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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..ebfa339 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #60135 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/60135) diff --git a/old/60135-0.txt b/old/60135-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 2090bfa..0000000 --- a/old/60135-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,11238 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook, Mexico and Her People of To-day, by Nevin O. -(Nevin Otto) Winter, Illustrated by Nevin O. Winter and C. R. Birt - - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - - - - -Title: Mexico and Her People of To-day - An Account of the Customs, Characteristics, Amusements, History and Advancement of the Mexicans, and the Development and Resources of Their Country - - -Author: Nevin O. (Nevin Otto) Winter - - - -Release Date: August 21, 2019 [eBook #60135] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - - -***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MEXICO AND HER PEOPLE OF TO-DAY*** - - -E-text prepared by the Online Distributed Proofreading Team -(http://www.pgdp.net) from page images generously made available by -Internet Archive (https://archive.org) - - - -Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this - file which includes the original illustrations. - See 60135-h.htm or 60135-h.zip: - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/60135/60135-h/60135-h.htm) - or - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/60135/60135-h.zip) - - - Images of the original pages are available through - Internet Archive. See - https://archive.org/details/mexicoherpeopleo02wint - - - - - -MEXICO AND HER PEOPLE OF TO-DAY - - - * * * * * * - -Uniform with This Volume - - - Panama and the Canal $3.00 - BY FORBES LINDSAY - - Cuba and Her People of To-day 3.00 - BY FORBES LINDSAY - - Brazil and Her People of To-day 3.00 - BY NEVIN O. WINTER - - Guatemala and Her People of To-day 3.00 - BY NEVIN O. WINTER - - Mexico and Her People of To-day 3.00 - BY NEVIN O. WINTER - - Argentina and Her People of To-day 3.00 - BY NEVIN O. WINTER - - Bohemia and the Čechs 3.00 - BY WILL S. MONROE - - In Viking Land. Norway: Its Peoples, Its Fjords - and Its Fjelds 3.00 - BY WILL S. MONROE - - Turkey and the Turks 3.00 - BY WILL S. MONROE - - Sicily, the Garden of the Mediterranean 3.00 - BY WILL S. MONROE - - In Wildest Africa 3.00 - BY PETER MACQUEEN - - L. C. PAGE & COMPANY - 53 Beacon Street, Boston, Mass. - - * * * * * * - - -[Illustration: A BELLE OF TEHUANTEPEC (_See page 180_)] - - -MEXICO AND HER PEOPLE OF TO-DAY - -An Account of the -Customs, Characteristics, Amusements, -History and Advancement -of the Mexicans, and the Development -and Resources of Their -Country - -by - -NEVIN O. WINTER - -Illustrated from Original Photographs -by the -Author and C. R. Birt - -New Revised Edition - - -[Illustration] - - - - - - -Boston -L. C. Page and Company -MDCCCCXII - -Copyright, 1907, -by L. C. Page & Company -(Incorporated) - -Copyright, 1912, -by L. C. Page & Company -(Incorporated) - -Entered at Stationers’ Hall, London -All rights reserved - -Second Impression, May, 1908 -Third Impression, June, 1910 -New Revised Edition, January, 1912 - -Electrotyped and Printed by -The Colonial Press -C. H. Simonds & Co., Boston, U.S.A. - - - - - TO - My Mother - AND THE MEMORY OF - My Father - - - - -PREFACE TO REVISED EDITION - - -Since the first publication of “Mexico and Her People of To-day,” Mexico -has seen stirring times, and there has been a radical change in the -government. Revolution again broke forth, and the long dictatorship -of Porfirio Diaz has ended. These conditions have made advisable a -completely revised edition of this work, which the public and the press -have stamped with their approval to a degree that has been most pleasing. -To both public and press the author desires to return his most sincere -thanks, and he has in this revision endeavoured to be as accurate and -painstaking as in the original preparation. Furthermore, another trip -to that most interesting country has enabled the author to give a -description of a section but briefly treated in the previous edition. -New appendices have been added, consisting of a bibliography and a few -suggestions for those contemplating a trip to Mexico. - - NEVIN O. WINTER. - - TOLEDO, OHIO, _January, 1912_. - - - - -PREFACE - - -Many books have been written about Mexico, but several of the best works -were written a quarter of a century ago and are now out of print. This -fact and the developments of the past few years leads the author to -believe that there is a field for another book on that most interesting -country; a book that should present in readable form reliable information -concerning the customs and characteristics of the people of Mexico, as -well as the great natural resources of the country and their present -state of development, or lack of development. - -It has been the aim of the author to make a complete and accurate -presentation of the subject rather than to advance radical views -concerning and harsh criticism of our next-door neighbours. With -this idea in mind he has read nearly every prominent work on Mexico -and Mexican history, as well as other current periodical literature -concerning that country during the two years devoted to the preparation -of this volume. It is hoped that the wide range of subjects, covering -the customs, habits, amusements, history, antiquities, and resources -will render the volume of value to any one interested in Mexico and her -progress. - -If this volume shall aid in any way to a better understanding of Mexico -by Americans, or in furthering the present progressive movement in that -country, then the author will feel amply repaid for the months of labour -devoted to its preparation. - -The author wishes to make special acknowledgment of obligation to his -friend Mr. C. R. Birt, his companion during the greater part of his -travels through Mexico, and to whose artistic sense in selection and -grouping the excellence of many of the photographs herewith reproduced is -due. - - TOLEDO, OHIO, _September, 1907_. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - CHAPTER PAGE - - I. AZTEC LAND 1 - - II. ACROSS THE PLATEAUS 22 - - III. THE CAPITAL 46 - - IV. THE VALLEY OF ANAHUAC 74 - - V. THE TROPICS 90 - - VI. A GLIMPSE OF THE ORIENTAL IN THE OCCIDENT 111 - - VII. THE ISTHMUS OF TEHUANTEPEC 128 - - VIII. IN THE FOOTSTEPS OF THE ANCIENTS 144 - - IX. WOMAN AND HER SPHERE 162 - - X. THE PEON 183 - - XI. CUSTOMS AND CHARACTERISTICS 201 - - XII. HOLIDAYS AND HOLY-DAYS 225 - - XIII. A TRANSPLANTED SPORT 243 - - XIV. EDUCATION AND THE ARTS 257 - - XV. MINES AND MINING 274 - - XVI. RAILWAYS AND THEIR INFLUENCE 290 - - XVII. RELIGIOUS FORCES 308 - - XVIII. PASSING OF THE LAWLESS 328 - - XIX. THE STORY OF THE REPUBLIC 343 - - XX. THE GUIDING HAND 369 - - XXI. THE REVOLUTION OF 1910 396 - - XXII. THE SIERRAS AND BEYOND 415 - - XXIII. THE RUINED CITIES OF YUCATAN 438 - - XXIV. THE PRESENT AND THE FUTURE 456 - - APPENDICES 479 - - INDEX 485 - - - - -LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS - - - PAGE - - A BELLE OF TEHUANTEPEC (_See page 180_) _Frontispiece_ - - SNOW-CAPPED POPOCATAPETL 4 - - GENERAL MAP OF MEXICO 6 - - AN INDIAN MAIDEN 10 - - “THE LAND OF BURROS AND _SOMBREROS_” 22 - - MARKET SCENE IN SAN LUIS POTOSI 30 - - COCK-FIGHTING IN MEXICO 33 - - THE _MAGUEY_ 41 - - MAP OF THE VALLEY OF MEXICO 46 - - THE PATIO OF AN OLD RESIDENCE 48 - - THE CATHEDRAL 60 - - A PICTURESQUE PULQUE SHOP 66 - - THE CALENDAR STONE 77 - - SCENES ON THE VIGA CANAL 82 - - CASTLE OF CHAPULTEPEC 86 - - BRIDGE AT ORIZABA.—THE BUZZARDS OF VERA CRUZ.—AVENUE OF PALMS, - VERA CRUZ 98 - - AN INDIAN HOME IN THE HOT COUNTRY 104 - - RICE CULTURE 109 - - THE AQUEDUCT, OAXACA.—A FOUNTAIN IN OAXACA 116 - - THE MARKET-WOMEN OF OAXACA.—THE POTTERY-MARKET, OAXACA 118 - - CROSSING THE RIVER ON MARKET-DAY 121 - - THE MARKET, TEHUANTEPEC 132 - - ENTRANCE TO THE UNDERGROUND CHAMBER, MITLA.—NORTH TEMPLE, - MITLA.—HALL OF THE MONOLITHS, MITLA 157 - - A ZAPOTECO WOMAN 161 - - “PLAYING THE BEAR” 170 - - WASHING ON THE BANKS OF A STREAM 177 - - A PEON AND HIS WIFE 184 - - A CARGADOR 198 - - MAKING _TORTILLAS_ 215 - - A MEXICAN MARKET 218 - - CANDY BOY AND GIRL 220 - - BURNING AN EFFIGY OF JUDAS AT EASTER-TIME 233 - - CANDLE BOOTHS IN GUADALUPE 240 - - BEGGARS OF THE CITY OF MEXICO 242 - - PLANTING THE _BANDERILLAS_ 250 - - AN AZTEC SCHOOLGIRL 266 - - PEON MINERS AT LUNCH 280 - - ALONG THE MEXICAN SOUTHERN RAILWAY 300 - - WAYSIDE SHRINE WITH AN OFFERING OF FLOWERS 312 - - A _RURALE_ 332 - - ARMY HEADQUARTERS, CITY OF MEXICO 336 - - A VILLAGE CHURCH 364 - - A COMPANY OF _RURALES_ 370 - - SR. DON FRANCISCO I. MADERO 411 - - A GROUP OF PEONS 419 - - TARAHUMARI INDIANS 421 - - CRUMBLING RUINS OF THE ANCIENT MEXICAN CIVILIZATION 441 - - AN OLD CHURCH 451 - - PRIMITIVE TRANSPORTATION 457 - - PRIMITIVE PLOUGHING NEAR OAXACA 465 - - - - -MEXICO AND HER PEOPLE TO-DAY - - - - -CHAPTER I - -AZTEC LAND - - -Prescott says: “Of all that extensive empire which once acknowledged -the authority of Spain in the New World, no portion for interest and -importance, can be compared with Mexico;—and this equally, whether we -consider the variety of its soil and climate; the inexhaustible stores of -its mineral wealth; its scenery, grand and picturesque beyond example; -the character of its ancient inhabitants, not only far surpassing in -intelligence that of the other North American races, but reminding us, by -their monuments, of the primitive civilization of Egypt and Hindoostan; -or, lastly, the peculiar circumstances of its conquest, adventurous and -romantic as any legend devised by Norman or Italian bard of chivalry.” - -Mexico is a country in which the old predominates. The American visitor -will bring back more distinct recollections of the Egyptian carts and -plows, the primitive manners and customs, than he will of the evidences -of modern civilization. An educated Mexican whom I met, chided the -Americans for this tendency, for, said he, “all that is written of Mexico -is descriptive of the Indians and their habits, while progressive Mexico -is ignored.” This is to a great extent true, for it is the unique and -ancient that attracts and holds the attention of the traveller. For this -reason tourists go to Egypt to see the pyramids, sphinx and tombs of the -Pharaohs. - -It is not necessary for the traveller to venture out upon perilous seas -to see mute evidences of a life older than printed record. In this land -of ancient civilization and primitive customs, there are cities which -stand out like oriental pearls transplanted to the Occident from the -shores of the Red Sea. Here in Mexico can be found pyramids which are -no mean rivals to those great piles on the Egyptian deserts; crumbling -ruins of tombs, and palaces, and temples, ornamented in arabesque and -grecque designs, not unlike the structures along the banks of the mighty -Nile; and the same primitive implements of husbandry which we have -viewed so often in the pages of the large family Bible. Then, as an -additional attraction, there is the actual presence of the aborigines, -Aztec, Zapotec, and Chichimec, speaking the same language, observing the -same ceremonies, and following the same customs which were old when the -foreigners came. - -There is no history to enlighten us as to the age of these monuments, -and there are few hieroglyphics to be deciphered upon which a Rosetta -Stone might shed light. The student is led to wonder whether the Egyptian -civilization antedated the Mexican, or whether the former is simply the -Mexican learning and skill transplanted to the Orient and there modified -and improved. It is quite possible, that, while our own ancestors were -still barbarians, and little better than savages, swarming over northern -Europe, the early races in Mexico had developed a civilization advanced -and progressive. They knew how to build monuments which in masonry and -carving teach us lessons to-day. They made beautiful pottery and artistic -vessels, and they used gold for money and ornaments. - -Notwithstanding the fact that for a thousand miles the republics of -Mexico and the United States join, the average American knows less -concerning Mexico than he does of many European countries; and it is much -misunderstood as well as misrepresented. Mexico possesses the strongest -possible attractions for the tourist. Its scenic wonders are unsurpassed -in any other part of the globe in natural picturesqueness; and no country -in Europe presents an aspect more unfamiliar and strange to American -eyes, or exceeds it in historic interest. - -Vast mountains including snow-capped Popocatapetl and Ixtaccihuatl, the -loftiest peaks on the American continent, are seen here amid scenes -of tropical beauty and luxuriance. Great cities are found with their -customs and characteristics almost unchanged since they were built by the -Spaniards; and there are still more ancient cities and temples which were -built by prehistoric races. - -[Illustration: SNOW-CAPPED POPOCATAPETL] - -It is a land of tradition and romance, and of picturesque contrasts. -At almost every turn there is something new, unique, interesting, and -even startling. It has all the climates from the torrid zone to regions -of perpetual snow on the summits of the lofty volcanic peaks, and is -capable of producing nearly every fruit found between the equator and -the Arctic circle. The softness and sweetness of the air; the broken -and ever-varying line of rugged hills against a matchless sky; the -beautiful views between the mountain ranges; the care-free life which -is omnipresent each add their charm to the composite picture. Dirt is -everywhere and poverty abounds, but even these are removed from the -commonplace by the brilliant colour on every hand. - -F. Hopkinson Smith in “A White Umbrella in Mexico” epitomizes this -marvellously attractive country as follows: “A land of white sunshine, -redolent with flowers; a land of gay costumes, crumbling churches, and -old convents; a land of kindly greetings, of extreme courtesy, of open, -broad hospitality. It was more than enough to revel in an Italian sun, -lighting up a semi-tropical land; to look up to white-capped peaks, -towering into blue; to look down upon wind-swept plains, encircled by -ragged chains of mountains; to catch the sparkle of miniature cities, -jewelled here and there in oases of olive and orange; and to realize -that to-day, in its varied scenery, costumes, architecture, street life, -canals crowded with flower-laden boats, market plazas thronged with -gaily-dressed natives, faded church interiors, and abandoned convents, -Mexico is the most marvellously picturesque country under the sun. A -tropical Venice! A semi-barbarous Spain! A new Holy Land.” - -Mexico contains a greater area than is generally understood. It is shaped -very much like a cornucopia with an extreme length of nineteen hundred -miles, a breadth of seven hundred and fifty miles, and an area of nearly -eight hundred thousand square miles. At its narrowest point, the Isthmus -of Tehuantepec, it is only one hundred and twenty-five miles across -from ocean to ocean. There is a double range of mountains, one near the -Pacific coast and the other near the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, between -which lie the great table lands, or plateaus, which constitute a large -part of the surface. - -[Illustration] - -Three distinct climates are found in Mexico determined by altitude. -Those regions six thousand feet or more above sea level are called the -_tierras frias_, or cold lands. This is only a relative term, for the -cold does not correspond with that of our own northern states. Though -termed “cold,” the mean temperature is not lower than that of Central -Italy. Those lands lying at an altitude of six thousand feet, down to -three thousand feet, above sea level are termed the _tierras templadas_, -or temperate lands. This is a region of perpetual humidity and is -semi-tropical in its vegetation and temperature. An altitude from four -thousand to six thousand feet in Mexico gives a most delightful climate. - -Along both the Atlantic and Pacific coasts there is a more or less -broad tract called the _tierra caliente_, or hot land, which is a truly -tropical region. Forests of dense growth cover the soil, so thick that it -is impossible to penetrate them without blazing your way as you go, and -in the midst of which tower trees of magnificent size, such as are to be -seen only in the tropics. Here it is that nature is over-prodigal in her -gifts; and here it is that the _vomito_, as yellow fever is called, lurks -with fatal effect. The winds from the sea generally mitigate the fierce -heat, especially if one can remain out of the sun during the middle -of the day. Sometimes these winds on the Atlantic coast acquire great -velocity, and burst forth upon the unprotected shores with terrific fury -as the so-called “northers.” There is no true winter here, but there is a -rainy season from June to October, and a dry season from November to May, -the former being the colder. - -“In the course of a few hours,” says Prescott, “the traveller may -experience every gradation of climate, embracing torrid heat and glacial -cold, and pass through different zones of vegetation including wheat and -the sugar-cane, the ash and the palm, apples, olives, and guavas.” The -dwellings vary also. In the hot lands the habitations are constructed -of bamboo and light poles open to sun and wind, for the only shelter -needed is protection from the elements; in the temperate region the huts -are made of heavier poles, and are somewhat more durable; in the higher -lands they are built of adobe or stone. Sugar cane and coffee, and even -the banana, will grow up to four thousand feet. Wheat grows best at six -thousand feet and pines commence here too. At seven thousand feet cactus -appears, and the _maguey_, ushering in an entirely different zone. Mexico -is a country of extremes of heat and cold, poverty and riches, filth and -cleanliness, education and extreme ignorance. - -Every schoolboy knows of Loch Katrine and Loch Lomond in bonnie Scotland, -and most people are familiar with the location of Lago di Como, in Italy. -And yet I should not be surprised if fair-sized towns could be found in -the United States where no one could tell whether such a body of water -as Lake Chapala existed or not. As a matter of fact it is ten times -as large as all the lakes of Northern Italy combined; and it embraces -islands larger than the entire surface of Loch Lomond. Its steely -blue waters and rugged shores need only the magic pen of the novelist -or poet to tell of its beauties and invest each nook and glen with -romance, and the charming villas of Como to make Chapala as picturesque -and fascinating as those better known lakes. It is almost a hundred -miles long and thirty-three miles wide at the widest point, and covers -fourteen hundred square miles. Patzcuaro and Cuitzeo are also lakes of -considerable size near Chapala, and all of them are six thousand feet -or more above sea level. They only await development and advertising to -become popular resorts. - -The vast majority of the inhabitants of Mexico are descendants of Indian -races who were found there by the Spanish conquerors, and mixtures -of those natives with European settlers. Of the fourteen millions of -inhabitants only about nineteen per cent. are white; of the remainder, -forty-three per cent. are Indians and thirty-eight per cent. mixed. There -is a greater resemblance of the Mexican Indians to the Malay races of -Asia than to the American Indians. Their intensely black hair and eyes, -brown complexion, small stature, and even a slight obliquity of the eyes -bear a strong resemblance to the Japanese. I have seen it stated that, -if a Japanese is dressed in Mexican costume, and a Mexican in Japanese -dress, it is difficult to tell which is the Jap and which the Mexican. -Students of languages say that there is a strong similarity between the -Mexican tongues and oriental languages. The different tribes do not -mingle much and seldom intermarry, and this fact may contribute to their -physical deterioration. - -[Illustration: AN INDIAN MAIDEN] - -Whence came this people? No one can answer. It is generally supposed that -the Aztecs came from what are now the south-western states of the Union, -and wandered into the Valley of Mexico. They were defeated by the tribes -then dwelling there, and sought refuge on the shores of Lake Texcoco. -There they beheld a golden eagle of great size and beauty resting on a -prickly cactus and devouring a serpent which it held in its talons, and -with its wings outstretched toward the rising sun. This was the sign for -which they had been looking, and there they proceeded to erect their -capital. They first built houses of rushes and reeds in the shallow -water and lived upon fish, and constructed floating gardens. As the -waters receded somewhat they built more durable structures, including -great palaces and temples. They extended their sway over neighbouring -races beyond the Valley and conquered tribe after tribe, although never -claiming dominion over more than a small portion of the present confines -of Mexico. The legend of the eagle and the cactus is still preserved in -the coat-of-arms of the present republic. - -Of the Aztecs and their history prior to the conquest little is known, -except that the country was called Anahuac. Prescott has made his -“Conquest of Mexico” as fascinating as a novel, but he has shown the -romantic side based upon knowledge of the most fragmentary character. The -writings which pass for history were either written by bigoted priests -who could not see anything good in an idolatrous people, and who, to -please the leaders, painted the Aztecs in blackest colours to justify the -cruel measures taken, or they were written by Spaniards who never visited -the country of which they presumed to write. As it has been said, “a -most gorgeous superstructure of fancy has been raised upon a very meagre -foundation of fact.” Their civilization was in many respects marvellous -and far ahead of that of any other race on the western hemisphere. Under -the Montezumas they had grown into a powerful nation, and their rule was -one of barbaric splendour and luxury. - -The Aztecs succeeded an older race called the Toltecs who were also far -advanced in civilization. They were nature worshippers and not only did -not indulge in human sacrifices, but were averse to war and detested -falsehood and treachery. A Toltec noble is said to have instructed his -son after the following manner before sending him away from home: “Never -tell a falsehood, because a lie is a grievous sin! Speak ill of nobody. -Be not dissolute, for thereby thou wilt incense the gods, and they -will cover thee with infamy. Steal not, nor give thyself up to gaming; -otherwise thou wilt be a disgrace to thy parents, whom thou oughtest -rather to honour, for the education they have given thee. If thou wilt be -virtuous, thy example will put the wicked to shame.” - -Both of these races were also great builders and sculptors and had -cultivated the art of picture-writing. They were well housed, decently -clothed, made cloth, enjoyed vapour baths, maintained schools, and had a -large assortment of household gods. They mined some, and in agriculture, -at least, were far ahead of the Mexicans of to-day. - -The vandalism of the Spaniards in destroying the writings and other -records of the early races is rebuked by Prescott as follows: “We -contemplate with indignation the cruelties inflicted by the early -conquerors. But indignation is qualified with contempt when we see them -thus ruthlessly trampling out the sparks of knowledge, the common boon -and property of mankind. We may well doubt which has the strongest claim -to civilization, the victor or the vanquished.” - -The Mexico of to-day cannot be understood without looking for a -moment at its settlement and the manner of the conquest. The Spanish -_conquistadores_ who flocked to these shores with Cortez were a different -race from those early settlers, who, persecuted and denied liberty of -conscience in the land of their birth, sought a new home on our own -hospitable shores. With the union of the crowns of Castille and Aragon -by the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella, and the discovery of the New -World, Spain had suddenly leaped to the front, and become, for a time at -least, the greatest nation of the day. Ships were constructed in great -numbers and sent out, filled with voyagers, “towards that part of the -horizon where the sun set.” - -In the sixteenth century she had practically become the mistress of the -seas and the most powerful nation in the world. Her soldiers were brave -and the acknowledged leaders of chivalry, but the curse of the Spaniards -was their thirst for gold, and her decay was rapid. When Cortez and his -band of adventurers came to the court of Montezuma, and saw the lavish -display of vessels and ornaments made of the precious metal, they thought -they had discovered the land of gold for which they were searching. -Attracted by the glowing reports of untold wealth, thousands of Spaniards -soon followed the first bands of _conquistadores_, and they rapidly -spread over the entire country occupied by the Aztecs, ever searching -for the mines from whence this golden harvest came. While the leaders -were imprisoning and torturing the Aztec chieftains to force them to give -up the hiding places of their treasures, the priests, who everywhere -accompanied the soldiers, were baptizing thousands into the new faith and -using the confessional for the same end. Thus religious bigotry and the -mania for worldly riches went side by side, and ever ringing in the ears -of both priest and warrior was the refrain: - - “Gold! Gold! Gold! Gold! - Bright and yellow, hard and cold.” - -Shortly after the conquest all the desirable lands were parcelled out -among the invaders and the few Indian _caciques_ who had helped, with -their powerful influence, in their subjugation. The Spaniards rapidly -pacified the country, for the Aztec masses, however warlike they may have -been before the coming of the Spaniards, were subdued by one blow. They -were soon convinced that opposition to the power of Spain was useless. -The priests, also, through their quickly acquired influence, taught -submission to those whom God, in His infinite wisdom, had placed over -them. Chiefs who would not yield otherwise were bribed to use their power -over their vassals in favour of the Spaniards. Thus by force, bribery, -intrigue, diplomacy, treachery, and even religion, the Indians were -reconciled and the spirit of opposition to the Spaniards broken. The -result was a new and upstart nobility who ruled the country with an iron -hand in the course of a few decades; and the natives, with the exception -of the chiefs, were made vassals of these newly made nobles. - -An era of building followed, in which great palaces after the _grandiose_ -ideas of Spain were constructed by Indian workmen. Churches were built -with lavish hand, for these nobles thought to atone for their many -misdeeds by constructing and dedicating places of worship to Almighty -God, who, according to the teaching of the priest, was the God of the -poor, oppressed Indian as well as the God of the haughty Spaniard who -had enslaved him. As one writer has said: “When John Smith and his -followers were looking for gold mines in Virginia and the Pilgrims were -planting corn in Massachusetts, an empire had been founded and built up -on the same continent by the Spaniards, and the most stupendous system -of plunder the world ever saw was then and there in vigorous operation.” -Cortez was searching for “a people who had much gold” of which he had -heard. It was not God but gold that drew him in his campaign over Mexico. -He did not aim to Christianize the natives so much as enrich himself and -acquire empire for his sovereign, and religion was a subterfuge plausible -and popular in that age. - -“I die,” said the patriot Hidalgo, when about to be executed in 1811, -“but the seeds of liberty will be watered by my blood. The cause will -not die; that still lives and will surely triumph.” His prediction -came true, and freedom from the Spanish yoke of three centuries was -secured ten years later after the shedding of much blood. Peace did -not follow at once, however, for in the fifty years succeeding the -declaration of independence the form of government changed ten times, -and there were fifty-four different rulers, including two emperors and a -number of dictatorships. Special privileges are difficult to eradicate -when established by long usage, and those enjoying them yield only to -force. The Church, which had imposed on the people such a vast number -of priests, friars, and nuns, and had acquired the most of the wealth -of the country, clung with the grip of death to its privileges and -property. The changes came gradually, but it has been a half-century -since the Church and State were formally separated by constitutional -amendment. The bigoted and despotic Romanism, which was allied with the -Spanish aristocracy, has at last been subdued. A more tolerant spirit is -springing up towards other forms of religious faith through the efforts -of a powerful and liberal government. Education is also freeing the -people from the superstitious ignorance which has hitherto prevailed -in most parts of Mexico. There are occasional outbursts of fanaticism, -but they are quickly suppressed, and the government is making an honest -effort to preserve freedom of worship to all faiths. - -The United States of Mexico is a federation composed of twenty-seven -states, three territories, and the federal district in which the -capital is located. The states are sovereign within themselves and are -held together under a federal constitution very much like our own. -This constitution was adopted on the 5th of February, 1857, and its -semi-centennial was recently celebrated with a few of the original -signers present. There is a congress composed of two bodies, the Senate -and Chamber of Deputies which meets twice each year. Each state is -represented in the former by two senators and in the latter by one -representative for each forty thousand of population. The right of -suffrage is restricted so that only a small proportion of the population -can exercise that privilege. They have not really reached popular -government, and politics, as we know them in the United States, do not -exist. A presidential election scarcely caused a ripple on the surface. -President Diaz was no doubt the popular choice, but comparatively few -votes were cast at his last election. The rule of the Diaz government -although decidedly autocratic was beneficient, and has redounded to the -good of the country. Though practically an absolute ruler, President Diaz -always acted through the regularly organized channels of a complete form -of republican government, and outwardly, at least, there was no semblance -of a dictatorship. - -Mexico is a country of great natural resources and possibilities which -have been only partially developed. Its soil is remarkably fertile and -could support five times, and, if water could be found on the plateaus, -ten times the present population. And I say this notwithstanding the -fact that one man has said that Mexico is the poorest country south -of Greenland, and north of the south pole. The flora of the country, -among which are many useful and medicinal plants, is exceedingly rich -and varied. More species of fibre plants are found there than in any -other country, and the commercial utility of these plants is not yet -fully appreciated. In no country has there been greater waste of natural -resources than the Spanish conquerors caused in Mexico. It is as a mining -country that Mexico has been best known and the Mexican silver mines have -been famous ever since the discovery of the New World, and they are -still the greatest single source of wealth. Some of them which have been -worked for centuries are still yielding small fortunes in the white metal -each year. - -The Mexican has his own view of the United States and does not call our -boasted progress and much-vaunted civilization, with its hurry, brusque -ways and the blotting out of the finer courtesies, an improvement. He -appreciates our mechanical contrivances and electrical inventions, but -prefers to enjoy life after his own fashion and in the way he thinks -that God intended in order to keep men happy. The civilization received -by Mexico in the sixteenth century was looked upon as equal to the best -in existence, and to this was added an ancient civilization found in -the country. From these sources a manner of living has been evolved -which bears evidences of culture and refinement. This system has flowed -on through the intervening centuries, undisturbed by the march of -progress, until the last quarter of a century. Things cannot be changed -to Anglo-Saxon standards in a year, or two years, or even a generation. -To Americanize Mexico will be a difficult if not impossible undertaking, -and there are no signs of such a transition. Americans who live there -fall into Mexican ways and moral standards more frequently than Mexicans -are converted to the American point of view. The influence of traditions, -customs, and climate, and the centuries-old habit of letting the morrow -take care of itself is too great to be overcome. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -ACROSS THE PLATEAUS - - -The traveller going to Mexico by rail will discover that that country -begins long before the border is reached. While travelling over the great -state of Texas, where the dialect of the natives is as broad as the -rolling prairie round about, he is reminded of our southern neighbour -by the soft accents of the Spanish language, or by the entrance into -the coach of a Mexican cowboy with his great hat and picturesque suit. -Leaving beautiful San Antonio, which is a Spanish city modernized, it is -but a few hours until the train crosses the muddy Rio Grande at Laredo -and, after passing an imaginary line in the centre of the stream, enters -the land of burros and _sombreros_, a land of mysterious origin and vast -antiquity. - -[Illustration: “THE LAND OF BURROS AND _SOMBREROS_”] - -The custom officials are very polite and soon affix the necessary label -“despachado” to the baggage. “_Vamonos_” (we go) replaces the familiar -“all aboard,” and the train moves out over a country as flat and dreary -as a desert. By whichever route the traveller enters Mexico, the -journey is very uninteresting for the first half day. There is nothing -to relieve the monotony except the telephone and telegraph poles, with -their picturesque cross-arms standing out on the desert waste like giant -sentinels. There is no vegetation except the prickly pear, cactus, and -feather duster palms, for frequently no rain falls for years at a time. -It seems almost impossible that anything can get moisture from the -parched air of these plains. But nature has strange ways of adapting -life to conditions. A good illustration of this is seen in the _ixtle_, -a species of cactus whose leaves look as if they could not absorb any -moisture because of a hard varnish-like coat. Whenever any water in the -form of dew or rain appears, however, this glaze softens and the plant -absorbs all the moisture available and then glazes over again as soon as -the sun comes out. - -There is very little life here. Sometimes at the stations a few adobe -huts are seen where dwell the section hands, and a few goats are visible -which, no doubt, find the prickly pear and cactus with an occasional -railroad spike thrown in for variety, much more satisfying than an -unchanging diet of tin cans such as falls to the lot of the city goat. -The mountain ranges then appear, and never is the traveller out of -sight of them in Mexico. On either side, toward the east and toward the -west, is a range with an ever varying outline, sometimes near, then -far,—advancing and retreating. At a distance in this clear atmosphere -their rough features are mellowed by a soft haze into amethyst and -purple; nearer they sometimes rise like a camp of giants and are the most -fantastic mountains that earthquakes ever made in sport, looking as if -nature had laughed herself into the convulsions in which they were formed. - -The Mexican National Railway follows a broad road that was formerly an -Indian trail, and the track crosses and recrosses this highway many -times. By this same route it is probable that early Mexican races entered -that country and marched down toward the Valley of Mexico. It was by this -way that General Taylor invaded the country during the Mexican War and -several engagements took place along the line of this railroad. - -The first town of any size is Monterey, capital of the state of Nuevo -Leon, the oldest and one of the most important cities in Northern -Mexico. It lies in a lovely valley with high hills on every side. It is -at a lower altitude than the cities farther south on this line and enjoys -a salubrious climate. Monterey is a very much Americanized town and has -great smelters, factories, and breweries, but it also boasts of beautiful -gardens and some old churches. The Topo Chico hot springs only a few -miles away have a great reputation for healing. Here it was, in 1846, -that General Taylor overcame a much superior force of the enemy under -General Ampudia in a desperate and stubbornly disputed battle lasting -several days, the contest being hotly fought from street to street. The -Mexican troops entered the houses and shot at the American soldiers from -the windows and roofs. It is now a city of more than fifty thousand -people. - -Leaving Monterey, the road soon begins a gradual ascent to the higher -plateaus and reaches the zone called _tierra fria_, or cold country. This -name would seem a misnomer to one who hails from the land of snow and -ice, for the mean temperature of this “cold land” is that of a perpetual -spring such as is enjoyed north of Mason and Dixon’s line. It is properly -applied to all that part of Mexico which is six thousand feet or more -above the level of the sea and the greater part of the immense central -plateaus comes within this designation. These plains which comprise about -two-thirds of the entire country, are formed by the great Andes range of -mountains which separates into two great _cordillerias_ near Oaxaca and -gradually grow farther and farther apart as they approach the Rio Grande. -The western branch crowds the shore of the Pacific and the eastern -follows the coast line of the Gulf of Mexico, but the latter keeps at -a greater distance from the sea, thus giving a wider expanse of the -hotlands. They are not level tablelands, these _mesas_, as they always -slope in some direction. The arid condition follows as a natural course, -for the lofty ranges cause the rain to be precipitated on the coast lands -except during certain seasons in the year when the winds change. When the -rains do come, a miracle is wrought, and the sombre landscape blossoms -into a lively green dotted with flowers. It is rare to find such great -plains at so high an altitude. Although now almost barren of trees it is -probable that in early times these tablelands were covered with a forest -growth principally of oak and cypress. This is evidenced by the few -groves that yet remain, in which many of the trees are of extraordinary -dimensions. The Spaniards completed the spoliation that had been begun by -the earlier races. - -Saltillo, the next important town, is the capital of the State of -Coahuila. It is interesting to Americans, as just a few miles from here -and near the railway took place the battle of Buena Vista, at the village -of that name. Here the Americans under General Taylor sent double their -number of Mexicans under the notorious Santa Anna, flying on February -23rd, 1847. - -Still climbing, the road continues toward the capital, passes through -a rich mining district, and after the Tropic of Cancer is crossed the -traveller is in the Torrid Zone, the spot being marked by a pyramid. -Plains, seemingly endless, where for a hundred miles the long stretch -of track is without a curve, are traversed, and so dry that wells and -water-tanks are objects of interest. It is mostly given up to vast -_haciendas_. Some of these estates still remain in the hands of the -original families as granted at the time of the conquest. - -It was on these vast, seemingly barren plateaus that the _hacienda_ -reached its highest development. One does not go far south of the Rio -Grande before the significance of this institution in Mexican life -becomes apparent. Sometimes when the train stops at a little adobe -station with a long name, the traveller wonders what is the need of a -station; for there is no town and only a few native huts clustered around -the depot. However a glance around the horizon will reveal the towers and -spire of a _hacienda_ nestling at the foot of the hills perhaps several -miles away. In the olden times they took the place of the feudal castles -of the middle ages in Europe and in these sparsely settled regions they -were especially necessary. Within the high walls which often surround -them for protection were centralized the residence of the owner and all -of his employees and the necessary buildings to store the products of -the soil. The _hacendado’s_ home was a large, roomy building, for, since -there were no inns, the traveller must be entertained and hospitality -was of the open-handed sort. The travel-worn wayfarer was welcomed and -no questions asked. His wants were supplied and at his departure the -benediction “Go, and God be with you,” followed him. Even yet at some of -these great _haciendas_, where the old-time customs prevail, the bell is -rung at mealtime and any one who hears it is welcomed at the table. - -The term _hacienda_ has a double meaning, for it is applied both to -the great estates and to the buildings. It is a patriarchal existence -that is led by these landed proprietors. A thousand peons and more are -frequently attached to the estate. Near the station of Villa Reyes is a -great _hacienda_ which once controlled twenty thousand peons. These must -be provided with homes, but a room fifteen feet square is considered -sufficient for a family, no matter how large. Little furniture is needed, -for they live out of doors mostly, and mats, which can be removed during -the day, take the place of cumbersome beds. The _administrador_, who may -be an Indian also, and other heads, live better and are housed in larger -quarters. A church is always a part of the estate and a priest must be -kept to furnish spiritual solace, as well as a doctor to administer to -those whose bodies are infirm. Schools are also maintained by most of the -proprietors to-day. The peon must be provided with his provisions each -week and a little patch of ground for his own use. Around the buildings -lie the cultivated fields, and from early morn until the shades of night -have fallen, lines of burros are constantly passing in and out laden with -wood, corn, vegetables, poultry, boxes of freight, and all the other -items of traffic which are a part of the life of this great household. - -After piercing another of the mountain ranges which intersect the country -from east to west, and traversing miles of fertile fields and gardens -bearing semi-tropical fruits and vegetables, the road enters a valley -and the city of San Luis Potosi is reached. Every country has its Saint -Louis, but only one has a Saint Louis of the Treasure, and that is -San Luis Potosi, the capital of the state of that name. It lies in a -spreading plain of great fertility—made so by irrigation—whose gardens -extend to the encircling hills that are rich in the mineral treasures -which give the city its name. The San Pedro mines near here alone produce -an annual output of several millions. These mines were revealed to -Spaniards by an Indian who had become converted to Christianity. There is -a mint here that coins several millions of dollars each year. - -[Illustration: MARKET SCENE IN SAN LUIS POTOSI] - -San Luis Potosi is not a new city nor has its growth been of the mushroom -variety. Founded in the middle of the sixteenth century, it preserves -to-day in wood and stone the spirit of old Spain transplanted by the -conquerors to the new world. Drawn hither by the reports of gold, the -Spanish cavalier stalked through the streets of this town in complete -mail before the _Mayflower_ landed on the shores of Massachusetts. The -priests were chanting the solemn service of the church here long before -the English landed at Jamestown. Dust had gathered on the municipal -library, which now contains a hundred thousand volumes, centuries before -the building of the first little red school house in the United States. -Before New York had been thought of, the drama of life was being enacted -here daily after Castillian models. - -It is a cleanly city and the bright attractive look of its houses -is refreshing. A city ordinance compels the citizens to keep up the -appearance of their houses, and the colours remind one of Seville. It is -pleasant to walk along these streets and through the plazas with their -trees and flowers and fountains. - -I will never forget my arrival in this city. We reached there about -midnight, having been delayed by a wreck; and a number of _mozos_ pounced -upon the party of Americans who had been dropped by the belated train, -each one eager to carry some of the baggage. We were marched through the -Alameda, which, for a wonder, adjoins the station, on walks shaded by -broad-leaved, tropical plants, down narrow streets and around several -corners to the hotel. Arrived here it was only after several minutes -of vigorous knocking that a sleepy-looking porter opened the door, -and we entered the hotel and walked down the hall through a line of -sleeping servants. The room finally assigned to my friend and myself was -thirty-four feet long, sixteen feet wide and about twenty-five feet high, -and there were four great windows extending nearly from ceiling to floor -and protected by heavy iron bars which made them look like the windows -of a prison. It had doubtless been some church property at one time, but -whether monastery or convent I did not learn. - -[Illustration: COCK-FIGHTING IN MEXICO] - -Not all this city is pretty however, for distance often lends -enchantment, and a closer scrutiny takes away much of this charm. I -saw filth on the streets here that can only be duplicated in old Spain -itself. There are numerous churches and several of them are quite -pretentious and contain some fine paintings. On the façade of one -church there is a clock presented by the king of Spain in return for -the largest piece of gold ever found in America. San Luis is a thrifty -city as Mexican towns go and has numerous manufacturing establishments, -including a large smelting works, the Compania Metallurgica, and is an -important railroad centre. It is distant from the City of Mexico three -hundred and sixty-two miles, and has a population of seventy thousand -souls. - -This city claims quite a number of American families as residents and -many of the storekeepers have been somewhat Americanized, for they -actually seem to be on the lookout for business. The state capitol is -a very interesting building. While looking through this palace I saw -the “line up” of petty offenders who were being sent out to sweep the -streets. They were the worst looking lot of _pulque_-drinkers I ever saw -and were clothed in rags. Each one was given a handful of twigs with -which he was obliged to sweep the streets and gutters, and they were sent -out in gangs, each under a police officer. The vices of these people are -generally more evident than their virtues. They are inveterate gamblers. -Wherever one goes (not alone in San Luis Potosi) fighting cocks are -encountered tied by the leg to a stake with a few feet of string. Or they -may be carried in the arms of young would-be sports who brag of their -birds to any one who will listen. One day I saw a man with a cock whose -head was one bloody-looking mass. He had just cut off the rooster’s -comb. When I stopped and looked, the Indian laughed as though it were a -great joke and said he was “much sick.” This was done so that in a fight -his opponent could not catch hold of the comb. Itinerant cock-fighters -who travel across the country carrying their birds in hollow straw tubes -are popular fellows. - -Leaving San Luis Potosi at noontime the traveller catches his last -glimpse of this city where - - “Upon the whitened city walls - The golden sunshine softly falls, - On archways set with orange trees, - On paven courts and balconies.” - -The train soon enters a rich agricultural belt and the country becomes -more populous. Giant cacti towering straight and tall to a height of -fifteen or twenty feet are a common sight. - -Dolores Hidalgo where the patriot-priest first sounded the call to -liberty and revolution is passed. Then comes Querétero, which occupies a -prominent place in Mexican history and is the last city of any size on -the way to the capital. Here the treaty of peace between Mexico and the -United States was negotiated. In this city Maximilian played the last -act in the tragedy of the empire. He was captured while attempting to -escape on June 19th, 1867, and was shot on the Cerro de las Campañas, a -little hill just outside the city. With him were shot Generals Miramon -and Mejia. Maximilian died with the cry of “_Viva Mexico_” on his lips. -There is a magnificent aqueduct here which, because of the high arches, -looks like the old ruined aqueduct seen on approaching Rome. The tallest -arch is nearly one hundred feet. The entire length of the aqueduct is -about five miles and it is still in use. There are a number of factories -for cotton goods. Among them is the great Hercules Mill which employs -more than two thousand hands. The grounds are laid out in elaborate and -beautiful style. - -After climbing the mountain range again until an altitude of nearly ten -thousand feet has been reached, the descent begins and the beauty of the -Valley of Mexico unfolds. Fleeting glimpses of the scene may be caught -through little gaps in the mountains until finally the train enters a -pass and the traveller has his first view of the City of Mexico. Beyond -the glittering towers and domes of the modern city on the site of the -ancient Aztec capital lies the bright expanse of the lakes, and still -further in the distance is seen the encircling girdle of mountains like -a protecting wall around this enchanted scene. - -There are many other cities situated on these vast plateaus, for the -_tierra fria_ has always maintained the bulk of the population in spite -of the extraordinary richness of the lowlands. They are growing in size -as manufacturing establishments become more numerous. A number of them -like Chihuahua, Aguas Calientes, Zacatecas, Guanajuato, Durango, and -Leon are interesting cities of from thirty to forty thousand inhabitants -and all of them are old. Chihuahua (pronounced Che-wa-wa) is the capital -of the state of that name which is the largest state in the republic -and is twice as large as the state of Ohio. It has a population of less -than four hundred thousand. This will serve to give a little idea of the -vastness of these great tablelands and the sparseness of population. It -is chiefly devoted to great ranches where hundreds of thousands of cattle -are grazed. - -It may be interesting to note that cattle ranching originated in this -state. All the terms used on the range and roundup are of Spanish origin -and are the same that have been employed for centuries. One man here -is the owner of a cattle ranch covering seventeen million acres. The -traveller might journey for days and cross ranges of mountains and not -pass beyond his princely domain. There are a number of cattle ranches of -from one to two million acres and a few Americans are now entering the -field here since the public domain in the United States has dwindled so -much. - -Two cities, Guadalajara and Puebla, have long disputed for the honour -of second city in the republic. Puebla is situated southeast of the -capital and is a city of tiles, for tiles are used everywhere from the -domes of churches to floors for the devout to kneel upon. It is the -capital of the richest state in the republic and has probably seen more -of the vicissitudes of war than any other city. It has been captured -and occupied successively by Spaniards, Americans and French and by -revolutionists times without number. This city was the scene of General -Zaragossa’s victory on May 5th, 1862, when he repulsed the French forces -just outside the city’s gates. This victory is celebrated each year as -the “_cinco de Mayo_” (Fifth of May) and is the great anti-foreign day. -Formerly foreigners did not show themselves on the street on this day, -but that antagonistic sentiment has disappeared. In 1906 because of -labour disturbances for which American agitators were blamed trouble was -feared on this day, but it passed off without an unpleasant incident. -This city was founded as early as 1532. Its history is romantic and full -of legends recounting the many visits of the angels. Angels appeared -one night and staked out the city. Again, while the cathedral was being -built, the angels came after nightfall when the city was wrapped in -slumber and built a great part of the tower. At another time the angels -were marshalled in mighty hosts just over the city. The people can even -point out to you the very places where the angelic visitors roosted. -The ecclesiastical records vouch for these appearances of the heavenly -visitors and the people devoutly believe in them. - -Puebla has wide streets—for Mexico—and many beautiful plazas with -flowers and fountains. It is also noted for its bull-fights and has two -bull-rings. These are in use nearly every Sunday and frequently for the -benefit of or in honour of some church feast or departed saint. The -public buildings are very creditable and the city contains good schools -and hospitals. A goodly number of foreigners live here, especially -Germans. I have noticed that the Germans affiliate with the Mexicans -much better than Americans generally do. One reason is that they come -here to establish their permanent residence, while Americans, like the -Chinese, desire to make their fortunes and then return to the land of -their birth to spend their later days. - -Puebla has become quite a manufacturing city and especially of cotton -goods, paper, flour and soaps. Onyx and marble are quarried near here, -and a large number of workmen are employed in the quarries and in -the establishments preparing these materials for the market. Several -railroads now reach this city, and its importance as an industrial centre -is increasing each year. - -All kinds of grains that are produced in the temperate zones will grow on -the tablelands of Mexico wherever there is sufficient rain or water to -be obtained by irrigation. A constantly increasing amount of acreage is -being made available through the extension of the irrigation system, but -its possibilities are only beginning to be realized. Corn, which is such -a great article of food with the Mexicans, is by far the most valuable -agricultural product and several hundred million bushels are produced -each year. Wheat was first introduced in Mexico by a monk who planted a -few grains that he had brought with him. This grain is now raised quite -extensively in some districts but frequently there is not enough for even -local consumption. Cotton is also produced in a number of the states. - -[Illustration: THE _MAGUEY_] - -Mexico is especially rich in fibre-producing plants and no country in the -world has so many different varieties. All of these belong to the great -cactus, or _agave_, family. The value of the cactus has never been fully -appreciated but new uses are being found for it constantly, and new kinds -with valuable qualities are being discovered in Mexico almost yearly. -Perhaps the most valuable plant of this family that is being cultivated -in Mexico to-day is that species of the _agave_ that produces the -valuable henequen fibre of commerce. This plant very much resembles the -_maguey_ and grows on the thin, rocky, limestone soil of Yucatan. From -this fibre is made most of the binder twine and much of the rope used in -the United States. It has the threefold qualities of strength, pliability -and colour. In the past twenty years the cultivation of henequen has -grown to enormous proportions, and some of the planters have become -millionaires almost rivalling the famous bonanza kings of olden times. -The amount of henequen, or sisal, fibre exported to the United States -from 1880 to 1905 was nine million, two hundred and nineteen thousand, -two hundred and fifteen bales at an estimated value of $300,988,072.66. -In 1902 the exports reached a maximum, and amounted to $34,185,275. All -of this fibre is exported through the port of Progreso. - -Several species of the cactus family are being experimented with, and it -is claimed that they will produce an excellent quality of paper pulp. -This may help to solve the problem that now bothers paper manufacturers -as the forests of spruce disappear before the woodsman’s ax. The graceful -_maguey_, the _agave americana_, is cultivated almost everywhere on the -plateau lands. It also produces a valuable fibre, but this plant is not -cultivated primarily for that purpose. The ancient races used the thorns -for pins and needles; the leaves furnished a kind of parchment for their -writings and thatch for their roofs; and the juice when fermented made -a—to them—most delicious drink. On the plains of Apam just east of the -Valley of Mexico and north of Puebla the cultivation of the _maguey_ has -reached the highest development. - -The good housewife in the United States who carefully nourishes the -century plant, hoping that at least her descendants will have the -pleasure of seeing it blossom at the end of a hundred years, would be -surprised to see the immense plantations consisting of thousands of this -same plant growing here. The plant, commonly called the _maguey_, is a -native of Mexico and grows to great size. It flourishes best in rocky -and sandy soil and is quite imposing in appearance. Its dark green, -spiked leaves which lift themselves up and spread out in graceful curves, -sometimes reach a length of fifteen feet, and are a foot in breadth and -several inches thick. It requires from six to ten years for the _maguey_ -to mature on its native heath. When that period arrives a slender stalk -springs up from the centre of these great leaves, twenty to thirty feet -high, upon which a great mass of small flowers is clustered. This supreme -effort exhausts the plant and, its duty to nature having been performed, -it withers and dies. - -This is not the purpose for which the _maguey_ is raised on the big -plantations where the rows of graceful century plants stretch out as far -as the eye can reach in unwavering regularity. On these plantations the -_maguey_ is not permitted to flower. The Indians know, by infallible -signs, almost the very hour at which it is ready to send up the central -stalk, and it is then marked by an overseer with a cross. The stalk is -now full of the sap which is the object of its culture. Other Indians -follow up the overseer and, making an incision at the base of the plant, -extract the central portion, leaving only the rind which forms a natural -basin. Into this the sap, which is called _agua miel_, or honey-water, -and which is almost as clear as water and as sweet as honey, collects. So -quickly does this fluid gather that it is found necessary to remove it -two or three times per day. The method of gathering this sap is extremely -primitive. The Indian is provided with a long gourd at the lower end of -which is a horn. He places the small end, which is open, in the liquid -and, applying his lips to an opening in the large end, sucks the sap up -into the gourd. The sap is then emptied into a receptacle swung across -his back which is made of a whole goat-skin or pig-skin with the hair -on the inside. The _maguey_ plant will yield six or more quarts of this -“honey-water” in a day and the supply will continue from one to three -months. It is then exhausted and withers and decays. However, a new shoot -will spring up from the old roots without replanting. - -This innocent looking and savoury sap is then taken to a building -prepared for the purpose and there poured into vats made of cowhides -stretched on a frame. In each vat a little sour liquor called “mother of -_pulque_” has been poured. This causes quick fermentation and in a few -hours the _pulque_ of the Mexican is ready for the market. It is at its -best after about twenty-four hours fermentation. It then has somewhat -the appearance and taste of stale buttermilk and a rancid smell. After -more fermentation it has the odour of putrid meat. The skins in which it -is carried increase this disagreeable odour. The first taste of _pulque_ -to a stranger is repellant. However, it is said that, contrary to the -general rule, familiarity breeds a liking. Great virtues are claimed for -it in certain ailments and it is said to be wholesome. However this is -not the reason why the peons drink _pulque_ in such great quantities. -Several special trainloads go in each day to the City of Mexico over -one road, besides large amounts over other routes and it is a great -revenue producer for the railroads. The daily expenditure for _pulque_ -in the City of Mexico alone is said to exceed twenty thousand dollars. -Physicians say that the brain is softened, digestion ruined and nerves -paralyzed by a too generous use of this liquor. Many employers of labour -will not employ labourers from the _pulque_ districts if they can -possibly get them from other sources. _Tequila_ and _Mescal_ are two -forms of ardent spirits distilled from a juice yielded by the leaves and -root of the _maguey_. They are forms of brandy that it is best for the -traveller to leave alone. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -THE CAPITAL - - -The City of Mexico represents progressive Mexico. In it is concentrated -the wealth, culture and refinement of the republic. It is the political, -the educational, the social and the commercial centre of the whole -country. It is to Mexico what Paris is to France. In fact it would -be Mexico as Paris would be France. The same glare and glitter of a -pleasure-loving metropolis are found here, and within the same boundaries -may be seen the deepest poverty and most abject degradation. - -[Illustration: MAP OF THE VALLEY OF MEXICO] - -“Wait until you get to the City of Mexico,” said an educated Mexican -to me as we were crossing the sparsely-settled tablelands of northern -Mexico, where the only inhabitants are Indians. The Mexicans are proud of -their city and are pleased to have it likened to the gay French capital, -for their ideals and tastes are fashioned after the Latin standard -rather than the American. The French, they say, have the culture and -can embrace _a la Mexicana_, which is done by throwing an arm around a -friend whom they meet and patting him heartily on the back. They prefer -the easy-going, wait-a-while style of existence to the hurried, strenuous -life of an American city. No people love leisure and the pursuit of -pleasure more than our neighbours in the Mexican metropolis. They work -during the morning hours, take a noon _siesta_, close up early in the -afternoon and are ready for pleasure in the evening until a late hour. - -In appearance the capital resembles Madrid more than any other city I -have ever seen. The architecture is the Moorish-Spanish style, into which -some Aztec modifications have been wrought by the new-world builders. -The light, airy appearance of an American city is absent for there are -no frame structures anywhere. The square, flat-roofed buildings, with -walls thick enough to withstand any earthquake shock, are two or three -stories in height and built round a _patio_, or courtyard, the centre of -which is open to the sky. The old architects were not hampered by such -paltry considerations as the price of lots, and so they built veritable -palaces with wide corridors and rooms lofty and huge. Through many of -these rooms you might easily drive a carriage. There are parlours as -large as public halls, and throughout all one notes the _grandiose_ ideas -of the race. The houses, of stone or brick covered with stucco, are built -clear up to the sidewalk so that there is no tinge of green in front. The -Mexican is not particular about the exterior of his home, but expends -his thought and money on the open court within. The plainness of the -outside is relieved only by the large gate, or door, which is also the -carriage drive-way, and the neat little, iron-grated balconies on which -the windows open from the upper stories. - -[Illustration: THE PATIO OF AN OLD RESIDENCE] - -These balconies afford a convenient place for the women of the household -to see what is passing on the street, and also for the _señorita_, or -young lady, to watch the restless pacing to and fro of the love-stricken -youth who is “playing bear” in front of the house. The great doorway, -which is carefully barred and bolted at night, and strictly guarded by -the porter during the day, is the only entrance to the _patio_, which, -in the better class of homes, is adorned with pretty gardens, statuary -and fountains. Many of them contain an open plunge bath. Through the -wide windows one catches glimpses of fascinating interiors, and through -the broad doorways the passer-by on the street gets many a pretty view -of the courtyards, and of these miniature gardens. One or two rows of -living-apartments extend around and above the court, with broad corridors -in front handsomely paved with tile, protected by balustrades and adorned -with flowers and vines. Above, the red tiles of the roof add a little -additional colour to the scene. There are no cellars nor chimneys. The -latter were never introduced because of the mildness of the climate. In -the courts protected from the winds, the people keep on the sunny side -when it is cool and hide from the same orb when it is hot. Charcoal fires -are used for cooking and heat when it becomes necessary. Cellars are made -impossible because of the marshy nature of the soil. - -It will be recalled that Tenochtitlan, the Aztec capital, has been called -the New World Venice, whose streets were once canals. It must have been -a gay and picturesque scene when the fair surface of its waters was -resplendent with shining cities and flowering islets. The waters have -since receded until Lake Texcoco, at its nearest point, is three miles -distant. Mexico is now a more prosaic city of streets and cross-streets -which extend from north to south and from east to west. Some of the -principal thoroughfares are broad, paved with asphalt and well kept; -but many are quite narrow, and especially is this true of the streets -called lanes, though devoted to business. There is no exclusive residence -section, except in the new additions, and many of the homes of the old -families are found sandwiched in between stores. It is a difficult matter -to become familiar with the names of the streets, for they are more than -nine hundred in number, and a street generally has a different name for -each block. If several blocks have the same name, as, for instance, Calle -de San Francisco, one of the finest streets, and on or near which are -some of the largest hotels, finest stores and richest private dwellings, -then it is First San Francisco, Second San Francisco, etc. - -A few years ago the streets were re-named. All the streets extending -east and west were called _avenidas_, and the north and south streets -_calles_, each continuous thoroughfare being given but one name. -The people, however, in this land of legend and tradition, clung so -tenaciously to the former designations that they have practically been -restored. Some of the old names of streets commemorated historical -events, as, for instance, the Street of the _Cinco de Mayo_, which is in -remembrance of the victory of the Mexicans over the French at Puebla in -1862. Others are named in honour of men noted in the history of Mexico. -Many religious terms appear, such as the street of Jesus, Sanctified -Virgin, Holy Ghost, Sepulchres of the Holy Sabbath, and the like. Others -owe their names to some incident or legend, which is both interesting and -mysterious. Of the latter class may be mentioned the Street of the Sad -Indian, Lane of Pass if You Can, Street of the Lost Child, Street of the -Wood Owls, Lane of the Rat, Bridge of the Raven and Street of the Walking -Priest. The Street of the Coffin Makers is now known as the Street of -Death. It is a thoroughfare of one block, and is one of the few streets -that still preserves its ancient caste, for it is devoted exclusively -to the makers of coffins. All of the coffins are made by hand. It is a -gloomy street and there are cleaner spots on the face of the earth. - -Mexico is a very cosmopolitan city. Its three hundred and seventy-five -thousand inhabitants include representatives from nearly every nation -of the earth. The Indians are vastly in the majority, and they are -the pure and original Mexicans. The Creoles, who are descendants of -Europeans, generally Spanish, call themselves the Mexicans and rank -second in number. They form the real aristocratic body from whom come -the representative Mexicans. They are not all dark, but a blonde is a -rare specimen. Most of them have an olive-brown colour, thus showing -the mixture of Indian blood, for in early days it was not considered a -_mesalliance_ for even a Spanish officer of high rank to marry an Aztec -maiden of the better class. - -The old families cling tenaciously to the great estates, or _haciendas_, -many of which have remained intact for centuries. Quite a number can even -trace their estates back to the original grants from the king of Spain. -Many of these _hacendados_, or landed proprietors, enjoy princely incomes -from their lands, and nearly all of them own residences in the capital. -They maintain elaborate establishments and keep four times as many -servants as would be found in an American house. - -The average Mexican does not care for business. Neither is he an inventor -or originator, for he is content to live as his ancestors have lived. -Nearly all lines of commerce and industry are in the hands of foreigners. -The Germans monopolize the hardware trade; the French conduct nearly -all the dry goods stores; the Spaniards are the country’s grocers; and -the Americans and English control the railroad, electric and mining -industries. All these interests centre in the City of Mexico. Railroads -are not very numerous until you approach the Valley of Mexico where -they converge from all directions. The hum of industry is apparent here -as nowhere else in the whole republic. The Mexicans boast of their -capital, but they often forget the debt they owe to foreigners, for all -the modern improvements have been installed by alien races and outside -capital. It is another foreign invasion but with a pacific mission. -The American colony alone in that city numbers more than six thousand -persons, and the number is constantly increasing. Hatred of the American -has almost disappeared, and the incomers are cordially welcomed. There -are two flourishing clubs around which the social life of the expatriated -Americans centre. - -The society of the capital, and indeed of the whole country, is very -diverse. What might be said of one class would not apply to another. The -differences of dress and customs alone make known the heterogeneousness -of the population. They all use the same language and all classes are -brought together on a common level in their religion. No other nation has -ever made such complete conquests as Spain. She not only subjugated the -lands but forced her language, as well as religion, upon the conquered -races. The English have succeeded in extending their sway over a large -part of the world, but in no instance have they been able to accomplish -these two results with the native population. The priests of Spain went -hand in hand with the _conquistadores_, and, within a few generations -after the conquest of Mexico by Cortez, the Spanish language was -universally used and the Indians were at least nominal Catholics. - -The climate of the City of Mexico is delightful. It is neither hot nor -cold. It is too far south to be cold and the altitude, seven thousand, -four hundred and thirty-four feet above the level of the sea, is -too great to be hot. The temperature usually ranges from sixty-five -to eighty-five, but sometimes goes as high as ninety, and as low as -thirty-five, and frosts occasionally are experienced. The mornings and -evenings are cool and at midday it is always hot. There is a great -difference in the temperature between the sunny and shady side of the -street. Only dogs and Americans take the sunny side, the Mexicans say. -The rainy and dry seasons occur with great regularity, the former -lasting from May to October. It is the best season in the year although -most visitors go there in winter. The rains always occur in the afternoon -and usually cease before dark. At this time, too, all nature takes on a -beautiful shade of green which replaces the rather dull landscape of the -dry season. There is also a brisk, electric condition of the atmosphere -that is decidedly exhilarating and a good tonic. - -This mildness of climate has greatly influenced the life of the capital. -The streets, except during the noon _siesta_, are full of people at all -times. To judge from the crowds, one might think the capital a city of -a million people. In the morning the women go to mass garbed in black, -generally wearing a black shawl over the head. Occasionally a black lace -mantilla is seen half-concealing, half-exposing the olive-brown face, and -bright, sparkling eyes of a _señorita_. Shoppers are out and business -is active. The women of the wealthier classes sit in their carriages -and have the goods brought out to them, or go to a private room where -articles are exhibited by clerks. They think that it is unbecoming to -stand at the counters, although the American plan of shopping is becoming -quite popular in recent years. - -About the middle of the afternoon the crowds again appear, and a -little later the streets begin to fill with carriages. Nowhere, not -even in Paris, have I observed so many carriages as can be seen here on -any pleasant afternoon. They form one continuous, slow-moving line of -many miles. The procession moves out San Francisco Street through the -Alameda, along the Paseo de la Reforma, and then into the beautiful park -surrounding the Castle of Chapultepec which is set with great cypresses, -said to antedate the conquest. The cavalcade winds around through the -various drives at the base of the rock, along the shores of the lake, -past the castle and back to the city. The carriages go out on one side -and return on the other, leaving the central portion for riders. It -is a sight that never wearies for one to sit on a bench and watch the -motley throng of people driving, riding on horseback and promenading. -An oriental exclusiveness is observed by ladies of the upper class who -always ride in closed carriages. All kinds of vehicles are to be seen, -from fine equipages with liveried drivers and footmen, to the poorest cab -in the city with its disreputable driver and broken-down horses, fit only -for the bull-ring. - -There are many horsemen and the Mexicans are always excellent riders. -Their horses are Lilliputian in size but fast and enduring. The saddle, -bridle and trappings are frequently gorgeous with their silver ornaments -and immense stirrups fancifully worked and shaped. The rider is often a -picture wonderful to behold from the heavy silver spurs which he wears, -to the sombrero of brown or yellow felt with a brim ten to fifteen inches -wide and a crown equally as high, the whole covered with heavy gilt cord -formed into a sort of rope. Then there is the dude or fop, who is well -named in Mexico. He is called a “_lajartija_” which means a “little -lizard.” He used to dress in such close-fitting and stiff costumes that -he had not much more freedom of motion than the stiff little lizard. -Now he is the dandy who is generally seen standing on a public corner, -wearing a French cutaway suit, American patent leather shoes and an -English stovepipe hat, with his fingers closed over the indispensable -cigarette. - -In the evening the populace attend the theatre or some social function. -Sunday is the day of all others for recreation, and, with the average -inhabitant of Mexico, is one continuous and eternal round of pleasure. -After morning service the entire day is devoted to pleasure. Band -concerts are always given by the military bands on the Plaza in the -morning, in the Alameda early in the afternoon, and at Chapultepec about -five o’clock. Then there is the bull-fight which occurs only on Sundays -and holidays. - -The average crowd in the City of Mexico is a good natured and peaceable -one. The city Indian and his country cousin, the peon from the -plantation, join the crowd on a feast day with their numerous progeny. -They are not the pleasantest neighbours in the world for both have -the odour of garlic and _pulque_ and their baths are of the annual -variety. That the little brown man is a peon is no fault of his. His -uncleanliness is, in a measure, the result of centuries of neglect, and -more particularly of a scarcity of water at his home. It is possible that -if he had the water his condition would be just the same. Though he is -poor and down-trodden, there is nothing of the anarchist about him. He is -absolutely devoid of envy or malice; and withal his spirits are gay and -he is as generous to his family or friends as his finances permit. The -artificial refinements of modern civilization have not yet spoiled him, -and there is a pleasant, even if malodorous, naturalness about him. - -In no city do ancient and modern customs come into such intimate -contrast as in the City of Mexico. Nowhere is a greater mixture of races -to be seen than here. There are many tribes of Indians speaking scores -of dialects, and there are _mestizos_ of various degrees of mixture with -African, American and European blood. Types of four centuries can be seen -in any group on one of the plazas. The Plaza Mayor is a great, imposing, -central square of fourteen acres in the centre of the city, and on its -walks all the types can be seen at their best. Men and women come into -the city through the streets lighted by electricity, bearing immense -loads on their heads and backs rather than use a wagon. Peddlers carry -around jars of water for sale just as in the olden times. Indians, who -are almost pure Aztecs, pass along, taking the middle of the street in -Indian file. Well dressed men in black broadcloth suits and wearing silk -hats go by. The women of the middle class add colour to the scene with -the red and blue _rebosas_, sometimes covering the head, or tied across -the chest and holding an infant at the back. Nearly all the passers-by -show in their colour that they can claim kinship with the hosts of -Montezuma. The general effect is kaleidoscopic but entertaining. The -great cathedral on the north side of the Plaza is the one place where -all are brought together and class distinction obliterated. Visit the -cathedral any day and you may see an Indian with his pack on his back -side by side with a young woman who may inherit a dozen titles. There -are no select, high-priced, aristocratic pews for rent, but all meet by -a common genuflection before the sacred altars. The poor Indian may not -understand all the pomp and ceremony, the music of the vested choirs, -or the solemn chanting by the priests, but it fills a deep want in his -nature and he is satisfied. - -At one side of the Plaza Mayor once stood the great Aztec _Teocalli_, the -Temple of Sacrifice. This was a high imposing altar reached by a flight -of more than a hundred steps. From the top was a magnificent view of -the entire valley, and it was from this point that the envious eyes of -Cortez looked out upon this beautiful scene. The altar was dedicated to -the Aztec war god Huitzilopochtli, and here, to appease the wrath of this -terrible god, human sacrifices were offered. The breast was cut open and -the heart, still palpitating, plucked out and placed upon the altar. The -bodies were cast down to the ground, whence they were taken and prepared -for the banquet table. - -[Illustration: THE CATHEDRAL] - -A part of the space once covered by this gruesome but majestic pile, is -now occupied by the Monte de Piedad, or “mountain of mercy,” one of the -most unique charities in the world. It is nothing more or less than a -gigantic pawn-shop, but it is one of the most beneficient institutions -in the country. The Count of Regla, a noted personage in Mexico, founded -this institution by a gift of three hundred thousand dollars. He did -this in order that the poor and needy, and the impoverished members of -families once genteel, might secure small sums upon personal property at -low rates of interest, instead of becoming involved in the meshes of the -blood-sucking vampires who prey upon this class of unfortunates. About -three-fourths of the actual value of the property pledged as fixed by -appraisers, will be loaned. If the interest is not paid, the property is -kept for seven months, when it is offered for sale at a fixed price. If -not disposed of in another five months it is sold at auction. - -The truly remarkable feature of this establishment is, that if a greater -sum is realized than the amount of the loan and interest, the excess is -placed to the credit of the owner, or his heirs, and will be kept for -one hundred years, after which time it reverts to the institution. Many -old heirlooms of former grandees, Aztec curios, diamonds, gold ornaments -and even family gods have passed through this organization of charity. -For more than a century it has existed, having survived all the civil -wars, revolutions and changes of government. The original capital has -been more than doubled by the forfeitures, and many branches of this -parent institution are operated in the capital and in several of the -large cities of the republic. It is an example that might be suggested to -some of our multi-millionaires who do not know what to do with their vast -accumulations of wealth. - -Even the funerals are conducted in a strange way. With the exception of -funerals among the wealthy, the street cars are universally used. The -enterprising owner of the street car system some years ago acting on the -trust idea, bought up all the hearses and introduced funeral cars. After -a short time the people became accustomed to the new plan, which seemed -to give satisfaction. Now, trolley funeral cars of the first, second and -third class are furnished at a price varying from five dollars for the -cheapest class, to a hundred dollars or more for a first-class car. Some -of the poor rent coffins which are returned after the burial. The very -poor may be seen carrying their dead on their shoulders to the _Campo -Santo_, or holy ground. Graves are usually sold only for a certain number -of years, after which, unless the relatives pay the prescribed fee, the -bones are taken up and the ground made ready for a new occupant. The -dead are soon forgotten. A pile of bones in a corner of the cemetery -represents all that is mortal of the generations who passed away not many -years ago. There is an entire lack of reverence for the mortal remains of -the departed, such as one is accustomed to find in our own country. One -is reminded of the couplet - - “Rattle his bones over the stones, - He’s only a pauper, whom nobody owns.” - -The City of Mexico is not the healthiest city in the world. On the -contrary the death rate is unusually high. The average duration of life -is said to be only twenty-six years. This is due in a great measure to -infant mortality. Typhoid and malarial fevers are prevalent because -of the accumulated drainage of centuries, which lies just a few feet -beneath the surface. Pneumonia is common and regarded as very dangerous -because of the rarefied air, and patients suffering from this disease are -immediately transported to lower altitudes for treatment. The entire -lack of hygiene and sanitary conditions among the peon classes is in a -great measure responsible for the unusual percentage of mortality. Few -other cities in the world have such a high rate of deaths compared with -the population. - -Strange it is that the capital was ever built on this low, marshy soil -when higher land was available and near at hand. It was one of the great -blunders of Cortez, for Mexico might have been made a healthy city. No -exigency of commerce dictated its selection, for it is far from the -sea coast on either side and was difficult of access before the day of -railroads. The new city was built on the site of the old, and the temples -of the Christian religion were raised on the sites of the old pagan -altars wherever possible. A plan of moving the city to higher ground -was strongly agitated at one time but the vested interests succeeded -in killing this project. It is hoped and believed that when the plans -for sewerage are completed, the health conditions will be placed on a -par with that of most cities. The authorities are making an honest and -earnest effort to carry out these commendable projects. - - “Know ye not pulque, - Liquor divine, - The Angels in heaven - Prefer it to wine.” - -Thus sings the lower class Mexican to whom this liquor has become a -curse. To it is due much of his poverty and many of his crimes. For it he -will neglect his family and steal from his employer. It does not contain -a large percentage of alcohol, but, taken in large quantities, as is -customary among these people, it puts them in a dopy condition which they -sleep off. One railroad brings in a train-load each day, and, besides, -large quantities are brought in by other lines. There are sixteen hundred -pulque saloons in the capital, but they are all closed at six o’clock by -a law which is strictly enforced. The pulque-shop betrays itself by its -odour, as well as by the crowds of poorly dressed and even filthy men and -women who surround its doors and press around the counter. It is a gaily -decorated affair and is oftentimes adorned in flaring colours inside and -out, with reds, blues, greens and yellows predominating, and frequently -with a huge, rude painting on the outside walls. In some of the shops you -will find a curious string knotted in a peculiar manner or strung with -shells. This is a survival of the Aztec method of counting by means of -beads, or shells, strung together. - -As one writer says, “the pulque shop, notwithstanding its evil influence -upon the life of the people, presents a very picturesque appearance to -the tourist who has never seen anything like it before. The dress of -the people, the curious, vivid colours of the walls of the building, -the semi-barbaric appearance of the decorations within, the curious -semi-symbolic pictures upon the walls, the unaccustomed groupings of the -people, all combine to attract the attention of the stranger in Mexico.” - -[Illustration: A PICTURESQUE PULQUE SHOP] - -In the naming of the pulque-dens the imagination is allowed full play. -I quote from a Mexican periodical the names of some of these resorts: A -place in the suburbs of Mexico is termed the “Delight of Bacchus.” One -is called “The Seventh Heaven,” another “The Food of the Gods,” while -still another bears the euphonious title of “The Land of the Lotus.” “A -Night of Delight” is another place near “The Heart’s Desire.” The above -names are commonplace by the side of the following: “The Hang-out of -John the Baptist,” “The Retreat of the Holy Ghost,” “The Delight of the -Apostle,” “The Retreat of the Holy Virgin,” “The Mecca of Delight,” and -“The Fountain of the Angels.” Nothing disrespectful is intended by these -appellations but they sound very sacrilegious to us. - -There is, however, a brighter side to the Indian life in the City of -Mexico. In one corner of the Zocalo, and covering a part of the site -formerly occupied by the great sacrificial altar, is the flower-market. -This flower-market is always attractive and a never-ending source of -interest to the tourist. Immense bouquets of the choicest flowers are -sold so cheap that the price seems almost absurd. By judicious bargaining -a few cents will purchase a large and varied supply of roses, violets -and heliotrope, which only dollars could buy from a New York florist. No -hot-houses are needed here at any season, for in this climate flowers -bloom all the year round, and one crop succeeds another in a never-ending -succession. The Mexican Indian is a lover of flowers. It is one of the -redeeming traits of his character. He is not always particular as to his -personal appearance; he may be unkempt and untidy to look upon; but he -loves flowers, is prodigal in his use of them and shows good taste in -their arrangement. This taste is innate, is no doubt inherited from his -Aztec ancestors, and has survived the oppressions and exactions of the -succeeding centuries. This love for flowers finds expression even in his -worship, and it is no uncommon thing to find flowers before the image of -the Virgin, and such an offering is one of the expressions of his good -will. When we consider that our forefathers were taught to worship God -with the first fruits of their husbandry, it is not surprising that this -primitive and ignorant race should still find use in their worship for -these beautiful products of a prodigal nature. - -The gardens and parks of the City of Mexico attain a luxuriant growth -that cannot be equalled in our northern cities. These breathing-places -where one can sit amid scenes of tropical verdure, and admire the bright -tints of the flowers while shielded from the hot sun by the broad-leafed -foliage of the plants, are truly delightful spots for an American to -visit. They contrast so strongly with the cheerless appearance of the -streets. In the centre of the large Plaza Mayor lies the Zocalo, a little -green oasis in the great paved waste. It is in the very heart of the -city’s throbbing life, and everything either has its beginning or ending -on this imposing square. - -On one side of the Plaza lies the Palacio Nacional which has stood there -for more than two centuries. It covers the site of the ancient palace -of Montezuma, and has an imposing façade of nearly seven hundred feet. -Over the main entrance hangs the Liberty Bell of Mexico which was rung -by Hidalgo on the first call to independence at Dolores, where it had so -often summoned the people to mass. The immense windows which look out -upon the Plaza open into the various rooms where the official business of -the executive department of the republic is transacted. Other parts of -this immense structure, for it is almost a square building enclosing an -open court, are occupied by the legislative chambers and barrack rooms -for several regiments of soldiers. - -A few blocks away from the Plaza lies the Alameda, which is the park -of the better classes. Every city has an alameda, as the visitor soon -learns, but this is _the_ alameda of Mexico. It is a pretty place, and, -with its beautiful trees, flowers and fountains, forms a resort for the -fashionable people, who congregate here on Sundays and feast days to -listen to the military bands. The visitor can almost lose himself in this -part, for the view is circumscribed on every hand by the dense shrubbery. - -It is on the subject of the Paseo de la Reforma that the Mexican becomes -enthusiastic. This beautiful boulevard extends for a distance of two -miles from a place near the Alameda to Chapultepec. It is a smooth -thoroughfare averaging five hundred feet in width, with promenades on -each side shaded by trees under which are stone seats, and with paved -driveways in the centre. Here and there the Paseo widens into circles, -called _glorietas_, in the centre of which are placed statues. Those -already erected include statues to Charles IV of Spain, Columbus and -Cuautemoc, the Aztec warrior and emperor. To Maximilian is due the credit -for the Paseo, and a more beautiful boulevard cannot be found in Europe -or America. - -I have purposely described the old features of the city and the unique -characteristics before touching upon the more modern innovations. The -average visitor would follow that plan, for he would be more interested -in the unusual than in that with which he is more or less familiar. -Like all capitals and large cities affected by commercialism, the City -of Mexico is fast becoming cosmopolitan. The traveller who visited it -ten, or even five, years ago would be astonished at the changes wrought -by improvements. The fine system of electric lights, the excellent -electric traction lines with modern, cars, the asphalted streets and the -attractive new suburbs of an entirely foreign architecture, link the old -with the new, the sixteenth with the twentieth century. A city hindered -by a racial conservatism, and obstructed at every turn by tradition, -does not become entirely modern in a decade, but the trend is there and -its progress has been really remarkable. It will never be a city of -skyscrapers for a hard stratum is not encountered until a depth of a -hundred and forty feet is reached. - -A new and modern hotel is more needed than anything else. There are -plenty of hotels of the Mexican kind, where it is almost impossible to -find a room with an outside window. All the rooms simply have an opening -on the _patio_ which answers for both door and window. In cool weather -which is sometimes experienced here, there is no means of heating these -rooms except by an open pan of coals, which is not very satisfactory to -one accustomed to modern steam-heated hotels or a good stove. - -The national government controls the federal district within which is -situated the City of Mexico, much the same as the District of Columbia, -in our own land, and is assisted by a city council. Plans have been drawn -for fifty million dollars’ worth of public buildings, many of which -are already under way. The fine new post-office which has been building -for several years is now occupied by that department. It is a beautiful -structure of the medieval Spanish style, and is a striking departure from -the other public buildings. It is four stories high, equipped with every -convenience and is finished within and without in elaborate style. - -A new legislative palace is under construction, which is the most -pretentious building yet planned. Its estimated cost is $20,000,000. -Opposite the post-office a national theatre is being erected to cater to -the amusement lovers, which is designed to be the finest theatre in the -new world. An entire block is being razed to make room for the Panteon -Nacional—a resting place for Mexico’s illustrious dead. Within the -marble walls of this unique memorial will rest all that is mortal of her -heroes. An army and navy building, a museum of art and a department of -public works are among the other improvements planned for the capital. -These buildings are being scattered over the city instead of following -the group plan as designed at Washington. The reason for this has been -a desire to have every section of the city benefited and beautified by -these public structures. The year 1910 marked the centennial of Mexican -independence. The month of September was almost wholly given up to -celebrations of this event in the capital. A number of public buildings -were dedicated during the celebrations. Among these were a new insane -asylum and several fine new public school buildings, which greatly added -to the educational facilities of the city. A magnificent new monument -to independence, recently erected on the Paseo, was dedicated with -great ceremony. A number of gifts were made by foreign colonies and -governments. Not the least of these was a monument to Washington, which -was presented by the resident Americans. The ceremonies and functions of -the centennial celebration were very elaborate, and the capital has been -beautified in many ways as a result. - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -THE VALLEY OF ANAHUAC - - -The dim traditionary history of Mexico shows us shadowy tribes flitting -across the stage, each acting its part like the different performers in -a vaudeville show, and then making way for other actors. The Valley of -Mexico, or Anahuac, meaning “near the water,” seems to have been the -centre of the civilization of these early tribes. It is a beautiful -valley nearly sixty miles in length and thirty in breadth, and is -enclosed by a wall of mountains which circumscribe the view in every -direction. Six shallow lakes lie in this hollow: Texcoco, Xochimilco, San -Cristobal, Xaltocan, Zumpango and Chalco, of which the first named is the -nearest to the city and lies distant about three miles. It is easy to -believe that the waters of these lakes at one time entirely surrounded -the ancient city of Tenochtitlan, for within historic times their shores -have greatly receded. - -The history of these early races rests mostly upon tradition; yet a -diversity of architectural ruins, and the few meagre records that remain, -present certain general facts. These positive proofs leave no doubt that -this valley was inhabited from a very early period by tribes or nations -which made distinct advances in civilization. These tribes had developed -certain of the useful arts and had evolved a social system that exhibited -some refinement. The first of these races of whom we have reliable record -are the Toltecs, who appeared in the Valley of Mexico in the seventh -century at almost the same time that Mohammed was spreading his religion -over Asia and Africa. Their sway lasted about five centuries, when they -disappeared as silently and mysteriously as they came. - -These peaceful and agricultural people were succeeded by the Chichimecs, -a more barbarous race, who came from the north. They in turn were -followed by the Nahuals. Lastly came the Aztecs, who entered the -valley about 1196, and reached a higher state of civilization than any -of their predecessors. War was their choicest profession, for they -considered that warriors slain in battle were immediately transported -to scenes of ineffable bliss. They offered human sacrifices to their -gods. Prescott tells us of a procession of captives two miles long, and -numbering seventy thousand persons who were sacrificed at one time. This -is incredible, for at that rate the population would soon have been -exhausted even in this prolific land. Furthermore we know that the Aztecs -were not always successful in war, and may have furnished victims from -their own numbers, for sacrifice to the gods of the other nations in the -same land. - -[Illustration: THE CALENDAR STONE] - -The Aztecs were clever workers in gold and silver, and were acquainted -with a number of arts that are lost to-day. Their picture writings bear -witness to a clever fancy and fertile invention of symbols. The numerous -idols show their skill in carving and a true artistic instinct. Many -antiquities have been exhumed from the swampy soil on which the capital -city is built, in making excavations for improvements. The National -Museum is a treasure house of these relics and it would take a volume to -describe them. The huge Sacrificial Stone, which is generally supposed -to have been placed on the top of the great altar, is preserved there. -It also houses the horrible image of the god Huitzilopochtli, and a -varied assortment of inferior gods, goddesses, and other objects of -worship. But the most celebrated antiquity—the one showing the greatest -advancement—is the Calendar Stone. This stone was buried for centuries, -and when resurrected was placed in the west tower of the cathedral. From -this place it was removed a few years ago and placed in the museum. It -is a mighty stone, eleven feet and eight inches in diameter, and weighs -more than twenty tons. The Aztecs divided the year into eighteen months -of twenty days each, and then arbitrarily added five days to complete the -year. - -“Let us follow the cross, and if we have faith we will conquer,” was -the motto on the banner of Cortez. It was with this spirit that he led -his little band over the mountains and into the heart of the empire -of Montezuma, late in the fall of 1519. He was met by that sovereign, -tradition says, on the site of the present Hospital of Jesus, with every -manifestation of friendliness. For several months they were the honoured -guests of the Aztec chief, but at length the aggressions of the Spaniards -changed friendship to hate and the Aztecs, rising in their wrath, chased -the invaders from the city. Driven before the infuriated natives like -sheep, they fled over the present road to the suburban village of Tacuba, -and many were those who fell. This rout of the Spaniards has been -painted with wonderful vividness by Gen. Lew Wallace in “The Fair God.” - -It was an awful night of despair, that first day of July, 1520, and the -Spaniards who escaped named it La Noche Triste, “the sorrowful night.” -The pursuit stopped at the little town of Popotla. In this village is a -great cypress tree whose branches are blasted by the storms of centuries. -For a moment the strong will of Cortez gave way and he sat down upon a -stone under the spreading branches of this tree and wept. Whether he -wept most for his fallen soldiers or disappointment over his ignominious -defeat, we are not told by the chroniclers. This tree is now noted as _el -arbol de la noche triste_, or “the tree of the sorrowful night.” A high -iron fence protects the ancient relic from the souvenir vandals. - -The Spaniards retreated beyond the valley to their allies, the -Tlaxcalans, at Cholula. Reinforcements and supplies arriving, -they returned a few months later and began the memorable siege of -Tenochtitlan, and made a triumphal entry into that city on the 13th of -August, 1521. Then Guatemotzin, the last of the Aztec emperors, wept in -his turn, because the sacred fires of the temple had for ever gone out, -and his people would henceforth be slaves. “Take that dagger,” he said, -“and free this spirit.” But, no, torture must come before death, for -Cortez fain would learn where the gold was hidden that had so suddenly -disappeared. To-day, in the City of Mexico, a statue stands in one of the -circles of the famous Paseo, which commemorates this great warrior and -his torture by the Spanish chieftain. This monument is greatly cherished -by the Indians, who hold annual festivals in his honour and decorate it -with a profusion of flowers and wreaths. - -The great Valley of Mexico is without a natural outlet, and this fact -has caused seven inundations of the capital during exceptionally rainy -seasons. One of the lakes, Zumpango, is twenty-five feet higher than -the city and drains into Texcoco, from which the waters spread over the -city. When the first serious inundations came in 1553, 1580 and 1604, the -project of removing the city to a higher level was strongly agitated. -It was only the loss of millions of dollars of property that prevented -this action. Then the idea of draining this valley was definitely adopted -and the work was begun in 1607. A tunnel was decided upon and fifteen -thousand Indians were set at work sinking shafts and driving the tunnel -in both directions. Within a year a tunnel four miles long had been -completed. This tunnel eventually caved in, so that very little good -was realized from it and efforts were made to convert it into an open -cut. But this undertaking was not finished until two centuries later. It -is a great trench, however, with an average depth of from one hundred -and fifty to two hundred feet, and from three hundred to seven hundred -feet in width at the top. It is called the _Tajo de Nochistongo_, or -Nochistongo cut, and its only use now is as an entrance for the Mexican -Central railway. Even this waterway did not drain the valley, remarkable -engineering feat as it was, but a new canal was constructed by American -engineers a few years ago which successfully accomplishes the work of -draining these shallow lakes and carrying off the sewerage of the city. - -The first Aztecs who settled in this valley lived almost entirely in the -marshes and lakes, we are told, because of the hostility of their fierce -neighbours. They were thus obliged to depend almost wholly upon the -products of these watered lands for their sustenance, and they acquired -some strange and—we would say—depraved tastes. A reminder of those days -is seen in the cakes made of the eggs of a curious marsh-fly, which are -sold in the market of the City of Mexico to-day. The flies themselves -are pounded into a paste and sold after being boiled, but the eggs are -preferred. The Indians collect the eggs in a systematic manner. Bundles -of a certain kind of sedge are planted in Lake Texcoco and the insects -deposit their eggs thereon in great quantities. These bundles as soon as -covered are shaken over pieces of cloth and replaced for another supply. -The eggs thus collected are made into a paste and form a favourite -article of food, especially during Lent. - -It is interesting to learn what different races regard as toothsome -dainties. In Southern Mexico I have seen bushels of common grasshoppers -sold in the markets as a delicacy, reminding one of the locusts and -wild honey used as food in Biblical times. In other parts of Mexico -the honey-ant is greatly sought after for food. The natives of Central -America are partial to the iguana, a large lizard sometimes reaching a -length of three or four feet, and prefer it to beef. After all there is -no accounting for tastes. A man who eats snails might criticize another -who relishes oysters. And perhaps the man who want his cheese “ripe” -should not criticize the poor Indian who has inherited a taste for the -eggs of the fly. - -[Illustration: SCENES ON THE VIGA CANAL] - -There are many places of interest round about the City of Mexico which -are easily reached. One should not fail to visit the famous _jardines -flotandos_ or “floating gardens” where the beautiful flowers sold in -the market are grown. These gardens, called by the Aztecs _chinampas_, -are reached by the Viga Canal. The inquirer is told to take a gondola -and float down to them. The name gondola excites pleasant anticipations -of a delightful trip. Entering a mule-car at the Plaza Mayor the canal -is soon reached after traversing a number of narrow streets which would -not especially delight the fastidious traveller. The gondoliers take -the stranger almost by force and urge him into one of the flea-infested -boats that abound at the landing, and which more resemble a collection of -mud-scows than any other kind of floating fleet. Instead of using oars -these queer gondoliers with the picture hats pole the boat through the -muddy waters of La Viga, stirring up odours which cause the passenger -to wish that he was not gifted with the sense of smell, or that he -could temporarily dispense with breathing. However, there is life in -the stream and on the banks that is typically Mexican, for boats are -constantly passing up and down. Occasionally a load of Indians will -float by playing native airs on guitars and other string instruments, -with the light-heartedness and gaiety peculiar to this race. On the bank -are scattered many native thatch huts around which idle natives group. -Along the road pass men and women going to and from the city with loads -on their heads or on their backs. The “floating gardens” are always just -beyond. They are first at Santa Anita but, when this place is reached, -they are at Mexicalcingo. Arrived there the visitor is sent to Ixtacalco, -and then he is forwarded to Xochimilco, and so the real floating gardens -are never reached. The fact is that they do not float and perhaps never -did. This characteristic only exists in the imagination, for it sounds -romantic to speak of gardens that can be moved around and anchored at -will. - -Disembarking at an unattractive mud and thatch village bearing the -charming name of Santa Anita, self constituted guides are waiting to -conduct you to the object of