - Pijijiapam, 304. - - Piñate, Breaking the, 231-232. - - Plateaus, The, 26, 295. - - Plaza Mayor, 68; - de Toros, 245. - - Poets and poetry, Mexican, 262-264. - - Police, The, 336, 341. - - Politeness, 209. - - Popocatapetl, 87, 89, 113. - - Popotla, Village of, 78. - - Poppies, Feast of the, 235. - - Population of Mexico, 9; - of states and capitals, 479. - - Posadas, The, 228-232. - - Pottery, Mexican, 119, 219. - - Presbyterian Missions, 324, 326. - - Printing press, First, 259. - - Prisons, schools in, 267. - - Procrastination, A land of, 203-205. - - Protestantism in Mexico, 317, 324-327. - - Puebla, 37-39, 113, 297, 383, 398, 407; - city of churches, 321; - house of the inquisition in, 345; - Battles at, 374, 378. - - Pulque, 41, 66; - shop, 65-67. - - Pyramid of Cholula, 113, 149, 150; - of the Sun, 147; - of the Moon, 147. - - - Quetzalcoatl, 149, 235. - - Querétero, 34, 298. - - - Railroads, Mexican, 143, 290 _et seq._, 417-418, 481. - - Rainfall, 102, 418, 435. - - Real del Monte, Mines of, 282. - - Rebosa, 59. - - Regla, Count of, 277; - Mines of, 282. - - Religion of Mexico, 308 _et seq._ - - Reyes, Bernardo, 407-408. - - Rincon Antonio, 138. - - Robbers and bandits of former days, 328-333. - - Ruins of Yucatan, 146, 440 _et seq._; - of Mitla, 152 _et seq._ - - Rurales, 331-334, 336. - - - Sagrario Metropolitano, Church of, 321-322. - - Saint, Mexico’s patron, 236. - - Saint days, 191. - - Salina Cruz, 99, 137, 139 _et seq._, 481. - - Saltillo, 27, 297. - - San Antonio, Texas, 22. - - San Benito, 305. - - San Blas, 99. - - San Cristobal, Lake, 74. - - San Cristobal Ecatepec, 351. - - San Geronimo, 304. - - San Juan de Ulua, Fort of, 98, 356. - - San Juan Teotihuacan, 146-148. - - San Luis Potosi, City of, 30 _et seq._, 297, 299; - State of, 30. - - Santa Anita, Village of, 83. - - Santa Anna, General, 354, 359-364; - Burial place of, 239. - - Santa Lucrecia, 131, 301. - - School of fine arts, 270. - - Schools, Public, 264-266. - - Scott, General, in Mexico, 361, 363. - - Seasons, Only two, 7. - - Senate, The, 18. - - Señoritas, 169. - - Serenos, 342. - - Sheep Raising, 417. - - Shoemaker, Mexican, 221. - - Silver, 275 _et seq._; - Production of, 287. - - Sinaloa, State of, 415, 428-431. - - Society in the capital, 53. - - Soldiers, Schools for, 267. - - Sonora, State of, 398, 415, 427. - - Southern Pacific Railway, 301. - - States, The, of Mexico, 18; - Area and population of, 479. - - Steamship Lines, 469-471. - - Streets of the capital, 50. - - Suarez, José Maria Pino, 410, 411. - - Sugar cane, 109, 429. - - Sun, Pyramid of, 147. - - Sunday, a day of pleasure, 57. - - - Tablelands, 26. - - Tacuba, 85. - - Tacubaya, 85. - - Tajo de Nochistongo, 80. - - Tamales, 216. - - Tampico, 99, 289. - - Taotl, an Aztec god, 308. - - Tarahumari Indians, 421-424. - - Tasco, 277. - - Taylor, General, Invasion by, 24 _et seq._; - at Palo Alto, 361. - - Tecoac, 382. - - Tehuacan, 114. - - Tehuantepec, Isthmus of, 128, 289 _et seq._; - Town of, 132-134; - Women of, 180-181; - National Railway, 136 _et seq._, 301. - - Tejada, Lerdo de (_See_ Lerdo). - - Temperature of the tropics, 100, 102; - of the capital, 54. - - Tenochtitlan, The ancient capital, 49. - - Teocalli, the Aztec, 60, 323. - - Tepic, 415, 428, 431. - - Tequila (native brandy), 45. - - Texcoco, Lake, 49, 74, 81; - Town of, 85. - - Thieves, 338-342. - - Tia Juana, 401-402, 434-435. - - Tierra Blanca, 130. - - Tierra caliente, 7, 94, 100-105, 128. - - Tierra fria, 6, 25. - - Tierra templada, 7, 93. - - Tlacolulu, 154. - - Tlacochahuaya, 154. - - Tolpetlac, Village of, 236. - - Toltecs, 12, 75; - Gods of the, 308. - - Topo Chico, Springs of, 25. - - Topolobampo, 418. - - Torreon, 298, 400, 405. - - Tortillas, Making of, 178, 215. - - Transition, The, in Mexico, 456 _et seq._ - - Travellers, Suggestions for, 481-483. - - Tropics, Vegetation of, 94, 100, 133; - Need of, 110; - Railroading in, 301-303. - - Tula, 439. - - Tule, Big Tree of, 153. - - Tzintzuntzan, 270. - - - United States, War with, 359, 363. - - Uxmal, 441, 448-451. - - - Valenciana, Conde de, 277. - - Valley of Mexico, View of, 35, 79, 87. - - Vera Cruz, 95-97, 297, 366, 387, 391; - Fall of, 363; - Escape of Diaz, at, 380. - - Vera Cruz and Pacific Railway, 131, 301, 481. - - Victoria Guadalupe, first president, 356. - - Viga canal, 82-84, 235. - - Villa Reyes, Great hacienda of, 29. - - Volcanoes, Height of, 480. - - Vomito, 95-96. - - - Wages of miners, 287; - of labourers, 188. - - Wheat, Introduction of, 39. - - Woman, 133, 162 _et seq._; - The creole, 165-166. - - - Xaltocan, Lake, 74. - - Xochimilco, Lake, 74. - - - Yaqui Indians, 427. - - Yellow Fever, 95-96. - - Young Men’s Christian Association, 327. - - Yucatan, Ruins of, 146, 440 _et seq._; - Railways in, 306. - - - Zacatecas, 36, 282, 298. - - Zambrano, a Mexican miner, 276. - - Zapotec Indians, 160. - - Zaragossa, General, Victory of, 37. - - Zocalo, The, 67, 68, 231. - - Zopilotes (buzzards), 97. - - Zuloaga Hacienda, 418-420. - - Zumarraga, Bishop, 258. - - Zumpango, Lake, 74, 79. - - - -***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MEXICO AND HER PEOPLE OF TO-DAY*** - - -******* This file should be named 60135-0.txt or 60135-0.zip ******* - - -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: -http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/6/0/1/3/60135 - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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