your visit, something which does not -literally exist. Yet the “floating gardens” are all about you at this -place. They are simply marsh lands with canals leading in and out and -crossways by means of which the gardener can reach all parts in his -boat. The earth may yield somewhat if you step upon it, but they do -not float. It is possible, and historians so assert, that floating -gardens did exist in reality during the Aztec invasion. These people -were frequently driven to dire extremities to secure food. They may have -adopted the plan of making floating gardens which could be moved about -as necessity compelled. This was done by culling masses of vegetation -with its thick entwined stems and pouring upon this mat the rich mud -dredged from the bottom of the lake. Then, as the masses settled, more -mud was put on until the whole anchored upon the bottom of the lake and -became immovable. The gardens look beautiful, covered as they are with -the many-coloured blossoms. By means of the canals the roots are kept -thoroughly moist at all times, and the plants thrive luxuriantly. - -This canal of La Viga was formerly a great trade route, for a large part -of the natives came to the City of Mexico by this way. It leads back into -regions where dwell full blooded Aztecs who speak a language that is said -to be almost the pure ancient tongue. These natives can be distinguished -from all others on the street and in the market by their features and -peculiar dress. They are clannish and keep by themselves, except in the -intercourse made necessary by barter and trade. They are proud of their -lineage and rejoice in the fact that they have not mingled with the other -native races. - -Tacuba, distant only a few miles, is an interesting little village, and -has many gardens and a fine old church. It is a good place to study the -people and get snap-shots of quaint life. Its principal distinction is -that it was a proud city when Tetlepanquetzaltzin was king once upon -a time. Texcoco at the time of the conquest was the capital of the -Tezcucans, who were a race in alliance with the Aztecs, but it is now -principally in ruins, for its glory has passed away. El Desierto was once -the home of the Carmelite monks and is frequently visited now in its -decay. Coyoacan was the first capital of Mexico, for Cortez established -the seat of government there for a time while the new city was being -built. - -Tacubaya is the home of the wealthy as well as the sporting element. It -has beautiful gardens within the adobe walls surrounding the homes of -the opulent. It is on higher ground and should have been the site of the -capital city itself. It is also called the Monte Carlo of Mexico, for -gamblers of all sorts and conditions congregate here in booths or under -umbrellas, and you can lose any sum at games of chance as at that famous -resort along the shores of the blue Mediterranean. Games, music, dancing, -cock-fights, and bull-fights are a few of the attractions to amuse and -entertain the visitor, and relieve him from the burden of carrying around -the weighty silver pesos. - -[Illustration: CASTLE OF CHAPULTEPEC] - -In all this beautiful and historic Valley of Mexico there is no more -beautiful spot, or none around which so many memories cling, as -Chapultepec, the Hill of the Grasshoppers. Historic and beautiful -Chapultepec! A great grove of noble cypresses draped with masses of -Spanish moss surrounds this rock, and between the trees and along the -shores of a pretty little lake wind enchanting walks. One grand old -cypress called Montezuma’s tree rises to a height of one hundred and -seventy feet. It is a magnificent breathing spot—with which no park -that I have ever seen in America compares. Legend says that on the top -of this rock was situated the palace of Montezuma, and it is probably -only legend. No doubt that emperor often rested himself under the -friendly shade of the great _ahuehuete_, and reflected on the glory of -his empire before the disturbing foreigners came. The present Castle of -Chapultepec dates from 1783 when it was begun by one of the viceroys. -Later viceroys, presidents and an emperor added to the original building -until now it is a palace indeed but not a beautiful structure. Ill-fated -Maximilian made this his home and added greatly to the beauty of the -grounds. It is now the White House of Mexico although occupied only a -part of the year by the president. - -Perhaps nowhere in the world does there exist a more beautiful scene -than that which unfolds to the view from this rock. All around is the -great sweep of plain with its wealth of cultivated fields; the distant -mountain range with its ever varying outline; the snow-capped twin peaks, -Popocatapetl (seventeen thousand, seven hundred and eighty-two feet) and -Ixtaccihuatl (sixteen thousand and sixty feet), standing like silent -sentinels and dominating the horizon; the silver line of the lakes; and -beneath us the fair City of Mexico, the ancient Tenochtitlan. Legend -says that Popocatepetl, “the smoking mountain,” and Ixtaccihuatl, “the -woman in white,” were once living giants but that having displeased the -Almighty they were changed to mountains. The woman died and the contour -of her body covered with snow can be traced on the summit of the smaller -peak. The man was doomed to live for ever and gaze on the sleeping form -of his beloved. At times when his grief becomes uncontrollable he shakes -with his great sobs and pours forth tears of fire. - -As I stood on that historic rock I thought of the New World Venice -described by Prescott, “with its shining cities and flowering islets -rocking, as it were, at anchor on the fair bosom of the waters.” Rising -above all was the great sacrificial altar upon which the sacred fires -were ever kept burning. Beneath this rock under the friendly branches -of the giant cypress Montezuma has no doubt sheltered himself from the -hot sun. Cortez here rested himself after his severe marches. French -zouaves in their quaint uniforms have bivouacked in the grove. American -blue-coats stacked their arms here after the victory of Molino-del-Ray. -And Mexicans now take their siestas under the same friendly shade while -other races are robbing them of their wealth. - -Yes, historic scenes and tragedies have taken place on this plain. -Nations have come and gone. Victors have themselves been led away -captives, and taskmasters have in turn become slaves. How finite is man -or his works in the presence of this great panorama of nature! Races -have come and gone but the mountains endure. Human tragedies have been -enacted here but the sky is just as blue and the sun just as bright, -as when Cortez looked with envious eyes upon this beautiful valley. -The mimic play of men, and women and races upon this amphitheatre has -scarcely left its imprint. The only occasions when the calm serenity of -nature has been disturbed were when the giant Popocatapetl, overcome with -grief at the loss of his beloved, has shaken this whole valley with his -sobs and poured forth plenteous tears of fire over its fair surface. - - - - -CHAPTER V - -THE TROPICS - - -In no country in the world is it possible to move from one extreme of -climate to the other in so short a time as in Mexico. Within less than -twenty-four hours one can travel from the sun-baked sands of the Gulf -coast to the snow-covered, conical peak of one of the great extinct -volcanoes, thus traversing every zone of vegetable life from the dense -tropical growth of the former to the stunted pines of the latter. By -railway it is a journey of only a few hours from the plateaus, at an -altitude of eight thousand feet, to the sea level, and a most interesting -ride it is. The Mexican Railway, which is the oldest railway in the -republic, runs from the capital to Vera Cruz and is the best route, for -its wonderful engineering feats and beautiful scenery have drawn tourists -from all parts of the world. Leaving the capital, the road skirts the -bank of Lake Texcoco, through a pass in the mountains surrounding the -Valley of Mexico, and across the Plains of Apam, the home of the maguey, -for a hundred and fifty miles before the exciting part of the trip is -reached. - -The descent begins at Esperanza, which lies at the very foot of Mt. -Orizaba. Esperanza means “hope” and it is well named for the traveller -can “hope” for better things as the train approaches the coast. Noah’s -Ark rests near here, for I saw it with my own eyes labelled in plain -letters, _Arc de Noe_, but it is now—sad to tell—devoted to the sale of -pulque. Esperanza is eight thousand and forty-four feet above the sea -and one hundred and twelve miles from Vera Cruz as the track runs, but -much nearer as the crow would fly. There is a drop of four thousand, one -hundred feet in the next twenty-nine miles and it is one of the grandest -rides in the world. In places the road seems like a little shelf on the -side of a towering mountain while a yawning chasm awaits the coach below. -As soon as Boca del Monte (Mouth of the Mountain) is reached, only a few -miles from Esperanza, the downward impetus is felt and all the energy of -the curious double-ended English engines is devoted to holding back the -heavy train with its human cargo. - -Passing through a tunnel here, the scene bursts upon the traveller -without any warning or prelude, in all its grandeur and magnificence. -The engine accommodatingly stops for water so that the passengers have -an opportunity to view this wonderful panorama. Maltrata nestles in the -hollow, a dozen miles away by rail, yet the red tiles of the roofs, a -red-domed church and the ever-present plaza gleam in the sunshine two -thousand feet directly underneath. The valley is almost flat and is -divided into squares by hedges and walls and, reflecting every shade -of green, looks like a checker-board arrangement of nature. Beyond the -valley, hill succeeds hill until they are lost in the purple haze of the -horizon, or are overtopped by snow-capped Orizaba. Indians appear here -with beautiful bouquets of roses, tulips and orchids, with their yellow, -pink and red centres, for sale. The train passes on over a narrow bridge -spanning a deep chasm and down the mountain until Maltrata is reached, -where the same Indians will greet you with the same bouquets, for they -have climbed down the two thousand feet in less time than it took the -train to reach the same level. - -Leaving Maltrata the road enters a cañon called _El Infernillo_, the -Little Hell, goes through a tunnel and another beautiful valley, -running through fertile fields and by wooded hills, until Orizaba, the -border-land of the tropics, is reached. - -This city at an altitude of four thousand feet is in the _tierra -templada_, the temperate region. This zone is as near paradise in the -matter of climate as any location on earth could well be. It retains most -of the beauties and few of the annoying insects and tropical fevers of -the hot zone. It has the moisture of the lowlands with the cool breezes -of the uplands and is well named “temperate zone” because of its fine -climate and equable temperature. - -Orizaba is a town of thirty-five thousand people and a very beautiful and -interesting place with its palm-shaded streets and low Moorish buildings. -Its Alameda is a quaint, shady park with an abundance of flowers and -blooming trees. Along the street the orange trees thrust their laden -branches out into the highway over the low adobe walls. On the banks of -the stream the washerwomen beat their clothes to a snowy white upon the -smooth round stones. Life moves along in smooth, easy channels with these -people. And it is not to be wondered at, for there is - - “A sense of rest - To the tired breast - In this beauteous Aztec town.” - -Between Orizaba and Cordoba, a distance of sixteen miles, is perhaps the -best cultivated section in Mexico. The products of all the zones are -mingled and corn and coffee grow side by side as well as peach trees and -the banana. Cordoba is just on the border of the _tierra caliente_, or -hot country proper, and is a much smaller city than Orizaba. It is a very -old town and was founded as a place of refuge from the malarial fevers -of the coast lands. This region is noted for its fine coffee, and there -are numberless coffee plantations as well as many sugar _haciendas_. The -Mexican of the tropics can be seen here dressed in immaculate white. -Leaving Cordoba dense tropical forests of palm and palmetto begin to -appear. These alternate with groves of coffee and bananas, gardens of -mangoes, fields of pineapples and other tropical fruits. Nature begins to -manifest herself in her grandest productions. Birds of brilliant plumage -are seen. The towering trees, rocks and entire surface of the soil are -covered with bright flowers such as orchids, oleanders and honeysuckles -and luxuriant vines. These and the dense jungles are all reminders that -the tropics have been reached at last. Soon the train enters Vera Cruz, -the city without cabs, the landing-place of the great conquistador and -his cohorts. - -The principal port now, as it has always been since the landing of Cortez -on the twenty-first day of April, 1519, is Vera Cruz, or, as he named -it, _La Villa Rica de Vera Cruz_—the Rich City of the True Cross. Most -Americans who pass through here leave by the very first train or boat -for fear of pestilence. I met one fellow-countryman there who was almost -beside himself because the boat he had expected to take was delayed a -couple of days. This city is reputed to be the favourite loafing-place of -the _stegomyia fasciata_ whose bite results in the _vomito_, or yellow -fever. If all the sensational reports sent out concerning this city were -true then “Pandora’s box was not a circumstance to the evils which Vera -Cruz contains.” I had read in Mr. Ober’s excellent work on Mexico of an -American consul who died here just thirteen days after reaching the port -that his ambition had led him to; and of the terrible ravages of the -scourge when deaths were averaging forty per day. I arrived there after -night had set in. Eating a light supper and seeing that my name was duly -posted on the big blackboard bulletin according to the custom prevailing -there, I retired to my room, and only breathed freely after securely -drawing the mosquito netting around my bed so that it would be impossible -for a _stegomyia_ to get through. - -It was almost a surprise on the following morning to find able-bodied -Americans and husky Englishmen pursuing their avocations in an -unconcerned way as though such things as yellow fever or smallpox were -not to be thought of. Then, again, I was alarmed at the numerous red -flags hanging out, which I took to be quarantine flags, for everything -is different here. Upon investigation this alarm was dispelled, for -those places proved to be pulque-shops and the flag meant that a fresh -supply of the “liquor divine” had just been received. It is probably -true that Vera Cruz was a hot-bed for the _vomito_ a few years ago, but -Mexican statistics report only twelve deaths in 1904 and one hundred -and twenty-two in 1905 from this disease, which is not bad for a city -of thirty thousand people, where a large proportion of the population -cannot be made to obey the ordinary laws of sanitation. I doubt whether -the death rate is much greater than in our own cities on the Gulf coast. -This change is due to the better situation that has been brought about -by the authorities. - -An adequate supply of pure water was the first important step in this -move for improved conditions. This was secured by utilizing the water -of the Jamapa River at a point about twelve miles distant and passing -this water through several filtering beds before turning it into the -mains which supply the city. A sewerage system has been constructed, -by means of which the sewerage is carried out and discharged into deep -water so that the harbour will not be contaminated. Disinfecting stations -have been established and a plant for the disposition of garbage. Then -in addition to the regular force of health officers, there is a large -volunteer street cleaning brigade. These volunteer forces are not on the -pay-roll and yet they do their work in a thorough manner even if their -methods cannot be approved. Their only reward is the enforcement of a -fine of five dollars for the protection of their lives. By the natives -these street cleaners are called _zopilotes_ but to an American they are -plain, every-day buzzards. Hundreds of these birds can be seen perched on -the roof-tops or waddling through the streets. - -For centuries the port of Vera Cruz was the bane of vessel owners for -there was no protection from the severe “Northers” so prevalent on the -Gulf and it was one of the most inconvenient and dangerous harbours on -that coast. It was for this reason that Cortez destroyed the vessels -which had brought his forces over from Cuba. An excellent harbour has -been constructed at great cost and ocean-going vessels can now anchor -alongside of the main pier and unload. A large new union station will -at once be erected by the four railways entering this city on a site -adjoining the pier, which will further increase the facilities of this -port. - -[Illustration: BRIDGE AT ORIZABA - -THE BUZZARDS OF VERA CRUZ - -AVENUE OF PALMS, VERA CRUZ] - -The fortress of San Juan de Ulua, now a prison, and which is reached -by a short sail through the shark-infested harbour, is an interesting -structure and has seen many vicissitudes. Used as a fort for several -centuries by the Spaniards, it has successively been occupied by the -French, Americans, and again by the French and their allies in the war -of the intervention. The buildings in Vera Cruz are nearly all low, -one-storied structures of adobe, and the walls are tinted in red, yellow, -blue and green, thus furnishing to the eye a pleasing variety and, with -the bay, reminding one of Cadiz in old Spain. There is an attractive -plaza and an imposing avenue of the cocoanut palm. Vera Cruz is the -gateway to the capital and many millions of imports and exports pass -through here each year, as much as at all the other ports of Mexico -combined, leaving out Progresso, on the Yucatan coast, through which the -henequen traffic is carried. - -Tampico is the second Gulf port in importance and on the completion -of a direct route to the capital will be a close rival to Vera Cruz. -Coatzacoalcos is the Gulf port of the Tehuantepec railway and will become -an important port. The Pacific coast affords better natural harbours. -Acapulco is one of the finest natural land-locked harbours in the world. -Though now of secondary importance because of the absence of railroad -connections, at one time this picturesque harbour sheltered the old -Spanish galleons engaged in the East India trade. Their freight was -unloaded there and transported overland on the backs of burros and mules -to Vera Cruz and re-shipped to Spain. Manzanillo is an important seaport -on that coast and will soon be connected by rail with the capital, when -its importance will be greatly increased. Other important ports on that -coast are Mazatlan, Guayamas, San Blas and Salina Cruz, the Pacific port -of the Tehuantepec route, where the great harbour is nearly completed. - -The _tierra caliente_ comprises a fringe of low plains which extend -inland from the coast a distance varying from a few miles in width to a -hundred or more. From thence it rises by a succession of terraces until -the great inland plateaus are reached. The higher the altitude the lower -the temperature, and it is estimated that there is a change of 1.8 degree -Fahrenheit for each sixty feet of elevation in this region. This zone is -characterized by the grandeur and variety of vegetable life, and it is -an almost uninterrupted forest except where it has been cleared. A ride -through the tropics is a revelation of what nature can do when aided -by a never-ending succession of warm sunshine and abundant rain upon -rich soil. Trees of great height and size are interspersed among plants -which are generally of a tree-like nature, and are conspicuous for the -development of their trunks and ramifications. The innumerable species of -reeds and creeping plants that entwine themselves in a thousand different -ways among the trees and plants make a passage almost impossible. It -is for this reason that the natives always go around armed with the -_machete_, a long blade very much like a corn-cutter, for it enables -them to cut their way through the dense undergrowth, and is a protection, -should any danger be encountered. The palms which are ever associated -with the tropics are seen in great profusion and in countless varieties. -Millions of ferns and broad-leaved plants which would be welcomed in the -gardens and groves of northern homes are wasting their graceful beauty in -these jungles and wildernesses. Trees are covered with beautiful orchids -and vines coil about the trunks and limbs like great snakes, and then -drop down to the earth and take root again in the damp soil. - -To those who know them the tropics are not so terrible, treacherous -though they may seem. Some enter this zone with a feeling of creepiness -as though they were entering a darkened sick-room sheltering some -malignant disease. They hesitate to breathe for fear that the very air -is poisonous and they may take in the germs of some malady with an -unpronounceable name. They shrink from nature as though she had ceased to -be the kind mother to which they were accustomed in the colder climates. -It is true that there is something horribly creepy and uncanny about this -inevitable tropical growth, which is so frail and fragile outwardly -but seems possessed of an unconquerable vitality. And yet in many of -the so-called unhealthy places, there is scarcely more danger to health -than elsewhere, if one but observes the same rules of right living. -Continuous hard labour, such as the northern farmer is accustomed to -devote to his little farm, is not possible. Exposure to the intense heat -of the sun at midday and the heavy rains will bring on fevers and malaria -just as surely as it produces the luxuriant vegetation. For this reason -the tropics will probably never be suited for colonization by the small -farmer who is fascinated with the possibilities offered by land capable -of producing two or three crops in a single year. - -In general, Mexico is poorly supplied with rivers. However, along the -Atlantic coast they are very numerous and large, although not navigable -for any great distance, or for vessels large enough to be of much aid to -commerce. The size of the rivers is due to the great amount of rainfall, -which varies from seventy to one hundred and eighty inches annually. -When this is compared to an annual rainfall of twenty to forty inches in -the northern states of the United States, the conditions in the tropics -are better understood. This excessive rainfall washes down earth from -the higher ground and this, together with the layers of vegetable mold, -have formed soil from eight to fourteen feet in depth thus making it -practically inexhaustible. The temperature varies from 70° to 100° -Fahrenheit. The Pacific coast has a higher temperature and less rainfall -than the Gulf coast. However, there is a stretch of land extending north -of Acapulco along the coast and from eight to thirty miles wide that is -unrivalled for tropical beauty and productiveness. There are many rivers -and streams that traverse this land on the way from the great mountains -to the Pacific. - -There is a charm about the life in the hotlands that is missing in -other parts of Mexico. Of all the inhabitants of that country, the -life of the people in the hot country is the most interesting. This is -probably due to the fact that these people have always had more freedom -than the Indians on the plateaus who were practically slaves for a -couple of centuries. The great estates there required sure help and -the natives were reduced to serfs. In the mines they were worked with -soldiers set over them as guards. In the hotlands it was easier to make -a living, for a bountiful nature supplied nearly all their wants. And -yet many employers of labour say that the peon from the hot country -makes the most satisfactory workman. These Indians seem like a superior -race. For one thing they are scrupulously clean which, in itself, is -a pleasing contrast to the daily sights in Northern Mexico. Water is -abundant everywhere; the extreme heat renders bathing a great comfort -and their clothes are kept immaculate. They are fond of social life and -almost every night groups can be seen gathered together in some kind of -entertainment. - -[Illustration: AN INDIAN HOME IN THE HOT COUNTRY] - -Their homes are different from those in the colder lands. The houses -of the middle and lower classes are built of bamboo or other light -material found in the tropical jungles, and thatched with palm leaves. -The upright bamboo poles are often set an inch or more apart thus giving -a free circulation of air. An Indian village generally consists of one -long, winding, irregular street lined on each side by these picturesque -huts, and bearing a strong resemblance to a village in the interior of -Africa. Down these streets swarm in equal profusion half-naked babies -and children long past the childhood stage dressed in the same simple -way, and hungry looking dogs. The hot country is sparsely populated in -comparison with the plateaus and there are no large cities, although -archeologists tell us that the earliest civilization seems to have been -located there. It could support a population many, many times larger with -ease. - -The most productive parts of the world are found in the _tierra caliente_ -which instead of being given up to impenetrable jungles, the homes of -reptiles and breeding place of poisonous insects, should be made to -produce those luxuries and necessaries which contribute to make civilized -life tolerable. All over the world the fruits and other articles of -the tropics are coming into greater demand each year. In the year 1906 -the United States imported fruits and other food products of tropical -countries, not including coffee, to the value of more than $150,000,000, -or nearly two dollars for each man, woman and child in the country. Of -the purely tropical products, sugar was by far the largest item on the -list. Bananas to the amount of $11,500,000 were brought in, and were -second on the list with cacao a close rival for this place. - -As yet Mexico supplies but a small portion of these articles to the -United States. Yet the possibilities of agriculture here are equal -to those of any similar lands, and this, together with superior -transportation facilities and a stable government, ought to greatly -increase the trade. In addition to the above items, this soil is well -adapted to the following fruits and useful products, all of which are -native to the soil: oranges, lemons, limes, pineapples, grapefruit, -vanilla bean, indigo, rubber, coffee, tobacco and many drug-producing -plants. It is difficult for the small farmer to succeed, as he cannot do -all his own labour in that climate and cannot get satisfactory help just -when it is needed. He could not afford to hire a force of labourers by -the year. Successful farming in the tropics can only be done on a large -scale with a regular force of labourers maintained on the plantation. -The title to the soil can be purchased cheaply but the first cost of the -land is probably not more than one-third of the ultimate cost by the time -it is cleared, planted, and the necessary improvements made. Furthermore -many tropical plants such as coffee, rubber and cacao require several -years of care before there is a profitable yield. - -Coffee and banana culture go hand in hand, for the broad leaves of the -banana provide the shade so necessary to the young coffee trees. The -banana also furnishes a little revenue during the four or five years -before the coffee trees have fully matured. The coffee region is very -extensive, for it will grow at a height of from one to five thousand -feet, and flourishes best at an altitude of two to three thousand feet. -It requires plenty of warmth and moisture. The coffee, which is a tree -and not a bush, is set out in rows several feet apart, and will grow -twenty feet tall if permitted, but is not allowed to grow half that -height. The tree is flowering and developing fruit all the time but the -principal harvest is in the late fall. It is not allowed to ripen on -the tree, for when the green berries have turned a bright red, they are -gathered, dried in the sun, hulled and then marketed. The states of Vera -Cruz and Chiapas produce the choicest coffee, but it is cultivated all -over the republic where it is possible. Coffee was introduced into this -country from Arabia by Spanish priests and was found to be adapted to -the soil. The best grades are sent to Europe, for it is a common saying -throughout Mexico and Central America that only the poor grades of coffee -are sent to the United States. This is rather a slur on the tastes of the -American people, but such is our reputation down there. - -“Looking at it from my point of view—the lazy man’s outlook—I can see -nothing so inviting as coffee culture, unless it be a fat ‘living’ in -an English country church,” says a writer. For myself, the one thing -that appealed to me above all others was the cultivation of the banana. -The returns are quick, the income regular and the profits large. I -travelled through the banana region of Honduras, where for thirty miles -the railroad passed by one plantation after another of the broad-leaved -banana plants growing as high as fifteen feet. Great fortunes have been -made by the banana-growers of that country and Costa Rica. This fruit -flourishes best in the lowlands. The preparation of the ground is very -simple, for the young banana plants are set out among the piles of -underbrush left after clearing and which soon decay in that climate. -After nine months or a year the plants begin to bear, and each stalk -will produce one bunch of bananas. The stalk is then cut down and a new -one, or several, will spring up from the roots and will bear in the same -length of time. Thus a banana plantation that is carefully looked after -will produce a marketable crop each week in the year, so that there -is a constant revenue coming in to the owner. The cultivation of this -delicious fruit, for which there is an ever-increasing market, brings the -quickest return of any tropical product. - -[Illustration: RICE CULTURE] - -Sugar cane can be raised profitably as the stalks grow high with many -joints and have a greater percentage of saccharine than in most countries -where it is cultivated. Furthermore it does not require replanting so -frequently. Cacao is another truly tropical product. It is from the cacao -bean that chocolate is made. The trees are usually transplanted and -bear in about four years and the beans are gathered three or four times -a year. They are then removed from the pods and dried in the sun. The -trees will bear for many years. Orange culture along modern scientific -lines, such as are used in California and Florida, would be profitable, -for the crop matures earlier and could be marketed long before the fruit -has ripened in those states. The Mexicans are great rice eaters and -there is a good field for its culture. The cocoanut palm offers good -returns as there is a good market for its fruit. Rubber grows wild and -many plantations have been set out in rubber trees. In the past year -Mexico has shipped more than two million pounds of crude rubber, and the -production is increasing. Vast tracts of mahogany are found down toward -Guatemala in the states of Campeche and Tabasco. These great trees are -cut down, hewn square and then hauled by mules to a waterway where they -are formed into rafts and floated down to the ports. There is much waste -in the present crude way of cutting and marketing this valuable wood. -Logwood and other dyewoods are found in the same forests. The world’s -supply of chicle also comes from the same source. - -What the Mexican tropics need is men of energy backed by capital -sufficient to utilize large tracts of this rich soil. It is true that -many plantations are now being cultivated and it is equally true that -many have been abandoned as failures after unsuccessful attempts at -cultivation. The fault has not been poor soil but poor management. -Promotion and success are not synonymous terms, and much of the promotion -has been done by unscrupulous persons whose only purpose was to dispose -of stock to the gullible. Richer soil cannot be found anywhere, but it -must be cultivated with intelligence and good judgment the same as in any -other part of the world, or failure will result. - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -A GLIMPSE OF THE ORIENTAL IN THE OCCIDENT - - -Some two hundred miles south of the City of Mexico lies Oaxaca -(pronounced Wa-hâ-ka). The Valley of Oaxaca was looked upon by the -Spanish conquerors as El Dorado, the traditional land of gold. The Aztecs -told them that the gold of Montezuma came from the sands of the rivers -in this and the connecting valleys, and that immeasurable treasure was -to be found there. Believing these tales, Cortez secured large grants of -land from the crown, and, with the consent and approval of his sovereign, -assumed to himself the title of Marquis of the Valley of Oaxaca. - -The cupidity of the Spaniards led them to employ every subterfuge to -induce the natives to reveal the source of their plentiful supply of -gold. The Indians, after considerable urging,—so we are told,—offered to -conduct one man to this place, if he would submit to be blindfolded for -the trip. This was agreed to and the party set out on their journey. -Thinking that he would mark the way, the Spaniard dropped a grain of corn -every few steps. After they had travelled a long distance, the Spaniard -had the bandage removed from his eyes and he was allowed to look around, -when he beheld such wealth as mortal vision never before had seen. His -eyes glittered with the greed of his covetous nature, but his countenance -soon changed when a dusky warrior stepped up and handed him a vessel -which contained every grain of corn that he had dropped by the way. For -this reason he was never able to retrace his steps to this wonderful -region, and the wily Spaniards were again outwitted by the simple natives. - -Oaxaca is reached by the Southern Railway which starts at Puebla. This -road penetrates one of the richest sections of the republic, with -abundance of timber and minerals, and unlimited beds of onyx and marble. -Little of this wealth is seen from the railroad, as this line follows -the narrow valleys, through one cañon into another, furnishing scenery -as grandly picturesque as the great passes of Colorado. The mountains -in places are lifted up thousands of feet with crags and peaks which -the storms have cut into fantastic shapes and whose walls drop almost -perpendicularly to the water’s edge. Then again the cañon widens, and the -panorama extends across the valley where gigantic rocks, stained in all -colours by the oozings of the metals of the earth, form far-away pictures -not unlike the battlements of an ancient fortress. The sun tinges each -a different hue, with deeper tones in the near ones which fade as they -approach the horizon, until all seem to blend into the intense blue of -the sky. - -As the train leaves the City of the Angels, just at daybreak, a wonderful -panorama is opened up to view. Look in any direction, and the tiled domes -of the churches rise above the plain, for each village and _hacienda_ has -its own. The forts erected on the surrounding hills which are emblematic -of the force that subjugated this valley, are seen, and near them the -pyramid of Cholula erected by those who were overcome. Over all tower -those mighty monuments of nature, the white-capped peaks of Popocatapetl, -Ixtaccihuatl, Orizaba and old Malintzi, with the morning sun reflected on -their snowy heads. The road ascends and descends, and then ascends again -before it takes a dip down into the _tierra caliente_. A number of native -villages are passed but only one town of any size, Tehuacan, noted for -its mineral springs. It is a pretty little city, and in the centre of a -rich agricultural district. The road finally enters a wide, open country -with rich valleys which extend to the hills beyond. At last, after a -twelve hours’ journey, our train rolls into this occidental Eden. - -More than three centuries ago a Spanish writer described Oaxaca as -“not very big, yet a fair and beautiful city to behold, which standeth -three-score leagues from Mexico in a pleasant valley.” It is located -at the junction of three valleys and on the bank of a broad river, -which meanders through a billowy sea of cornfields toward the Pacific. -Whichever way the eye may turn the view is bounded by hills covered with -forests. Viewed from one of these hills the city looks like a broad, -flat-covered plain of stone buildings above which are seen many domes, -and the whole scene has a truly oriental touch. - -The people that the Spanish found in possession of these valleys were -an industrious race. They had tilled the soil centuries before the -Spaniards, in their lust for gold, despoiled these beautiful valleys. -There is not a hollow, or knoll, where it is possible to scrape a little -soil with a hoe, that has not at some time been cultivated. These early -races had even constructed irrigation works which kept green their fields -during the dry season. The rich basins filled with alluvium are now owned -by the rich _hacendados_, or landowners, whose white buildings dot the -landscape here and there and, with their trees, orchards and cultivated -fields, lend life and colour to an otherwise dull prospect. The poor -Indians are forced to work for these landlords who claim title to the -land formerly owned by their ancestors, or retire to the hills where, -well up toward the crests, they cultivate their little fields of corn -and beans. There is one tribe of Indians that dwell in the mountains of -Oaxaca who have never acknowledged either Spanish or Mexican sovereignty, -and maintain their own tribal form of government. They can be seen at -Oaxaca on market days. - -We find Oaxaca to be a city of about thirty-three thousand people of whom -three-fourths or more are Indians. It is laid out with narrow streets, -down the centre of which runs a stream of water, from which rise at -times odours not the most agreeable. The houses are low and one-storied, -with grated windows after the style of architecture introduced by the -Spaniards, and by them adopted from the Moors, who copied it from the -Persians. The water supply is abundant, being brought in from the hills -by an aqueduct. Fountains are located at numerous places, and a constant -succession of Rebeccas with heads enveloped in their shawls, and carrying -great earthen water-jars pass to and fro from them. - -Oaxaca contains many fine churches of which one, Santo Domingo, has been -both monastery and fortress, and has just been restored at a cost of -$13,000,000 (silver) so it is claimed, making it the most costly church -in Mexico, if not in North America. The gold on the walls was so heavy -in former times, that the soldiers quartered here during revolutionary -uprisings employed themselves in removing it. This city has been the -scene of troublous times, and has been captured and re-captured by the -combating forces. It has given to the country two great presidents, -Juarez and Diaz, of whom it may well be proud. Of these two men, great -in the annals of Mexico, the former was a full-blooded Indian, and the -latter has a fair percentage of the same blood in his veins. A monument -to Juarez has been erected, and some day—may it be far distant—when -nature has claimed her own, this city will raise a memorial to her still -greater son. - -[Illustration: THE AQUEDUCT, OAXACA - -A FOUNTAIN IN OAXACA] - -Oaxaca has a pleasant plaza, called the Plaza de Armas, adorned with -various semi-tropical trees and shrubs, in the centre of which is the -ever-present band-stand. The Cathedral and municipal palace face this -square. My visit here was during a _fiesta_ and this plaza was the -favourite resort of the Indians as well as myself. The Indians living -in the hills took undisturbed possession at night, and groups of tired -_Indios_ wrapped themselves in their _sarapes_, or shawls, and stretched -their tired limbs out on the cold stones; or propped themselves against -the walls of a building to rest. A number of catch-penny devices were -running during the evening and the favourite seemed to be the phonograph. -The Indian would pay his _centavo_, put the transmitter in his ears and -listen without a sign of expression on his stolid face. Nevertheless, -he enjoyed it, because he would repeat the operation until his stock of -coppers was considerably diminished. - -Saturday is market day in this city, and a visit to this popular place is -worth a trip to Mexico. The atmosphere of the market is truly oriental, -for these people have a genius for trading as the innumerable little -stands where crude pottery, rough-made baskets, home-made _dulces_, etc., -are sold, fully proves. The entrance takes one past the dealers in fried -meats, where bits of pork and shreds of beef are dished out sizzling hot -to the peons under the big _sombreros_ by women cooks who crouch over -earthenware dishes placed on small braziers containing a charcoal fire, -and a three course meal can be obtained for a few cents. There is always -a crowd around this department, for these people are ever ready to eat, -and their capacity is only limited by their purse. - -[Illustration: THE MARKET-WOMEN OF OAXACA - -THE POTTERY-MARKET, OAXACA] - -Next is encountered the fruit and vegetable stands. The finest fruits and -vegetables, and especially the latter, that I saw in Mexico, were right -here in this market and this was in the month of December. Generally -the vegetables in Mexico are not large, but here were fine potatoes, -great red tomatoes, gigantic radishes and elephantine cabbages. Oranges, -bananas, limes, plantains and pineapples were plentiful, as well as the -less-known fruits such as _zapotes_ (a kind of melon), _aguacates_ (a -pale green fruit and vegetable combined), granaditas, mangoes, granadas -and pomegranates. The cocoanut of the hotlands is mingled with the -_dunas_, the fruit of the prickly pear, of the higher lands. With these -a great many drinks called _frescas_, or sherbets, are flavoured, the -merits of which are announced by the dark-eyed, be-shawled vendors. The -women merchants, many of them smoking cigarettes, sit around on the -floor so thick in places that it is almost impossible to work your way -through the mixed assortment of peppers and babies; corn, lean babies -and peas; charcoal, beans and fat babies; naked babies, knives and -murderous-looking _machetes_; hats, laughing babies, shawls and other -useful articles; turkeys, crying babies, chickens, dirty babies, ducks, -squawking parrots in cages, pigs and other live stock, including babies -of all kinds and descriptions. - -The pottery market presided over by the solemn-faced, oriental merchants -is a never-ending place of interest, and these artistic vessels are -carried over the mountains on the backs of the Indians. Crude baskets -and mats made of the palm fibre are found in abundance as well as brooms -which bear no union label. - -No one could afford to miss the flower department where flowers are so -cheap that it seems almost a sin not to buy them. Here are velvety sweet -peas, purple pansies, tangled heaps of crimson and white roses, azure -forget-me-nots, pyramids of heliotrope and scarlet geraniums. For a -few cents one can buy almost a bushel of these, or, if preferred, can -substitute marguerites, carnations, poppies, or violets. An American will -probably have to pay twice as much as a native, even after the shrewdest -bargaining. - -Outside the market enclosure caravans of over-loaded donkeys jostle each -other as a great solid-wheeled cart yoked to a couple of meek-eyed oxen -creaks by, or a tram car drawn by galloping mules thunders noisily along -to an accompaniment of loud cracks of the whip, and a constant repetition -of “_mulas_” and “_arres_” the “rrs” being brought out with a long trill. - -[Illustration: CROSSING THE RIVER ON MARKET-DAY] - -The Indian will travel for days on his way to market at Oaxaca. On the -day before market I drove out the south road for a number of miles, and -the entire distance was literally black,—or perhaps it would be better -to say brown,—with the natives coming to town bearing the “brown man’s -burden,” and travelling along in the middle of the road at a rapid pace. -These Indians were coming from the “hot country” farther south and -were bringing oranges, bananas, cocoanuts and other kinds of tropical -fruits, besides chickens, eggs and other poultry. Most of them were on -foot, though the more fortunate had donkeys to carry the load; but they -themselves walked and drove the animal. The women bore large baskets on -their heads, which they balanced gracefully, although sometimes the loads -are exceedingly heavy. They will carry one hundred pounds or more in -this manner. Frequently a baby is swung across the back as an additional -burden. The little mites are good natured in this uncomfortable position, -and do not make half as much trouble as American babies in their -rubber-tired, easy-springed perambulators. - -A small pot, a basket of tortillas, a few fagots and plenty of coffee -complete the outfit of the man. Perhaps the value of his load is not -over a dollar or two in gold, but his entertainment along the way -costs little, for he sleeps out of doors, carries his food, makes his -own coffee and needs to buy nothing except perhaps a little fruit and -_aguardiente_ (brandy). The entire family sometimes accompany him, for -the wife is afraid to have her man go away alone for fear he may desert -her. - -On the opposite side of the city from the road just described is another -main highway. I stood here for several hours by the river bank on the -afternoon of a market-day, when the people were leaving for home. The -sight never grew tiresome or monotonous, as there was a constant -succession of pictures, which a moving-picture machine alone could -adequately portray. Although there is a bridge across the stream, no -one used it, for by making a short cut across the river bed a hundred -yards or more was saved. The pedestrian would remove his sandals to wade -through the shallow water, and then replace them on reaching the opposite -bank. The Indians going this way had more burros, and, as their load was -disposed of, the family rode. Frequently a poor, diminutive burro carried -as many persons as could sit on his back, in addition to the large -baskets. Many of the great carts drawn by one or two yoke of oxen passed -this way. The cattle are all yoked by the horns, which seems a cruel way, -for their heads are brought down almost to the ground, and it looks as -though every jar must cause them suffering. - -So this unique panorama continued all the afternoon. I could not think -of anything but Palestine, as I gazed at this unceasing procession of -donkeys, Egyptian carts, women with their shawls folded and worn on their -heads in Eastern fashion; and in the background the white walls, red -tiled roofs and domes of the churches of Oaxaca. For a moment I wondered -if I were not mistaken, and had suddenly strayed into some corner of -the Orient, and found myself involuntarily looking for the mosque, and -listening for the cry of the muezzin calling the faithful to prayer. - -A trip around about the valley near Oaxaca only served to strengthen -the oriental cast of the picture. The types of buildings, and the signs -of water and fertility in the midst of widespread aridity (for this was -the dry season) are eastern. I saw many flocks of goats herded by the -solitary shepherd in the truly old-fashioned way. Then, a slow-moving -team of oxen followed by a peon guiding a one-handled, wooden plough -deepens the picture. How powerful must have been the Moorish influence -in Spain, for this is the plough of Egypt and Chaldea which was carried -along the coast of Barbary into Spain, and left there as a heritage to -the Spaniards who introduced it into the new world. - -Yes, Oaxaca is an El Dorado, a land of treasure to the searcher after -the picturesque. The real wealth lies in its delightful climate. The -temperature is mild and does not vary more than twenty or thirty degrees -during the year. The altitude is a little less than five thousand feet -and the air is fresh and bracing. There is also an abundance of good, -pure water. Some day this city will be known as a health resort for -people from cold climates. They will find relief from the strenuous life -in quiet, restful, oriental Oaxaca. - -There is no more picturesque _hacienda_ in all Mexico than that of Mitla -a few miles away. Because of the bleak and rough nature of the country it -has retained its early characteristics. The little store is a revelation -of the simple and primitive life of these people. Evening is sure to -find Don Felix, or his black-eyed son, behind the counter waiting on the -groups of Indians who are constantly coming in to buy a couple of cents -worth of _mescal_, or _tequila_, or cigarettes. One Indian woman came -in to purchase a _centavo_ (one-half cent) of vinegar, another of lard, -and others an equal amount of honey, soap, sugar or matches. They would -invariably buy only one article at a time, then pay for it and watch the -copper disappear down a slot in the counter. Outside the door was an old -Indian who had brought a load of wood down from the mountain, and the -good housewives were noisily bargaining with him for a centavo’s worth of -wood, and trying to get an extra stick or two for that sum. - -Bargaining is a part of the education of these people. A young Indian -came in hatless and wanted a _sombrero_ (hat). He was shown one -with thirty cents worth of brim by the merchant. The Indian offered -twenty-eight cents which was accepted and he went away happy over his -bargain. An old Indian,—and an old Indian is but a child in worldly -wisdom,—brought a large cassava root, which, after considerable haggling, -the merchant purchased for five cents. He bought a package of sixteen -cigarettes for three cents and told the young _hacendado_ that he had -another “_mas grande_” (larger), which he would sell for seven cents. He -went away but returned in a few minutes with the other root, and looked -around at the crowd with a grin. The merchant took it but told him it was -“_mas chico_” (smaller), and he could only allow four cents. The Indian -came down to six and the deal was closed at five cents, the same price as -the first one was sold for. He bought a glass of _mescal_ for two cents -and vanished in the night air, with a smile of complete satisfaction on -his face. It is a simple life that these people lead, and the same scenes -may be witnessed any day in the year at this little _tienda_ at the -Hacienda of Mitla. - - “When twilight falls, more near and clear, - The tender southern skies appear.” - -Twilight is very brief in this land. Scarcely has the sun dropped out -of sight, when the moon appears on the opposite horizon, almost a -counterpart of the former in its descending glory. Then the stars appear -by hundreds, and myriads, and the night in all its magnificence is upon -you, where, but a few minutes before, was the brightness of day. And the -overhanging canopy of the heavens seems so much brighter, and clearer, -and nearer than in our more northerly land. - -As the hour grew late, I wandered forth from the little store and walked -through the narrow, winding streets of the village. It was one of those -brilliant tropical nights when the southern skies seemed ablaze with the -light of innumerable stars, and the Queen of the Night was in her glory. -It was such a night as would have appealed to the astronomers of old. -The streets were silent except for the howling of some dogs near by. The -porch of the _hacienda_ was crowded with reclining figures wrapped in -their _sarapes_. A belated traveller came up and with a sigh of relief -deposited his load, and joined the sleeping crowd. A match illumed a dark -face for a moment as he lit a cigarette. Finally, all voices ceased and -quiet reigned supreme. It was a silence as deep and mysterious as that of -the ruined city that lay but a few rods away. - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -THE ISTHMUS OF TEHUANTEPEC - - -A trip from Vera Cruz to the Isthmus of Tehuantepec takes the traveller -into the very centre of the tropics in Mexico. It is a most interesting -ride. The entire journey is within the _tierra caliente_ region and -throughout the whole distance of two hundred and fifty miles there are -only slight undulations that could hardly be truthfully called hills. It -is not all jungle for there are plains that are sometimes several miles -in width which furnish rich pasture for great herds of cattle. Here again -is seen the picturesque Mexican cowboy riding his pony and carrying the -ever-present lasso. The heavy saddles in this hot climate and especially -the twisted bits which are universally used upon the horses in Mexico -seem like a cruel imposition upon their faithful steeds. With this -combination of rings and bars a rider could almost break the jaw of a -horse. It is absolutely impossible for an animal to drink with this bit -in his mouth. - -This leads me to remark that the finer sensibilities with regard to the -treatment of domesticated animals and fowls are generally absent among -Mexicans. The poor burros which are obliged to travel day after day with -great sores on their backs that are continually chafed by the loads they -are carrying, and saddle mules with similar sores, excite no compassion -from the average Mexican. No doubt many of these animals are obliged -to work for months and possibly years, when every step under a load or -the weight of a man must cause them suffering. They are seldom shod, -and many an animal is obliged to travel over the rough trails until his -hoofs are worn down to the sensitive part. Cruel spurs are jabbed into -his sides until they are raw. I have already spoken of the bull-fight and -cock-fighting. From a book “On the Mexican Highlands” I quote another -form of cruelty:—“The stocky, swarthy Indian woman calmly broke the thigh -bone of each leg and the chief bone of each wing, so that escape might be -impossible, and proceeded right then and there to pick the chicken alive. -She was evidently unconscious of any thought of cruelty. The legs and -wings were broken in order that the bird might not run or fly away. The -sentiment of pity and tenderness for dumb things had not yet dawned upon -her mind, and the fowl destined for the pot received no consideration at -her hands.” - -There are many villages along this route but no cities. Several broad -rivers and innumerable small streams are crossed. The engines burn -wood, and it is necessary to stop on several occasions and load up the -tender with fuel. At Tierra Blanca are located the shops and division -headquarters of the road. As the Isthmus is approached the tropical -swamps become more frequent and the train passes through miles of -territory where “still stands the forest primeval,” a jungle of trees -and shrubs intermingled with countless varieties of palms; impenetrable -forests with creepers and parasites hanging from the boughs of trees, -and replanting themselves in the moist earth. Within these jungles -the “tigre” roams and beneath the heavy undergrowth, horrid, venomous -snakes crawl. Overhead fly noisy parrots and paroquets in couples and -flocks with all of the colours of the rainbow reflected from their gaudy -feathers. Then in the waters of these streams live hundreds of repulsive -alligators. - -At certain seasons of the year the Indians live almost entirely upon -the wild products of the forest. Nature furnishes fruits, and with the -blow-gun or other weapon enough game can be killed to fill the larder. -With a natural laziness and in an enervating climate the natives prefer -existence of this kind to the more artificial one made necessary by -labour. - -The Vera Cruz and Pacific Railway connects with the Tehuantepec railway -at Santa Lucrecia, a small village with a poor hotel. Here it was my lot -to be obliged to spend Christmas Eve and the greater part of Christmas -day. My companions were an Englishman and a Scotchman. The Englishman -rummaged around in the little store and found a canned plum pudding, -which rather cheered him and his compatriot and I was invited to share -in their good fortune. However the heavens seemed to open up and let the -water pour down in torrents and the mud was apparently bottomless so -that our explorations were confined to the hotel porch. In spite of the -plum pudding my spirits were rather low and I was reminded of Touchstone -wandering in the Forest of Arden, when he says:— - - “When I was at home I was in a better place, - But travellers must be content.” - -It was a real pleasure to step into a fine American coach drawn by an -American engine and run by an American crew bound for the chief town of -the Isthmus and the one that gave it its name. - -[Illustration: THE MARKET, TEHUANTEPEC] - -Tehuantepec is a place where some twenty thousand souls are trying to -solve the problem of existence under favourable skies. In this city of -a hot midday sun and little rain the strenuous life has few disciples. -It is situated on the Pacific slope of the Cordillera on both banks of a -broad river and only a few miles from the ocean. It is composed of low, -one-storied buildings, many of which show cracks that are the result -of the earthquake shocks which sometimes visit here. The streets are -narrow and the centre of the town is the market plaza. Until the opening -of the railroad, which runs through the centre of the town, strangers -were almost unknown and the quaint customs, costumes and habits still -remain. The market and the river furnish the only life. The latter -is always made lively and interesting to the stranger because of the -crowds of bathers in the stream and washerwomen on the banks. It is an -animated scene and has an air of naturalness devoid of any false ideas -of modesty. These Indians belong to the Zapotec tribe and they are among -the cleanest people in the world, as a race, as the long lines of bathers -of both sexes from early dawn until nightfall attest. Woman’s rights are -recognized and undisputed among these people. The women run the place -and do ninety per cent. of the business. The wife must vouch for the -husband before he can obtain credit. In the market place where most of -the bartering is done she reigns supreme. - -The Isthmus of Tehuantepec is the narrowest neck of land in Mexico -between the two great oceans and, with the exception of the Isthmus of -Panama, is the narrowest point on the continent. The soil is extremely -rich and the natural products and resources of the Isthmus are numerous -and varied. All products indigenous to the tropics grow here. Different -sections, according to elevation, are especially adapted to the -cultivation of corn, cacao, tobacco, rice and sugar cane. Medicinal -plants, spices, all tropical fruits, vanilla, indigo and cotton also will -grow profitably in this climate. Cochineal dye has for a long time come -from the Tehuantepec region, but this industry has been displaced by the -more recent chemical dyes. - -The forests abound in game and the rivers and lagoons in fish. The -forests yield useful timbers, such as mahogany, also dyewoods and trees -producing gums and balsams. Oil in paying quantities has been discovered -in several places and the Tehuantepec National Railway, which crosses -the isthmus, is one of the few roads in the world that uses oil for -fuel. There are also profitable salt deposits. A great deal of American -and European capital has been sunk in unsuccessful plantations along -this route. This has been due to illogical and dishonest promotion. -The fertile soil will produce immense crops of the things adapted for -cultivation. With this fact in view it seems strange to see one abandoned -plantation after another as you journey over the two hundred miles -separating Coatzacoalcos and Salina Cruz, the two termini of the Isthmus -of Tehuantepec trans-continental and inter-oceanic railroad route. In the -matter of climate the Mexicans claim a great superiority for Tehuantepec -over Panama, because of the strong winds that blow constantly from ocean -to ocean. - -For centuries this isthmus has attracted a great deal of attention from -explorers and engineers in the effort to discover or provide the most -convenient and economical route between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. -Cortez first realized the necessity of such a route and explored this -whole section in the hope of finding a natural strait. It is even claimed -that he conceived the idea of a canal across this narrow strip of land. -Failing in these projects he planned a carriage road from coast to coast, -which was finally constructed by the Spaniards. Many of the miners who -flocked to California during the gold excitement went by this highway. -Later civil engineers proposed and advocated a canal by this route even -before the Panama route was seriously considered. The distance from ocean -to ocean is only one hundred and twenty-five miles in a bee line. The -land is comparatively level and the rise on the Atlantic side is very -gradual culminating in the Chivela Pass at a height of seven hundred and -thirty feet. From here to the Pacific the descent is more abrupt. A ship -railway was at one time seriously considered and liberal concessions -were granted by the Mexican government to the American engineer James B. -Eads and his associates. This project although considered feasible by -engineers has never been able to enlist capital for its construction. - -The Panama Canal under French control was a colossal failure. A project -which for a time seemed to promise a solution of the problem for a quick -and economical route between the East and West ended in lamentable -disgrace and for a long time remained in what one of our former -presidents would have called, a condition of “innocuous desuetude.” When -the United States undertook this great enterprise, the completion of this -desirable waterway was placed at ten years or even less. Now at the end -of four years we are credibly informed that little has been done except -the completion of plans, surveys, purchase of machinery and necessary -sanitation. All of these preliminaries were essential and will greatly -facilitate the real work when once started. All loyal Americans believe -in the ultimate successful completion of this great undertaking. Yet, -instead of ten years, we can see that fifteen years, or even twenty years -would be a more accurate statement of the time necessary to complete the -severing of the two continents. In the meantime, what? - -While other countries have been planning, the Mexican government with -the characteristic foresight shown by President Diaz has been quietly -preparing to meet the problem of a short and economical route between -the two oceans. This has been done without the blowing of horns and few -people were aware until recently of what was being done and what had -really been accomplished. The government of Mexico decided upon the -plan of constructing a railway across the Isthmus from Coatzacoalcos, -on the Gulf of Mexico, to Salina Cruz, on the Pacific Ocean, a distance -of one hundred and ninety-four miles. Most railroads in tropical lands -are narrow gauge but this line is constructed of standard width and was -completed in 1895. When first opened to traffic the road was in a very -imperfect condition. In 1899 a contract was entered into between the -government and the English house of Pearson and Sons whereby the two -parties became joint owners of the road for a period of fifty years and -the net earnings should be shared on an equitable basis. - -The construction was of a difficult character because the route passed -through some cañons, rocky cuts and a great deal of swampy soil. The work -has been well done and it is one of the best roads in Mexico to-day, with -good equipment and traffic managed in an up-to-date and business-like -manner. Already large orders for equipment have been placed and plans -for double-tracking the entire road have been drawn. The headquarters -and general offices are at Rincon Antonio, which is at the highest point -and has the appearance of a typical new English town with its red brick -terraces. This town receives the full benefit of the winds constantly -blowing across the isthmus and enjoys a pleasant and salubrious climate. -The shops and roundhouse for the railroad have been built at this place -also and the employees are all comfortably housed. Some of the officers -have built very commodious homes of their own, with every possible -convenience. This town is in marked contrast with the old Mexican towns -and villages along the route. - -The general officers of the road and head men in the port works at both -termini are all English and Americans. Formerly they were English, but in -recent years the Americans have been replacing the English, as they have -been found more satisfactory and better adapted for the work. - -The government soon learned that the railway without good harbours was a -poor proposition. The plans of the government were then made to include -immense port works and safe, commodious harbours at Coatzacoalcos and -Salina Cruz. At the former place the river forms a natural harbour of -an average depth of fifty feet at low water. The only problem here was -to remove a sand bar and construct piers. The work of removing the bar -has been completed and several large steel wharves and warehouses have -already been constructed and others are in course of construction. -The total frontage of the wharves when completed will be over three -thousand feet. It is intended to have a minimum depth of thirty-three -feet alongside of the wharves which will be equipped with every modern -contrivance for unloading cargo quickly and economically from ships, and -transferring to the railroad and vice versa. - -The work at Salina Cruz presented far greater problems. It has demanded -the maximum of engineering skill and an immense sum of money. Here nature -had aided in no way and everything had to be done by human effort. On -account of severe wind storms it was deemed necessary to construct both -an outer and an inner harbour in order to make a perfectly safe anchorage -at all times and the work was begun in 1900. The outer harbour is being -formed by thrusting two massive breakwaters like immense arms out into -the bay with an entrance six hundred feet wide. The longest of these -breakwaters will be three thousand feet, consisting of three sections, of -different angles, with the convex sides toward the sea. The other is only -one-half as extensive. The foundation for these breakwaters is started -thirty feet below low water mark and in some places is two hundred -feet in width. Upon a rubble foundation immense blocks of concrete and -natural rock are placed at random. Then on top are placed regular rows of -forty-ton concrete blocks. The amount of material already used and needed -to complete this work is almost inconceivable. More than three-fourths -of the largest breakwater is already completed. The inner basin will be -wholly artificial and will occupy in part the site of the old town of -Salina Cruz with an entrance ninety feet wide. Immense dredges are now at -work on this basin which will be large enough to accommodate whole fleets -of the largest vessels afloat. From two thousand to four thousand men -have been and are still employed, the majority being natives. - -Although the harbour at Salina Cruz is still incomplete, this route was -formally opened on January 23rd, 1907. In the presence of a great throng -of notables, including the representatives of twenty nations, President -Diaz touched a lever which set in motion a steam winch that was used to -carry the first load of cargo from a steamer to a freight car. After this -car had been loaded it was transferred to Coatzacoalcos and the President -touched another lever that set in motion the machinery for unloading the -car and transferring the freight to a waiting steamer. In this manner was -opened a route that is destined to take a prominent part in the handling -of the world’s commerce, and which has cost the Mexican government more -than $25,000,000 in gold, and the end is not yet. After four hundred -years the dream of Cortez has come true and the isthmian highway is open -to the world. - -What advantages are claimed for this route? The benefit to Mexico is -self-evident. It will greatly facilitate the commerce between the two -long coast lines of the republic. This great undertaking was not begun -for the national trade alone. It is intended to compete for all that -traffic which has heretofore gone around Cape Horn, through the Straits -of Magellan, or across the Panama railroad. The Tehuantepec route is -one thousand, two hundred and fifty miles shorter between New York and -San Francisco than the Panama route. The average freight steamer would -require from four to five days to cover this distance. The managers of -the Tehuantepec National railroad propose to unload a cargo, carry it -across the isthmus and reload it in two days. It will probably require -one day for a vessel to pass through the Panama canal. This would make -a net saving of from three to four days for the Tehuantepec route. The -extra cost of loading and unloading would be made up by the saving of -canal dues and expenses of the ship for that period. Thus there will be -a net saving of three to four days in shipment, which might be quite a -feature with many classes of freight. In cheapness of transportation, the -continental railroads of the United States could not compete. Already -contracts have been made with a line of steamers which have heretofore -run between San Francisco, Hawaii and New York via Cape Horn to transfer -their freight by this route. The government claims to have more freight -in sight for 1907 than the Panama railroad has ever carried in a single -year. - -This route has been lost sight of in the enthusiasm over the Panama -canal. It will be completed several years before the canal, and will -during that interim, at least, have a great advantage over the present -Panama railroad route. The same necessity of transhipment exists there, -but without the fine, safe harbours, modern and commodious docks, and the -quick loading and unloading machinery with which the Tehuantepec route is -equipped. - - NOTE TO REVISED EDITION. The success of the Tehuantepec - National Railroad has greatly exceeded expectations, and it - was found necessary to double track the entire length of the - road. The improvements at Salina Cruz and Coatzacoalcos (now - officially called Puerto Mexico) have been completed. Both - cities have been made ports of call for all lines of steamers - passing near. Through Pullman service is now maintained between - the City of Mexico and Salina Cruz. Since writing the original - edition of this book the writer has visited Panama and gone - over the canal route with Colonel Goethals, the engineer in - charge. It is a pleasure to record an appreciation of this - great work, and to know that it will be ready for the world’s - fleets by 1915, and probably a year earlier. There will still - be a wide field of usefulness, however, for the Tehuantepec - National. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - -IN THE FOOTSTEPS OF THE ANCIENTS - - “Builded on the ruins of dead thrones - Whose temple walls were old when Thebes was new; - On altars whose weird sacrificial stones - With ghastly offerings were crimsoned through; - Oblivion hides and holds thy secrets fast— - The dust of ages lies upon thy past, - All wonderful, mysterious Mexico.”[1] - - -Mexico is a land of ruins and the footprints of former races can be -traced all over the southern half of the country. These ruins teach -us that it must have taken many centuries to develop the land into -the condition in which it was found by the Spaniards. It was not only -the growth of a long time, but it was the product of the civilization -developed by many different races and tribes. Otherwise Mexico would -not be filled to-day with a hundred tribes speaking as many distinct -dialects. There are many ruins of cities extending from the Valley -of Mexico to the remotest corner of Yucatan, and many of them show -evidences of wonderful structures that are the amazement of even the -present generation. Not buried beneath volcanic lava, like Pompeii and -Herculaneum, yet all are silent cities, for their inhabitants departed -hundreds, perhaps, thousands of years ago. A few broken columns now -remain where doubtless whole cities once stood. - -Nothing is known of the history of these cities. The Spanish priests, -with fanatical frenzy, destroyed all of the picture writings of the -Aztecs that they could lay their hands upon. So many were destroyed, -some chroniclers say, that great bonfires were made. What light these -manuscripts might have cast upon the history of these early races cannot -even be conjectured. As Prescott says, “it is impossible to contemplate -these mysterious monuments of a lost civilization without a strong -feeling of curiosity as to who were their architects and what is their -probable age.” They are undoubtedly very old, and some claim they are as -old as the architecture of Egypt and Hindoostan. They have marked Eastern -characteristics, as in the hieroglyphical writings at Palenque, in -Yucatan, where are ruins of a palace and supposed holy city, with many -sculptured figures of human and animal beings. The same is true of Uxmal, -also in that same quaint and interesting corner of Mexico. These writings -never have been and probably never will be deciphered. Then at Palenque -can be traced the outline of the Roman cross which has greatly mystified -antiquarians. We can only speculate on the origin of these monuments; -whence came the people who constructed them; and in what period of the -earth’s history they were built; but speculation proves nothing and -convinces nobody. - -East of the City of Mexico about twenty-seven miles lies the village -of San Juan Teotihuacan. Near this hamlet are traces of a great -city covering more than four square miles, and remains of walls and -fortifications, a part of the wall that still stands being more than two -hundred feet thick and thirty-two feet high. The most marked features -of these ruins are the numerous pyramids, great and small, which lie -scattered over the plain. Teotihuacan means “City of the Gods,” and -doubtless these pyramidal structures were a necessary part of a holy -city in the eyes of the race that constructed them, and were mounds of -worship. Otherwise why would a race build such great structures at such -an infinite cost of labour? - -The largest of these numerous pyramids is called the “Pyramid of the -Sun,” which has a base seven hundred feet square, and a height of one -hundred and eight-seven feet. The next largest is the “Pyramid of the -Moon,” which is one hundred and thirty-seven feet high, and has a -base four hundred and fifty feet square. At a distance the pyramids -seem rather insignificant, and their outlines resemble an ordinary -steep-sided hill, but on nearer approach they are better appreciated. The -comparison with the noted pyramids of Egypt would, at first glance, seem -unfavourable, for the vegetation and vines that cover the sides rather -hide the pyramidal outline. They were probably higher originally, but -the destructive work of man and action of the elements have reduced the -size. Recent investigation shows that these pyramids are built in layers -of volcanic rock, cement, pottery and sun-dried brick. There are five -layers—each layer being a complete pyramid in itself. - -It is supposed that on the summit of each pyramid was a platform which -supported great golden images of the sun and moon respectively, but no -vestige of any such image has ever been discovered. If made of gold, -and the Spaniards set their eyes on it, it would not have remained long. -Authorities differ as to whether the Toltecs, or a race that preceded -them, erected these mighty structures. The Mexican government has -undertaken the work of restoring the two pyramids, and has appropriated -a large sum of money to carry on the work. Several hundred labourers are -now engaged in denuding them of the soil and growth of centuries that -covers them. - -Near Puebla, and situated in a rich and beautiful valley, of which -mention has been made elsewhere, is the most noted pyramid in Mexico—that -of Cholula. Legend says that it was built by a race of giants who -intended to raise it to the very heavens themselves, but that the gods -became displeased and destroyed them. It is very similar in nature to -the Hebrew story of the Tower of Babel. Because of its great base, which -is more than a thousand feet on each side, and covers twenty acres, and -has a height of only one hundred and seventy-seven feet, it looks like a -natural elevation that has been squared in places and levelled at the top -rather than a pyramid. Like the other pyramids the sides are overgrown -with trees and bushes. Examination shows that it has been constructed -of sun-dried brick, clay and limestone. I quote the dimensions of two of -the most famous Egyptian pyramids in order that the reader may better -understand the comparative height and base of those and the Mexican -structures: - - HEIGHT. BASE ON - EACH SIDE. - - Cheops, 448 feet 728 feet - Mycerinus, 162 ” 580 ” - Cholula, 177 ” 1,000 ” - Sun 187 ” 700 ” - Moon 137 ” 450 ” - -This valley was sacred in early times. Cortez says he counted four -hundred towers in the city of Cholula (a much larger city then than now), -and no temple had more than two towers. Above the city loomed the great -pyramid, on the summit of which stood a sumptuous temple in which was the -image of the mystic deity, Quetzalcoatl. He had “ebon features, wearing a -mitre on his head waving with plumes of fire, with a resplendent collar -of gold around his neck, pendants of mosaic turquoise on his ears, a -jewelled sceptre in one hand, and a shield curiously painted, the emblem -of his rule over the winds, in the other.” This was the god who drew -pilgrims and devotees by the thousands from the farthest corners of -Anahuac. - -This god was credited with power over rains, and was appealed to -especially in time of drouth. Bandelier, who made an exhaustive study -of this district, translates an early Spanish writer as follows: “To -this god they prayed whenever they lacked water, and sacrificed to it -children from six to ten years of age, whom they captured or bought for -the purpose. When they sacrificed, they carried the children up the hill -in procession, whither went some old men singing, and before the idol -they cut the child open with a knife, taking out the heart, and they -burnt incense to the idol and afterwards buried the baby there before the -idol.” Thus it is seen that the Nahuatl tribe, who occupied this valley, -pursued the same bloody rites as the Aztecs. - -The first act of Cortez was to destroy this temple and erect a Christian -church on the spot, so that spires and crosses have replaced the pagan -towers. All over the valley are many great churches so conspicuous in -comparison with the humble homes of the natives. The view from the summit -of this ancient structure is grand and imposing. John L. Stoddard is -inspired by this scene and speaks as follows: “Whatever else of Mexico -may be forgotten, I shall remember to my latest breath that wonderfully -impressive vision from Cholula. Before me rose, against the darkening -sky, a mighty cross, the sculptured proof that here Christianity had -proved victorious; and as I lingered, my feet upon the Aztec pyramid, my -hand upon the symbol of the conqueror’s faith, my eyes turned towards -that everlasting pinnacle of snow, I thought the lesson of Cholula -to be this: that higher, grander, and far more enduring than all the -different religions of humanity are the Eternal Power they imperfectly -reveal; and that above the temples, pyramids, and crosses, which -mark the blood-stained pathway of our race, rises a lofty mountain -peak, whose glory falls alike upon the Aztec and the Spaniard, and in -whose heaven-born radiance all races and all centuries may find their -inspiration and their hope.” - -The Valley of Oaxaca seems to have been the favourite dwelling place of -one or more of the early races of Mexico. All over the vales that centre -at Oaxaca, and on the surrounding hills, are ruins of former cities -and palaces that strongly resemble in outline and decoration the works -of the Ptolemies and Pharaohs. Next to Mitla, the most noted ruins in -this valley are those of Monte Alban. The site of this ancient city -is four miles from Oaxaca on the summit of a mountain, about eleven -hundred feet above the valley. The ruins extend for a distance of more -than a mile along the ridge, and enclose a great rectangular, depressed -court nine hundred feet long, and three hundred feet in width. There -are some well-preserved, sculptured stones with pictorial inscriptions, -and images of gods. Because of its situation, which commands a complete -view of these valleys in every direction, it is supposed that this place -was intended for defence and a place of refuge in troublous times. The -view from the summit is magnificent and well repays the traveller for a -couple of hours’ ride on the back of that sadly-wise, and much-maligned -animal—the Mexican mule. - -The village of Mitla is situated about twenty-five miles southeast of -Oaxaca. It is best visited from that city by coach or mules. We hired a -coach and driver, an unprepossessing looking outfit, and started on the -journey. - -“How long will it take?” I asked the driver. - -“_A las doce_,” he replied in idiomatic Spanish, meaning that we would -arrive at twelve o’clock. As we had started at seven o’clock, that made -it a five hours’ journey. - -About an hour’s ride out of Oaxaca is the village of Tule, where, in the -churchyard, and overshadowing the sacred structure, stands the famous Big -Tree of Tule which deserves a passing notice. Although not a ruin, it is -a relic of prehistoric days long gone by. This venerable giant is one of -the largest trees in the world, exceeding in circumference the famous -redwoods of California, and equalling the largest reported specimens -of the gigantic baobab of Africa. This great tree is one hundred and -fifty-four feet in circumference six feet above the ground. Twenty-eight -people with their hands outstretched, and touching their finger tips, -can just encircle its great girth. The height is one hundred and sixty -feet, and the spread of the branches one hundred and forty feet. It is -a species of the cypress called by the Aztecs _ahuehuete_. The great -traveller, Humboldt, visited this tree about the middle of the last -century and affixed a tablet containing his name and an inscription. As a -proof that this old cypress is still growing, one sees that this tablet -is now almost grown over with bark nearly a foot thick. Tule is a quaint -village where the thatched huts are enclosed by fences of the prickly -cactus, called _organo_, because of the resemblance of its branches to -the pipes of an organ, and the lanes are shaded by trees. Underneath the -higher trees grow the orange and lemon, while the oleander and other -flowering bushes add their brightness to the scene. - -After being held up for a road charge of seven cents by the officials of -the village, which we paid, the driver is allowed to proceed. We pass -through villages with the poetical names of Tlacolulu and Tlacochahuaya. -As the coach bounces along the rough highway, over the road on a hillside -are seen caves where human beings live who are literally cliff-dwellers. -Then the valley opens up, and far ahead is seen San Pablo Mitla a typical -Indian village built around the _hacienda_ of Don Felix Quero, who is a -sort of feudal lord over the neighbouring peons. Good entertainment is -furnished for the traveller, and it is delightful to rest within the high -walls of this hospitable stopping-place. - -The first mention of the ruins at this village is by a Spanish writer -nearly four centuries ago. His description would not be much amiss -to-day. It is as follows: “We passed through a pueblo which is called -Mictlan, signifying ‘hell’ in the native tongue, where were found some -edifices more worth seeing than anything else in New Spain. Among them -was a temple of the demon, and the dwelling of its attendants—very -sightly, particularly one hall made of something like lattice work. The -fabric was of stone, with many figures and shapes; it had many doorways, -each one built of three great stones, two at the sides and one at the -top, all very thick and wide. In these quarters there was another hall -containing round pillars, each one of a single piece, and so thick that -two men could barely embrace them; their height might be five fathoms.” - -To what purposes were these truly magnificent structures dedicated? Were -they palaces, temples, tombs, fortresses, dwelling places, storehouses -or places of refuge? Neither archeologists nor antiquarians have -satisfactorily answered these questions. According to many of the leading -archeologists they are the most interesting and best preserved ruins in -North America. Here was a great city built by a race prior to the Aztecs, -for that race could tell the Spanish conquerors nothing of its builders. -The secrets guarded by the huge monoliths of stone, and the high -mosaic-covered walls of Mitla are safe from prying eyes. Not one city -alone stood here, for there are many remains of walls, columns and huge -monoliths thrown down similar to these, scattered all over this valley. -The best authority says that they were used for tombs but this could -not have been the only use. They were probably also used for places of -worship, public purposes, or cities of refuge, or perhaps for all those -purposes. - -[Illustration: ENTRANCE TO THE UNDERGROUND CHAMBER, MITLA - -NORTH TEMPLE, MITLA - -HALL OF THE MONOLITHS, MITLA] - -A close investigation shows that there are five distinct groups of the -ruins, but some of them are in badly preserved condition. The village -covers the site of a part of them. There is a similarity in the structure -of all, as the outer walls are composed of oblong panels of mosaic -forming arabesques and grecques. At first sight, or at a distance, it -looks like sculptured designs on the walls. Closer inspection reveals the -fact that this mosaic is formed of pieces of stone accurately cut and -fitted into the face of the walls. These pieces are about seven inches in -length, one inch in thickness, and two in breadth. The patterns cannot -well be described as they are so complicated. All the ornamentation -consists of geometrical figures, either rectangular or diagonal, and -differs from all other ruins in Mexico, in that there are no human or -animal figures. - -There is an underground chamber beneath one of the temples, built in -the shape of a cross with each arm about twelve feet long. The sides -are worked into the same mosaic pattern as the rest of the walls. It -is generally believed that these chambers were tombs, although some -contend that they were the entrance to subterranean passages leading long -distances away. If so, the passages were filled up long ago. - -The northwestern group is in the best state of preservation. One of -the buildings here covers nearly eight thousand square feet, and has -all its massive walls intact with scarcely a stone thrown down. The -characteristic entrance, consisting of three doors, side by side, is seen -here also, fronting the interior of the court. The lintels are immense -blocks of stone eighteen feet long, five feet wide and four feet high. -How these immense stones were transported to this spot and raised without -the aid of machinery, is as great a mystery as similar accomplishments -by the Egyptians. Through these doors the famous Hall of Monoliths, -or Columns, is reached. This is a wonderful relic of prehistoric -architecture. The six monolithic columns, still standing in this room -are each twelve feet in height and almost nine feet in circumference. -They are plain stones having neither pedestal nor capital and are unique -among the ruins of the world. - -Torquemada, an old Spanish historian, writes of this hall in the -following quaint style: “There was in those Edifices, or Square of the -Temple, another Hall, all framed around Pillars of Stone; very high and -so thick that scarce might two Men of good height embrace them so as to -touch finger tips the one with the other. And these Pillars were all of -one piece; and they say that all the Pillars and Columns, from top to -bottom, was four Fathoms. The Pillars were very like to those of St. -Mary, the Greater, of Rome, all very well and smoothly wrought.” This -hall is more than a hundred feet long, and twenty feet wide. These great -stones may have supported a roof formerly but there is no evidence of it -at the present time. - -From the Hall of the Monoliths a dark, stone-covered passage leads into -a room called the Audience Chamber. This is a splendid room with its -walls in carved mosaics, or a setting of tiles, after the Grecian models. -There are four long, narrow rooms, or corridors, on either side of -this main chamber without other entrance except the one just mentioned. -One of these, the West room, is most beautiful and is nearly perfect, -as scarcely a tile is broken or missing from its exquisitely inlaid -walls which at first inspection look like stucco work. The tiles are so -accurately inlaid that no mortar was used, or needed, to hold them in -place. This is the Corridor of the Mosaics. There are also traces of a -lustrous, dark, red paint, used on a hard cement plaster. It is quite -probable that all the buildings in the five groups were as carefully -constructed and as exquisitely ornamented as this one, but they have been -destroyed by succeeding races. - -North of this group was another ruin on the walls of which a Christian -church has been built. Most of the materials used in its construction -came from this old temple or palace. The sacristy of this church is -formed in part of a portion of the old building, and covered with a tile -roof. This structure was the largest of all in size, extending over a -space nearly three hundred feet long by one hundred feet wide, and with -walls from five to six feet in thickness. One room is now used as a -stable, and contains some strange hieroglyphics done in a lustrous red -paint which have never been deciphered. These are the only semblance to -anything like writing, or historical inscriptions, that appear anywhere -in the ruins. In the centre of the main court is a hard cement pavement -laid out in the form of a square with a cut stone border. This may have -been intended for ornament or for human sacrifices. The latter conjecture -might not be erroneous, knowing, as we do, the customs of those early -Mexican races. - -There are many other evidences of ruins near Mitla. Clay idols, or -images, made of terracotta are found all over the neighbourhood. Children -hunt for specimens and bring them to tourists for sale. It is also said -that many stone wedges, and copper chisels and axes, have been discovered -here but I did not see any of them. - -[Illustration: A ZAPOTECO WOMAN] - -Who built these ruins? Bancroft, the historian of Mexico, says that they -were built by the Zapotecs at an early period of their civilization. -The Indians now inhabiting this valley are Zapotecs and they are a -primitive, simple and harmless race. If these people, who now dwell in -thatch hovels and caves, were the once proud race that erected these -magnificent structures, then we must say, “How have the mighty fallen.” -What must these structures have been in the heyday of their prosperity -that they are now so glorious in their mellow decay? The famous Palace of -the Alhambra, glorious monument to the genius of the Moor, is scarcely -more magnificent than these ruins lying here within the little Indian -village of Mitla. The traveller can give his imagination full play for -there is no written history to destroy the scenes he creates. He can in -fancy re-create these beautiful structures; people these courts and halls -with royalty, priests or warriors; make the air vocal with the chants of -priests or shrieks of the victims of human sacrifice; and there is no one -or no record to rebuke him. - - - - -CHAPTER IX - -WOMAN AND HER SPHERE - - -The life and position of woman in Mexico varies much by reason of the -heterogeneous character of the population. Because of the absence of a -clearly defined middle class it is a fairly safe proposition to say that -there are but two classes in Mexico, Creoles and Indians. Creoles include -all those who are Europeans or in whom the European blood predominates. -Domestic life among the Creole class savours of the East. The ideas with -respect to women are Moorish rather than American. Although not obliged -to appear on the street with face enshrouded in a shawl or veil, yet the -young woman who has respect for her good name would not go abroad without -the _duenna_, or some female companion. Another reminder of Oriental -exclusiveness is seen in the life of the ladies of the wealthier classes -who always drive in closed carriages even in this land of balmy air and -splendid sunshine and, when shopping, do not deign to leave the carriage. - -On account of the restrictions against the appearance of women in -public, the custom grew up in Spain and Mexico of allowing them to use -the windows and balconies for observation. In the cool of the evening -the windows on the streets are opened and women, especially the young -ladies, appear there to watch the carriages and passers-by and nod to -their friends. The home life and social restrictions toward women are -inherited from Spanish ancestors who were at one time the aristocracy and -ruling class of Mexico. Nowhere is the sentiment of home stronger than -among the Creoles. There may be no such word as home in his vocabulary -but the _casa_, or house, of the Mexican is his castle and he protects -it in every way from prying eyes. One writer has expressed his view as -follows:—“The intense feeling of individuality which so strongly marks -the Spanish character and which in the political world is so fatal an -element of strife and obstruction, favours this peculiar domesticity. -The Castillian is submissive to his king and his priest; haughty and -inflexible with his equals. But his own house is a refuge from the -contests of out of doors.” - -In the home the father is absolute lord and master and all bow to him. -There never comes a time when the children are not subject more or less -to parental authority. Yet, in general, the sway is so mild that it is -readily yielded to and is scarcely felt. Grown-up sons and daughters -do not forget the respect and obedience that was expected of them when -they were children. The reverence for parents increases with the passing -of the years. A man never grows too old to kiss the hand of his aged -mother. The old lady dressed in sombre black and who looks like a poor -relation may be the one whose wishes rule. Harmony does not exist in -every family and the exceptions are striking ones. Where quarrels and -family dissensions do occur, the pride and jealousy of the race renders -them the bitterest and fiercest in the world. These vindictive feuds in -families frequently led to duels and stabbing affrays to defend personal -honour and dignity in former days. A man and wife will often live for -years beneath the same roof without speaking. They cannot be divorced but -neither will speak the first word and each rather admires the grit of the -other. - -The home life is jealously shielded from curious eyes. In no place in the -world is the social circle more closely guarded than among the higher -classes in the City of Mexico. The thick walls, the barred, prison-like -windows and the massive, well-guarded doors prevent intrusion and perhaps -serve to foster this inclination to lead exclusive lives. Cultured -Americans, unless in the official set, who have lived there for years -have found it impossible to break into these exclusive circles. Whether -this action is due to jealousy, diffidence, a feeling of superiority, -or aversion to aliens the fact remains that they are very loth to -admit Americans into the privacy of their homes. The foreigner has few -opportunities of judging intelligently of the women for they are immured -so closely within the four walls of their dwellings. Social life in the -semi-public, gregarious ways of American cities is unknown and would not -suit these privacy-loving, domestic women. - -In “The Awakening of a Nation” the author, Mr. C. F. Lummis, gives a -very good description of the Creole woman: “Always and everywhere the -Spanish-American female face is interesting; at least as often as in -other bloods it is beautiful. Photographs tell but half the story, for -complexion is beyond them. But a certain clearness of feature, the -almost invariable beauty of the eyes and fine strength of the brows seem -as much a Spanish birthright as the high-bred hand and foot. Not even -the Parisian face is so flexible in expression, so fit for archness, -so graphic to the mood. Yet there is a certain presence in it not to -be unnoticed, not to be forgotten. To no woman on earth is religion -a more vital, ever-present, all-pervading actuality; and that is why -you meet the face of the Madonna almost literally at every corner in -Spanish-America. And it is not a superficial thing. There is none to whom -the wife-heart, the mother-heart is truer-womanly.” - -The Mexican men are passionate admirers of the fair sex. Perhaps it is -because of the bewitchery of their black, sparkling eyes. Certainly it -is not on account of the white paste which is plastered over their faces -or the rouge on their lips. Nor have they added to their attractiveness -by the substitution of the Parisian hat for the graceful lace mantilla -which lent itself so well to the gentle art of coquetry. There are many -handsome women among the Creoles but they are not all beautiful as some -writers would lead the reader to infer. They are bright, vivacious and -naturally clever. They have a quick understanding which only needs to -be cultivated and perhaps this intelligence is quicker and more active -than that of the men. They can weave and embroider with taste and skill. -They know a little music and a little French but, in the American sense, -they are not well educated. The real intellectual element is wanting and -the understanding is uncultivated. The higher education for women has not -received the stamp of approval in this land of “to-morrow” and the sex -has not yet become an important factor in the business or professional -world. “If only learned wives,” says one, “are responsible for that poor, -down-trodden, pitiable specimen of man called the henpecked husband, then -a timid man would be safe in choosing a Mexican wife.” The patriarchal -element of society in which man is recognized as lord and master is still -in force among these people. The question of woman’s rights has never yet -agitated the bosoms of these gentle women. - -Domestic freedom in the sense understood by Americans is absent. The -daughters are closely watched by their mothers who seldom permit them -out of their sight unless accompanied by some older woman or faithful -servant. Such a thing as permitting a daughter to have a young man call -on her or accompany her to the theatre would never enter the mind of the -Mexican mother. In her estimation the men do not deserve any confidence -until they are married. The man, of course, thinks that these precautions -are unnecessarily cruel. Nevertheless mammas think they are essential, -pater familias approves and so the custom remains. Perhaps it is these -restrictions that are responsible for the reputation the _señoritas_, -or young women, have of being flirts or coquettes. They are overflowing -with life and spirits and their black eyes look so full of mischief that -sometimes they seem to be just spoiling for a flirtation. They are very -animated in conversation and in talking keep time with hands, knees, -shoulders, elbows and face. Their talk is full of the most extravagant -and seemingly profane expressions. - -“Oh, Jesus!” says one girl, “what a fetching hat.” - -“Mary Most Pure,” replies her companion, “it must have cost five pesos.” - -They can stare an American out of countenance and look him straight -in the eye but it is only a look of curiosity. The social pleasures -resulting from the intermingling of the sexes that are so common with -us are not enjoyed by them. At a dance the men retire to one side of -the room after a number and the women take seats on the opposite side. -Marriages among the wealthier classes are generally made by the parents -without consultation with the principals in an affair supposed to be of -the hearts. After the formal engagement the intended husband is allowed -to call on his fiancée in the presence of the entire family and may take -her out to the theatre when accompanied by the mother and all the female -members of the household. Marriage is a formidable undertaking for the -groom must furnish the entire bridal outfit, in addition to the house -and its furnishings. Two ceremonies become necessary, too, if the couple -wish to be married by the rites of the church. The civil ceremony is -absolutely essential and cannot be dispensed with for under the law this -is the only legal marriage. And yet with all these inconveniences to -courtship and matrimony, bachelors are less numerous than they are where -every facility is granted for love making. - -Love and religion are practically the only two subjects with which -a _señorita_ is expected to concern herself. She is, probably, not -intentionally or by nature a flirt and she might scorn to inveigle in -her meshes the heart of an admirer, but she cannot refrain from using -her irresistible eyes or entirely avoid the coquettish use of the -indispensable fan with its wordless telegraphy. The Mexican lover pays -extravagant homage to his sweetheart and a woman nowhere else is paid -such delicate and elaborate compliments. The Spanish method of courtship -in which the lady is pictured as sitting at a barred window or leaning -from a balcony to listen to the honeyed phrases of her lover or the music -of his guitar has reached its highest state of perfection in Mexico. - -In the current language of that country a man who is courting a woman is -“playing the bear.” It is so named from the restless walking to and fro -of the love-stricken youth in front of the window of his inamorata, in a -manner not unlike a captive bear in a cage. The same method pursued in -the United States would either result in a man being sent to the lunatic -asylum as suffering from a “brain storm” or to the workhouse. - -[Illustration: “PLAYING THE BEAR”] - -A young man who sees a young lady on the street whom he admires, begins -by following her home although it may be days or weeks before he will -venture to speak to her. Having reached her _casa_ he will begin the -_hacer el oso_, or “playing the bear,” by walking back and forth in -front of the house or standing on the street with his eyes fixed upon -her windows or balconies for hours at a time, days and nights alike. The -young lady, if interested at all, will remain back of the curtain and the -slightest movement of the curtains or blinds is a sign that she is not -entirely indifferent. After a day or two she may show her face or wave -her hand as a further mark of encouragement, and after several days she -may appear on the balcony for a few moments. If she goes to church the -lover is probably not far behind and an occasional smile or glance from -her eyes of midnight is given him as a reward for his faithfulness. Next -come daily salutes and smiles when the lover appears. Flowers are sent -by the aid of the water-carriers or charcoal-vendors in which notes are -concealed. A system of wireless-telegraphy communication is established -by means of a fan on one side and a cigarette on the other. This medium -of communication has been developed until it has become an elaborate -code. Letters become more and more endearing. When the courtship has so -far advanced that the lovers will talk, the moonlight nights are all -devoted to the love-making and several pairs of lovers can be seen on -almost any street by the late home-comer—he on the sidewalk, she at the -window. This courtship frequently extends over a period of years and the -lover who makes himself so ridiculous sometimes loses the girl then. -Jacob’s seven-year probation has many counterparts among the Romeos of -Mexico. - -A young woman of my acquaintance and her sister recently visited a family -in one of the large cities in Mexico. Like all young women they soon -became interested in the subject of Mexican courtship and began to sigh -for a “bear.” Every time they returned from a trip down town a watch -was kept from the window to see if a “bear” followed. At last one of -these creatures appeared and began to pace in front of the house with -his eyes bent upon the window opening out on the balcony. Contrary to -all precedents and to the surprise of the neighbourhood, these women -could not resist the temptation to go out on the balcony on this first -occasion. This was such marked encouragement that the man came day after -day to see _las Señoritas Americanas_ and was still coming when their -visit ended. - -American women who have married Mexican husbands have found the -ideas of the two races so radically opposed that the unions have not -been harmonious. Their verdict is that a Mexican man makes an ideal -lover because of his delicate attentions and consideration, but an -unsatisfactory husband since he does not make his wife a companion and -confidante such as an American woman considers her right and privilege. - -The individuality of the woman is not so completely merged in that of -her husband at marriage as in the United States. The woman retains her -own name but adds that of her husband. Miss Mary Smith who marries Mr. -John Jones becomes Mrs. Mary Smith de Jones, and she is not called so -exclusively by her husband’s name. However, when the Mexican woman is -married she accommodates herself to the station in life provided by her -husband. The wife usually accepts whatever condition fate has provided -for her and bears it with patience and fortitude. They endure the petty -ills of life with great cheerfulness. They do not go into society much -as custom keeps them from attending mixed assemblages frequently. Their -world is generally confined to their home, husband and children. An -American woman would sigh for liberty if compelled to live this life. -The Mexican woman in America shrinks from the freedom prevalent here and -desires the seclusion of her native land. Families are usually large -so that home duties require a great deal of attention. The respect and -courtesy paid by children to their parents is truly delightful to witness -and shows a real goodness of heart in them. - -The mother cannot bear to see her family separated. She wants them all to -stay close together so that each one can stop in and see her every day. -The mothers are loving and tender and idolize their boys. It is regarded -as a terrible thing, scarcely to be borne, for their sons to go out into -the world as American youths do. To go to a distant city is like being -transported to Australia. Even when they remain near home the mothers are -very solicitous for fear they will work too hard. On each saint’s day, -which is religiously observed, presents are given and an old-fashioned -dinner, to which all the cousins, aunts and uncles are invited, is -served. In starting on a journey to a not-distant city, the youth must -visit all his relatives in the neighbourhood and bid adieu. - -It is interesting to notice these traits in an age of growing -indifference; but not a little of the lack of progress in Mexico can -be attributed to this unwillingness to sever home ties. Many of these -young men could do better for themselves away from home but a mother’s -pleadings and a mother’s tears keep them at home. Even after marriage -they frequently continue to live under the same roof. - -The religious element enters very largely into the life of women. Their -very names are a constant reminder of their worship. Many of them are -christened Mary with one of the attributes of the Virgin or some incident -in the life of the Virgin added such as Conception, Annunciation, Sorrows -or Assumption. Or there are the attributes such as Mary of the Sorrows, -of the Gifts, Miracles, Tears, etc. Religion is sustained by the women -and you will seldom see men at the services unless it is some poor -Indian. They are very pious in their way and attend to their religious -duties with the same interest that they perform their toilet. The -concrete symbols and observances of the church have a great influence -over them. At mass these pious worshippers always dress in sombre black. -They are very particular in training their children in the principles -of the Church. Formerly great faith was placed in the healing power of -certain shrines and relics but this is now dying out under the advance -of modern physicians and their healing remedies. They are still great -believers in signs, omens and other supernatural manifestations. - -Above all these women are kind hearted and charitable. Though carefully -guarding their homes, yet if a stranger is admitted into the family he is -received with a generous welcome. Should he return after long absence, -he is greeted almost as one of the family and without reservation. He -is not only permitted but encouraged to call all the members by their -given names and to use the pronoun _tu_ or “thou” in his intercourse with -them. This is an especial privilege among Spanish people who are very -particular about familiarity in address. They will oftentimes deprive -themselves for a friend. They have their faults too. Although smoking is -not countenanced in public it is said that many of them smoke in their -boudoirs and in the company of friends of their own sex. A great deal has -been said of their lack of morality but this is a subject upon which only -those very familiar with the facts should dare to speak, for it cannot -be treated lightly, or solely with the intention of casting a slur on -another race. - -[Illustration: WASHING ON THE BANKS OF A STREAM] - -The lives of the Indian women of Mexico present a far different picture. -Instead of living in great palaces, their homes are in little adobe -cabins of one room, perhaps without the luxury of a window, or in bamboo -huts covered with plantain leaves without chairs or table and only a mat -of husks for a bed. There is no seclusion in their lives and the real -duties of life begin at a very early age. I cannot call them serious -duties for it is doubtful if these people regard any of the obligations -of life as very serious. Their early experiences are with its hard -realities. They can be seen on the streets and around their homes with -baby brothers or sisters swung across their backs when they themselves -are so small that the burden seems far too heavy for them. On the banks -of the streams they can be seen doing the family washing with a great -amount of rubbing and pounding and wringing. To the fountains and wells -they come carrying earthen jars on their heads, which they fill with -water and replace with a grace and charm that excites admiration. - -Some of the Indian maids are handsome. Yet you can tell just what their -future lives will be by observing those of the parents. They will live -in the same squalor, the same poverty as their ancestors have dwelt -for centuries. They will go through life bareheaded and barefooted and -empty-minded just as the generations which preceded have done. At -twenty they have begun to fade and at thirty they retain scarcely a -trace of their beauty. This is due to hard labour and deprivations. At -fourteen few are unmarried or at least unmated. The marriage ceremony is -frequently omitted because of the high charges of the priesthood, yet -both parties are usually faithful. The number of children among this -class is truly marvellous. More than one half of the younger women when -seen on the street have infant children with them. - -No people could be more poorly housed or more poorly equipped for -domestic duties than these small brown women; and none use the little -they have to better advantage or are more loyal to the man they call lord -and master. They frequently live and sleep on the bare ground and possess -no more clothing than they have on their bodies. They will pound away at -the _metate_, or stone kneading-board, all day making the _tortillas_ -which are both bread and meat to the peon class. These comely Indian -women will bend their lithe, active bodies for hours washing clothes on -large round stones which serve as wash-boards. - -Their clothes are simple and the latest fashion has no attraction. The -_rebosa_ is a universal garment and answers for a shawl, a carry-all -for babies and bundles, and a covering for the owner at night. These -black-eyed women with their half-concealed faces, sober, unemotional -manners, high-coloured garments and curious Egyptian-shaped pottery -might well be from the shores of the Red Sea. Their love of warm, bright -colours is even seen in their love for flowers since the many-hued, -brilliant-coloured blossoms are everywhere. Mignonettes and roses, -flowering geraniums and scarlet poppies, gigantic oleanders and dainty -pansies share attention with the brilliant-hued tropical birds in gayest -colours which usually hang beside the open door in a home-made cage of -dried rushes. They are faithful workers in fancy work and will follow -the most intricate design and reproduce it with fidelity and ease. Their -art needle work on handkerchiefs and other linen articles is extremely -fine and their drawn work is praised everywhere. It is not the work of -the dainty fingers of educated women but of very humble and ignorant peon -women in floorless cabins of adobe and of hands accustomed to drudgery. - -The women of Tehuantepec are remarkable for their beauty of face and -form. They are easily the finest looking Indian women in America and -in beauty of figure will compare with any race in the world. They are -dark-skinned, almost a soft olive-brown, with sparkling dark eyes, masses -of wavy hair, exquisite features and beautiful teeth, which are kept -clean and white. Their carriage will attract attention, for they walk -erect and with a peculiar stride probably due to the prevailing habit -of carrying baskets and water jars always on the head, where they are -carefully balanced. They are small in stature, with fine limbs, and seem -born models for an artist. - -The “Tehuanas” wear a quaint head-dress called “huepil,” which is made of -coarse white lace. It is arranged in three different ways according to -the occasion. At a dance it is wound round the neck and stands out like -a huge Elizabethan ruff. In church it is put on the head something like -a Boulogne fish-wife’s cap. For ordinary wear it is simply laid back on -the hair and the folds hang down the back resembling somewhat the feather -head-dress of a North American Indian chief. It is indeed curious but is -quite befitting. They always dress becomingly, with the quaint little -short jackets which expose a section of brown back above the skirt band -and are cut low about the neck in a fashion that women the world over -have found graceful, and with extremely short sleeves. On extraordinary -occasions this short jacket, or waist, is of richer material embroidered -in handsome designs of brilliant colours. Some of the designs show -oriental characteristics. The skirt of the dress is of soft material, -linen or cotton, to the knees and below the knees is of a heavy lace or -embroidery starched very stiff. The material used is not the usual cheap -and gaudy fabrics sold to the Mexican Indian, but is of good quality and -specially made by a certain Manchester house for these people. - -These belles of Tehuantepec have a great liking for American gold coins -which are worn on necklaces. British sovereigns or French napoleons are -usually not desired, but a big premium will be paid for the eagle, half -eagle, or double eagles of Uncle Sam. Every centavo that a woman can save -goes into her fund for purchasing gold pieces. The gorgeous necklace with -the gold coins attached makes a showy and rather beautiful ornament. The -fortune and standing of a “Tehuana” is indicated by the number of gold -coins on her necklace. One Tehuantepec heiress has—it is said—a necklace -which is valued at three thousand dollars. The most striking feature in -the dress of these women is that not one will wear shoes. Dressed in all -her finery, head-dress, starched skirt, polka-dot waist, necklace and -smile, she will appear barefooted—a strange anomaly. Without shoes they -will dance over a stone floor, or even a dirt, gravel-bestrewn surface, -with a grace that violates all rules of art. These dusky princesses will -be found as graceful as gazelles on all occasions. - -A visit to Tehuantepec will long be remembered for it is an experience -not easily forgotten. The quaint costumes, the striking dress, and the -proud people combine to make a memory worth carrying away. - - - - -CHAPTER X - -THE PEON - - “And I have said, and I say it ever, - As the years go on and the world goes over, - ’Twere better to be content and clever - In tending of cattle and tossing of clover, - In the grazing of cattle and growing of grain, - Than a strong man striving for fame or gain; - ... - For these have the sun, and moon, and air, - And never a bit of the burthen of care; - And with all our caring what more have we?” - - -The distinction between the American and Mexican Indian is not one of -colour alone. There is also a difference in nature. The American Indian -has never been fully subdued, but the Aztecs were conquered by one -overwhelming blow and their spirit crushed. The conquest wrought vast -changes in the lives of these people who once roamed over large estates -which they could call their own. The lands then tilled by their slaves, -they themselves now cultivate for others. Yet they are a satisfied -people, and no one ever hears them complain. Though poverty is their lot -they are content, believing that some people are born rich and others -poor, and that this contrast is in the very nature of things. - -Centuries of neglect have not improved either the moral or physical -condition of the peon, but it has not made a misanthrope of him. -Neither has the fact that he bears no part in the government made him -an anarchist or filled his pockets with bombs. So long as a beneficent -providence provides present needs he is supremely content. The mania -for the almighty dollar has not yet entered into his life so that envy -of others does not exist. It is this envy that makes poverty a menace -and element of danger in our own land. The peon neither feels shame for -his own lowly condition nor desires pity from others in more prosperous -circumstances. - -[Illustration: A PEON AND HIS WIFE] - -Fully one-third of the population of Mexico are full-blooded Indians -and another one-half are _mestizos_, those of mixed blood. Many of the -latter and a number of pure-blooded Indians have reached high positions. -A number of the presidents also, including Guerrero and the noble -Juarez, were pure Indians, and more of them are representatives of the -_mestizos_. This is proof that there is no prejudice against the Indians -as a race such as the anti-negro sentiment in the Southern States. These -illustrious examples are, however, the striking exceptions. Most of them -are in about the same category as the southern negroes,—a race without -ambition. Content to be the servants of another race they neither court -nor welcome change. - -These people make up the great peon class of Mexico who constitute the -bulk of the population. They are the descendants of those who were -enslaved by the early conquerors. The Aztecs were an industrious people -as the great structures erected by them, the irrigating works still in -use, and the evidences of judicious and careful cultivation of every foot -of tillable soil bear mute witness. Poverty was almost unknown among them -and rigid laws existed against begging. Among some of the early tribes of -Mexico one-third of the land was divided equally among the able-bodied -men in proportion to the families they had to sustain. Provision was made -by the State for the sick and other classes of unfortunates. No doubt the -enslaving of these people had a weakening effect upon their character. - -A natural laziness, ignorance and a lack of interest will probably always -keep down the peon’s efficiency as a worker. The few and simple wants -of his nature and his general contentment eliminate to a great extent -the desire to improve his condition and accumulate property. Then, too, -the evenness of the climate and the fact that at all times some crop is -being harvested, thus making it unnecessary to lay up for an unproductive -season, has had its influence. The labourer is usually given a certain -task for his day’s work. Nothing can induce him to do more than that task -except the assurance that the excess, or over-time, will be credited to -some future day so that he will get a longer holiday. These labourers -are cheap and it requires many of them to accomplish much but there are -millions to be had. They are happy-go-lucky and are unconcerned for the -future. Yet the very fact that they do not possess self-control and are -always willing to follow a leader who understands how to make an appeal -to their prejudices or fanaticism, renders this class a serious obstacle -to a progressive government and one that must be intelligently studied. - -The little brown man in the tall, broad-brimmed hat which seems to give -an unusual height to his sturdy frame is a picturesque figure and the -landscape is not complete without him. In the presence of strangers -his face is solemn, but among others of his own kind he is gay and -light-hearted, his face easily bursting into smiles. He will wrap his -tattered shawl about him with as much dignity as the Spanish cavalier -his richly-embroidered _manta_. The act of lighting a cigarette is a -matter of studied ceremony. He will light a match, and first offer it to -a friend with punctilious politeness. The recipient of the favour never -fails to return _muchas gracias_ (many thanks), señor. In fact, this -elaborate politeness between these untidy, ill-clad Indians becomes a -farce-comedy at times. He is polite and never fails to say _con permiso_ -(with your permission) if he is obliged to pass by another person, -whether that person be in silks or rags. His own inferiority is admitted -by calling a white man a _gente de razon_ or “one who reasons,” as -distinguished from himself,—a peon. - -The peon is indispensable in Mexico for he is not only the labourer, but -the body servant as well. In the latter capacity, if he becomes attached -to his employer, he will not think of his own wants until the master is -provided for, and will be faithful unto death, if necessary. His wages -are always small, but he is satisfied with the little he gets. Gambling -is a natural trait and he loses or gains with a stoicism worthy of -greater things. His money is likewise spent freely at the pulque shop so -that his finances are never embarrassed by a surplus. A little money will -make him very full of liquor, and a little liquor will sometimes make him -a bad man to handle. - -The tenacity with which these people cling to an environment is a most -notable trait. The peon is a lover of locality. Seldom can these Indians -be induced to go away from their accustomed habitations. It is this trait -that has made peonage an easy system to maintain in Mexico. They do not -apply much intelligence to their work. Scratching the surface of the soil -with a crooked stick is the perfection of ploughing in their estimation. -The peon does not know and does not care to learn any different way of -doing his work than the one taught him by his fathers. The possibility of -earning more money by the use of labour-saving devices does not possess -the same attraction as for the American labouring man. - -Peonage, which is a mild form of slavery, is in force in Mexico. Earning -from eighteen to fifty cents (silver) wages per day and improvident by -nature, it is only natural for the peon to want at some time a little -more money than that earned. An unscrupulous employer can easily involve -the poor, ignorant Indian in a net of debt. After a while a debt of $50 -to $100 has accumulated and the worker is in bondage until this amount -is paid. It is an impossible sum for him to save out of his small wages, -for live he must and support a family, which is usually large. The price -of freedom is the total amount of the debt. Until that is paid the law -compels him to work for his creditor, but he is free to get some one else -to advance this money and change masters. He cannot be separated from -his family, nor compelled to leave the plantation on which the debt was -incurred without his consent. The owner may, however, sell the plantation -and transfer the debt to his successor, and the peon must serve the new -master under the same conditions. - -On the immense _haciendas_ of the uplands the peons are almost as much -of a fixture as the buildings themselves. It is a strange adaptation of -the old feudal relation and the idea of changing their abode never occurs -to them. They were born in debt, always remain in that condition, and -transmit the same burden to their posterity. This condition is usually -entered into voluntarily by the Indians, so that in the beginning he -has only himself to blame. An Indian who desires work will apply to the -manager of a plantation or ranch for a retainer which seldom exceeds -thirty dollars. He then signs a contract which binds himself, his family -and his posterity to work until this advance is liquidated. Only a small -part of the weekly wages may be applied on the debt, and it is tacitly -understood that the debt may be increased after a time. The employer is -obliged to furnish medical assistance free in case of sickness, and to -advance the necessary fees for marriage, baptisms, confirmations and -burials. Furthermore, whenever overtaken by old age and no longer able -to work, the peon must be taken care of and furnished the necessities of -life. - -Holidays, feast-days and saint-days are many, and the peon insists on -celebrating them all. Whether he understands much of the ritual and -doctrines of the Catholic Church or not, he understands full well the -meaning of a feast-day or “_fiesta_” for on that day he rests from his -labours. It would not be patriotic to work on a national holiday (and -they are numerous) so he abstains from labour on these occasions. Sundays -are rest days and it generally requires Monday to recuperate from the -effects of the _pulque_ or _tequila_ imbibed on that day. Then as each -person has a patron saint, he insists on celebrating the saint-days of -the master, mistress and each one of their family, of his own family, his -father, mother, his wife’s father and mother, and, last, but not least, -his own saint-day. Then each marriage, birth or death in the family gives -occasion for another off-day. After this list is gone through with there -remains only about two hundred working days for the average labourer. -The peon is a philosopher. Knowing that it was a curse that man should -earn his bread by the sweat of his brow, he tries to avoid as much of the -curse as possible. - -The system of peonage or contract labour in the tropics is revolting and -often inhuman. The peon of the hot country is more independent, is fond -of social life and is not so industrious as his brother in the uplands. -Hence it becomes necessary to transport hundreds of labourers for work -on tropical plantations. These are secured through contract agents who -make this work a business. These agents pick them up over the country and -deliver them in hundred lots to the plantation managers. The contractor -advances from thirty to fifty dollars in silver to each labourer, and -this amount together with his own fee, is then charged up against the -peon who has contracted to work six months at perhaps fifty cents per -day in the same white metal. The plantation manager binds himself to -furnish rations, which usually consist of little more than _tortillas_ -(unleavened corn cakes), beans and rice and a little meat for Sunday, -and a big palm hut will furnish accommodation for fifty or more men. But -little space is allowed each worker, and here he spends all his time when -not at work, for these contract men are, on many plantations, kept under -guard night and day by armed overseers. Many of these poor fellows come -from cities on the plateaus and soon fall a victim to tropical fevers. -Many are men who have been convicted of petty offences and sign a labour -contract in return for the payment of their fines by the contractor’s -agent and consequent release from confinement. All, however, are treated -alike on the plantations and are worked under the lash if necessary. -At the end of the six months, there are not many dollars due the poor -peon after deducting the price of the drinks and cigarettes which he has -purchased at the company’s store. After drawing his money he is likely to -make for the first town and drink or gamble it away. Then, not having -funds enough to get home, he is again at the mercy of the contract agent -or plantation owner. - -The little brown man with back bent under a load has a countenance -which is as full of rest and patient philosophy as a modern financier’s -face is of care and wrinkles of anxiety. It is almost unfair to the -simple-minded, patient and docile peon of Mexico to speak of him as an -Indian for he is at once confused with the bloodthirsty redskin of the -north. He is a peaceful, if improvident, character, and is a child in -nature. He represents cheap labour and is one of the great attractions -that brings wealth to Mexico. After a day’s work he is content to share -his little adobe hut with the pigs and chickens, and can even find room -for the chance wayfarer. A family of three or four generations, and -numbering twenty people, will live in a hut that would not be considered -a fit habitation for a donkey in the north. One American writer who was -obliged to seek shelter in one of these huts gives an amusing account of -his experience which shows the harmony and good-fellowship that exists in -these households between the human and brute members. “I took an account -of the stock before I turned in, and found there were three dogs, eleven -cats, seven children, five men (not including five of us), three women -and a dozen chickens, all sleeping, or trying to sleep, in the same room, -under the one roof. And when I gave up sleeping, or trying to sleep, and -wandered out into the night, I stepped on the pigs and startled three -or four calves that had been sleeping under the porch.” So it is not -surprising that a village of fifty huts may contain a thousand souls. - -A cigarette given in proper spirit every day will more effectually keep -his friendship than a present of a new suit of clothes. The latter will -not be remembered long while the former keeps the memory ever fresh. -They have been called the best and the poorest servants in the world. -A trusted servant is, however, usually an honest one. These wholly -satisfied people with whom our essentials are non-essentials rather -disprove the theory that modern civilization is necessary to true -happiness. Will the peon in the future wearing shoes, eating prepared -breakfast foods and sleeping in a bed, be any happier than he is now -barefooted and sleeping on a rush mat spread on an earthen floor? - -A constantly increasing number of the peon class are moving to the -industrial centres. Slowly but surely the leaven is working, and the -opportunity for better wages is withdrawing the labourers from the -plantations. The railroads, the mines and the factories are paying much -higher wages than formerly prevailed, and find it difficult to secure -sufficient labourers. Only the selected men can fill these positions -for the average peon has not sufficient intelligence. He has a great -imitative faculty and can learn a task, but is not a success in an -employment that needs the exercise of reason and judgment. In many lines -of work more is accomplished at less expense by peons with the rudest -methods than by the use of the latest labour-saving machinery operated by -peon labourers. Education will no doubt work great changes in the lives -and habits of these people, but this will be a slow process in this land -of “to-morrow.” The present conditions are interesting to one who desires -to see how the rest of the world lives, and it will be a long time before -the peon class will change very materially. - -There is one class of the Indian worker that deserves more extended -mention. This is that time-honoured institution called the cargador. -As you meet him at every place throughout Spanish North America it may -be interesting to the reader to learn something of his history and -his accomplishments. It is not necessary to institute a search for the -cargador. At the station you will be besieged by a small army of them -and the hotel entrance may be blocked by them. When travelling across -the country there is a never-ending succession of these picturesque -characters singly and in groups. Sometimes the entire family is along. -In such cases the boys, even down to little tots, carry a small package -on their backs and the wife and girls balance a basket on their heads. -Perhaps all their earthly belongings are contained in these various -bundles. - -The cargador of Mexico and Central America claims an ancient and -honourable lineage. His occupation may be a humble one, but he can -trace his ancestry back to the followers of that haughty Aztec emperor, -Montezuma, or even to the still older race of the Toltecs. Not many -years ago almost everything in these countries was carried on the -backs of cargadors. Even now in the City of Mexico the cargador is an -indispensable factor in the carrying trade, though there are many express -and transfer companies engaged in that business. In the smaller places -of Mexico, in the mountain districts, and in Central America he holds -his old-time prestige and, with the cargo mule, monopolizes the carrying -business. - -The strength of these little, brown-skinned cargadors is wonderful. Short -in stature and with thin legs and arms they look very insignificant. They -cannot lift a very heavy weight, but they can make their fairer-skinned -brother cry out in astonishment at the load they will carry when it is -once adjusted on their back. The average load for a cargo mule is one -hundred and fifty pounds. A cargador will start on a journey of two -hundred or more miles with such a load and will cover more miles in a -day over a rough mountain trail than a mule. At the station you will see -the little cargador pick up a heavy trunk that you can scarcely move and -start off with it at a faster pace than you care to walk. They always -move in a peculiar jog-trot, and can usually keep it up for a long time. -Up and down hill they go at an even pace, and will average about six -miles per hour. For short distances some cargadors will carry as great a -load as five hundred pounds, a seemingly impossible burden for so slender -a body. - -The strength in the back is a matter of training extending over many -centuries. The Aztecs had no beasts of burden and the baggage of their -armies was always carried by cargadors. The Spanish conquerors were -obliged to adopt the same methods. Now, although there are mules and -burros in great numbers, the cargador is still the great burden bearer -and takes the place of the fast freight in the commerce of those sections -away from the railway lines. A traveller can take his mule and send his -baggage by a cargador, and the latter will reach the same stopping place -each night and sometimes ahead of the man on the mule. Many cargadors -carry their loads in a frame, supported by a broad leather band across -the forehead. When thus loaded they cannot turn their heads and they do -not seem to hear well, so that I have feared many times they would be -run over by the careless drivers. If there are several together they -trot along in the middle of the road in Indian file. If going on a long -journey they carry along enough tortillas for the entire trip, and must -always be given enough time to make these preparations. Several times a -day they will stop and make a fire, prepare their coffee, and eat their -tortillas and fruit if it can be obtained. At night they will sleep out -in the open air under a porch, if possible; if this shelter cannot be -had, then they will lay themselves down to rest under the brilliant -starlit canopy of this tropical clime. - -[Illustration: A CARGADOR] - -Many of the Indians are very swift runners. An instance is told in -Guatemala of a runner who carried a dispatch one hundred and five miles -into the interior and returned with an answer in thirty-six hours, making -the trip over mountains and a rough trail at an average speed of six -miles an hour, including stops and delays. It is said that fish caught -at Vera Cruz in the evening were served at the dinner table of Montezuma -the following day at his capital near the site of the present City of -Mexico, a distance of nearly three hundred miles by road. This was done -by a system of relay runners stationed about a mile apart, and they -made almost as fast time as the railway train to-day. Whether this is -true or not it is well known that the Aztecs had a wonderful system of -communication. The Spaniards were frequently astonished at the rapidity -with which the news of their movements was spread. These runners were -trained to great speed and endurance from their youth. Hundreds of them -were in constant use, and the Aztec emperors were kept in communication -with all parts of their empire. The Aztecs also used these runners as -spies and they thus took the place of scouting parties in present-day -campaigns. - -So it is that these cargadors come and go. Each generation is like the -last. They are happy in that they want but little and that little is -easily supplied. They are contented because they live for to-day and -worry not for the morrow. They are satisfied to go through life as the -bearers of other people’s burdens. - - - - -CHAPTER XI - -CUSTOMS AND CHARACTERISTICS - - “A land of lutes and witching tones, - Of silver, onyx, opal stones; - A lazy land, wherein all seems - Enchanted into endless dreams; - And never any need they know, - In Mexico, - - “Of life’s unquiet, swift advance, - But slipped into such gracious trance, - The restless world speeds on, unfelt, - Unheeded, as by those who dwelt - In golden ages, long ago, - In Mexico.” - - —EVALEEN STEIN. - - -It is always interesting to know how the rest of the world lives, but an -experience with the customs and characteristics of a people impresses -travellers in widely different ways. Mexico is a land of strange -customs and strong characteristics which are deeply interesting to the -sympathetic tourist. “Oh! the charm of the semi-tropical Spanish life!” -says F. Hopkinson Smith. “The balconies above the patios trellised -with flowers; the swinging hammocks, the slow plash of the fountains; -the odour of jasmine wet with dew; the low thrum of guitar and the soft -moonlight half-revealing the muffled figures in lace and cloak. It is the -same old story, and yet it seems to me it is told in Spanish lands more -delightfully and with more romance, colour and mystery than elsewhere -on the globe.” On the other hand many matter-of-fact, unsympathetic -travellers see only the impractical ways, annoyances and inconvenient -customs like the writer who describes Mexico as “A land of lace and lice -and love, of flowers and fights and fleas; of babies and bull-fights -where pillow slips are open at both ends and where passengers get off the -front end of the street-cars; where keys often six inches in length are -fitted in keyholes turned upside down and invariably turned backward; -where the weather forgets to change from day to day and people sleep -under the same bed cover the year around.” - -The Mexican has learned the secret of daily contentment. This is true -generally of the creole class as well as of the peon. The fact that some -seven thousand families practically own the entire landed estate of the -country does not inspire envy in the bosoms of the other millions. It -is a question whether the Anglo-Saxon and the Teuton can give these -people more than mere mechanical contrivances. Home does not necessarily -consist in an open fire, drawn curtains and frequent visits of curious -neighbours. Here homes are found where privacy is respected, family -affection is strong and there is respect for elders, love for parents -and kindly relations between masters and servants. Such a country is not -uncivilized and barbarous. There may be many odd and nonsensical customs -but a reason can generally be found for them. When studying the natives -it is enough to know that they are “an unselfish, patient, tender-hearted -people; a people maintaining in their every-day life an etiquette -phenomenal in a down-trodden race; offering instantly to the stranger -and wayfarer on the very threshold of their adobe huts a hospitality so -generous, accompanied by a courtesy so exquisite, that one stops at the -next doorway to re-enjoy the luxury.” - -If one has absolutely nothing to do or suffers from the constitutional -ailment of having been born tired, Mexico is the place for him to rest. -Nor will he be lonesome in the occupation of loafing for on every bench -is a wayfarer for company. There is no Mexicanism more pronounced than -that of procrastination. Never do to-day what can be put off until -to-morrow is the revised motto. Nothing is so important that it cannot -wait until _mañana_ (to-morrow). An American, whom I met in Mexico, -and who had lived there a number of years characterized the country -as the land of _mañana_, _esperase_ and _poco tiempo_, or the land of -“to-morrow” and “wait-a-while.” Time is idled away. Nobody expects you -to be punctual and you are not censured should you fail to keep an -engagement. In fact, “you will probably be designated as a bore should -you insist on scrupulously and punctually keeping all your appointments, -for the man who always meets you on the dot is a nuisance in this -southern land. If you have an appointment with a Mexican at noon, go at -four o’clock in the afternoon and you will probably find him waiting -for you. Had you gone on time, he might have been absent. Never be in a -hurry, for constant hustle and bustle are the unpardonable sins. Respect -the native customs and doze or read for a couple of hours after lunch and -get busy as the sun nears the horizon.” The Mexican pays a compliment -to Anglo-Saxon push by adding _a la Inglesa_ to an appointment which is -intended to be kept punctually or “after the English fashion.” It is -impossible to educate the Mexican to American methods, so it behooves the -foreigner who goes to Mexico to make up his mind to do business after -the standards of that country. However lax or disappointing they may be -he must remember that in Mexico his methods are the strange ones and not -theirs, which are centuries old. In society calls lengthen to visits and -last hours and the hurried five-minute calls are happily unknown. The -longer the stay, the greater the compliment for it means that the visitor -is enjoying herself. - -In a country where, until recently, the purchase of a foreign draft -was an all-day operation one cannot expect to do business in a very -strenuous way. The people have breathed the somnolent atmosphere so long -that they cannot be hurried. In fact, in some of the towns, the buzzards -that encircle the town seem to be the only living creatures actually -looking for something to do, for even the dogs would sneak down the alley -to avoid trouble. And yet in the face of all this the Yankee drummer -arrives in a town and scarcely takes time to brush the dust of travel -from his clothes before he starts out to visit his prospective customers. -He expects to round up his orders and take the train on the following -morning for the next town. After running against a few _mañanas_ from -day to day without an opportunity to show his goods he feels about as -disgusted as the enterprising American who, intending to revolutionize -agriculture, took down a large stock of the latest American farming -implements, but after a year’s effort had made no sale. The salesman who -will succeed is not the one who tries to introduce the hurry-up methods -of his own land, but the one who adapts himself to the country and does -not attempt to rush things. It will require days and perhaps weeks to -work a large city. - -I met an Englishman in one of these large Spanish-American towns who was -a fair example of the successful European drummer. He had made this route -for years and was thoroughly conversant with the language and understood -the ways of the people. His methods were a good illustration of the -reason why English and German houses have for many decades controlled -trade in Spanish America. They keep their old men on the route as long as -possible, for a new man will not do much on his first trip. We stopped -at the same hotel and I had a good opportunity of observing his business -methods. For several days after arriving in the town he did nothing -but make social calls on his customers, take them to the theatre and -entertain them in a general way. During the next few days he invited -them to his rooms to inspect his stock which was large and varied. Then -he began to take orders. This method seems like a waste of time but -the orders secured were large and well repaid for the time taken. The -American drummer could not have controlled his impatience to be on the -move and would have made a failure. Many who drop into Mexico on a flying -trip, jump to the conclusion that the Mexican merchant is not so shrewd -a business man as the American. They are apt to mistake the deliberate -methods of the Latin race for poor methods. He consumes more time in -placing his order and there is less rush and bustle about his store, but -an experienced man will tell you that in the end he drives a pretty hard -bargain for he knows the market price of the goods and wants the best -discounts and longest credit. - -Even the legal customs are peculiar and have proven decidedly -embarrassing to many Americans. A number of years ago, before railroads -were so numerous, the local officers always arrested the engineer and -conductor in the event that any one was killed, and they were thrust -into jail “incommunicado.” This means that you are to be incarcerated -seventy-two hours in solitary confinement without bail, at the end of -which time a judicial examination is given. An American whom I met there -told me of his “incommunicado” experience. He was arrested because he had -witnessed an affray and was held as witness, in solitary confinement, but -was released by the official after the judicious use of thirty dollars. -Their theory is that after a man has been kept in confinement for three -days, with only his own thoughts for company, he is much more likely to -tell the truth than if he had been in communication with his lawyers, -friends and the reporters all that time. And who can deny the truth of -their claim? - -It is always best to keep out of the neighbourhood of trouble, or get out -of it as quickly as you can if it comes your way, especially if in the -remote districts, for offender and victim are both liable to arrest and -imprisonment. Most cases are put off from day to day until one party or -the other is weary of the proceeding. An instance which illustrates this -was related to me by a man who was arrested for misdemeanour. Knowing -the custom prevalent in the courts he hired an attorney to appear each -day for him. When the case was called the judge would ask “_Que quiere_” -(what do you want). After the case was explained he would dispose of it -with the simple word _mañana_. The other man appeared each day until -disgusted with the procedure and then dropped the matter. Lawyers charge -so much per word and are paid for each article as it is written. Mexican -notaries are very important personages. They take the place to a great -degree of the old-fashioned, family lawyer. They are regarded in much the -same light as the family confessor and are told the family secrets. To -their credit, be it said, that the notary is usually a man worthy of the -confidence placed in him. - -The ceremonial and punctilious politeness of the Mexican, be he Don or -peon, is interesting and oftentimes amusing. The Spaniard on meeting a -friend on the street will stop and inquire one by one after the health -of his wife, each of his children and the various other members of his -household and then in turn will submit to the same interrogations from -his friend. After witnessing such a scene between two men in silk hats -you can turn down a side street and see a meeting between a poor Indian -in rags and an old withered woman selling lottery tickets. Removing his -tattered _sombrero_ he bows gravely, and, in the softest of Spanish, -says, “_A los pies de usted, señora_” (at your feet, lady). This is -done with a grace and ease of manner worthy of any station in life; and -her answer “My hands are for your kisses, señor,” is said in the same -gracious way worthy of a duchess. Should you ask the man for his name he -would be sure to add “_Su criado de usted_” (your servant). - -The Mexicans are very proud and exclusive, and suspicious of the -newcomer. Seldom indeed is it that an American gains the _entree_ into -their homes but, if he succeeds, they will be found among the most -charming hosts in the world. This reserve is probably very natural. The -Mexican has been educated in the strict Catholic schools and is a victim -of custom old as his country, while the American coming to Mexico is a -mercenary, ambitious person engaged in commercial strife and in the race -for the almighty dollar. Then, the American is of a more matter-of-fact -temperament and does not appreciate the impulsive nature of the Mexican. -Money does not appeal to him except for the pleasure of spending it, and -no person is more lavish in the expenditure of money, if he has it, than -a Mexican gentleman. - -The Mexican is a home lover and yet there is no word in the Spanish -language that corresponds to our word for home. _Casa_, or house, is -the nearest to it and the Mexican always speaks of his house when he -means his home. The exaggerated conventionalities are often carried to -the verge of the absurd. Perhaps there may be as much truth in their -expressions as in the polite but oftentimes meaningless civilities of -our own land. An American, on being introduced to a stranger, will feel -that he has satisfied the etiquette of the occasion by simply expressing -his pleasure in the acquaintance. The Mexican goes a step further and -presents the newly-made acquaintance with his house. - -“_Su casa es numero ——_,” he says with a graceful bow giving the street -and number of his own house, which literally means “your house is number -——,” and usually adds, “It is entirely at your disposal; make yourself -at home.” It is simply a polite way of saying “I am glad to meet you.” -Perhaps five minutes later the incident is forgotten by the giver. One -writer has said that he met fourteen men at a club in Mexico and was -presented with thirteen houses. The fourteenth man was unmarried and not -a householder. Occasionally some one not familiar with the emptiness of -the phrase has presumed on its literal interpretation and called at one -of the houses presented to him but has been turned away without the least -sign of recognition. - -If one expresses admiration for some article worn by another, he is -quickly informed that the article is “at his disposal.” If you happen -upon a Mexican at the dining hour, he will probably offer you his dinner. -If you decline it, the occasion requires that you should do so with -polite wishes for his digestion. These forms of hospitality are derived -from Spanish ancestors and were by them probably copied from the Moors, -after the open hand and open tent customs of the sons of the desert who -meant these expressions literally. It has an empty meaning now, for -nothing is left but the words. With all this seeming inconsistency and -insincerity, the Mexicans are exceedingly kind hearted and will willingly -do favours if approached in the right way; no service is too great -towards those for whom they have formed an attachment. They will often -accompany the departing guest for a long distance over hard roads as a -mark of courtesy and friendship. - -We are all victims of habit more or less. But, whereas the American -welcomes innovations and adapts his habits to them, or forms new ones, -the Mexican does not want any change from the customs of his ancestors. -The expression “_no es costumbre_,” meaning it is not the custom, is a -final and decisive answer that does not admit of argument. You might as -well try to change the colour of the native as his habits. Americans -who keep Mexican servants are for ever running contrary to the customs -or prejudices of their help. For instance an American woman[2] who -lived here a number of years relates the trouble she had to induce her -servant to use a cook stove which she had imported from the United -States. She refused because “it would give her disease of the liver.” In -all seriousness she believed that such would be the result and nothing -could induce her to have anything to do with the new-fangled thing. A -peripatetic merchant came around selling eggs at six for a real. He -refused to sell two dozen for four reals because “_no es costumbre_,” as -eggs are always sold at six for a real, an incontrovertible argument. - -[Illustration: MAKING _TORTILLAS_] - -A household will have difficulty in getting along with only one servant -for it is customary to employ three or four in a small family and from -twenty to forty in a large house. Each servant will do his or her own -particular work cheerfully and will move about so lightly and airily that -you hardly know any one is around. However, ask the man _mozo_ to scrub -the floor, or the cook to make the beds, and you will see a regretful -look of the eye and be met with the ready answer, “_no es costumbre_.” -Marketing is a right jealously guarded too, for _es costumbre_ (it is the -custom) and one of the perquisites of the man servant, since he receives -a small fee from each person of whom purchases are made. The Indian -servants are not accustomed to beds and want nothing but a mat to sleep -upon. The traveller can see these in the halls at the hotel if he comes -in a little late. Here these dusky natives sleep more soundly than do -most Americans on the most luxurious of beds. An American lady in Oaxaca -took pity on her girl servant and bought a comfortable iron bed for her -to occupy. She then explained to her how the bed was used. Several days -later she asked the servant how she liked her bed. The girl said it was -fine—to lay her clothes on. The American woman finally gave up trying -to change the habits of her maid. Servants become very devoted to their -employers and their attachment is sometimes embarrassing. In case of a -death in the family they immediately don black and mourn as though the -lost one was a near relative of their own. - -The economy of housekeeping and especially of the kitchen, even among -the rich, is remarkable. The Indian or _Mestiza_ women rule here and -the customs of a thousand years ago are the customs of to-day. The -_tortillas_, cakes made of maize, are the bread of the country. For -centuries these dusky women of Mexico have ground the corn for their -daily bread between two stones, the grains having first been soaked for -several hours in a solution of lime water. This smoothed, dished-out -stone is called a _metate_, an Aztec word, and the women work for hours -in beating the softened grains to a fine paste. Small pieces of the dough -are then worked between the hands, tossed and patted, and flattened out -until very thin. After this they are thrown upon a flat, iron griddle -over a charcoal fire. They are never allowed to brown and are without -salt or seasoning of any kind. After becoming used to them they prove -very palatable and many prefer them to the ordinary corn bread. - -_Frijoles_, or beans, and generally black ones, are also invariably -served and are eaten twice every day without intermission on the table of -rich or poor. The _chili_, a pretty hot sort of pepper, is a favourite -dish that had better be avoided by the Americans, for the ability to -relish it can only be approached by degrees. _Tamales_ are relished by -the Mexican and can be found for sale in almost any of the markets. I -never see _tamales_ without thinking of the description given of them by -a big Texan in his bread dialect, in answer to a question from me as the -train was speeding across the mesquit prairies near San Antonio. “You -take cawn meal, some hawt (heart), livah and a little peppah and you make -a tamahle, suh.” - -The use of sacred names or names of great personages among these people -is often astonishing. The names of Porfirio Diaz, Juarez and Hidalgo are -as numerous as the George Washingtons among the negroes of the south. -However, when the American stumbles upon a Pius Fifth, St. John the -Evangelist or even Jesus, in a dirty-face brown man clothed in rags, it -seems a strange incongruity. Talk with this humble bearer of a sacred -name or offer him a gratuity, and, as you depart, he will say, “_Vaya -usted con Dios_” (go, and God be with you), in such a simple and benign -manner that you almost feel as though a benediction were following you. - -We are told by the early writers that the Aztecs had few stores, but -that nearly all the trading was done in the markets which were found in -every city, or by the great merchant princes who traversed the country -with their large army of burden-bearers and retainers, compelling -trade as well as seeking it. It is interesting to note the description -of the market in the capital in the time of Cortez written by Bernal -Diaz, one of his followers, and the historian of his expedition. He -expresses his astonishment at the great crowds of people, the regularity -which prevailed and the vast quantities of merchandise on display. -“The articles consisted of gold, silver, jewels, feathers, mantles, -chocolate, skins dressed and undressed, sandals, and great numbers of -male and female slaves, some of whom were fastened by the neck, in -collars, to long poles. The meat market was stocked with fowls, game and -dogs. Vegetables, fruits, articles of food ready dressed, salt, bread, -honey and sweet pastry made in various ways, were also sold here. -Other places in the square were appointed to the sale of earthen ware, -wooden household furniture such as tables and benches, firewood, pipes, -sweet canes filled with tobacco mixed with liquid amber, copper axes -and working tools, and wooden vessels highly painted. Numbers of women -sold fish and little loaves made of a certain mud which they find in the -lakes, and which resembles cheese. The entire square was enclosed in -piazzas under which great quantities of grain were stored and where were -also shops for various kinds of goods.” - -[Illustration: A MEXICAN MARKET] - -This description would answer very well to-day except as to slaves and -feathers. It is to be regretted that the beautiful feather work of that -race is a lost art. The market of the capital is located but a short -distance from the plaza and is an excellent place to study life. The -outer portion is occupied by small shops covered with protecting piazzas -but the central part is wholly occupied by the Indian merchants. During -the morning hours it is so closely packed that it is almost impossible -to force one’s way through the dense throng of humanity. The native, -squatted on the ground on a rush mat, with another mat suspended over him -for protection from the fierce sun, and his stock in trade spread before -him, is a picture worth studying. Many tribes are represented, as their -dress indicates, as well as the products of many different zones from the -cocoanut of the hot lands to the inferior pears of the cold zone. The -pottery from Guadalajara can be distinguished from that of Guadalupe or -Aguas Calientes by its colour and design. Each piece might tell a history -of an art passed down from father to son for countless generations, for -the son usually follows the occupation of his father. They never think -of changing method of manufacture or design. It is quite probable that -the pottery seen in the market to-day is the same as that viewed by -Cortez. Many of the vessels are curious and fantastic in form but always -ornamental in decoration. When one considers that much of this pottery -is made with no tools but pieces of broken glass and a horsehair, the -result is a marvel. With the hair they trim the top and with the glass -smooth off the rough places. The pottery market is an important one, for -articles used in the kitchen and on the tables of the poorer classes are -exclusively of this ware. For a small sum an entire kitchen outfit can be -purchased. - -There are few Jewish merchants in Mexico for the Mexican is even more -persuasive in his mode of selling and his prices are fully as elastic. -In purchasing native articles on different occasions I tried several -dealers in order to discover whether they had a uniform bottom price. -They would invariably ask at least twice as much as they were willing -to accept. I found that if one would only show surprise at the price -asked, the question “What will you give” would immediately follow. They -were perfectly willing to get as much from you as possible but the -lowest price quoted by the various dealers was almost identical. Some -persons have facetiously characterized Mexico as the land of “_no hay_” -(pronounced eye) because it is such a common answer in marketing and -means “there is none.” In fact, the answer will always be “_no hay_” or -“_si, hay_” (yes, I have). - -[Illustration: CANDY BOY AND GIRL] - -There are many quaint and curious characters that one will find around -the market place. The candy man, or, boy, moves around with noiseless -tread crying his wares in a song which never varies any more than his -stock, which is always the same and arranged in exactly the same way. His -_dulces_, however, have merit and it is not necessary to change anything -already good. The _evangelista_, or letter writer, is here with a jug -of ink and pen on a little table ready to write a business letter, or -a _billet doux_ flaming with passion and extravagant phrases for the -unlettered lover. On the corners of the street may be seen the cobblers -ready to cut and fit sandals “while you wait.” His whole stock in trade -consists of a pile of scraps of sole leather and some leather thongs, -while his only tool is a curved, sharp knife. - -In and out of the crowd the faithful _aguador_, or water-carrier, winds -his way bringing the refreshing water to thirsty mortals. He is not only -a very necessary person in this land of little rain, but is a person of -importance and knows the inner life of the household of his customers. -His costume and water vessels vary in the different cities but he is the -same honest character who ingeniously carries the love messages from -the “bear” to his inamorata. After a morning of hard work his faithful -wife brings his dinner of _tortillas_ and _frijoles_ to the fountain or -well, and there he sits and eats his humble meal while she watches her -lord and master until he has finished. Later in the day, tiring of his -work or feeling the burden of prosperity as his stock of copper coins -increases, he resorts to the pulque-shop and there shows his contempt for -the beverage he has been distributing by imbibing large quantities of -his favourite liquor. - -Perhaps in no way is the general superstition and ignorance of the Indian -shown to better advantage than in their ideas of disease and medicine. -The _curandera_, usually a woman, admits having great knowledge of -anatomy and chemistry, and has a pharmacopœia all her own. The accounts -given here are vouched for by a writer in _Modern Mexico_ who is a native -of the country, understands these people and is entitled to belief. -_Aire_ (air), when introduced into the system through blows or unusually -forcible sneezing, causes swellings, sore eyes and nervous tremblings. It -is treated with plasters and bandages and lotions. When the alimentary -canal is obstructed it is _empacho_, which means that undigested food -has adhered to the stomach or the food has formed into balls and marbles -that rattle around inside the stomach or intestines. This disease demands -immediate and heroic treatment, and a drop of quicksilver swallowed at a -gulp is prescribed and will generally dislodge it or kill the patient. -_Tiricia_ is indicated by homesickness, melancholia or insomnia, and -is caused by a subtle vapour produced by the action of the moon on the -dew and is absorbed through the pores. Change of climate, good company -and tonics are a sensible prescription. _Mal de ojo_, or the evil eye, -causes the sufferer to fade away or die of inanition, and is a common -disease of children. Bright attractive objects are hung up to draw away -the attention of the “evil eye.” If a child is slow in talking, a diet -of boiled swallows is prescribed. One writer positively asserts that -blue and red beads ground fine and mixed in equal portions have been -given to persons suffering with paralysis, and the sufferers survived the -treatment. The _curandera_ is also called upon to mix love potions and -poisons that will cause delirium or even insanity and death. - -Another instance is told in the same periodical of a woman who was -very sick with a disease from the effects of which she was practically -helpless. A _curandera_ had told the husband to get a white turkey and -tie it in the house and his wife would get well. When the turkey had -failed to cure her an old man _curandero_ was procured, who promised to -make her well if supplied with plenty of _aguardiente_ (brandy). Four -dollars worth was supplied him, and four dollars will buy a great deal -of poor brandy in Mexico. The old man laid himself down on the ground, -after filling himself up with the fire-water, pounded his head and kept -repeating weird incantations which could be heard a long distance away. -This was continued for several days until the supply of spirits gave out. -In the meantime the patient had improved somewhat and could use her arms -and body as far as the waist. The shrewd old man shrugged his shoulders -and said, “I have cured her as far as I can. You will have to get a -_curandera_ to complete the cure.” The poor woman soon died, because, as -the husband declared, she had been bewitched. - - - - -CHAPTER XII - -HOLIDAYS AND HOLY-DAYS - - -It is impossible to understand Mexico or the Mexicans without knowing -something of their feasts and festivals which play such a large part in -the life of these people. In fact there is very little of the social -life in Mexico that is not the outgrowth of or intimately connected with -the holy-days of the Church. The saint’s day of each member, that is the -day in the church calendar devoted to the saint after whom the person is -named, takes the place of the birthday for gifts and family celebrations. -The _fiestas_, or feast-days, of the church are very numerous and are -pretty well observed, although business is not entirely suspended. -The church holidays are either different from those in other Catholic -countries or are observed in a truly national way in Mexico. - -To one who enjoys mixing with the common people and learning their -customs, habits and ways of thinking, in other words, endeavouring to -get into their real, inner life, it is a perpetual delight to visit -the cities and villages on the _fiesta_ occasions and mingle with the -people in their celebration. This association with a free-hearted, -pleasure-loving people on their gala days unconsciously broadens the -views of a traveller in a new country, and develops a sympathy which can -be awakened in no other way. The crowds jostle each other good naturedly -and will treat the stranger with respect. Too many visitors to this -country try to judge everything from the American standard and find -little to commend. They should remember that Mexico is Oriental rather -than Anglo-Saxon, and that the Spanish-Moorish civilization is here -blended with the Aztec. Such a civilization cannot be without merit and -it must have some inherent good qualities. If one wants to understand a -country rightly, he must first try to enter into the lives of the people -and then look at life from their point of view. - -It would be impossible within the limits prescribed to describe all the -celebrations in honour of the hundreds of saints and the numerous secular -holidays. A description of a few of these occasions, most generally -observed, will give the reader a good idea of the nature of all. - -Christmas celebrations in Mexico are very much different from those -in the United States. There is no merry jingle of the sleigh bells in -this land of Christmas sunshine and skies as blue as those of Naples; -and there are no plans dependent upon whether the day may chance to be -white or green. The few lofty volcanic peaks, on which alone snow is -ever seen, would not tempt the most enthusiastic tobogganist. As there -are no chimneys, the children need not sit up at night until sleep -overtakes them, to see Santa Claus descend with his heavy pack filled -with the things that boys and girls like. Even the time honoured custom -of hanging up stockings is unknown to Mexican children. Perhaps they -enjoy themselves quite as much after their own fashion as we do after -ours. They have good things to eat, and the beautiful flowers are so -cheap that no matter how humble the Mexican home may be, it affords a few -sprays of the scarlet _Noche Bueno_, the beautiful Christmas plant. Their -celebrations are long continued for they begin nine days before Christmas -and last until the Feast of the Epiphany on the 6th of January; and this -entire time is one long delightful jubilee. - -These celebrations, which begin on the sixteenth of December and continue -until the twenty-fifth, are called _posadas_. The word in Spanish means -an “inn,” or abiding place, and while the celebration, in its origin, -was distinctly religious, it is now only semi-religious, and has become -an extremely gay and sociable occasion. The _posadas_ are limited to the -cities but, in those places, the poorest as well as the richest families -hold them and they are a celebration peculiar to this country. - -The origin of the _posada_ is in the gospel narrative of the Nativity. -Because Cæsar had issued the decree that all the world should be taxed, -Mary and Joseph came to Bethlehem to be enrolled. Mary made the journey -mounted upon an ass which Joseph led. As the shadows of the night -descended, they were obliged to ask for shelter, and it is no wonder that -the request was not always granted readily and willingly, but was many -times refused during the trip that is supposed to have taken nine days. - -On the last day, having arrived at Bethlehem, and because the city was -so full of people, they wandered about for a long time without finding -admittance to either private house or inn. At last, being tired and -weary, and because no room could be secured, they took refuge in a stable -where Christ was born. Therefore, it is, that in order to celebrate this -journey fully, the _posadas_ begin with the journey at Nazareth. Each -year a house is chosen in a family circle, or among a group of friends, -and at that house for nine consecutive nights the festival is held. Or, -sometimes, the celebration will be held at different houses during that -period. - -The journey from Nazareth to Bethlehem and the difficulties encountered -on the way, are represented by the first part of the celebration. At the -appointed hour the guests assemble at the house which has been chosen for -the celebration on that particular night. Each person present, members -of the family, guests and servants, is furnished with a lighted candle, -and two and two, they march around the halls and through the corridors -several times chanting the solemn “Litany of Loretto.” As each invocation -is ended the audience chant “_ora pro nobis_” (“pray for us”). At the -head of the procession the figures of Joseph and Mary made of clay or -wax, dressed in gay, incongruously-coloured satins are borne either in -the hands or lying in a basket. Sometimes these figures are dressed -in brilliant costumes of lace with tinselled borderings. At each door -the procession pauses and knocks and begs admittance, but no answer or -invitation to enter is given. When the litany is finished some of the -party enter a room while the rest with the figures of Joseph and Mary -remain outside and sing a chant something like the following:— - - “In Heaven’s Name, - I beg for shelter; - My wife to-night, - Can go no further.” - -The reply to this is:— - - “No inn is this, - Begone from hence; - Ye may be thieves, - I trust ye not.” - -At last, however, the door is opened and all go in and Joseph and Mary -have secured shelter for the night. The pilgrims are placed on an -improvised altar and some prayers are recited, though the religious -exercises are generally hurried through in the quickest manner possible. -Sometimes, to make the scene more realistic, a burro is introduced in the -procession to represent the faithful animal that carried the holy family -in their wanderings. Frequently, on the last night, in a room, or on the -roof, a kind of stable is arranged in which the figures of Joseph and -Mary are placed with the utmost reverence. On this night a figure of the -infant Jesus is also carried. After the litany the party proceed to have -a general good time which is kept up until a late hour. Occasionally, in -the homes of the wealthy, these entertainments are on a very elaborate -scale and costly souvenirs are presented to each guest. Everywhere in -the cities is heard the litany of the _posada_, for it is celebrated -almost universally. It is sung in hundreds and thousands of homes and -the processions wind in and out of the rooms and round the improvised -shrines. The patios are hung with venetian lights, and fireworks blaze -skyward in every direction. In the City of Mexico the _posadas_ are most -elaborate among the official and wealthy families, and the Zocalo plaza -is a bewitching place with its many lights and the multitudes of children -who gather here for celebration. The clergy are now censuring the -“_posadas_” because of the irreverent spirit in which they are celebrated. - -In Mexico the _piñate_ takes the place of the Christmas tree. It is an -oval shaped, earthen jar, handsomely decorated with tinsel and streamers -of tissue paper, made up to represent curious figures. They represent -clowns, ballet girls, monkeys, roosters, various grotesque animals, and -even children almost life sized. The jars are crammed full of sweets, -rattles, whistles and crackers. The breaking of the _piñate_ follows the -litany and is an exciting event, which generally occurs in the patio. -It is suspended from the ceiling and then each person desiring to take -part is blindfolded in turn, and, armed with a pole, proceeds to strike -the swinging _piñate_. Three trials are permitted. Sometimes many are -blindfolded before a successful blow brings the sweets and bon-bons -rattling to the floor. Then there is a race and a scramble for the -dainties. Thousands of these _piñates_ are broken each Christmas season -and the vendors of them perambulating the streets with a pole across the -shoulders on which are suspended the grotesque figures, add life and zest -to the season. Then to see a well dressed, sedate-looking, business man -hurrying home with a grotesque tissue-paper creation of gorgeous hues -with tinselled decorations and gay streamers under his arms is a curious -but not uncommon sight. - -[Illustration: BURNING AN EFFIGY OF JUDAS AT EASTER-TIME] - -Holy week, as the week preceding Easter is called, is celebrated in -an elaborate and truly original way. The religious processions which -formerly attended these celebrations are now prohibited by law. During -these few days the bells, organs and choirs are silent, the stores are -closed and there is a general holiday. As an evidence that vanity is -not entirely absent, on Holy Thursday it is customary for men and women -to turn out in good clothes and many of the ladies appear in handsome -and elaborate gowns. Then on Good Friday everything is changed and the -whole country mourns. Sombre black takes the place of the more brilliant -raiment of the preceding day; downcast eyes and solemn faces succeed the -smiles and coquettish glances of yesterday. - -On Saturday occurs the most grotesque and curious of all the festivals -of the Church. It is the day on which final disposition is made of that -arch-traitor Judas Iscariot, and the day is devoted to his humiliation -and death. Effigies of the traitor are hung over the streets everywhere -and all day long men parade the streets with figures of the betrayer of -Christ upon poles. These effigies range in size from miniature figures to -those of gigantic proportions. Each figure is made of _papier maché_, is -filled with explosives and has a fuse which is generally the moustache. -Hundreds of the images are sold to the children in each city who explode -them with great glee. Judas is represented with folded hands, arms -akimbo, with legs in running posture and in every conceivable attitude. -Some of them bear suggestive mottoes such as “I am a scion of the Devil” -and “Let me give up the Ghost.” Each person must destroy a Judas. - -At ten o’clock as the great bells of the cathedral in the City of Mexico -sound and other bells follow, the fuses to these effigies are lighted. -The great Judases strung across the streets or tied to balconies are -exploded amid great rejoicing. Coins representing the thirty pieces of -silver paid to Judas are sometimes thrown to the crowd from the windows -of wealthy residents or clubs. Every one grows wild and the little folks -become almost beside themselves with excitement. The bells in the towers -ring out their rejoicings and a peculiar apparatus gives out a sound -which represents the breaking of the bones of the thieves on the cross. -The crowds also have innumerable rattles which make a hideous, grating -sound intended to represent the same incident. The noise of the bells, -the explosion of the fire-crackers, and the shouts of the multitude form -a strange, exciting, ludicrous scene never to be forgotten. When the last -Judas has been demolished, the excitement subsides and a good-natured -frolic follows. - -The national holidays, of which there are many, are greatly overshadowed -by those pertaining to the Church, and none of them are so universally -observed. Not all the feasts and festivals of Mexico are of Romish -origin. Some of them are founded upon the remains of Aztec idolatry, for -the priests of the early days with a wise foresight adopted the same -day for feast-days in many instances. Though these Indians probably -could not tell why, yet they have a great reverence for the saints whom -they worship after their own fashion. They are delighted to have more -occasions for decorating themselves and their churches with flowers, -marching in processions, dancing and letting off rockets. - -The _Fiesta de las Flores_, or Feast of the Poppies, celebrated in -April, is held on the Viga Canal and was originally a day devoted to -the worship of the Aztec god Quetzalcoatl, the god of nature with them. -On that day the bloody, sacrificial rites were suspended and all joined -in this festival of flowers. This _fiesta_ has lost all its religious -significance but it is said to be celebrated much the same as in Aztec -times. All day long the canal is filled with boats large and small manned -by the dusky natives. Indian women and nut-brown maids with wreaths of -poppies on their heads and garlands of the same around their necks, -sing the songs of the people and dance as they move along. On the shore -and in the boats the native bands play, and the broad highway along the -banks of the Viga is crowded with long lines of carriages filled with -the aristocracy of the Capital who have come out to witness this unique -celebration. - -Mexico, like each good Mexican Catholic, has a patron saint who presides -over her destinies. This saint has not only been adopted by the -government in times past, but has been proclaimed as the guardian of -Mexico by the Holy See, and only a few years ago was duly crowned as the -Virgin of Guadalupe in ceremonies made memorable by the large number of -church dignitaries present. Her miraculous appearance came at an apropos -time and greatly assisted in attracting the natives to the new worship. - -The Aztecs had long worshipped a deity called Tonantzin, “Mother of -Gods,” who was supposed to reside on the Hill of Tepeyacac, now called -Guadalupe. Tradition says that a devout Indian named Juan Diego, who -resided in the village of Tolpetlac, and who recently had been converted -to Christianity, was passing by this way on the morning of the 9th day -of December, 1531, on his way to early mass. When at the base of this -hill there suddenly burst upon his ears a melody of sweet music, as -of a chorus of birds singing together in harmony. Surprised at this -unusual music he looked up and lo, just above him, rested a cloud more -brilliant than a rainbow and in the centre of the cloud stood a lady. -Thoroughly frightened he fell to his knees, but was aroused by a voice -which proceeded from the cloud and called “Juan.” He looked up and the -lady told him to go to the Bishop of Mexico, and tell him that she wanted -a church built on this hill in her honour. He did so, but the Bishop -was loth to believe this wonderful tale from a poor, ignorant Indian. -A second and yet a third time did the same vision appear to the pious -Juan and make the same request. On this last occasion Juan had passed -on the opposite side of the hill to avoid the woman but to no avail. -Upon the report of the third vision the Bishop told Juan to ask for some -unmistakable sign. The lady appeared again on the following morning and -Juan told her of the Bishop’s request. She told him to go up the hill and -gather flowers from the barren hillside where they had never been known -to grow. As soon as he reached there many beautiful flowers appeared in -a miraculous manner, which Juan gathered up in his tilma, or blanket, -and took to the Bishop. When he had emptied his tilma the image of the -Virgin was found on the blanket in most brilliant colours. - -The Bishop reverently took the tilma and accepted it as an unmistakable -token. He at once began the erection of a chapel where it had been -commanded. As soon as the chapel was completed, he hung the tilma on -the high altar where it has remained ever since except for a few short -periods. It can now be seen under a glass upon the payment of a small -fee. Some persons say that upon examination it proves to be only a cheap -daub upon coarse, cotton material; others say that it was taken out a few -years ago and examined and they could not find any trace of paint, but -that the colours seemed to stay there in some miraculous way. Not being -permitted to make a personal examination, I leave the reader to make his -choice as inclination directs. - -From the time of its origin this legend has had a wonderful and deep -influence upon the Indians. It is even so to-day. Our Lady of Guadalupe -is looked upon by them as their patron and protector. Coming so soon -after the conquest and appearing on a hill already sacred to that race, -it led thousands to the new religion. The main church is very large and -imposing with a nave two hundred feet long and one hundred and twenty-two -feet wide, and cost over two million dollars in gold. The altar is -magnificent and it has a solid silver railing weighing several tons -around the chancel. There is another chapel connected with the cathedral -church. Back of these is the miraculous spring which burst forth from the -very spot on which the Virgin stood at her last appearance. Half way up -the hill are some stone sails erected by a grateful mariner, and on the -top of the hill is another chapel. Back of this is a cemetery in which -Santa Anna and other noted persons are buried. A beautiful view of the -capital and the Valley of Mexico is obtained from the top of the hill -which well repays for the exertion in climbing. - - “From Heaven she descended, - Triumphant and glorious, - To favour us— - La-Guadalupana.” - -Thus sing the Indians on the 12th of December of each year. This is the -day that has been appointed for the great “_fiesta_” in honour of the -Virgin who appeared to Juan Diego. All others fade into insignificance -and are completely overshadowed by the annual celebrations in honour of -Our Lady of Guadalupe. Any one who happens to be in the City of Mexico -on this date, or a few days prior thereto, should not fail to take the -street car for Guadalupe, a suburban town about three miles to the -eastward. The route follows an ancient Aztec causeway which was old when -Cortez invaded this valley. To the merry hum of the trolley, which seems -strangely out of place on this historic highway, the traveller is carried -along. One does not need to be told that something out of the ordinary -is about to take place. The streets of the capital and all the roads -leading to Guadalupe are alive with people on their way to this most -sacred shrine. It is said that many of these Indians tramp hundreds of -miles to be present on these occasions, taking their food with them and -sleeping out in the open air. Tens of thousands of Indians are present at -each annual celebration and the number is said in some years to equal a -hundred thousand souls and more. - -[Illustration: CANDLE BOOTHS IN GUADALUPE] - -In Guadalupe the streets and plazas around the famous church are crowded -with booths for the sale of native wares, candles, images of the Virgin -and for the carrying-on of many kinds of gambling. There are many booths -in which refreshments are served by women in native costumes. The viands -include cold chicken, eggs, tamales, _frijoles_ (beans), cakes and -sweets. For beverages you can take your choice between beer and pulque. A -motley assemblage is present. Indians from the hot lands mingle with the -purer types of the Aztec from the mountains and table lands. The swarms -of Indians fairly crowd the plaza and streets, some eating and drinking, -some sleeping, some making love and some whiling away the time with cards -or other gambling devices. All these people, of course, belong to the -peon class. Mingled with the natives here and there are all types of -Mexicans, and a number of Americans drawn here by curiosity add variety -to the occasion. The lame, the blind and the halt are there too; for alms -are plentiful and Our Lady possesses wondrous powers of healing. Many -testimonials to this fact are seen in the little chapel which shelters -the miraculous spring. Hundreds and thousands carry away with them a -bottle of these healing waters. - -A feeling of reverence pervades the sanctuary. The kneeling figures with -bodies motionless and their eyes and faces fixed upon the high altar, -crowd the floor until it is impossible to move. One can not help being -impressed by this feeling of reverence pervading the church and chapels. -Outside it is different; for here the throng moves around visiting the -booths, eating, drinking and gambling. Indian minstrels play their -weird airs. Beggars cry out to give them something “_por el amor del -Dios_” (“for the love of God”). At night the plaza and streets are one -indistinguishable mass of dark, reclining and slumbering figures wrapped -in their blankets and shawls. The elements are kind in December for it is -the dry season. - -The next day after one of these celebrations I left the capital for -Puebla. For many miles we kept passing Indians singly, in groups, and -whole families together homeward bound. They followed well-worn paths -which were plainly visible. The trails were narrow and all marched -along single file in regular Indian fashion. They would stop and look -at our train as it noisily passed by. Perhaps they were happy in their -simple way in the thought that for one year more, at least, Our Lady of -Guadalupe would watch over and protect them, her humble worshippers. - -[Illustration: BEGGARS OF THE CITY OF MEXICO] - - - - -CHAPTER XIII - -A TRANSPLANTED SPORT - - -The bull-fight as an amusement is the exclusive property of the Spaniard. -It originated in Spain and has never spread beyond the limits of Spanish -conquest. Perhaps it is this very exclusiveness that causes them to cling -to it so tenaciously, though legislatures and governments have made -vigorous efforts to abolish the brutal spectacles. It is, according to a -native writer, a proof of the superiority of the Spaniard, because “the -Spanish men are as much more brave than other men, as the Spanish bull is -more savage and valiant than all other bulls.” Rather, it seems to me to -be a survivor of the ancient gladiatorial contests, or fights between man -and beast in the great amphitheatres of Rome. - -I had never before, even when standing within the historic walls of the -Colosseum, been able to picture in my own mind the scene of the arena -crowded with combatants while the expectant multitude filled the seats -in tier upon tier, until I found myself within the great bull-ring of -Madrid. There was the arena, and round about were the eager throng, a -crowd of fourteen thousand human beings who impatiently and anxiously -awaited the sound of the bugle which would announce the opening of the -spectacle of blood and brute torture. Then it was possible to understand -how, in an earlier and more brutal age, the Roman populace gloated over -the combats where the death of some of the participants was as much -fore-doomed as the fate of the bull who enters the ring to-day with a -defiant toss of his horns. - -If popularity is to be judged by the amount of patronage, then the -bull-fight is the most popular amusement in Mexico to-day. The national -life is permeated with the sport. The Sunday bull-fight is the topic of -conversation in the capital for the following week. Even the children -indulge in imitations of this favourite game in their childish way. It -is only on Sundays and feast days that the _corrida de toros_ occurs. -Six days shalt thou do nothing and on the seventh go to the bull-fight, -runs an old Madrid saying. They probably go on the theory that a good -entertainment is better on that day than any other. It is useless to -argue with a Spaniard or Spanish-American about the brutality or -inhumanity of these spectacles as they will immediately remind us of the -prize-fights within our own borders which frequently result in death. -This is a gentle hint that we should clean our own Augean stables before -telling our neighbours what they should not do. Perhaps it is a rebuke -that is not entirely out of place. - -The Plaza de Toros is always a great, circular building of stone or wood -with little pretence or ornament. It is built for the bull-fight and for -no other purpose. The interior is an immense amphitheatre, with seats in -tiers rising to the top where the private boxes are located. These alone -have a roof, as all the rest of the structure is open to the sky. Half -the seats are exposed to the bright sun and the other half are in shadow. -The seats on the _sol_, or sunny side, generally cost only about half -as much as those in the _sombra_, or shady part. The fights are usually -advertised “if the time and weather permits.” The ring itself is an arena -about a hundred feet in diameter, encircled by a high board fence with -a lower barrier on the inside, which serves as a means of escape for a -_torero_ who is too closely pursued by the irate bull. Sometimes a bull -will leap over this first barrier and then an exciting race follows. - -An American will not soon forget the first sight of the full -amphitheatre. The scene is an exciting one and there is a tension of -the nerves in anticipation of what is to come. The bands play and, if -there is any delay, the thousands of impatient spectators will shout and -yell themselves hoarse. There is usually a cheer when the president for -the occasion and his companions take their seats. At length the gates -opposite the president are opened and a gaily caparisoned horseman, -called the _alguacil_, appears. He asks permission to kill the bulls. -This being granted, the president tosses him the key to the bull-pen, -which he catches in his hat. He is cheered if he does catch it and hissed -if he fails. The gate opens again and the gay company of bull-fighters is -announced by the blast of trumpets. These men arrayed in costumes of red, -yellow, green and blue silks, satins and velvets, glittering with beads, -jewels and gold braid, form a brilliant spectacle as they march across -the arena to salute the president, after the manner of the gladiators of -old. Every one taking part in this exhibition appears in this procession, -from the _matador_ to the men with wheelbarrows and shovels who clean up -the arena after each performance. I said all, but the principal character -himself is reserved until later. After saluting the president the company -march around the ring to receive the plaudits of the people. - -The bull-fight is a tragedy in three acts. After the company have -withdrawn, the door through which the bull enters is unlocked and the -first act begins with a flourish of trumpets. The bull rushes out from a -dark stall into the dazzling light, furious with rage and trembling in -every limb. This is an intense moment and all eyes are centred upon the -newcomer. As he enters, a barbed steel hook covered with flowing ribbons -is placed in his shoulder. The ribbons indicate the ranch or _hacienda_ -from whence he came. Even the street urchins can recognize the colours of -a _hacienda_ which has the reputation of producing animals that are noted -for their belligerent qualities. - -Startled by the intense light and enraged by the stinging of the steel -hook, the bull stands for an instant recovering his senses. Sometimes he -will paw the earth, toss the dust over his back and bellow his defiance. -Around him in the ring are the _capeadores_, men on foot carrying red -capes, and _picadores_, men on horses armed with lances. These latter -sit motionless as statues upon their steeds that are blindfolded ready -for the sacrifice. - -After a moment of uncertainty, the bull dashes either at a _capeador_ -or _picador_. The former quickly runs to the barrier and nimbly leaps -over, leaving the bull more infuriated than ever. The horse attracts -his attention next and there is no way of escape for this poor, old, -broken down servant of man. The _picador_ makes no effort to save his -steed, which is blindfolded so that he may not see his danger, but simply -plants his blunt spear-point in the shoulder of the brute. Sometimes this -will save the horse, but it does not please the audience for a certain -number of horses must be sacrificed. More frequently the bull will, with -a single toss of the horns, overthrow both horse and rider in a heap. -The _capeadores_ then hover around with their cloaks and distract the -attention of the bull from the prostrate rider who is helpless because of -his iron armour. Once I saw a rider fall on the back of the bull much to -the surprise of both. It is seldom that a _picador_ is killed, for the -bull will nearly always leave him and chase a red cloak. - -Fortunate, indeed, is the horse that is instantly killed. If able to -walk, he is ridden around in the ring again with blood streaming from -his wounds and trampling upon his own bowels. Or the poor brute may be -sewed up in a crude, surgical way in order to enable him to canter around -the ring a few more times. Once, only, in an experience covering several -bull-fights in several countries, have I seen a horse drop dead from the -first blow. The fight is not complete without the shedding of the blood -of horses, and sometimes the crowd will clamour for more horses before -this act is closed. There must be enough, for economy in this feature -will place the people in a bad mood. The audience must be catered to, -for if disappointed they are likely to demolish the ring and tear up -the seats as a method of showing their displeasure. This, in itself, is -sufficient to prove the debasing and brutalizing influence of this sport. - -In the second act the _banderilleros_, men who plant the _banderillas_ -in the neck of the bull, appear in the arena. This is the most artistic -and most interesting act in the entire performance, for great skill is -displayed and little blood spilled. These men come in the ring without -cape or any means of defence and depend entirely upon their skill and -agility for safety. They are finely dressed and are usually superbly -built fellows with lithe and muscular bodies. The _banderillero_ takes -with him a pair of barbed darts about two feet long and covered with -fancy coloured paper with ribbon streamers. He shakes these at the bull, -thus provoking an assault. Then, just when he seems to be on the bull’s -horns and the novice turns his face away to avoid the scene, he plants -the darts in the gory neck of the bull and steps lightly aside. These -darts re-enrage the bull, who has been getting rather tired of the whole -affair. He attacks whatever engages his attention. It may be only a dead -horse which he will then tear open, being aroused to fury by the smell of -the blood. - -[Illustration: PLANTING THE _BANDERILLAS_] - -There are usually two of these men and each plants four darts in the -bull’s neck. They must be placed in front of the shoulder and so firmly -inserted that they will not be shaken out. If successful in these -particulars, then the _banderillero_ who is a favourite will receive -prolonged applause and a perfect volley of complimentary comments. Even -the _matador_ himself ofttimes deigns to take part in this act. If so, he -performs the act in some daring and novel way. They will sometimes sit in -a chair and thus plant the darts, or take a pole and vault over the bull -after placing them. Occasionally a bull is cowardly and will not fight. -Then “fire” is called for and darts filled with powder which explodes in -the flesh are used. This will cause the bull to dance and skip around in -his agony, which is very pleasing to the audience and furnishes variety -to an otherwise monotonous exhibition. - -The trumpet sounds the last act. This is the duel,—the death. Everything -has been done with reference to this act. The first two acts have been -intended to madden the animal and tire him by the violent exercise and -loss of blood. He is panting, his sides heave as though they would burst, -his neck is one mass of blood over which, as if in mockery, hang the -many-hued darts. The man with the sword would not stand much show with -a fresh and unwearied animal. This actor is the _matador_, or _espada_, -and, if known as one who kills his bulls with a single stroke of the -sword, he will receive great applause on entering. He steps forward to -the president’s box and makes a little speech, offering to kill the bull -to the honour of Mexico. Throwing his hat to some one in the seats, -(for it is considered an honour to hold any of his apparel) the hero -advances sword in hand toward the bull, who, during this by-play, has -been entertained by the cape-bearers again. He bears in his left hand a -staff, called the _muleta_, over which is a red flag, and in the right -a keen-edged sword. The flag serves both as a lure to the beast and a -protection to the man. He is usually pale and always alert, and studies -the animal for a moment to ascertain his disposition. This can not be -prolonged for the audience will not brook delay. The tension of nerves is -too great. As the bull makes a rush for the red flag, with head lowered, -the _matador_ plunges the keen blade into the bull’s shoulders up to the -hilt. The bull staggers and dies. - -It is wonderful to see how excited and enthusiastic the crowd becomes -when the _matador_ has made a skilful killing. They rise and cheer and -wave their handkerchiefs. As he passes around the ring to receive their -applause, a perfect volley of hats, coats, handkerchiefs, and cigars are -thrown toward him. These are tossed back except the cigars or any money -that may have been included. If the killing has been poorly made, or in -a bungling manner, hisses replace cheers and boards or chairs may be -thrown instead of hats and cigars. At a fight in Guatemala City I saw one -_matador_ chased out of the ring, and he did not return again during that -performance. This was done after he had made three unsuccessful attempts -to kill the bull and had plunged two swords into the poor, tortured -animal without striking a vital spot. - -Then comes the finale. Teams of gaily-decked mules are brought in to -drag out the dead bull and horses. The bloody places are covered over -with sawdust in order to prevent slipping. Even before the dead animals -are removed, the two or three _picadores_ appear on other sorry-looking -steeds, even worse than the first ones if such a thing were possible. The -trumpet sounds, the door flies open and another bull comes rushing in -to meet the same fate as the first. The play begins again with the same -variety of sickening incidents. Others follow in regular order until the -usual number of six bulls have been dispatched. The management is usually -very careful not to promise more than will be performed, for they know -the temper of the audience too well. At a bull-fight in Madrid, which I -attended, the management had promised ten bulls in its posters but the -tickets only called for eight. After the eighth bull had been dispatched -the end was announced, but the crowd refused to leave. All over the vast -amphitheatre rang the cry “_otro toro_” (another bull), repeated over -and over again in one swelling cadence with ever-increasing volume. -The management was obdurate and the multitudes left muttering their -maledictions. - -Formerly gentlemen of the court mounted on the finest horses in the -kingdom entered the arena and fought the bull like the knights of old. -Now the sport has degenerated and is performed by professionals hired for -the purpose. I once had the opportunity of witnessing a bull-fight by -the Portuguese method. This is the bull-fight deprived of its disgusting -details. It is even more exciting and dispenses with the killing of both -bull and horses. The men with the red cloaks are employed just the same -but the men who place the _banderillas_ are mounted on horses. They are -not broken-down hacks, but magnificent, well-trained animals and good -care is taken that the bull does not make sausage meat of them. As a -further protection, the points of the bull’s horns are covered with balls -to prevent injury to the horses. Their sport consists in riding past -the bull, and placing the darts without permitting the bull to touch -the horse. It is a feat that requires great skill and a steady nerve. -After the bull is thoroughly tired out, a number of oxen are driven in -the ring, the exhausted bull is taken out and another one brought in to -continue the sport. In any form bull-fighting is bad enough, but if a -line can be drawn between degrees of evil, the method of the Portuguese -is the least to be condemned. - -Tauromachy has many devotees who follow the fights in all their features -as the base ball fan watches the sporting page of the American newspaper. -In some places the spectacles are reported in all their most minute -details, even down to the number of minutes it took the bull to die -after receiving the fatal stroke. The killing of bulls is a science -and there are many different schools which have been founded by great -masters. A renowned _matador_ receives as much attention as the champion -prize-fighter in English speaking countries. They receive great sums of -money but are almost invariably improvident and save little. The fights -are not unattended by danger, for deaths are not infrequent and serious -injuries are a common occurrence. - -Ladies attend these spectacles and seem to derive as much pleasure as -those who are supposed to be made of sterner stuff. Their black eyes -sparkle with excitement and they shower their appreciation upon the -successful one without reserve. It is the place for dress as the opera -is in other lands. All the gallantry in the Spanish nature comes to the -front on the way to and at the bull-fight. The enthusiasm, the manners, -the expressions—all are distinctly national. - -In Mexico the light on the horizon seems to be growing brighter, and the -beginning of the end of this brutal and un-American sport is apparently -in sight. It is not in favour with the present officials in the national -capital and in many of the state capitals. Three of the most important -states absolutely forbid the bull-fights, and heavy penalties are -provided for any violations of the law. Statutes to prohibit them have -been enacted in the federal district on more than one occasion, but they -have been as often repealed so great was the popular demand for them. The -best people do not now attend the performances in the City of Mexico but -this fact has made little diminution in the crowd. Their places are taken -by foreigners resident there, many of whom are among the most ardent -supporters of the sport. I predict that within the next decade there will -be few states in the Republic of Mexico that will permit the bull-fight -within their borders. Such action may curtail a profitable industry and -remove a good market for worn-out horses, but these material losses -will be more than compensated in the development of those elements of -character which can not be measured by the low standard of mere dollars -and cents. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV - -EDUCATION AND THE ARTS - - -Any one who is acquainted with the conditions existing in Spain or any -part of Spanish America would naturally surmise that education in New -Spain is at a low ebb. What education does exist is confined to a few. -When you know that districts can be found in Spain to-day where scarcely -ten per cent. of the inhabitants have mastered the art of reading or -writing, it is not surprising to learn that after three centuries of -the rule of Spanish governors and viceroys, ninety-five per cent. of -the population of Mexico still remained in profound ignorance. Learning -for the masses was regarded as prejudicial by those representatives -and misrepresentatives of the home government. One viceroy voiced this -sentiment by saying that only the catechism should be taught in America. -Students are not likely to go beyond the learning of their teachers, -and these were obliged to pass examination in only the most elementary -branches. As a natural result, instruction soon fell into the hands of -the incompetent. Teaching did not attract the bright minds. Those who -cared for scholastic attainments prepared for the church or law. Others -became soldiers or adventurers. - -The first viceroy, Mendoza, was a broad-minded man and interested in his -new empire. At his death he left a sum of money with which to establish -a university to be open to all classes. This institution was actually -established as early as 1551. - -Very few of the aborigines attained much culture, although a few of the -Aztec nobles were notable exceptions. Education was in general left to -the church but was neglected by that institution. The Jesuits, whatever -their faults may have been, were interested in education, and at the -time of their expulsion in 1767 conducted a large number of colleges and -seminaries. - -In the seventeenth century the City of Mexico was looked upon as a great -seat of learning and a literary centre. Even before the Shakesperian -era of English writers, literature had its beginnings in that city. -Bishop Zumarraga, the first “Bishop of the Great City of Tenuchtitlan,” -encouraged writers as well as miraculous visitations such as the Virgin -of Guadalupe. Through his efforts, the first printing press of the -new world had been set up in this seat of ancient Aztec civilization, -in 1535, about a hundred years before one was in use in the British -colonies. A dozen books had been printed in the City of Mexico before -1550, and almost a hundred before the close of the sixteenth century. -Some of these were printed in the Indian languages including the Mixtec, -Zapotec, Nahuatl, Huaxtec, Tarascan and others. - -The very first book printed on this first press bore the following -impressive and “elevating” title: _Escala Espiritual para llegar al -Cielo, Traducido del Latin en Castellano por el Venerable Padre Fr Ivan -de la Madalena, Religioso Dominico, 1536_. Translated into English it -means the Spiritual Ladder for reaching Heaven, Translated from Latin -into Spanish by Father Ivan, Dominican. This book was written especially -for students preparing for the priesthood, and no copies of it are in -existence so far as is known. The second book was a Christian Doctrine, -printed in 1539 “to the honour and glory of Our Lord Jesus Christ and -of the Most Sacred Virgin, His Mother.” It was published in the native -language also “for the benefit of the native Indians and the salvation -of their souls.” A few of the books departed from a strictly religious -character, but all of them drew deep religious truths from every event. -One of the early books was an account of a great earthquake in the City -of Guatemala which, as the title page suggests, should be an example that -“we amend our sins and be prepared whenever God shall be pleased to call -us.” Nearly all of these early books were written by Spanish priests and -members of the religious orders. The first music of the new world was -printed here also in the old illuminated style, as well as the first -wood-engraving. - -The first newspaper in Mexico was the _Mercurio Volante_, or The Flying -Mercury, established in 1693. From that time until the present day, -newspapers have existed, but they were so hampered and restricted in -their utterances that their influence and circulation was small until -long after independence had been proclaimed. Now there are a great many -newspapers and periodicals of all kinds and descriptions published in the -capital. However, no American would class them with our own newspapers, -for the reason that they do not seem to have the “nose for news” of the -American journalist. A Mexican reporter would not think of invading -the sanctity of the home even for a “scoop” over his competitors. -Likewise the family skeleton is generally safe, which is certainly a -commendable feature. Not one of the many newspapers published could -be classed as sensational or of the “yellow” stripe. Mexico’s reading -public is comparatively small even to this day because of the still large -illiterate class. _El Imparcial_, the leading daily and official organ -of the government, does not have a circulation exceeding seventy-five -thousand, scattered all over the republic. Its editor is an influential -member of congress. It publishes an afternoon edition called _El Mundo_ -(the world). The _Popular_ is second in circulation. _Tiempo_ (times) is -the leading Catholic daily. Other papers are _Pais_ (country), _Patria_ -and _Sucesos_ (events). There are two English newspapers published in -the capital of which _The Mexican Herald_ is the leading one and is the -best newspaper in the country. It is widely read by both foreigners and -official and influential Mexicans. There is an illustrated weekly, _El -Mundo Illustrado_, an agricultural paper, _The Heraldo Agricola_ and -many other periodicals of various kinds. _Modern Mexico_ is an excellent -illustrated monthly magazine edited in the City of Mexico and published -in New York. It is printed in both Spanish and English and is devoted to -Mexican interests in general. Many of the cities have daily newspapers, -but they are generally inferior and uninfluential publications. The best -paper published in Vera Cruz could not compare with an American newspaper -published in a little hamlet. - -Mexico has produced many writers and some of them have been very prolific -in their productions. It can not be said that there was much originality -to the early writers when they departed from historical lines, but there -is a sprightliness and rhythm in their epics that holds the attention of -the reader. The bright spots in the history of literature for the first -generation after the conquest are made by a group of Indian writers, -bearing the unpronounceable names of Ixtlilxochitli, Tezozomoc and -Nitzahualcoyotl. These men recorded the glory of their ancestors in prose -and poetry. Although their Spanish is faulty, their genius is clear. -Bernal Diaz, the early companion of Cortez and afterwards governor of -Guatemala, wrote from the latter place his “True History of the Events of -the Conquest of New Spain.” It is a very readable work and a fascinating -account of an interesting country and a primitive race. The writings of -Las Casas have been much criticised but they deserve mention. Other -chroniclers are Bustamente, Alvarez and Iglesias. - -Poetry has always had a leading place in the literature of Mexico for the -Spanish language is well suited to verse and their love poems have the -highest rank. Some of the modern writers are better known in Europe than -on this continent. The two leading poets are Juan de Dios Pesa, called -the Mexican Longfellow, and José Peon y Contreras. The latter is foremost -in the ranks of living poets. - -Literary talent is much encouraged by the government and any one showing -marked literary ability is almost sure to be offered some government -position. An instance of this is seen in the career of Vicente Riva -Palacio, a well known novelist and dramatist who has been governor, -cabinet member and Justice of the Supreme Court. Another example was -the poet Prieto who served in the cabinet of several presidents and -died a few years ago. The Minister of Fomento (encouragement) can issue -deserving books from the government press, if he so desires, and a number -of works, especially historical treatises, have been issued in this way. -The reason is, I suppose, because the reading public is not yet very -large and a meritorious book would possibly have only a limited sale. -These conditions are fast passing away. The drama and the tragic have -ever filled a large place in the life of the Mexican people. A number of -their dramatic books have become well known in Spanish-speaking countries -but have not been translated into English. - -After the struggle for independence, nothing was done in the way of -education until almost the middle of the last century. The colleges and -schools already established had begun to languish. Even after that date -little was done, because the church was so occupied in retaining its own -foothold, and each successive government inherited only a burden of debt -from its predecessors. Juarez had the desire to establish schools but -not the means. Maximilian would no doubt have promoted education but his -throne was never secure. - -The development of the school system is so recent that it may safely -be said to date from the first inauguration of President Diaz in 1876. -Listen to what this so-called republican despot says upon this subject, -which expresses the attitude of the present government: “Education is our -foremost interest. We regard it as the foundation of our prosperity and -the basis of our very existence. For this reason we are doing all that we -can do to strengthen its activity and increase its power. I have created -a public school for boys and another for girls in every community in the -republic. Education is such a national interest that we have established -a Ministry of Public Instruction to watch over it. We have learned from -Japan, what we indeed knew before, but did not realize quite clearly, -that education is the one thing needful to a people; if they but possess -it, all other distinctions are added unto them.” - -The educational system has been revolutionized, it might be said created, -within a little more than a quarter of a century under the guidance of -one man except for a period of four years. The schools are non-sectarian -and the teaching of religion is absolutely prohibited. “That” says Diaz, -“is for the family to do, for the state should teach only scholarship, -industry and patriotism.” The schools in the Federal District, which -includes the City of Mexico and suburbs, and the territories of Tepic -and Lower California, are under the direct control of the executive. The -Federal District alone has nearly four hundred schools, and a number -of fine new school buildings have been erected in the past four years -after American models. The idea of a school building without a play -ground is strange to an American, yet in Mexico none, except the new -ones, have any recreation ground whatever, and they are housed mostly -in the old church properties that reverted to the government after the -disestablishment. Another strange idea to the American mind is the -separation of the sexes which is almost universal. The girls’ schools -contain fewer pupils, for the parents, if possible, send them to private -institutions or employ private teachers. Within the past year several -million dollars was appropriated by congress for the erection and -equipment of new buildings in the Federal District. Commissioners have -been sent to the United States to study school systems, and we find their -schools divided very much as our own. - -[Illustration: AN AZTEC SCHOOLGIRL] - -The schools in the various states are under their own control, and the -number and condition varies accordingly.[3] In most of them primary -instruction is compulsory. There are not many hamlets except in remote -mountain regions where primary schools have not been established, -although in many places greatly inadequate, if all those of school -age should attend. In the cities, schools for the higher education -corresponding to our own high schools are maintained at public expense. -The English language is a compulsory study in certain grades, and one -can almost see the time in the future when there will be two idioms in -Mexico. Free night schools are maintained in some places for the benefit -of those who can not attend during the day. The duties of citizenship are -particularly impressed upon boys, and some feminine work is taught to the -girls even in the primary schools. In addition to the government schools, -the churches and private associations support many schools for pupils of -all ages. - -Perhaps nowhere are the results of the campaign for education seen to -better advantage than in the soldiers’ barracks and penal institutions. -The soldiers are mostly recruited from the Indians and are without -education. The same is true of those who fill up the jails and -penitentiaries. However much they may deserve their punishment, humane -methods prevail. Attendance upon classes is compulsory upon both -soldiers and convicts, and instruction is given in practical morals, -civil government, arithmetic, natural science, history of Mexico, -geometry, drawing and singing. If the prisoner is studious and obeys the -rules of the institution, he is graduated and given his freedom. This -little insight into a better life has made a good citizen out of many a -former convict, and a better one out of a soldier who has completed the -term of his enlistment. The native Mexicans are bright and intelligent, -but self-culture is not common because of natural indolence. The Indians, -and especially the _Mestizos_, are promising and quick to learn. Although -there are no accurate statistics, it is estimated that nearly one-half of -the adult population can at least read and most of that number can also -write. - -The first college established in North America was founded in Mexico -in 1540 and is now located at Morelia. The federal government supports -normal schools for the preparation of teachers, and schools of music, -agriculture, dentistry, medicine, law, mining, fine arts and trades -for both sexes. There are also schools for the blind and mutes, and -reform schools for incorrigibles. The medical college has had a greater -reputation than any of the other institutions of higher learning. This -college now occupies the old home of the inquisition. The staffs of -these schools are generally finely educated men, and will compare -favourably with the staffs of similar institutions in other countries. - -The Biblioteca Nacional, or National Library, occupies a magnificent -building that was formerly a noted monastery. It contains several hundred -thousand volumes, and is a storehouse of ancient documents and volumes -of the colonial periods. When the monastic orders were suppressed, more -than one hundred thousand volumes were added to the national library -from these institutions. Although most of their books and pamphlets were -religious works, yet many of them are extremely valuable and almost -priceless. There are a few books here that date back before the discovery -of America by Columbus, and many rare old documents on vellum and -parchment. A few of the picture writings of the Aztecs are also preserved -in this interesting library. The National Museum is a vast storehouse of -the antiquities of the country. One can wander around through the rooms -and corridors for hours and days and continually find some new object of -interest in the vast collection of relics of the prehistorical races. - -Like all Catholic countries Mexico has the traditional reverence for -religious art. This love has caused a careful preservation of all the -paintings that have been brought to the country, and the names of the -donors as well. Nearly every church is adorned with some cherished -painting, most of which are copies of works by the noted masters held in -the great collections of Europe. However, here and there will be found a -Michael Angelo, a Velasquez, a Guido, a Murillo or a Rubens. Perhaps the -most cherished canvas in the entire country is a Titian at the village -of Tzintzuntzan on the shores of Lake Patzcuaro. It is a large canvas on -the walls of a little dilapidated church and represents the entombing of -Christ. The room that contains it has but one outside opening and that an -unglazed window. - -Mexico herself has developed some expert copyists but few talented -artists. One of the most noted was Cabrera, a Zapotec Indian, who has -been called the Rafael of Mexico. He was architect, sculptor and painter, -and has done some fine work in each line. Politics has in times past -absorbed too much of the time of the young men of Mexico so that the arts -have been neglected. - -The Escuela National de Bellas Artes, or National School of Fine Arts, -in the City of Mexico is an excellent institution and is liberally -supported by the government. - -Charles Dudley Warner says: “It was a marvellous time of original and -beautiful work that covered Mexico with churches, and set up in all the -remote and almost inaccessible villages towers and domes that match the -best work of Italy and recall the triumphs of Moorish art.” - -No one with even the slightest love of architecture can help but be -impressed with the great variety of design and grandeur of construction -of the churches of Mexico. Though designed by Spanish architects and -retaining the Moorish characteristics of that period, they are the work -of native workmen and have received some Aztec touches. On the façades, -towers and portals are designs and figures made by these workmen which -are doubtless Indian legends or traditions of a prehistoric age. They -resemble strongly those strange symbols of the ancient Egyptians and -Persians. Some of the churches which the traveller encounters in villages -consisting of low adobe huts fairly overwhelm one with their splendour. -In places a great church will loom up in the horizon with scarcely a sign -of human habitation near it. Only in the tropics are these great houses -of worship wanting. The danger of earthquakes precluded the building -of lofty structures there, and the priests of the conquering age, which -was the great era of construction, rather avoided the hot lands for the -cooler plateaus. - -The beauty and originality in the churches is principally in the -exterior. This is the reverse of the architecture in the homes, for there -the outside walls are plain, and skill and ornamentation are devoted to -the decoration of the patio. The interior is generally quite commonplace, -and a church in one city is very much like a church in another. The -ornamentation of the exterior is very elaborate and of the rococo or, -as some would call it, the over-done style. However when looking upon -the extreme richness of detail, one can see and appreciate the beauty -and merits of the style, even if there is a certain floridness and -flamboyancy present. The towers resemble the towers which are a part of -the mosques in Moslem countries from which the call to prayers is made -by the priests. As Mr. Warner says: “There is a touch of decay nearly -everywhere, a crumbling and defacement of colours, which add somewhat -of pathos to the old structures; but in nearly every one there is some -unexpected fancy—a belfry oddly placed, a figure that surprises with its -quaintness of its position, or a rich bit of deep stone carving; and in -the humblest and plainest façade, there is a note of individual yielding -to a whim of expression that is very fascinating. The architects escaped -from the commonplace and the conventional; they understood proportion -without regularity, and the result is not, perhaps, explainable to those -who are only accustomed to our church architecture.” - - - - -CHAPTER XV - -MINES AND MINING - - -Humboldt speaks of Mexico as the treasure house of the world. It is one -of the most richly mineralized regions ever discovered, and has produced -one-third of the world’s supply of the white metal. Mexico, together -with Peru, furnished the wealth that enabled Spain to build up her great -empire. And many a real castle in Spain was built with the gold and -silver taken out of these rugged mountains of New Spain. The thirst for -gold became a disease among Spanish adventurers. The mind of Columbus was -distracted by the sight of natives along the coast of Honduras, who were -wearing pure gold suspended around their necks by cotton cords, and he -temporarily gave up his voyage of discovery to search for the source of -this great wealth. - -No country can compare with Mexico in the amount of silver of pure -quality that has been produced. The largest lump of silver ever found, -weighing two thousand seven hundred and fifty pounds, was discovered by -a poor Indian in the State of Sonora. Because of a dispute as to the -ownership, the crown solved the question by appropriating the entire -amount. In fact the crown at first claimed two-thirds of all the precious -metals mined which was afterwards reduced to one-fifth. Some authorities -estimate the amount of silver that has been produced in Mexico at the -enormous sum of $6,000,000,000, but two-thirds of that sum is probably in -excess of the real value. The Taxco, Tzumepanco and Temezcaltepec mines -date from 1539 but the greatest number of the “bonanzas” were discovered -between 1550 and 1700. Many of them were located by priests, who, urged -on by a fanatical zeal to convert the natives, pushed forth into unknown -regions, and literally stumbled upon the rich ore-bearing quartz. The -Spanish viceregal government kept an accurate account of the silver mined -in their red-tape method, for the royal one-fifth was carefully and -jealously looked after. Mine owners were compelled to make their reports -regularly and correctly. A reference to these reports shows a record of -almost untold wealth when it is remembered that this was long before the -depreciation of silver. - -The story of the bonanza kings makes interesting reading. They made money -so fast that it was almost impossible to spend it except over the gaming -table, in those days before the invention of modern surplus-reducing -luxuries. One man, Zambrano, discovered a mine that made him extremely -wealthy. Although he lived in the various capitals of Europe as -extravagantly as the age permitted, yet he left a comfortable little -fortune of $60,000,000 for his heirs to fight over. He even proposed to -lay a sidewalk of silver bars in front of his house, but the authorities -objected. He took out fifty-five million ounces of silver from one mine -in twelve years as is shown by the government records. - -Many of those who accumulated great fortunes were made grandees of Spain -and some of the present titled families in that country are descendants -of the famous bonanza kings of Mexico. Juan de Oñata who colonized New -Mexico at his own expense, founding Santa Fe, and became its first -governor about 1598, was a son of one of the mining kings, and the wealth -dug out of the earth in old Mexico by his father furnished the means for -founding that state. - -Joseph de la Borda was one of the romantic characters of this age. He -was a wandering Frenchman who came from Canada in the first half of -the eighteenth century and no one ever learned anything further about -him. He made three fortunes and lost two of them because of his lavish -gifts, most of which went to the church. He built several large churches -in what is now the state of Hidalgo. After losing his second fortune, -the Archbishop of Mexico gave him permission to sell a magnificent -diamond-studded ornament that he had given to the church in Tasco. From -this he realized $100,000, and after a great deal of prospecting, finally -discovered another rich mine which yielded him many more millions. - -Pedro Romero de Terreros, from a humble shopkeeper, became Count of -Regla, after acquiring great wealth from his mine, La Viscayne. He built -two large ships, one of one hundred and twelve guns, and presented them -to his sovereign. He also loaned the crown $1,000,000 as freely as a man -gives a friend a dollar, which sum the king never found it convenient to -repay. In later life he founded the national pawn-shop, which he called -the Mount of Piety and which has grown to be such a great humanitarian -institution in the capital and other cities. - -The Conde de Valenciana who discovered the famous Valenciana mine of -Guanajuato is reported to have made and spent $100,000,000 in a few -years. One man discovered a rich mine on his ranch near Durango that -rendered him immensely wealthy. He sent a present of $2,000,000 to the -king of Spain and asked permission to build galleries and _portales_ of -silver around his fine new home. This was refused on the ground that such -display was the privilege of royalty only. - -A Guanajuato miner paved the street with silver ingots for a distance of -sixty yards for the procession to pass over on their way to the church -on the occasion of the christening of his son. Another story is told of -a mining king who, on a similar occasion, paved the main aisle of the -church with bars of silver for the baptismal party to walk upon. After -the ceremony he wanted to remove the silver bars, but the wily priest -told him that it would be an act of impiety which the Almighty would -surely punish. It was not done and the occasion proved to be an expensive -christening for the crœsus. Godfathers became so reckless in throwing -away money that one viceroy issued a proclamation forbidding them to -fling handfuls of money in the street as had been their custom, because -such acts encouraged improvidence. - -I have seen the statement that there is one man at Mazatlan to-day who -owns a mine whose entrance is protected by massive walls and gates. -Whenever he wants a hundred thousand or so of lucre, he simply takes in a -few miners and digs out the ore and then gambles it away. - -There is one noted mining king of to-day, Pedro Alvaredo, a full-blooded -Indian, who is known as the peon millionaire. A few years ago a mine that -he owned “bonanzad,” as they call it, and he became immensely wealthy. -However, he and his wife still dress in the peon clothes to which they -were accustomed. He has built a mansion and furnished it with every kind -of musical instrument to be obtained, including many makes of pianos. A -few years ago he announced that he would pay off the national debt, but -he found it a little too large. - -The Spaniards worked only the very richest of the mines. They would not -touch ore that did not yield nearly a hundred ounces to the ton. Their -early methods were of the very crudest sort until the “_patio_” process -was discovered and came into general use. If difficulties were met with -in mining, these men simply worked around them and left great amounts of -rich quartz untouched. The ore was so plentiful that they did not attempt -to do their operations in a thorough manner. However they protected -the entrance by building great fortifications around the shafts, that -look like the walled cities of old and were patrolled by armed guards. -Vast shafts were constructed down which run ladders. The poor peon toils -up these ladders which sometimes aggregate more than a thousand rounds -carrying a rawhide sack on his back containing two hundred and fifty -pounds of ore without a rest, and will make several trips a day. In early -times the natives were compelled to work in these mines to all intents -and purposes as slaves, and were beaten and flogged even to death if -they refused to obey their taskmasters. At night each peon was searched -for fear he might conceal some of the precious metal. However as their -costume was exceedingly simple the search was a very easy matter. The -mines were cleared of water in the same way by the peons carrying it -up these long ladders in rawhide buckets. Many mines were abandoned on -account of water in those days long before their wealth was exhausted. -Transportation was slow and expensive, and the mountain trails were -kept dusty by the long trains of pack mules transporting treasures and -supplies. - -[Illustration: PEON MINERS AT LUNCH] - -Until within the last few years since American capital has undertaken -to develop many of the Mexican mines, only the most primitive methods -were in use. Even to-day many are operated in the same old way, although -modern machinery is being rapidly introduced. The expense of fuel has -been a great drawback in the less productive mines, and the shafts many -hundreds of feet deep are worked with a windlass and mule power. Coal -costs as high as $15 (gold) per ton at the mine and is then cheaper -than wood at $14 (silver) per cord. At these prices steam power becomes -very expensive. In those early days only those ores could be mined at a -profit that could be treated at the mine, because of the great expense of -transporting the ore-laden rock on the backs of mules. - -The patio process of amalgamating silver is still generally used. This -first came into use in 1557, being discovered by Bartolome de Medina, a -miner. The ore is first crushed into a powder by an immense rolling stone -that is revolved by teams of mules. This powder is then carried into a -patio, or paved court, by a stream of water until the mass is about two -feet deep. Quicksilver, salt and blue vitriol are then thrown into it -and several teams of mules are driven around and around until the mass -is thoroughly mixed, which requires several weeks. This is then thrown -into troughs of water, where the amalgam of silver and quicksilver will -sink to the bottom. By a process of distillation the silver is then -separated from the quicksilver. Within five years after the discovery of -this process Zacatecas alone had thirty-five of these reduction works -in operation. It is claimed that not over ten per cent. is lost by this -simple method. The poor mules eventually become horrible looking sights -from the action of the vitriol on their legs. This patio mud has been -used in the construction of the huts of the peons. A company was formed -to tear down a whole row of these huts in Guanajuato just to extract the -little metal that was left in them. The crown retained a monopoly on the -quicksilver, and realized great profits upon this necessary metal in -treating the silver ore. - -The first bonanza mines were discovered at Zacatecas in 1546 by Juan de -Tolosa. So rich were they and so great was the influx of miners, that -the place was made a city forty years later. For two hundred and fifty -years fabulous sums of silver were taken from the hills surrounding this -quaint city. Some of the richest mines of the country have been located -near Pachuca. More than three hundred silver mines are found there and -in the near-by districts of Regla and Real del Monte. One mine, The -Trinidad, is said to have yielded $50,000,000 in ten years. There was -very little stock speculation with the mines in the early days. There was -at least one exception where an English company bought an old producing -mine and the $500 shares rose to $80,000 but in the end the mine proved -to be a failure. Catorce is also a rich mining town, and the mines have -produced many millions of silver ore. The State of Oaxaca is likewise -rich in gold and silver bearing quartz. None of the great bonanzas were -found there, but a steady stream of gold and silver has been produced by -the Oaxaca mines. I heard an interesting story of a young prospector who -had spent several years and all his money in the search for wealth near -Ejutla in that state. Having only a few dollars left he invested his all -in dynamite and placed it in the lode with a prayer for luck. The blast -revealed a rich “lead” which he sold for $600,000 a few days later. - -The richest mineralized section in the whole republic is probably -that in and around Guanajuato, the “hill of the frogs.” This district -was discovered by two mule drivers in 1548 who were on their way from -Zacatecas to the City of Mexico, and from that date until the present -time a billion and a half dollars’ worth of silver has been produced. A -hundred years ago Guanajuato was one of the largest cities and it is -admitted by all travellers to be one of the most picturesque cities in -the New World. Its wealthy mine owners lived like princes and spent their -money like drunken sailors. Fortunes were made and lost. About a hundred -years ago two mines there were producing four million ounces of silver -annually. These mines were worked by the Aztecs long before the Spaniards -came. This is called the La Luz district. - -To-day Guanajuato is a much smaller city than it was a half century -ago because of the decrease in mining activity. The Theatre Juarez is -a beautiful building and was built and is owned by the state, which -seems strange to an American. The state or municipal ownership of -theatres in Spanish-American countries is quite common. The Republic of -Guatemala takes more pride in its national theatre, the Teatre Colon -(Columbus), than in any other public building. A curious sight in this -city of Guanajuato is the panteon, or crypt, where bodies are buried -for five years. If burial fees are not paid again at the end of that -time, the bones are thrown in a heap. However, many of the bodies are -found mummified and these are placed against the wall making a horrible, -gruesome sight,—one that will not be soon forgotten by the traveller. It -is like the crypt underneath the Capuchin Church in Rome. - -The Spanish conquerors mentioned nothing of silver among the Aztecs, -but all their ornaments were of gold. The value of the presents of gold -ornaments given to Cortez by Montezuma is estimated by Prescott at more -than $7,000,000. The source of this great gold supply has never been -discovered, for, although gold in small quantities is found in many -places intermingled with silver, yet the amount mined was very small -in comparison with the value of the silver. In more recent years owing -to improved methods of separating the precious metals from the quartz, -the proportion of gold produced has been increasing. From 1810 to 1884 -mining reached a very low ebb because of the unstable form of government -and constant revolutionary movements. The crude methods formerly in use -became unprofitable, and foreign capitalists were afraid to invest money -for fear that a change in the government might occur over night and -wipe out everything. The old mines had been worked to such a depth that -they were flooded and could not be kept in workable condition by the -bucket brigade. The disturbed political conditions had developed large -and bold bands of robbers; and as all traffic had to be carried over -lonely mountain trails, mining became very insecure and consequently -unprofitable. - -Since the extension of the railway systems and the establishment of a -stable government, mining is again attracting a great deal of attention. -The government encourages foreign investments in the mines. Many of the -old bonanzas have been taken over by new companies with both good and -bad results for the investors. The introduction of modern machinery has -so reduced the cost of mining that lower grade ores can be profitably -worked. Even the dumps that have been accumulating for centuries are -being worked over at a fair profit. Smelters and mills for the cyanide -process are springing up in all of the mining regions. Modern pumps are -taking the place of the mule and windlass in keeping the mines free -from water. The fame of the old bonanzas has no doubt aided in fleecing -the gullible through fake companies organized by unscrupulous and even -criminal promoters. American miners and prospectors are met with all -over Mexico in the mining districts. It is safe to say that the majority -of them have either met with disappointment or are living in hope of a -“strike.” These conditions are the same in every mining district the -world over. - -The mining laws are simple and practical. Boards are established in every -mining community who look after the mining interests. Any one discovering -a claim can “denounce” it before this board and he is protected. -Foreigners have the same rights as citizens in “denouncing” a claim. A -mining claim is called a “_pertenencia_” and is one hundred metres square -thus consisting of ten thousand square metres. The surface ground must be -settled for with the owner. A tax of ten dollars must be paid annually -to protect the claim from forfeiture. More than twelve thousand claims -are now on record as shown by government statistics. The government only -claims a one-twenty-fifth instead of the royal one-fifth exacted by Spain. - -The number of men employed in the mines at the present time is about two -hundred thousand. Wages are low and average about fifty cents for common -labour and one dollar for native miners in Mexican money. However, in -recent years wages at the mines have had a tendency to rise. Mexico’s -annual production of silver amounts to from $30,000,000 to $35,000,000 -in gold value and gives it first place. As the price of silver is -advancing, the production will no doubt be further stimulated. It now -occupies fifth place in the production of gold, being exceeded only by -the Transvaal, Australia, United States and Russia. The production of -Mexico in 1906 reached a value of $15,000,000. - -Many other minerals are found in Mexico. Perhaps the most valuable, next -after gold and silver, is copper of which there are a number of rich -deposits. In 1906, one hundred and thirty-five million pounds of copper -were mined. When this is compared with a production of nine hundred and -fifteen million pounds in the United States for the same period it is not -a bad showing for Mexico. Iron is not generally distributed but there is -a mountain of nearly ninety per cent. pure iron ore at Durango. Tradition -says that the Indians first led the Spaniards to Durango by tales of a -mountain of gold where the yellow metal sparkled on the surface. When -they arrived at this mountain, now called Cerro del Mercado, they pointed -to the outcroppings of pyrites which the ignorant natives thought—or -pretended to think—were of the same metal that these strange white men -had come across the unknown seas in search of. A little coal has been -found but not in quantities sufficient for local consumption, so that -considerable coal and coke are imported each year from England and -the United States. Lead is found in large quantities, and most of the -graphite used in the United States is imported from Mexico. The greatest -development in recent years has been in the production of petroleum. Some -of the most remarkable flowing wells in the world have been struck near -Tampico. Great rivalry has resulted between the English and American -interests, and the Mexicans have profited by it. Another profitable field -has been found on the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. The total production for -the year 1910 exceeded four million barrels. Several of the railways have -already adopted this fuel. - -Wonderful progress is being made in developing the mineral resources -of this country, and it is possible that greater discoveries will yet -be made. The wealth of Mexico to-day is not being squandered after -the manner of many of the bonanza kings; but it is being spent along -legitimate lines, and is one of the greatest aids in building up a strong -republic and developing a nation of intelligent and liberty-loving -citizens. - - - - -CHAPTER XVI - -RAILWAYS AND THEIR INFLUENCE - - -A work upon Mexico would be incomplete without a description of the -railways and the present progressive railway movement. Nothing has -contributed in such a degree to the great progress that has been made -in the last quarter of a century in Mexico, as the rapidly increasing -railway lines. This is true not only of the influence these advance -agents of progressiveness have had upon commerce, but they have enlarged -the intercourse with other nations, especially with the United States. -Through this means the dormant energies and ambitions of the Mexican -people have been awakened, and a new era has dawned in our Latin -neighbour. - -The centres of population in Mexico have always been situated in the -great central plateaus in the interior. Only a very small proportion of -the population live on, or near the coast. Communication with the ports -was over long, narrow and rough trails. The transportation of commerce -was slow and expensive, and required great droves of slow-moving pack -mules and patient burros, and whole armies of cargadors. Furthermore, -the very isolation of the people and difficulty of communication kept -them aloof from modern progress, and left them content with things as -they were, with no ambition for anything more advanced or better than -had been enjoyed by their forefathers. It also prevented the development -of a real, national spirit, because one community was, in a true -sense, not familiar with the neighbouring cities, and took a special -pride in its local interests rather than in the idea of a homogeneous, -strongly-centred whole. - -So jealous were those employed in the business of transportation in the -old crude way, that, in order to placate them, some of the earlier roads -were obliged to commence construction at the point furthermost from the -port, in order to give employment to these people in transporting the -material from the port to the place of beginning. Those who are familiar -with the great development of the west, since the construction of our own -trans-continental lines, will better appreciate the change that railroad -construction has wrought in Mexico. There is this difference, however, -that the people were in Mexico before the railroads were built, and, -instead of a newly-developed country it is a rejuvenated old country. - -Prior to the beginning of the railway movement, Mexico was noted chiefly -for its minerals. Now, although only a small portion of the mineral -wealth has been dug out of the earth, mining has become of secondary -importance. The increase in commerce and manufacturing, and the stimulus -to agriculture brought about by these avenues of communication, have -swelled the general wealth of the country far more than the millions of -white metal extracted from old mother earth each year. Manufacturing -plants have sprung up on every hand, and the products of the mills are -increasing in volume and variety each year. Mexico could, probably, after -a fashion, supply all the wants of her people without any imports from -the outside world. The factories include almost every line of trade from -the making of articles to adorn the outward man to the solid and liquid -goods which cheer and sustain the inward man. - -The railroads have tended to enlarge the wants of the people by throwing -them into contact with other civilizations and have raised the general -standard of wages so that the people have more money to expend for -material needs and luxuries. The abolishment of the _alcabales_, or local -customs, was the logical result of the development of railways and was -almost revolutionary. From the time of the Spanish conquest each city had -collected a local tariff on all goods brought into the town for sale, and -had raised a great part of its revenues in this way. Changes come slow in -this country, but are nevertheless sure. It may be that at some time in -the future the brown back of the burden-bearing cargador will be relieved -of its load. It is a question, however, whether this change would be -welcomed by the dusky descendants of Montezuma. - -The encouragement given to railroad construction has been done with a -lavish but well-directed hand. It is estimated that more than one hundred -and fifty million dollars have been spent by the Mexican government in -subsidizing railroads and in developing harbours, and the end is not in -sight yet. Perhaps the motive has not been altogether unselfish for no -one influence has assisted so much in centralizing the power in the hands -of the Diaz government or been such a potent force in tranquillizing a -naturally turbulent people, as the railways and the telegraph lines -which always accompany them. Instant notice would be sent of any -embryonic revolutionary movement and troops could be hurried to the -affected district at once. There were at the close of 1906, according to -government report, twenty-one thousand six hundred and eleven kilometers -of railway track in Mexico, or about thirteen thousand five hundred -miles, and this is increasing at the rate of several hundred miles each -year. The subsidies on the principal lines have averaged from $10,000 to -$15,000 per English mile, with the provision in most instances that after -a certain period (generally ninety-nine years) the roads shall revert to -the government at a certain fixed valuation. Construction is either of -such a difficult character, or over such long stretches of semi-desert -territory with poor and scattered population, that most of these roads -would never have been built except for government assistance. - -After the manner of the Romans and with equal truthfulness, the Mexicans -say that all roads lead to the City of Mexico. This saying is almost -literally true. The Valley of Mexico is traversed from every direction -with the _ferro carriles_, or roads of iron, converging toward the -capital. It now has direct communication by rail with almost every part -of the republic except Yucatan and the Pacific slope, and can reach this -coast at one point by a roundabout way to Salina Cruz. - -The back-bone of the extensive railway system is formed by the two -great trunk lines which reach out to the north from the City of Mexico, -gradually diverging until at the places where they cross the muddy Rio -Grande they are several hundred miles apart. These railways traverse the -broad central plateau of which Humboldt, the great traveller, wrote, -“so regular is the great plateau and so gentle are the slopes where -depressions occur, that the journey from Mexico to Santa Fe, New Mexico, -might be made in a four-wheeled vehicle.” There are hundreds of miles -where construction work was exceedingly easy, as it consisted simply -of shovelling up a slightly raised bed and laying the ties and rail. -Rough mountain construction in other places, and especially in entering -the Valley of Mexico, required the work of the very best engineers. By -whichever route the traveller enters Mexico it would be well if he could -sleep over the first two hundred miles while the train is passing over -the semi-desert plains of Northern Mexico where the dust filters through -the car windows in clouds. - -The government of Mexico has entered the railway field for economic -reasons. It is simply another indication of the intention on the part -of President Diaz to control the railway situation in behalf of the -people by preventing excessive rates through the pooling of interests. -The spectre of railway consolidation similar to the merging of the -great systems in the United States influenced the officials more than -anything else, and the government did not want the railway situation in -Mexico controlled by any of the large American companies. The project -was begun only a few years ago by actual purchase in the open market -of a controlling interest in the National railroad. This purchase was -made by a select firm of New York brokers, and the real buyer was not -revealed until sufficient stock had been secured to insure control of the -properties. These lines are now known as the National Lines of Mexico -and have a mileage of about eight thousand miles. They will be held by a -corporation with a capital of $250,000,000, organized under the laws of -Mexico, the control of which will be vested in the Mexican government, -although there will be a minority board in New York. They include one -hundred and sixty miles of track in the United States from Laredo to -Corpus Christi, Texas. - -The main line of the system is the former National Railroad extending -from Laredo to the capital, a distance of eight hundred and thirty-nine -miles, several hundred miles shorter than the Central. It passes through -the important cities of Monterey, Saltillo, San Luis Potosi and Celaya. -Originally constructed as a narrow gauge line, it has been changed to -standard width throughout its entire length. The Mexican International -Railroad, which enters Mexico at Eagle Pass and runs through Torreon -to Durango with a branch to Monterey, has been added. The Interoceanic -Railway, whose main line connects the capital with Vera Cruz, passing -through Puebla, the third largest city in Mexico, is also now a part -of this system. At the present time this line is narrow gauge, but -preparations are now being made to widen it to standard gauge. Quite -recently the government purchased the Hidalgo Railroad, which extends -from the City of Mexico to Pachuca, State of Hidalgo. It is the intention -of the government to extend this line immediately to Tampico, thus making -a short and direct route to this port. - -In December, 1906, the government announced the purchase of the Mexican -Central Railway, its only large competitor, and this road will be added -to the system known as the National Lines. The reasons for this purchase -were stated by Minister of Finance Limantour to be “the aggressive -attitude assumed by certain great railway systems in the United States.” -It was feared that the great railways of the United States would step -in and absorb this important line, and saddle upon the people the -trust evil. The Mexican Central is the largest railway system within -the republic and owns more than three thousand five hundred miles of -track. The main line extends from El Paso, Texas, to the capital in -a southeasterly direction a distance of one thousand two hundred and -twenty-four miles. This was the first road constructed to the United -States border and received the largest subsidy of any line, amounting to -$15,200 per mile. Construction work was begun in 1880 at both terminal -points and rushed to completion so that through trains were running -less than four years later. This made an average of nearly one mile for -each working day. It traverses sections rich in agriculture and mineral -resources and passes through many of the important cities. Among these -are Chihuahua, Torreon, Zacatecas, Aguas Calientes, Leon, Irapuato, -Celaya and Querétero. It reaches a population of several millions on the -table lands. - -Two important branches of the main line run to the gulf port of Tampico, -which is second only in importance to Vera Cruz. One of these lines -branches off at Aguas Calientes passing through San Luis Potosi, and the -other at Torreon, passing through Monterey. At Irapuato a branch line -runs west to Guadalajara, the second largest city in Mexico, and is being -extended through to Manzanillo, a good harbour on the Pacific coast. It -is expected that this road will be completed January, 1908, and will give -the capital what has long been needed—a direct route to the Pacific. The -difficulty and great cost of construction in reaching this coast has -delayed the various projected lines, for the drop from the high plateaus -to the sea level is very abrupt. It is estimated that the last hundred -miles of this extension will cost $5,000,000 in gold. Another branch of -this system extends south from the capital through ancient Cuernevaca to -the Balsas River, with an ultimate destination of Acapulco, the finest -harbour on the Pacific Coast of either North or South America. There are -also numerous smaller and less important feeders. - -The Mexican Railway which connects the port of Vera Cruz with the -City of Mexico is the oldest railroad in the republic. It was first -incorporated under the empire in 1864 as the Imperial Mexican Railway and -exceedingly favourable concessions were granted. Owing to the political -disturbances it was not completed until 1873. It was built with English -capital and cost a fabulous sum. The monopoly which it held for years -enabled it to pay big returns to its owners for a long period and even -now its earnings compare favourably with our own western lines. This road -is noted as one of the most picturesque railways in the world, for in a -few hours one is transported from the high plateaus to the sea level. - -[Illustration: ALONG THE MEXICAN SOUTHERN RAILWAY] - -The Mexican Southern Railway is another English road extending from -Puebla south to Oaxaca, which was opened for traffic in 1893, a -distance of 227 miles. This road received a bonus of about $10,000,000 -in government bonds, and well it needed such an inducement, for the -traveller wonders in passing over the line where the profit can come -from, as there are only a very few places of any size between the two -terminal points. It opens up a rich agricultural and mineral section -in the Valley of Oaxaca, and will probably develop into a profitable -property in the future. As the line runs through narrow ravines a great -part of the way, following streams, the traveller does not see the best -part of the country traversed. - -The Southern Pacific has a branch which runs from Benson, Arizona, to -Guaymas, the chief port on the Gulf of California, passing through -Hermosillo, the capital of the State of Sonora, the home of the Yaqui -Indians. It passes through an intensely interesting country, possessing -a wealth of scenery and natural resources. This line is being extended -farther south, with an ultimate destination of Guadalajara or possibly -the capital city. - -Another important link in the system of railroads in Mexico, and one -which is practically owned by the government is the Vera Cruz and Pacific -Railway. This road extends from Vera Cruz to Santa Lucrecia, a station on -the Tehuantepec National Railway which is described in another chapter. -A branch line also extends to Cordoba, there connecting with the Mexican -Railway, and forms what is at present the only all-rail route from the -capital to a Pacific port. This road runs through the heart of the -tropics and alternately passes over prairie and through tropical jungle. - -A trip over this road is a revelation to the traveller who has never -visited a tropical land. No one except those who assisted in the work -fully appreciates the enormous difficulties that had to be overcome. I -doubt if even mountains present more perplexing problems in railroad -construction than these level prairies and swamps, where there is no -solid rock or gravel and the country is deluged with an annual rainfall -of from twelve to sixteen feet. The surface is a soft clay unfit for -roadbed or ballast. After heavy rains the ties and often the rails would -sink into it until completely covered. For a few years the road was -practically abandoned for several weeks during the heaviest rainfall. -The track would sometimes slip sideways, or in a cut the banks would -slide in and cover it. In the two hundred and forty-two miles of the main -line, the road crosses six large rivers, whose size is due to the amount -of rainfall rather than the extent of territory drained. These rivers -and many smaller streams require an average of more than one bridge for -each mile of track. The uncertainty and inefficiency of native help and -difficulty of getting skilled American labour to go there because of the -fear of tropical fevers, rendered the work of the contractor no easy -task. Even an American workman could not accomplish more than about half -as much as in a colder climate. - -I made this trip when it required twenty-six hours to cover the two -hundred miles from Vera Cruz to Santa Lucrecia. No one asked the engineer -to go faster, and we considered ourselves in luck not to run off the -rails, which in many places resembled the track made by a wobbly wheel -after we had passed over it. It has now been placed in better condition, -and the run is made in much quicker time. No one must expect quick time -on Mexican railroads, for twenty-five miles an hour is fast travelling -and the average is nearer fifteen miles. The section traversed by this -road must inevitably be the richest part of Mexico in the near future, -now that it has an outlet. It passes through the region best adapted for -tropical plantations where the soil is inexhaustible. - -One of the dreams of the late James G. Blaine was a Pan-American railroad -or all-rail route from the United States to the southernmost republics -of South America. President Arthur appointed a commission in 1884 -which was sent to the republics of Central and South America along the -proposed route. At the first Pan-American conference held in Washington, -this projected railway was discussed at considerable length. All the -representatives were in favour of it and a survey was decided upon. -Several parties of surveyors were set to work at different points along -the proposed route, and a complete survey was made from Oaxaca, Mexico, -to the northernmost point reached by the railways of the Argentine -Republic. The proposition excited a great deal of interest and discussion -at the time, but little has been heard of it in recent years. There is -one man in Mexico, however, who has not lost sight of the great project, -and that man is J. M. Neeland. He organized a company to build the -Pan-American Railroad from San Geronimo, a station on the Tehuantepec -National Railroad to the boundary of Guatemala, a distance of about three -hundred miles. The Mexican government promised a subsidy of $10,000 gold, -per mile. He has followed the base of the mountain range in order to -lessen the expense of construction, and render it easy to connect with -the ports by means of branch lines. It follows as nearly as possible an -old military road constructed by the Spaniards. - -Quietly and unostentatiously this line has been pushed forward until -it has been completed to Pijijiapam, only one hundred and twenty-six -miles from the Guatemala boundary, and a contract has been let for -its completion by the close of the year 1907. The importance of this -line to Mexico can hardly be overestimated, for it connects the seat -of government by an all-rail line with the most remote corner of the -republic. It also opens up the rich coffee lands in the State of Chiapas, -the best coffee territory in Mexico. The ports along this coast are all -open roadsteads without piers, and freight is carried to and from the -steamers in lighters. At one time a steamer on which I was a passenger -lay at San Benito, the most southerly Pacific port of Mexico and on the -line of this railway, three days in order to load a few thousand bags -of coffee. This part of the country has been so isolated heretofore -that it has never been developed to any extent. The completion of this -Pan-American railroad will greatly increase the influence of Mexico in -the little Republic of Guatemala, and will have a tendency to render that -country less turbulent. The promoters aim to continue this road through -all the republics of Central America, clear to the Isthmus of Panama. -They have already secured a concession with the promise of a good subsidy -from Guatemala, and will utilize a portion of a railroad now in operation -in that country. A remarkable fact in connection with this road is that -it is already meeting its operating expenses and fixed charges, which is -an unusual showing for a newly-built Mexican railroad. - -The government is now endeavouring to have a railroad constructed from -some point on the Pan-American Railroad to connect with the railways of -Yucatan. This road and the other lines already under construction will -connect all parts of the republic with the bands of steel, with the -single exception of Lower California. It will not be many years before -this great plan of a great president will be a reality. Step by step -progress has been made but the improvement has been permanent. In some -places the innovation was not welcomed at first, because of extreme -conservatism. Now everyone reaps some benefit from it. Before the days of -railroads each community lived by itself, and the poor natives were at -the mercy of the rich plantation owners in the dry years which sometimes -occurred. Now, transportation is cheap and quick, and everyone can have -food at a reasonable cost. The paternal character of the government in -this respect was shown a few years ago, when the corn crop was a partial -failure and a “corner” was attempted by the dealers. The government -immediately removed the tariff, imported great quantities of grain, and -sold it to the people at cost. This could not have been done except for -the facilities afforded by the railway lines. The traffic does not seem -large, and there is only one train per day each way on most of the lines, -and on the branches this is frequently a mixed passenger and freight -train. The tonnage is increasing each year as the wants of the people -increase, and money to purchase things heretofore regarded as luxuries -becomes more abundant. - - NOTE TO REVISED EDITION. In 1911 the railway mileage of Mexico - exceeded 15,000 miles. The Pan-American Railroad is now - completed to Mariscal, on the Guatemala border. Work on the - connecting link with the lines of that republic, only about - thirty miles, is progressing, and it is estimated that within - a year it will be possible to travel by rail from New York to - Guatemala City. The Pan-American and the Vera Cruz and Pacific - Railroads are now a part of the National Lines. The name of the - latter has been changed to the Vera Cruz and Isthmus Railroad. - The Manzanillo branch was completed almost on time. The - extension of the Southern Pacific as far as the city of Tepic, - and the Kansas City, Mexico and Orient Railway are described in - a succeeding chapter. - - - - -CHAPTER XVII - -RELIGIOUS FORCES - - -The Aztecs, who originally believed in one supreme invisible creator, -Taotl, adopted the gods of conquered races, like the Romans of old, and -became polytheists. The Toltecs, one of the vanquished people, were -nature worshippers, and made offerings of fruits and flowers to their -deities. After their defeat, the peaceful gods of the Toltecs, who took -pleasure in the offerings of the fruits of the soil, soon took a place by -the side of the terrible god of war of the Aztecs, Huitzilopoxtli, and -shared with him the offerings of human sacrifices. This repulsive deity -is portrayed as a hideous idol with broad face, wide mouth and terrible -eyes, but was covered with jewels of gold and pearls and girt with golden -serpents. At the altars hung censers of incense and braziers filled with -the hearts of the victims offered in sacrifice. It is said that this god -was ministered to by more than five thousand priests. - -When the Spanish conquerors came, the policy of Cortez left the Mexicans -no alternative but the adoption of the Christian religion. “Conversion” -and “Baptism” became interchangeable terms and the baptized pagan was -immediately considered a good Christian even though the conversion -only followed the judicious use of the fire and rack. One of the -priests boasted that his “ordinary day’s work was from ten to twenty -thousand souls.” Within a few years after the conquest baptism had been -administered to more than four million Indians. Dreams of avarice swayed -the minds of the conquering legions, for it was believed that from the -unknown, western world was to come the gold that was to make every man a -Crœsus. But first these ungodly people must be converted to Romanism. As -the unlettered Indians could not understand the real spirit and meaning -of this new religion, visible symbols and pictures were substituted for -the former idols. Humboldt, the traveller so often quoted because of his -careful research, says: “The introduction of the Romish religion had no -other effect upon the Mexicans than to substitute new ceremonies and -symbols for the rites of a sanguinary worship. Dogma has not succeeded -dogma, but only ceremony to ceremony. I have seen them marked and -adorned with tinkling bells, perform savage dances around the altar while -a monk of St. Francis elevated the Host.” It soon became a religious duty -for the Spaniard returning from Europe to bring paintings and statues of -saints to adorn the newly-erected churches, and holy relics of the saints -to place therein. In this way these cruel invaders no doubt sought to -satisfy their consciences for their outrages upon a mild and unresisting -people. It is little wonder that the Indians could not fully appreciate -the humanity of the lowly Nazarene when represented by such ferocious -invaders. - -A few of the Aztec gods blossomed out as Christian saints soon after the -Conquest, through the ingenious schemes of the early priests who adopted -this method to make the new religion accepted. They brought with them -into the Roman Church the particular characteristics and powers which -they were credited with as gods. As for example, the goddess of the rains -who was much worshipped in the regions of little rain can be recognized -in Our Lady of the Mists, or Our Lady of the Rains of the Mexican church. -These saints are appealed to for the much-needed rain and are believed -to have the same power to bring it which they, as Aztec or Toltec gods, -were supposed to have had. In many places there are shrines erected to -these saints of the Church who are supposed to have power over the rain. -It has been proven that, in most instances, in Aztec times, a temple -existed on the same spot dedicated to the goddess of the rains or mists, -as the case might be. - -These schemes of miraculous appearances upon scenes already sacred -made the transition from the native ceremonies to the ritual of the -Catholic Church easy to a people who were accustomed to outward show and -symbolism. The striking ceremonies of the Catholic Church, as practised -in Mexico, and its impressive services in an unknown tongue, seemed in -harmony with the rites of the Aztecs, and it was not hard for Cortez to -force his religion upon the simple and superstitious mind of the poor, -conquered Indian, who was more interested in form than sentiment. The -religion of the Roman Church in Mexico is not free from pagan features -even to this day. As one writer expresses it “paganism was baptized, -Christianity paganized.” Outward display means more than spirituality and -piety with the ignorant who constitute a very large proportion of the -population. - -One can still recognize in the rites of the Catholic Church, as practised -to-day in Mexico, a tinge of the Aztec worship. A noted French Catholic -prelate, Abbe Domenech, in 1867 wrote of that church as follows: “Mexican -faith is a dead faith. The abuse of external ceremonies, the facility -of reconciling the devil with God, the absence of internal exercise of -piety, have killed the faith in Mexico. The idolatrous character of -Mexican Catholicism is a fact well known to all travellers. The worship -of saints and madonnas so absorbs the devotion of the people that little -time is left to think about God. The Indians go to hear mass with their -poultry and vegetables, which they are carrying to market. The gobble -of the turkeys, the crowing of the cocks, the mewing of the cats, the -chirping of the birds in their nests in the ceiling, and the flea-bites -rendered meditation impossible to me, unaccustomed to live in such a -menagerie.” - -[Illustration: WAYSIDE SHRINE WITH AN OFFERING OF FLOWERS] - -In remote caves of mountain regions it is claimed, and, I believe, -truthfully, that the ancient deities are still worshipped. It is no -infrequent occurrence to see a bouquet of flowers before the image of the -virgin in the churches or wayside shrines. Sometimes even offerings of -wheat or fruits are found, the gift of some poor peon in whose mind the -conception of the Saviour and his mission on earth is very vague. Several -writers assert that they have personally seen Indians on their way to -the mountains to sacrifice lambs, chickens and flowers to their gods, -thus proving that the grosser forms of paganism have not been stamped -out entirely. The priests, of course, do not approve of this, and try in -every way to stop these practices, but without success. - -The Catholic Church used to be all-powerful in Mexico. It held the wealth -and the learning, and the priests preyed upon the people as well as -prayed for them. They were taxed to the utmost, and “Pay or pray” was the -motto affixed to the cross by the priests. Rich men gave freely of their -substance. Poor peons—and they are vastly in the majority—went clothed in -rags that the Church might be benefited. The favourite method was by the -sale of indulgences. General Thompson, United States Minister to Mexico -in 1845, wrote as follows: “As a means of raising money, I would not give -the single institution of the Catholic religion (in Mexico) of masses and -indulgences for the benefit of the souls of the dead for the power of -taxation possessed by any government. I remember that my washerwoman once -asked me to lend her two dollars. I asked her what she wanted with it. -She told me that there was a particular mass to be said on that day which -relieved the souls in purgatory from ten thousand years’ torture and that -she wished to secure the benefit for her mother.” It is like the harangue -that so aroused Martin Luther: “The very moment the money clicks on the -bottom of this chest the soul escapes from purgatory and flies to Heaven! -Bring your money, bring money, bring money!” - -Shrines and chapels were so numerous that the true believer passed -through the streets with head uncovered and hat in hand, for fear -that he might pass one unobserved and not remove his head covering as -piety demanded. During the latter years of Spanish rule in Mexico, the -Church became so enormously rich that it was reported to have in its -possession one-third of all the wealth in Mexico. In addition to the -power the Church naturally held, this immense wealth gave its leaders -great prestige in governmental affairs, for wealth everywhere commands -power and respect among those in authority. At one time the clergy held -property to the value of about $180,000,000, yielding an annual income of -$12,000,000, according to reliable authorities. Some have estimated the -wealth at more than $600,000,000. - -It had secured control not only of the wealth, but also much of the best -agricultural land within the republic, owning eight hundred _haciendas_ -and more than twenty-two thousand city lots. All this was tied up and -became useless and non-productive. The Church used its great influence to -oppose all progress. The opposition finally broke forth, and the immense -wealth of convents, shrines and monasteries was poured forth with lavish -hand in what the Church considered a holy war against heretical ideas -and persons. Reformers set envious eyes upon this property, and numerous -attempts were made to dispossess the Church of it. An edict aimed at the -power of the Church was issued by Commonfort in 1857, but the Indian -reformer and president, Juarez, was the first to actually accomplish the -separation of church and state several years later. The establishment -of the empire with Maximilian as Emperor was simply a reaction, and -an attempt to establish a government in which the interests of the -Church would again be paramount. It is not much wonder that the native -population yielded so readily to the overthrow of the priestly power. In -accomplishing the complete overthrow of church and state, Mexico only -did what Italy did a few years later, and what France is endeavouring -to do at the present time. Even in Spain, the handwriting on the walls -seems to point to the same ultimate result. And yet it is strange to see -a nation so rigidly and even unmercifully regulating a church to which -ninety-five per cent. of the people belong. - -The reactionary movement on the part of the Church under the guise of -French intervention failed. The reform anti-clerical movement prevailed -once more, even though opposed by the enormous wealth of the Church. The -greater portion of the property once owned by the Church has been lost. -The country abounds in ruined churches and convents. The law went so far -as to prohibit the Church from holding the title to property, and if it -wished to own property, it must be in the names of individuals. Priests -were forbidden, under penalty of fine and imprisonment, to appear in the -streets in their clerical dress. Religious processions outside the walls -of the church, or churchyard, were prohibited. Civil ceremonies were -made obligatory to render a marriage valid. Sisters of Charity and the -Jesuits were sent out of the country, and even the ringing of bells was -regulated by law. It has now lost not only its property but its prestige -as well. - -The property was confiscated, or “denounced,” and sold for beggarly sums -in numerous instances. Many hotels are now located in former churches or -convents, and schools and barracks innumerable occupy former homes of -nuns. Even the famous prison of Belem in the City of Mexico, where more -than three thousand offenders (most of them justly no doubt) have been -incarcerated at times, was the old convent of that name; and the military -prison, Santiago de Tlalteloco, was one of the oldest churches in Mexico, -having been founded by the first viceroy. Protestant services are held -in a number of places that were former Catholic churches, the buildings -having been purchased by these organizations, or the use of them granted -by the authorities. The rich silver plate and the altar rails were looted -from the sacred edifices, or were sold for small sums by the officers. - -For many years Mexico has thus gone along the line of reform. The -ambition of the Church has been held in check but not killed. They are -regaining some of their former power, and recovering much of their former -property, so it is claimed by good authority.[4] The average Mexican -is superstitious. He is boastful and bold in times of peace, but craven -when the time of trial comes. Consequently, when sick and about to die, -he will send for the priest, no matter how he may have fought the Church -when in health. The priests, or some of them at least, claiming that the -Catholic Church, as the chosen of the Lord, has a lien on all earthly -goods, refuse to administer the sacrament without some restitution. If -the dying man owns a confiscated church property, he must restore its -value before he can get a clear title to a home in Heaven. With the -persistence characteristic of the Mexican Catholic priests, they are -ferreting out their former property and again accumulating wealth for -their beloved Church. Their fees are utterly out of proportion to the -earning capacity of the people. Marriage costs $14.00, baptism $2.25 -and plain mass $6.00. Many of the poor peons are obliged to forego the -services of the Church because of these high charges, for all services -must be paid in advance. - -They are also openly disregarding the established laws in some of the -restrictions imposed. I travelled for two days on the railroad with the -Bishop of Tehuantepec who wore his purple robes of office all the time. -At nearly every station priests met him, and he was given a continuous -ovation. A few months ago, according to a Mexican periodical, a well -known priest, in defiance of the law which prohibits public religious -processions, authorized such a procession, and blessed at the altar -those who arrived with it. In many of the more remote districts the -law requiring marriage ceremonies to be made by civil authorities is -completely disregarded. The priests tell the people that the religious -ceremony is all that is necessary. Although the Church upholds such -marriages, in law they are absolutely null and void, and it is a deceit -upon the contracting parties. Some priests go so far as to tell their -people that the civil marriage is positively impious. And yet nothing -is done to punish the above violations of the established laws. The -government probably does not consider that these infractions of the -strict letter of the law have reached a serious phase. - -If the Roman Church of Mexico to-day, with its wealth confiscated, its -public voice muzzled, its political powers annulled, has still power so -that it can openly violate some of the fundamental laws of the country, -we can have some faint idea of its power when it ruled the country with -an iron hand. Those who see trouble ahead because of the avariciousness -of some of the clergy, are fond of quoting the old Spanish proverb “The -devil lurks behind the cross.” Nevertheless, I believe that the clergy -in Mexico to-day are superior to those who served prior to the change in -status. Many of them are noble men striving to uplift the people and aid -the government in its campaign for the enlightenment of the masses. The -strife has purified them and they think less of the perquisites than the -duties of their office. The well meaning priest no doubt suffers for the -sins of his predecessors as well as those of his contemporaries who are -blinded by the past glory of the Church. The Church as an institution is -probably to some extent the victim of the ignorance and fanatical zeal -of its early founders in Mexico. The Church will thrive far more when -placed on the same footing as all churches are in the United States, and -people and priest accept that condition. As one prominent American priest -has recently said in commenting on the struggle in France: “Everywhere -that church and state are united, the church is in bondage. Nowhere is -the church so free and untrammelled, or so progressive, as in the United -States.” - -The churches in all the cities are numerous and their capacity far -greater than the number of those attending. Puebla, the City of the -Angels, so called because of the many miraculous visits of the angels -who even, on their first visit, measured off the city and fixed the site -of some churches, is called the city of churches as it has the greatest -number in proportion to the population of any city in the republic, many -of them being erected in honour of the various angelic visitations. The -City of Mexico contains the largest and most pretentious church building -in the new world—the cathedral. It is also one of the largest church -edifices in the world. This grand cathedral begun in 1573 was ready for -service about three-quarters of a century later but the towers were not -completed until 1791. It is four hundred and twenty-six feet long and -almost two hundred feet wide with walls of great thickness, and reaches a -height of one hundred and seventy-five feet in the dome. The towers are a -little more than two hundred feet high. Then adjoining this building is -another church, the Sagrario Metropolitano, which, to all appearances, is -a part of the main structure, although of an entirely different and less -beautiful style of architecture. - -Within these two edifices were concentrated for centuries the pomp and -ceremony of the Church of Rome and within their walls much of Mexico’s -history was made. It is still the headquarters of the church party -while across the plaza is the National Palace, the official home of the -government which conquered in the long struggle between the two forces. -The estimated cost of the cathedral is $2,000,000, but that represents -only a fraction of the actual cost if the labour is figured at a fair -rate and the material had all been purchased at market value. There are -some paintings by famous artists on the walls and dome. A balustrade -surrounds the choir which is made of composite metal of gold, silver and -copper and is so valuable that an offer of a speculative American to -replace it with one of equal weight in solid silver was refused. Within -the walls there are fourteen chapels dedicated to the various saints, -and candles are kept constantly burning before the images, and in these -chapels are kept many gruesome relics of these same saints. The remains -of many of the former viceroys and some of the other noted men in Mexican -history lie buried here. This, the greatest church in the western world, -is also built on the foundations of the greatest pagan temple of the -continent—the imposing _Teocalli_ of the Aztecs. From the top of the -towers we can look upon the same valley that Cortez viewed when Montezuma -took him by the hand after ascending the great altar, and pointed out -the various places of interest. The lakes have receded, the architecture -is different, but our admiring eyes see the same majestic hills on every -side. - -Listening to the bells in the towers of this cathedral, once so powerful, -one, who is a “dreamer of dreams,” can almost imagine them lamenting -the changed times in the words of the last poem written by the poet -Longfellow: - - “Is then the old faith dead,” - They say, “and in its stead - Is some new faith proclaimed, - That we are forced to remain - Naked to sun and rain, - Unsheltered and ashamed? - - “Oh bring us back once more - The vanished days of yore, - When the world with faith was filled; - Bring back the fervid zeal, - The hearts of fire and steel, - The hands that believe and build. - - “Then from our tower again - We will send over land and main - Our voices of command, - Like exiled kings who return - To their thrones, and the people learn - That the Priest is lord of the land!” - -The very first movement on the part of Protestant organizations to -evangelize Mexico was made by the American Bible Society when they sent -out one of their representative with the American army in 1846. This man -distributed several thousand copies of the scriptures between Vera Cruz -and the capital which afterwards bore fruit. A few years later a woman, -Miss Matilda Rankin, who had been engaged in missionary work in Texas, -crossed over the border and held services in Monterey. In 1862 a Baptist -missionary, Rev. James Hickey, also began work in Monterey. However, no -organized effort was made by Protestant bodies until the years from 1869 -to 1880, when missionaries were sent by the following denominations: -Protestant Episcopal, Methodist Episcopal, Methodist Episcopal South, -Presbyterian, Baptist, Christian and Congregational. Bishop H. C. Riley -obtained an old church for the use of the Protestant Episcopal Church and -Rev. William Butler purchased a part of the convent of San Francisco, in -the heart of the city, for the Methodist Episcopal Church. - -_Dios y libertad_ had been the watchword of the reform movement, but it -had not been put into practice until the time of President Juarez, who -encouraged mission work, and exerted himself to protect the missionaries -from fanatics. However frequent attacks upon these workers were made -in provincial towns and one foreign missionary, Rev. J. L. Stephens, -of the Congregational Church, was slain at Ahualuco in 1874. A number -of native converts and preachers have met with serious, and even fatal -injuries, but no other Americans have been killed. President Diaz has -also encouraged these ministers when they were downhearted. Rev. William -Butler quotes an interview which several missionaries had with him in -which the President expressed himself as follows: “I have seen this land -as none of you ever saw it, in degradation, with everything in the line -of toleration and freedom to learn. I have watched its rise and progress -to a better condition. We are not yet all we ought to be and hope to be; -but we are not what we once were; we have risen as a people, and are now -rising faster than ever. My advice is, do not be discouraged. Keep on -with your work, avoiding topics of irritation and preaching your gospel -in its own spirit.” The president has no warmer supporters than the -Protestant missionaries and their little bands of adherents. - -Their numbers to-day after thirty years of aggressive work seem small, -as the ten Protestant denominations who maintain missions in Mexico -only claim about twenty-five thousand members, or about one hundred -thousand adherents including those who attend the Sunday-school and -other services. The Presbyterians are working in fourteen different -states. They have fifty organized churches and two hundred and twenty-two -outstations which are served by twenty-one foreign missionaries and -one hundred and one native workers. The Methodist Episcopal Church has -twenty-nine missionaries in the field and one hundred and twenty-two -native workers, and is holding services at more than a hundred different -places. The various denominations have divided up the field and are -working together in harmony. The Methodists, for instance, are working in -Guanajuato, Leon, Pachuca, Puebla, Silao, and Oaxaca. The Presbyterians -have centred their efforts in Aguas Calientes, Zacatecas, Saltillo, San -Luis Potosi and Jalapa. All denominations have missions in the City of -Mexico. The Methodists, Baptists, Presbyterians and Congregationalists -have their own publishing houses and issue periodicals and a great -deal of printed matter in Spanish. There are in all about two hundred -and fifty foreign missionaries in Mexico serving about seven hundred -congregations. Many of these workers are medical missionaries who are -doing a vast amount of good, and others are teachers who are instructing -the youth. The Protestant bodies own property in Mexico valued at nearly -two million dollars. - -An era of at least tolerance toward Protestants is dawning in this land, -and religious liberty is an actual fact. The Young Men’s Christian -Association has a strong organization in the capital. A fund has recently -been raised to erect a splendid new building for the association. The -President and his cabinet have also attended some special memorial -services in the Protestant churches. This may seem a small thing, but -a quarter of a century ago it would have been incredible. Some of the -broad-minded Catholic clergy are even displaying a kindlier feeling -toward the Protestant workers. It may not be many years before Catholic -clergy and Protestant ministers may unite together in working for a -common cause—the betterment of the morals and conditions of the people. - - - - -CHAPTER XVIII - -PASSING OF THE LAWLESS - - -A rude wooden cross set up in a pile of stones is one of the striking -features of Mexican landscape that is frequently seen. As the train -whirls along through a narrow pass, high up on the mountain sides the -cross is seen outlined against the sky; or, if you are pursuing your -journey by horse or mule, in the remote districts away from the railways, -your reverie is suddenly interrupted by coming upon one of these silent -sentinels unawares. These crosses are mute reminders of an age that is -passing away. Each one marks the spot where a murder has taken place in -times past. It is an appeal for the good Catholic to mutter a prayer -for the soul of the murdered one, who was thus without preparation -thrust into the world beyond. There was a time, and that not more than -a generation ago, when the murderous and lawless classes were numerous -in Mexico. The Mexican bandit was so much feared, that, even to this -day, some hesitate to travel in that country, and many more make walking -arsenals of themselves before turning their faces toward our southern -neighbour. - -If the traditionary history that has come down to us is to be believed, -these robber clans can trace their lineage back to the peregrinating -merchants of the Aztecs, and Toltecs. The rich merchant of those days -travelled over the country visiting the various cities with his wares. -For self protection they were obliged to carry with them a large force of -armed retainers. This knowledge of their own power led them to violence. -If, for any reason, these merchants became angered at a town, or, if the -people refused to trade with them, they would attack it, pillage it and -carry off the inhabitants to be sold as slaves in other remote places, or -hold them for ransom. This course generally proved far more remunerative -than the more prosaic occupation of barter and trade. It was indeed a -strong town in those days that could afford to refuse to trade with some -of the powerful merchants. If one trader was not strong enough himself, -he could easily enlist the assistance of another of his class, as the -loot and slaves would be sufficient to remunerate both very well for the -undertaking. - -Later came the freebooters, who, in early Spanish days, had things very -much their own way. Although many of these were well known, they would -visit the cities armed to the teeth and no one would dare to molest them. -It is even claimed, and with good reason, that many officials were in -league with these knights of the road, and gave them information, and -assisted them in their plans to waylay wealthy inhabitants. So long as -the outlaws did not interfere with matters of government, their immunity -was practically secure. There is one city in the northern part of Mexico -named Catorce, the Spanish numeral for fourteen, because, for a long -time, it was the stronghold of fourteen of the boldest, bravest and worst -bandits that Mexico ever produced, who terrorized the country round about -and could not be captured or subdued. - -After independence, came a series of revolutions and uprisings for more -than a half century. The bandits then became guerillas, fighting on -whichever side offered the greatest advantage. They would loot a church, -or rob the hacienda of some wealthy landowner, with equal cheerfulness. -The place or person robbed depended upon whether the guerillas were -enlisted in the cause of the clericals, or anti-clericals. By reason -of the many turmoils and fights that took place, these guerillas became -a numerous and powerful class with their rendezvous in the mountains, -which, in no part of Mexico, are far distant. Before the advent of the -railroads and telegraph it was a difficult matter to cope with these -robber bands in Mexico because roads were lacking, and their haunts were -almost inaccessible. This was one of the first problems attacked by -President Diaz when he came into power, and he did it with the boldness, -originality and dash for which he was noted. - -This new leader found the army a disorganized band of guerillas led by -a few men, not always over-scrupulous, and many parts of the country -overrun by bands of outlaws with whom the local authorities were utterly -unable to cope. Having some veteran troops after his many campaigns, Diaz -sent them after the bandits whenever opportunity afforded. They were -hunted and trailed into their mountain fastnesses. The soldiers were -instructed never to take captives. A little heap of fresh dirt, or a few -stones, marked the place where a living and breathing bandit had once -stood. This war of extermination made welcome to many the proposition -of Diaz. This was that he would furnish employment to those outlaws who -should surrender, and would grant to them protection. The President -being known as a man of his word, this proclamation had its effect and -large numbers formerly under the ban of law, surrendered. - -[Illustration: A _RURALE_] - -From this class of men the first companies of _rurales_ were formed. -Finding it was more profitable, or at least safer, to be in favour with -this aggressive government than under its ban, they willingly entered -this service. These men were brave and thoroughly familiar with all the -mountain retreats and haunts of the outlaw bands. They hunted down their -former confederates until a live bandit was a rare specimen. Travelling -once more became secure, and now there are few places in Mexico where -it is not perfectly safe for a traveller to journey. The companies of -rurales, of which there are many, form one of the most effective forces -for preserving order ever devised by any government. Like the famous -_guardia civil_ of Spain, the rurales patrol the remote mountain trails -and great plains of the central plateaus, and are in reality a body of -rural police. Many a lonely traveller has been made glad by the sight -of the gray uniform of this band. They are generally kind hearted, and -will do everything in their power for a foreigner. Their uniform is -the typical riding costume of the country, and differs from the French -appearance of the uniforms of the regular army. They are fine horsemen, -expert in the use of pistol and carbine, and form one of the most -picturesque cavalry bodies in the world. - -There is no sickly sentimentality wasted upon law breakers, and the -highwayman, or robber, gets little sympathy. Few criminals get a second -opportunity to commit their outrages through the pardoning process. The -old _ley fuga_, or law of attempted escape, which was in force under -Spanish rule, under which Indians or slaves attempting to flee were shot, -was revived. Orders were promulgated to shoot highwaymen on sight, and -all other prisoners if escape was attempted. Few attempts to escape are -now made by prisoners, for the guards have a reckless way of sending -bullets after fleeing prisoners, so that no chains are needed to secure -them. The bullets are swift and any one in custody, even though held as -a witness, will be followed by the quick, death-dealing messengers, if -an attempt to escape is made. Gangs of convicts may be seen in various -places working on the streets, or on the roads, under military guard but -without shackle. The only report necessary in the event a prisoner is -killed is that he attempted to escape. It may be a harsh proceeding, -but it saves the state a great deal of money, and conviction is sure. -Furthermore, it relieves judge, jury and prison officials of much hard -work and annoyance. - -A few years ago the Mexican army consisted of a few thousand irregular, -nondescript soldiers so common in Spanish-American countries. Such men it -was who placed Porfirio Diaz in power in 1876, the same year that we were -celebrating the first centennial of our independence. In promoting peace -this man of Mexico has not forgotten the arts of war. The army has been -improved until it has ceased to be made up of the comic-opera type of the -barefooted, half-naked soldier, and is now a well fed, well equipped, and -well clothed organization to which Mexicans can point with pride. To the -American eye the soldiers appear rather indifferent and insignificant, -because of their smaller stature and brown skin, which reveals the fact -that the regular soldier is generally drawn from the lower classes of -Mexicans. - -Although Mexico might be termed a military nation, as military service -is made obligatory by the law of the country, yet in times of peace this -service is not enforced. It is said that the majority of the enlistments -are not even voluntary, but that recruits are drawn from the ranks of -those who are persistent law breakers—those guilty of petty criminal -offences which we would term misdemeanours. Many of these peon soldiers -who before enlistment never knew what it was to have regular meals and -wear clean clothes every day, leave the service after a few years much -better citizens, and possessing a better education, for schools are -maintained in connection with all the barracks where instruction is given -in reading, writing and mathematics. The pay is about forty cents per -day, in Mexican silver, and is good pay for that country when you take -into consideration the fact that the soldier has absolutely no expenses -except for such luxuries as he may want. - -The standing army of Mexico consists of thirty thousand men and three -thousand two hundred officers. Of this number the infantry number -twenty-two thousand six hundred, cavalry five thousand five hundred, -artillery two thousand, engineers and other branches of the service -making up the remainder. This gives a soldier for every five hundred -inhabitants, as compared with one for every fifteen hundred inhabitants -in the United States. Both infantry and cavalry are equipped with the -Spanish Mauser rifles and carbines. The headquarters of the army -are in the City of Mexico, and several battalions of infantry and -regiments of cavalry are stationed there at all times. The country -is divided into a number of districts, at the headquarters of each -of which are stationed large bodies of troops. Nearly every town of -any size has a _commandancia_ where a few troops are quartered. This -general distribution of the military forces has been made with a prudent -foresight in order to prevent any local uprising. - -[Illustration: ARMY HEADQUARTERS, CITY OF MEXICO] - -In addition to the regular standing army, there are a number of armed -forces which would swell the number of available troops in time of war. -First and foremost are the _Rurales_ who number about three thousand five -hundred by actual count, but double that number in effectiveness. The -Fiscal Guards number about one thousand and are in the revenue service. -The police of the states and cities are compelled to undergo military -drill also, and could be drafted into the army as trained soldiers. These -several forces would constitute another army almost equal in number to -the regular standing army. Militia organizations have been provided for -by law similar to those organizations in our own country, but as yet -little has been done. When these plans are perfected, it is designed -to have the total war footing number a force of one hundred and fifty -thousand drilled and disciplined men. - -The President of Mexico is the commander-in-chief of the army and navy. -The “West Point of Mexico” is located next to the presidential residence -and is called the Chapultepec Military Academy. It was founded in 1824. -During the war of 1847 Chapultepec was successfully stormed by the -American forces, but heroically defended by the cadets. A monument now -stands at the foot of the hill in memory of those cadets who fell in -that engagement, and a graceful tribute is paid to the memory of those -youthful patriots on each fourth of July, when wreaths are placed on -the monument by the American residents of the capital at the same time -that they decorate the graves of American soldiers who are buried near -the city. This school now ranks high as a military school, and more than -one-third of the commissioned officers of the army are graduates of this -institution. The graduate leaves this school with the rank of lieutenant. -The student must bind himself to serve seven years in the army, if he -takes the technical courses, and, if he is discharged, or refuses to -serve, must repay to the government $16 for each month he remained -in the academy. If war should occur, all retired graduates would be -compelled to report for service. - -Not a generation ago the capital itself was the home of innumerable -thieves. In fact, a goodly percentage of the people were either thieves, -robbers or beggars. These were drawn from the _mestizo_ class, and formed -a picturesque but filthy group of blackguards. They would make love to -any one’s pocket, and argue with one another at the point of a long, -sharp knife. Each one carried a knife and revolver. “Unfortunate men, -women and children, the legitimate heritage of wrong, oppression and -misgovernment, thronged the streets begging in daytime, and committing -petty robberies by night. They slept by hundreds in doorways, on benches -in public parks, in ruined houses, and in the dirtiest of apartments. A -score or more of filthy beings of all ages and both sexes would sleep -together in one small room reeking with the miasma that rose from sewers -and unclean cobble-stone pavements.” - -Vice was the natural outcome of such conditions. All natural feelings of -delicacy and shame were deadened. Morality was unknown, and they lived -like animals rather than human beings. Marriages were unthought of, and -children knew not their parents, for even their mothers deserted them. If -not deserted, they were frequently maimed and turned out into the street -to beg. Pulque and mescal added its touch to the picture. Disfiguring -diseases were added, and the name _leperos_ attached to them. Brantz -Mayer, a writer on Mexico, has given the following definition of the -_lepero_. “Blacken a man in the sun, let his hair grow long and tangled -and become filled with vermin; let him plod about the streets in all -kinds of dirt for years, and never know the use of a brush, or towel, or -water, even, except in storms; let him put on a pair of leather breeches -at twenty and wear them until forty without change or ablution; and over -all place a torn and blackened hat and a tattered blanket begrimed with -abominations; let him have wild eyes and shining teeth, features pinched -by famine into sharpness, and breast bared and browned; combine all these -in your imagination and you have a recipe for a Mexican _lepero_.” - -These _leperos_ were the thieving class. They frequented all parts of the -city. Even the churches were not exempt and you were just as likely to -be robbed by some apparently devout, kneeling worshipper saying his _ave -marias_ in a sacred edifice as on the street. In the less frequented -streets many hold-ups took place, and the bodies of those murdered would -be found on the pavement in the morning. It was hardly safe to move about -the street after night had fallen. The thieves’ market was well known and -did a thriving business. Here were the pawn-brokers who did a profitable -business acting as “fences” for the thieves. Many instances are told by -foreigners who were robbed, and, in a few hours, found their property -exposed for sale in this market. They were obliged to pay considerable -sums to recover their own property. - -All these types are now disappearing, and even the beggars are less -numerous. The former lawless _leperos_ are now seen in the poor venders -of lottery tickets who crowd every public place. Begging is forbidden -in most parts of the city. Vice has not disappeared, it is true, nor -has it in American cities. The poor peon still gets intoxicated and is -dirty, but he is more law-abiding than formerly. Conditions, which are -the result of neglect and misrule of centuries, can only be overcome -entirely by education, immigration and the infusion of saner ideas, and -this is a gradual process. A whole city, or a whole country, can not -be plowed up and re-sown in a season, as the corn fields of last year -were transformed into the waving fields of golden grain this year. A -generation is even too short a time. The change actually wrought has been -almost a miracle. Work can now be had by all who are willing to work, -and the government is making strenuous efforts to get rid of the idle -classes. It is a long and hard task, but another decade under present -conditions will work wonders. - -An excellent police system is found in the capital and all the other -cities. A policeman is not hard to find. One is stationed at nearly every -street intersection. During the day he stands like a statue, occasionally -leaning against a door post. At night the policeman brings a lantern and -a blanket, and sets the lantern in the centre of the crossing, while he -stands beside it or not far away. The joker says the lantern is intended -to aid the thief in avoiding the officer of the law. Sometimes after the -people quit passing, he may lean up against a building and fall asleep, -but you can locate his vicinity by the lantern. As the windows are all -heavily barred, and the doors are heavy oaken affairs that it would take -a stick of dynamite to move, and as fires are infrequent, his lot is -not a very hard one. The police are very numerous, however, because the -government wants to keep informed in order that a revolutionary movement -may not gain any headway. One seldom hears of knock-downs now, and pocket -picking is about the only kind of robbery. - -These guardians of the peace are generally called _serenos_. This name -clings to them from the old Spanish watchman whose duty it was to call -out the time of the night and state of the weather. As this was usually -clear, the watchman would say “_tiempo sereno_” meaning “weather clear.” -From the frequent repetition of this term the watchmen were dubbed -_serenos_. The Mexican _sereno_ is generally a faithful and reliable -official and is obliging to a stranger. They have made the streets in the -City of Mexico as safe as in Paris. The senses of sight and smell may be -offended more often, but purse and life are just as secure. - - - - -CHAPTER XIX - -THE STORY OF THE REPUBLIC - - -There is a strange fascination about the history of Mexico, and no one -can thoroughly understand the country or the people without a little -insight into those stirring events that preceded the establishment of the -present republic. With the increasing friendly regard and the growing -commercial intercourse between the two countries, a few pages devoted -to this subject will not be amiss; and the prospective traveller, as -well as the one who has already travelled in that country, will find an -additional interest in Mexico and the Mexicans. - -However we may feel inclined to criticize Cortez, the fact remains that -he thoroughly subjugated the country, and presented to Spain the fairest -jewel of her domain. Having been made the first governor of New Spain, -he was too busy with fresh conquests and the task of keeping order to -make a successful ruler. In order to reform the various abuses that had -grown up, and represent in every way possible the person of the king, -King Charles V sent the first viceroy in the autumn of 1535. This first -of a long line of viceroys, reaching down to the year 1821, was named -Antonio de Mendoza, himself of noble descent, a man of ability, and one -who had at heart the best interests of the colonists and the welfare -of the Indians. The latter had been subjected to many humiliations and -hardships all of which were removed by him, and they were encouraged in -the cultivation of the lands. - -The colonists themselves were a source of great trouble for they were -mostly adventurers and were not, like the early American colonists, men -who were seeking religious liberty. The arm of the church was stretched -just as strongly in new Spain as in the land of their birth, and to the -religious orders was due in great measure the firm foundation upon which -the Spanish government was established. During the rule of this man and -his successor, Velasco, the country prospered, agriculture was stimulated -and a number of industries suitable to the climate of the country -encouraged. - -At the close of the sixteenth century, Spain underwent great changes. The -line of able rulers had passed away, and the government fell into the -hands of profligates who were favourites of the reigning sovereign. The -line of viceroys continued in rotation, and most of them were fair men -who probably governed the best they knew how, but their knowledge on that -subject was not very great. They were poor rulers when compared with the -first two above mentioned. The church retained its firm grasp. As one -writer has put it, during the first century of Spanish rule the church -was a blessing to the country, during the second an indifferent quantity -and during the third an actual menace. The inquisition—that terrible -institution—had been established in Mexico as early as 1570. The first -_auto-da-fé_ was celebrated in 1574, when “there perished twenty-one -pestilent Lutherans.” Indians were exempt from this institution and it -was only aimed at heretics of other nations. Large numbers were burned in -the capital and other cities. In Puebla, the old house of the inquisition -was remodelled within the last half-century, and a number of walled-up -cells opened in which skeletons were found—no doubt remains of victims -who had been buried alive. The inquisition was not formally abolished -until the beginning of the last century, just prior to the beginning of -the movement for independence. Even this concession, and the promise -of correcting other abuses, did not stop the growing discontent, for -generations had grown up who had few ties linking them to the mother -country; who had intermarried with native races; and who would be -satisfied with nothing but complete severance of their relations. - -The beginning of the nineteenth century opened with a feeling of unrest -in all European nations and their colonies. When Napoleon overturned -monarchies, the idea of the divine right of kings received a shock. -Among the countries thus affected was Spain, which had dropped down from -the high pedestal it had formerly occupied. The eyes of the people of -Mexico were opened by the events in Europe, and also by the successful -revolution of the American colonies. All the offices of profit in Mexico -were held by Spaniards, and the policy of the mother country toward her -dependents was well expressed by one of the viceroys as follows: “Let -the people of these dominions learn once for all that they were born -to be silent and to obey, and not to discuss nor to have opinions in -political affairs.” The spirit of revolution and liberty was in the air -and restraint became more and more galling. The events leading to the -independence of Mexico, and the stirring times subsequent thereto, can -best be treated by a glance at the men who were in the limelight during -the various periods. - -When Miguel Hidalgo, curate of the little village of Dolores, sounded the -“grito” of independence by ringing the bell of the parish church early on -the morning of the 16th of September, 1810, a struggle for independence -was started that lasted for eleven years, and during which much of the -soil of Mexico was crimsoned with the blood of those slain in battle -or executed by the authorities as traitors. At the outset no people -were less prepared for such a contest. They knew nothing of military -tactics; their weapons were primitive and their leaders were without -military training. No more righteous cause ever existed for rebellion -against tyranny and usurpation. The first two leaders were consecrated -representatives of the church that had assisted a despotic government in -bringing about such an unfortunate state of affairs. These two martyrs -who were excommunicated by the church, and executed by the government -as traitors, are now honoured with resting places in sacred ground by a -grateful nation. - -The first revolt was headed by a picture of the patron saint of the -country, and shouts of “Viva Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe” and “Viva -la Independencia” were intermingled. Hidalgo and his compatriots were -compelled to begin their movement before thoroughly prepared, because -their plans had been discovered and betrayed to the government. On the -morning of the memorable day above mentioned, Hidalgo addressed the -people from the pulpit of the church where he had so often celebrated -mass, and, leading his followers forth, released the prisoners in -the town, and captured the principal Spaniards. Soon afterwards this -priest-warrior patriot, who had been named Captain-General, followed by -a few hundred of human beings (they can not be called soldiers), marched -forth to conquer Mexico and give “death to the Spaniards.” - -It was a motley crowd armed with stones, lances, _machetes_, arrows, -clubs and swords, whose numbers and enthusiasm were ever increasing as -they marched across the country without meeting resistance. San Miguel -and Celaya, Irapuato and Querétero, yielded, and the army which by this -time numbered tens of thousands marched towards Guanajuato. The governor -of that province assembled the terror-stricken populace in the now famous -Alhondiga de Granaditas, built for storing grain but now a prison, as -noted in that city as the Bastille of Paris. Upon a refusal to surrender, -Hidalgo and his followers attacked this fortress with fanatical zeal, and -captured it by the mere force of numbers. This supplied him with plenty -of food and a million dollars in money which furnished the sinews of war. - -Terror struck the hearts of the Spaniards and every town yielded to -this new leader, who now bore the title of Generalissimo, as the army -approached the City of Mexico. One terrible battle occurred at Monte -las Cruces and both forces withdrew. Hidalgo—and this was probably -his greatest error—retreated, and his fortune immediately turned. The -volatile nature of the people asserted itself and his followers deserted -by the thousands. He started for the United States, but was betrayed -and captured, and was executed at Chihuahua on July 31st, 1811. For ten -years his head was suspended by a spike from one of the corners of the -Alhondiga de Granaditas, once occupied by him as conqueror, as a warning -to revolutionists, but was afterward buried with great ceremony in the -cathedral at the capital. - -It was around a disciple of Hidalgo that the forces of discontent and -patriotism rallied upon the death of their first leader, and that man -was also a priest, Jose Maria Morelas. Of low birth and poor, this man -drove mules until thirty years of age before an opportunity presented -itself for education to fit himself for the priesthood, which was his -ambition. In that time he had acquired the qualities of patience and -cool calculation from the animals he drove. A student under Hidalgo, he -had imbibed a love for independence, and leaving his church upon the -sounding of the “grito,” offered his services to the Generalissimo. -He was an abler leader than Hidalgo and showed great military skill, -winning a series of victories clear across the country from Acapulco, on -the Pacific Coast, to Cuautla not far from Vera Cruz. At Cuautla he was -besieged for over two months, and then successfully withdrew with all -his forces by night. Returning to Acapulco he summoned the first Mexican -Congress, which met at Chilpantzingo, a small town near that city. -This congress met on the 14th of September, 1813, and on the following -day issued its famous declaration of independence, as follows:—“The -Congress of Anahuac, lawfully installed in the city of Chilpantzingo, -of North America, solemnly declares, in the presence of God, arbitrator -of kingdoms and author of society, who gives and takes away according -to the inscrutable designs of his providence, that, through the -present circumstances of Europe, it has recovered the exercise of its -sovereignty, hitherto usurped, its dependence upon the throne of Spain -being thus forever disrupted and dissolved.”[5] - -This congress provided a form of government with a military executive -called Generalissimo, and Morelas was elected to this position for -life, or “so long as he was worthy.” Shortly after this his forces were -defeated at Valladolid, now called Morelia, and his power began to wane, -though resistance was kept up for some time afterwards with varying -success. Spanish troops had arrived, and stronger leaders were in charge -of the government forces and the cause of independence looked dark. -The plans of Morelas were betrayed to the enemy and he was captured. -The ecclesiastical tribunes covered him with ignominy. He was then -sentenced to death by the military authorities, and shot in the little -village of San Cristobal Ecatepec, near the capital, on December 22d, -1815, dying the death of a hero. This muleteer-priest-warrior was an -able leader, an honest man and a patriotic citizen. He seemed devoid of -personal ambition, although accepting title for the sake of the cause -he fought for. He was possessed of restless energy and great piety, for -he always made confession before entering battle. To-day, he is second -only to Hidalgo in the affections of the people, and worthily fills that -position. Over the door of the house once owned by him in Morelia appears -the following inscription:— - - “Morelas the illustrious - Immortal Hero. - In this house honoured by thy presence - Salute you the grateful people of Morelia.” - -The revolution was seemingly crushed at the death of Morelas but a few -patriots retired to the mountains, and there kept alive for better -days the sacred fire of liberty. Guerrero was one of those heroes who -showed an unwearying activity, and kept up a constant warfare upon the -government forces. The next prominent name in succession among those -leaders of the movement for freedom was Agustin de Iturbide, a former -active and able officer of the royalist forces, and to whom more than -anyone else was due the failure of Morelas. Deserting the cause of Spain, -because he thought injustice had been done him, General Iturbide issued -the “Plan of Iguala” on the 20th of February, 1820, composed of three -articles: preservation of the Roman Catholic church; independence of -Mexico under a monarchical form of government with a prince of the royal -house of Spain as ruler; union and equality of Spaniards and Mexicans. -From this proclamation his army became known as the army of the three -guarantees. His act was full of duplicity, for he had obtained the -largest force possible from the Viceroy Apodaca in order to turn them -over to the new scheme. - -Before the viceroy could recover from his surprise, Iturbide, who -had been joined by most of the insurgent leaders, had started on his -victorious campaign. Valladolid, Querétero and Puebla succumbed. The -viceroy tried by suppressing liberty, and enforcing enlistments in the -royal army, to stem the tide but in vain, and he was deposed. O’Donoju, -the sixty-fourth and last viceroy, arrived about this time at Vera Cruz, -but was intercepted by Iturbide and entered into the treaty of Cordoba in -which the independence of Mexico was recognized with a sovereign to be -selected from the royal house of Spain, and a provisional Junta formed. -Iturbide was selected as president of this Junta, and made a triumphal -entry into the City of Mexico on the 27th of September, 1821. This ended -three hundred years of Spanish rule in Mexico. Iturbide had accomplished -in a little more than a year, and with little bloodshed, what ten years -of strife had failed to do. He can not be classed with Hidalgo and -Morelas as a pure patriot, but he has been officially designated as the -“Liberator of Mexico.” - -The rejection of the treaty of Cordoba by the Cortes of Spain gave -new impetus to the smouldering ambitions of Iturbide. The second -Mexican Congress having been called, Iturbide at a packed session was -declared Emperor by a majority of four to one of those voting, but -not a constitutional majority, and he took the office as Agustin I. -When he was crowned and anointed in the cathedral with much form and -solemnity, on the 21st of July, 1822, the ambition of this self-made -emperor had reached its full. The saying that uneasy lies the head -that wears a crown never had better application than in this instance. -Other leaders in the cause of liberty felt that they had been slighted, -and every discontented person made common cause against the Emperor. A -republic was proclaimed at Vera Cruz in December of the same year by -Santa Anna, who was commander of a regiment stationed there, and he -issued a _pronunciamento_. This plan failed, but it encouraged Bravo, -Guerrero and other revolutionary leaders, and rebellion sprung up in a -number of places. Iturbide had dissolved congress and this increased the -dissatisfaction. A more formidable revolt arose, and on March 19th, 1823, -Iturbide abdicated without attempting to retain his position by force of -arms. - -A few weeks later the ex-Emperor left Mexico and sailed for Italy, having -been granted an annual sum of $25,000 for his services. He soon went to -England and wrote the government from there that the republic was in -danger, and he would come back to help fight the battles of his country. -He did not know that his death had been decreed by congress, and so -he set sail upon his last voyage. When he arrived at Vera Cruz he was -captured, and after some delay was executed at Padilla on the 19th of -July, 1824, as a traitor, in his forty-first year. His body was buried in -a roofless old church and lay there until 1838, when it was removed to -the Cathedral. - -Opinion is very much divided as to the rank that should be accorded -Iturbide. He was able, brave, honest so far as is known, and probably -fell a victim to his ambition like many a man before him. The relative -regard in which he is held is shown in the fact that the town which -gave both him and his former vanquished foe, Morelas, birth, is now -called Morelia, and a state is also named Morelas. In contrast to this -there is neither city nor state named after Iturbide, and the famous -Iturbide Hotel in the capital city, once his residence, is the only -institution perpetuating his name so far as I could learn. The only -things accomplished by him during his brief reign were the settlement of -the titles by which he and his family should be addressed, the succession -to the throne, order of precedence among the dignitaries, allowances of -himself and family, and the creation of the Order of Guadalupe to bestow -honours upon his followers. - -At last a so-called republic was established, and Guadalupe Victoria was -inaugurated as the first president on the 10th day of October, 1824, -and served until 1828. When the fort of San Juan de Ulua at Vera Cruz -lowered its flag, in 1825, the last vestige of Spanish power was gone, -and the red and yellow striped banner of the Iberian peninsula was not -to be seen on Mexican soil. And Mexico, as then constituted, was a big -country, containing almost twice as much territory as to-day. From the -end of the administration of President Victoria until after the death -of Maximilian, there was not a year of peace in Mexico. Revolutions, -_pronunciamentos_, “plans” and restorations followed each other in quick -succession. Generals, presidents and dictators sprang up like mushrooms, -and their position was as evanescent. The congress unwisely decreed the -expulsion of the Spaniards, and their departure took much of the wealth -of the country. Revolutions were an every-day affair. A man in position -of authority did not know when his time to be shot might come. A sudden -turn of fortune might send him either to the national palace, or before a -squad of men with guns aimed at his heart. - -A good illustration of this uncertainty of affairs is seen in the -treatment and fate of the grim old patriot Guerrero. Born of very low -Indian parents he had climbed to the front and borne many of the burdens -of the struggle with Spain. He cheerfully yielded his command to the -renegade Iturbide, and fought valiantly under that leader for liberty. -By a turn of fortune he became the third president in 1829. A few months -later he was compelled to flee, but was soon afterwards betrayed and -captured at Acapulco. At a farcical trial he was condemned to death -as “morally incapable” to act as president, and shot on the 15th of -February, 1831, at Cuilapa. Soon afterwards he was declared a martyr -and his body removed to the capital with honours. Two monuments to this -martyr now adorn that city, and a state has been named after him. Under -his short rule slavery was abolished by statute. - -Elections eventually became a farce. The unfortunate habit was acquired -of appealing to arms instead of submitting to the result of the ballot. -The trouble was that the people had copied the letter, and not the -spirit of the American constitution. Liberty was interpreted as license, -after their exaggerated ideas of the former. The scheming politicians -would hesitate at nothing—revolution or civil war—to attain private ends -or personal aggrandizement. A general indolence of character, and the -hindrances to the acquirement of property among the masses, made the -people more willing to yield to disturbing and designing politicians. -They are impetuous by nature, impatient of restraint and easily fired up. -The rapid changes in government can be seen when you read that there were -five different presidents in each of the years 1846 and 1847, and four in -1855—not an evidence of tranquillity at least. The two leading parties -constantly at war were the “progresistas” and “retrogrados.” - -During this period a few prominent names are constantly recurring, and -by far the most prominent one is that of the notorious Santa Anna, -who, for more than fifty years, occupied a prominent, but not always -honourable, place in Mexican affairs. Earlier in life his restless energy -was expended in a fairly commendable way, and he fought some battles -in defense of the rights of the people. During the war of intervention -with France in 1838 he lost his leg in the defense of Vera Cruz. Ever -afterwards, when in trouble, he would flourish his severed limb and -remind the people how he had been mutilated in the defense of his -country, with the effect of restoring himself in public favour. As he -grew older his naturally quarrelsome disposition increased, his vanity -knew no bounds, and when at the height of his glory, he declared himself -dictator and ordered all people to address him as “most serene highness.” -Never honest except as a matter of policy, his cupidity became more -pronounced, until, near the close of the war with the United States, he -offered to appoint commissioners and confirm a treaty of peace for the -sum of one million dollars. First elected president in 1833, he was -again either chosen to, or assumed the office, in 1839, 1846, 1847, -1853 and 1855, but did not serve long at any time. On one occasion his -amputated leg was buried with great ceremony, but afterwards fickle -sentiment changed, and the martyr part of this hero was brought forth by -the rabble, dragged through the streets of the capital, and insulting -epithets heaped upon the former idol. - -Santa Anna led the forces against the Texas insurrectionists, and was the -man responsible for the Alamo slaughter, when one hundred and forty brave -Texans were trapped and slain. Visitors to that place are still shown the -stains made by the blood of that brave frontiersman, Davy Crockett, and -the cry of “Remember the Alamo” still has potency. This insurrection was -soon followed by the war between Mexico and the United States. - -Franklin says, there never was a good war nor a bad peace. The United -States can not be justified in warring upon Mexico, though the results -have perhaps been for the best with both nations. Bancroft does not mince -words in his treatment of the subject for he says: “It (the Mexican -War) was a premeditated and predetermined affair; it was the result -of a deliberately calculated scheme of robbery on the part of the -superior force.” The result was a foregone conclusion, for Mexico, torn -by internal dissensions, impoverished by the expense of revolutions and -official robbery, and with a government changing with every change of the -seasons, had neither armies, money nor supplies for such a conflict. The -people were used to the smell of powder but were not trained soldiers, -and the “generals” were simply a few of the twelve thousand recipients -of military commissions that had been distributed by various presidents -in the preceding three years. “Plans” promulgated by one party were -bombarded with “pronunciamentos” from another. This was the condition of -affairs when General Taylor assumed the offensive and fought the battle -of Palo Alto. - -Mexico might have sued for peace at this time, but no government was -in power long enough to negotiate a treaty. A special envoy sent from -Washington at the request of one president was refused an audience by a -new one, who had usurped the office before his arrival. Generals Taylor -and Fremont subdued Northern Mexico, and General Scott later began his -memorable march toward the ancient Aztec capital, from Vera Cruz, like -Cortez of old. Santa Anna, who had been “recuperating” from public -unpopularity at Havana, returned and state after state immediately -“pronounced” in his favour. He issued a manifesto assuming the executive -control and took the field against the invaders. He first tried to secure -$15,000,000 from the Church, but although the priests hated the “northern -heretics” they were loth to give up the coin, and little was secured. -Vera Cruz fell after two weeks’ bombardment, and Puebla yielded to the -Americans. Patriotism was finally aroused to save the City of Mexico, -but the victories of Chapultepec, Chorubusco and Molino del Rey were -followed by the triumphal entry of General Scott into the capital. The -treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo ceded to the United States more than six -hundred thousand square miles of the Mexican domain, including some of -the richest mineral lands of the republic. Disgraced and humiliated as -Mexico had been, it was, I believe, the beginning of better things for -that country. - -Santa Anna went into voluntary exile to Jamaica. The first president -after the war, Herrera, actually served the appointed time of his office, -but disorder soon began under his successor. “Pronouncing” became -popular again, and Santa Anna returned. He was made dictator for a short -time by his favourites. This was the last office held by this selfish -politician. He exiled himself to St. Thomas again, and afterwards in -Elizabethport, New Jersey. During the second empire he tried to curry -favour with both sides, but neither would listen to him. Discouraged and -disheartened he lived abroad, until, burdened by the weight of eighty -years, he sought and obtained permission to return to the capital, and -died on the 20th of June, 1876. Thus passed a man who had lived in -stirring times, was most intensely hated, had been president six times, -military dictator four times, had upset fifteen governments, had been -marked for the assassin’s bullet many times; and yet he lived to a ripe -old age and died a natural death. However, all his glory had faded, and, -blind, lame and infirm, he spent his last days in extreme poverty. - -Here is a picture of this man drawn by Rev. William Butler,[6] who -visited him about a year before his death: “Santa Anna was living in an -obscure street, neglected and forgotten by all parties. On entering the -apartment we found the old man sitting on a sofa, behind which hung a -picture of his wife ‘her serene highness, Dolores Tosta de Santa Anna’ -arrayed as a vice-queen. The magnificence of the painting contrasted -sadly with the poverty-stricken aspect of the room and furniture. To him, -however, this could make but little difference, as we soon saw that he -was totally blind as well as feeble and broken in spirit, with a tendency -to mental weakness.” He was buried in the cemetery at Guadalupe without -honours or recognition by the government, and his remains still rest -there. As I gazed upon his tomb I could not help thinking what a contrast -between his career and that of the patriots Hidalgo, Morelas, and Juarez. - -The early constitution had declared that the Roman Catholic religion -should perpetually be the religion of Mexico. Nevertheless a struggle -had been growing up between the clericals and liberals for many years -with increasing intensity. It finally centred in a struggle over the -sequestration of the church property, and became wider and wider until -the whole country was involved and divided into two great parties. The -liberals were probably just as good Christians as the others but thought -the Church had too much wealth. - -[Illustration: A VILLAGE CHURCH] - -At this juncture there arose a pure Indian, of lowly parentage, who -never saw a school until he was twelve years of age. His name was Benito -Juarez. Although ever professing devout faith, he early espoused the -cause of the anti-clerical party. He was banished by Santa Anna and -fled to New Orleans, but opinion changed and his sentiments became the -popular views. The new constitution of 1857 declared the separation of -church and state. Juarez had been elected President of the Supreme Court -under Comonfort. The latter was compelled to flee the country and Juarez -became president under the constitution, in 1857. Congress passed a law -confiscating church property and civil war was begun. Juarez took the -field in person and did not reach the capital until three years later. -These three years have been called the years of horrors. The liberals -were excommunicated by the church, and the papal delegate and several -bishops were ordered out of the country in turn by Juarez. Ministerial -crises and resignations became chronic. Guerillas and robbers were bold -and attacked many aliens, and foreign obligations were unpaid because of -the impoverished condition of the country. - -Juarez alone remained cool in the midst of all these disturbances. The -convention entered into between France, England and Spain for a joint -intervention in Mexican affairs on the 31st day of October, 1861, brought -new embarrassment to the Indian reformer. Underneath these acts of -the convention the crafty hand of Napoleon can be seen. The man who -had accomplished one _coup d’Etat_ was a sworn enemy to all republican -institutions. The pretext for this intervention was the collection of -some money claims and reparation for alleged offences. Spain no doubt -looked forward to a little revenge. The Spanish fleet occupied Vera Cruz -on the 14th of December, 1861, followed by the other armies. A conference -took place at Orizaba with Juarez who acknowledged the money claims, and -Spain and England withdrew their forces. The French remained, secretly -supported and encouraged by the extreme church party, and advanced to and -captured Puebla. Distracted and disheartened by the state of affairs, the -prospect of a stable government made the way easy to place Maximilian -upon the throne as Emperor of Mexico, and this was done. He and the -empress arrived on the 28th of May, 1864. Maximilian was a liberal ruler -and the Empress Carlotta won the people by her charming personality and -benevolences. - -As long as the French forces remained his throne was secure. The prompt -and decisive action of Secretary Seward sounded the death knell of -Maximilian’s ambitions. Napoleon withdrew his troops, and Maximilian -might have easily escaped had he not wavered between ambition and -discretion,—the former eventually winning. He met death with dignity and -said “May my blood be the last spilt for the welfare of the country.” - -During all of these years Juarez maintained a semblance of authority and -kept a cabinet under appointment although he was finally driven to the -American border. Yet he could wait, for he had inherited from his dusky -ancestors the qualities of patience, endurance and imperturbability. -He also had executive ability and an abundance of good sense. After -the execution of Maximilian he made a triumphal entry into Mexico. The -country was impoverished. The short empire had added a national debt of -$187,000,000. More than one thousand battles and skirmishes had occurred -between 1863 and 1867, and a hundred thousand Mexicans had been killed or -disabled. The people were still restless and an increasing element began -to say that he had been president long enough. He was unmoved, but kept -steadily on his way trying to better the condition of the people, improve -the finances and bring prosperity to his country. The iron constitution -finally gave way and he died on the 19th of July, 1872, beloved and -honoured by his country. He deserves to be called the Washington of -Mexico, for the real liberty of a republican form of government began -with him. He had prepared the way for his successors to bring peace, -prosperity and liberty to a country that for centuries had been groping -and striving after such a condition. Juarez lies buried beneath a -magnificent monument in the Panteon de San Fernando, in the City of -Mexico. - -Upon the death of Juarez the constitutional succession to the chief -magistracy fell upon Lerdo de Tejada, who occupied that office for four -years. The subsequent history of Mexico, however, centres around the -personality of Porfirio Diaz, and the events of his long administration -and final downfall are treated in the two following chapters. - - - - -CHAPTER XX - -THE GUIDING HAND - - -“I should like to live fifty years to see the result of the seed I have -planted,” said Porfirio Diaz a number of years ago. It is not within the -limit of human possibility that such a boon could be granted this amiable -“republican despot” but he had lived long enough to see the good results -of the policies established by him for the upbuilding of his country. - -Succeeding to a government that had been in the throes of revolution ever -since the patriot-priest Hidalgo first proclaimed independence on the -16th of September, 1810, President Diaz at once restored peace to the -country that has lasted for thirty years. Inheriting a bankrupt treasury -from his predecessors, and a large foreign debt that had on several -occasions brought about foreign intervention, he succeeded in placing the -finances of the country in a prosperous condition and has accomplished -more for Mexico than had been done in three centuries of Spanish rule. -He organized the army along modern lines and established the _rurales_ -which insured the safety of life and property. Railroads under the -wise system of encouragement inaugurated by him have increased from -three hundred and fifty miles to thirteen thousand five hundred miles; -telegraph lines from four thousand five hundred miles to thirty-five -thousand miles; the number of post-offices now number two thousand three -hundred and fifty instead of seven hundred and twenty as it was in 1876. -Imports and exports have doubled several times, and the annual balance -sheet now shows a comfortable surplus instead of a deficit as in former -days. All this has been done and old obligations met in spite of the -serious loss in exchange due to the depreciation in silver, and the fact -that the heavy foreign obligations had to be met in gold purchased with -silver at a low and constantly varying valuation. - -[Illustration: A COMPANY OF _RURALES_] - -The life of Porfirio Diaz is fascinating. It savours of the days of -knighthood and romance. We are reminded of those heroes of old around -whom time has cast a glamour, for he has had adventures as exciting, -escapes as miraculous and a life seemingly as charmed as any hero created -by the masters of romance, and his life may well be termed “stranger -than fiction.” One is naturally inclined to be rather eulogistic in his -treatment of such a character. - -The present President of Mexico was born in the city of Oaxaca in an -unimposing house on the Street of La Soledad, that is now used as a sugar -factory, on the 15th of September, 1830, a day already celebrated in -Mexican annals. His father, Captain José Faustini Diaz, was of Spanish -descent and followed the occupation of innkeeper, but died when Porfirio -was only three years of age. His maternal grandmother was a Mixteca -Indian. The church and law were the only two occupations open to an -ambitious youth in those days, and this young lad was intended for the -former. He chose the law much to the disgust of his relatives but never -followed that calling. The fighting blood in him impelled him to the -sanguinary conflicts on the field rather than the bloodless battles in -the courts between contending counsel. - -About this time the war with the United States broke out and the future -president, a youth of seventeen, volunteered but saw no fighting, -although he thus early in life showed his genius for organization by -forming his fellow-students of the academy into a battalion for the -defence of his home city. Benito Juarez, afterwards president, was -attracted by this youth and invited him to read law in his office, -which offer was accepted. Thus was begun an association between two -men who were destined in later years to occupy such a prominent place -in Mexican history. Through the influence of Juarez, the younger man -was made assistant librarian and by the aid of the salary attached to -this position, and money earned as tutor, he completed his course, and -received his law degree. - -Politics and war seem to have divided the attention of Diaz from the very -first with a preference for the latter in early life. Diaz was a military -genius. I can say this in all seriousness. Although he never commanded a -large army yet, under his hands, the rawest recruits soon became valuable -troops. He is possessed of a personal magnetism and the quality of -_simpatica_, (which can not be translated into English) that draws people -to him and, when once aroused, they become his enthusiastic partisans. -In a land of lethargy and procrastination his movements were quick and -decisive, and he soon became noted for night marches and early morning -attacks. He never was overcome except by superior forces, and then only -after his stores and ammunition were exhausted. Even when beaten and his -army captured or separated, a few days of freedom would again place him -at the head of a respectable force ready to take aggressive stand against -the enemy. Had he been in command of a hundred thousand men, he would -have met the situation with the same tact and ability. - -The first of the many political offices held by Diaz was that of Jefe -Politico, or mayor, of the little Indian town of Ixtlan when only -twenty-five years of age. Here he devoted his time to organizing the -Indians into a company of militia, and this little body of soldiers -formed a nucleus that proved a great help to him in the troublous times -which followed. Later he was made Jefe of Tehuantepec where he showed -great administrative ability. Soon afterward, in 1861, he was elected a -deputy to congress from Oaxaca, but at that time would not sacrifice the -excitement of war for the more prosaic duties of law-making. - -Captain Diaz had seen his first military service in the revolts against -the notorious Santa Anna, of Alamo fame. He had the courage to sign a -remonstrance against this usurper, and was compelled to fly for his life. -Later, in the campaigns against Santa Anna, he was so successful that -he had become almost a hero in the eyes of his fellow Oaxacans. At the -beginning of the French invasion, the rank of general of a brigade had -been conferred upon him at the early age of thirty-two years, and he was -assigned to the defense of Puebla under General Zaragoza. It was due to -his tactics more than anything else that the way was paved for the great -victory of _Cinco de Mayo_, 1862, when an inferior force of Mexicans -defeated a numerically larger army of veteran French troops. It was -nearly a year later before the armies of the allied French and Austrians, -greatly augmented by new arrivals, were able to capture Puebla after a -two months’ siege, the ammunition of the Mexicans had been exhausted. -General Diaz refusal to give _parol_ and was made prisoner but escaped -after a short confinement. - -Because of the approach of the invading armies toward the capital, -President Juarez had removed the seat of government to San Luis Potosi. -He made General Diaz commander-in-chief of the armies south of the Valley -of Mexico. Returning to his favourite haunts in Oaxaca, he soon gathered -together an army and some money and marched forth on the offensive. By -this time General Diaz had become such a formidable opponent that General -Bazaine himself, later of European fame, leader of the French forces, -took the field against this young leader with the determination to crush -him. He finally shut him up in Oaxaca and captured that city in 1865. The -French general had carefully laid his plans for this campaign, having -transported a large number of guns, and was at the head of an army, Diaz -claims, of sixteen thousand. The fame of this general and his large force -created a panic among the troops of Diaz and his little army had dwindled -to a few hundred. General Diaz was captured and taken to Puebla by his -captors where he was prisoner for more than seven months in a former -house of the Jesuits in that city. His escape is celebrated in Mexican -annals, and his own account is as follows, although I have greatly -abbreviated it:— - -“After taps for silence had been sounded for the night, I went to a room -which was roofless and which on that account was used as a yard. I had -with me three ropes, wrapped up in canvas, and I threw them onto the -roof. I also had another rope, and I succeeded in throwing it around -a projecting stone spout which seemed to be sufficiently firm. When I -had satisfied myself that the support was sufficient, I climbed up by -the rope to the roof. My progress along the roof to the corner of San -Roque street, where I had made up my mind to descend, was attended with -much danger, for on the roof of the church a detachment and sentries -were stationed to keep watch. Gliding on all-fours I made towards the -point where I was to let myself down. I often had to stop to feel my -way, for the roof was strewn with many fragments of glass which sounded -when touched. Moreover, there were frequent flashes of lightning, which -exposed me to being discovered. - -“I finally reached the wall of the church. In order to arrive at the -corner of the street of San Roque it was necessary to pass through a -portion of the edifice which was occupied by the priest in charge of the -church, and I was aware that shortly before he had denounced to the court -martial some political prisoners who had bored a hole through their place -of confinement into his dwelling, and as a consequence they had been shot -the next day. - -“I let myself down into an upper yard of the priest’s house at the moment -when a young man who also lived there had come in from the street; he had -probably been to the theatre, for he was in gay humour and was humming -an air from an operetta. He did not see me as he passed, and I remained -quiet until he had entered his room. When I considered that sufficient -time had elapsed for him to get into bed, and perhaps to fall asleep, I -climbed to the roof of the convent on the opposite side to that by which -I had descended and pushed forward to the corner of the street of San -Roque, and I arrived there at last. There is at the corner, in a niche, -a statue of St. Vincent Ferrer which I proposed using to fix the rope -by which I was to descend. The saint wobbled when touched, but probably -there was inside the statue an iron spike to hold it. In any case, in -order to be more sure, I adjusted the rope around the pedestal of the -statue which seemed to be quite firm. I resolved to alight in a vacant -lot which adjoined and which was only fenced in. I did not know that -there was a drove of hogs in this yard. As when I began the descent I -turned somewhat with my rope, my back struck against the wall, and the -impact caused a poniard which I carried at my waist to fall from its -sheath among the hogs, probably wounding one of them, for they set up a -grunting which grew louder as they saw me descending among them. I had -to wait for some time for them to quiet down. I then climbed to the top -of the partition separating the lot from the street, but I had at once -to bob down again for just at that moment a gendarme was passing on his -round, seeing if the doors were well fastened. When he had retired I -sprang into the street.” - -In a few days he had rallied around him a few faithful followers and -captured the small garrison of Tehuitzingo. From this time his career was -a succession of victories until the capture and execution of Maximilian. -These victories and the firm stand of the United States government -re-established republican supremacy. Early in 1867 preparations were made -to regain Puebla which city was defended by a force of several thousand -French troops. On April 2nd he made a feint with a few hundred men on -the convent of “El Carmen” which caused the army of the defenders to -be concentrated there. Then a concerted attack followed from several -points, and the soldiers of Diaz drove back the hardened troops of the -third Napoleon, and the flag of liberty waved over the city in the early -dawn. He followed up the fleeing foreigners and a series of engagements -followed in which Diaz was victorious. The war was ended by the capture -of the City of Mexico after a siege of several assaults. - -From boyhood until the close of the empire in 1867, General Diaz had -worked against great odds. He was by this time easily the most popular -man in Mexico. One party at the general elections of that year nominated -him for president, but he refused to run against his old friend and -patron, President Juarez. He even refused an office and resigned his -commission in the army. In search of rest he retired to the place of -his birth, and his trip from the capital was a triumphal journey. The -citizens of Oaxaca received him with open arms, and presented him with -the estate of La Noria near that city. Hither he went with the wife -whom he had married by proxy during the war and spent a few years in -comparative quiet. In 1871 another presidential election was held. -Juarez, who had failed both mentally and physically, had advocated -a number of unpopular measures, but was determined to have himself -reëlected to office. Diaz was also a candidate. When Juarez was declared -elected, the “Porfiristas” declared a revolution with the slogan “less -government and more liberty.” However Juarez died in a few months and the -executive power temporarily fell upon the president of the Supreme Court, -Lerdo de Tejada, who was afterwards elected to that office to serve the -unexpired term. - -General Diaz refused reconciliation with this government, and, fearing -trouble before the next presidential election, for Lerdo was an active -candidate, he sold his estate and left for the United States after a -“_pronunciamento_,” called the “Plan of Tuxtepec,” had been issued to -which he gave his allegiance, if he was not the author of it. This “plan” -declared a president ineligible to succeed himself. By the time the -revolution was well underway in several states, General Diaz had crossed -the Rio Grande at Brownsville, Texas, with forty followers. These forty -men increased to four hundred in a few days and they captured Matamoros -on April 2nd, 1876. - -Learning that a large force had been sent after him, General Diaz decided -to return south. He went to New Orleans and took a steamer from there, -called the City of Habana, sailing for Vera Cruz, and passed himself -off as a Cuban doctor. He was not suspected until some of the troops he -had captured at Matamoros a few weeks before got on board the ship at -Tampico. They immediately made arrangements to secure him on arriving -at Vera Cruz. Although the ship was four miles from land, Diaz jumped -overboard and attempted to swim ashore. He was picked up after nightfall -in an exhausted condition, and taken on board the ship again. However -the purser was won to his cause and concealed him in a wardrobe, where -he remained for several days on a diet of ship’s biscuit and water. -The purser, as a matter of policy and in order to disarm all suspicion, -invited the Lerdist officers into his cabin, where they would spend hours -in playing at cards. Oftentimes the chair of the one sitting in front -of the wardrobe would be tilted back against the door behind which was -the man they would have given almost anything to catch. From his cramped -position General Diaz was in torment. He could not stand upright, nor was -he able to sit down. When the _City of Habana_ arrived at Vera Cruz the -chief of the coast guard service, who was the fugitive’s friend, managed -to smuggle in to him a dilapidated sailor’s suit and a very old pair of -boots. At the same time the chief sent word that a rowboat, in charge of -a man he would recognize by certain signals, would come alongside for -him. When the ship began to unload bales of cotton into barges, this boat -appeared among them, and the noted prisoner made his escape to land. - -After several exciting adventures on the way, General Diaz again appeared -at Oaxaca among his friends and ardent supporters. His popularity and -prestige in Oaxaca have always been remarkable. Never did he appeal to -his neighbours and friends of that state in vain. It was not long until -he was at the head of an army of four thousand “Porfiristas”—men who -would follow their leader to the death if need be, and many of whom had -fought with him at Puebla and elsewhere. The news of the escape of Diaz -brought gloom to the “Lerdistas.” Lerdo immediately marched his army -southward. The two armies met on the 16th of November, 1876, at Tecoac, -and for a few hours the battle waged hotly and bitterly. The Lerdist -army, which was considerably larger, began the engagement with every -prospect of success. At the last moment Diaz led a charge in person -which routed the enemy, and the result was a complete triumph for the -“Porfiristas.” - -Flushed with victory, and determined to press his advantage to the -utmost, General Diaz promptly proceeded toward the capital with his -augmented army. Panic seized Lerdo and his followers. He took all the -public funds available, and, with his ministers, fled to Acapulco. Upon -arriving there he embarked for San Francisco, and made no further effort -to impede the progress of the Diaz forces. Iglesias, President of the -Supreme Court, upon whom the succession legally fell upon the death or -resignation of the President, established headquarters at Guanajuato and -issued a proclamation assuming the office of chief executive. Diaz at -once marched upon Puebla, which he entered without opposition. City after -city sent representatives announcing their adherence to his cause. The -onward march was continued without a halt until Guadalupe, about three -miles from the capital, was reached. Here he halted for a day in order to -get his forces into presentable condition to make a triumphal entry into -the historic capital. - -It was on the 24th of November, 1876, that General Diaz made his -memorable march into the City of Mexico. Riding at the head of an army -of several thousand armed men he made a triumphal entry into that -ancient capital, while thousands gathered along the route to see this -new adventurer—as he was styled by his enemies. The Plaza was packed -with the populace. This son of an innkeeper, this man with the blood -of the Indian in his veins, this hero of many battles passed through -the portal of the National Palace and became master of Mexico. From -there he issued a proclamation assuming the provisional presidency of -the republic, until an election could take place in regular form and a -constitutional ruler should be chosen. This was held in December. With -the government in his hands the result of that election was never in -doubt. After a three months’ campaign his authority was recognized over -the entire republic. Since that time Porfirio Diaz occupied that high -office continuously, except for an interval of four years from 1880 to -1884, when Manuel Gonzalez held that title, until May 25th, 1911, when he -resigned. Diaz himself became a victim of the “Tuxtepec Plan,” forbidding -two consecutive terms, and gracefully retired at the end of his first -term, although urged by a large following to remain at the head of the -government. For the first time in Mexican history was seen the spectacle -of one President voluntarily relinquishing the sceptre to his successor, -and returning to private life without an effort to retain himself in -power. Gonzalez entered the office one of the most popular men in Mexico, -having been elected by an almost unanimous vote. Four years later he left -it under a cloud of almost universal execration and contempt. During the -four years of Gonzalez’s administration Diaz was not idle, but served in -the cabinet, as governor of Oaxaca and senator from Morelas. Isolated -disturbances have arisen at times, but no formidable opposition arose -against him until 1910. This revolution is treated in the succeeding -chapter. The law limiting the succession was revoked during his second -term, and the length of office was subsequently extended to six years. At -the various elections the reported vote was almost unanimous for Diaz. -On December 1st, 1910, he was inaugurated President for the seventh -consecutive term, or eighth term in all. - -Immediately upon first assuming the executive office after the flight -of Lerdo, Diaz issued a statement in which he set forth in clear terms -his intention to restore constitutional order and institute reforms. He -invited all factions and cliques to coöperate with him. This soon won -the regard of the intelligent and honest partisans of all factions, and -he early showed his impartiality by selecting his advisers irrespective -of party. It was not long until most of the Lerdistas and Juaristas were -won to his cause. By this skilful handling of the leaders, he secured -the good will of Congress in furthering his plans for reforms, and in -organizing the finances on a better basis. New treaties were negotiated -with foreign nations and able diplomatic representatives sent abroad. - -It has been said that the best peacemakers are those who have made war. -Those who detest powder most are generally those who have smelled it -on the field of battle. To them—more than all others—are known the -horrors and hardships of war, and what it entails upon the innocent and -guilty alike. Even though a battle-scared hero may have profited by the -advantages gained by military success, the tragedy of empty homes and -nameless graves is known to and acknowledged by him. General Sherman -said: “The main thing is to deal as hard blows at the enemy’s forces -as possible, and then cause so much suffering to the inhabitants that -they will long for peace.” A similar belief animated President Diaz. He -himself has said in explaining his actions in suppressing brigandage: -“Sometimes we were harsh to the point of cruelty. But it was all -necessary to the life and progress of the nation. If there was cruelty, -the results have justified it. It was better that a little blood be shed -that much blood be saved. The blood that was shed was bad blood; the -blood that was saved was good blood.” Almost before they knew what was -happening the professional malcontents found themselves in the grip of -this masterful new leader. It was to this quality of firmness that he -owed his pronounced success during the first years of his presidency. - -Several scattered uprisings occurred during the first term, most of them -being fostered by the “Lerdistas.” Lerdo issued a proclamation on the -24th of February, 1877, from New York, claiming to be the constitutional -President, and, a few months later, Iglesias did the same thing from New -Orleans. Neither of these manifestos were looked upon seriously by the -Mexicans, but they were in a great measure responsible for the tardy -recognition of the Diaz government by the United States and other foreign -powers. One revolt is worthy of mention because of its novelty. A part of -the crew of the armed vessel _Trinidad_ mutinied during the absence of -the commander at Vera Cruz. They headed for a Campeche port, where they -seized several thousand dollars of public funds. While the leaders of the -mutiny were ashore enjoying the money, a counter mutiny was led by the -boatswain, who took the ship back to Vera Cruz and returned it to the -government. - -Judging this man at a distance, we, who live in a country where even -a third term is a “bogie,” are inclined to smile at these successive -elections to the presidency, and dismiss the matter with the charge of -“dictator” and “republican despot,” with all the odium that those terms -imply. President Diaz was both. But, above all, he was, I believe, a -true patriot. Whatever may have been his original motives in seeking this -high office his later actions prove the statement. Responsibility will -often develop a man, and that may have been true with Diaz. In securing -the control by driving out Lerdo, and assuming the provisional presidency -over Iglesias, who was the official designated by the constitution in -case of a vacancy, he only did what many had done before. Whether his -retention of the office for so long was a good or bad thing for the -country, the historian of the future will be a better judge. - -The accomplishments of Diaz were many. It would require a long -enumeration to give them in detail. The very fact that he succeeded -to a government which had seen fifty-four different rulers, including -two emperors and a number of avowed dictators, in the fifty-five years -preceding his own accession, and ruled the country for more than a -generation, is in itself sufficient to stamp him as an extraordinary man. -Those were indeed troublous times in Mexico while we were celebrating -the centennial of our independence. The strong spirit of Juarez had -been broken by the long strain from 1857 to 1872, during which time -he was nominally President. His successor was a weak, ambitious man -who accomplished little. Disorder everywhere, the country overrun with -bandits and a worse than empty treasury were the conditions when Diaz -grasped the reins. It was not until nearly two years afterward that his -government was formally recognized by the United States. Few men could -have steered the country through such a state of affairs so successfully. -He did it without repudiating any valid claims. He established credit -by paying foreign obligations rather than the salaries of government -employees. He surrounded himself with an able cabinet, and started the -machinery of government in a business-like way. - -I do not subscribe to the doctrine of Shakespeare that all the world -is a stage, and that each person is a player, for that would take away -sincerity. Porfirio Diaz has been accused of only acting a part. He -could not always be acting, for his course was too consistent under many -and diverse circumstances. As a young man he refused pay for military -services because the government was so poor. He declined promotion over -the heads of men older in the service for fear of jealousies. He refused -remuneration after the close of the war of intervention, although not -a rich man at that time. He turned a deaf ear to the emissaries of -Maximilian, who wanted to place him in command of the Mexican army when -that ruler abdicated, which would practically have made him President. He -was a humane adversary, as is shown by his treatment of prisoners of war. -He disregarded ceremony as much as is possible in a Latin country. He -declined to live in the National Palace, but resided in a private house -the most of the time, and at Chapultepec a part of the year. - -It is not to be wondered at that the man who rules with a strong arm -will make bitter enemies as well as warm partisans. Likewise such a -policy will always have its defamers as well as its supporters. Opinion -is still divided upon Napoleon, and whether his high-handed methods -wrought more good than evil. Hence it is that some can see nothing in -Diaz but a tyrant, an enslaver of his people, and a man unfit for even -life itself. They forget that peonage was not originated by Diaz, but was -inherited from the Spaniards and supported by the voters of the country. -They do not look into the conditions faced by Diaz when he first became -President, nor the bloody history of the republic before that time. I -believe that Diaz would have been permitted to serve his term had it not -been for his efforts to control the vice-presidency, and the fact that -his choice fell upon a man who was very unpopular. Knowing that at his -age the President’s span of life was uncertain, the politicians wanted to -control this office because of the succession. For this reason discontent -and jealousies had been growing for several years. Diaz had publicly -declared his intention not to seek another term, so that those ambitious -for that office took him at his word and began their wire-pulling. This -was in February, 1908. Then, in the spring of 1910, he announced that -yielding to importunity he would accept another term. This was the one -great mistake in his political career. Had Diaz adhered to his previous -declaration, he would have retired from the office of chief executive -full of honours. As it is he resigned under pressure, and left the City -of Mexico unannounced and accompanied only by his family and a few -friends. He boarded a steamer in the harbour of Vera Cruz and sailed for -Spain, where he has quietly resided since that time. - -The personality of this dictator-president, who has filled such an -important place in the world’s history, is most interesting. As I sat -in the great salon of the National Palace, awaiting the appearance -of President Diaz, I spent the intervening fifteen or twenty minutes -in examining the room. On the high walls were pictures of General -Washington, the father of liberty in the whole of the two Americas; of -the patriot-priest Hidalgo, who first raised the standard of revolt in -Mexico, and of Diaz himself. Then Diaz appeared—a man tall for a Mexican, -solidly built, with white closely cropped hair and white moustache. He -approached with an elastic, graceful and springy step entirely belying -his almost eighty years. The Indian blood could easily be traced in -his complexion and features. The most striking feature of this man is -his eyes, which seem to look into the very soul of all he meets. It is -probably this intuitive perception that has been one of the key-notes -of his success. He has always been a democratic sort of man and easy -of approach, and impresses his sincerity on all those who talk with -him. Diaz was always a tireless worker and methodical in his habits. He -is abstemious, and it is probably due to this characteristic and his -methodical habits, that at eighty years of age he remained as active and -energetic as the average man twenty years younger. He kept in touch with -the most remote parts of the republic, even to the most distant village. -His advisers were often surprised at the vast knowledge he displayed in -all matters of state. The private life of Diaz has always been above -reproach. He has been twice married. His first wife was Delfina Ortega -y Reyes, who died in 1880 before sharing in the full greatness of her -husband, leaving a son and two daughters, all of whom are still living. -Three years later he was married to a daughter of Romero Rubio, whose -full name is Señora Doña Carmen Romero Rubio de Diaz. She is a woman who -by her sweetness of character, kindly disposition and charities won a -warm place in the affections of the Mexican people. - -The end of the political career of Diaz is not without a touch of pathos, -as well as an element of personal dignity. Broken in health, and deserted -by many of his former friends, he resigned the office of President in the -following letter addressed to Congress:— - - “SEÑORES: The Mexican people, who have generously covered - me with honours, who proclaimed me as their leader during - the international war, who patriotically assisted me in all - works undertaken to develop industry and the commerce of the - republic, to establish its credit, gain for it the respect - of the world and obtain for it an honourable position in the - concert of the nations; that same people has revolted in armed - military bands, stating that my presence in the exercise of the - supreme executive power was the cause of this insurrection. - - “I do not know of any facts imputable to me which could have - caused this social phenomenon; but acknowledging as possible, - though not admitting, that I may be unwittingly culpable, such - a possibility makes me the least able to reason out and decide - my own culpability. - - “Therefore, respecting, as I always have respected, the will - of the people and in accordance with Article 82 of the Federal - Constitution, I come before the supreme representatives of - the nation in order to resign, unreservedly, the office of - Constitutional President of the republic with which the - national vote honoured me, which I do with all the more reason, - since in order to continue in office it would be necessary to - shed Mexican blood, endangering the credit of the country, - dissipating its wealth, exhausting its resources and exposing - its policy to international complications. - - “I hope, señores, that, when the passions which are inherent - to all revolutions have been calmed, a more conscientious and - justified study will bring out in the national mind a correct - acknowledgment, which will allow me to die carrying engraved in - my soul a just impression of the estimation of my life, which - throughout I have devoted and will devote to my countrymen. - - “With all respect, - - “PORFIRIO DIAZ.” - - - - -CHAPTER XXI - -THE REVOLUTION OF 1910 - - -The year 1910 marked the completion of one hundred years of Mexican -independence. In September of that year this event was celebrated with -all the pomp and pageantry customary in Latin countries. Nearly the -whole month was given up to public functions in various parts of the -republic, and especially in the City of Mexico, the national capital. -Representatives of all the great nations of the world were sent there -to assist in the ceremonies incident to the celebration. Dedications -of public buildings, magnificent balls, public fêtes and exercises -commemorative of independence and of the national heroes, who led the -struggle against the Spaniards, were numerous. The 15th and the 16th of -September were the great gala days of this centennial anniversary. The -further fact that added lustre to the event was the eightieth anniversary -of the birth of President Diaz, who had established a substantial -government after the many years of strife through which the country had -passed between the years 1810 and 1876. In all the speeches made by -foreign representatives the great work of this man was extolled, as well -as the progress that had been made by the nation itself. - -The culmination of the centennial ceremonies was on the night of the -15th, just a little while before midnight. By half past ten o’clock -the immense Plaza, which faces the National Palace, was filled with an -immense crowd of Mexican dignitaries, distinguished foreigners and the -population of the city. It was a mass of living, breathing, expectant -humanity. The many coloured lights formed veritable rainbows of colour, -and this added an additional attraction to the teeming, seething crowd. -The door leading to the central balcony on the front of the National -Palace opened, and President Diaz appeared. An intense stillness fell -upon the crowd. In his right hand the President carried the national flag -of Mexico, and immediately on his appearance the red, white and green -lamps (the national colours) surrounding the old bell with which Hidalgo -first sounded the call to liberty, and which has found a permanent -resting place here, flashed into a radiant glow. As the strains of -the national anthem floated out on the breeze, the President waved his -flag, rang the bell and shouted “Viva Mexico!” The great crowd went wild -with excitement. The cry of “Viva Mexico!” was taken up by the crowd -near to the President, and then by those farther away, until the great -shout might have been heard all over the capital. The bells of the grand -old cathedral pealed forth their loudest tones, the factory whistles -shrieked, sky-rockets were sent up in the air and every noise-making -device was turned loose. Pandemonium reigned. “Viva Diaz!” and “Viva el -Presidente!” were mingled with the cry of “Viva Mexico!” - -In the light of later events this wonderful celebration seems to have -been a sham, or at least only on the surface. At that time a political -volcano was simmering all over the republic, and was just ready to -break forth into violent eruption. Diaz had already been re-elected for -the eighth term, but the inauguration was not to take place until the -fifth of December. In November the first outbreaks against the civil -authorities occurred. An abortive rising occurred in Puebla in which -blood was shed. Armed bodies appeared in the states of Chihuahua and -Sonora, in the northwestern part of the republic. These bodies attacked -the outlying _haciendas_, robbed the owners of horses and foraged at will -to secure supplies for themselves and their horses. The country in which -these outbreaks occurred is ideal for the guerilla warfare that followed. -Both of those states are mountainous and thinly settled, so that it was -comparatively easy for even a small band of armed men to make a great -deal of trouble and escape from a much larger force that might attempt to -pursue them. - -Government troops were promptly dispatched to the scene of trouble, -but it was difficult to catch up with the marauders and engage them in -battle. Their outbreaks would first be heard of in one neighbourhood, -and a few days later reports of trouble would be received from sections -quite remote. Additional armed bodies appeared in other sections, and it -was not many weeks until the trouble began to present a serious aspect. -Many of the government troops sent against the insurrectos were either -cowardly or were in secret sympathy with those opposed to the government. -Whenever actual engagements did occur the outcome was generally in favour -of the Federal troops, but the defeated ones were always able to escape -into the country, where it was difficult for them to be followed. The -first battle of any note was fought at Mal Paso, when the Federals were -routed, but a battle at Ojinaga a few days later was a decided defeat -for the revolutionists. The failure of the government to stamp out the -trouble promptly gave encouragement to all the disaffected ones, and the -old spirit of lawlessness that once prevailed seemed about to break forth -with all its animus and disregard of the rights of private property. - -The predominant figures among the insurrectos were the Maderos, a -wealthy family that owned great estates near the city of Torreon. In -the presidential campaign that had just passed, Francisco Madero had -been a candidate for the presidency. He was thrown into prison, as that -family asserted, simply because he dared to oppose the dictator who had -held power for so long. The reason given out by the government was, of -course, far different. Nevertheless all the disaffected factions of the -republic rallied around this family, which did the principal financing -of the revolutionists. A propaganda was conducted in the United States -by the Maderos, and they obtained a great deal of encouragement from the -majority of the newspapers of the United States, which had recently taken -a position extremely antagonistic to the Diaz government. Francisco -Madero established a revolutionary junta in El Paso, and large quantities -of ammunition were sent across the border. A warrant for his arrest -having been issued because of violation of the neutrality laws, Madero -with a handful of followers crossed into Chihuahua and entered actively -into the campaign. - -“No re-election” and “effective suffrage” were the two catch-words of -Madero. It was very similar to that of Porfirio Diaz when he swept -everything before him. At no time were there, according to the best -reports that can be obtained, more than a few thousand men enrolled -under the Madero banner. These troops were scattered throughout northern -Mexico, from Ciudad Juarez to the Pacific Ocean. Into their ranks were -drawn many soldiers of fortune from the United States, as well as from -Europe. A part of these men were no doubt really patriotic in their -motives, while others simply grasped the chance of engaging in an -exciting campaign because of the freedom of action which was offered, and -also partly because of the rewards that were promised by those at the -head of the revolution. An eye-witness of the engagement at Tia Juana -says that not over ten per cent. of the insurrectos who captured that -town were Mexicans, the remainder being made up of Americans, including -some negroes, Germans, English and other nationalities. This engagement -occurred on May 8th and 9th, 1911. The Federals threw up breastworks -of bags of sand, and the women and children were sent out of town to -the American side. The fighting was severe and many were killed on both -sides. On the second day the government forces yielded, and the rebels -immediately pillaged the town and stores. - -Most of the engagements took place at towns near the border, at Ciudad -Juarez, Nogales and Douglass, as well as Tia Juana. Two reasons were -probably responsible for this fact. One was that it gave the insurrectos, -in case they were defeated, an easy escape across the border, and another -was that they were anxious to capture the custom-houses in order to -secure the revenue from that source. This would also enable them to set -up a _de facto_ government, which might secure for them recognition from -countries that looked upon them with favour. Because of these fights on -the border, and the reckless shooting by the combatants, no fewer than -twenty citizens of the United States were killed and twice that number -wounded upon the American side, including men, women and children, none -of whom had taken any part in the conflict. The camps of the Maderistas -at all times contained numerous American correspondents, and the reports -of the majority of them were favourable to the cause of that faction. The -battle of Casas Grandes was all but decisive. In this engagement Madero -took part and was slightly wounded, while the opposing leader lost an -arm. But Madero was soon in the field again at the head of his forces. -The movement had likewise spread, and the government faced trouble in the -country even as far south as the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. - -The aim of the Maderistas was to secure recognition as belligerents -from the government of the United States, and it was also the desire of -the government to put down the insurrection in order to prevent action -by the United States to suppress the trouble because of the complaint -of many Americans whose property had been destroyed, or was in danger -of destruction. Railroad tracks were torn up, mines were tampered with -and much other interference with the property of foreigners followed. -European governments did not dare to interfere because of the Monroe -Doctrine, and pressure was brought upon the government at Washington to -restore order. On May 8th there was great excitement in the United States -following orders issued by the Department of War for the mobilization of -American troops along the Mexican border. Almost twenty thousand troops -were sent to Texas and centralized at San Antonio. From there they were -sent to various places along the international border, but with positive -instruction to take no part in the trouble on the other side of the -Rio Grande. The press looked upon this action as preliminary to armed -intervention, but no such result followed. This movement of troops was no -doubt actuated by the motive of showing what the United States could do, -and of impressing both sides to the conflict that foreign property must -be left undisturbed and the rights of neutral parties carefully observed. - -Several attempts were made by the Maderistas to capture Ciudad Juarez, -the prosperous city directly opposite El Paso. The Federal troops in the -city were under the command of General Navarro, while the insurrectos in -the final siege were commanded by Gen. Pascual Orozco. After a battle of -several days, including considerable street fighting, General Navarro -surrendered his command of fifteen hundred men to General Orozco on -the 10th of May. Shortly after this Madero himself entered the city as -victor, and immediately set up a provisional government, giving himself -the title of Provisional President. This gave the insurrectos control of -the important custom house at Ciudad Juarez, and was a great victory for -their cause. “On to Mexico” then became the popular cry, and preparations -began to be made for that long march. Torreon had fallen, and Pachuca, -only forty miles from the capital, had been taken possession of by the -revolutionists. Chihuahua and a number of other cities were besieged by -them. - -At this stage Diaz and his advisers asked for an armistice in order that -negotiations might be conducted. Each side appointed commissioners, -and efforts were made to agree upon terms for settling the trouble -into which the country had been plunged. The Maderistas refused to -consider any terms which did not involve the resignation of President -Diaz, Vice-President Corral and the entire cabinet. President Diaz, in -order to avoid further bloodshed, the outcome of which would be very -uncertain, finally acceded to these terms and agreed to resign before -the end of the month. His resignation was delayed, however, for some -time, and disorder again broke out in several places. Even in the City -of Mexico mobs formed, and practically took possession of the city on -the 24th and 25th of May. Before the close of the latter day President -Diaz handed in his resignation, as the Vice-President had previously -done, and the government was turned over to Francisco de la Barra, who -had been agreed upon as the Provisional President until a new executive -could be chosen at a special election. President Diaz secretly left the -City of Mexico, and embarked on a vessel at Vera Cruz for Europe. A new -cabinet was selected by Acting-President Barra, the majority of whom were -suggested by Francisco Madero. A wiser selection than Dr. de la Barra it -would have been difficult to make for such a troublesome position. He -had represented Mexico at Washington just prior to the troubles of his -country, and commanded great respect among the officials in that city. - -With the downfall of Diaz the real troubles of the Maderistas began. -It is almost always true that the victorious are impatient to secure -the fruits of their victory. Extravagant promises had been made by the -leaders of the revolution, which included free land, lower taxes, higher -wages and a decreased cost of living. It was impossible for the leaders -to do these things at once, as it would take several years to work out -such a program. Although Francisco Madero held no office, he had been -designated as an adviser of the new government, and no appointments were -made by the Provisional President without his approval. This brought -about jealousies among the ambitious leaders, and there has been more or -less fighting in various sections of the republic in which much blood has -been shed. A few generals deserted the standards of Madero and have kept -up fighting on their own account. A serious outbreak occurred in the city -of Puebla in which many were killed. Many political parties followed, -as it had been many years since there was a definite party organization -in Mexico. Some of these were very small, being made up simply of -factional groups. The Church party again became prominent and started -to take an active part in the approaching election. Bernardo Reyes, who -had been sent on a mission to Europe by Diaz in order to get him out of -the country, returned, and a strong party known as the Reyesistas arose -and wanted to nominate him for the presidency. He left the country, -however, before the final elections, claiming to be in fear of his life. -This voluntary expatriation of General Reyes on September 28th, when, -disguised as an invalid, he walked up the gang-plank of a steamer at Vera -Cruz, bound for New York, removed the only obstacle in the path of Sr. -Madero. The election, which was held on Sunday, October 1st, 1911, was -as peaceful as such an event could be in most parts of Mexico. It does -not necessarily mean that they were not inclined to fight, but there was -nothing to fight about. The result was that the electors chosen were -almost unanimous for Francisco Madero. - -To an American this election would seem almost farcical. For the purpose -of the election the country was divided into districts, with one -presidential elector for every five hundred inhabitants. Before election -day two officials were appointed in each district. One of these officials -compiled a list of the voters in his little subdivision. When he had -looked up the voters in his district, and the names were printed and -posted on some convenient street corner, this official’s duties ended. -Any one whose name did not appear on the printed list had a right to go -to the proper authorities and state his case. All those qualified to vote -received a ballot on which they were to write the names of the electors -they wished to vote for. The second official appointed took charge of -the election booth on the morning of the election, and these booths were -generally placed at the entrance to business houses or even in the parks. -The voting places were supposed to open at 9 o’clock. The first seven -voters who appeared, with the one commissioner appointed, constituted -the election board. In American cities one could imagine a great rush of -voters to be among the first seven, but in many of the Mexican booths -that number did not arrive until half an hour or an hour after the time -the booth was supposed to open. The commissioner in charge sat at the -table with a list of the voters beside him, and, as the voters appeared, -they indicated the names of the electors for whom they wished to vote, -and the commissioner then communicated this information to the other -members of the board in an audible voice. As a general rule there was no -closed ballot box, but the ballots were merely laid in an open pasteboard -box with a paperweight on top to hold them down. Of secrecy or an attempt -at secrecy there was none. Some citizens sent their wives to vote for -them with the information that they themselves were indisposed, and these -ballots were accepted. It is claimed that the peons generally abstained -from voting, partly because of pride because they were not able to write, -but more likely because of indifference since they had never been allowed -such a privilege before. - -[Illustration: SR. DON FRANCISCO I. MADERO. - -Courtesy of the Bulletin of the Pan-American Union.] - -The only real contest in the election was over the choice of a -Vice-President. Dr. Vasquez Gomez, who had been the principal aid of -Sr. Madero in the revolution, had been cast aside by him in favour of -José Maria Pino Suarez. The cause of the disagreement between these -two leaders of the revolution was in part over the name of the party. -Dr. Gomez insisted upon the original name of the revolutionist party, -which was Anti-reelectionista, while Sr. Madero decided upon the name of -Constitutional Progressive. Dr. Gomez continued as a candidate under the -name chosen by him. Many also voted for the Acting-President, although -he was not an active candidate. Other names of parties with tickets in -the field were Pure Liberal Party, Red Liberals, Evolutionist Party -and Reyesistas. An active campaign was carried on by several of the -candidates, and Señor Madero visited many of the states in a speaking -tour. Everywhere he was received with respect and at many times with real -enthusiasm. Soldiers were present at the voting booths in many places on -election day to prevent trouble, but there was very little disturbance -in any part of the country. - -On the 6th of November, 1911, Francisco Indalecio Madero was inaugurated -President of Mexico with elaborate ceremonies, and Pino Suarez was -inducted into the office of Vice-President. The new chief executive -of the republic was born on the Hacienda del Rosario, in the state of -Coahuila, on the 4th of October, 1873, and is still a young man. He is -the eldest of a family of thirteen children, and both of his parents -are members of wealthy land-owning families. It is estimated that the -revolution cost the Maderos more than a million dollars, but they -could well afford it. He married Señorita Sara Pérez, the daughter of -a prominent Mexican, in 1900. For several years President Madero has -been the leader of the opposition in the republic. His appearance is -not that of a leader, for the new President is barely five feet four in -height and weighs less than one hundred thirty-five pounds. His figure is -slight, with small hands and feet, and he wears a full beard. By way of -preparing for his campaign Madero wrote a book entitled “The Presidential -Succession in 1910,” which created such a tremendous sensation that -it was finally suppressed by the Diaz government. It was a fearless -arraignment of what he considered to be the evils of that administration. -On June 7th, 1910, he was arrested at Monterey and imprisoned for several -weeks, not being released until after the election had been held. It was -then that he published his political platform known as the “Plan of San -Luis Potosi,” which was issued from that city on the 5th of October. -Among the reforms advocated by him were a more equitable distribution of -the lands of the republic, free restitution of lands wrested from the -Yaquis and a return of that tribe to their native state, and an abolition -of the practice of admitting malefactors into the national army. - -It is impossible to predict the outcome of the Madero administration. -If the people stand by him many needed reforms may be accomplished. The -main difficulty to be overcome will be that personalism enters so much -into Mexican politics. If parties backed by real and genuine principles -and not dependent for their strength upon a single personality, shall -arise, then peaceful conditions will return and President Madero will -be permitted to work out his program. He showed himself humane and -considerate during the revolution, although he did not distinguish -himself especially as a strategist or military leader. He broke all -precedents in yielding the provisional presidency to Dr. de la Barra, -instead of seizing that office himself as he might easily have done. In -his speeches he has counselled moderation among his followers. He has a -difficult task before him, but it is the hope of the writer that he will -not disappoint those who have raised him to power. - -President Madero has been accused of being anti-American in his -sympathies. As an answer to this I quote from an authorized statement by -him in an American newspaper: - -“I am glad at this time to have the opportunity to assure the American -people of my great friendship and regard for them, and to assure them -that I will do all in my power during my administration to strengthen -still more the already strong friendly relations existing between the two -nations. I feel very sure that during my administration the bonds which -unite the sister republic will become far stronger than they have ever -been. I am a great admirer of the American people, for I went to school -in the United States and I have travelled much in your country. I will -welcome Americans to Mexico at all times. I want to see American energy, -American brains and American capital come to this country and assist in -its development and progress, and Americans will always find a friend in -me and my government.” - - - - -CHAPTER XXII - -THE SIERRAS AND BEYOND - - -“Las Madres,” says the Mexican, whenever he is asked the name of the -lofty range of mountains that runs through the western part of the -northern half of Mexico, and which separate the lofty interior plateaus -from the Pacific Ocean and the Gulf of California. This range of -mountains effectually cuts off the west coast from the best developed -part of Mexico, and for that reason this section is not so well known -as those parts which are visited by travellers. At the present time no -railway has been completed across this range of mountains, but it will -not be long until this disadvantage will exist no longer. This district -includes the great states of Sonora and Sinaloa, the territory of Tepic, -and a large part of the states of Chihuahua and Durango. To-day it is -almost a counterpart of what California was before the gold rush of -1849—little known, isolated and undeveloped—but with just as great -natural advantages. Dense jungles cover the lower levels along the coast, -where water is plentiful, while great areas in the north are semi-arid. -In the higher altitudes vast forests of pine and oak crown the serrated -peaks. The population is generally sparse and scattered. - -In the future the main gateways to reach this part of the country from -the United States will be El Paso, and Benson, Arizona. From El Paso it -is a distance of a little more than two hundred miles to Chihuahua. The -traveller has no sooner crossed the Rio Grande than the change is seen -in the Mexican town of Ciudad Juarez, formerly Paso del Norte. This city -was the objective point of the revolutionists in the late trouble in -that country, and was the scene of a great deal of fighting before it -was finally captured. After its capture it was the seat of the temporary -government of the Maderistas. For several hours on the journey southward -there is nothing to be seen but the chaparral and desolate-looking hills, -with just enough novelty in the little towns that may be passed to make -the trip strange and rather old-fashioned. Big-hatted, shiftless peons -stare at you from their leaning positions against the station walls. The -“hee-haw” of a lone burro or the “cough” of a gasoline engine will be -the only sounds to break the silence. - -The train rolls along through a narrow valley which is quite level, -and with high tablelands all about. Then the route reaches the land of -_haciendas_, where herds of cattle, sheep and goats may be seen. It is a -land of deep valleys, with glimpses of majestic mountains, and sometimes -with broad spreading plains as well, but the mountains are always in -view. At length, after a ride of a little more than half a day, the train -reaches Chihuahua, which is the principal city and metropolis of this -section of Mexico. Chihuahua is not a very beautiful city; nor is it as -attractive as many of the other Mexican cities, for its location and the -climate are not such as can greatly be recommended. It is destined to be -a much larger city than at present, however, by reason of the mineral -wealth surrounding it, and also because it is the starting point for -what will ultimately be the principal trade route between the United -States and northwestern Mexico. Like Monterey this city has become very -much Americanized, and that influence is noticeable in both people and -architecture. - -Chihuahua is on the line of the Kansas City, Mexico and Orient Railway, -which, when completed, will form a direct route from Kansas City, -Missouri, to Topolobampo, a new port on the Pacific. At the present time -trains are running from Wichita, Kansas, almost to the Mexican border, -and two detached sections are in operation in the Republic of Mexico. One -of these starts from a point near the Rio Grande and runs to Chihuahua. -From Chihuahua westward this railroad, in conjunction with the Mexican -Northwestern Railway, traverses one of the finest grazing sections of -the republic. Broad prairies which are covered with grass stretch out -on either side to the foothills, and form rich grazing lands. The vast -ranges, the temperate climate and a fair average rainfall makes this -almost an ideal country for cattle. Upon them are fattened the beef -that feeds the country, and many animals find their way to the markets -of the United States. It is a region of immense _haciendas_, which -form almost empires in themselves, for they are larger than some of -the principalities of Europe. One estate near Chihuahua would make a -commonwealth as large as the states of Massachusetts and Rhode Island -combined, with a small farm of a million acres besides. The Zuloaga -family own a _hacienda_ directly on this line of railway, which is -thirty-five miles wide and nearly one hundred miles long, and includes -about two million acres. Most of this estate consists of fine grazing -land, and it ships about forty thousand head of cattle each year, as -well as from three to six thousand mules and horses. A few years ago the -late proprietor of this estate bought an adjoining farm for two hundred -thousand dollars, and his method of paying for it is a good illustration -of Mexican business methods. He secured silver coin for this amount, -which weighed nearly six tons, and hauled it over to the seller in two -great carts. - -[Illustration: A GROUP OF PEONS] - -The buildings of the Zuloaga _hacienda_, which I visited, lie about -fifty miles west of Chihuahua, in one of the most beautiful locations -that could be found anywhere. They are near the foot of a range of low -mountains, and in front projects out a plain that gently slopes down to -a lake a couple of miles distant. Beyond the lake is another range of -wooded hills which seem to complete the picture. Within the walls are -the home of the _hacendado_, the church, the stables and a store. The -church is a beautiful structure, artistic in its details, and all of the -materials used in its construction were secured upon the plantation; -and all of the work, including some magnificently carved woodwork and -some creditable paintings, was done on the premises and by those living -there. The buildings are all one-storied in height, with walls thick -enough to withstand any earthquake. The rooms are large and airy, with -extremely high ceilings, through which you might drive a carriage, -and the parlours are nearly as large as public halls. More than three -thousand peons are employed on this _hacienda_, most of whom live in -buildings arranged in big hollow squares just outside of the walls of the -family’s quarters. - -[Illustration: TARAHUMARI INDIANS.] - -There are a number of small towns along this trans-continental line of -railway, the principal of which is Miñaca, a quaint little old-fashioned -place. The inhabitants would rather attend a chicken fight than work -or go to mass. From Miñaca this road begins the real climb over the -divide on its way to the Pacific coast. For scenic beauty it equals any -railroad in Mexico, not excepting the ride over the Mexican railway -from the City of Mexico to Vera Cruz, hitherto described. Deep cuts, -high hills, and tunnels succeed each other, as the railroad climbs up -on its way toward the line of perpetual snow. It passes through one of -the best timber sections of Mexico, where tall pine trees, straight as -an arrow, rise up for a hundred feet or more without a limb. Huge crags -of fantastic outline, tall pines silhouetted against the low-hanging -clouds and the mysterious depths of the barrancas combine to form scenes -of awe-inspiring grandeur. At dangerous points crosses on the trail tell -the story of tragedies—of riders who have probably stumbled into eternity -without a moment’s warning. - -This Sierra region of Mexico should appeal to the sportsman, for much -game abounds. At nearly all elevations may be found the white-tail -deer. The mountain lion, called _tigre_, lurks in the fastnesses of -the mountains. The bear may be found wherever there are good feeding -grounds. The wild turkey is plentiful in many sections. The Mexicans do -not hunt much, so that there are many game birds. Quail are numerous in -the foothills, and wild duck, snipe and curlew are exceedingly numerous -on the lagunas and marshes of the coast, as well as in the lakes of the -mountain region. Hunting is inexpensive, and it is strange that more -Americans do not visit this unhunted region. - -One of the strangest of the many tribes of Mexican Indians inhabit -the valleys and barrancas of this part of the republic. These are the -Tarahumaris, a timid race who rather shrink from contact with the white -people to any greater extent than is necessary. Occasionally these -Indians may be seen on the streets of Chihuahua, whither they go to buy -some things, or, perhaps, to carry a message for a Mexican or American. -But they do not linger any longer than is necessary. They can always be -distinguished from the other Indians because the men almost invariably -have their legs absolutely bare in all kinds of weather. They also wear -their hair long, and it hangs down over the shoulder like our red men, -while the Mexican Indians usually wear their hair short. Their features -are coarse, but their bearing has a kind of native dignity about it -that attracts. One of their medicine men once cut his hair to get some -new ideas. While the new hair was growing he kept his head tied up to -prevent his thoughts from escaping. I mention this to give an idea of the -primitiveness and simplicity of these strange people. - -The Tarahumaris pay no taxes or tribute to the Mexican government. They -are quiet and inoffensive, however, and for that reason they are allowed -to inhabit the mountain slopes and inhospitable barrancas in peace. Their -houses are very simple. They are usually made by setting up forked poles -across which other straight poles are laid, and then roughly-hewed -boards are set up along the sides. Sometimes they are made entirely of -small rocks. Many of them live in the natural caves which abound in that -region, and of which I have seen scores. They are nomadic and change -their domicile frequently, although the new location may be only a few -hundred rods away from the old. Store-houses may be seen in which the -family stores its surplus supply of corn and beans, which are the only -food supplies cultivated by these people. Upon the mountains the men kill -deer and squirrels, and these, together with fish, rats and little ground -animals which abound in that region, constitute their principal meat -supply. - -The Tarahumaris are not a sociable people, nor are they industrious, for -they like too well to lie on their backs or breasts in the hot sun. They -are great runners and have been known to run day after day, stopping -only to eat and secure some necessary sleep. When they are travelling -across the country one will seldom see them walking. Even on a mountain -trail they usually keep up a trot. I have seen them running up a steep -path where most of us would not want to walk very long without stopping -to rest. The chief men of the tribes carry canes as their emblem of -authority. If a man is charged with an offence a messenger is sent to -him, armed with a cane made of red Brazil wood, and the person summoned -would not dare to disobey the order. No writ issued by any court in a -civilized land commands greater obedience. It is generally the older -men who are entrusted with this badge of authority, and they are very -jealous of the privilege. This method of designating authority is quite -common among the aborigines of the Americas. The Tarahumaris are very -superstitious. They are afraid to travel after night because the dead are -supposed to be abroad at that time. The _shaman_, as the medicine man is -called, is a man of great importance among these superstitious people. -He is always present at all family celebrations, such as weddings and -funerals, and he is generally called in when there is sickness in the -family. - -About one hundred and fifty miles southwest of El Paso, in the state -of Chihuahua, is a colony of considerable interest to Americans. After -travelling that number of miles of semi-desert land over the Rio Grande -and Sierra Madre Railway from Ciudad Juarez, as dreary a landscape as -one could imagine, the appearance suddenly changes as one approaches -the lands of the Mormon colony that has settled here. Fearful of the -results of the anti-polygamy agitation in the United States a few hundred -followers of Brigham Young banded together, and sought a new “promised -land.” They travelled in caravans that contained all their worldly goods -until they crossed the border into Mexico. Here they were welcomed, -for farmers are what northern Mexico needed, and religious or ethical -questions did not disturb the Mexican government. The colonists were -exempted from taxes for ten years, and their implements were allowed -free entry. Each colonist was granted a certain number of acres at low -interest and on easy terms. - -The original colony has expanded into several settlements numbering -more than five thousand persons. The principal colony is named Colonia -Juarez, and it is a few miles from the station of Casas Grandes. The -Mormons are splendid agriculturalists, and they sell large quantities of -alfalfa, grains, potatoes and dairy products. They use the very latest -of American agricultural machinery on their farms. Every village has a -graded school supported by a voluntary tax, and a large central academy -is also maintained for higher education. They are devout followers of -the Mormon prophets,—these colonists across the Rio Grande,—although -they claim that no open polygamy is practised. Each man will deny the -possession of more than one wife. The excess of women with families over -the men, however, and the fact that the Mormon man is thoroughly at home -in more than one house would easily lead one to a different conclusion. -To this must be added the knowledge that these Mormons left good homes -in Utah for a tract of almost desert land in Mexico, mainly because of -the efforts of the government of the United States to stamp out plural -marriages. - -The other main route to the Sierra regions is an extension of the -Southern Pacific Railroad, which is known as the Sonora Railway. This -railroad extends from Nogales, and it is destined to run to the city of -Guadalajara, a distance of about eleven hundred miles. Nogales is a city -of about three thousand inhabitants, half of which lies on either side -of the border line. A simple glance without any explanation would show -the visitor which part of it belongs to the United States, because of the -difference in the buildings and the energy of the inhabitants. From there -the railroad runs south through Magdalena and across some fertile plains -until, at a distance of almost three hundred miles from the border, it -reaches Hermosillo, the capital of the state of Sonora, which is the -second largest state in the republic. Much of this state is useless for -agriculture, as it is dry and arid, and a part is very mountainous. In -other sections the soil is extremely fertile, and irrigation would render -it invaluable. Such projects could be carried out if there was as much -enterprise on that side of the border as on the northern side. Near the -Yaqui River the soil and climate are as well adapted to fruit culture as -southern California. There are many large mining enterprises, the largest -being at Cananea, and nearly all are American enterprises. The trouble -with the Yaqui Indians has greatly hindered development in Sonora during -the past decade. Several parties of American prospectors and miners -were attacked and a number of Americans killed. The government finally -deported thousands of the Yaquis to other sections of the republic, and -their depredations then ceased. - -Hermosillo is situated on the Sonora River, in the midst of an -agricultural district and surrounded by rugged mountains, where there -are many mines of gold and silver. It is the seat of a Catholic diocese, -for which a fine new cathedral has been built, and also has some very -creditable buildings. It is a city of perhaps ten or twelve thousand -people, and is the largest city in the state. From Hermosillo this -railroad runs to the port of Guaymas, which is quite an important -commercial town, and less than a hundred miles from the capital. The Bay -of Guaymas is one of the best on the Pacific coast, and the marine trade -is quite important. For a long time this town was the terminus of this -railroad, but it is too far up the Gulf of California to ever become a -very important ocean port. Within the last few years construction work -has been rapidly pushed southward at a little distance from the coast, -and through trains are now running as far as the city of Tepic, on the -way to Guadalajara. - -Not a great distance south of Guaymas the Sonora Railroad enters Sinaloa, -a state nearly as large as Indiana. This state is destined to be a -great agricultural state, as it is well watered and contains a number -of fine rivers. Besides the Fuerte, Sinaloa, Culiacan and Elota Rivers, -there are a hundred or more smaller streams traversing it. It stretches -along the Pacific coast for a distance of nearly four hundred miles, -and has an average breadth of eighty miles. One-half of the state is -little known, and is traversed only by obscure and difficult trails. -Cane and corn culture have been the chief industry, but it offers good -inducements for the raising of almost all kinds of grains. In undeveloped -natural wealth, both agricultural and mineral, and in its splendid water -powers, Sinaloa is unsurpassed by any Mexican commonwealth. An American -land company has recently opened up a tract of two million acres, and -is establishing a colony that promises good results. The capital is -Culiacan, a short distance from the coast. Heretofore the only outlet for -this city of fifteen thousand has been a miserable railroad to its port, -Altata, but the new line enables passengers to go by Pullman cars to all -points in the United States. It is an old city, for the Spaniards found a -considerable settlement there. They immediately established a town which -was well fortified. The present city is quite attractive and possesses a -little manufacturing. It is the residence seat of quite a colony of rich -and cultured Mexicans, and a number of Americans interested in mining -also reside there. - -Mazatlan, a little further down the coast, is the largest city and -principal port of Sinaloa. It is a picturesque place, with its cathedral -spires outlined against the sky, and cocoanut palms and thatched roofs -below. The blue Cordilleras in the distance complete the picture. A -lighthouse at the north entrance is said to be the highest lighthouse in -the world, with the exception of the one at Gibraltar. It is a city of -about twenty thousand inhabitants, and the largest city on the Pacific -coast. Although a great deal of shipping is done in Mazatlan, the harbour -is poor and offers no protection to vessels. Plans have been approved for -a safe harbour, to cost several million pesos, in order to prepare it for -the anticipated increase in business. Whether the internal troubles will -stop the building of this much-needed west coast railroad improvement -remains to be seen. Its completion will not only give an outlet for this -rich region to the United States, but also to the City of Mexico, and the -stimulus can already be seen wherever the railroad is in operation. There -is not a richer section in the whole republic than these coast lands, -but because of their isolation everything has been backward, and all -work has been done in the very crudest and most primitive ways. The only -development that has taken place is in mining, and most of the mines are -even yet operated in the old-fashioned ways, because of the difficulty -of transporting machinery and fuel. - -The territory of Tepic is almost as large as the states of Massachusetts -and Connecticut combined. In natural resources it will compare with -Sinaloa, for it is well watered and affords fine opportunities for -agriculture. Some day the jungles will be transformed into orange groves -and banana plantations, while the higher lands will produce rich harvests -of grain and coffee. The water power could be utilized to turn the wheels -of factories or to run the railroads which are so much needed. - -The capital city of Tepic, a municipality of fifteen thousand people, -has been asleep, but will now be awakened daily by the noise of the -locomotive. At an elevation of three thousand feet the air is fresh and -invigorating. The climate is pronounced almost ideal by those who live -there, and it is free from the fevers that prevail in the low coast -lands. It does not differ in general appearance from many other Mexican -cities, but is a quaint and interesting town. - -Separated from the mainland of Mexico by the Gulf of California and -the Colorado River, lies that little known territory of Baja (lower) -California. It is a long narrow peninsula that projects about eight -hundred miles southeasterly from the southern border of California. -Its width varies from about thirty to over one hundred miles, with an -irregular coast line over two thousand miles long bordered by numerous -islands, and in size is a trifle larger than the state of Iowa. Lower -California is mainly mountainous, with irregular plains along the Pacific -coast, and smaller plains and valleys along the north coast and in some -parts of the interior. In climatic and other physical features the -northern part of the peninsula is very similar to southern California, -with some local modifications. The southern end of the Colorado Desert -crosses the border, and continues down along the northern coast for some -distance. Along the Pacific coast a low range of mountains recedes a -short distance inland, and continues for some distance. In the southern -part of the peninsula they become higher, forming the San Pedro Martir -Mountains, which reach a height of over ten thousand feet above the sea. -Vast desolate plateaus of black lava, which surround little gem-like -valleys, are succeeded by extensive stretches of desert upon which -nothing but the cactus will grow. The western coast is bathed by cool -waters and fogs, while the eastern shores are washed by the waves of a -warm inland sea, and have almost continuous sunshine. - -Lower California was one of the early discoveries of the Spaniards, -and was promptly placed in charge of the Jesuits, whose missionaries -were quite successful. They explored all parts of the peninsula and -established missions among the Indians, and at the same time introduced -many of the crops and fruits of the Old World. They established three -main trails throughout the length of the peninsula, one following each -coast and the other running near the centre. These roads are to-day the -only routes of travel, and, except for short distances, can only be -pursued on mule-back. Most of the Indians who formerly inhabited the -peninsula have disappeared, and the population to-day is very small. -Some of the old mission churches are still in use, while others are -represented simply by fragments of ruined walls and choked-up irrigating -ditches. - -Agriculture has never flourished to any great extent in Lower California. -Numerous colonies have been practically failures, with the exception -of some recent ones near the international border, where water for -irrigation has been obtained from the Colorado River. All of the -peninsula has been traversed many times by prospectors in search of -gold, silver and other minerals, and a number of valuable mines have -been located in various places. The general climate is hot and arid, as -is evidenced by the vegetation, although in the southern regions there -are districts which have regular summer rains. As a consequence of the -arid conditions the surface water is scarce, and is limited to isolated -waterfalls or to springs from which small streams sometime flow for a -short distance, and then sink into the earth. - -The country is divided for administration into the northern and southern -portions, with Ensenada, a small port on the west coast as the capital -of the northern part, and La Paz, on the eastern coast, the capital of -the southern portion. La Paz is the only city of any particular size, -and is a place of about six thousand people. The streets are well laid -out, and there are some excellent stores and many comfortable houses. The -gardens are filled with palms and various tropical trees, so that the -city has quite a decided tropical appearance, although it is surrounded -by an arid district. It is the seat of the pearl fisheries, which are -quite flourishing in the Gulf, and the output of pearls is quite an -important item. Tia Juana (Aunt Jane) is a small town on the border not -far from San Diego, and it is, perhaps, better known than any other town -on the peninsula. Several skirmishes took place within its borders during -the recent revolution led by Madero, and many of the participants were -Americans. - -Magdalena Bay, concerning which there has been considerable talk of -the United States trying to secure as a coaling station, is the finest -land-locked harbour on the Pacific coast, with a narrow entrance which is -protected by the high headlands. The bay is about fifteen miles across, -with low sandy shores, and would furnish a fine protection for scores -of the largest vessels. It is also within sight of the regular sailing -route of steamers bound for Panama. For that reason it would be a very -advantageous possession of the United States, if it could be obtained by -negotiations with the Mexican government. - -The plant life of Lower California is different from that of any other -part of the world—so naturalists say. There is a veritable riot of -strange forms of cacti and other plants which manage to live without -rainfall. The cacti vary from giant forms, which raise their massive -fluted trunks to a height of fifty to sixty feet, to little straggling -species which are too weak to stand upright. Another peculiar form is -the creeping devil cactus, as it is called, which has the appearance -of gigantic caterpillars crawling in every direction. These plants -do actually travel away from a common centre, as the stem sends down -rootlets every little distance, and then the older stems in the rear die -about as fast as it advances in the front. There are not many species of -birds or animals, and only such kinds as can live where water is scarce -will be found. It is said that some animals have been found that never -drink water, and even in captivity can not be taught to drink, as it does -not seem necessary to their existence. - -Owing to its desert character the peninsula is very thinly peopled, -and there are extensive sections where not a single inhabitant will be -found. The most populous section is that south of La Paz, where the -rains are more regular. A few small towns or villages will be found -scattered around the coast, with a limited number of prospectors and -miners gathered in the interior. The effort to colonize Lower California -has been a tale of unbroken failure for more than fifty years. A few -rainy years will cause apparent prosperity, but the succeeding years -may be rainless and disaster follows. Those who have studied Lower -California say that it is not all a hopeless desert, but that there are -possibilities of agriculture through irrigation in many parts. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIII - -THE RUINED CITIES OF YUCATAN - - -The Mayas (pronounced My-yah) were an ancient people of whom little is -known. They dwelt on the broad plains of Yucatan and Central America, -and built many cities, or governmental centres, for no ruins of private -dwellings have yet been found. The groups of buildings resemble in no -way our cities of the present day. They consist everywhere of temples -and palaces of the reigning princes or caciques, of public buildings -scattered about apparently at random, covering a vast area, with cemented -roads and gardens intervening. The centres of the towns were occupied -by the public squares and temples; around these were the palaces of the -priests and lords, and the outskirts were evidently allotted to the -lower classes. Religion and government seem to have gone hand in hand -among these primitive Mexicans. The Maya civilization had reached a -height unexcelled by any people of the western hemisphere prior to the -coming of the white man. They were skilled in architecture, in sculpture -and in writing. The priests had developed the science of astronomy to -a considerable extent. They had studied with some success the solar -system. They had developed a calendar system and created a chronology. So -far as these chronological accounts have been worked out they run back -three thousand years or more. They reckoned time much as we do, from a -fixed date, namely, the birth of Christ. The later dates of the Quirigua -inscriptions are generally believed to be somewhere about the beginning -of the Christian era. - -The oldest of the ruins of the Maya race is said to be that of Copan, -which is situated in Honduras, just across the border from Guatemala. It -also seems to have been the southernmost point of their migration, as -Tula was the northerly terminus of their wanderings. Then comes Quirigua, -in Guatemala, which is one of the most remarkable and inexplicable of -all the ruins. Tradition sheds no light whatever on these ruins of Copan -or Quirigua. The mysterious silence that surrounds these forms a void in -the history of the human race. There are doubtless other ruins awaiting -the traveller and explorer in the wilderness around Lake Peten, in the -northern part of Guatemala. The founder of the race was Izamat-Ul. “To -him were brought,” says an old writer, “the sick, the halt and the dead, -and he healed and restored them all to life by the touch of his hand.” -Hence he was generally known as the Miraculous Hand, and in inscriptions -is frequently represented by a hand only. - -[Illustration: CRUMBLING RUINS OF THE ANCIENT MEXICAN CIVILIZATION] - -In the extreme southeastern part of Mexico, on a small peninsula known as -Yucatan, is a section which was at one time the abode of this progressive -and migrating race known generally among anthropologists as the Mayas. -This distant province deserves far more mention than it usually receives -from passing travellers. Though possessing few natural attractions -Yucatan is a never-ending source of interest for the anthropologist -and archeologist. The whole peninsula is a vast limestone formation, -with little or no surface water. Rain is infrequent in most parts, and -one might travel for miles without crossing a river or brook, or even -chancing upon a spring. In most sections of this peninsula the water is -at least seventy feet below the surface of the ground. At the present -time windmills aid the inhabitants of that section where the henequen, -from which binder twine is made, is raised, but centuries ago such -facilities were unknown. There were, however, in some places natural -wells which reached down to the depth of what seem to be underground -rivers, and it was near these that several ancient cities were located. -At least a score of these ancient cities have been explored, of which -the best known and most important are Palenque, Uxmal and Chichen Itza. -It is known that since the Spaniards first set foot on this peninsula -many monuments and practically entire cities have disappeared. At one -time, a contemporary writer asserts, there were destroyed in Yucatan -five thousand idols of various forms and dimensions, thirteen huge -stones which were used as altars, twenty-two smaller stones of various -shapes, one hundred and ninety-seven manuscripts of all kinds, including -twenty-seven written on deer skins. - -Chichen Itza, which is generally interpreted to mean “the mouth of the -wells of the Itzas,” seems to have been the leading city, and it was -located near two of the largest natural wells, which are immense natural -pits with perpendicular sides. It is probable that these phenomena -attracted the Mayas in their northern migration. As the tribes quarrelled -different factions separated from the original body and established new -cities as capitals. Thus Chichen Itza came into being. On this desolate -soil, - - “ ... buried ’mid trees, - Upspringing there for sunless centuries, - Behold a royal city, vast and lone, - Lost to each race, to all the world unknown, - Like famed Pompeii, ’neath her lava bed. - ... - At every step some palace meets the eye, - Some figure frowns, some temple courts the sky.” - -Before Cortez landed on Mexican soil the star of these ancient peoples -had already set. Their oldest cities had their birth so far back in the -twilight of time that not even tradition was able to tell the history -of the tribes, the causes that led to their decay or the time of their -disaster. Some traditions were told to the Spaniards, but they are of -such uncertain origin that very little credence can be placed in them. -Upon the walls are sculptures which speak to us in an unknown language; -hieroglyphics, and the chiselled types of a people long since departed. -The hieroglyphics would probably explain all, but no interpreting key -has yet been discovered to give an explanation to the writings. Some -authorities assert, however, that Chichen Itza was inhabited at the -time of the Conquest. A Spaniard by the name of Aquilar was wrecked on -this coast and lived with a powerful cacique for several years, but he -left behind him no written memoirs. At any rate, it is known that the -Spanish forces occupied this place for at least two years. At first the -submission of the natives was complete, but after a time they rallied -from their stupor, tiring of ministering to the insatiable wants of their -conquerors, and much severe fighting followed. - -Of the two great wells at Chichen Itza one was used for the general water -supply, the _cenote grande_, and the other was reserved for religious -use exclusively, the _cenote sacra_. Picturesque indeed must have been -the throngs of white-robed women who peopled the steps of the _cenote -grande_ at all hours of the day to fetch water for household purposes. -They probably carried double-handled urns on their hips or shoulders -just as their descendants do at this present day. From far and near all -over Yucatan pilgrimages were made to the sacred well, which was on -the outskirts of the city, just as pilgrimages are made to-day to holy -shrines by Catholics and Mohammedans. It was this that gave the city its -holy character. Offerings of many kinds were made to the deities. It -is said that in time of drouth offerings of precious stones and other -valuables were thrown into it, and in specially protracted cases human -beings were thrown into it as sacrifices. Even after the time of the -Spanish conquest there are recorded instances of pilgrimages to the -sacred well for the purpose of sacrificing slaves to relieve a drouth. -These victims were supposed to live even after they had disappeared -beneath the sacred waters. A Spanish writer of the time asserts that this -was done as late as 1560. - -The Chichen Itza of the olden times, filled with pilgrims from far and -near, would scarcely be recognized in the place of to-day. The jungle -has gradually crept its way into the very holy of holies. Columns have -been overthrown, and some of the structures have been almost lost in -a tangle of thorns and creepers. Even in the last half century the -destruction and disintegration has been very noticeable. To reach the -place it is necessary to ride about fifteen miles over a rough and -wearisome road. All around lie buried in thick jungle ruins of palaces -and other buildings. Pyramid-like structures seem to have been one of -the favourite forms of building. The most imposing of these on this site -rises sixty-eight feet above the plain, and each side is almost one -hundred and seventy-five feet in length, the whole covering about an acre -of ground. This structure is called the Castillo, although it was really -a temple. It is made up of nine terraces of faced masonry, narrowing -toward the top, each one elaborately panelled to relieve the monotony. On -each side there is a broad stairway, with a flight of ninety steps, with -stone balustrades, which are generally carved to represent reptiles. A -stone building almost forty feet square crowns the summit. The northern -façade must have been very striking before time and the destroying hand -of man wrought their work. There were no doors on any of the buildings, -and no traces of hinges have been found. At the western base of the -pyramid is the walk that leads to the sacred well. It is believed that on -the top of this pyramid the sacred rites of the priests of their faith -were performed, and it is said that the sacrificial victims were led -down these stairways, then along the causeway and finally cast into the -sacred well. It is easy for the imagination to picture the scene in all -its splendour of white-robed priests, smoking censors, and—saddest of -all—the victims bedecked with garlands of flowers. - -There are ruins of colonnades, courts, buildings and other structures -of which many columns are standing at Chichen Itza, and it has been -called “the city of a thousand columns” by some writers. One of the most -important monuments is the Nun’s Palace, as it is called. It is not so -large as others, but contains a greater number of apartments. It is -said to have been the custom of these people to educate girls of noble -birth to the service of the gods, on their attaining the age of twelve -or thirteen. Their service was similar to that of the Vestal Virgins, -although the vows were not always perpetual. It was their duty to keep -the altar supplied with fresh flowers and to sweep the temples. One group -of structures is called the Ball Court, as it is believed to have been -used for a game similar to the modern basket ball. It consists of two -perpendicular parallel walls from north to south thirty-two feet high, -three hundred and twenty-five feet long and one hundred and thirteen feet -apart. The ends of this quadrangle are each occupied by a small temple. -In the centre of each wall, about fifteen feet from the ground, there are -two stone discs with holes through the centre, which seem to have had -a part in this or some other game. The vast proportions of this court, -or tlachtle, would seem to indicate that this game was very popular -with the Yucatecos. Some of the well preserved ruins present beautiful -sculptured façades, to which names have been given because of the fancied -resemblance to something. For instance, one has been called the ruins of -the “House of the Tigers,” because of a frieze of stalking tigers divided -by richly fringed shells; another round building, known as El Caracol, -“The Snail,” is the best preserved building at Chichen; “The Red House,” -and the “House of the Dark Writing,” are still other structures. In all -directions for several miles the bush is strewn with ruins. Crumbling -walls and courts overgrown with jungle growth are encountered on every -side, but because of the disintegration these once splendid palaces and -temples are now little more than shapeless masses of crumbled masonry. -The human figures seen on these monuments have the usual types of the -Toltec carvings on the plateaus of Mexico. The total area covered by -these ruins has been estimated by some investigators as high as ten -square miles. - -The next largest and most interesting city of ruins is known as Uxmal, -which was the capital of the Tutal Xiu branch of the Mayas. This city -is located between low ranges of hills, perhaps one hundred miles from -Chichen Itza. When seen from an eminence a dozen or more imposing -structures of white limestone are presented to view. This city, no -doubt, supplied a very important part in the early history of Yucatan—at -least if one is to judge from its size. It is believed that this was the -original city of the Toltecs. A dozen or more imposing structures of -considerable size still stand here that can be identified, in addition -to the large numbers of ruins which can scarcely be outlined. The most -notable sanctuary of Uxmal, which is now known as the “House of the -Dwarf,” is over fifty feet high, and also surmounts a steep-sloped -pyramid one hundred feet in height. Two stairways on opposite sides lead -to this building. It is so named because the natives say it was built by -a savage dwarf in a single night. Long after the city was abandoned this -temple was held in especial veneration. The Spanish priests used to find -offerings of cocoa and copal on it, and they attributed this to devil -worship. Two lines of parallel walls, parts of which are still standing, -enclose a court or quadrangle, which is similar to the Ball Court at -Chichen. The group of buildings around it encloses more than one hundred -rooms. All of the buildings seem to have been built on low platforms -or terraces. There is also at this place a high terrace, or platform, -that covers over three acres of ground, and on which is a second and a -third terrace, upon the latter of which is the ruin of a building known -as the Governor’s Palace. This building is one of the finest samples -of early American architecture still extant. It stands at an elevation -of forty-four feet above the plains, and commands a splendid view of -the city. Its exterior walls are decorated with sculptured masonry, in -the making of which it is estimated there are upward of twenty thousand -sculptured pieces of stone. The building is three hundred and twenty-two -feet long, and is divided into three parts by two arcades which pass -clear through. It is built entirely of stone without ornament to a -height of ten feet, then comes a cornice, above which is a wall that -is a bewildering maze of beautiful sculpture. This frieze has a row -of colossal heads, and is divided into panels which are alternately -filled with grecques in high relief, and diamond or lattice work. All -the lintels of the building here are of wood in an excellent state of -preservation. - -[Illustration: AN OLD CHURCH] - -At Uxmal there is a building called the “House of Turtles,” because -of a row of turtles used as ornaments in the upper cornice. It is the -freest from ornamentation of any of the structures. The turtles are -found sculptured at various places along the cornice. The “House of -the Pigeons” is the name of another building, because of the fancied -resemblance to a dove-cote. The crest of the roof is perforated with -many rectangular openings—but the resemblance for which the name is -given is very fanciful. At this site there were none of the natural -wells described at the other city, but these people constructed some -natural reservoirs a short distance from the town in which the rainfall -was collected, and which gave the necessary water supply for the people. -Furthermore, some of the buildings seem to have had subterranean cisterns -of large size under them. Heavy rainfall occurs here for about one-half -the year, but during the other half there is practically no rainfall, -and water becomes very scarce and valuable. The so-called “House of the -Nuns” is the largest building and bears the richest and most intricate -carving at Uxmal. It is composed of four buildings, the largest of -which is two hundred and seventy-nine feet in length. The four buildings -enclose a great court, with sides two hundred and fourteen and two -hundred and fifty-eight feet in length, the entrance to which is through -a high triangular-arched gateway. This building originally contained no -less than eighty-eight apartments of various sizes. A number of writers -believe that many of these buildings at Uxmal are comparatively recent, -because of the appearance of the stone and the well-preserved character -of the wood used in the construction. - -These structures are only a part of the ruins that still remain, for -the jungle on either side hides the remains of what were once imposing -buildings. Many of these have been literally torn asunder by trees, whose -roots have forced themselves between the stones and pried them apart. No -doubt this city once housed many thousands of people, but to-day it is -without inhabitants. The pomp and glory of former times have disappeared; -and all is silent save for the birds that nest in the trees and bushes. - -The third city of ruins, Palenque, is situated at a considerable distance -south and west of the two just described, and not far from San Juan -Bautista. Palenque, according to Charney, was a holy city—a place for -pilgrimage. In the carvings neither sword, spear, shield nor arrow -appear. The representations are all of peaceful subjects, usually a -personage standing with a sceptre and with prostrated acolytes at his -feet. From the expression one would judge that they were worshippers, and -not slaves or captives. Their expression is always peaceful and serene -and that of worshippers and believers. The city is built in the form of -an amphitheatre, on the lowest slope of the lofty Cordilleras beyond. -Its high position affords a magnificent view over the forest-covered -plain below stretching as far as the sea. In all the structures the -builder levelled out the ground in narrow terraces, on which artificial -elevations of pyramidal forms were reared, and the hillside was faced -with hewed stones. At Palenque there are in all ten buildings in view, -each one crowning an elevation artificially made. As one enters the -grounds there are several buildings to the right and left, but directly -in front are the remains of the Palace. At one time this building has -been very large and imposing. Remains of a broad flight of steps that led -to the imposing entrance corridor are in plain evidence. Flights of steps -led down to the first patio, which was surrounded by lofty corridors -with roofs of pointed arches and which led into small apartments. -There were two of these patios in the Palace of irregular size. Double -galleries which made a sort of cloister surrounded them. Gloomy entrances -from these corridors lead to underground chambers, where there are tables -which are called altars, beds and dining tables by different writers. A -lack of system seems to prevail in the building of the Palace. On top of -one of the walls two immense forest trees are now growing. In the central -portion are the ruins of a tower, of which three stories are still -standing, with many windows. It is a square tower ornamented to the north -with pointed niches; otherwise it is almost devoid of ornamentation. -On the contrary the galleries are richly ornamented with medallions, -probably representing priests and priestesses. Many human figures are -sculptured in low relief representing priests with mitres on their heads -and in uncomfortable attitudes. The faces are oftentimes defaced in order -to give an appearance of ferocity. Some of the figures of the deities are -fantastic, monstrous and even terrible. - -The Temple of Inscriptions stands on a hill about fifty feet high. A -magnificent view of the ruins is afforded by this elevation, as well as -the broad tablelands surrounding. There are three large mural tablets -covered with picture writing and hieroglyphs, supposed to be copies -of the laws of these ancient people, in the building. Across a little -valley over which an aqueduct leads the land rises in terraces, and is -surmounted with artificially made hills on which are the ruins of more -buildings—two Temples of the Cross and the Temple of the Sun. The Temple -of the Sun is almost perfectly preserved. The interior is one large room -with a sanctuary at one end. In each of these are mural tablets which -contain what is known as the Cross of Palenque. The cruciform shape, -such as the swastika and other forms, is not uncommon among aboriginal -people, but this is what is known as the Latin cross. Whether this arose -by chance through the invention of the artist, or the cross had some -religious significance among these people, still remains an absolute -mystery. Charney asserts that it is one of the symbols of Tlaloa, the god -of rain, but other writers differ with him. The body of the cross, which -rests on a hideous head, is sculptured in the centre, and at the upper -end are two human figures. On one there is an inscription of sixty-eight -characters, which doubtless explain the ceremony represented by the -sculpture. Again it is surmounted by the sacred bird of the Mayas, the -quetzal. In another this place is taken by a representation of the sun -with its spreading rays. Where did the Mayas get their idea of the cross -so sacred among Christian people? No one has yet been able to answer this -question satisfactorily. - -Who built these structures? For what purpose were they reared? Various -are the theories, and many are the speculations covering them. But -authentic information is absolutely wanting, and the passing years shed -little light. The modern Yucatecos are an attractive people. No people -in the world are pleasanter or have more delightful manners than they. -The young women have a winning grace and charm that is peculiarly their -own. Their costume is not greatly unlike that of the Tehuanas—and it is -fully as unique and becoming. It is quite probable that their customs and -characteristics have not changed much since the Spanish occupation. They -have always been an independent people, and have caused much more trouble -than the majority of the aboriginal tribes of Mexico. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIV - -THE PRESENT AND THE FUTURE - - -The old-fashioned Don, accustomed to ox-carts, wooden ploughs, and a -horde of men ready to serve him, no doubt views with dismay the changes -being wrought by steam and electricity. The younger generation has been -educated abroad, or in the States, and rather welcomes the innovations. -The spirit of revolution and political unrest that prevailed for the -first sixty years of the republic has lessened, even if it has not -entirely passed away. Education and immigration have worked wonders -in the country; and, above all, the establishment of a government -that for almost a third of a century commanded obedience at home and -respect abroad is responsible for the mutation in Mexico. It was an -absolute republic and under a strong controlling hand. It was the family -government applied to the state, for it was very paternal in its rule. - -[Illustration: PRIMITIVE TRANSPORTATION] - -Mexico is a human country and is not without its faults. The greatest -of these are, however, the result of conditions for which the present -generation of nation-builders are not responsible. A transformation -can not be wrought in a decade, nor in a generation. And yet the real -accomplishments of the past twenty-five years in Mexico are marvellous. -Americans who have lived there during that time wax eloquent in -describing the great change for the better. Whereas formerly people -hesitated to invest money for fear of political changes, investments in -that country are now looked upon as safe, and Mexican securities are -given a fixed value on the bourses of the world. - -Modern luxuries and conveniences are being introduced everywhere. The -people are simply installing in a hurry the things that other countries -have been acquiring for the half of a century. Every city is bestirring -herself, and electric light plants, modern sewerage systems and water -works are being constructed as rapidly as things can move in this land -of procrastination. Old and crude methods of power are being replaced -by up-to-date machinery in mines and manufactures. Electric railways -are replacing the mule tram lines, and the merry hum of the trolley is -fast succeeding the bray of the long-eared motor just mentioned. Mexico -lagged behind so long that she has had quite a distance to go, and it -will be a long while before she can entirely catch up with the head of -the procession. Material wealth is increasing. Better wages are paid, -and the surplus is being expended for more and better goods. The wants -of the great bulk of the people are so few, that it must be a long time -before there will be a great change in their method of living; but their -children are being educated, and that in itself works wonders in their -uplifting. - -For more than twenty years the finances of the government have shown a -surplus. What a contrast to all the years of the republic before that -time. In 1876 the total revenue of the government was but $19,000,000 -silver. For the fiscal year ending June 30th, 1910, this had increased to -$53,164,242 United States gold. From a yearly deficit a surplus has been -evolved which annually amounts to several million dollars. The total cash -in the treasury at the date of the above report amounted to $37,042,857 -gold. This statement shows a healthy condition of affairs. The government -now finds willing buyers for its bonds, and all its obligations have been -met promptly for a number of years. - -Finance Minister Limantour, who held that position for many years, proved -himself to be a Napoleon of finance, and his reputation extended to every -financial centre in the world. Establishing the gold standard was a great -achievement. Just a few years ago Mexican silver varied from $2.05 to -$2.40 for a gold dollar, and all business was unsettled as a result. -Now the government has established a rate of exchange of two silver -dollars for one of gold, and all this was done without any friction or -disturbance. It is to be hoped that the new administration will maintain -the same high standard of financial integrity that has been handed down -by its immediate predecessor. - -The foreign trade of Mexico runs into big figures. The total -extra-territorial trade of the republic for the year ending June 30th, -1910, amounted to $227,456,025 in United States gold. Of this amount -$130,023,135 represented exports and $97,432,890, imports. Of the exports -$78,260,037 were of mineral products, while vegetable products were -less than half that amount. An analysis of the imports shows by far -the largest items were included under manufactured articles, such as -machinery, textiles, chemical products, etc. Arms and explosives imported -exceeded a million and a half dollars in value, thus showing that the -government and people were even then preparing for the struggle to -follow. By far the largest proportion of exports and imports was with the -United States. Imports from the United States amounted to the tidy sum -of $56,421,551, an increase of twelve million dollars over the preceding -year, and the exports to the United States were $98,432,859, an increase -of almost an equal amount. The United Kingdom is the nearest competitor -in the foreign trade with our neighbouring republic. While the imports -from the United States showed an increase of twenty-four per cent. over -the preceding year, the increase from the United Kingdom and Germany was -only twelve and eighteen per cent. respectively. Imports from the mother -country, Spain, were less than three per cent. of the whole. - -In the matter of trade, as is shown by the trade statistics, the -United States is easily the predominant factor. The proximity of the -country has probably been the cause of this, as it has led Americans to -investigate the natural resources and invest money in railroads, mines, -public works and many other enterprises. The same influence can be seen -in the banking interests. There are a number of very strong banks in -Mexico, of which the Banco Nacional, or National Bank of Mexico, is the -most influential. This bank was established in 1881, at a time when the -financial condition of the country was anything but prosperous, and its -growth has been continuous and at times almost phenomenal. This bank and -one other are the only institutions that have the privilege of issuing -bank notes in the Federal District, although some banks in other parts -of the country have the same privilege. The Bank of London and Mexico, -originally a British concern, but now owned by French capital, ranks -next in importance, although it is very closely followed by the United -States Banking Company, an American enterprise with a number of branches -throughout the republic. There are many other banks, some of them under -the banking laws of the republic, and others private enterprises, which -gives Mexico very good facilities for the transaction of all kinds of -banking and commercial business. In 1893 there were only eight banks -in the entire republic, but now there are more than sixty. They have a -circulation of nearly $100,000,000, and a capital in excess of that sum. -The American influence, and the banks controlled by Americans, have aided -greatly in the development of business between the two countries, and it -is the writer’s belief that similar establishments throughout the rest -of Latin America would be one of the greatest aids to the extension of -American influence and commerce that could be devised. - -The increase of manufacturing has been quite noticeable in recent -years, and eventually will cause a diminution in the imports of certain -articles. Quite a number of cotton factories have been established in -certain sections of the country, and the labour has been found quite -well adapted to that class of manufacturing. Establishments for the -preparation and curing of meats have also been built under government -concessions, while tobacco factories, which work up the very excellent -tobacco grown in the country, and breweries have been established in many -sections of the country. The Mexican tobacco is said by those who pose -as experts to have a very excellent flavour, and by many is claimed to -be superior even to the Cuban article. The product grown in the state -of Vera Cruz has the best flavour, but a number of other states produce -large quantities of the weed. - -The greatest enterprise now operating in Mexico, excepting only -the railroads, is the Mexico Light and Power Company, a Canadian -corporation. This group of men own the electric light and gas plants and -the tramways of the City of Mexico, Puebla and a number of other cities. -As a part of their enterprise they have built a great dam by means of -which the waters of the Necaxa River are utilized for the production -of the electricity. This is distant ninety-six miles to the northeast -of the capital. Fed by springs this river becomes a good sized stream -before it plunges over a precipice of four hundred and sixty feet, and -a short distance beyond is one of a still greater fall. The main dam is -one hundred and ninety-four feet high and about thirteen hundred feet -wide, and contains an immense amount of material. It is built of stone -and concrete. By means of this and the auxiliary dams a valley has been -made into an immense reservoir, so that the dry season might be provided -for when the natural flow of water would be insufficient. It is claimed -that enough water can be stored to run the power plant through two years -of continual drouth. The water is carried to the turbines by means of -pipes which pierce the mountain, bringing to each turbine a stream of -water six feet in diameter and carrying all the force of a drop exceeding -one thousand feet. The total transmission lines reach a length of more -than two hundred miles, and the capacity of the plant is two hundred and -fifty thousand horse power. At the present time this company supplies all -the electric power in the capital, as well as several mining enterprises, -and as soon as the plant is wholly completed, will supply Puebla and -other cities. Its franchise is from the Mexican government and is in -perpetuity. This simply gives an indication of what can be done in the -development of the natural resources of Mexico. In a country where fuel -is scarce and high priced, the value of the water power is accordingly -increased. There are many other waterfalls awaiting development, and it -only needs the necessary capital, and a combination of far-sighted men, -such as those who compose the Canadian corporation above mentioned, to -supply the great need of Mexico for cheap and satisfactory power. - -[Illustration: PRIMITIVE PLOUGHING NEAR OAXACA] - -It is unfortunate for Mexico that mining has absorbed almost all of her -energies, and agriculture has been allowed to drop into a secondary -position. One cause for this has been the Spanish characteristic, -as represented by the original conquerors, of seeking quick wealth -instead of attempting to coax out of mother earth the treasure that -she possesses. There are labourers in plenty, if they are properly -instructed, but the _hacendados_, as well as labourers, adhere to the -most primitive methods. It has been said that “earth is here so kind -that just tickle her with a hoe and she laughs with a harvest.” This -is not true of all parts of the country, of course, for much of it is -mountainous and of a broken character, but the statement will apply to -large portions of the republic. - -The government of Mexico has endeavoured to improve agricultural -conditions by disseminating information as to scientific methods of -cultivation, irrigation and fertilization, but very little of it has had -a noticeable effect. The government has also distributed large quantities -of seeds and plants with little effect. In most parts of the republic the -land is tilled just as it was four centuries ago. It is really surprising -that, in spite of these antiquated methods, the results have been so good -as they are. As mentioned heretofore the wooden plough with a small iron -shoe, which merely scratches the surface of the earth, is still used; men -may be seen cutting wheat with the sickle, and much of the threshing is -done by driving horses and mules around a ring covered with grain, just -as it was done in the old Biblical days. The winnowing is accomplished -by tossing the wheat and the chaff into the air, and then the grain is -hauled to the _haciendas_ or markets in clumsy and ponderous two-wheeled -carts. - -A _hacienda_ run upon modern American methods would certainly be a much -more profitable enterprise than when conducted after this style. In a -few sections of the country, one will find a plantation here and there -where some new methods have been introduced and American machinery -employed, but these are rare. Even in the Valley of Mexico, not far from -the City of Mexico, the most antiquated methods will be seen employed -at all times. The richness of the land and its cheapness has caused the -floating of many land companies in the United States. They can show -great prospects on paper, but the trouble is that many of them have -been floated by unscrupulous men, who care nothing for the interests of -the stockholders, but are looking simply for promoters’ profits. When -the real buyers reach the land they discover that things are not as -represented, do not find conditions of living to their liking, and in -a very short time the whole enterprise is dropped. Many have probably -lost practically all of their savings. These things, of course, cannot be -entirely guarded against, and they certainly fail to prove that Mexico is -not a rich agricultural country. They simply demonstrate what fraud can -be perpetrated upon people in a country where the land is teeming with -fertility. Land values have undoubtedly advanced in the past few years, -and some enormous tracts have been purchased by Americans, which are -already showing profits for the owners. - -There has been much criticism heaped upon the Mexican courts, and a great -deal of it has been deserved. The judicial system of Mexico is copied -rather after the French and Spanish than the Anglo-Saxon system. In -recent years the procedure has been improved greatly, but it still needs -other changes in order to bring it up to the twentieth century standards. -In years past American railroad engineers, who were unfortunate enough -to run over some one, received harsh treatment in Mexican jails. The law -of _incommunicado_, by which an accused person is locked up for three -days, is still in force. It used to be that a wounded person could not -be touched or moved before the arrival of the authorities, which caused -much suffering; but this at least has been abolished. The judicial -system, which includes supreme courts, district courts, circuit courts, -police courts and other minor courts, is intended to give justice to -the defendant in a criminal action, and to both parties in a civil -action, but in many cases—to an American—the result does not seem to be -satisfactory. - -The jury system is in use in Mexico, and nine persons compose a jury. -The jurymen may consist of both natives and foreigners, but the members -must have some occupation, education or independent means. The law -provides that the accused must be acquainted with the names and number -of his accusers, and must be confronted with the witnesses who testify -against him. The testimony is all taken down in longhand writing, which -is a tedious process, as followed out in Mexican courts. In criminal -cases it is generally read over to the witness and signed by him, which -method, although it is cumbersome, sometimes gives a degree of certainty -and correctness to the testimony. It is true that in many cases the -points that are raised by the accused are treated with very little -consideration. This is not the fault of the law, but is the result of its -maladministration by the officials, just as similar instances are the -world over. Arrests of natives are made for all sorts of offences, many -of which are trivial, and they are generally kept in jail for several -days before they are finally given a hearing. Foreigners are usually -treated with great consideration and substantial justice is done them. It -probably is not good policy for citizens of another country to criticise -Mexico, when there are so many blots upon the administration of justice -in every civilized country, and the United States is not an exception. -Local conditions, public clamour and other things influence the action of -courts in Mexico, just as they do in every other country. - -In addition to the railroad connections the steamship lines form a very -important part in the national transportation of Mexico. The long coast -line on both the Pacific Ocean and Gulf of Mexico provides many ports. -The national traffic between these ports is quite a considerable item, -but the foreign commerce is still greater. At the present time Mexico has -direct steamship connection with the United States, Canada, Europe, South -America, Central America, the West Indies and the Orient. The principal -ports are Tampico, Puerto Mexico (formerly Coatzacoalcos) and Progresso -on the Gulf, and Salina Cruz, Acapulco, Manzanillo, and Mazatlan on the -Pacific. There are in all more than twenty steamship lines that have -contracts with the government for carrying the mails, and nearly all -of these enjoy subsidies of large or small amounts or enjoy certain -privileges or concessions. - -The most important company operating is the one known as the Ward -Line, which conducts a weekly service between several Mexican ports, -Havana and New York. This company has some very good boats, and does -a large business between all of those ports. The Mallory Line, the -Mexican-American Line and the Munson Line have regular service between -Mexican ports, Galveston and New Orleans. There are also several -companies that make regular trips between Vera Cruz, Tampico and European -ports. On the Pacific coast the Kosmos Line, operated by the Hamburg -American Company, have a regular service from Seattle down the west -coast of the United States, Mexico, Central America and South America -to Europe by the way of the Straits of Magellan. The Pacific Mail -Steamship Company operate about three boats a month from San Francisco -to Panama, where connections are made for New York and West Coast ports -of South America. The American-Hawaiian Company have boats which sail -between Hawaii and Salina Cruz. There are also, in addition to these -mentioned, a number of coast lines on both the Pacific and Atlantic -side, which do a considerable traffic between the various ports. The -Canadian-Mexican Pacific Steamship Company recently began to operate -boats between Victoria, British Columbia and Salina Cruz, and gives a -monthly service between those ports. In order to develop and facilitate -this coast traffic the Mexican government has spent a great deal of money -in providing harbours and docks at a number of the smaller ports, in -addition to the larger enterprises that have heretofore been described. - -Mexico has not a great number of navigable rivers. On the Pacific side -the Mayo, the Yaqui, the Balsas, the Rio Grande de Santiago and one or -two others are classed as navigable streams, but because of bars and -other obstructions they can be used only by boats of comparatively light -draft. On the Atlantic side, just below the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, is -the Grigalva River, which is a broad and imposing stream. Large boats -ply regularly up this stream to San Juan Bautista, a distance of about -seventy-five miles. Small boats go up still farther, the boat traffic -extending clear to the mountains. The Usumasinta River is an affluent of -this stream, and is navigable for small boats even beyond the Guatemala -border. The Coatzacoalcos River, which flows into the Gulf at the town -of the same name, is quite an important stream, and furnishes an outlet -to a considerable territory. The Papaloapan River, which flows into the -Gulf of Mexico near Vera Cruz, has been dredged and made navigable for a -considerable distance into the interior. It has proved a great benefit to -many small towns and plantations there situated. - -North of Vera Cruz are the Soto La Marina, the Tuxpan and the Panuco -Rivers, all of which are navigable for a hundred miles or more. As an -adjunct to the navigable streams and the deep water ports the government -is now building an intercoastal canal, which is similar to the one -proposed along the Gulf coast of Louisiana and Texas to connect the -Mississippi and Rio Grande Rivers. There are a series of lagoons and -small lakes that lie just a short distance within the coast line, and -which can be connected and deepened. They will then form a convenient and -safe waterway for navigation. The government is spending several million -dollars on the first link of this system, which will connect the ports of -Tampico and Tuxpan, a distance of about a hundred miles. Half of this -section is already finished and in operation, and it is estimated that in -three or four years more this part of the canal will be finished. This -waterway has a width of seventy-five feet and a uniform depth of ten and -one-half feet, and will connect the mouths of the Panuco and the Tuxpan -Rivers. The Panuco, near Tampico, is fifty feet deep, and the deepest -draft ocean vessels can come in and unload at the docks of Tampico. The -section of the canal already opened is constantly filled with long and -narrow boats, manned by natives, which are propelled by means of long -poles when the wind fails. - -The opening of this section of the canal has worked wonders in the -development of this part of the coast land, because it places the -products of the plantations and ranches within easy reach of the -markets. It has also served to drain thousands of acres of land, which -were formerly considered to be of no use whatever. On this route the -canal passes through Lake Tamiahua, which is seventy-nine miles long -and from five to twenty miles wide. Lake Tampamachoco, a much smaller -lake, will also be traversed by this canal. The water in these lakes -is comparatively shallow, and it has been necessary to deepen them -considerably in order to make the canal of uniform depth with the other -portion. The distance between Tampico and the mouth of the Rio Grande -is about three hundred miles, but a number of salt water lagoons, which -lie near the coast, can be utilized as a portion of the canal. If this -project, and the similar one planned by the United States, are completed, -it will furnish a very long inland waterway for the coast region. It -will serve the double purpose of draining and making more healthful that -portion of the country, and likewise giving an outlet for the development -that will surely follow. The land when once drained has been proved to be -of unusual fertility. - -The influence of the Anglo-Saxon in Mexico has been very marked. What the -English have done in Argentina and many parts of the world, the Americans -have done in our neighbouring republic. It is a significant fact that -the Spanish influences have been perceptibly disappearing, while that of -the Anglo-Saxon has been in the ascendency. This change can be noted in -a great many ways, both in thought, customs and foreign relations. This -transition has not been promptly recognized, and in some quarters it has -been strongly objected to by the extreme conservative elements; but, -nevertheless, it has been steadily marching on. Many of the Mexicans -prominent in the political and business life recognize this trend and -encourage it, for they feel that Mexico needs Anglo-Saxon methods and -ideas in order to develop the country, and give it the prestige that its -importance deserves. There are perhaps twenty or twenty-five thousand -Americans who permanently reside in Mexico, and, in addition, there -is the effect of the many millions of American money invested in the -country, and the thousands of tourists and business men who annually -cross the borders. - -There is, doubtless, a strong prejudice against the American and his -methods in many parts of Mexico, and this feeling seems to have been -somewhat intensified in the recent revolution. It is not to be wondered -at that such a feeling exists. From first to last Mexico has ceded to -the United States almost one million square miles of territory, which is -almost one-third more than the present size of the republic. First came -the separation of Texas, which was undoubtedly due to the intriguing -of Americans who had crossed over into that section of Mexico. These -pioneers and adventurers brought about the declaration of independence by -the Lone Star State. A few years later that territory was admitted into -the United States as one of its integral parts. Then came the Mexican -War, which most of us admit was an unjust war, and which resulted in the -cession of more than half a million of square miles of territory. A few -years later, by the Gadsden Purchase, which was due to disputes over the -boundary line, another block of territory, as large as the state of Ohio, -was added to the domain of the United States. - -In the revolution of 1910 many Americans crossed the border, joined -the forces of the revolutionists, and aided in the troubles of the -then existing government. Furthermore, very many American tourists who -visit Mexico make themselves disagreeable by their actions and their -criticisms, which also add to the anti-American feeling. So many include -all Mexicans under the general title of “greasers,” and can see no good -in anything that is not American. It is a fortunate thing that the good -people of Mexico understand very little English; otherwise they would -frequently be excited to anger, if they could hear the remarks that are -made by Americans in visiting their churches, battle fields and other -places surrounded by sacred associations. They are not fools, however, -and even if they do not understand the words they can catch the trend -of remarks by the gesture and laugh that accompanies them. As the -Spanish race are exceedingly sensitive this lack of sympathy and almost -open contempt cannot result otherwise than do injury to a general good -feeling. Some Americans grumble at everything, get mad because all the -waiters and porters do not understand English, complain about the hotels -because they cannot obtain everything just like they would in a Fifth -Avenue hotel, and, in fact, find fault with everything that they see. As -a contrast to this one might consider the attitude of Mexicans. It is -difficult to do justice to the innate courtesy of officials and people -when Americans show them so little. You can murder his beloved Spanish -in attempting to address a Mexican, and he will listen with infinite -patience and never a smile of amusement or expression of vexation on his -face. The Mexican is polite not only to his superiors and equals, but to -his servants as well. - -The republic of Mexico has passed through dark days. It has suffered from -the evil government of foreigners and from the reckless ambitions of -its own rulers. The burdens of former mistakes still remain, and there -is a lingering distrust of the powerful republic to the north in many -places. This distrust has been fanned into greater intensity by recent -political agitators. The good sense of the leaders will quickly reassert -itself, however, and a more perfect understanding will surely result. -American intelligence and capital have done too much in bringing about -the material prosperity of the country for such conditions to exist -permanently. Mexico needs capital for the development of her resources, -and American capital is most available for that purpose. Americans -will even be interested in the moral and material advancement of their -neighbours across the Rio Grande. - -To the reader who has followed this narrative to the end, I give my -valediction, _a la Mexicana_: - -_Adios! Vaya usted con Dios._ - - -THE END. - - - - -FOOTNOTES - -[1] “Wonderful, Mysterious Mexico,” by Madge Morris. - -[2] Mrs. Gooch in “Face to Face with the Mexicans.” - -[3] Mexican statistics of public instruction show that the state of -Jalisco has one school for every 2,354 inhabitants; Aguascalientes, one -for every 3,103; Campeche, one for every 1,236; Coahuila, one for every -2,090; Chihuahua, one for every 2,731; Durango, one for every 2,468; -Guanajuato, one for every 4,596; Hidalgo, one for every 1,020; Michoacan, -one for every 2,888; Morelos, one for every 687; Nuevo Leon, one for -every 1,158; Puebla, one for every 886; Queretaro, one for every 1,444; -San Luis Potosi, one for every 2,592; Sinaloa, one for every 1,041; -Sonora, one for every 1,092; Tabasco, one for every 1,018; Tamaulipas, -one for every 1,777; Tlaxcala, one for every 700; Vera Cruz, one for -every 1,268; Yucatan, one for every 792; Zacatecas, one for every 1,316, -and Mexico, one for every 936.—_Modern Mexico._ - -[4] F. A. Ober in “Travels in Mexico.” - -[5] This citation and some of the other quotations in this chapter, as -well as a number of the historical facts, are from the “Story of Mexico,” -by Susan Hale, published by G. P. Putnam’s Sons of London and New York. - -[6] “Mexico in Transition” by William Butler. - - - - -APPENDICES - - -I - -The following table gives the area and population of the various states, -territories of Tepic, Quintana Roo and Lower California, and the Federal -District; also the name of the capital and number of its inhabitants, the -figures being for the year 1900:— - - State. Sq. Miles. Population. Capital. Inhabitants. - Aguas Calientes, 2,950 101,910 Aguas Calientes, 35,052 - Campeche, 20,087 84,218 Campeche, 17,109 - Coahuila, 63,569 280,899 Saltillo, 23,936 - Colima, 2,700 65,026 Colima, 20,698 - Chiapas, 29,600 363,216 Tuxtla, 10,982 - Chihuahua, 87,802 327,004 Chihuahua, 30,405 - Durango, 42,200 371,274 Durango, 31,092 - Guanajuato, 12,300 1,065,317 Guanajuato, 41,486 - Guerrero, 24,996 474,594 Chilpanzingo, 7,497 - Hidalgo, 8,917 603,074 Pachuca, 37,487 - Jalisco, 31,846 1,137,311 Guadalajara, 101,208 - Mexico, 9,247 924,457 Toluca, 25,904 - Michoacan, 22,874 935,849 Morelia, 37,278 - Morelos, 2,773 161,697 Cuernavaca, 9,584 - Nuevo Leon, 23,592 326,940 Monterey, 62,266 - Oaxaca, 35,382 947,910 Oaxaca, 35,049 - Puebla, 12,204 1,024,446 Puebla, 93,521 - Queretaro, 3,556 228,489 Queretaro, 33,152 - San Luis Potosi, 25,316 582,486 San Luis Potosi, 61,019 - Sinaloa, 33,671 296,109 Culiacan, 10,380 - Sonora, 76,900 220,553 Hermosillo, 10,613 - Tabasco, 10,072 158,107 San Juan Bautista, 10,543 - Tamaulipas, 32,128 220,253 Victoria, 10,086 - Tlaxcala, 1,595 172,217 Tlaxcala, 2,847 - Vera Cruz, 29,201 960,570 Jalapa, 20,388 - Yucatan, 20,203 227,264 Merida, 43,630 - Zacatecas, 24,757 496,810 Zacatecas, 32,856 - Tepic, 11,257 149,677 Tepic, 15,488 - Lower California, 58,328 47,082 La Paz, 5,046 - Federal District, 463 530,723 City of Mexico, 344,721 - Quintana Roo, 15,000 85,000 Santa Cruz de Bravo, 2,000 - - -II - -The broken character of the surface of Mexico is shown by the many high -mountain peaks which are scattered over the country. Most of these peaks -are extinct volcanoes, although one of them, Colima, is in constant -eruption. The following table gives the name, location and height of all -the peaks over ten thousand feet in height:— - - Mountain. State. Elevation. - - Popocatepetl, Mexico, 17,782 ft. - Orizaba, Vera Cruz, 17,362 ft. - Ixtaccihuatl, Puebla, 16,060 ft. - Toluca, Mexico, 15,019 ft. - Colima, Jalisco, 14,263 ft. - Ajusco, Federal District, 13,660 ft. - Cofre de Perote, Vera Cruz, 13,641 ft. - Zapotlan, Jalisco, 12,743 ft. - Tancitaro, Michoacan, 12,653 ft. - Zempoaltepec, Oaxaca, 11,141 ft. - Pico de Quinco, Michoacan, 10,900 ft. - - -III - -SUGGESTIONS FOR TRAVELLERS - -The visitor to Mexico will find few inconveniences in the way of railway -travel. The coaches are, with only occasional exceptions, of American -manufacture, and the through trains on most of the railroads have Pullman -coaches at fares that are considerably lower than in the United States. -It is well to make the trip going and coming to the capital by different -routes, choosing the El Paso route for one trip and the Laredo gateway -for the other. If the visitor is from the eastern part of the United -States, a sea voyage from either New York or New Orleans to Vera Cruz -makes a pleasant variation to the monotony of railroad travel. If bound -for San Francisco one can travel through the republic to Salina Cruz, -and there embark for that city. When the Southern Pacific extension is -completed to Guadalajara this will also furnish another good way either -to enter or leave Mexico. - -The Mexican customs examination is a very formal affair and causes very -little inconvenience to the traveller, for the officials are usually very -courteous. An ignorance of the Spanish language will not cause a great -deal of trouble to the experienced traveller in the cities, as it is a -very easy matter to find some one who can speak English. In the remoter -districts more trouble will be encountered, so that one should have at -least a few stock phrases to use. - -The money of Mexico is easy for one to familiarize himself with, as the -peso is equal to fifty cents in American money. The only inconvenience at -times is the trouble of carrying so many of these pesos, each of which is -the size of one of our American silver dollars. The minor coins are all -on the decimal system, the peso counting as one hundred centavos. - -Hotel accommodation in the cities is fair, although it will take -the traveller some time to get used to the large rooms that he will -oftentimes be placed in. The charges are generally based on the European -plan, but occasionally one will find a hotel on the American plan, and -the charges are reasonable. On arriving at a hotel the guest is usually -shown a room, and, if it is accepted, he may then register and his name -is written on a blackboard with his room number. The cab charges are -usually reasonable. In the City of Mexico there are three classes of -cabs, indicated respectively by blue, red and yellow flags, the latter -being the cheapest class. The driver always expects a small fee in -addition to the regular fare. - -Good stores will be found in the cities, and the prices are not -excessive. Most people are interested in things that may be purchased as -souvenirs of the country. The famous drawn work can be bought to the best -advantage in northern Mexico, and especially at Aguas Calientes. Mexico -is also noted for her onyx, opals and the turquoise. - -The proper clothing to be worn is that used in the United States for -spring or fall in the higher altitudes, and a light coat should be a -part of the wardrobe. In the lower levels lightweight summer clothing -can be worn at all seasons of the year. Most people visit Mexico during -the winter months, but summer, which is the rainy season, is likewise -delightful. - - -IV - -BIBLIOGRAPHY - - BALLOU, M. M.: Aztec Land. Boston, 1890. - - BANCROFT, H. H.: History of Mexico. 6 vols. San Francisco, 1888. - - BANDELIER, A. F.: Report of an Archeological Tour. Boston, 1885. - - BEART, LUCIEN: The Aztecs, their History, Manners and Customs. - From the French. Chicago, 1900. - - BISHOP, W. H.: Old Mexico and Her Lost Provinces. New York, - 1883. - - BROOKS, N. C.: History of the Mexican War. Philadelphia, 1849. - - CHARNAY, DESIRÉ: Ancient Cities of the New World. Translated - from French. New York, 1887. - - CONKLIN, HOWARD: Mexico and the Mexicans. New York, 1883. - - CREELMAN, JAMES: Diaz: Master of Mexico. New York, 1910. - - DIAZ DEL CASTILLO, BERNAL: The True History of the Conquest of - Mexico. Written in 1568. Translation. New York, 1803. - - EDWARDS, WILLIAM SEYMOUR: On the Mexican Highlands. Cincinnati, - 1906. - - FLANDRAU, C. M.: Viva Mexico. New York, 1908. - - GADNOW, HANS: Through Southern Mexico. New York, 1908. - - GOOCH, FANNIE C.: Face to Face with the Mexicans. New York, - 1887. - - GRIFFIN, S. B.: Mexico of To-day. New York, 1886. - - HALE, SUSAN: Story of Mexico. New York, 1889. - - HAVEN, GILBERT: Our Next Door Neighbor: A Winter in Mexico. New - York, 1875. - - HUMBOLDT, ALEXANDER VON: Political Essay on the Kingdom of New - Spain. London, 1822. - - KIRKHAM, STANTON DAVIS: Mexican Trials. Boston, 1909. - - LUMHOLTZ, CARL: Unknown Mexico. 2 vols. New York, 1902. - - LUMMIS, CHARLES F.: The Awakening of a Nation. New York, 1899. - - MARTIN, PERCY F.: Mexico of the Twentieth Century. London, 1907. - - MAYER, BRANTZ: Mexico as It Was and Is. London, 1844. - - NOLL, A. H.: A Short History of Mexico. Chicago, 1903. - - OBER, FREDERICK A.: Travels in Mexico. Boston, 1885. - - PRESCOTT, W. H.: Conquest of Mexico. 1843. - - ROMERO, MATIAS: Mexico and the United States. New York, 1898. - - SMITH, F. H.: A White Umbrella in Mexico. Boston. 1889. - - STARR, FREDERICK: In Indian Mexico. Chicago, 1908. - - STEPHENS, JOHN L.: Incidents of Travel in Yucatan. New York, - 1843. - - STEVENSON, SARA: Maximilian in Mexico. New York, 1899. - - TWEEDIE, MRS. ALEC: The Maker of Modern Mexico: Porfirio Diaz. - London, 1906. - - WALLACE, DILLON: Beyond the Mexican Sierras. Chicago, 1910. - - - - -INDEX - - - Acapulco, 99, 299, 382. - - Agriculture, 464-467. - - Agave Americana, 41. - - Aguador (water carrier), 221. - - Agua miel (honey-water), 43. - - Aguas Calientes, 36, 219, 298. - - Aqueduct of Oaxaca, 116; - of Querétero, 35. - - Ahuehuete (cypress) of Chapultepec, 86; - of Popotla, 78; - of Tule, 153. - - Alameda, The, 56, 69. - - Alamo, Battle of the, 360. - - Alcabales, Abolishment of, 293. - - Alhondiga de Granaditas, The, of Guanajuato, 348, 349. - - Altata, 429. - - Alvaredo, Pedro, 279. - - American Capital in Mexico, 280. - - American Colony, 53. - - Anahuac, Valley of, 74 _et seq._ - - Apam, Plains of, 41, 91. - - Architecture, Mexican, 47, 271-273. - - Army, The Mexican, 334-337. - - Art in Mexico, 270. - - Auto-da-fé, The first, 345. - - Aztecs, History of the, 11, 75; - Subjugation of, 14-16; - Descendants of, 183 _et seq._; - Markets of, 217-218; - Celebrations of, 235. - - - Banana, Culture of the, 106-108, 431. - - Baptism of Indians, 309. - - Baptist Missions, 324-326. - - Bargaining, 125, 220. - - Barra, Francisco de la, 406, 413. - - Bear, Playing the, 48, 170-172. - - Beggars, Mexican, 242, 340. - - Belem, Prison of, 317. - - Boca del Monte, 91. - - Bonanzas (meaning mines worked at great profit), 275 _et seq._ - - Books, first printed in Mexico, 259. - - Borda, Joseph de la, 276. - - Buena Vista, Battle of, 27. - - Bull-fight, 243 _et seq._ - - Bull-ring, 245. - - - Cacao, 105, 109. - - Campo Santo, 63. - - Capitals, Population of the, 479. - - Cargadors (burden-bearers), 195-199. - - Cart, Mexican, 120. - - Casa (meaning home), 163, 210-211. - - Casas Grandes, 403, 425. - - Cathedral of Capital, 60, 321-323. - - Catorce, 283, 330. - - Cattle ranches, 36, 128, 417, 418-419. - - Celaya, 297, 298. - - Celebrations in honour of the Virgin of Guadalupe, 236 _et seq._ - - Cemeteries, 63. - - Centennial of Independence, 1910, 73, 396-398. - - Central Railway, 297-299. - - Cerro (a hill) de las Campañas, 35. - - Chalco, Lake, 74. - - Chamber of Deputies, The, 18. - - Chapala, Lake, 9. - - Chapultepec, 86; - military academy, 337. - - Chiapas, State of, 304. - - Chichen Itza, 441-447. - - Chihuahua, City of, 36, 298, 405, 417-419, 422; - State of, 36, 398, 401, 415, 424; - Execution of Hidalgo at, 349. - - Chinampas, or floating gardens, 82. - - Chilpantzingo, 350. - - Cholula, 78, 148; - Pyramid of, 113, 149, 150. - - Chorubusco, 363. - - Christmas celebrations, 227-232. - - Churches, Mexican, 271-273. - - Church, The Mexican, 308 _et seq._ - - Cinco de Mayo, Victory of, 37, 374; - Street of, 50. - - Ciudad Juarez, 401, 402, 404, 405, 416, 424. - - Climate of the Capital, 54-55; - Variety of, 8; - of Oaxaca, 123. - - Coahuila, State of, 27. - - Coal, 288-289. - - Coatzacoalcos, 99, 137, 139. - - Cock-fighting, 33. - - Coffee culture, 94, 106, 431. - - Colonia Juarez, 425. - - Comonfort, President, 315. - - Congress, First Mexican, 350; - Second, 354; - of to-day, 18. - - Congregational Missions, 324-326. - - Conquest, Manner of the, 14-16, 77. - - Conquistadores (conquerors), Vandalism and nature of, 13. - - Contrasts, A land of, 45. - - Copper, Production of, 228. - - Cordillerias, The, 26. - - Cordoba, 94, 301; - Treaty of, 353. - - Corral, Hon. Ramon, 405. - - Cortez, 77, 111; - Defeat of, 78; - as governor, 343; - Landing of, 95; - and his followers, 13-16. - - Cosmopolitan character of City of Mexico, 59. - - Coyoacan, 85. - - Creole, The, 51, 162; - women, 165-166. - - Cuautla, Battle of, 350. - - Cuernevaca, 299. - - Cuilapa, 358. - - Cuitzeo, Lake, 9. - - Culiacan, 429. - - Curandera (native doctor), 222-224. - - Currency reform, 459. - - Customs, Domestic, 167; - Strange, 201 _et seq._; - officials, polite, 22, 482. - - Cypress of Noche Triste, 78; - of Chapultepec, 86; - of Tule, 153. - - - Denouncing a mining claim, 287. - - Desierto, El, 85. - - Diaz, Bernal, 262. - - Diaz, Porfirio, 18-19; - Birthplace of, 116; - and education, 264; - encouragement of railroads, 296; - and Protestantism, 325; - organizes _Rurales_, 331-333; - Sketch of, 369 _et seq._; - Revolution against, 396 _et seq._ - - Diego Juan, Vision of, 236-238. - - Dolores Hidalgo, 34, 347. - - Douglass, 402. - - Dude, The Mexican, 57. - - Dulces (Mexican candy), 220. - - Durango, 36, 278; - Mountain of iron in, 288; - State of, 415. - - - Easter, Celebration of, 232-234. - - Education in Mexico, 257 _et seq._; - of soldiers, 335. - - Ejutla, 283. - - El Paso, 401, 404, 416, 481. - - Embrace, A Mexican, 47. - - English language, Teaching of, 267. - - Ensenada, 434. - - Esperanza, 91. - - Evangelista (letter-writer), 220. - - Exclusiveness of Mexicans, 164, 210. - - Exports and imports, 459-460. - - - Farming in the tropics, 106; - Antiquated, 123, 465. - - Feasts and festivals, 225 _et seq._ - - Feather work, Aztec, 218. - - Federal District, Schools of, 265. - - Ferrocarriles Mexicanos, 294 _et seq._ - - Fibre-producing plants, 40. - - Fiesta, 190, 225; - at Oaxaca, 117; - at Guadalupe, 236 _et seq._; - de las Flores, 235. - - Finances of Mexico, 458-459. - - Floating gardens, 82-84. - - Flower market, The, 67. - - Frijoles, 216. - - Funeral cars, 62. - - - Germans, Affiliation of, 38. - - Goat raising, 417. - - Gold of Aztecs, 285; - Production of, 288. - - Gomez, Vasquez, 410. - - Gondola, The Mexican, 82. - - Gonzalez, Manuel, 384. - - Graphite, 289. - - Grasshoppers as food, 81. - - Gringo, a term of derision originally applied to foreigners. - - Grito, The, 347. - - Guadalajara, 37, 219, 299, 426, 428. - - Guadalupe, Town of, 240-242; - Church of, 238; - Virgin of, 236-242. - - Guadalupe-Hidalgo, Treaty of, 363. - - Guanajuato, 36, 277, 283; - Battle at, 348, 383. - - Guatemotzin, eleventh and last Aztec Emperor, 78. - - Guaymas, 99, 301, 428. - - Guaxaca (_See_ Oaxaca). - - Guerrero, The patriot, 352, 357. - - Guatemala City, Bull fight in, 252; - Earthquake in, 260; - Theatre of, 284. - - - Hacienda, The, 27-30; - of Mitla, 124-128; - of Zuloaga, 418-420; - Labour on, 189. - - Hacendado, The, 28, 52. - - Henequen, 40-41. - - Hermosillo, 301, 427-428. - - Hidalgo, Miguel, 347-349, 392, 397. - - Hidalgo Railway, 297. - - Holidays, 190, 225 _et seq._ - - Home, Regard for, 163, 210. - - Horsemen, Mexican, 57. - - Huamantla, 381. - - Huitzilopoxtli, 308. - - - Iglesias, 382-383, 387, 388. - - Improvements, Contemplated, in Capital, 71-73. - - Independence, Declaration of, 350. - - Indians, 183 _et seq._, 421-424; - habits and characteristics, 58; - of the hotlands, 103; - cargadors, 195-199; - market, 120-122; - Independent tribe of, 115; - miners, 280. - - Inquisition, Establishment of the, 345. - - International Railway, 297. - - Interoceanic Railway, 297. - - Irapuato, 298, 299. - - Iron, 288. - - Irrigation, Benefits of, 39. - - Iturbide, Agustin de, 352-356; - Hotel, 356. - - Ixtaccihuatl, Volcano of, 87, 113. - - Ixtlan, 373. - - Ixtle, 23. - - - Japanese, Resemblance of Mexicans to, 10. - - Jardenas flotandas, 82-84. - - Jesuits, The, 258. - - Juarez, Benito, Birthplace of, 116; - attitude toward education, 264; - crushes temporal power of the Church, 315; - favours Diaz, 371; - sketch of career, 364-368, 388. - - Judas, Burning of, 233. - - Judicial System, 467-469. - - - Labourers, Mexican, 183 _et seq._ - - Lajartija, (Mexican dude), 57. - - La Paz, 434, 436. - - Laredo, 481. - - Las Madres, 415. - - Lead, 289. - - Legal customs, 207-209. - - Leon, 36, 298. - - Leperos, 339, 340. - - Lerdo, 368, 379, 382, 385, 387, 388. - - Liberty Bell, The, of Mexico, 69. - - Library, National, 269. - - Limantour, Minister of Finance, 298, 459. - - Literary men, 262 _et seq._ - - Literature, Mexican, 258 _et seq._ - - Lovemaking, Mexican, 170-172. - - Lower California, 306, 431-437. - - - Madero Family, 400, 411. - - Madero, Francisco, 400, 401, 403, 404, 406-408, 410-414, 435. - - Madrid, Bull-ring of, 244; - Bull-fight in, 253. - - Magdalena, 426. - - Magdalena Bay, 435. - - Maguey, 41-45. - - Mal Paso, 400. - - Maltrata, 92. - - Mañana, The Land of, 204. - - Manzanillo, 99, 299. - - Markets, Ancient, 217-218; - of capital, 218; - of Oaxaca, 117-119; - of Tehuantepec, 132. - - Marsh-flies as food, 81. - - Matamoros, 380. - - Maximilian, 264, 315, 366-367, 390; - Execution of, 34-35. - - Mayas, The, 438 _et seq._ - - Mazatlan, 99, 279, 429-430. - - Mendoza, Viceroy, 258, 344. - - Merchants, Aztec, 329. - - Mesas, 26. - - Mescal (native brandy), 45. - - Mestizos, 184. - - Metate, 178, 215. - - Methodist Missions, 324, 326. - - Mexican races, Origin of, 10. - - Mexican, Conservatism of, 52, 174; - his view of Anglo-Saxon, 20. - - Mexican Central Railway, 80, 297-299. - - Mexican National Railway, Route of, 24 _et seq._, 297-298. - - Mexican Railway, 90 _et seq._, 299. - - Mexican Southern Railway, 112-114, 300. - - Mexico, Antiquity of, 3; - Resources of, 19; - The United States of, 18. - - Miñaca, 420. - - Mines of Mexico, 274 _et seq._, 427, 434. - - Missions, Protestant, in Mexico, 324-327. - - Mitla, Village of, 152; - Ruins of, 152 _et seq._; - Hacienda of, 124-127, 154. - - Molino del Rey (the king’s mill), 88, 363. - - Monte de Piedad, 61. - - Monte las Cruces, Battle of, 349. - - Monterey, 24-25, 297, 299, 417; - Battle of, 25. - - Montezuma, 199. - - Moon, Pyramid of the, 147. - - Morelas, Jose Maria, 350-352. - - Morelia, 268, 351, 352. - - Mormon Colony, 425-426. - - Mountains, 24, 415 _et seq._ - - Mozo, a servant. - - Museum, National, 269. - - - Nahuals, 75. - - National Palace, The, 322. - - National Railway, 297. - - Navarro, General, 404-405. - - Newspapers and periodicals, 260-261. - - Noche Bueno, 227. - - Noche Triste, Tree of, 78. - - Nochistongo cut, 80. - - _No es costumbre_, 213-214. - - Nogales, 402, 426. - - _No hay_, 220. - - “Northers,” The, 7, 98. - - Notaries, Mexican, 209. - - Nuevo Leon, State of, 24. - - - Oaxaca, 111 _et seq._, 300, 371, 381; - Markets of, 117-119; - Valley of, 111, 151-152; - Mines of, 283. - - O’Donoju, Viceroy, 353. - - Ojinaga, 400. - - Oñata, Juan de, 276. - - Oranges, 109, 431. - - Orient, Resemblance to, 1-3, 121-123. - - Oriental habits of women, 162. - - Orizaba, 93, 366; - Volcano of, 91, 113. - - Orozco, Pascual, 404-405. - - - Pachuca, 282, 297, 405. - - Padilla, 355. - - Palace, The National, 68-69. - - Palenque, 441, 451-455. - - Palo Alto, Battle of, 361. - - Panama Canal, A competitor of, 136 _et seq._ - - Pan American Railroad, 303-305. - - Panteon of Guanajuato, 284; - National, 72. - - Paseo de la Reforma, 56, 69. - - Patio (courtyard) in houses, 47. - - Patio process, 279, 281. - - Patzcuaro, Lake, 9, 270. - - Pawnshop, The National, 61. - - Peon, The, 183 _et seq._; - as a soldier, 334-335. - - Peonage, 188-189, 191-192, 390. - - Pertenencia, a mining claim, 287. - - Petroleum, Production of, 289. - - Piedad, Monte de, 277. - - Pijijiapam, 304. - - Piñate, Breaking the, 231-232. - - Plateaus, The, 26, 295. - - Plaza Mayor, 68; - de Toros, 245. - - Poets and poetry, Mexican, 262-264. - - Police, The, 336, 341. - - Politeness, 209. - - Popocatapetl, 87, 89, 113. - - Popotla, Village of, 78. - - Poppies, Feast of the, 235. - - Population of Mexico, 9; - of states and capitals, 479. - - Posadas, The, 228-232. - - Pottery, Mexican, 119, 219. - - Presbyterian Missions, 324, 326. - - Printing press, First, 259. - - Prisons, schools in, 267. - - Procrastination, A land of, 203-205. - - Protestantism in Mexico, 317, 324-327. - - Puebla, 37-39, 113, 297, 383, 398, 407; - city of churches, 321; - house of the inquisition in, 345; - Battles at, 374, 378. - - Pulque, 41, 66; - shop, 65-67. - - Pyramid of Cholula, 113, 149, 150; - of the Sun, 147; - of the Moon, 147. - - - Quetzalcoatl, 149, 235. - - Querétero, 34, 298. - - - Railroads, Mexican, 143, 290 _et seq._, 417-418, 481. - - Rainfall, 102, 418, 435. - - Real del Monte, Mines of, 282. - - Rebosa, 59. - - Regla, Count of, 277; - Mines of, 282. - - Religion of Mexico, 308 _et seq._ - - Reyes, Bernardo, 407-408. - - Rincon Antonio, 138. - - Robbers and bandits of former days, 328-333. - - Ruins of Yucatan, 146, 440 _et seq._; - of Mitla, 152 _et seq._ - - Rurales, 331-334, 336. - - - Sagrario Metropolitano, Church of, 321-322. - - Saint, Mexico’s patron, 236. - - Saint days, 191. - - Salina Cruz, 99, 137, 139 _et seq._, 481. - - Saltillo, 27, 297. - - San Antonio, Texas, 22. - - San Benito, 305. - - San Blas, 99. - - San Cristobal, Lake, 74. - - San Cristobal Ecatepec, 351. - - San Geronimo, 304. - - San Juan de Ulua, Fort of, 98, 356. - - San Juan Teotihuacan, 146-148. - - San Luis Potosi, City of, 30 _et seq._, 297, 299; - State of, 30. - - Santa Anita, Village of, 83. - - Santa Anna, General, 354, 359-364; - Burial place of, 239. - - Santa Lucrecia, 131, 301. - - School of fine arts, 270. - - Schools, Public, 264-266. - - Scott, General, in Mexico, 361, 363. - - Seasons, Only two, 7. - - Senate, The, 18. - - Señoritas, 169. - - Serenos, 342. - - Sheep Raising, 417. - - Shoemaker, Mexican, 221. - - Silver, 275 _et seq._; - Production of, 287. - - Sinaloa, State of, 415, 428-431. - - Society in the capital, 53. - - Soldiers, Schools for, 267. - - Sonora, State of, 398, 415, 427. - - Southern Pacific Railway, 301. - - States, The, of Mexico, 18; - Area and population of, 479. - - Steamship Lines, 469-471. - - Streets of the capital, 50. - - Suarez, José Maria Pino, 410, 411. - - Sugar cane, 109, 429. - - Sun, Pyramid of, 147. - - Sunday, a day of pleasure, 57. - - - Tablelands, 26. - - Tacuba, 85. - - Tacubaya, 85. - - Tajo de Nochistongo, 80. - - Tamales, 216. - - Tampico, 99, 289. - - Taotl, an Aztec god, 308. - - Tarahumari Indians, 421-424. - - Tasco, 277. - - Taylor, General, Invasion by, 24 _et seq._; - at Palo Alto, 361. - - Tecoac, 382. - - Tehuacan, 114. - - Tehuantepec, Isthmus of, 128, 289 _et seq._; - Town of, 132-134; - Women of, 180-181; - National Railway, 136 _et seq._, 301. - - Tejada, Lerdo de (_See_ Lerdo). - - Temperature of the tropics, 100, 102; - of the capital, 54. - - Tenochtitlan, The ancient capital, 49. - - Teocalli, the Aztec, 60, 323. - - Tepic, 415, 428, 431. - - Tequila (native brandy), 45. - - Texcoco, Lake, 49, 74, 81; - Town of, 85. - - Thieves, 338-342. - - Tia Juana, 401-402, 434-435. - - Tierra Blanca, 130. - - Tierra caliente, 7, 94, 100-105, 128. - - Tierra fria, 6, 25. - - Tierra templada, 7, 93. - - Tlacolulu, 154. - - Tlacochahuaya, 154. - - Tolpetlac, Village of, 236. - - Toltecs, 12, 75; - Gods of the, 308. - - Topo Chico, Springs of, 25. - - Topolobampo, 418. - - Torreon, 298, 400, 405. - - Tortillas, Making of, 178, 215. - - Transition, The, in Mexico, 456 _et seq._ - - Travellers, Suggestions for, 481-483. - - Tropics, Vegetation of, 94, 100, 133; - Need of, 110; - Railroading in, 301-303. - - Tula, 439. - - Tule, Big Tree of, 153. - - Tzintzuntzan, 270. - - - United States, War with, 359, 363. - - Uxmal, 441, 448-451. - - - Valenciana, Conde de, 277. - - Valley of Mexico, View of, 35, 79, 87. - - Vera Cruz, 95-97, 297, 366, 387, 391; - Fall of, 363; - Escape of Diaz, at, 380. - - Vera Cruz and Pacific Railway, 131, 301, 481. - - Victoria Guadalupe, first president, 356. - - Viga canal, 82-84, 235. - - Villa Reyes, Great hacienda of, 29. - - Volcanoes, Height of, 480. - - Vomito, 95-96. - - - Wages of miners, 287; - of labourers, 188. - - Wheat, Introduction of, 39. - - Woman, 133, 162 _et seq._; - The creole, 165-166. - - - Xaltocan, Lake, 74. - - Xochimilco, Lake, 74. - - - Yaqui Indians, 427. - - Yellow Fever, 95-96. - - Young Men’s Christian Association, 327. - - Yucatan, Ruins of, 146, 440 _et seq._; - Railways in, 306. - - - Zacatecas, 36, 282, 298. - - Zambrano, a Mexican miner, 276. - - Zapotec Indians, 160. - - Zaragossa, General, Victory of, 37. - - Zocalo, The, 67, 68, 231. - - Zopilotes (buzzards), 97. - - Zuloaga Hacienda, 418-420. - - Zumarraga, Bishop, 258. - - Zumpango, Lake, 74, 79. - - - -***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MEXICO AND HER PEOPLE OF TO-DAY*** - - -******* This file should be named 60135-0.txt or 60135-0.zip ******* - - -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: -http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/6/0/1/3/60135 - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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(Nevin Otto) Winter</title> -<link rel="coverpage" href="images/cover.jpg" /> -<style type="text/css"> - -a { - text-decoration: none; -} - -body { - margin-left: 10%; - margin-right: 10%; -} - -h1,h2,h3,h4 { - text-align: center; - clear: both; -} - -hr { - margin-top: 2em; - margin-bottom: 2em; - clear: both; - width: 65%; - margin-left: 17.5%; - margin-right: 17.5%; -} - -ul { - list-style-type: none; -} - -li.indx { - margin-top: .5em; - padding-left: 2em; - text-indent: -2em; -} - -li.ifrst { - margin-top: 2em; - padding-left: 2em; - text-indent: -2em; -} - -li.isub1 { - padding-left: 4em; - text-indent: -2em; -} - -p { - margin-top: 0.5em; - text-align: justify; - margin-bottom: 0.5em; - text-indent: 1em; -} - -table { - margin: 1em auto 1em auto; - max-width: 40em; - border-collapse: collapse; -} - -th { - font-weight: normal; - padding: 0.25em; -} - -td { - padding-left: 2.25em; - padding-right: 0.25em; - vertical-align: top; - text-indent: -2em; -} - -.sub { - padding-left: 3.25em; - padding-bottom: 0.75em; - font-size: 85%; -} - -.tdc { - text-align: center; - padding-left: 0.25em; - text-indent: 0em; -} - -.tdr { - text-align: right; -} - -.tdpg { - vertical-align: bottom; - text-align: right; -} - -.bbox { - border: double black; - padding: 0.5em; - max-width: 25em; - margin: auto; -} - -.blockquote { - margin: 1.5em 10%; -} - -.caption { - text-align: center; - margin-bottom: 1em; - font-size: 90%; - text-indent: 0em; -} - -.center { - text-align: center; - text-indent: 0em; -} - -.figcenter { - margin: auto; - text-align: center; -} - -.footnotes { - margin-top: 1em; - border: dashed 1px; -} - -.footnote { - margin-left: 10%; - margin-right: 10%; - font-size: 0.9em; -} - -.footnote .label { - position: absolute; - right: 84%; - text-align: right; -} - -.fnanchor { - vertical-align: super; - font-size: .8em; - text-decoration: none; -} - -.gothic { - font-family: 'Old English Text MT', 'Old English', serif; -} - -.hanging p { - padding-left: 2em; - text-indent: -2em; -} - -.larger { - font-size: 150%; -} - -.noindent { - text-indent: 0em; -} - -.pagenum { - position: absolute; - right: 4%; - font-size: smaller; - text-align: right; - font-style: normal; -} - -.poetry-container { - text-align: center; - margin: 1em; -} - -.poetry { - display: inline-block; - text-align: left; -} - -.poetry .stanza { - margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em; -} - -.poetry .verse { - text-indent: -3em; - padding-left: 3em; -} - -.poetry .indent6 { - text-indent: 3em; -} - -.poetry .indent12 { - text-indent: 9em; -} - -.red { - color: red; -} - -.right { - text-align: right; -} - -.smaller { - font-size: 80%; -} - -.smcap { - font-variant: small-caps; - font-style: normal; -} - -.titlepage { - text-align: center; - margin-top: 3em; - text-indent: 0em; -} - -@media handheld { - -img { - max-width: 100%; - width: auto; - height: auto; -} - -.blockquote { - margin: 1.5em 5%; -} - -.poetry { - display: block; - margin-left: 1.5em; -} -} - - hr.full { width: 100%; - margin-top: 3em; - margin-bottom: 0em; - margin-left: auto; - margin-right: auto; - height: 4px; - border-width: 4px 0 0 0; /* remove all borders except the top one */ - border-style: solid; - border-color: #000000; - clear: both; } - </style> -</head> -<body> -<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, Mexico and Her People of To-day, by Nevin O. -(Nevin Otto) Winter, Illustrated by Nevin O. Winter and C. R. Birt</h1> -<p>This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States -and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no -restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it -under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this -eBook or online at <a -href="http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you are not -located in the United States, you'll have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this ebook.</p> -<p>Title: Mexico and Her People of To-day</p> -<p> An Account of the Customs, Characteristics, Amusements, History and Advancement of the Mexicans, and the Development and Resources of Their Country</p> -<p>Author: Nevin O. (Nevin Otto) Winter</p> -<p>Release Date: August 21, 2019 [eBook #60135]</p> -<p>Language: English</p> -<p>Character set encoding: UTF-8</p> -<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MEXICO AND HER PEOPLE OF TO-DAY***</p> -<p> </p> -<h4>E-text prepared by<br /> - the Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br /> - (<a href="http://www.pgdp.net">http://www.pgdp.net</a>)<br /> - from page images generously made available by<br /> - Internet Archive<br /> - (<a href="https://archive.org">https://archive.org</a>)</h4> -<p> </p> -<table border="0" style="background-color: #ccccff;margin: 0 auto; max-width: 80%;" cellpadding="10"> - <tr> - <td valign="top"> - Note: - </td> - <td> - Images of the original pages are available through - Internet Archive. See - <a href="https://archive.org/details/mexicoherpeopleo02wint"> - https://archive.org/details/mexicoherpeopleo02wint</a> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p> </p> -<hr class="full" /> -<p> </p> -<p> </p> - -<p class="titlepage larger">MEXICO AND HER PEOPLE OF TO-DAY</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/cover.jpg" width="500" height="750" alt="" /> -</div> - -<hr /> - -<div class="bbox"> - -<p class="center">Uniform with This Volume</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 50px;"> -<img src="images/deco.jpg" width="50" height="25" alt="" /> -</div> - -<table summary="Books and their prices"> - <tr> - <td>Panama and the Canal</td> - <td class="tdpg">$3.00</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="sub"><span class="smcap">By Forbes Lindsay</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Cuba and Her People of To-day</td> - <td class="tdpg">3.00</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="sub"><span class="smcap">By Forbes Lindsay</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Brazil and Her People of To-day</td> - <td class="tdpg">3.00</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="sub"><span class="smcap">By Nevin O. Winter</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Guatemala and Her People of To-day</td> - <td class="tdpg">3.00</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="sub"><span class="smcap">By Nevin O. Winter</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Mexico and Her People of To-day</td> - <td class="tdpg">3.00</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="sub"><span class="smcap">By Nevin O. Winter</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Argentina and Her People of To-day</td> - <td class="tdpg">3.00</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="sub"><span class="smcap">By Nevin O. Winter</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Bohemia and the Čechs</td> - <td class="tdpg">3.00</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="sub"><span class="smcap">By Will S. Monroe</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>In Viking Land. Norway: Its Peoples, Its Fjords and Its Fjelds</td> - <td class="tdpg">3.00</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="sub"><span class="smcap">By Will S. Monroe</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Turkey and the Turks</td> - <td class="tdpg">3.00</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="sub"><span class="smcap">By Will S. Monroe</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Sicily, the Garden of the Mediterranean</td> - <td class="tdpg">3.00</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="sub"><span class="smcap">By Will S. Monroe</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>In Wildest Africa</td> - <td class="tdpg">3.00</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="sub"><span class="smcap">By Peter MacQueen</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 50px;"> -<img src="images/deco.jpg" width="50" height="25" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="center">L. C. PAGE & COMPANY<br /> -53 Beacon Street, Boston, Mass.</p> - -</div> - -<hr /> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 420px;" id="illus1"> -<img src="images/illus1.jpg" width="420" height="650" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">A BELLE OF TEHUANTEPEC (<a href="#Page_180"><i>See page 180</i></a>)</p> -</div> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_i" id="Page_i">[i]</a></span></p> - -<p class="titlepage larger red">MEXICO AND<br /> -HER PEOPLE<br /> -OF TO-DAY</p> - -<p class="center"><span class="smaller">AN ACCOUNT OF THE</span><br /> -CUSTOMS, CHARACTERISTICS, AMUSEMENTS,<br /> -HISTORY AND ADVANCEMENT<br /> -OF THE MEXICANS, AND THE DEVELOPMENT<br /> -AND RESOURCES OF THEIR<br /> -COUNTRY</p> - -<p class="titlepage"><span class="smaller">BY</span><br /> -<span class="red">NEVIN O. WINTER</span></p> - -<p class="titlepage"><span class="smaller">ILLUSTRATED FROM ORIGINAL PHOTOGRAPHS<br /> -BY THE</span><br /> -AUTHOR <span class="smcap">and</span> C. R. BIRT</p> - -<p class="titlepage"><i>New Revised Edition</i></p> - -<div class="figcenter titlepage" style="width: 100px;"> -<img src="images/spe-labor-levis.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="titlepage">BOSTON<br /> -L. C. PAGE AND COMPANY<br /> -MDCCCCXII</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ii" id="Page_ii">[ii]</a></span></p> - -<p class="titlepage smaller"><i>Copyright, 1907</i>,<br /> -<span class="smcap">By L. C. Page & Company</span><br /> -(INCORPORATED)</p> - -<p class="center smaller"><i>Copyright, 1912</i>,<br /> -<span class="smcap">By L. C. Page & Company</span><br /> -(INCORPORATED)</p> - -<p class="center smaller"><i>Entered at Stationers’ Hall, London<br /> -All rights reserved</i></p> - -<p class="titlepage smaller">Second Impression, May, 1908<br /> -Third Impression, June, 1910<br /> -New Revised Edition, January, 1912</p> - -<p class="titlepage smaller"><i>Electrotyped and Printed by<br /> -THE COLONIAL PRESS<br /> -C. H. Simonds & Co., Boston, U.S.A.</i></p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[iii]</a></span></p> - -<p class="center">TO<br /> -<span class="gothic larger">My Mother</span><br /> -AND THE MEMORY OF<br /> -<span class="gothic larger">My Father</span></p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[iv]</a></span></p> - -<h2>PREFACE TO REVISED EDITION</h2> - -<p>Since the first publication of “Mexico and -Her People of To-day,” Mexico has seen stirring -times, and there has been a radical change -in the government. Revolution again broke -forth, and the long dictatorship of Porfirio -Diaz has ended. These conditions have made -advisable a completely revised edition of this -work, which the public and the press have -stamped with their approval to a degree that -has been most pleasing. To both public and -press the author desires to return his most -sincere thanks, and he has in this revision endeavoured -to be as accurate and painstaking -as in the original preparation. Furthermore, -another trip to that most interesting country -has enabled the author to give a description of -a section but briefly treated in the previous -edition. New appendices have been added, consisting -of a bibliography and a few suggestions -for those contemplating a trip to Mexico.</p> - -<p class="right"><span class="smcap">Nevin O. Winter.</span></p> - -<p class="smaller"><span class="smcap">Toledo, Ohio</span>, <i>January, 1912</i>.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[v]</a></span></p> - -<h2>PREFACE</h2> - -<p>Many books have been written about Mexico, -but several of the best works were written a -quarter of a century ago and are now out of -print. This fact and the developments of the -past few years leads the author to believe that -there is a field for another book on that most -interesting country; a book that should present -in readable form reliable information concerning -the customs and characteristics of the people -of Mexico, as well as the great natural resources -of the country and their present state -of development, or lack of development.</p> - -<p>It has been the aim of the author to make a -complete and accurate presentation of the subject -rather than to advance radical views concerning -and harsh criticism of our next-door -neighbours. With this idea in mind he has -read nearly every prominent work on Mexico -and Mexican history, as well as other current -periodical literature concerning that country<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[vi]</a></span> -during the two years devoted to the preparation -of this volume. It is hoped that the wide -range of subjects, covering the customs, habits, -amusements, history, antiquities, and resources -will render the volume of value to any one -interested in Mexico and her progress.</p> - -<p>If this volume shall aid in any way to a better -understanding of Mexico by Americans, or -in furthering the present progressive movement -in that country, then the author will feel -amply repaid for the months of labour devoted -to its preparation.</p> - -<p>The author wishes to make special acknowledgment -of obligation to his friend Mr. C. R. -Birt, his companion during the greater part of -his travels through Mexico, and to whose artistic -sense in selection and grouping the excellence -of many of the photographs herewith -reproduced is due.</p> - -<p class="smaller"><span class="smcap">Toledo, Ohio</span>, <i>September, 1907</i>.</p> - -<hr /> - -<h2>CONTENTS</h2> - -<table summary="Contents"> - <tr> - <td class="tdr smaller">CHAPTER</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdpg smaller">PAGE</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">I.</td> - <td><span class="smcap">Aztec Land</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">1</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">II.</td> - <td><span class="smcap">Across the Plateaus</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">22</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">III.</td> - <td><span class="smcap">The Capital</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">46</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">IV.</td> - <td><span class="smcap">The Valley of Anahuac</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">74</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">V.</td> - <td><span class="smcap">The Tropics</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">90</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">VI.</td> - <td><span class="smcap">A Glimpse of the Oriental in the Occident</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">111</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">VII.</td> - <td><span class="smcap">The Isthmus of Tehuantepec</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">128</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">VIII.</td> - <td><span class="smcap">In the Footsteps of the Ancients</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">144</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">IX.</td> - <td><span class="smcap">Woman and Her Sphere</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">162</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">X.</td> - <td><span class="smcap">The Peon</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_X">183</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XI.</td> - <td><span class="smcap">Customs and Characteristics</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">201</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XII.</td> - <td><span class="smcap">Holidays and Holy-days</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_XII">225</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XIII.</td> - <td><span class="smcap">A Transplanted Sport</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">243</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XIV.</td> - <td><span class="smcap">Education and the Arts</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">257</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XV.</td> - <td><span class="smcap">Mines and Mining</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_XV">274</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XVI.</td> - <td><span class="smcap">Railways and Their Influence</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVI">290</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XVII.</td> - <td><span class="smcap">Religious Forces</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVII">308</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XVIII.</td> - <td><span class="smcap">Passing of the Lawless</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVIII">328</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XIX.</td> - <td><span class="smcap">The Story of the Republic</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIX">343</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XX.</td> - <td><span class="smcap">The Guiding Hand</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_XX">369</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XXI.</td> - <td><span class="smcap">The Revolution of 1910</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXI">396</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XXII.</td> - <td><span class="smcap">The Sierras and Beyond</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXII">415</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XXIII.</td> - <td><span class="smcap">The Ruined Cities of Yucatan</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXIII">438</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XXIV.</td> - <td><span class="smcap">The Present and the Future</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXIV">456</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"></td> - <td><span class="smcap">Appendices</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#APPENDICES">479</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"></td> - <td><span class="smcap">Index</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#INDEX">485</a></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span></p> - -<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2> - -<table summary="List of illustrations"> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdpg smaller">PAGE</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">A Belle of Tehuantepec</span> (<a href="#Page_180"><i>See page 180</i></a>)</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus1"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Snow-capped Popocatapetl</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus2">4</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">General Map of Mexico</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus3">6</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">An Indian Maiden</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus4">10</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>“<span class="smcap">The Land of Burros and <i>Sombreros</i></span>”</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus5">22</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Market Scene in San Luis Potosi</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus6">30</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Cock-fighting in Mexico</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus7">33</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">The <i>Maguey</i></span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus8">41</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Map of the Valley of Mexico</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus9">46</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">The Patio of an Old Residence</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus10">48</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">The Cathedral</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus11">60</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">A Picturesque Pulque Shop</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus12">66</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">The Calendar Stone</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus13">77</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Scenes on the Viga Canal</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus14">82</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Castle of Chapultepec</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus15">86</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Bridge at Orizaba.—The Buzzards of Vera Cruz.—Avenue of Palms, Vera Cruz</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus16">98</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">An Indian Home in the Hot Country</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus17">104</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Rice Culture</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus18">109</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">The Aqueduct, Oaxaca.—A Fountain in Oaxaca</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus19">116</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">The Market-women of Oaxaca.—The Pottery-market, Oaxaca</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus20">118</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Crossing the River on Market-day</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus21">121</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[viii]</a></span><span class="smcap">The Market, Tehuantepec</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus22">132</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Entrance to the Underground Chamber, Mitla.—North Temple, Mitla.—Hall of the Monoliths, Mitla</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus23">157</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">A Zapoteco Woman</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus24">161</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>“<span class="smcap">Playing the Bear</span>”</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus25">170</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Washing on the Banks of a Stream</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus26">177</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">A Peon and His Wife</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus27">184</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">A Cargador</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus28">198</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Making <i>Tortillas</i></span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus29">215</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">A Mexican Market</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus30">218</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Candy Boy and Girl</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus31">220</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Burning an Effigy of Judas at Easter-time</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus32">233</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Candle Booths in Guadalupe</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus33">240</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Beggars of the City of Mexico</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus34">242</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Planting the <i>Banderillas</i></span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus35">250</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">An Aztec Schoolgirl</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus36">266</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Peon Miners at Lunch</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus37">280</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Along the Mexican Southern Railway</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus38">300</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Wayside Shrine with an Offering of Flowers</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus39">312</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">A <i>Rurale</i></span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus40">332</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Army Headquarters, City of Mexico</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus41">336</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">A Village Church</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus42">364</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">A Company of <i>Rurales</i></span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus43">370</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Sr. Don Francisco I. Madero</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus44">411</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">A Group of Peons</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus45">419</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Tarahumari Indians</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus46">421</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Crumbling Ruins of the Ancient Mexican Civilization</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus47">441</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">An Old Church</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus48">451</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Primitive Transportation</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus49">457</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Primitive Ploughing near Oaxaca</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#illus50">465</a></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p> - -<h1>MEXICO AND HER PEOPLE TO-DAY</h1> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I<br /> -<span class="smaller">AZTEC LAND</span></h2> - -<p>Prescott says: “Of all that extensive empire -which once acknowledged the authority of -Spain in the New World, no portion for interest -and importance, can be compared with Mexico;—and -this equally, whether we consider the -variety of its soil and climate; the inexhaustible -stores of its mineral wealth; its scenery, -grand and picturesque beyond example; the -character of its ancient inhabitants, not only -far surpassing in intelligence that of the other -North American races, but reminding us, by -their monuments, of the primitive civilization of -Egypt and Hindoostan; or, lastly, the peculiar -circumstances of its conquest, adventurous and -romantic as any legend devised by Norman or -Italian bard of chivalry.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span></p> - -<p>Mexico is a country in which the old predominates. -The American visitor will bring back -more distinct recollections of the Egyptian -carts and plows, the primitive manners and -customs, than he will of the evidences of modern -civilization. An educated Mexican whom -I met, chided the Americans for this tendency, -for, said he, “all that is written of Mexico is -descriptive of the Indians and their habits, -while progressive Mexico is ignored.” This is -to a great extent true, for it is the unique and -ancient that attracts and holds the attention of -the traveller. For this reason tourists go to -Egypt to see the pyramids, sphinx and tombs -of the Pharaohs.</p> - -<p>It is not necessary for the traveller to venture -out upon perilous seas to see mute evidences -of a life older than printed record. In -this land of ancient civilization and primitive -customs, there are cities which stand out like -oriental pearls transplanted to the Occident -from the shores of the Red Sea. Here in -Mexico can be found pyramids which are no -mean rivals to those great piles on the Egyptian -deserts; crumbling ruins of tombs, and -palaces, and temples, ornamented in arabesque -and grecque designs, not unlike the structures -along the banks of the mighty Nile; and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span> -same primitive implements of husbandry -which we have viewed so often in the pages of -the large family Bible. Then, as an additional -attraction, there is the actual presence of the -aborigines, Aztec, Zapotec, and Chichimec, -speaking the same language, observing the -same ceremonies, and following the same customs -which were old when the foreigners -came.</p> - -<p>There is no history to enlighten us as to the -age of these monuments, and there are few -hieroglyphics to be deciphered upon which a -Rosetta Stone might shed light. The student -is led to wonder whether the Egyptian civilization -antedated the Mexican, or whether the -former is simply the Mexican learning and -skill transplanted to the Orient and there modified -and improved. It is quite possible, that, -while our own ancestors were still barbarians, -and little better than savages, swarming over -northern Europe, the early races in Mexico -had developed a civilization advanced and progressive. -They knew how to build monuments -which in masonry and carving teach us lessons -to-day. They made beautiful pottery and -artistic vessels, and they used gold for money -and ornaments.</p> - -<p>Notwithstanding the fact that for a thousand<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span> -miles the republics of Mexico and the -United States join, the average American -knows less concerning Mexico than he does of -many European countries; and it is much misunderstood -as well as misrepresented. Mexico -possesses the strongest possible attractions for -the tourist. Its scenic wonders are unsurpassed -in any other part of the globe in natural picturesqueness; -and no country in Europe presents -an aspect more unfamiliar and strange -to American eyes, or exceeds it in historic interest.</p> - -<p>Vast mountains including snow-capped Popocatapetl -and Ixtaccihuatl, the loftiest peaks -on the American continent, are seen here amid -scenes of tropical beauty and luxuriance. -Great cities are found with their customs and -characteristics almost unchanged since they -were built by the Spaniards; and there are -still more ancient cities and temples which -were built by prehistoric races.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus2"> -<img src="images/illus2.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">SNOW-CAPPED POPOCATAPETL</p> -</div> - -<p>It is a land of tradition and romance, and of -picturesque contrasts. At almost every turn -there is something new, unique, interesting, and -even startling. It has all the climates from the -torrid zone to regions of perpetual snow on the -summits of the lofty volcanic peaks, and is -capable of producing nearly every fruit found<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span> -between the equator and the Arctic circle. The -softness and sweetness of the air; the broken -and ever-varying line of rugged hills against -a matchless sky; the beautiful views between -the mountain ranges; the care-free life which -is omnipresent each add their charm to the -composite picture. Dirt is everywhere and -poverty abounds, but even these are removed -from the commonplace by the brilliant colour -on every hand.</p> - -<p>F. Hopkinson Smith in “A White Umbrella -in Mexico” epitomizes this marvellously attractive -country as follows: “A land of white -sunshine, redolent with flowers; a land of gay -costumes, crumbling churches, and old convents; -a land of kindly greetings, of extreme -courtesy, of open, broad hospitality. It was -more than enough to revel in an Italian sun, -lighting up a semi-tropical land; to look up -to white-capped peaks, towering into blue; to -look down upon wind-swept plains, encircled by -ragged chains of mountains; to catch the -sparkle of miniature cities, jewelled here and -there in oases of olive and orange; and to realize -that to-day, in its varied scenery, costumes, -architecture, street life, canals crowded with -flower-laden boats, market plazas thronged -with gaily-dressed natives, faded church interiors,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span> -and abandoned convents, Mexico is the -most marvellously picturesque country under -the sun. A tropical Venice! A semi-barbarous -Spain! A new Holy Land.”</p> - -<p>Mexico contains a greater area than is generally -understood. It is shaped very much like -a cornucopia with an extreme length of nineteen -hundred miles, a breadth of seven hundred -and fifty miles, and an area of nearly -eight hundred thousand square miles. At its -narrowest point, the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, -it is only one hundred and twenty-five miles -across from ocean to ocean. There is a double -range of mountains, one near the Pacific coast -and the other near the coast of the Gulf of -Mexico, between which lie the great table lands, -or plateaus, which constitute a large part of -the surface.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;" id="illus3"> -<a href="images/map.jpg"><img src="images/illus3.jpg" width="300" height="200" alt="" /></a> -<p class="caption"><b>Transcriber’s Note:</b> The map is clickable for -a larger version, if the device you’re reading this on supports that.</p> -</div> - -<p>Three distinct climates are found in Mexico -determined by altitude. Those regions six -thousand feet or more above sea level are -called the <i>tierras frias</i>, or cold lands. This is -only a relative term, for the cold does not correspond -with that of our own northern states. -Though termed “cold,” the mean temperature -is not lower than that of Central Italy. Those -lands lying at an altitude of six thousand feet, -down to three thousand feet, above sea level<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span> -are termed the <i>tierras templadas</i>, or temperate -lands. This is a region of perpetual humidity -and is semi-tropical in its vegetation and temperature. -An altitude from four thousand to -six thousand feet in Mexico gives a most delightful -climate.</p> - -<p>Along both the Atlantic and Pacific coasts -there is a more or less broad tract called the -<i>tierra caliente</i>, or hot land, which is a truly -tropical region. Forests of dense growth cover -the soil, so thick that it is impossible to penetrate -them without blazing your way as you go, -and in the midst of which tower trees of magnificent -size, such as are to be seen only in the -tropics. Here it is that nature is over-prodigal -in her gifts; and here it is that the <i>vomito</i>, as -yellow fever is called, lurks with fatal effect. -The winds from the sea generally mitigate the -fierce heat, especially if one can remain out of -the sun during the middle of the day. Sometimes -these winds on the Atlantic coast acquire -great velocity, and burst forth upon the unprotected -shores with terrific fury as the so-called -“northers.” There is no true winter -here, but there is a rainy season from June to -October, and a dry season from November to -May, the former being the colder.</p> - -<p>“In the course of a few hours,” says Prescott,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span> -“the traveller may experience every gradation -of climate, embracing torrid heat and -glacial cold, and pass through different zones -of vegetation including wheat and the sugar-cane, -the ash and the palm, apples, olives, and -guavas.” The dwellings vary also. In the hot -lands the habitations are constructed of bamboo -and light poles open to sun and wind, for -the only shelter needed is protection from the -elements; in the temperate region the huts are -made of heavier poles, and are somewhat more -durable; in the higher lands they are built of -adobe or stone. Sugar cane and coffee, and -even the banana, will grow up to four thousand -feet. Wheat grows best at six thousand -feet and pines commence here too. At seven -thousand feet cactus appears, and the <i>maguey</i>, -ushering in an entirely different zone. Mexico -is a country of extremes of heat and cold, poverty -and riches, filth and cleanliness, education -and extreme ignorance.</p> - -<p>Every schoolboy knows of Loch Katrine and -Loch Lomond in bonnie Scotland, and most people -are familiar with the location of Lago di -Como, in Italy. And yet I should not be -surprised if fair-sized towns could be found -in the United States where no one could tell -whether such a body of water as Lake Chapala<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span> -existed or not. As a matter of fact it is ten -times as large as all the lakes of Northern -Italy combined; and it embraces islands larger -than the entire surface of Loch Lomond. Its -steely blue waters and rugged shores need -only the magic pen of the novelist or poet to -tell of its beauties and invest each nook and -glen with romance, and the charming villas -of Como to make Chapala as picturesque and -fascinating as those better known lakes. It is -almost a hundred miles long and thirty-three -miles wide at the widest point, and covers fourteen -hundred square miles. Patzcuaro and -Cuitzeo are also lakes of considerable size near -Chapala, and all of them are six thousand feet -or more above sea level. They only await development -and advertising to become popular -resorts.</p> - -<p>The vast majority of the inhabitants of Mexico -are descendants of Indian races who were -found there by the Spanish conquerors, and -mixtures of those natives with European settlers. -Of the fourteen millions of inhabitants -only about nineteen per cent. are white; of the -remainder, forty-three per cent. are Indians and -thirty-eight per cent. mixed. There is a greater -resemblance of the Mexican Indians to the -Malay races of Asia than to the American Indians.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span> -Their intensely black hair and eyes, -brown complexion, small stature, and even a -slight obliquity of the eyes bear a strong resemblance -to the Japanese. I have seen it -stated that, if a Japanese is dressed in Mexican -costume, and a Mexican in Japanese dress, it -is difficult to tell which is the Jap and which -the Mexican. Students of languages say that -there is a strong similarity between the Mexican -tongues and oriental languages. The different -tribes do not mingle much and seldom -intermarry, and this fact may contribute to -their physical deterioration.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 420px;" id="illus4"> -<img src="images/illus4.jpg" width="420" height="650" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">AN INDIAN MAIDEN</p> -</div> - -<p>Whence came this people? No one can answer. -It is generally supposed that the Aztecs -came from what are now the south-western -states of the Union, and wandered into the -Valley of Mexico. They were defeated by the -tribes then dwelling there, and sought refuge -on the shores of Lake Texcoco. There they -beheld a golden eagle of great size and beauty -resting on a prickly cactus and devouring a -serpent which it held in its talons, and with its -wings outstretched toward the rising sun. This -was the sign for which they had been looking, -and there they proceeded to erect their capital. -They first built houses of rushes and reeds in -the shallow water and lived upon fish, and constructed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> -floating gardens. As the waters receded -somewhat they built more durable structures, -including great palaces and temples. -They extended their sway over neighbouring -races beyond the Valley and conquered tribe -after tribe, although never claiming dominion -over more than a small portion of the present -confines of Mexico. The legend of the eagle -and the cactus is still preserved in the coat-of-arms -of the present republic.</p> - -<p>Of the Aztecs and their history prior to the -conquest little is known, except that the country -was called Anahuac. Prescott has made -his “Conquest of Mexico” as fascinating as -a novel, but he has shown the romantic side -based upon knowledge of the most fragmentary -character. The writings which pass for history -were either written by bigoted priests who could -not see anything good in an idolatrous people, -and who, to please the leaders, painted the Aztecs -in blackest colours to justify the cruel -measures taken, or they were written by Spaniards -who never visited the country of which -they presumed to write. As it has been said, -“a most gorgeous superstructure of fancy has -been raised upon a very meagre foundation -of fact.” Their civilization was in many respects -marvellous and far ahead of that of any<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span> -other race on the western hemisphere. Under -the Montezumas they had grown into a powerful -nation, and their rule was one of barbaric -splendour and luxury.</p> - -<p>The Aztecs succeeded an older race called the -Toltecs who were also far advanced in civilization. -They were nature worshippers and not -only did not indulge in human sacrifices, but -were averse to war and detested falsehood and -treachery. A Toltec noble is said to have instructed -his son after the following manner -before sending him away from home: “Never -tell a falsehood, because a lie is a grievous sin! -Speak ill of nobody. Be not dissolute, for -thereby thou wilt incense the gods, and they -will cover thee with infamy. Steal not, nor -give thyself up to gaming; otherwise thou wilt -be a disgrace to thy parents, whom thou oughtest -rather to honour, for the education they -have given thee. If thou wilt be virtuous, thy -example will put the wicked to shame.”</p> - -<p>Both of these races were also great builders -and sculptors and had cultivated the art of -picture-writing. They were well housed, decently -clothed, made cloth, enjoyed vapour -baths, maintained schools, and had a large assortment -of household gods. They mined some,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span> -and in agriculture, at least, were far ahead of -the Mexicans of to-day.</p> - -<p>The vandalism of the Spaniards in destroying -the writings and other records of the early -races is rebuked by Prescott as follows: “We -contemplate with indignation the cruelties inflicted -by the early conquerors. But indignation -is qualified with contempt when we see -them thus ruthlessly trampling out the sparks -of knowledge, the common boon and property -of mankind. We may well doubt which has -the strongest claim to civilization, the victor or -the vanquished.”</p> - -<p>The Mexico of to-day cannot be understood -without looking for a moment at its settlement -and the manner of the conquest. The Spanish -<i>conquistadores</i> who flocked to these shores with -Cortez were a different race from those early -settlers, who, persecuted and denied liberty of -conscience in the land of their birth, sought a -new home on our own hospitable shores. With -the union of the crowns of Castille and Aragon -by the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella, and -the discovery of the New World, Spain had -suddenly leaped to the front, and become, for -a time at least, the greatest nation of the day. -Ships were constructed in great numbers and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> -sent out, filled with voyagers, “towards that -part of the horizon where the sun set.”</p> - -<p>In the sixteenth century she had practically -become the mistress of the seas and the most -powerful nation in the world. Her soldiers -were brave and the acknowledged leaders of -chivalry, but the curse of the Spaniards was -their thirst for gold, and her decay was rapid. -When Cortez and his band of adventurers came -to the court of Montezuma, and saw the lavish -display of vessels and ornaments made of the -precious metal, they thought they had discovered -the land of gold for which they were -searching. Attracted by the glowing reports -of untold wealth, thousands of Spaniards soon -followed the first bands of <i>conquistadores</i>, and -they rapidly spread over the entire country occupied -by the Aztecs, ever searching for the -mines from whence this golden harvest came. -While the leaders were imprisoning and torturing -the Aztec chieftains to force them to -give up the hiding places of their treasures, -the priests, who everywhere accompanied the -soldiers, were baptizing thousands into the new -faith and using the confessional for the same -end. Thus religious bigotry and the mania for -worldly riches went side by side, and ever ringing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span> -in the ears of both priest and warrior was -the refrain:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="verse">“Gold! Gold! Gold! Gold!</div> -<div class="verse">Bright and yellow, hard and cold.”</div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>Shortly after the conquest all the desirable -lands were parcelled out among the invaders -and the few Indian <i>caciques</i> who had helped, -with their powerful influence, in their subjugation. -The Spaniards rapidly pacified the -country, for the Aztec masses, however warlike -they may have been before the coming of the -Spaniards, were subdued by one blow. They -were soon convinced that opposition to the -power of Spain was useless. The priests, also, -through their quickly acquired influence, taught -submission to those whom God, in His infinite -wisdom, had placed over them. Chiefs who -would not yield otherwise were bribed to use -their power over their vassals in favour of the -Spaniards. Thus by force, bribery, intrigue, -diplomacy, treachery, and even religion, the -Indians were reconciled and the spirit of opposition -to the Spaniards broken. The result was -a new and upstart nobility who ruled the country -with an iron hand in the course of a few -decades; and the natives, with the exception<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span> -of the chiefs, were made vassals of these newly -made nobles.</p> - -<p>An era of building followed, in which great -palaces after the <i>grandiose</i> ideas of Spain were -constructed by Indian workmen. Churches -were built with lavish hand, for these nobles -thought to atone for their many misdeeds by -constructing and dedicating places of worship -to Almighty God, who, according to the teaching -of the priest, was the God of the poor, oppressed -Indian as well as the God of the -haughty Spaniard who had enslaved him. As -one writer has said: “When John Smith and -his followers were looking for gold mines in -Virginia and the Pilgrims were planting corn in -Massachusetts, an empire had been founded -and built up on the same continent by the Spaniards, -and the most stupendous system of plunder -the world ever saw was then and there in -vigorous operation.” Cortez was searching for -“a people who had much gold” of which he -had heard. It was not God but gold that drew -him in his campaign over Mexico. He did not -aim to Christianize the natives so much as enrich -himself and acquire empire for his sovereign, -and religion was a subterfuge plausible -and popular in that age.</p> - -<p>“I die,” said the patriot Hidalgo, when about<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span> -to be executed in 1811, “but the seeds of liberty -will be watered by my blood. The cause will -not die; that still lives and will surely triumph.” -His prediction came true, and freedom from -the Spanish yoke of three centuries was secured -ten years later after the shedding of much -blood. Peace did not follow at once, however, -for in the fifty years succeeding the declaration -of independence the form of government -changed ten times, and there were fifty-four -different rulers, including two emperors and -a number of dictatorships. Special privileges -are difficult to eradicate when established by -long usage, and those enjoying them yield only -to force. The Church, which had imposed on -the people such a vast number of priests, friars, -and nuns, and had acquired the most of the -wealth of the country, clung with the grip of -death to its privileges and property. The -changes came gradually, but it has been a half-century -since the Church and State were formally -separated by constitutional amendment. -The bigoted and despotic Romanism, which was -allied with the Spanish aristocracy, has at last -been subdued. A more tolerant spirit is springing -up towards other forms of religious faith -through the efforts of a powerful and liberal -government. Education is also freeing the people<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span> -from the superstitious ignorance which has -hitherto prevailed in most parts of Mexico. -There are occasional outbursts of fanaticism, -but they are quickly suppressed, and the government -is making an honest effort to preserve -freedom of worship to all faiths.</p> - -<p>The United States of Mexico is a federation -composed of twenty-seven states, three territories, -and the federal district in which the capital -is located. The states are sovereign within -themselves and are held together under a federal -constitution very much like our own. This -constitution was adopted on the 5th of February, -1857, and its semi-centennial was recently -celebrated with a few of the original -signers present. There is a congress composed -of two bodies, the Senate and Chamber of Deputies -which meets twice each year. Each state -is represented in the former by two senators -and in the latter by one representative for -each forty thousand of population. The right -of suffrage is restricted so that only a small -proportion of the population can exercise that -privilege. They have not really reached popular -government, and politics, as we know them -in the United States, do not exist. A presidential -election scarcely caused a ripple on the surface. -President Diaz was no doubt the popular<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span> -choice, but comparatively few votes were cast -at his last election. The rule of the Diaz -government although decidedly autocratic was -beneficient, and has redounded to the good of -the country. Though practically an absolute -ruler, President Diaz always acted through the -regularly organized channels of a complete form -of republican government, and outwardly, at -least, there was no semblance of a dictatorship.</p> - -<p>Mexico is a country of great natural resources -and possibilities which have been only -partially developed. Its soil is remarkably fertile -and could support five times, and, if water -could be found on the plateaus, ten times the -present population. And I say this notwithstanding -the fact that one man has said that -Mexico is the poorest country south of Greenland, -and north of the south pole. The flora -of the country, among which are many useful -and medicinal plants, is exceedingly rich and -varied. More species of fibre plants are found -there than in any other country, and the commercial -utility of these plants is not yet fully -appreciated. In no country has there been -greater waste of natural resources than the -Spanish conquerors caused in Mexico. It is -as a mining country that Mexico has been best -known and the Mexican silver mines have been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span> -famous ever since the discovery of the New -World, and they are still the greatest single -source of wealth. Some of them which have -been worked for centuries are still yielding -small fortunes in the white metal each year.</p> - -<p>The Mexican has his own view of the United -States and does not call our boasted progress -and much-vaunted civilization, with its hurry, -brusque ways and the blotting out of the finer -courtesies, an improvement. He appreciates -our mechanical contrivances and electrical inventions, -but prefers to enjoy life after his own -fashion and in the way he thinks that God -intended in order to keep men happy. The -civilization received by Mexico in the sixteenth -century was looked upon as equal to the best -in existence, and to this was added an ancient -civilization found in the country. From these -sources a manner of living has been evolved -which bears evidences of culture and refinement. -This system has flowed on through the -intervening centuries, undisturbed by the -march of progress, until the last quarter of a -century. Things cannot be changed to Anglo-Saxon -standards in a year, or two years, or -even a generation. To Americanize Mexico -will be a difficult if not impossible undertaking, -and there are no signs of such a transition.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span> -Americans who live there fall into Mexican -ways and moral standards more frequently -than Mexicans are converted to the American -point of view. The influence of traditions, customs, -and climate, and the centuries-old habit -of letting the morrow take care of itself is too -great to be overcome.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II<br /> -<span class="smaller">ACROSS THE PLATEAUS</span></h2> - -<p>The traveller going to Mexico by rail will -discover that that country begins long before -the border is reached. While travelling over -the great state of Texas, where the dialect of -the natives is as broad as the rolling prairie -round about, he is reminded of our southern -neighbour by the soft accents of the Spanish -language, or by the entrance into the coach -of a Mexican cowboy with his great hat and -picturesque suit. Leaving beautiful San Antonio, -which is a Spanish city modernized, it is -but a few hours until the train crosses the -muddy Rio Grande at Laredo and, after passing -an imaginary line in the centre of the -stream, enters the land of burros and <i>sombreros</i>, -a land of mysterious origin and vast -antiquity.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus5"> -<img src="images/illus5.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">“THE LAND OF BURROS AND <i>SOMBREROS</i>”</p> -</div> - -<p>The custom officials are very polite and soon -affix the necessary label “despachado” to the -baggage. “<i>Vamonos</i>” (we go) replaces the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span> -familiar “all aboard,” and the train moves -out over a country as flat and dreary as a desert. -By whichever route the traveller enters -Mexico, the journey is very uninteresting for -the first half day. There is nothing to relieve -the monotony except the telephone and telegraph -poles, with their picturesque cross-arms -standing out on the desert waste like giant -sentinels. There is no vegetation except the -prickly pear, cactus, and feather duster palms, -for frequently no rain falls for years at a time. -It seems almost impossible that anything can -get moisture from the parched air of these -plains. But nature has strange ways of adapting -life to conditions. A good illustration of -this is seen in the <i>ixtle</i>, a species of cactus -whose leaves look as if they could not absorb -any moisture because of a hard varnish-like -coat. Whenever any water in the form of dew -or rain appears, however, this glaze softens -and the plant absorbs all the moisture available -and then glazes over again as soon as the sun -comes out.</p> - -<p>There is very little life here. Sometimes at -the stations a few adobe huts are seen where -dwell the section hands, and a few goats are -visible which, no doubt, find the prickly pear -and cactus with an occasional railroad spike<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span> -thrown in for variety, much more satisfying -than an unchanging diet of tin cans such as -falls to the lot of the city goat. The mountain -ranges then appear, and never is the traveller -out of sight of them in Mexico. On either side, -toward the east and toward the west, is a range -with an ever varying outline, sometimes near, -then far,—advancing and retreating. At a distance -in this clear atmosphere their rough features -are mellowed by a soft haze into amethyst -and purple; nearer they sometimes rise like a -camp of giants and are the most fantastic -mountains that earthquakes ever made in sport, -looking as if nature had laughed herself into -the convulsions in which they were formed.</p> - -<p>The Mexican National Railway follows a -broad road that was formerly an Indian trail, -and the track crosses and recrosses this highway -many times. By this same route it is probable -that early Mexican races entered that -country and marched down toward the Valley -of Mexico. It was by this way that General -Taylor invaded the country during the Mexican -War and several engagements took place along -the line of this railroad.</p> - -<p>The first town of any size is Monterey, capital -of the state of Nuevo Leon, the oldest and -one of the most important cities in Northern<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span> -Mexico. It lies in a lovely valley with high hills -on every side. It is at a lower altitude than -the cities farther south on this line and enjoys -a salubrious climate. Monterey is a very much -Americanized town and has great smelters, -factories, and breweries, but it also boasts of -beautiful gardens and some old churches. The -Topo Chico hot springs only a few miles away -have a great reputation for healing. Here it -was, in 1846, that General Taylor overcame a -much superior force of the enemy under General -Ampudia in a desperate and stubbornly -disputed battle lasting several days, the contest -being hotly fought from street to street. -The Mexican troops entered the houses and -shot at the American soldiers from the windows -and roofs. It is now a city of more than -fifty thousand people.</p> - -<p>Leaving Monterey, the road soon begins a -gradual ascent to the higher plateaus and -reaches the zone called <i>tierra fria</i>, or cold -country. This name would seem a misnomer -to one who hails from the land of snow and ice, -for the mean temperature of this “cold land” -is that of a perpetual spring such as is enjoyed -north of Mason and Dixon’s line. It is -properly applied to all that part of Mexico -which is six thousand feet or more above the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span> -level of the sea and the greater part of the -immense central plateaus comes within this -designation. These plains which comprise -about two-thirds of the entire country, are -formed by the great Andes range of mountains -which separates into two great <i>cordillerias</i> -near Oaxaca and gradually grow farther and -farther apart as they approach the Rio Grande. -The western branch crowds the shore of the -Pacific and the eastern follows the coast line -of the Gulf of Mexico, but the latter keeps at -a greater distance from the sea, thus giving -a wider expanse of the hotlands. They are not -level tablelands, these <i>mesas</i>, as they always -slope in some direction. The arid condition -follows as a natural course, for the lofty ranges -cause the rain to be precipitated on the coast -lands except during certain seasons in the year -when the winds change. When the rains do -come, a miracle is wrought, and the sombre -landscape blossoms into a lively green dotted -with flowers. It is rare to find such great -plains at so high an altitude. Although now almost -barren of trees it is probable that in early -times these tablelands were covered with a -forest growth principally of oak and cypress. -This is evidenced by the few groves that yet -remain, in which many of the trees are of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span> -extraordinary dimensions. The Spaniards completed -the spoliation that had been begun by -the earlier races.</p> - -<p>Saltillo, the next important town, is the capital -of the State of Coahuila. It is interesting -to Americans, as just a few miles from here -and near the railway took place the battle of -Buena Vista, at the village of that name. Here -the Americans under General Taylor sent -double their number of Mexicans under the -notorious Santa Anna, flying on February -23rd, 1847.</p> - -<p>Still climbing, the road continues toward the -capital, passes through a rich mining district, -and after the Tropic of Cancer is crossed the -traveller is in the Torrid Zone, the spot being -marked by a pyramid. Plains, seemingly endless, -where for a hundred miles the long stretch -of track is without a curve, are traversed, and -so dry that wells and water-tanks are objects -of interest. It is mostly given up to vast <i>haciendas</i>. -Some of these estates still remain in -the hands of the original families as granted at -the time of the conquest.</p> - -<p>It was on these vast, seemingly barren plateaus -that the <i>hacienda</i> reached its highest -development. One does not go far south of -the Rio Grande before the significance of this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span> -institution in Mexican life becomes apparent. -Sometimes when the train stops at a little -adobe station with a long name, the traveller -wonders what is the need of a station; for -there is no town and only a few native huts -clustered around the depot. However a glance -around the horizon will reveal the towers and -spire of a <i>hacienda</i> nestling at the foot of the -hills perhaps several miles away. In the olden -times they took the place of the feudal castles -of the middle ages in Europe and in these -sparsely settled regions they were especially -necessary. Within the high walls which often -surround them for protection were centralized -the residence of the owner and all of his employees -and the necessary buildings to store -the products of the soil. The <i>hacendado’s</i> -home was a large, roomy building, for, since -there were no inns, the traveller must be entertained -and hospitality was of the open-handed -sort. The travel-worn wayfarer was welcomed -and no questions asked. His wants were supplied -and at his departure the benediction -“Go, and God be with you,” followed him. -Even yet at some of these great <i>haciendas</i>, -where the old-time customs prevail, the bell -is rung at mealtime and any one who hears it -is welcomed at the table.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span></p> - -<p>The term <i>hacienda</i> has a double meaning, for -it is applied both to the great estates and to -the buildings. It is a patriarchal existence -that is led by these landed proprietors. A -thousand peons and more are frequently attached -to the estate. Near the station of Villa -Reyes is a great <i>hacienda</i> which once controlled -twenty thousand peons. These must be provided -with homes, but a room fifteen feet -square is considered sufficient for a family, -no matter how large. Little furniture is -needed, for they live out of doors mostly, and -mats, which can be removed during the day, -take the place of cumbersome beds. The <i>administrador</i>, -who may be an Indian also, and -other heads, live better and are housed in -larger quarters. A church is always a part -of the estate and a priest must be kept to furnish -spiritual solace, as well as a doctor to -administer to those whose bodies are infirm. -Schools are also maintained by most of the -proprietors to-day. The peon must be provided -with his provisions each week and a little -patch of ground for his own use. Around the -buildings lie the cultivated fields, and from -early morn until the shades of night have fallen, -lines of burros are constantly passing in and -out laden with wood, corn, vegetables, poultry,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span> -boxes of freight, and all the other items of -traffic which are a part of the life of this great -household.</p> - -<p>After piercing another of the mountain -ranges which intersect the country from east -to west, and traversing miles of fertile fields -and gardens bearing semi-tropical fruits and -vegetables, the road enters a valley and the -city of San Luis Potosi is reached. Every -country has its Saint Louis, but only one has -a Saint Louis of the Treasure, and that is San -Luis Potosi, the capital of the state of that -name. It lies in a spreading plain of great fertility—made -so by irrigation—whose gardens -extend to the encircling hills that are rich -in the mineral treasures which give the city -its name. The San Pedro mines near here -alone produce an annual output of several millions. -These mines were revealed to Spaniards -by an Indian who had become converted to -Christianity. There is a mint here that coins -several millions of dollars each year.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus6"> -<img src="images/illus6.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">MARKET SCENE IN SAN LUIS POTOSI</p> -</div> - -<p>San Luis Potosi is not a new city nor has -its growth been of the mushroom variety. -Founded in the middle of the sixteenth century, -it preserves to-day in wood and stone the spirit -of old Spain transplanted by the conquerors -to the new world. Drawn hither by the reports<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span> -of gold, the Spanish cavalier stalked through -the streets of this town in complete mail before -the <i>Mayflower</i> landed on the shores of Massachusetts. -The priests were chanting the solemn -service of the church here long before the -English landed at Jamestown. Dust had gathered -on the municipal library, which now contains -a hundred thousand volumes, centuries -before the building of the first little red school -house in the United States. Before New York -had been thought of, the drama of life was -being enacted here daily after Castillian models.</p> - -<p>It is a cleanly city and the bright attractive -look of its houses is refreshing. A city ordinance -compels the citizens to keep up the appearance -of their houses, and the colours remind -one of Seville. It is pleasant to walk -along these streets and through the plazas with -their trees and flowers and fountains.</p> - -<p>I will never forget my arrival in this city. -We reached there about midnight, having been -delayed by a wreck; and a number of <i>mozos</i> -pounced upon the party of Americans who had -been dropped by the belated train, each one -eager to carry some of the baggage. We were -marched through the Alameda, which, for a -wonder, adjoins the station, on walks shaded<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span> -by broad-leaved, tropical plants, down narrow -streets and around several corners to the hotel. -Arrived here it was only after several minutes -of vigorous knocking that a sleepy-looking -porter opened the door, and we entered the -hotel and walked down the hall through a line -of sleeping servants. The room finally assigned -to my friend and myself was thirty-four -feet long, sixteen feet wide and about twenty-five -feet high, and there were four great windows -extending nearly from ceiling to floor -and protected by heavy iron bars which made -them look like the windows of a prison. It had -doubtless been some church property at one -time, but whether monastery or convent I did -not learn.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus7"> -<img src="images/illus7.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">COCK-FIGHTING IN MEXICO</p> -</div> - -<p>Not all this city is pretty however, for distance -often lends enchantment, and a closer -scrutiny takes away much of this charm. I -saw filth on the streets here that can only be -duplicated in old Spain itself. There are numerous -churches and several of them are quite -pretentious and contain some fine paintings. -On the façade of one church there is a clock -presented by the king of Spain in return for -the largest piece of gold ever found in America. -San Luis is a thrifty city as Mexican towns go -and has numerous manufacturing establishments,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span> -including a large smelting works, the -Compania Metallurgica, and is an important -railroad centre. It is distant from the City -of Mexico three hundred and sixty-two miles, -and has a population of seventy thousand souls.</p> - -<p>This city claims quite a number of American -families as residents and many of the storekeepers -have been somewhat Americanized, for -they actually seem to be on the lookout for business. -The state capitol is a very interesting -building. While looking through this palace -I saw the “line up” of petty offenders who -were being sent out to sweep the streets. They -were the worst looking lot of <i>pulque</i>-drinkers -I ever saw and were clothed in rags. Each one -was given a handful of twigs with which he was -obliged to sweep the streets and gutters, and -they were sent out in gangs, each under a police -officer. The vices of these people are generally -more evident than their virtues. They are inveterate -gamblers. Wherever one goes (not -alone in San Luis Potosi) fighting cocks are -encountered tied by the leg to a stake with a -few feet of string. Or they may be carried -in the arms of young would-be sports who brag -of their birds to any one who will listen. One -day I saw a man with a cock whose head was -one bloody-looking mass. He had just cut off<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span> -the rooster’s comb. When I stopped and -looked, the Indian laughed as though it were -a great joke and said he was “much sick.” -This was done so that in a fight his opponent -could not catch hold of the comb. Itinerant -cock-fighters who travel across the country -carrying their birds in hollow straw tubes are -popular fellows.</p> - -<p>Leaving San Luis Potosi at noontime the -traveller catches his last glimpse of this city -where</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="verse">“Upon the whitened city walls</div> -<div class="verse">The golden sunshine softly falls,</div> -<div class="verse">On archways set with orange trees,</div> -<div class="verse">On paven courts and balconies.”</div> -</div> -</div> - -<p class="noindent">The train soon enters a rich agricultural belt -and the country becomes more populous. Giant -cacti towering straight and tall to a height of -fifteen or twenty feet are a common sight.</p> - -<p>Dolores Hidalgo where the patriot-priest -first sounded the call to liberty and revolution -is passed. Then comes Querétero, which occupies -a prominent place in Mexican history and -is the last city of any size on the way to the -capital. Here the treaty of peace between Mexico -and the United States was negotiated. In -this city Maximilian played the last act in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span> -tragedy of the empire. He was captured while -attempting to escape on June 19th, 1867, and -was shot on the Cerro de las Campañas, a little -hill just outside the city. With him were shot -Generals Miramon and Mejia. Maximilian died -with the cry of “<i>Viva Mexico</i>” on his lips. -There is a magnificent aqueduct here which, -because of the high arches, looks like the old -ruined aqueduct seen on approaching Rome. -The tallest arch is nearly one hundred feet. -The entire length of the aqueduct is about five -miles and it is still in use. There are a number -of factories for cotton goods. Among them -is the great Hercules Mill which employs more -than two thousand hands. The grounds are -laid out in elaborate and beautiful style.</p> - -<p>After climbing the mountain range again -until an altitude of nearly ten thousand feet -has been reached, the descent begins and the -beauty of the Valley of Mexico unfolds. Fleeting -glimpses of the scene may be caught -through little gaps in the mountains until -finally the train enters a pass and the traveller -has his first view of the City of Mexico. Beyond -the glittering towers and domes of the -modern city on the site of the ancient Aztec -capital lies the bright expanse of the lakes, and -still further in the distance is seen the encircling<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span> -girdle of mountains like a protecting wall -around this enchanted scene.</p> - -<p>There are many other cities situated on these -vast plateaus, for the <i>tierra fria</i> has always -maintained the bulk of the population in spite -of the extraordinary richness of the lowlands. -They are growing in size as manufacturing establishments -become more numerous. A number -of them like Chihuahua, Aguas Calientes, -Zacatecas, Guanajuato, Durango, and Leon are -interesting cities of from thirty to forty thousand -inhabitants and all of them are old. Chihuahua -(pronounced Che-wa-wa) is the capital -of the state of that name which is the largest -state in the republic and is twice as large as -the state of Ohio. It has a population of less -than four hundred thousand. This will serve -to give a little idea of the vastness of these -great tablelands and the sparseness of population. -It is chiefly devoted to great ranches -where hundreds of thousands of cattle are -grazed.</p> - -<p>It may be interesting to note that cattle -ranching originated in this state. All the terms -used on the range and roundup are of Spanish -origin and are the same that have been employed -for centuries. One man here is the -owner of a cattle ranch covering seventeen million<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span> -acres. The traveller might journey for -days and cross ranges of mountains and not -pass beyond his princely domain. There are a -number of cattle ranches of from one to two -million acres and a few Americans are now -entering the field here since the public domain -in the United States has dwindled so much.</p> - -<p>Two cities, Guadalajara and Puebla, have -long disputed for the honour of second city in -the republic. Puebla is situated southeast of -the capital and is a city of tiles, for tiles are -used everywhere from the domes of churches -to floors for the devout to kneel upon. It is the -capital of the richest state in the republic and -has probably seen more of the vicissitudes of -war than any other city. It has been captured -and occupied successively by Spaniards, Americans -and French and by revolutionists times -without number. This city was the scene of -General Zaragossa’s victory on May 5th, 1862, -when he repulsed the French forces just outside -the city’s gates. This victory is celebrated -each year as the “<i>cinco de Mayo</i>” (Fifth of -May) and is the great anti-foreign day. Formerly -foreigners did not show themselves on -the street on this day, but that antagonistic -sentiment has disappeared. In 1906 because -of labour disturbances for which American<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span> -agitators were blamed trouble was feared on -this day, but it passed off without an unpleasant -incident. This city was founded as early -as 1532. Its history is romantic and full of -legends recounting the many visits of the -angels. Angels appeared one night and staked -out the city. Again, while the cathedral was -being built, the angels came after nightfall -when the city was wrapped in slumber and -built a great part of the tower. At another -time the angels were marshalled in mighty -hosts just over the city. The people can even -point out to you the very places where the -angelic visitors roosted. The ecclesiastical -records vouch for these appearances of the -heavenly visitors and the people devoutly believe -in them.</p> - -<p>Puebla has wide streets—for Mexico—and -many beautiful plazas with flowers and fountains. -It is also noted for its bull-fights and -has two bull-rings. These are in use nearly -every Sunday and frequently for the benefit -of or in honour of some church feast or departed -saint. The public buildings are very -creditable and the city contains good schools -and hospitals. A goodly number of foreigners -live here, especially Germans. I have noticed -that the Germans affiliate with the Mexicans<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span> -much better than Americans generally do. One -reason is that they come here to establish their -permanent residence, while Americans, like -the Chinese, desire to make their fortunes and -then return to the land of their birth to spend -their later days.</p> - -<p>Puebla has become quite a manufacturing -city and especially of cotton goods, paper, flour -and soaps. Onyx and marble are quarried near -here, and a large number of workmen are employed -in the quarries and in the establishments -preparing these materials for the market. -Several railroads now reach this city, and -its importance as an industrial centre is increasing -each year.</p> - -<p>All kinds of grains that are produced in the -temperate zones will grow on the tablelands -of Mexico wherever there is sufficient rain or -water to be obtained by irrigation. A constantly -increasing amount of acreage is being -made available through the extension of the -irrigation system, but its possibilities are only -beginning to be realized. Corn, which is such -a great article of food with the Mexicans, is -by far the most valuable agricultural product -and several hundred million bushels are produced -each year. Wheat was first introduced -in Mexico by a monk who planted a few grains<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span> -that he had brought with him. This grain is -now raised quite extensively in some districts -but frequently there is not enough for even -local consumption. Cotton is also produced -in a number of the states.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 420px;" id="illus8"> -<img src="images/illus8.jpg" width="420" height="650" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">THE <i>MAGUEY</i></p> -</div> - -<p>Mexico is especially rich in fibre-producing -plants and no country in the world has so many -different varieties. All of these belong to the -great cactus, or <i>agave</i>, family. The value of -the cactus has never been fully appreciated but -new uses are being found for it constantly, and -new kinds with valuable qualities are being discovered -in Mexico almost yearly. Perhaps the -most valuable plant of this family that is being -cultivated in Mexico to-day is that species of -the <i>agave</i> that produces the valuable henequen -fibre of commerce. This plant very much resembles -the <i>maguey</i> and grows on the thin, -rocky, limestone soil of Yucatan. From this -fibre is made most of the binder twine and much -of the rope used in the United States. It has -the threefold qualities of strength, pliability -and colour. In the past twenty years the cultivation -of henequen has grown to enormous -proportions, and some of the planters have become -millionaires almost rivalling the famous -bonanza kings of olden times. The amount of -henequen, or sisal, fibre exported to the United<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span> -States from 1880 to 1905 was nine million, two -hundred and nineteen thousand, two hundred -and fifteen bales at an estimated value of $300,988,072.66. -In 1902 the exports reached a maximum, -and amounted to $34,185,275. All of this -fibre is exported through the port of Progreso.</p> - -<p>Several species of the cactus family are being -experimented with, and it is claimed that they -will produce an excellent quality of paper pulp. -This may help to solve the problem that now -bothers paper manufacturers as the forests of -spruce disappear before the woodsman’s ax. -The graceful <i>maguey</i>, the <i>agave americana</i>, is -cultivated almost everywhere on the plateau -lands. It also produces a valuable fibre, but -this plant is not cultivated primarily for that -purpose. The ancient races used the thorns -for pins and needles; the leaves furnished a -kind of parchment for their writings and thatch -for their roofs; and the juice when fermented -made a—to them—most delicious drink. On -the plains of Apam just east of the Valley of -Mexico and north of Puebla the cultivation of -the <i>maguey</i> has reached the highest development.</p> - -<p>The good housewife in the United States -who carefully nourishes the century plant, hoping -that at least her descendants will have the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span> -pleasure of seeing it blossom at the end of a -hundred years, would be surprised to see the -immense plantations consisting of thousands of -this same plant growing here. The plant, commonly -called the <i>maguey</i>, is a native of Mexico -and grows to great size. It flourishes best in -rocky and sandy soil and is quite imposing in -appearance. Its dark green, spiked leaves -which lift themselves up and spread out in -graceful curves, sometimes reach a length of -fifteen feet, and are a foot in breadth and several -inches thick. It requires from six to ten -years for the <i>maguey</i> to mature on its native -heath. When that period arrives a slender -stalk springs up from the centre of these great -leaves, twenty to thirty feet high, upon which -a great mass of small flowers is clustered. This -supreme effort exhausts the plant and, its duty -to nature having been performed, it withers -and dies.</p> - -<p>This is not the purpose for which the <i>maguey</i> -is raised on the big plantations where the rows -of graceful century plants stretch out as far as -the eye can reach in unwavering regularity. -On these plantations the <i>maguey</i> is not permitted -to flower. The Indians know, by infallible -signs, almost the very hour at which it -is ready to send up the central stalk, and it is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span> -then marked by an overseer with a cross. The -stalk is now full of the sap which is the object -of its culture. Other Indians follow up the -overseer and, making an incision at the base -of the plant, extract the central portion, leaving -only the rind which forms a natural basin. -Into this the sap, which is called <i>agua miel</i>, or -honey-water, and which is almost as clear as -water and as sweet as honey, collects. So -quickly does this fluid gather that it is found -necessary to remove it two or three times per -day. The method of gathering this sap is extremely -primitive. The Indian is provided -with a long gourd at the lower end of which -is a horn. He places the small end, which is -open, in the liquid and, applying his lips to an -opening in the large end, sucks the sap up into -the gourd. The sap is then emptied into a receptacle -swung across his back which is made -of a whole goat-skin or pig-skin with the hair -on the inside. The <i>maguey</i> plant will yield six -or more quarts of this “honey-water” in a -day and the supply will continue from one to -three months. It is then exhausted and withers -and decays. However, a new shoot will spring -up from the old roots without replanting.</p> - -<p>This innocent looking and savoury sap is -then taken to a building prepared for the purpose<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span> -and there poured into vats made of cowhides -stretched on a frame. In each vat a little -sour liquor called “mother of <i>pulque</i>” has -been poured. This causes quick fermentation -and in a few hours the <i>pulque</i> of the Mexican is -ready for the market. It is at its best after -about twenty-four hours fermentation. It then -has somewhat the appearance and taste of stale -buttermilk and a rancid smell. After more -fermentation it has the odour of putrid meat. -The skins in which it is carried increase this -disagreeable odour. The first taste of <i>pulque</i> -to a stranger is repellant. However, it is said -that, contrary to the general rule, familiarity -breeds a liking. Great virtues are claimed for -it in certain ailments and it is said to be wholesome. -However this is not the reason why the -peons drink <i>pulque</i> in such great quantities. -Several special trainloads go in each day to the -City of Mexico over one road, besides large -amounts over other routes and it is a great -revenue producer for the railroads. The daily -expenditure for <i>pulque</i> in the City of Mexico -alone is said to exceed twenty thousand dollars. -Physicians say that the brain is softened, digestion -ruined and nerves paralyzed by a too generous -use of this liquor. Many employers of -labour will not employ labourers from the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span> -<i>pulque</i> districts if they can possibly get them -from other sources. <i>Tequila</i> and <i>Mescal</i> are -two forms of ardent spirits distilled from a -juice yielded by the leaves and root of the -<i>maguey</i>. They are forms of brandy that it is -best for the traveller to leave alone.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE CAPITAL</span></h2> - -<p>The City of Mexico represents progressive -Mexico. In it is concentrated the wealth, culture -and refinement of the republic. It is the -political, the educational, the social and the -commercial centre of the whole country. It is -to Mexico what Paris is to France. In fact -it would be Mexico as Paris would be France. -The same glare and glitter of a pleasure-loving -metropolis are found here, and within the same -boundaries may be seen the deepest poverty -and most abject degradation.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 575px;" id="illus9"> -<img src="images/illus9.jpg" width="575" height="700" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">MAP OF THE VALLEY OF MEXICO</p> -</div> - -<p>“Wait until you get to the City of Mexico,” -said an educated Mexican to me as we were -crossing the sparsely-settled tablelands of -northern Mexico, where the only inhabitants -are Indians. The Mexicans are proud of their -city and are pleased to have it likened to the -gay French capital, for their ideals and tastes -are fashioned after the Latin standard rather -than the American. The French, they say,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span> -have the culture and can embrace <i>a la Mexicana</i>, -which is done by throwing an arm around -a friend whom they meet and patting him -heartily on the back. They prefer the easy-going, -wait-a-while style of existence to the -hurried, strenuous life of an American city. -No people love leisure and the pursuit of pleasure -more than our neighbours in the Mexican -metropolis. They work during the morning -hours, take a noon <i>siesta</i>, close up early in the -afternoon and are ready for pleasure in the -evening until a late hour.</p> - -<p>In appearance the capital resembles Madrid -more than any other city I have ever seen. -The architecture is the Moorish-Spanish style, -into which some Aztec modifications have been -wrought by the new-world builders. The light, -airy appearance of an American city is absent -for there are no frame structures anywhere. -The square, flat-roofed buildings, with walls -thick enough to withstand any earthquake -shock, are two or three stories in height and -built round a <i>patio</i>, or courtyard, the centre -of which is open to the sky. The old architects -were not hampered by such paltry considerations -as the price of lots, and so they built -veritable palaces with wide corridors and rooms -lofty and huge. Through many of these rooms<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span> -you might easily drive a carriage. There are -parlours as large as public halls, and throughout -all one notes the <i>grandiose</i> ideas of the -race. The houses, of stone or brick covered -with stucco, are built clear up to the sidewalk -so that there is no tinge of green in front. The -Mexican is not particular about the exterior -of his home, but expends his thought and money -on the open court within. The plainness of the -outside is relieved only by the large gate, or -door, which is also the carriage drive-way, and -the neat little, iron-grated balconies on which -the windows open from the upper stories.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus10"> -<img src="images/illus10.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">THE PATIO OF AN OLD RESIDENCE</p> -</div> - -<p>These balconies afford a convenient place for -the women of the household to see what is passing -on the street, and also for the <i>señorita</i>, or -young lady, to watch the restless pacing to and -fro of the love-stricken youth who is “playing -bear” in front of the house. The great doorway, -which is carefully barred and bolted at -night, and strictly guarded by the porter during -the day, is the only entrance to the <i>patio</i>, which, -in the better class of homes, is adorned with -pretty gardens, statuary and fountains. Many -of them contain an open plunge bath. Through -the wide windows one catches glimpses of fascinating -interiors, and through the broad doorways -the passer-by on the street gets many a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span> -pretty view of the courtyards, and of these -miniature gardens. One or two rows of living-apartments -extend around and above the court, -with broad corridors in front handsomely -paved with tile, protected by balustrades and -adorned with flowers and vines. Above, the -red tiles of the roof add a little additional colour -to the scene. There are no cellars nor -chimneys. The latter were never introduced -because of the mildness of the climate. In the -courts protected from the winds, the people -keep on the sunny side when it is cool and hide -from the same orb when it is hot. Charcoal -fires are used for cooking and heat when it becomes -necessary. Cellars are made impossible -because of the marshy nature of the soil.</p> - -<p>It will be recalled that Tenochtitlan, the Aztec -capital, has been called the New World -Venice, whose streets were once canals. It -must have been a gay and picturesque scene -when the fair surface of its waters was resplendent -with shining cities and flowering -islets. The waters have since receded until -Lake Texcoco, at its nearest point, is three -miles distant. Mexico is now a more prosaic -city of streets and cross-streets which extend -from north to south and from east to west. -Some of the principal thoroughfares are broad,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span> -paved with asphalt and well kept; but many -are quite narrow, and especially is this true -of the streets called lanes, though devoted to -business. There is no exclusive residence section, -except in the new additions, and many of -the homes of the old families are found sandwiched -in between stores. It is a difficult matter -to become familiar with the names of the -streets, for they are more than nine hundred -in number, and a street generally has a different -name for each block. If several blocks have -the same name, as, for instance, Calle de San -Francisco, one of the finest streets, and on or -near which are some of the largest hotels, finest -stores and richest private dwellings, then it -is First San Francisco, Second San Francisco, -etc.</p> - -<p>A few years ago the streets were re-named. -All the streets extending east and west were -called <i>avenidas</i>, and the north and south streets -<i>calles</i>, each continuous thoroughfare being -given but one name. The people, however, in -this land of legend and tradition, clung so tenaciously -to the former designations that they -have practically been restored. Some of the -old names of streets commemorated historical -events, as, for instance, the Street of the <i>Cinco -de Mayo</i>, which is in remembrance of the victory<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span> -of the Mexicans over the French at Puebla -in 1862. Others are named in honour of men -noted in the history of Mexico. Many religious -terms appear, such as the street of Jesus, -Sanctified Virgin, Holy Ghost, Sepulchres of -the Holy Sabbath, and the like. Others owe -their names to some incident or legend, which -is both interesting and mysterious. Of the -latter class may be mentioned the Street of the -Sad Indian, Lane of Pass if You Can, Street -of the Lost Child, Street of the Wood Owls, -Lane of the Rat, Bridge of the Raven and -Street of the Walking Priest. The Street of -the Coffin Makers is now known as the Street -of Death. It is a thoroughfare of one block, -and is one of the few streets that still preserves -its ancient caste, for it is devoted exclusively -to the makers of coffins. All of the coffins are -made by hand. It is a gloomy street and there -are cleaner spots on the face of the earth.</p> - -<p>Mexico is a very cosmopolitan city. Its three -hundred and seventy-five thousand inhabitants -include representatives from nearly every nation -of the earth. The Indians are vastly in -the majority, and they are the pure and original -Mexicans. The Creoles, who are descendants -of Europeans, generally Spanish, call -themselves the Mexicans and rank second in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span> -number. They form the real aristocratic body -from whom come the representative Mexicans. -They are not all dark, but a blonde is a rare -specimen. Most of them have an olive-brown -colour, thus showing the mixture of Indian -blood, for in early days it was not considered -a <i>mesalliance</i> for even a Spanish officer of high -rank to marry an Aztec maiden of the better -class.</p> - -<p>The old families cling tenaciously to the -great estates, or <i>haciendas</i>, many of which have -remained intact for centuries. Quite a number -can even trace their estates back to the original -grants from the king of Spain. Many of these -<i>hacendados</i>, or landed proprietors, enjoy -princely incomes from their lands, and nearly -all of them own residences in the capital. They -maintain elaborate establishments and keep -four times as many servants as would be found -in an American house.</p> - -<p>The average Mexican does not care for business. -Neither is he an inventor or originator, -for he is content to live as his ancestors have -lived. Nearly all lines of commerce and industry -are in the hands of foreigners. The Germans -monopolize the hardware trade; the -French conduct nearly all the dry goods stores; -the Spaniards are the country’s grocers; and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span> -the Americans and English control the railroad, -electric and mining industries. All these -interests centre in the City of Mexico. Railroads -are not very numerous until you approach -the Valley of Mexico where they converge -from all directions. The hum of industry -is apparent here as nowhere else in the -whole republic. The Mexicans boast of their -capital, but they often forget the debt they owe -to foreigners, for all the modern improvements -have been installed by alien races and outside -capital. It is another foreign invasion but with -a pacific mission. The American colony alone -in that city numbers more than six thousand -persons, and the number is constantly increasing. -Hatred of the American has almost disappeared, -and the incomers are cordially welcomed. -There are two flourishing clubs around -which the social life of the expatriated Americans -centre.</p> - -<p>The society of the capital, and indeed of the -whole country, is very diverse. What might be -said of one class would not apply to another. -The differences of dress and customs alone -make known the heterogeneousness of the population. -They all use the same language and all -classes are brought together on a common level -in their religion. No other nation has ever<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span> -made such complete conquests as Spain. She -not only subjugated the lands but forced her -language, as well as religion, upon the conquered -races. The English have succeeded in -extending their sway over a large part of the -world, but in no instance have they been able to -accomplish these two results with the native -population. The priests of Spain went hand -in hand with the <i>conquistadores</i>, and, within a -few generations after the conquest of Mexico -by Cortez, the Spanish language was universally -used and the Indians were at least nominal -Catholics.</p> - -<p>The climate of the City of Mexico is delightful. -It is neither hot nor cold. It is too far -south to be cold and the altitude, seven thousand, -four hundred and thirty-four feet above -the level of the sea, is too great to be hot. The -temperature usually ranges from sixty-five to -eighty-five, but sometimes goes as high as -ninety, and as low as thirty-five, and frosts -occasionally are experienced. The mornings -and evenings are cool and at midday it is always -hot. There is a great difference in the -temperature between the sunny and shady side -of the street. Only dogs and Americans take -the sunny side, the Mexicans say. The rainy -and dry seasons occur with great regularity, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span> -former lasting from May to October. It is the -best season in the year although most visitors -go there in winter. The rains always occur in -the afternoon and usually cease before dark. -At this time, too, all nature takes on a beautiful -shade of green which replaces the rather dull -landscape of the dry season. There is also a -brisk, electric condition of the atmosphere that -is decidedly exhilarating and a good tonic.</p> - -<p>This mildness of climate has greatly influenced -the life of the capital. The streets, except -during the noon <i>siesta</i>, are full of people -at all times. To judge from the crowds, one -might think the capital a city of a million people. -In the morning the women go to mass -garbed in black, generally wearing a black -shawl over the head. Occasionally a black lace -mantilla is seen half-concealing, half-exposing -the olive-brown face, and bright, sparkling eyes -of a <i>señorita</i>. Shoppers are out and business -is active. The women of the wealthier classes -sit in their carriages and have the goods -brought out to them, or go to a private room -where articles are exhibited by clerks. They -think that it is unbecoming to stand at the -counters, although the American plan of shopping -is becoming quite popular in recent years.</p> - -<p>About the middle of the afternoon the crowds<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span> -again appear, and a little later the streets -begin to fill with carriages. Nowhere, not even -in Paris, have I observed so many carriages as -can be seen here on any pleasant afternoon. -They form one continuous, slow-moving line of -many miles. The procession moves out San -Francisco Street through the Alameda, along -the Paseo de la Reforma, and then into the -beautiful park surrounding the Castle of Chapultepec -which is set with great cypresses, said -to antedate the conquest. The cavalcade winds -around through the various drives at the base -of the rock, along the shores of the lake, past -the castle and back to the city. The carriages -go out on one side and return on the other, -leaving the central portion for riders. It is a -sight that never wearies for one to sit on a -bench and watch the motley throng of people -driving, riding on horseback and promenading. -An oriental exclusiveness is observed by ladies -of the upper class who always ride in closed carriages. -All kinds of vehicles are to be seen, -from fine equipages with liveried drivers and -footmen, to the poorest cab in the city with its -disreputable driver and broken-down horses, -fit only for the bull-ring.</p> - -<p>There are many horsemen and the Mexicans -are always excellent riders. Their horses are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span> -Lilliputian in size but fast and enduring. The -saddle, bridle and trappings are frequently -gorgeous with their silver ornaments and immense -stirrups fancifully worked and shaped. -The rider is often a picture wonderful to behold -from the heavy silver spurs which he wears, -to the sombrero of brown or yellow felt with -a brim ten to fifteen inches wide and a crown -equally as high, the whole covered with heavy -gilt cord formed into a sort of rope. Then -there is the dude or fop, who is well named in -Mexico. He is called a “<i>lajartija</i>” which -means a “little lizard.” He used to dress in -such close-fitting and stiff costumes that he had -not much more freedom of motion than the -stiff little lizard. Now he is the dandy who is -generally seen standing on a public corner, -wearing a French cutaway suit, American -patent leather shoes and an English stovepipe -hat, with his fingers closed over the indispensable -cigarette.</p> - -<p>In the evening the populace attend the theatre -or some social function. Sunday is the day -of all others for recreation, and, with the average -inhabitant of Mexico, is one continuous and -eternal round of pleasure. After morning -service the entire day is devoted to pleasure. -Band concerts are always given by the military<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span> -bands on the Plaza in the morning, in the Alameda -early in the afternoon, and at Chapultepec -about five o’clock. Then there is the bull-fight -which occurs only on Sundays and holidays.</p> - -<p>The average crowd in the City of Mexico is -a good natured and peaceable one. The city -Indian and his country cousin, the peon from -the plantation, join the crowd on a feast day -with their numerous progeny. They are not -the pleasantest neighbours in the world for -both have the odour of garlic and <i>pulque</i> and -their baths are of the annual variety. That -the little brown man is a peon is no fault of -his. His uncleanliness is, in a measure, the -result of centuries of neglect, and more particularly -of a scarcity of water at his home. -It is possible that if he had the water his condition -would be just the same. Though he is -poor and down-trodden, there is nothing of the -anarchist about him. He is absolutely devoid -of envy or malice; and withal his spirits are -gay and he is as generous to his family or -friends as his finances permit. The artificial -refinements of modern civilization have not yet -spoiled him, and there is a pleasant, even if -malodorous, naturalness about him.</p> - -<p>In no city do ancient and modern customs<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span> -come into such intimate contrast as in the City -of Mexico. Nowhere is a greater mixture of -races to be seen than here. There are many -tribes of Indians speaking scores of dialects, -and there are <i>mestizos</i> of various degrees of -mixture with African, American and European -blood. Types of four centuries can be seen in -any group on one of the plazas. The Plaza -Mayor is a great, imposing, central square of -fourteen acres in the centre of the city, and -on its walks all the types can be seen at their -best. Men and women come into the city -through the streets lighted by electricity, bearing -immense loads on their heads and backs -rather than use a wagon. Peddlers carry -around jars of water for sale just as in the -olden times. Indians, who are almost pure -Aztecs, pass along, taking the middle of the -street in Indian file. Well dressed men in black -broadcloth suits and wearing silk hats go by. -The women of the middle class add colour to -the scene with the red and blue <i>rebosas</i>, sometimes -covering the head, or tied across the chest -and holding an infant at the back. Nearly all -the passers-by show in their colour that they -can claim kinship with the hosts of Montezuma. -The general effect is kaleidoscopic but entertaining. -The great cathedral on the north side<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span> -of the Plaza is the one place where all are -brought together and class distinction obliterated. -Visit the cathedral any day and you -may see an Indian with his pack on his back -side by side with a young woman who may -inherit a dozen titles. There are no select, -high-priced, aristocratic pews for rent, but all -meet by a common genuflection before the sacred -altars. The poor Indian may not understand -all the pomp and ceremony, the music -of the vested choirs, or the solemn chanting by -the priests, but it fills a deep want in his nature -and he is satisfied.</p> - -<p>At one side of the Plaza Mayor once stood -the great Aztec <i>Teocalli</i>, the Temple of Sacrifice. -This was a high imposing altar reached -by a flight of more than a hundred steps. From -the top was a magnificent view of the entire -valley, and it was from this point that the envious -eyes of Cortez looked out upon this beautiful -scene. The altar was dedicated to the -Aztec war god Huitzilopochtli, and here, to appease -the wrath of this terrible god, human sacrifices -were offered. The breast was cut open -and the heart, still palpitating, plucked out and -placed upon the altar. The bodies were cast -down to the ground, whence they were taken -and prepared for the banquet table.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus11"> -<img src="images/illus11.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">THE CATHEDRAL</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span></p> - -<p>A part of the space once covered by this -gruesome but majestic pile, is now occupied -by the Monte de Piedad, or “mountain of -mercy,” one of the most unique charities in -the world. It is nothing more or less than a -gigantic pawn-shop, but it is one of the most -beneficient institutions in the country. The -Count of Regla, a noted personage in Mexico, -founded this institution by a gift of three hundred -thousand dollars. He did this in order -that the poor and needy, and the impoverished -members of families once genteel, might secure -small sums upon personal property at low rates -of interest, instead of becoming involved in the -meshes of the blood-sucking vampires who prey -upon this class of unfortunates. About three-fourths -of the actual value of the property -pledged as fixed by appraisers, will be loaned. -If the interest is not paid, the property is kept -for seven months, when it is offered for sale -at a fixed price. If not disposed of in another -five months it is sold at auction.</p> - -<p>The truly remarkable feature of this establishment -is, that if a greater sum is realized -than the amount of the loan and interest, the -excess is placed to the credit of the owner, or -his heirs, and will be kept for one hundred -years, after which time it reverts to the institution.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span> -Many old heirlooms of former grandees, -Aztec curios, diamonds, gold ornaments -and even family gods have passed through this -organization of charity. For more than a century -it has existed, having survived all the civil -wars, revolutions and changes of government. -The original capital has been more than -doubled by the forfeitures, and many branches -of this parent institution are operated in the -capital and in several of the large cities of the -republic. It is an example that might be suggested -to some of our multi-millionaires who -do not know what to do with their vast accumulations -of wealth.</p> - -<p>Even the funerals are conducted in a strange -way. With the exception of funerals among -the wealthy, the street cars are universally -used. The enterprising owner of the street car -system some years ago acting on the trust idea, -bought up all the hearses and introduced funeral -cars. After a short time the people -became accustomed to the new plan, which -seemed to give satisfaction. Now, trolley -funeral cars of the first, second and third class -are furnished at a price varying from five dollars -for the cheapest class, to a hundred dollars -or more for a first-class car. Some of the poor -rent coffins which are returned after the burial.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span> -The very poor may be seen carrying their dead -on their shoulders to the <i>Campo Santo</i>, or holy -ground. Graves are usually sold only for a -certain number of years, after which, unless -the relatives pay the prescribed fee, the bones -are taken up and the ground made ready for a -new occupant. The dead are soon forgotten. -A pile of bones in a corner of the cemetery -represents all that is mortal of the generations -who passed away not many years ago. There -is an entire lack of reverence for the mortal -remains of the departed, such as one is accustomed -to find in our own country. One is reminded -of the couplet</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="verse">“Rattle his bones over the stones,</div> -<div class="verse">He’s only a pauper, whom nobody owns.”</div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>The City of Mexico is not the healthiest city -in the world. On the contrary the death rate -is unusually high. The average duration of -life is said to be only twenty-six years. This -is due in a great measure to infant mortality. -Typhoid and malarial fevers are prevalent because -of the accumulated drainage of centuries, -which lies just a few feet beneath the surface. -Pneumonia is common and regarded as very -dangerous because of the rarefied air, and patients -suffering from this disease are immediately<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span> -transported to lower altitudes for treatment. -The entire lack of hygiene and sanitary -conditions among the peon classes is in a great -measure responsible for the unusual percentage -of mortality. Few other cities in the world -have such a high rate of deaths compared with -the population.</p> - -<p>Strange it is that the capital was ever built -on this low, marshy soil when higher land was -available and near at hand. It was one of the -great blunders of Cortez, for Mexico might -have been made a healthy city. No exigency -of commerce dictated its selection, for it is far -from the sea coast on either side and was difficult -of access before the day of railroads. -The new city was built on the site of the old, -and the temples of the Christian religion were -raised on the sites of the old pagan altars wherever -possible. A plan of moving the city to -higher ground was strongly agitated at one -time but the vested interests succeeded in killing -this project. It is hoped and believed that -when the plans for sewerage are completed, the -health conditions will be placed on a par with -that of most cities. The authorities are making -an honest and earnest effort to carry out these -commendable projects.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span></p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="verse">“Know ye not pulque,</div> -<div class="verse">Liquor divine,</div> -<div class="verse">The Angels in heaven</div> -<div class="verse">Prefer it to wine.”</div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>Thus sings the lower class Mexican to whom -this liquor has become a curse. To it is due -much of his poverty and many of his crimes. -For it he will neglect his family and steal from -his employer. It does not contain a large percentage -of alcohol, but, taken in large quantities, -as is customary among these people, it -puts them in a dopy condition which they sleep -off. One railroad brings in a train-load each -day, and, besides, large quantities are brought -in by other lines. There are sixteen hundred -pulque saloons in the capital, but they are all -closed at six o’clock by a law which is strictly -enforced. The pulque-shop betrays itself by -its odour, as well as by the crowds of poorly -dressed and even filthy men and women who -surround its doors and press around the counter. -It is a gaily decorated affair and is oftentimes -adorned in flaring colours inside and out, -with reds, blues, greens and yellows predominating, -and frequently with a huge, rude painting -on the outside walls. In some of the shops -you will find a curious string knotted in a peculiar -manner or strung with shells. This is a survival<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span> -of the Aztec method of counting by means -of beads, or shells, strung together.</p> - -<p>As one writer says, “the pulque shop, notwithstanding -its evil influence upon the life of -the people, presents a very picturesque appearance -to the tourist who has never seen anything -like it before. The dress of the people, the -curious, vivid colours of the walls of the building, -the semi-barbaric appearance of the decorations -within, the curious semi-symbolic pictures -upon the walls, the unaccustomed groupings -of the people, all combine to attract the -attention of the stranger in Mexico.”</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus12"> -<img src="images/illus12.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">A PICTURESQUE PULQUE SHOP</p> -</div> - -<p>In the naming of the pulque-dens the imagination -is allowed full play. I quote from a -Mexican periodical the names of some of these -resorts: A place in the suburbs of Mexico is -termed the “Delight of Bacchus.” One is -called “The Seventh Heaven,” another “The -Food of the Gods,” while still another bears -the euphonious title of “The Land of the Lotus.” -“A Night of Delight” is another place -near “The Heart’s Desire.” The above names -are commonplace by the side of the following: -“The Hang-out of John the Baptist,” “The -Retreat of the Holy Ghost,” “The Delight of -the Apostle,” “The Retreat of the Holy Virgin,” -“The Mecca of Delight,” and “The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span> -Fountain of the Angels.” Nothing disrespectful -is intended by these appellations but they -sound very sacrilegious to us.</p> - -<p>There is, however, a brighter side to the Indian -life in the City of Mexico. In one corner -of the Zocalo, and covering a part of the site -formerly occupied by the great sacrificial altar, -is the flower-market. This flower-market is -always attractive and a never-ending source -of interest to the tourist. Immense bouquets -of the choicest flowers are sold so cheap that -the price seems almost absurd. By judicious -bargaining a few cents will purchase a large -and varied supply of roses, violets and heliotrope, -which only dollars could buy from a -New York florist. No hot-houses are needed -here at any season, for in this climate flowers -bloom all the year round, and one crop succeeds -another in a never-ending succession. The -Mexican Indian is a lover of flowers. It is one -of the redeeming traits of his character. He -is not always particular as to his personal appearance; -he may be unkempt and untidy to -look upon; but he loves flowers, is prodigal in -his use of them and shows good taste in their -arrangement. This taste is innate, is no doubt -inherited from his Aztec ancestors, and has -survived the oppressions and exactions of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span> -succeeding centuries. This love for flowers -finds expression even in his worship, and it is -no uncommon thing to find flowers before the -image of the Virgin, and such an offering is one -of the expressions of his good will. When we -consider that our forefathers were taught to -worship God with the first fruits of their husbandry, -it is not surprising that this primitive -and ignorant race should still find use in their -worship for these beautiful products of a prodigal -nature.</p> - -<p>The gardens and parks of the City of Mexico -attain a luxuriant growth that cannot be -equalled in our northern cities. These breathing-places -where one can sit amid scenes of -tropical verdure, and admire the bright tints -of the flowers while shielded from the hot sun -by the broad-leafed foliage of the plants, are -truly delightful spots for an American to visit. -They contrast so strongly with the cheerless -appearance of the streets. In the centre of the -large Plaza Mayor lies the Zocalo, a little green -oasis in the great paved waste. It is in the -very heart of the city’s throbbing life, and -everything either has its beginning or ending -on this imposing square.</p> - -<p>On one side of the Plaza lies the Palacio Nacional -which has stood there for more than<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span> -two centuries. It covers the site of the ancient -palace of Montezuma, and has an imposing -façade of nearly seven hundred feet. Over the -main entrance hangs the Liberty Bell of Mexico -which was rung by Hidalgo on the first call -to independence at Dolores, where it had so -often summoned the people to mass. The immense -windows which look out upon the Plaza -open into the various rooms where the official -business of the executive department of the -republic is transacted. Other parts of this -immense structure, for it is almost a square -building enclosing an open court, are occupied -by the legislative chambers and barrack rooms -for several regiments of soldiers.</p> - -<p>A few blocks away from the Plaza lies the -Alameda, which is the park of the better -classes. Every city has an alameda, as the visitor -soon learns, but this is <i>the</i> alameda of -Mexico. It is a pretty place, and, with its beautiful -trees, flowers and fountains, forms a resort -for the fashionable people, who congregate -here on Sundays and feast days to listen to -the military bands. The visitor can almost lose -himself in this part, for the view is circumscribed -on every hand by the dense shrubbery.</p> - -<p>It is on the subject of the Paseo de la Reforma -that the Mexican becomes enthusiastic.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span> -This beautiful boulevard extends for a distance -of two miles from a place near the Alameda -to Chapultepec. It is a smooth thoroughfare -averaging five hundred feet in width, with -promenades on each side shaded by trees under -which are stone seats, and with paved driveways -in the centre. Here and there the Paseo -widens into circles, called <i>glorietas</i>, in the centre -of which are placed statues. Those already -erected include statues to Charles IV of Spain, -Columbus and Cuautemoc, the Aztec warrior -and emperor. To Maximilian is due the credit -for the Paseo, and a more beautiful boulevard -cannot be found in Europe or America.</p> - -<p>I have purposely described the old features -of the city and the unique characteristics before -touching upon the more modern innovations. -The average visitor would follow that plan, -for he would be more interested in the unusual -than in that with which he is more or less -familiar. Like all capitals and large cities -affected by commercialism, the City of Mexico -is fast becoming cosmopolitan. The traveller -who visited it ten, or even five, years ago would -be astonished at the changes wrought by improvements. -The fine system of electric lights, -the excellent electric traction lines with modern,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span> -cars, the asphalted streets -and the attractive new suburbs of an entirely -foreign architecture, link the old with the new, -the sixteenth with the twentieth century. A -city hindered by a racial conservatism, and -obstructed at every turn by tradition, does not -become entirely modern in a decade, but the -trend is there and its progress has been really -remarkable. It will never be a city of skyscrapers -for a hard stratum is not encountered -until a depth of a hundred and forty feet is -reached.</p> - -<p>A new and modern hotel is more needed than -anything else. There are plenty of hotels of -the Mexican kind, where it is almost impossible -to find a room with an outside window. All -the rooms simply have an opening on the <i>patio</i> -which answers for both door and window. In -cool weather which is sometimes experienced -here, there is no means of heating these rooms -except by an open pan of coals, which is not -very satisfactory to one accustomed to modern -steam-heated hotels or a good stove.</p> - -<p>The national government controls the federal -district within which is situated the City of -Mexico, much the same as the District of Columbia, -in our own land, and is assisted by a -city council. Plans have been drawn for fifty<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span> -million dollars’ worth of public buildings, many -of which are already under way. The fine new -post-office which has been building for several -years is now occupied by that department. It -is a beautiful structure of the medieval Spanish -style, and is a striking departure from the -other public buildings. It is four stories high, -equipped with every convenience and is finished -within and without in elaborate style.</p> - -<p>A new legislative palace is under construction, -which is the most pretentious building -yet planned. Its estimated cost is $20,000,000. -Opposite the post-office a national theatre is -being erected to cater to the amusement lovers, -which is designed to be the finest theatre in -the new world. An entire block is being razed -to make room for the Panteon Nacional—a -resting place for Mexico’s illustrious dead. -Within the marble walls of this unique memorial -will rest all that is mortal of her heroes. -An army and navy building, a museum of art -and a department of public works are among -the other improvements planned for the capital. -These buildings are being scattered over the -city instead of following the group plan as designed -at Washington. The reason for this has -been a desire to have every section of the city -benefited and beautified by these public structures.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span> -The year 1910 marked the centennial of -Mexican independence. The month of September -was almost wholly given up to celebrations -of this event in the capital. A number of public -buildings were dedicated during the celebrations. -Among these were a new insane asylum -and several fine new public school buildings, -which greatly added to the educational facilities -of the city. A magnificent new monument -to independence, recently erected on the Paseo, -was dedicated with great ceremony. A number -of gifts were made by foreign colonies and -governments. Not the least of these was a -monument to Washington, which was presented -by the resident Americans. The ceremonies -and functions of the centennial celebration -were very elaborate, and the capital has been -beautified in many ways as a result.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE VALLEY OF ANAHUAC</span></h2> - -<p>The dim traditionary history of Mexico -shows us shadowy tribes flitting across the -stage, each acting its part like the different -performers in a vaudeville show, and then making -way for other actors. The Valley of Mexico, -or Anahuac, meaning “near the water,” -seems to have been the centre of the civilization -of these early tribes. It is a beautiful -valley nearly sixty miles in length and thirty -in breadth, and is enclosed by a wall of mountains -which circumscribe the view in every -direction. Six shallow lakes lie in this hollow: -Texcoco, Xochimilco, San Cristobal, Xaltocan, -Zumpango and Chalco, of which the first named -is the nearest to the city and lies distant about -three miles. It is easy to believe that the -waters of these lakes at one time entirely surrounded -the ancient city of Tenochtitlan, for -within historic times their shores have greatly -receded.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span></p> - -<p>The history of these early races rests mostly -upon tradition; yet a diversity of architectural -ruins, and the few meagre records that remain, -present certain general facts. These positive -proofs leave no doubt that this valley was inhabited -from a very early period by tribes or -nations which made distinct advances in civilization. -These tribes had developed certain of -the useful arts and had evolved a social system -that exhibited some refinement. The first of -these races of whom we have reliable record -are the Toltecs, who appeared in the Valley -of Mexico in the seventh century at almost -the same time that Mohammed was spreading -his religion over Asia and Africa. Their -sway lasted about five centuries, when they -disappeared as silently and mysteriously as -they came.</p> - -<p>These peaceful and agricultural people were -succeeded by the Chichimecs, a more barbarous -race, who came from the north. They in turn -were followed by the Nahuals. Lastly came the -Aztecs, who entered the valley about 1196, and -reached a higher state of civilization than any -of their predecessors. War was their choicest -profession, for they considered that warriors -slain in battle were immediately transported to -scenes of ineffable bliss. They offered human<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span> -sacrifices to their gods. Prescott tells us of -a procession of captives two miles long, and -numbering seventy thousand persons who were -sacrificed at one time. This is incredible, for -at that rate the population would soon have -been exhausted even in this prolific land. Furthermore -we know that the Aztecs were not -always successful in war, and may have furnished -victims from their own numbers, for -sacrifice to the gods of the other nations in the -same land.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;" id="illus13"> -<img src="images/illus13.jpg" width="420" height="650" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">THE CALENDAR STONE</p> -<img src="images/illus13-inscription.jpg" width="500" height="280" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>The Aztecs were clever workers in gold and -silver, and were acquainted with a number of -arts that are lost to-day. Their picture writings -bear witness to a clever fancy and fertile -invention of symbols. The numerous idols -show their skill in carving and a true artistic -instinct. Many antiquities have been exhumed -from the swampy soil on which the capital city -is built, in making excavations for improvements. -The National Museum is a treasure -house of these relics and it would take a volume -to describe them. The huge Sacrificial Stone, -which is generally supposed to have been placed -on the top of the great altar, is preserved there. -It also houses the horrible image of the god -Huitzilopochtli, and a varied assortment of inferior -gods, goddesses, and other objects of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span> -worship. But the most celebrated antiquity—the -one showing the greatest advancement—is -the Calendar Stone. This stone was buried -for centuries, and when resurrected was placed -in the west tower of the cathedral. From this -place it was removed a few years ago and -placed in the museum. It is a mighty stone, -eleven feet and eight inches in diameter, and -weighs more than twenty tons. The Aztecs -divided the year into eighteen months of twenty -days each, and then arbitrarily added five days -to complete the year.</p> - -<p>“Let us follow the cross, and if we have -faith we will conquer,” was the motto on the -banner of Cortez. It was with this spirit that -he led his little band over the mountains and -into the heart of the empire of Montezuma, late -in the fall of 1519. He was met by that sovereign, -tradition says, on the site of the present -Hospital of Jesus, with every manifestation -of friendliness. For several months they -were the honoured guests of the Aztec chief, -but at length the aggressions of the Spaniards -changed friendship to hate and the Aztecs, rising -in their wrath, chased the invaders from -the city. Driven before the infuriated natives -like sheep, they fled over the present road to -the suburban village of Tacuba, and many were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span> -those who fell. This rout of the Spaniards has -been painted with wonderful vividness by Gen. -Lew Wallace in “The Fair God.”</p> - -<p>It was an awful night of despair, that first -day of July, 1520, and the Spaniards who escaped -named it La Noche Triste, “the sorrowful -night.” The pursuit stopped at the little -town of Popotla. In this village is a great -cypress tree whose branches are blasted by the -storms of centuries. For a moment the strong -will of Cortez gave way and he sat down upon -a stone under the spreading branches of this -tree and wept. Whether he wept most for his -fallen soldiers or disappointment over his ignominious -defeat, we are not told by the chroniclers. -This tree is now noted as <i>el arbol de la -noche triste</i>, or “the tree of the sorrowful -night.” A high iron fence protects the ancient -relic from the souvenir vandals.</p> - -<p>The Spaniards retreated beyond the valley -to their allies, the Tlaxcalans, at Cholula. Reinforcements -and supplies arriving, they returned -a few months later and began the -memorable siege of Tenochtitlan, and made a -triumphal entry into that city on the 13th of -August, 1521. Then Guatemotzin, the last of -the Aztec emperors, wept in his turn, because -the sacred fires of the temple had for ever gone<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span> -out, and his people would henceforth be slaves. -“Take that dagger,” he said, “and free this -spirit.” But, no, torture must come before -death, for Cortez fain would learn where the -gold was hidden that had so suddenly disappeared. -To-day, in the City of Mexico, a statue -stands in one of the circles of the famous Paseo, -which commemorates this great warrior and -his torture by the Spanish chieftain. This -monument is greatly cherished by the Indians, -who hold annual festivals in his honour and -decorate it with a profusion of flowers and -wreaths.</p> - -<p>The great Valley of Mexico is without a natural -outlet, and this fact has caused seven inundations -of the capital during exceptionally -rainy seasons. One of the lakes, Zumpango, is -twenty-five feet higher than the city and drains -into Texcoco, from which the waters spread -over the city. When the first serious inundations -came in 1553, 1580 and 1604, the project -of removing the city to a higher level was -strongly agitated. It was only the loss of millions -of dollars of property that prevented -this action. Then the idea of draining this -valley was definitely adopted and the work was -begun in 1607. A tunnel was decided upon -and fifteen thousand Indians were set at work<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span> -sinking shafts and driving the tunnel in both -directions. Within a year a tunnel four miles -long had been completed. This tunnel eventually -caved in, so that very little good was realized -from it and efforts were made to convert -it into an open cut. But this undertaking was -not finished until two centuries later. It is a -great trench, however, with an average depth -of from one hundred and fifty to two hundred -feet, and from three hundred to seven hundred -feet in width at the top. It is called the <i>Tajo -de Nochistongo</i>, or Nochistongo cut, and its -only use now is as an entrance for the Mexican -Central railway. Even this waterway did not -drain the valley, remarkable engineering feat -as it was, but a new canal was constructed by -American engineers a few years ago which successfully -accomplishes the work of draining -these shallow lakes and carrying off the sewerage -of the city.</p> - -<p>The first Aztecs who settled in this valley -lived almost entirely in the marshes and lakes, -we are told, because of the hostility of their -fierce neighbours. They were thus obliged to -depend almost wholly upon the products of -these watered lands for their sustenance, and -they acquired some strange and—we would -say—depraved tastes. A reminder of those<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span> -days is seen in the cakes made of the eggs of -a curious marsh-fly, which are sold in the market -of the City of Mexico to-day. The flies themselves -are pounded into a paste and sold after -being boiled, but the eggs are preferred. The -Indians collect the eggs in a systematic manner. -Bundles of a certain kind of sedge are planted -in Lake Texcoco and the insects deposit their -eggs thereon in great quantities. These bundles -as soon as covered are shaken over pieces -of cloth and replaced for another supply. The -eggs thus collected are made into a paste and -form a favourite article of food, especially -during Lent.</p> - -<p>It is interesting to learn what different races -regard as toothsome dainties. In Southern -Mexico I have seen bushels of common grasshoppers -sold in the markets as a delicacy, reminding -one of the locusts and wild honey used -as food in Biblical times. In other parts of -Mexico the honey-ant is greatly sought after -for food. The natives of Central America are -partial to the iguana, a large lizard sometimes -reaching a length of three or four feet, and prefer -it to beef. After all there is no accounting -for tastes. A man who eats snails might criticize -another who relishes oysters. And perhaps -the man who want his cheese “ripe”<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span> -should not criticize the poor Indian who has -inherited a taste for the eggs of the fly.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 420px;" id="illus14"> -<img src="images/illus14.jpg" width="420" height="650" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">SCENES ON THE VIGA CANAL</p> -</div> - -<p>There are many places of interest round -about the City of Mexico which are easily -reached. One should not fail to visit the famous -<i>jardines flotandos</i> or “floating gardens” -where the beautiful flowers sold in the market -are grown. These gardens, called by the Aztecs -<i>chinampas</i>, are reached by the Viga Canal. -The inquirer is told to take a gondola and float -down to them. The name gondola excites pleasant -anticipations of a delightful trip. Entering -a mule-car at the Plaza Mayor the canal is -soon reached after traversing a number of narrow -streets which would not especially delight -the fastidious traveller. The gondoliers take -the stranger almost by force and urge him into -one of the flea-infested boats that abound at the -landing, and which more resemble a collection -of mud-scows than any other kind of floating -fleet. Instead of using oars these queer gondoliers -with the picture hats pole the boat -through the muddy waters of La Viga, stirring -up odours which cause the passenger to wish -that he was not gifted with the sense of smell, -or that he could temporarily dispense with -breathing. However, there is life in the stream -and on the banks that is typically Mexican, for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span> -boats are constantly passing up and down. Occasionally -a load of Indians will float by playing -native airs on guitars and other string -instruments, with the light-heartedness and -gaiety peculiar to this race. On the bank are -scattered many native thatch huts around which -idle natives group. Along the road pass men -and women going to and from the city with -loads on their heads or on their backs. The -“floating gardens” are always just beyond. -They are first at Santa Anita but, when this -place is reached, they are at Mexicalcingo. -Arrived there the visitor is sent to Ixtacalco, -and then he is forwarded to Xochimilco, and -so the real floating gardens are never reached. -The fact is that they do not float and perhaps -never did. This characteristic only exists in -the imagination, for it sounds romantic to speak -of gardens that can be moved around and anchored -at will.</p> - -<p>Disembarking at an unattractive mud and -thatch village bearing the charming name of -Santa Anita, self constituted guides are waiting -to conduct you to the object of your visit, something -which does not literally exist. Yet the -“floating gardens” are all about you at this -place. They are simply marsh lands with canals -leading in and out and crossways by means<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span> -of which the gardener can reach all parts in -his boat. The earth may yield somewhat if you -step upon it, but they do not float. It is possible, -and historians so assert, that floating gardens -did exist in reality during the Aztec invasion. -These people were frequently driven to -dire extremities to secure food. They may have -adopted the plan of making floating gardens -which could be moved about as necessity compelled. -This was done by culling masses of -vegetation with its thick entwined stems and -pouring upon this mat the rich mud dredged -from the bottom of the lake. Then, as the -masses settled, more mud was put on until the -whole anchored upon the bottom of the lake -and became immovable. The gardens look -beautiful, covered as they are with the many-coloured -blossoms. By means of the canals the -roots are kept thoroughly moist at all times, -and the plants thrive luxuriantly.</p> - -<p>This canal of La Viga was formerly a great -trade route, for a large part of the natives came -to the City of Mexico by this way. It leads -back into regions where dwell full blooded Aztecs -who speak a language that is said to be -almost the pure ancient tongue. These natives -can be distinguished from all others on the -street and in the market by their features and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span> -peculiar dress. They are clannish and keep by -themselves, except in the intercourse made -necessary by barter and trade. They are proud -of their lineage and rejoice in the fact that they -have not mingled with the other native races.</p> - -<p>Tacuba, distant only a few miles, is an interesting -little village, and has many gardens and -a fine old church. It is a good place to study -the people and get snap-shots of quaint life. -Its principal distinction is that it was a proud -city when Tetlepanquetzaltzin was king once -upon a time. Texcoco at the time of the conquest -was the capital of the Tezcucans, who -were a race in alliance with the Aztecs, but it -is now principally in ruins, for its glory has -passed away. El Desierto was once the home -of the Carmelite monks and is frequently visited -now in its decay. Coyoacan was the first -capital of Mexico, for Cortez established the -seat of government there for a time while the -new city was being built.</p> - -<p>Tacubaya is the home of the wealthy as well -as the sporting element. It has beautiful gardens -within the adobe walls surrounding the -homes of the opulent. It is on higher ground -and should have been the site of the capital city -itself. It is also called the Monte Carlo of -Mexico, for gamblers of all sorts and conditions<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span> -congregate here in booths or under umbrellas, -and you can lose any sum at games of chance -as at that famous resort along the shores of the -blue Mediterranean. Games, music, dancing, -cock-fights, and bull-fights are a few of the attractions -to amuse and entertain the visitor, -and relieve him from the burden of carrying -around the weighty silver pesos.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus15"> -<img src="images/illus15.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">CASTLE OF CHAPULTEPEC</p> -</div> - -<p>In all this beautiful and historic Valley of -Mexico there is no more beautiful spot, or none -around which so many memories cling, as Chapultepec, -the Hill of the Grasshoppers. Historic -and beautiful Chapultepec! A great grove -of noble cypresses draped with masses of Spanish -moss surrounds this rock, and between the -trees and along the shores of a pretty little lake -wind enchanting walks. One grand old cypress -called Montezuma’s tree rises to a height of -one hundred and seventy feet. It is a magnificent -breathing spot—with which no park that -I have ever seen in America compares. Legend -says that on the top of this rock was situated -the palace of Montezuma, and it is probably -only legend. No doubt that emperor often -rested himself under the friendly shade of the -great <i>ahuehuete</i>, and reflected on the glory of -his empire before the disturbing foreigners -came. The present Castle of Chapultepec dates<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span> -from 1783 when it was begun by one of the -viceroys. Later viceroys, presidents and an -emperor added to the original building until -now it is a palace indeed but not a beautiful -structure. Ill-fated Maximilian made this his -home and added greatly to the beauty of the -grounds. It is now the White House of Mexico -although occupied only a part of the year by the -president.</p> - -<p>Perhaps nowhere in the world does there -exist a more beautiful scene than that which -unfolds to the view from this rock. All around -is the great sweep of plain with its wealth of -cultivated fields; the distant mountain range -with its ever varying outline; the snow-capped -twin peaks, Popocatapetl (seventeen thousand, -seven hundred and eighty-two feet) and Ixtaccihuatl -(sixteen thousand and sixty feet), standing -like silent sentinels and dominating the -horizon; the silver line of the lakes; and beneath -us the fair City of Mexico, the ancient -Tenochtitlan. Legend says that Popocatepetl, -“the smoking mountain,” and Ixtaccihuatl, -“the woman in white,” were once living giants -but that having displeased the Almighty they -were changed to mountains. The woman died -and the contour of her body covered with snow -can be traced on the summit of the smaller<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span> -peak. The man was doomed to live for ever -and gaze on the sleeping form of his beloved. -At times when his grief becomes uncontrollable -he shakes with his great sobs and pours -forth tears of fire.</p> - -<p>As I stood on that historic rock I thought -of the New World Venice described by Prescott, -“with its shining cities and flowering -islets rocking, as it were, at anchor on the fair -bosom of the waters.” Rising above all was -the great sacrificial altar upon which the sacred -fires were ever kept burning. Beneath -this rock under the friendly branches of the -giant cypress Montezuma has no doubt sheltered -himself from the hot sun. Cortez here -rested himself after his severe marches. -French zouaves in their quaint uniforms have -bivouacked in the grove. American blue-coats -stacked their arms here after the victory -of Molino-del-Ray. And Mexicans now -take their siestas under the same friendly -shade while other races are robbing them of -their wealth.</p> - -<p>Yes, historic scenes and tragedies have taken -place on this plain. Nations have come and -gone. Victors have themselves been led away -captives, and taskmasters have in turn become -slaves. How finite is man or his works in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span> -presence of this great panorama of nature! -Races have come and gone but the mountains -endure. Human tragedies have been enacted -here but the sky is just as blue and the sun just -as bright, as when Cortez looked with envious -eyes upon this beautiful valley. The mimic -play of men, and women and races upon this -amphitheatre has scarcely left its imprint. -The only occasions when the calm serenity of -nature has been disturbed were when the giant -Popocatapetl, overcome with grief at the loss -of his beloved, has shaken this whole valley -with his sobs and poured forth plenteous tears -of fire over its fair surface.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE TROPICS</span></h2> - -<p>In no country in the world is it possible to -move from one extreme of climate to the other -in so short a time as in Mexico. Within less -than twenty-four hours one can travel from -the sun-baked sands of the Gulf coast to the -snow-covered, conical peak of one of the great -extinct volcanoes, thus traversing every zone -of vegetable life from the dense tropical -growth of the former to the stunted pines of -the latter. By railway it is a journey of only -a few hours from the plateaus, at an altitude -of eight thousand feet, to the sea level, and a -most interesting ride it is. The Mexican Railway, -which is the oldest railway in the republic, -runs from the capital to Vera Cruz and is -the best route, for its wonderful engineering -feats and beautiful scenery have drawn tourists -from all parts of the world. Leaving the -capital, the road skirts the bank of Lake Texcoco, -through a pass in the mountains surrounding<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span> -the Valley of Mexico, and across the -Plains of Apam, the home of the maguey, for -a hundred and fifty miles before the exciting -part of the trip is reached.</p> - -<p>The descent begins at Esperanza, which lies -at the very foot of Mt. Orizaba. Esperanza -means “hope” and it is well named for the -traveller can “hope” for better things as the -train approaches the coast. Noah’s Ark rests -near here, for I saw it with my own eyes labelled -in plain letters, <i>Arc de Noe</i>, but it is -now—sad to tell—devoted to the sale of -pulque. Esperanza is eight thousand and -forty-four feet above the sea and one hundred -and twelve miles from Vera Cruz as the track -runs, but much nearer as the crow would fly. -There is a drop of four thousand, one hundred -feet in the next twenty-nine miles and it is -one of the grandest rides in the world. In -places the road seems like a little shelf on the -side of a towering mountain while a yawning -chasm awaits the coach below. As soon as -Boca del Monte (Mouth of the Mountain) is -reached, only a few miles from Esperanza, the -downward impetus is felt and all the energy -of the curious double-ended English engines is -devoted to holding back the heavy train with -its human cargo.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span></p> - -<p>Passing through a tunnel here, the scene -bursts upon the traveller without any warning -or prelude, in all its grandeur and magnificence. -The engine accommodatingly stops for -water so that the passengers have an opportunity -to view this wonderful panorama. Maltrata -nestles in the hollow, a dozen miles away -by rail, yet the red tiles of the roofs, a red-domed -church and the ever-present plaza gleam -in the sunshine two thousand feet directly -underneath. The valley is almost flat and is -divided into squares by hedges and walls and, -reflecting every shade of green, looks like a -checker-board arrangement of nature. Beyond -the valley, hill succeeds hill until they are -lost in the purple haze of the horizon, or are -overtopped by snow-capped Orizaba. Indians -appear here with beautiful bouquets of roses, -tulips and orchids, with their yellow, pink and -red centres, for sale. The train passes on over -a narrow bridge spanning a deep chasm and -down the mountain until Maltrata is reached, -where the same Indians will greet you with -the same bouquets, for they have climbed down -the two thousand feet in less time than it took -the train to reach the same level.</p> - -<p>Leaving Maltrata the road enters a cañon -called <i>El Infernillo</i>, the Little Hell, goes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span> -through a tunnel and another beautiful valley, -running through fertile fields and by wooded -hills, until Orizaba, the border-land of the -tropics, is reached.</p> - -<p>This city at an altitude of four thousand feet -is in the <i>tierra templada</i>, the temperate region. -This zone is as near paradise in the matter of -climate as any location on earth could well be. -It retains most of the beauties and few of the -annoying insects and tropical fevers of the hot -zone. It has the moisture of the lowlands with -the cool breezes of the uplands and is well -named “temperate zone” because of its fine -climate and equable temperature.</p> - -<p>Orizaba is a town of thirty-five thousand -people and a very beautiful and interesting -place with its palm-shaded streets and low -Moorish buildings. Its Alameda is a quaint, -shady park with an abundance of flowers and -blooming trees. Along the street the orange -trees thrust their laden branches out into the -highway over the low adobe walls. On the -banks of the stream the washerwomen beat -their clothes to a snowy white upon the smooth -round stones. Life moves along in smooth, -easy channels with these people. And it is -not to be wondered at, for there is</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span></p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="verse">“A sense of rest</div> -<div class="verse">To the tired breast</div> -<div class="verse">In this beauteous Aztec town.”</div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>Between Orizaba and Cordoba, a distance of -sixteen miles, is perhaps the best cultivated -section in Mexico. The products of all the -zones are mingled and corn and coffee grow -side by side as well as peach trees and the -banana. Cordoba is just on the border of the -<i>tierra caliente</i>, or hot country proper, and is -a much smaller city than Orizaba. It is a very -old town and was founded as a place of refuge -from the malarial fevers of the coast lands. -This region is noted for its fine coffee, and -there are numberless coffee plantations as well -as many sugar <i>haciendas</i>. The Mexican of the -tropics can be seen here dressed in immaculate -white. Leaving Cordoba dense tropical forests -of palm and palmetto begin to appear. -These alternate with groves of coffee and bananas, -gardens of mangoes, fields of pineapples -and other tropical fruits. Nature begins -to manifest herself in her grandest productions. -Birds of brilliant plumage are seen. -The towering trees, rocks and entire surface -of the soil are covered with bright flowers such -as orchids, oleanders and honeysuckles and -luxuriant vines. These and the dense jungles<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span> -are all reminders that the tropics have been -reached at last. Soon the train enters Vera -Cruz, the city without cabs, the landing-place -of the great conquistador and his cohorts.</p> - -<p>The principal port now, as it has always been -since the landing of Cortez on the twenty-first -day of April, 1519, is Vera Cruz, or, as he -named it, <i>La Villa Rica de Vera Cruz</i>—the -Rich City of the True Cross. Most Americans -who pass through here leave by the very first -train or boat for fear of pestilence. I met one -fellow-countryman there who was almost beside -himself because the boat he had expected -to take was delayed a couple of days. This -city is reputed to be the favourite loafing-place -of the <i>stegomyia fasciata</i> whose bite results in -the <i>vomito</i>, or yellow fever. If all the sensational -reports sent out concerning this city -were true then “Pandora’s box was not a -circumstance to the evils which Vera Cruz contains.” -I had read in Mr. Ober’s excellent -work on Mexico of an American consul who -died here just thirteen days after reaching the -port that his ambition had led him to; and of -the terrible ravages of the scourge when deaths -were averaging forty per day. I arrived there -after night had set in. Eating a light supper -and seeing that my name was duly posted on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span> -the big blackboard bulletin according to the -custom prevailing there, I retired to my room, -and only breathed freely after securely drawing -the mosquito netting around my bed so that -it would be impossible for a <i>stegomyia</i> to get -through.</p> - -<p>It was almost a surprise on the following -morning to find able-bodied Americans and -husky Englishmen pursuing their avocations -in an unconcerned way as though such things -as yellow fever or smallpox were not to be -thought of. Then, again, I was alarmed at the -numerous red flags hanging out, which I took -to be quarantine flags, for everything is different -here. Upon investigation this alarm -was dispelled, for those places proved to be -pulque-shops and the flag meant that a fresh -supply of the “liquor divine” had just been -received. It is probably true that Vera Cruz -was a hot-bed for the <i>vomito</i> a few years ago, -but Mexican statistics report only twelve deaths -in 1904 and one hundred and twenty-two in -1905 from this disease, which is not bad for -a city of thirty thousand people, where a large -proportion of the population cannot be made -to obey the ordinary laws of sanitation. I -doubt whether the death rate is much greater -than in our own cities on the Gulf coast. This<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span> -change is due to the better situation that has -been brought about by the authorities.</p> - -<p>An adequate supply of pure water was the -first important step in this move for improved -conditions. This was secured by utilizing the -water of the Jamapa River at a point about -twelve miles distant and passing this water -through several filtering beds before turning it -into the mains which supply the city. A sewerage -system has been constructed, by means -of which the sewerage is carried out and discharged -into deep water so that the harbour -will not be contaminated. Disinfecting stations -have been established and a plant for the -disposition of garbage. Then in addition to -the regular force of health officers, there is a -large volunteer street cleaning brigade. These -volunteer forces are not on the pay-roll and -yet they do their work in a thorough manner -even if their methods cannot be approved. -Their only reward is the enforcement of a fine -of five dollars for the protection of their lives. -By the natives these street cleaners are called -<i>zopilotes</i> but to an American they are plain, -every-day buzzards. Hundreds of these birds -can be seen perched on the roof-tops or waddling -through the streets.</p> - -<p>For centuries the port of Vera Cruz was the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span> -bane of vessel owners for there was no protection -from the severe “Northers” so prevalent -on the Gulf and it was one of the most inconvenient -and dangerous harbours on that coast. -It was for this reason that Cortez destroyed -the vessels which had brought his forces over -from Cuba. An excellent harbour has been -constructed at great cost and ocean-going vessels -can now anchor alongside of the main pier -and unload. A large new union station will at -once be erected by the four railways entering -this city on a site adjoining the pier, which will -further increase the facilities of this port.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus16"> -<img src="images/illus16.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">BRIDGE AT ORIZABA</p> -<p class="caption">THE BUZZARDS OF VERA CRUZ</p> -<p class="caption">AVENUE OF PALMS, VERA CRUZ</p> -</div> - -<p>The fortress of San Juan de Ulua, now a -prison, and which is reached by a short sail -through the shark-infested harbour, is an interesting -structure and has seen many vicissitudes. -Used as a fort for several centuries by -the Spaniards, it has successively been occupied -by the French, Americans, and again by -the French and their allies in the war of the -intervention. The buildings in Vera Cruz are -nearly all low, one-storied structures of adobe, -and the walls are tinted in red, yellow, blue -and green, thus furnishing to the eye a pleasing -variety and, with the bay, reminding one -of Cadiz in old Spain. There is an attractive -plaza and an imposing avenue of the cocoanut<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span> -palm. Vera Cruz is the gateway to the capital -and many millions of imports and exports pass -through here each year, as much as at all the -other ports of Mexico combined, leaving out -Progresso, on the Yucatan coast, through -which the henequen traffic is carried.</p> - -<p>Tampico is the second Gulf port in importance -and on the completion of a direct route -to the capital will be a close rival to Vera Cruz. -Coatzacoalcos is the Gulf port of the Tehuantepec -railway and will become an important -port. The Pacific coast affords better natural -harbours. Acapulco is one of the finest natural -land-locked harbours in the world. Though -now of secondary importance because of the -absence of railroad connections, at one time -this picturesque harbour sheltered the old -Spanish galleons engaged in the East India -trade. Their freight was unloaded there and -transported overland on the backs of burros -and mules to Vera Cruz and re-shipped to -Spain. Manzanillo is an important seaport on -that coast and will soon be connected by rail -with the capital, when its importance will be -greatly increased. Other important ports on -that coast are Mazatlan, Guayamas, San Blas -and Salina Cruz, the Pacific port of the Tehuantepec<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span> -route, where the great harbour is -nearly completed.</p> - -<p>The <i>tierra caliente</i> comprises a fringe of low -plains which extend inland from the coast a -distance varying from a few miles in width to -a hundred or more. From thence it rises by -a succession of terraces until the great inland -plateaus are reached. The higher the altitude -the lower the temperature, and it is estimated -that there is a change of 1.8 degree Fahrenheit -for each sixty feet of elevation in this region. -This zone is characterized by the grandeur and -variety of vegetable life, and it is an almost -uninterrupted forest except where it has been -cleared. A ride through the tropics is a revelation -of what nature can do when aided by -a never-ending succession of warm sunshine -and abundant rain upon rich soil. Trees of -great height and size are interspersed among -plants which are generally of a tree-like nature, -and are conspicuous for the development -of their trunks and ramifications. The innumerable -species of reeds and creeping plants -that entwine themselves in a thousand different -ways among the trees and plants make a -passage almost impossible. It is for this reason -that the natives always go around armed -with the <i>machete</i>, a long blade very much like<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span> -a corn-cutter, for it enables them to cut their -way through the dense undergrowth, and is a -protection, should any danger be encountered. -The palms which are ever associated with the -tropics are seen in great profusion and in -countless varieties. Millions of ferns and -broad-leaved plants which would be welcomed -in the gardens and groves of northern homes -are wasting their graceful beauty in these -jungles and wildernesses. Trees are covered -with beautiful orchids and vines coil about the -trunks and limbs like great snakes, and then -drop down to the earth and take root again in -the damp soil.</p> - -<p>To those who know them the tropics are not -so terrible, treacherous though they may seem. -Some enter this zone with a feeling of creepiness -as though they were entering a darkened -sick-room sheltering some malignant disease. -They hesitate to breathe for fear that the very -air is poisonous and they may take in the -germs of some malady with an unpronounceable -name. They shrink from nature as -though she had ceased to be the kind mother -to which they were accustomed in the colder -climates. It is true that there is something -horribly creepy and uncanny about this inevitable -tropical growth, which is so frail and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span> -fragile outwardly but seems possessed of an -unconquerable vitality. And yet in many of -the so-called unhealthy places, there is scarcely -more danger to health than elsewhere, if one -but observes the same rules of right living. -Continuous hard labour, such as the northern -farmer is accustomed to devote to his little -farm, is not possible. Exposure to the intense -heat of the sun at midday and the heavy rains -will bring on fevers and malaria just as surely -as it produces the luxuriant vegetation. For -this reason the tropics will probably never be -suited for colonization by the small farmer -who is fascinated with the possibilities offered -by land capable of producing two or three -crops in a single year.</p> - -<p>In general, Mexico is poorly supplied with -rivers. However, along the Atlantic coast they -are very numerous and large, although not -navigable for any great distance, or for vessels -large enough to be of much aid to commerce. -The size of the rivers is due to the great -amount of rainfall, which varies from seventy -to one hundred and eighty inches annually. -When this is compared to an annual rainfall -of twenty to forty inches in the northern states -of the United States, the conditions in the tropics -are better understood. This excessive rainfall<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span> -washes down earth from the higher ground -and this, together with the layers of vegetable -mold, have formed soil from eight to fourteen -feet in depth thus making it practically inexhaustible. -The temperature varies from 70° -to 100° Fahrenheit. The Pacific coast has a -higher temperature and less rainfall than the -Gulf coast. However, there is a stretch of land -extending north of Acapulco along the coast -and from eight to thirty miles wide that is -unrivalled for tropical beauty and productiveness. -There are many rivers and streams that -traverse this land on the way from the great -mountains to the Pacific.</p> - -<p>There is a charm about the life in the hotlands -that is missing in other parts of Mexico. -Of all the inhabitants of that country, the life -of the people in the hot country is the most -interesting. This is probably due to the fact -that these people have always had more freedom -than the Indians on the plateaus who were -practically slaves for a couple of centuries. -The great estates there required sure help and -the natives were reduced to serfs. In the mines -they were worked with soldiers set over them -as guards. In the hotlands it was easier to -make a living, for a bountiful nature supplied -nearly all their wants. And yet many employers<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span> -of labour say that the peon from the hot -country makes the most satisfactory workman. -These Indians seem like a superior race. For -one thing they are scrupulously clean which, -in itself, is a pleasing contrast to the daily -sights in Northern Mexico. Water is abundant -everywhere; the extreme heat renders bathing -a great comfort and their clothes are kept immaculate. -They are fond of social life and -almost every night groups can be seen gathered -together in some kind of entertainment.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus17"> -<img src="images/illus17.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">AN INDIAN HOME IN THE HOT COUNTRY</p> -</div> - -<p>Their homes are different from those in the -colder lands. The houses of the middle and -lower classes are built of bamboo or other light -material found in the tropical jungles, and -thatched with palm leaves. The upright bamboo -poles are often set an inch or more apart -thus giving a free circulation of air. An Indian -village generally consists of one long, -winding, irregular street lined on each side by -these picturesque huts, and bearing a strong -resemblance to a village in the interior of -Africa. Down these streets swarm in equal -profusion half-naked babies and children long -past the childhood stage dressed in the same -simple way, and hungry looking dogs. The -hot country is sparsely populated in comparison -with the plateaus and there are no large<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span> -cities, although archeologists tell us that the -earliest civilization seems to have been located -there. It could support a population many, -many times larger with ease.</p> - -<p>The most productive parts of the world are -found in the <i>tierra caliente</i> which instead of -being given up to impenetrable jungles, the -homes of reptiles and breeding place of poisonous -insects, should be made to produce -those luxuries and necessaries which contribute -to make civilized life tolerable. All over -the world the fruits and other articles of the -tropics are coming into greater demand each -year. In the year 1906 the United States imported -fruits and other food products of tropical -countries, not including coffee, to the value -of more than $150,000,000, or nearly two dollars -for each man, woman and child in the -country. Of the purely tropical products, -sugar was by far the largest item on the list. -Bananas to the amount of $11,500,000 were -brought in, and were second on the list with -cacao a close rival for this place.</p> - -<p>As yet Mexico supplies but a small portion -of these articles to the United States. Yet the -possibilities of agriculture here are equal to -those of any similar lands, and this, together -with superior transportation facilities and a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span> -stable government, ought to greatly increase -the trade. In addition to the above items, this -soil is well adapted to the following fruits and -useful products, all of which are native to the -soil: oranges, lemons, limes, pineapples, grapefruit, -vanilla bean, indigo, rubber, coffee, tobacco -and many drug-producing plants. It is -difficult for the small farmer to succeed, as he -cannot do all his own labour in that climate -and cannot get satisfactory help just when it -is needed. He could not afford to hire a force -of labourers by the year. Successful farming -in the tropics can only be done on a large scale -with a regular force of labourers maintained -on the plantation. The title to the soil can be -purchased cheaply but the first cost of the land -is probably not more than one-third of the ultimate -cost by the time it is cleared, planted, and -the necessary improvements made. Furthermore -many tropical plants such as coffee, rubber -and cacao require several years of care -before there is a profitable yield.</p> - -<p>Coffee and banana culture go hand in hand, -for the broad leaves of the banana provide the -shade so necessary to the young coffee trees. -The banana also furnishes a little revenue during -the four or five years before the coffee -trees have fully matured. The coffee region<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span> -is very extensive, for it will grow at a height -of from one to five thousand feet, and flourishes -best at an altitude of two to three thousand -feet. It requires plenty of warmth and -moisture. The coffee, which is a tree and not -a bush, is set out in rows several feet apart, -and will grow twenty feet tall if permitted, but -is not allowed to grow half that height. The -tree is flowering and developing fruit all the -time but the principal harvest is in the late -fall. It is not allowed to ripen on the tree, for -when the green berries have turned a bright -red, they are gathered, dried in the sun, hulled -and then marketed. The states of Vera Cruz -and Chiapas produce the choicest coffee, but -it is cultivated all over the republic where it is -possible. Coffee was introduced into this country -from Arabia by Spanish priests and was -found to be adapted to the soil. The best -grades are sent to Europe, for it is a common -saying throughout Mexico and Central America -that only the poor grades of coffee are sent -to the United States. This is rather a slur on -the tastes of the American people, but such is -our reputation down there.</p> - -<p>“Looking at it from my point of view—the -lazy man’s outlook—I can see nothing so -inviting as coffee culture, unless it be a fat<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span> -‘living’ in an English country church,” says -a writer. For myself, the one thing that appealed -to me above all others was the cultivation -of the banana. The returns are quick, -the income regular and the profits large. I -travelled through the banana region of Honduras, -where for thirty miles the railroad -passed by one plantation after another of the -broad-leaved banana plants growing as high -as fifteen feet. Great fortunes have been made -by the banana-growers of that country and -Costa Rica. This fruit flourishes best in the -lowlands. The preparation of the ground is -very simple, for the young banana plants are -set out among the piles of underbrush left after -clearing and which soon decay in that climate. -After nine months or a year the plants begin -to bear, and each stalk will produce one bunch -of bananas. The stalk is then cut down and -a new one, or several, will spring up from the -roots and will bear in the same length of time. -Thus a banana plantation that is carefully -looked after will produce a marketable crop -each week in the year, so that there is a constant -revenue coming in to the owner. The -cultivation of this delicious fruit, for which -there is an ever-increasing market, brings the -quickest return of any tropical product.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus18"> -<img src="images/illus18.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">RICE CULTURE</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span></p> - -<p>Sugar cane can be raised profitably as the -stalks grow high with many joints and have -a greater percentage of saccharine than in -most countries where it is cultivated. Furthermore -it does not require replanting so frequently. -Cacao is another truly tropical product. -It is from the cacao bean that chocolate is -made. The trees are usually transplanted and -bear in about four years and the beans are -gathered three or four times a year. They -are then removed from the pods and dried in -the sun. The trees will bear for many years. -Orange culture along modern scientific lines, -such as are used in California and Florida, -would be profitable, for the crop matures earlier -and could be marketed long before the -fruit has ripened in those states. The Mexicans -are great rice eaters and there is a good -field for its culture. The cocoanut palm offers -good returns as there is a good market for its -fruit. Rubber grows wild and many plantations -have been set out in rubber trees. In the -past year Mexico has shipped more than two -million pounds of crude rubber, and the production -is increasing. Vast tracts of mahogany -are found down toward Guatemala in the -states of Campeche and Tabasco. These great -trees are cut down, hewn square and then<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span> -hauled by mules to a waterway where they are -formed into rafts and floated down to the -ports. There is much waste in the present -crude way of cutting and marketing this valuable -wood. Logwood and other dyewoods are -found in the same forests. The world’s supply -of chicle also comes from the same source.</p> - -<p>What the Mexican tropics need is men of -energy backed by capital sufficient to utilize -large tracts of this rich soil. It is true that -many plantations are now being cultivated and -it is equally true that many have been abandoned -as failures after unsuccessful attempts -at cultivation. The fault has not been poor -soil but poor management. Promotion and -success are not synonymous terms, and much -of the promotion has been done by unscrupulous -persons whose only purpose was to dispose -of stock to the gullible. Richer soil cannot -be found anywhere, but it must be cultivated -with intelligence and good judgment the -same as in any other part of the world, or failure -will result.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI<br /> -<span class="smaller">A GLIMPSE OF THE ORIENTAL IN THE OCCIDENT</span></h2> - -<p>Some two hundred miles south of the City -of Mexico lies Oaxaca (pronounced Wa-hâ-ka). -The Valley of Oaxaca was looked -upon by the Spanish conquerors as El Dorado, -the traditional land of gold. The Aztecs told -them that the gold of Montezuma came from -the sands of the rivers in this and the connecting -valleys, and that immeasurable treasure -was to be found there. Believing these tales, -Cortez secured large grants of land from the -crown, and, with the consent and approval of -his sovereign, assumed to himself the title of -Marquis of the Valley of Oaxaca.</p> - -<p>The cupidity of the Spaniards led them to -employ every subterfuge to induce the natives -to reveal the source of their plentiful supply -of gold. The Indians, after considerable urging,—so -we are told,—offered to conduct one -man to this place, if he would submit to be -blindfolded for the trip. This was agreed to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span> -and the party set out on their journey. Thinking -that he would mark the way, the Spaniard -dropped a grain of corn every few steps. -After they had travelled a long distance, the -Spaniard had the bandage removed from his -eyes and he was allowed to look around, when -he beheld such wealth as mortal vision never -before had seen. His eyes glittered with the -greed of his covetous nature, but his countenance -soon changed when a dusky warrior -stepped up and handed him a vessel which -contained every grain of corn that he had -dropped by the way. For this reason he was -never able to retrace his steps to this wonderful -region, and the wily Spaniards were again -outwitted by the simple natives.</p> - -<p>Oaxaca is reached by the Southern Railway -which starts at Puebla. This road penetrates -one of the richest sections of the republic, -with abundance of timber and minerals, and -unlimited beds of onyx and marble. Little of -this wealth is seen from the railroad, as this -line follows the narrow valleys, through one -cañon into another, furnishing scenery as -grandly picturesque as the great passes of -Colorado. The mountains in places are lifted -up thousands of feet with crags and peaks -which the storms have cut into fantastic shapes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span> -and whose walls drop almost perpendicularly -to the water’s edge. Then again the cañon -widens, and the panorama extends across the -valley where gigantic rocks, stained in all colours -by the oozings of the metals of the earth, -form far-away pictures not unlike the battlements -of an ancient fortress. The sun tinges -each a different hue, with deeper tones in the -near ones which fade as they approach the -horizon, until all seem to blend into the intense -blue of the sky.</p> - -<p>As the train leaves the City of the Angels, -just at daybreak, a wonderful panorama is -opened up to view. Look in any direction, and -the tiled domes of the churches rise above the -plain, for each village and <i>hacienda</i> has its -own. The forts erected on the surrounding -hills which are emblematic of the force that -subjugated this valley, are seen, and near them -the pyramid of Cholula erected by those who -were overcome. Over all tower those mighty -monuments of nature, the white-capped peaks -of Popocatapetl, Ixtaccihuatl, Orizaba and old -Malintzi, with the morning sun reflected on -their snowy heads. The road ascends and descends, -and then ascends again before it takes -a dip down into the <i>tierra caliente</i>. A number -of native villages are passed but only one town<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span> -of any size, Tehuacan, noted for its mineral -springs. It is a pretty little city, and in the -centre of a rich agricultural district. The road -finally enters a wide, open country with rich -valleys which extend to the hills beyond. At -last, after a twelve hours’ journey, our train -rolls into this occidental Eden.</p> - -<p>More than three centuries ago a Spanish -writer described Oaxaca as “not very big, yet -a fair and beautiful city to behold, which standeth -three-score leagues from Mexico in a pleasant -valley.” It is located at the junction of -three valleys and on the bank of a broad river, -which meanders through a billowy sea of cornfields -toward the Pacific. Whichever way the -eye may turn the view is bounded by hills covered -with forests. Viewed from one of these -hills the city looks like a broad, flat-covered -plain of stone buildings above which are seen -many domes, and the whole scene has a truly -oriental touch.</p> - -<p>The people that the Spanish found in possession -of these valleys were an industrious race. -They had tilled the soil centuries before the -Spaniards, in their lust for gold, despoiled -these beautiful valleys. There is not a hollow, -or knoll, where it is possible to scrape a little -soil with a hoe, that has not at some time been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span> -cultivated. These early races had even constructed -irrigation works which kept green -their fields during the dry season. The rich -basins filled with alluvium are now owned by -the rich <i>hacendados</i>, or landowners, whose -white buildings dot the landscape here and -there and, with their trees, orchards and cultivated -fields, lend life and colour to an otherwise -dull prospect. The poor Indians are -forced to work for these landlords who claim -title to the land formerly owned by their ancestors, -or retire to the hills where, well up -toward the crests, they cultivate their little -fields of corn and beans. There is one tribe -of Indians that dwell in the mountains of -Oaxaca who have never acknowledged either -Spanish or Mexican sovereignty, and maintain -their own tribal form of government. They -can be seen at Oaxaca on market days.</p> - -<p>We find Oaxaca to be a city of about thirty-three -thousand people of whom three-fourths -or more are Indians. It is laid out with narrow -streets, down the centre of which runs a -stream of water, from which rise at times -odours not the most agreeable. The houses -are low and one-storied, with grated windows -after the style of architecture introduced by -the Spaniards, and by them adopted from the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span> -Moors, who copied it from the Persians. The -water supply is abundant, being brought in -from the hills by an aqueduct. Fountains are -located at numerous places, and a constant succession -of Rebeccas with heads enveloped in -their shawls, and carrying great earthen water-jars -pass to and fro from them.</p> - -<p>Oaxaca contains many fine churches of which -one, Santo Domingo, has been both monastery -and fortress, and has just been restored at a -cost of $13,000,000 (silver) so it is claimed, -making it the most costly church in Mexico, -if not in North America. The gold on the -walls was so heavy in former times, that the -soldiers quartered here during revolutionary -uprisings employed themselves in removing it. -This city has been the scene of troublous times, -and has been captured and re-captured by the -combating forces. It has given to the country -two great presidents, Juarez and Diaz, of -whom it may well be proud. Of these two -men, great in the annals of Mexico, the former -was a full-blooded Indian, and the latter has -a fair percentage of the same blood in his -veins. A monument to Juarez has been erected, -and some day—may it be far distant—when -nature has claimed her own, this city will raise -a memorial to her still greater son.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 420px;" id="illus19"> -<img src="images/illus19.jpg" width="420" height="650" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">THE AQUEDUCT, OAXACA</p> -<p class="caption">A FOUNTAIN IN OAXACA</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span></p> - -<p>Oaxaca has a pleasant plaza, called the Plaza -de Armas, adorned with various semi-tropical -trees and shrubs, in the centre of which is the -ever-present band-stand. The Cathedral and -municipal palace face this square. My visit -here was during a <i>fiesta</i> and this plaza was the -favourite resort of the Indians as well as myself. -The Indians living in the hills took undisturbed -possession at night, and groups of tired -<i>Indios</i> wrapped themselves in their <i>sarapes</i>, -or shawls, and stretched their tired limbs out -on the cold stones; or propped themselves -against the walls of a building to rest. A number -of catch-penny devices were running during -the evening and the favourite seemed to be -the phonograph. The Indian would pay his -<i>centavo</i>, put the transmitter in his ears and -listen without a sign of expression on his stolid -face. Nevertheless, he enjoyed it, because he -would repeat the operation until his stock of -coppers was considerably diminished.</p> - -<p>Saturday is market day in this city, and a -visit to this popular place is worth a trip to -Mexico. The atmosphere of the market is -truly oriental, for these people have a genius -for trading as the innumerable little stands -where crude pottery, rough-made baskets, -home-made <i>dulces</i>, etc., are sold, fully proves.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span> -The entrance takes one past the dealers in -fried meats, where bits of pork and shreds of -beef are dished out sizzling hot to the peons -under the big <i>sombreros</i> by women cooks who -crouch over earthenware dishes placed on -small braziers containing a charcoal fire, and -a three course meal can be obtained for a few -cents. There is always a crowd around this -department, for these people are ever ready -to eat, and their capacity is only limited by -their purse.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 420px;" id="illus20"> -<img src="images/illus20.jpg" width="420" height="650" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">THE MARKET-WOMEN OF OAXACA</p> -<p class="caption">THE POTTERY-MARKET, OAXACA</p> -</div> - -<p>Next is encountered the fruit and vegetable -stands. The finest fruits and vegetables, and -especially the latter, that I saw in Mexico, were -right here in this market and this was in the -month of December. Generally the vegetables -in Mexico are not large, but here were fine -potatoes, great red tomatoes, gigantic radishes -and elephantine cabbages. Oranges, bananas, -limes, plantains and pineapples were plentiful, -as well as the less-known fruits such as <i>zapotes</i> -(a kind of melon), <i>aguacates</i> (a pale green -fruit and vegetable combined), granaditas, -mangoes, granadas and pomegranates. The -cocoanut of the hotlands is mingled with the -<i>dunas</i>, the fruit of the prickly pear, of the -higher lands. With these a great many drinks -called <i>frescas</i>, or sherbets, are flavoured, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span> -merits of which are announced by the dark-eyed, -be-shawled vendors. The women merchants, -many of them smoking cigarettes, sit -around on the floor so thick in places that it -is almost impossible to work your way through -the mixed assortment of peppers and babies; -corn, lean babies and peas; charcoal, beans -and fat babies; naked babies, knives and -murderous-looking <i>machetes</i>; hats, laughing -babies, shawls and other useful articles; turkeys, -crying babies, chickens, dirty babies, -ducks, squawking parrots in cages, pigs and -other live stock, including babies of all kinds -and descriptions.</p> - -<p>The pottery market presided over by the -solemn-faced, oriental merchants is a never-ending -place of interest, and these artistic -vessels are carried over the mountains on the -backs of the Indians. Crude baskets and mats -made of the palm fibre are found in abundance -as well as brooms which bear no union label.</p> - -<p>No one could afford to miss the flower department -where flowers are so cheap that it -seems almost a sin not to buy them. Here are -velvety sweet peas, purple pansies, tangled -heaps of crimson and white roses, azure forget-me-nots, -pyramids of heliotrope and scarlet -geraniums. For a few cents one can buy almost<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span> -a bushel of these, or, if preferred, can -substitute marguerites, carnations, poppies, or -violets. An American will probably have to -pay twice as much as a native, even after the -shrewdest bargaining.</p> - -<p>Outside the market enclosure caravans of -over-loaded donkeys jostle each other as a -great solid-wheeled cart yoked to a couple of -meek-eyed oxen creaks by, or a tram car drawn -by galloping mules thunders noisily along to an -accompaniment of loud cracks of the whip, -and a constant repetition of “<i>mulas</i>” and -“<i>arres</i>” the “rrs” being brought out with -a long trill.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus21"> -<img src="images/illus21.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">CROSSING THE RIVER ON MARKET-DAY</p> -</div> - -<p>The Indian will travel for days on his way -to market at Oaxaca. On the day before -market I drove out the south road for a number -of miles, and the entire distance was literally -black,—or perhaps it would be better -to say brown,—with the natives coming to -town bearing the “brown man’s burden,” and -travelling along in the middle of the road at -a rapid pace. These Indians were coming -from the “hot country” farther south and -were bringing oranges, bananas, cocoanuts and -other kinds of tropical fruits, besides chickens, -eggs and other poultry. Most of them were -on foot, though the more fortunate had donkeys<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span> -to carry the load; but they themselves -walked and drove the animal. The women bore -large baskets on their heads, which they balanced -gracefully, although sometimes the loads -are exceedingly heavy. They will carry one -hundred pounds or more in this manner. Frequently -a baby is swung across the back as an -additional burden. The little mites are good -natured in this uncomfortable position, and do -not make half as much trouble as American -babies in their rubber-tired, easy-springed perambulators.</p> - -<p>A small pot, a basket of tortillas, a few fagots -and plenty of coffee complete the outfit of -the man. Perhaps the value of his load is not -over a dollar or two in gold, but his entertainment -along the way costs little, for he sleeps -out of doors, carries his food, makes his own -coffee and needs to buy nothing except perhaps -a little fruit and <i>aguardiente</i> (brandy). The -entire family sometimes accompany him, for -the wife is afraid to have her man go away -alone for fear he may desert her.</p> - -<p>On the opposite side of the city from the -road just described is another main highway. -I stood here for several hours by the river -bank on the afternoon of a market-day, when -the people were leaving for home. The sight<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span> -never grew tiresome or monotonous, as there -was a constant succession of pictures, which a -moving-picture machine alone could adequately -portray. Although there is a bridge across the -stream, no one used it, for by making a short -cut across the river bed a hundred yards or -more was saved. The pedestrian would remove -his sandals to wade through the shallow -water, and then replace them on reaching the -opposite bank. The Indians going this way -had more burros, and, as their load was disposed -of, the family rode. Frequently a poor, -diminutive burro carried as many persons as -could sit on his back, in addition to the large -baskets. Many of the great carts drawn by -one or two yoke of oxen passed this way. The -cattle are all yoked by the horns, which seems -a cruel way, for their heads are brought down -almost to the ground, and it looks as though -every jar must cause them suffering.</p> - -<p>So this unique panorama continued all the -afternoon. I could not think of anything but -Palestine, as I gazed at this unceasing procession -of donkeys, Egyptian carts, women with -their shawls folded and worn on their heads in -Eastern fashion; and in the background the -white walls, red tiled roofs and domes of the -churches of Oaxaca. For a moment I wondered<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span> -if I were not mistaken, and had suddenly -strayed into some corner of the Orient, and -found myself involuntarily looking for the -mosque, and listening for the cry of the muezzin -calling the faithful to prayer.</p> - -<p>A trip around about the valley near Oaxaca -only served to strengthen the oriental cast of -the picture. The types of buildings, and the -signs of water and fertility in the midst of -widespread aridity (for this was the dry season) -are eastern. I saw many flocks of goats -herded by the solitary shepherd in the truly -old-fashioned way. Then, a slow-moving team -of oxen followed by a peon guiding a one-handled, -wooden plough deepens the picture. -How powerful must have been the Moorish -influence in Spain, for this is the plough of -Egypt and Chaldea which was carried along -the coast of Barbary into Spain, and left there -as a heritage to the Spaniards who introduced -it into the new world.</p> - -<p>Yes, Oaxaca is an El Dorado, a land of treasure -to the searcher after the picturesque. The -real wealth lies in its delightful climate. The -temperature is mild and does not vary more -than twenty or thirty degrees during the year. -The altitude is a little less than five thousand -feet and the air is fresh and bracing. There is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span> -also an abundance of good, pure water. Some -day this city will be known as a health resort -for people from cold climates. They will find -relief from the strenuous life in quiet, restful, -oriental Oaxaca.</p> - -<p>There is no more picturesque <i>hacienda</i> in -all Mexico than that of Mitla a few miles away. -Because of the bleak and rough nature of the -country it has retained its early characteristics. -The little store is a revelation of the -simple and primitive life of these people. -Evening is sure to find Don Felix, or his black-eyed -son, behind the counter waiting on the -groups of Indians who are constantly coming -in to buy a couple of cents worth of <i>mescal</i>, -or <i>tequila</i>, or cigarettes. One Indian woman -came in to purchase a <i>centavo</i> (one-half cent) -of vinegar, another of lard, and others an equal -amount of honey, soap, sugar or matches. -They would invariably buy only one article at -a time, then pay for it and watch the copper -disappear down a slot in the counter. Outside -the door was an old Indian who had brought -a load of wood down from the mountain, and -the good housewives were noisily bargaining -with him for a centavo’s worth of wood, and -trying to get an extra stick or two for that -sum.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span></p> - -<p>Bargaining is a part of the education of -these people. A young Indian came in hatless -and wanted a <i>sombrero</i> (hat). He was shown -one with thirty cents worth of brim by the -merchant. The Indian offered twenty-eight -cents which was accepted and he went away -happy over his bargain. An old Indian,—and -an old Indian is but a child in worldly wisdom,—brought -a large cassava root, which, after -considerable haggling, the merchant purchased -for five cents. He bought a package of sixteen -cigarettes for three cents and told the young -<i>hacendado</i> that he had another “<i>mas grande</i>” -(larger), which he would sell for seven cents. -He went away but returned in a few minutes -with the other root, and looked around at the -crowd with a grin. The merchant took it but -told him it was “<i>mas chico</i>” (smaller), and -he could only allow four cents. The Indian -came down to six and the deal was closed at -five cents, the same price as the first one was -sold for. He bought a glass of <i>mescal</i> for two -cents and vanished in the night air, with a -smile of complete satisfaction on his face. It -is a simple life that these people lead, and the -same scenes may be witnessed any day in the -year at this little <i>tienda</i> at the Hacienda of -Mitla.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span></p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="verse">“When twilight falls, more near and clear,</div> -<div class="verse">The tender southern skies appear.”</div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>Twilight is very brief in this land. Scarcely -has the sun dropped out of sight, when the -moon appears on the opposite horizon, almost -a counterpart of the former in its descending -glory. Then the stars appear by hundreds, -and myriads, and the night in all its magnificence -is upon you, where, but a few minutes -before, was the brightness of day. And the -overhanging canopy of the heavens seems so -much brighter, and clearer, and nearer than in -our more northerly land.</p> - -<p>As the hour grew late, I wandered forth -from the little store and walked through the -narrow, winding streets of the village. It was -one of those brilliant tropical nights when the -southern skies seemed ablaze with the light of -innumerable stars, and the Queen of the Night -was in her glory. It was such a night as would -have appealed to the astronomers of old. The -streets were silent except for the howling of -some dogs near by. The porch of the <i>hacienda</i> -was crowded with reclining figures wrapped in -their <i>sarapes</i>. A belated traveller came up -and with a sigh of relief deposited his load, -and joined the sleeping crowd. A match illumed -a dark face for a moment as he lit a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span> -cigarette. Finally, all voices ceased and quiet -reigned supreme. It was a silence as deep and -mysterious as that of the ruined city that lay -but a few rods away.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE ISTHMUS OF TEHUANTEPEC</span></h2> - -<p>A trip from Vera Cruz to the Isthmus of -Tehuantepec takes the traveller into the very -centre of the tropics in Mexico. It is a most -interesting ride. The entire journey is within -the <i>tierra caliente</i> region and throughout the -whole distance of two hundred and fifty miles -there are only slight undulations that could -hardly be truthfully called hills. It is not all -jungle for there are plains that are sometimes -several miles in width which furnish rich pasture -for great herds of cattle. Here again is -seen the picturesque Mexican cowboy riding -his pony and carrying the ever-present lasso. -The heavy saddles in this hot climate and especially -the twisted bits which are universally -used upon the horses in Mexico seem like a -cruel imposition upon their faithful steeds. -With this combination of rings and bars a -rider could almost break the jaw of a horse.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span> -It is absolutely impossible for an animal to -drink with this bit in his mouth.</p> - -<p>This leads me to remark that the finer sensibilities -with regard to the treatment of domesticated -animals and fowls are generally -absent among Mexicans. The poor burros -which are obliged to travel day after day with -great sores on their backs that are continually -chafed by the loads they are carrying, and saddle -mules with similar sores, excite no compassion -from the average Mexican. No doubt -many of these animals are obliged to work for -months and possibly years, when every step -under a load or the weight of a man must cause -them suffering. They are seldom shod, and -many an animal is obliged to travel over the -rough trails until his hoofs are worn down to -the sensitive part. Cruel spurs are jabbed -into his sides until they are raw. I have already -spoken of the bull-fight and cock-fighting. -From a book “On the Mexican Highlands” -I quote another form of cruelty:—“The -stocky, swarthy Indian woman calmly -broke the thigh bone of each leg and the chief -bone of each wing, so that escape might be -impossible, and proceeded right then and there -to pick the chicken alive. She was evidently -unconscious of any thought of cruelty. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span> -legs and wings were broken in order that the -bird might not run or fly away. The sentiment -of pity and tenderness for dumb things had -not yet dawned upon her mind, and the fowl -destined for the pot received no consideration -at her hands.”</p> - -<p>There are many villages along this route -but no cities. Several broad rivers and innumerable -small streams are crossed. The engines -burn wood, and it is necessary to stop -on several occasions and load up the tender -with fuel. At Tierra Blanca are located the -shops and division headquarters of the road. -As the Isthmus is approached the tropical -swamps become more frequent and the train -passes through miles of territory where “still -stands the forest primeval,” a jungle of trees -and shrubs intermingled with countless varieties -of palms; impenetrable forests with creepers -and parasites hanging from the boughs of -trees, and replanting themselves in the moist -earth. Within these jungles the “tigre” -roams and beneath the heavy undergrowth, -horrid, venomous snakes crawl. Overhead fly -noisy parrots and paroquets in couples and -flocks with all of the colours of the rainbow -reflected from their gaudy feathers. Then in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span> -the waters of these streams live hundreds of -repulsive alligators.</p> - -<p>At certain seasons of the year the Indians -live almost entirely upon the wild products of -the forest. Nature furnishes fruits, and with -the blow-gun or other weapon enough game -can be killed to fill the larder. With a natural -laziness and in an enervating climate the natives -prefer existence of this kind to the more -artificial one made necessary by labour.</p> - -<p>The Vera Cruz and Pacific Railway connects -with the Tehuantepec railway at Santa Lucrecia, -a small village with a poor hotel. Here -it was my lot to be obliged to spend Christmas -Eve and the greater part of Christmas day. -My companions were an Englishman and -a Scotchman. The Englishman rummaged -around in the little store and found a canned -plum pudding, which rather cheered him and -his compatriot and I was invited to share in -their good fortune. However the heavens -seemed to open up and let the water pour down -in torrents and the mud was apparently bottomless -so that our explorations were confined -to the hotel porch. In spite of the plum pudding -my spirits were rather low and I was -reminded of Touchstone wandering in the -Forest of Arden, when he says:—</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span></p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="verse">“When I was at home I was in a better place,</div> -<div class="verse">But travellers must be content.”</div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>It was a real pleasure to step into a fine -American coach drawn by an American engine -and run by an American crew bound for the -chief town of the Isthmus and the one that -gave it its name.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus22"> -<img src="images/illus22.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">THE MARKET, TEHUANTEPEC</p> -</div> - -<p>Tehuantepec is a place where some twenty -thousand souls are trying to solve the problem -of existence under favourable skies. In this -city of a hot midday sun and little rain the -strenuous life has few disciples. It is situated -on the Pacific slope of the Cordillera on both -banks of a broad river and only a few miles -from the ocean. It is composed of low, one-storied -buildings, many of which show cracks -that are the result of the earthquake shocks -which sometimes visit here. The streets are -narrow and the centre of the town is the market -plaza. Until the opening of the railroad, -which runs through the centre of the town, -strangers were almost unknown and the quaint -customs, costumes and habits still remain. -The market and the river furnish the only life. -The latter is always made lively and interesting -to the stranger because of the crowds of -bathers in the stream and washerwomen on the -banks. It is an animated scene and has an air<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span> -of naturalness devoid of any false ideas of -modesty. These Indians belong to the Zapotec -tribe and they are among the cleanest people in -the world, as a race, as the long lines of bathers -of both sexes from early dawn until nightfall -attest. Woman’s rights are recognized and -undisputed among these people. The women -run the place and do ninety per cent. of the -business. The wife must vouch for the husband -before he can obtain credit. In the market -place where most of the bartering is done -she reigns supreme.</p> - -<p>The Isthmus of Tehuantepec is the narrowest -neck of land in Mexico between the two -great oceans and, with the exception of the -Isthmus of Panama, is the narrowest point on -the continent. The soil is extremely rich and -the natural products and resources of the Isthmus -are numerous and varied. All products -indigenous to the tropics grow here. Different -sections, according to elevation, are especially -adapted to the cultivation of corn, cacao, tobacco, -rice and sugar cane. Medicinal plants, -spices, all tropical fruits, vanilla, indigo and -cotton also will grow profitably in this climate. -Cochineal dye has for a long time come from -the Tehuantepec region, but this industry has<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span> -been displaced by the more recent chemical -dyes.</p> - -<p>The forests abound in game and the rivers -and lagoons in fish. The forests yield useful -timbers, such as mahogany, also dyewoods and -trees producing gums and balsams. Oil in -paying quantities has been discovered in several -places and the Tehuantepec National -Railway, which crosses the isthmus, is one of -the few roads in the world that uses oil for -fuel. There are also profitable salt deposits. -A great deal of American and European capital -has been sunk in unsuccessful plantations -along this route. This has been due to illogical -and dishonest promotion. The fertile soil will -produce immense crops of the things adapted -for cultivation. With this fact in view it seems -strange to see one abandoned plantation after -another as you journey over the two hundred -miles separating Coatzacoalcos and Salina -Cruz, the two termini of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec -trans-continental and inter-oceanic -railroad route. In the matter of climate the -Mexicans claim a great superiority for Tehuantepec -over Panama, because of the strong -winds that blow constantly from ocean to -ocean.</p> - -<p>For centuries this isthmus has attracted a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span> -great deal of attention from explorers and -engineers in the effort to discover or provide -the most convenient and economical route between -the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Cortez -first realized the necessity of such a route and -explored this whole section in the hope of finding -a natural strait. It is even claimed that -he conceived the idea of a canal across this -narrow strip of land. Failing in these projects -he planned a carriage road from coast -to coast, which was finally constructed by the -Spaniards. Many of the miners who flocked -to California during the gold excitement went -by this highway. Later civil engineers proposed -and advocated a canal by this route even -before the Panama route was seriously considered. -The distance from ocean to ocean is -only one hundred and twenty-five miles in a -bee line. The land is comparatively level and -the rise on the Atlantic side is very gradual -culminating in the Chivela Pass at a height -of seven hundred and thirty feet. From here -to the Pacific the descent is more abrupt. A -ship railway was at one time seriously considered -and liberal concessions were granted by -the Mexican government to the American engineer -James B. Eads and his associates. This -project although considered feasible by engineers<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span> -has never been able to enlist capital for -its construction.</p> - -<p>The Panama Canal under French control -was a colossal failure. A project which for a -time seemed to promise a solution of the problem -for a quick and economical route between -the East and West ended in lamentable disgrace -and for a long time remained in what one -of our former presidents would have called, -a condition of “innocuous desuetude.” When -the United States undertook this great enterprise, -the completion of this desirable waterway -was placed at ten years or even less. Now -at the end of four years we are credibly informed -that little has been done except the -completion of plans, surveys, purchase of machinery -and necessary sanitation. All of these -preliminaries were essential and will greatly -facilitate the real work when once started. -All loyal Americans believe in the ultimate -successful completion of this great undertaking. -Yet, instead of ten years, we can see that -fifteen years, or even twenty years would be -a more accurate statement of the time necessary -to complete the severing of the two continents. -In the meantime, what?</p> - -<p>While other countries have been planning, -the Mexican government with the characteristic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span> -foresight shown by President Diaz has -been quietly preparing to meet the problem of -a short and economical route between the two -oceans. This has been done without the blowing -of horns and few people were aware until -recently of what was being done and what had -really been accomplished. The government of -Mexico decided upon the plan of constructing -a railway across the Isthmus from Coatzacoalcos, -on the Gulf of Mexico, to Salina Cruz, on -the Pacific Ocean, a distance of one hundred -and ninety-four miles. Most railroads in tropical -lands are narrow gauge but this line is -constructed of standard width and was completed -in 1895. When first opened to traffic -the road was in a very imperfect condition. -In 1899 a contract was entered into between the -government and the English house of Pearson -and Sons whereby the two parties became joint -owners of the road for a period of fifty years -and the net earnings should be shared on an -equitable basis.</p> - -<p>The construction was of a difficult character -because the route passed through some cañons, -rocky cuts and a great deal of swampy -soil. The work has been well done and it is -one of the best roads in Mexico to-day, with -good equipment and traffic managed in an up-to-date<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span> -and business-like manner. Already -large orders for equipment have been placed -and plans for double-tracking the entire road -have been drawn. The headquarters and general -offices are at Rincon Antonio, which is at -the highest point and has the appearance of a -typical new English town with its red brick -terraces. This town receives the full benefit -of the winds constantly blowing across the -isthmus and enjoys a pleasant and salubrious -climate. The shops and roundhouse for the -railroad have been built at this place also and -the employees are all comfortably housed. -Some of the officers have built very commodious -homes of their own, with every possible -convenience. This town is in marked contrast -with the old Mexican towns and villages along -the route.</p> - -<p>The general officers of the road and head -men in the port works at both termini are all -English and Americans. Formerly they were -English, but in recent years the Americans -have been replacing the English, as they have -been found more satisfactory and better -adapted for the work.</p> - -<p>The government soon learned that the railway -without good harbours was a poor proposition. -The plans of the government were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span> -then made to include immense port works and -safe, commodious harbours at Coatzacoalcos -and Salina Cruz. At the former place the -river forms a natural harbour of an average -depth of fifty feet at low water. The only -problem here was to remove a sand bar and -construct piers. The work of removing the -bar has been completed and several large steel -wharves and warehouses have already been -constructed and others are in course of construction. -The total frontage of the wharves -when completed will be over three thousand -feet. It is intended to have a minimum depth -of thirty-three feet alongside of the wharves -which will be equipped with every modern contrivance -for unloading cargo quickly and economically -from ships, and transferring to the -railroad and vice versa.</p> - -<p>The work at Salina Cruz presented far -greater problems. It has demanded the maximum -of engineering skill and an immense sum -of money. Here nature had aided in no way -and everything had to be done by human effort. -On account of severe wind storms it was -deemed necessary to construct both an outer -and an inner harbour in order to make a perfectly -safe anchorage at all times and the work -was begun in 1900. The outer harbour is being<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span> -formed by thrusting two massive breakwaters -like immense arms out into the bay with an -entrance six hundred feet wide. The longest -of these breakwaters will be three thousand -feet, consisting of three sections, of different -angles, with the convex sides toward the sea. -The other is only one-half as extensive. The -foundation for these breakwaters is started -thirty feet below low water mark and in some -places is two hundred feet in width. Upon a -rubble foundation immense blocks of concrete -and natural rock are placed at random. Then -on top are placed regular rows of forty-ton -concrete blocks. The amount of material already -used and needed to complete this work -is almost inconceivable. More than three-fourths -of the largest breakwater is already -completed. The inner basin will be wholly -artificial and will occupy in part the site of -the old town of Salina Cruz with an entrance -ninety feet wide. Immense dredges are now -at work on this basin which will be large -enough to accommodate whole fleets of the -largest vessels afloat. From two thousand to -four thousand men have been and are still -employed, the majority being natives.</p> - -<p>Although the harbour at Salina Cruz is still -incomplete, this route was formally opened on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span> -January 23rd, 1907. In the presence of a great -throng of notables, including the representatives -of twenty nations, President Diaz touched -a lever which set in motion a steam winch that -was used to carry the first load of cargo from -a steamer to a freight car. After this car had -been loaded it was transferred to Coatzacoalcos -and the President touched another lever -that set in motion the machinery for unloading -the car and transferring the freight to a waiting -steamer. In this manner was opened a -route that is destined to take a prominent part -in the handling of the world’s commerce, and -which has cost the Mexican government more -than $25,000,000 in gold, and the end is not -yet. After four hundred years the dream of -Cortez has come true and the isthmian highway -is open to the world.</p> - -<p>What advantages are claimed for this route? -The benefit to Mexico is self-evident. It will -greatly facilitate the commerce between the -two long coast lines of the republic. This -great undertaking was not begun for the national -trade alone. It is intended to compete -for all that traffic which has heretofore gone -around Cape Horn, through the Straits of Magellan, -or across the Panama railroad. The -Tehuantepec route is one thousand, two hundred<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span> -and fifty miles shorter between New York -and San Francisco than the Panama route. -The average freight steamer would require -from four to five days to cover this distance. -The managers of the Tehuantepec National -railroad propose to unload a cargo, carry it -across the isthmus and reload it in two days. -It will probably require one day for a vessel -to pass through the Panama canal. This would -make a net saving of from three to four days -for the Tehuantepec route. The extra cost of -loading and unloading would be made up by -the saving of canal dues and expenses of the -ship for that period. Thus there will be a net -saving of three to four days in shipment, which -might be quite a feature with many classes of -freight. In cheapness of transportation, the -continental railroads of the United States -could not compete. Already contracts have -been made with a line of steamers which have -heretofore run between San Francisco, Hawaii -and New York via Cape Horn to transfer their -freight by this route. The government claims -to have more freight in sight for 1907 than the -Panama railroad has ever carried in a single -year.</p> - -<p>This route has been lost sight of in the enthusiasm -over the Panama canal. It will be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span> -completed several years before the canal, and -will during that interim, at least, have a great -advantage over the present Panama railroad -route. The same necessity of transhipment -exists there, but without the fine, safe harbours, -modern and commodious docks, and the quick -loading and unloading machinery with which -the Tehuantepec route is equipped.</p> - -<div class="smaller"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Note to Revised Edition.</span> The success of the Tehuantepec -National Railroad has greatly exceeded expectations, and it -was found necessary to double track the entire length of the -road. The improvements at Salina Cruz and Coatzacoalcos -(now officially called Puerto Mexico) have been completed. -Both cities have been made ports of call for all lines of steamers -passing near. Through Pullman service is now maintained -between the City of Mexico and Salina Cruz. Since writing -the original edition of this book the writer has visited Panama -and gone over the canal route with Colonel Goethals, the engineer -in charge. It is a pleasure to record an appreciation -of this great work, and to know that it will be ready for the -world’s fleets by 1915, and probably a year earlier. There will -still be a wide field of usefulness, however, for the Tehuantepec -National.</p> - -</div> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII<br /> -<span class="smaller">IN THE FOOTSTEPS OF THE ANCIENTS</span></h2> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="verse">“Builded on the ruins of dead thrones</div> -<div class="verse">Whose temple walls were old when Thebes was new;</div> -<div class="verse">On altars whose weird sacrificial stones</div> -<div class="verse">With ghastly offerings were crimsoned through;</div> -<div class="verse">Oblivion hides and holds thy secrets fast—</div> -<div class="verse">The dust of ages lies upon thy past,</div> -<div class="verse indent6">All wonderful, mysterious Mexico.”<a name="FNanchor_1" id="FNanchor_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>Mexico is a land of ruins and the footprints -of former races can be traced all over the -southern half of the country. These ruins -teach us that it must have taken many centuries -to develop the land into the condition in -which it was found by the Spaniards. It was -not only the growth of a long time, but it was -the product of the civilization developed by -many different races and tribes. Otherwise -Mexico would not be filled to-day with a hundred -tribes speaking as many distinct dialects. -There are many ruins of cities extending from -the Valley of Mexico to the remotest corner<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span> -of Yucatan, and many of them show evidences -of wonderful structures that are the amazement -of even the present generation. Not -buried beneath volcanic lava, like Pompeii and -Herculaneum, yet all are silent cities, for their -inhabitants departed hundreds, perhaps, thousands -of years ago. A few broken columns -now remain where doubtless whole cities once -stood.</p> - -<p>Nothing is known of the history of these -cities. The Spanish priests, with fanatical -frenzy, destroyed all of the picture writings -of the Aztecs that they could lay their hands -upon. So many were destroyed, some chroniclers -say, that great bonfires were made. -What light these manuscripts might have cast -upon the history of these early races cannot -even be conjectured. As Prescott says, “it is -impossible to contemplate these mysterious -monuments of a lost civilization without a -strong feeling of curiosity as to who were their -architects and what is their probable age.” -They are undoubtedly very old, and some claim -they are as old as the architecture of Egypt -and Hindoostan. They have marked Eastern -characteristics, as in the hieroglyphical writings -at Palenque, in Yucatan, where are ruins -of a palace and supposed holy city, with many<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span> -sculptured figures of human and animal beings. -The same is true of Uxmal, also in that same -quaint and interesting corner of Mexico. These -writings never have been and probably never -will be deciphered. Then at Palenque can be -traced the outline of the Roman cross which -has greatly mystified antiquarians. We can -only speculate on the origin of these monuments; -whence came the people who constructed -them; and in what period of the -earth’s history they were built; but speculation -proves nothing and convinces nobody.</p> - -<p>East of the City of Mexico about twenty-seven -miles lies the village of San Juan Teotihuacan. -Near this hamlet are traces of a -great city covering more than four square -miles, and remains of walls and fortifications, -a part of the wall that still stands being more -than two hundred feet thick and thirty-two -feet high. The most marked features of these -ruins are the numerous pyramids, great and -small, which lie scattered over the plain. Teotihuacan -means “City of the Gods,” and -doubtless these pyramidal structures were a -necessary part of a holy city in the eyes of the -race that constructed them, and were mounds -of worship. Otherwise why would a race build<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span> -such great structures at such an infinite cost -of labour?</p> - -<p>The largest of these numerous pyramids is -called the “Pyramid of the Sun,” which has -a base seven hundred feet square, and a -height of one hundred and eight-seven feet. -The next largest is the “Pyramid of the -Moon,” which is one hundred and thirty-seven -feet high, and has a base four hundred and -fifty feet square. At a distance the pyramids -seem rather insignificant, and their outlines -resemble an ordinary steep-sided hill, but on -nearer approach they are better appreciated. -The comparison with the noted pyramids of -Egypt would, at first glance, seem unfavourable, -for the vegetation and vines that cover -the sides rather hide the pyramidal outline. -They were probably higher originally, but the -destructive work of man and action of the elements -have reduced the size. Recent investigation -shows that these pyramids are built in -layers of volcanic rock, cement, pottery and -sun-dried brick. There are five layers—each -layer being a complete pyramid in itself.</p> - -<p>It is supposed that on the summit of each -pyramid was a platform which supported great -golden images of the sun and moon respectively, -but no vestige of any such image has<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span> -ever been discovered. If made of gold, and -the Spaniards set their eyes on it, it would not -have remained long. Authorities differ as to -whether the Toltecs, or a race that preceded -them, erected these mighty structures. The -Mexican government has undertaken the work -of restoring the two pyramids, and has appropriated -a large sum of money to carry on the -work. Several hundred labourers are now engaged -in denuding them of the soil and growth -of centuries that covers them.</p> - -<p>Near Puebla, and situated in a rich and -beautiful valley, of which mention has been -made elsewhere, is the most noted pyramid in -Mexico—that of Cholula. Legend says that -it was built by a race of giants who intended -to raise it to the very heavens themselves, but -that the gods became displeased and destroyed -them. It is very similar in nature to the Hebrew -story of the Tower of Babel. Because -of its great base, which is more than a thousand -feet on each side, and covers twenty acres, -and has a height of only one hundred and seventy-seven -feet, it looks like a natural elevation -that has been squared in places and levelled -at the top rather than a pyramid. Like -the other pyramids the sides are overgrown -with trees and bushes. Examination shows<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span> -that it has been constructed of sun-dried brick, -clay and limestone. I quote the dimensions of -two of the most famous Egyptian pyramids in -order that the reader may better understand -the comparative height and base of those and -the Mexican structures:</p> - -<table summary="Comparison of pyramids"> - <tr> - <th></th> - <th colspan="2">HEIGHT.</th> - <th colspan="2">BASE ON<br />EACH SIDE.</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Cheops,</td> - <td class="tdr">448</td> - <td>feet</td> - <td class="tdr">728</td> - <td>feet</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Mycerinus,</td> - <td class="tdr">162</td> - <td class="tdc">”</td> - <td class="tdr">580</td> - <td class="tdc">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Cholula,</td> - <td class="tdr">177</td> - <td class="tdc">”</td> - <td class="tdr">1,000</td> - <td class="tdc">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Sun</td> - <td class="tdr">187</td> - <td class="tdc">”</td> - <td class="tdr">700</td> - <td class="tdc">”</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Moon</td> - <td class="tdr">137</td> - <td class="tdc">”</td> - <td class="tdr">450</td> - <td class="tdc">”</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>This valley was sacred in early times. Cortez -says he counted four hundred towers in -the city of Cholula (a much larger city then -than now), and no temple had more than two -towers. Above the city loomed the great pyramid, -on the summit of which stood a sumptuous -temple in which was the image of the -mystic deity, Quetzalcoatl. He had “ebon -features, wearing a mitre on his head waving -with plumes of fire, with a resplendent collar -of gold around his neck, pendants of mosaic -turquoise on his ears, a jewelled sceptre in one -hand, and a shield curiously painted, the emblem -of his rule over the winds, in the other.” -This was the god who drew pilgrims and devotees<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span> -by the thousands from the farthest corners -of Anahuac.</p> - -<p>This god was credited with power over rains, -and was appealed to especially in time of -drouth. Bandelier, who made an exhaustive -study of this district, translates an early Spanish -writer as follows: “To this god they -prayed whenever they lacked water, and sacrificed -to it children from six to ten years of -age, whom they captured or bought for the -purpose. When they sacrificed, they carried -the children up the hill in procession, whither -went some old men singing, and before the idol -they cut the child open with a knife, taking -out the heart, and they burnt incense to the -idol and afterwards buried the baby there before -the idol.” Thus it is seen that the Nahuatl -tribe, who occupied this valley, pursued -the same bloody rites as the Aztecs.</p> - -<p>The first act of Cortez was to destroy this -temple and erect a Christian church on the -spot, so that spires and crosses have replaced -the pagan towers. All over the valley are -many great churches so conspicuous in comparison -with the humble homes of the natives. -The view from the summit of this ancient -structure is grand and imposing. John L. -Stoddard is inspired by this scene and speaks<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span> -as follows: “Whatever else of Mexico may be -forgotten, I shall remember to my latest breath -that wonderfully impressive vision from Cholula. -Before me rose, against the darkening -sky, a mighty cross, the sculptured proof that -here Christianity had proved victorious; and -as I lingered, my feet upon the Aztec pyramid, -my hand upon the symbol of the conqueror’s -faith, my eyes turned towards that everlasting -pinnacle of snow, I thought the lesson -of Cholula to be this: that higher, grander, -and far more enduring than all the different -religions of humanity are the Eternal Power -they imperfectly reveal; and that above the -temples, pyramids, and crosses, which mark -the blood-stained pathway of our race, rises a -lofty mountain peak, whose glory falls alike -upon the Aztec and the Spaniard, and in whose -heaven-born radiance all races and all centuries -may find their inspiration and their -hope.”</p> - -<p>The Valley of Oaxaca seems to have been -the favourite dwelling place of one or more -of the early races of Mexico. All over the -vales that centre at Oaxaca, and on the surrounding -hills, are ruins of former cities and -palaces that strongly resemble in outline and -decoration the works of the Ptolemies and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span> -Pharaohs. Next to Mitla, the most noted ruins -in this valley are those of Monte Alban. The -site of this ancient city is four miles from -Oaxaca on the summit of a mountain, about -eleven hundred feet above the valley. The -ruins extend for a distance of more than a mile -along the ridge, and enclose a great rectangular, -depressed court nine hundred feet long, -and three hundred feet in width. There are -some well-preserved, sculptured stones with -pictorial inscriptions, and images of gods. -Because of its situation, which commands a -complete view of these valleys in every direction, -it is supposed that this place was intended -for defence and a place of refuge in troublous -times. The view from the summit is magnificent -and well repays the traveller for a couple -of hours’ ride on the back of that sadly-wise, -and much-maligned animal—the Mexican -mule.</p> - -<p>The village of Mitla is situated about twenty-five -miles southeast of Oaxaca. It is best -visited from that city by coach or mules. We -hired a coach and driver, an unprepossessing -looking outfit, and started on the journey.</p> - -<p>“How long will it take?” I asked the driver.</p> - -<p>“<i>A las doce</i>,” he replied in idiomatic Spanish,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span> -meaning that we would arrive at twelve -o’clock. As we had started at seven o’clock, -that made it a five hours’ journey.</p> - -<p>About an hour’s ride out of Oaxaca is the -village of Tule, where, in the churchyard, and -overshadowing the sacred structure, stands -the famous Big Tree of Tule which deserves -a passing notice. Although not a ruin, it is -a relic of prehistoric days long gone by. This -venerable giant is one of the largest trees in -the world, exceeding in circumference the famous -redwoods of California, and equalling -the largest reported specimens of the gigantic -baobab of Africa. This great tree is one hundred -and fifty-four feet in circumference six -feet above the ground. Twenty-eight people -with their hands outstretched, and touching -their finger tips, can just encircle its great -girth. The height is one hundred and sixty -feet, and the spread of the branches one hundred -and forty feet. It is a species of the -cypress called by the Aztecs <i>ahuehuete</i>. The -great traveller, Humboldt, visited this tree -about the middle of the last century and affixed -a tablet containing his name and an inscription. -As a proof that this old cypress is still -growing, one sees that this tablet is now almost -grown over with bark nearly a foot thick.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span> -Tule is a quaint village where the thatched -huts are enclosed by fences of the prickly cactus, -called <i>organo</i>, because of the resemblance -of its branches to the pipes of an organ, and -the lanes are shaded by trees. Underneath the -higher trees grow the orange and lemon, while -the oleander and other flowering bushes add -their brightness to the scene.</p> - -<p>After being held up for a road charge of -seven cents by the officials of the village, which -we paid, the driver is allowed to proceed. We -pass through villages with the poetical names -of Tlacolulu and Tlacochahuaya. As the coach -bounces along the rough highway, over the -road on a hillside are seen caves where human -beings live who are literally cliff-dwellers. -Then the valley opens up, and far ahead is seen -San Pablo Mitla a typical Indian village built -around the <i>hacienda</i> of Don Felix Quero, who -is a sort of feudal lord over the neighbouring -peons. Good entertainment is furnished for -the traveller, and it is delightful to rest within -the high walls of this hospitable stopping-place.</p> - -<p>The first mention of the ruins at this village -is by a Spanish writer nearly four centuries -ago. His description would not be much amiss -to-day. It is as follows: “We passed through<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span> -a pueblo which is called Mictlan, signifying -‘hell’ in the native tongue, where were found -some edifices more worth seeing than anything -else in New Spain. Among them was a temple -of the demon, and the dwelling of its attendants—very -sightly, particularly one hall made -of something like lattice work. The fabric was -of stone, with many figures and shapes; it had -many doorways, each one built of three great -stones, two at the sides and one at the top, all -very thick and wide. In these quarters there -was another hall containing round pillars, each -one of a single piece, and so thick that two -men could barely embrace them; their height -might be five fathoms.”</p> - -<p>To what purposes were these truly magnificent -structures dedicated? Were they palaces, -temples, tombs, fortresses, dwelling places, -storehouses or places of refuge? Neither archeologists -nor antiquarians have satisfactorily -answered these questions. According to -many of the leading archeologists they are the -most interesting and best preserved ruins in -North America. Here was a great city built -by a race prior to the Aztecs, for that race -could tell the Spanish conquerors nothing of -its builders. The secrets guarded by the huge -monoliths of stone, and the high mosaic-covered<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span> -walls of Mitla are safe from prying eyes. -Not one city alone stood here, for there are -many remains of walls, columns and huge monoliths -thrown down similar to these, scattered -all over this valley. The best authority says -that they were used for tombs but this could -not have been the only use. They were probably -also used for places of worship, public -purposes, or cities of refuge, or perhaps for -all those purposes.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 420px;" id="illus23"> -<img src="images/illus23.jpg" width="420" height="650" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">ENTRANCE TO THE UNDERGROUND CHAMBER, MITLA</p> -<p class="caption">NORTH TEMPLE, MITLA</p> -<p class="caption">HALL OF THE MONOLITHS, MITLA</p> -</div> - -<p>A close investigation shows that there are -five distinct groups of the ruins, but some of -them are in badly preserved condition. The -village covers the site of a part of them. -There is a similarity in the structure of all, -as the outer walls are composed of oblong -panels of mosaic forming arabesques and -grecques. At first sight, or at a distance, it -looks like sculptured designs on the walls. -Closer inspection reveals the fact that this -mosaic is formed of pieces of stone accurately -cut and fitted into the face of the walls. These -pieces are about seven inches in length, one -inch in thickness, and two in breadth. The -patterns cannot well be described as they are -so complicated. All the ornamentation consists -of geometrical figures, either rectangular -or diagonal, and differs from all other ruins<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span> -in Mexico, in that there are no human or animal -figures.</p> - -<p>There is an underground chamber beneath -one of the temples, built in the shape of a cross -with each arm about twelve feet long. The -sides are worked into the same mosaic pattern -as the rest of the walls. It is generally believed -that these chambers were tombs, although -some contend that they were the entrance -to subterranean passages leading long -distances away. If so, the passages were filled -up long ago.</p> - -<p>The northwestern group is in the best state -of preservation. One of the buildings here -covers nearly eight thousand square feet, and -has all its massive walls intact with scarcely -a stone thrown down. The characteristic entrance, -consisting of three doors, side by side, -is seen here also, fronting the interior of the -court. The lintels are immense blocks of stone -eighteen feet long, five feet wide and four feet -high. How these immense stones were transported -to this spot and raised without the aid -of machinery, is as great a mystery as similar -accomplishments by the Egyptians. Through -these doors the famous Hall of Monoliths, or -Columns, is reached. This is a wonderful relic -of prehistoric architecture. The six monolithic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span> -columns, still standing in this room are -each twelve feet in height and almost nine feet -in circumference. They are plain stones having -neither pedestal nor capital and are unique -among the ruins of the world.</p> - -<p>Torquemada, an old Spanish historian, -writes of this hall in the following quaint -style: “There was in those Edifices, or -Square of the Temple, another Hall, all framed -around Pillars of Stone; very high and so -thick that scarce might two Men of good height -embrace them so as to touch finger tips the -one with the other. And these Pillars were all -of one piece; and they say that all the Pillars -and Columns, from top to bottom, was four -Fathoms. The Pillars were very like to those -of St. Mary, the Greater, of Rome, all very -well and smoothly wrought.” This hall is -more than a hundred feet long, and twenty -feet wide. These great stones may have supported -a roof formerly but there is no evidence -of it at the present time.</p> - -<p>From the Hall of the Monoliths a dark, -stone-covered passage leads into a room called -the Audience Chamber. This is a splendid -room with its walls in carved mosaics, or a setting -of tiles, after the Grecian models. There -are four long, narrow rooms, or corridors, on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span> -either side of this main chamber without other -entrance except the one just mentioned. One -of these, the West room, is most beautiful and -is nearly perfect, as scarcely a tile is broken -or missing from its exquisitely inlaid walls -which at first inspection look like stucco work. -The tiles are so accurately inlaid that no mortar -was used, or needed, to hold them in place. -This is the Corridor of the Mosaics. There -are also traces of a lustrous, dark, red paint, -used on a hard cement plaster. It is quite -probable that all the buildings in the five -groups were as carefully constructed and as -exquisitely ornamented as this one, but they -have been destroyed by succeeding races.</p> - -<p>North of this group was another ruin on the -walls of which a Christian church has been -built. Most of the materials used in its construction -came from this old temple or palace. -The sacristy of this church is formed in part -of a portion of the old building, and covered -with a tile roof. This structure was the largest -of all in size, extending over a space nearly -three hundred feet long by one hundred feet -wide, and with walls from five to six feet in -thickness. One room is now used as a stable, -and contains some strange hieroglyphics done -in a lustrous red paint which have never been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span> -deciphered. These are the only semblance to -anything like writing, or historical inscriptions, -that appear anywhere in the ruins. In -the centre of the main court is a hard cement -pavement laid out in the form of a square with -a cut stone border. This may have been intended -for ornament or for human sacrifices. -The latter conjecture might not be erroneous, -knowing, as we do, the customs of those early -Mexican races.</p> - -<p>There are many other evidences of ruins near -Mitla. Clay idols, or images, made of terracotta -are found all over the neighbourhood. -Children hunt for specimens and bring them -to tourists for sale. It is also said that many -stone wedges, and copper chisels and axes, -have been discovered here but I did not see -any of them.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 420px;" id="illus24"> -<img src="images/illus24.jpg" width="420" height="650" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">A ZAPOTECO WOMAN</p> -</div> - -<p>Who built these ruins? Bancroft, the historian -of Mexico, says that they were built by -the Zapotecs at an early period of their civilization. -The Indians now inhabiting this valley -are Zapotecs and they are a primitive, -simple and harmless race. If these people, -who now dwell in thatch hovels and caves, were -the once proud race that erected these magnificent -structures, then we must say, “How -have the mighty fallen.” What must these<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span> -structures have been in the heyday of their -prosperity that they are now so glorious in -their mellow decay? The famous Palace of -the Alhambra, glorious monument to the -genius of the Moor, is scarcely more magnificent -than these ruins lying here within the -little Indian village of Mitla. The traveller -can give his imagination full play for there is -no written history to destroy the scenes he creates. -He can in fancy re-create these beautiful -structures; people these courts and halls with -royalty, priests or warriors; make the air -vocal with the chants of priests or shrieks of -the victims of human sacrifice; and there is -no one or no record to rebuke him.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX<br /> -<span class="smaller">WOMAN AND HER SPHERE</span></h2> - -<p>The life and position of woman in Mexico -varies much by reason of the heterogeneous -character of the population. Because of the -absence of a clearly defined middle class it is -a fairly safe proposition to say that there are -but two classes in Mexico, Creoles and Indians. -Creoles include all those who are Europeans -or in whom the European blood predominates. -Domestic life among the Creole class savours -of the East. The ideas with respect to women -are Moorish rather than American. Although -not obliged to appear on the street with face -enshrouded in a shawl or veil, yet the young -woman who has respect for her good name -would not go abroad without the <i>duenna</i>, or -some female companion. Another reminder of -Oriental exclusiveness is seen in the life of the -ladies of the wealthier classes who always -drive in closed carriages even in this land of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span> -balmy air and splendid sunshine and, when -shopping, do not deign to leave the carriage.</p> - -<p>On account of the restrictions against the -appearance of women in public, the custom -grew up in Spain and Mexico of allowing them -to use the windows and balconies for observation. -In the cool of the evening the windows -on the streets are opened and women, especially -the young ladies, appear there to watch -the carriages and passers-by and nod to their -friends. The home life and social restrictions -toward women are inherited from Spanish ancestors -who were at one time the aristocracy -and ruling class of Mexico. Nowhere is the -sentiment of home stronger than among the -Creoles. There may be no such word as home -in his vocabulary but the <i>casa</i>, or house, of -the Mexican is his castle and he protects it in -every way from prying eyes. One writer has -expressed his view as follows:—“The intense -feeling of individuality which so strongly -marks the Spanish character and which in the -political world is so fatal an element of strife -and obstruction, favours this peculiar domesticity. -The Castillian is submissive to his king -and his priest; haughty and inflexible with his -equals. But his own house is a refuge from -the contests of out of doors.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span></p> - -<p>In the home the father is absolute lord and -master and all bow to him. There never comes -a time when the children are not subject more -or less to parental authority. Yet, in general, -the sway is so mild that it is readily yielded -to and is scarcely felt. Grown-up sons and -daughters do not forget the respect and obedience -that was expected of them when they were -children. The reverence for parents increases -with the passing of the years. A man never -grows too old to kiss the hand of his aged -mother. The old lady dressed in sombre black -and who looks like a poor relation may be the -one whose wishes rule. Harmony does not -exist in every family and the exceptions are -striking ones. Where quarrels and family dissensions -do occur, the pride and jealousy of -the race renders them the bitterest and fiercest -in the world. These vindictive feuds in families -frequently led to duels and stabbing affrays -to defend personal honour and dignity -in former days. A man and wife will often live -for years beneath the same roof without speaking. -They cannot be divorced but neither will -speak the first word and each rather admires -the grit of the other.</p> - -<p>The home life is jealously shielded from -curious eyes. In no place in the world is the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span> -social circle more closely guarded than among -the higher classes in the City of Mexico. The -thick walls, the barred, prison-like windows -and the massive, well-guarded doors prevent -intrusion and perhaps serve to foster this inclination -to lead exclusive lives. Cultured -Americans, unless in the official set, who have -lived there for years have found it impossible -to break into these exclusive circles. Whether -this action is due to jealousy, diffidence, a feeling -of superiority, or aversion to aliens the -fact remains that they are very loth to admit -Americans into the privacy of their homes. -The foreigner has few opportunities of judging -intelligently of the women for they are -immured so closely within the four walls of -their dwellings. Social life in the semi-public, -gregarious ways of American cities is unknown -and would not suit these privacy-loving, domestic -women.</p> - -<p>In “The Awakening of a Nation” the author, -Mr. C. F. Lummis, gives a very good -description of the Creole woman: “Always -and everywhere the Spanish-American female -face is interesting; at least as often as in other -bloods it is beautiful. Photographs tell but -half the story, for complexion is beyond them. -But a certain clearness of feature, the almost<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span> -invariable beauty of the eyes and fine strength -of the brows seem as much a Spanish birthright -as the high-bred hand and foot. Not even -the Parisian face is so flexible in expression, -so fit for archness, so graphic to the mood. -Yet there is a certain presence in it not to be -unnoticed, not to be forgotten. To no woman -on earth is religion a more vital, ever-present, -all-pervading actuality; and that is why you -meet the face of the Madonna almost literally -at every corner in Spanish-America. And it -is not a superficial thing. There is none to -whom the wife-heart, the mother-heart is truer-womanly.”</p> - -<p>The Mexican men are passionate admirers of -the fair sex. Perhaps it is because of the bewitchery -of their black, sparkling eyes. Certainly -it is not on account of the white paste -which is plastered over their faces or the rouge -on their lips. Nor have they added to their -attractiveness by the substitution of the Parisian -hat for the graceful lace mantilla which -lent itself so well to the gentle art of coquetry. -There are many handsome women among the -Creoles but they are not all beautiful as some -writers would lead the reader to infer. They -are bright, vivacious and naturally clever. -They have a quick understanding which only<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span> -needs to be cultivated and perhaps this intelligence -is quicker and more active than that -of the men. They can weave and embroider -with taste and skill. They know a little music -and a little French but, in the American sense, -they are not well educated. The real intellectual -element is wanting and the understanding -is uncultivated. The higher education for -women has not received the stamp of approval -in this land of “to-morrow” and the sex has -not yet become an important factor in the business -or professional world. “If only learned -wives,” says one, “are responsible for that -poor, down-trodden, pitiable specimen of man -called the henpecked husband, then a timid -man would be safe in choosing a Mexican -wife.” The patriarchal element of society in -which man is recognized as lord and master -is still in force among these people. The question -of woman’s rights has never yet agitated -the bosoms of these gentle women.</p> - -<p>Domestic freedom in the sense understood -by Americans is absent. The daughters are -closely watched by their mothers who seldom -permit them out of their sight unless accompanied -by some older woman or faithful servant. -Such a thing as permitting a daughter -to have a young man call on her or accompany<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span> -her to the theatre would never enter the mind -of the Mexican mother. In her estimation the -men do not deserve any confidence until they -are married. The man, of course, thinks that -these precautions are unnecessarily cruel. -Nevertheless mammas think they are essential, -pater familias approves and so the custom -remains. Perhaps it is these restrictions that -are responsible for the reputation the <i>señoritas</i>, -or young women, have of being flirts or coquettes. -They are overflowing with life and -spirits and their black eyes look so full of mischief -that sometimes they seem to be just spoiling -for a flirtation. They are very animated -in conversation and in talking keep time with -hands, knees, shoulders, elbows and face. -Their talk is full of the most extravagant and -seemingly profane expressions.</p> - -<p>“Oh, Jesus!” says one girl, “what a fetching -hat.”</p> - -<p>“Mary Most Pure,” replies her companion, -“it must have cost five pesos.”</p> - -<p>They can stare an American out of countenance -and look him straight in the eye but it -is only a look of curiosity. The social pleasures -resulting from the intermingling of the -sexes that are so common with us are not enjoyed -by them. At a dance the men retire to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span> -one side of the room after a number and the -women take seats on the opposite side. Marriages -among the wealthier classes are generally -made by the parents without consultation -with the principals in an affair supposed -to be of the hearts. After the formal engagement -the intended husband is allowed to call -on his fiancée in the presence of the entire -family and may take her out to the theatre -when accompanied by the mother and all the -female members of the household. Marriage -is a formidable undertaking for the groom -must furnish the entire bridal outfit, in addition -to the house and its furnishings. Two -ceremonies become necessary, too, if the couple -wish to be married by the rites of the church. -The civil ceremony is absolutely essential and -cannot be dispensed with for under the law -this is the only legal marriage. And yet with -all these inconveniences to courtship and matrimony, -bachelors are less numerous than they -are where every facility is granted for love -making.</p> - -<p>Love and religion are practically the only -two subjects with which a <i>señorita</i> is expected -to concern herself. She is, probably, not intentionally -or by nature a flirt and she might -scorn to inveigle in her meshes the heart of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span> -an admirer, but she cannot refrain from using -her irresistible eyes or entirely avoid the coquettish -use of the indispensable fan with its -wordless telegraphy. The Mexican lover pays -extravagant homage to his sweetheart and a -woman nowhere else is paid such delicate and -elaborate compliments. The Spanish method -of courtship in which the lady is pictured as -sitting at a barred window or leaning from a -balcony to listen to the honeyed phrases of her -lover or the music of his guitar has reached -its highest state of perfection in Mexico.</p> - -<p>In the current language of that country a -man who is courting a woman is “playing the -bear.” It is so named from the restless walking -to and fro of the love-stricken youth in -front of the window of his inamorata, in a -manner not unlike a captive bear in a cage. -The same method pursued in the United States -would either result in a man being sent to the -lunatic asylum as suffering from a “brain -storm” or to the workhouse.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus25"> -<img src="images/illus25.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">“PLAYING THE BEAR”</p> -</div> - -<p>A young man who sees a young lady on the -street whom he admires, begins by following -her home although it may be days or weeks -before he will venture to speak to her. Having -reached her <i>casa</i> he will begin the <i>hacer -el oso</i>, or “playing the bear,” by walking back<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span> -and forth in front of the house or standing on -the street with his eyes fixed upon her windows -or balconies for hours at a time, days and -nights alike. The young lady, if interested at -all, will remain back of the curtain and the -slightest movement of the curtains or blinds -is a sign that she is not entirely indifferent. -After a day or two she may show her face or -wave her hand as a further mark of encouragement, -and after several days she may appear -on the balcony for a few moments. If she goes -to church the lover is probably not far behind -and an occasional smile or glance from her -eyes of midnight is given him as a reward for -his faithfulness. Next come daily salutes and -smiles when the lover appears. Flowers are -sent by the aid of the water-carriers or charcoal-vendors -in which notes are concealed. A -system of wireless-telegraphy communication -is established by means of a fan on one side -and a cigarette on the other. This medium -of communication has been developed until it -has become an elaborate code. Letters become -more and more endearing. When the courtship -has so far advanced that the lovers will -talk, the moonlight nights are all devoted to -the love-making and several pairs of lovers -can be seen on almost any street by the late<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span> -home-comer—he on the sidewalk, she at the -window. This courtship frequently extends -over a period of years and the lover who makes -himself so ridiculous sometimes loses the girl -then. Jacob’s seven-year probation has many -counterparts among the Romeos of Mexico.</p> - -<p>A young woman of my acquaintance and her -sister recently visited a family in one of the -large cities in Mexico. Like all young women -they soon became interested in the subject of -Mexican courtship and began to sigh for a -“bear.” Every time they returned from a -trip down town a watch was kept from the -window to see if a “bear” followed. At last -one of these creatures appeared and began to -pace in front of the house with his eyes bent -upon the window opening out on the balcony. -Contrary to all precedents and to the surprise -of the neighbourhood, these women could not -resist the temptation to go out on the balcony -on this first occasion. This was such marked -encouragement that the man came day after -day to see <i>las Señoritas Americanas</i> and was -still coming when their visit ended.</p> - -<p>American women who have married Mexican -husbands have found the ideas of the two races -so radically opposed that the unions have not -been harmonious. Their verdict is that a Mexican<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span> -man makes an ideal lover because of his -delicate attentions and consideration, but an -unsatisfactory husband since he does not make -his wife a companion and confidante such as an -American woman considers her right and privilege.</p> - -<p>The individuality of the woman is not so -completely merged in that of her husband at -marriage as in the United States. The woman -retains her own name but adds that of her husband. -Miss Mary Smith who marries Mr. John -Jones becomes Mrs. Mary Smith de Jones, and -she is not called so exclusively by her husband’s -name. However, when the Mexican -woman is married she accommodates herself to -the station in life provided by her husband. -The wife usually accepts whatever condition -fate has provided for her and bears it with -patience and fortitude. They endure the petty -ills of life with great cheerfulness. They do -not go into society much as custom keeps them -from attending mixed assemblages frequently. -Their world is generally confined to their home, -husband and children. An American woman -would sigh for liberty if compelled to live this -life. The Mexican woman in America shrinks -from the freedom prevalent here and desires -the seclusion of her native land. Families are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span> -usually large so that home duties require a -great deal of attention. The respect and courtesy -paid by children to their parents is truly -delightful to witness and shows a real goodness -of heart in them.</p> - -<p>The mother cannot bear to see her family -separated. She wants them all to stay close -together so that each one can stop in and see -her every day. The mothers are loving and -tender and idolize their boys. It is regarded -as a terrible thing, scarcely to be borne, for -their sons to go out into the world as American -youths do. To go to a distant city is like -being transported to Australia. Even when -they remain near home the mothers are very -solicitous for fear they will work too hard. -On each saint’s day, which is religiously observed, -presents are given and an old-fashioned -dinner, to which all the cousins, aunts -and uncles are invited, is served. In starting -on a journey to a not-distant city, the youth -must visit all his relatives in the neighbourhood -and bid adieu.</p> - -<p>It is interesting to notice these traits in an -age of growing indifference; but not a little -of the lack of progress in Mexico can be attributed -to this unwillingness to sever home ties. -Many of these young men could do better for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span> -themselves away from home but a mother’s -pleadings and a mother’s tears keep them at -home. Even after marriage they frequently -continue to live under the same roof.</p> - -<p>The religious element enters very largely -into the life of women. Their very names are -a constant reminder of their worship. Many -of them are christened Mary with one of the -attributes of the Virgin or some incident in the -life of the Virgin added such as Conception, -Annunciation, Sorrows or Assumption. Or -there are the attributes such as Mary of the -Sorrows, of the Gifts, Miracles, Tears, etc. -Religion is sustained by the women and you -will seldom see men at the services unless it -is some poor Indian. They are very pious in -their way and attend to their religious duties -with the same interest that they perform -their toilet. The concrete symbols and observances -of the church have a great influence over -them. At mass these pious worshippers always -dress in sombre black. They are very -particular in training their children in the principles -of the Church. Formerly great faith -was placed in the healing power of certain -shrines and relics but this is now dying out -under the advance of modern physicians and -their healing remedies. They are still great<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span> -believers in signs, omens and other supernatural -manifestations.</p> - -<p>Above all these women are kind hearted and -charitable. Though carefully guarding their -homes, yet if a stranger is admitted into the -family he is received with a generous welcome. -Should he return after long absence, he is -greeted almost as one of the family and without -reservation. He is not only permitted but -encouraged to call all the members by their -given names and to use the pronoun <i>tu</i> or -“thou” in his intercourse with them. This is -an especial privilege among Spanish people -who are very particular about familiarity in -address. They will oftentimes deprive themselves -for a friend. They have their faults -too. Although smoking is not countenanced in -public it is said that many of them smoke in -their boudoirs and in the company of friends -of their own sex. A great deal has been said -of their lack of morality but this is a subject -upon which only those very familiar with the -facts should dare to speak, for it cannot be -treated lightly, or solely with the intention of -casting a slur on another race.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus26"> -<img src="images/illus26.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">WASHING ON THE BANKS OF A STREAM</p> -</div> - -<p>The lives of the Indian women of Mexico -present a far different picture. Instead of living -in great palaces, their homes are in little<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span> -adobe cabins of one room, perhaps without the -luxury of a window, or in bamboo huts covered -with plantain leaves without chairs or table -and only a mat of husks for a bed. There is -no seclusion in their lives and the real duties -of life begin at a very early age. I cannot call -them serious duties for it is doubtful if these -people regard any of the obligations of life as -very serious. Their early experiences are with -its hard realities. They can be seen on the -streets and around their homes with baby -brothers or sisters swung across their backs -when they themselves are so small that the -burden seems far too heavy for them. On the -banks of the streams they can be seen doing -the family washing with a great amount of -rubbing and pounding and wringing. To the -fountains and wells they come carrying earthen -jars on their heads, which they fill with water -and replace with a grace and charm that excites -admiration.</p> - -<p>Some of the Indian maids are handsome. -Yet you can tell just what their future lives -will be by observing those of the parents. -They will live in the same squalor, the same -poverty as their ancestors have dwelt for -centuries. They will go through life bareheaded -and barefooted and empty-minded just<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span> -as the generations which preceded have done. -At twenty they have begun to fade and at -thirty they retain scarcely a trace of their -beauty. This is due to hard labour and deprivations. -At fourteen few are unmarried or -at least unmated. The marriage ceremony is -frequently omitted because of the high charges -of the priesthood, yet both parties are usually -faithful. The number of children among this -class is truly marvellous. More than one half -of the younger women when seen on the street -have infant children with them.</p> - -<p>No people could be more poorly housed or -more poorly equipped for domestic duties than -these small brown women; and none use the -little they have to better advantage or are more -loyal to the man they call lord and master. -They frequently live and sleep on the bare -ground and possess no more clothing than they -have on their bodies. They will pound away -at the <i>metate</i>, or stone kneading-board, all day -making the <i>tortillas</i> which are both bread and -meat to the peon class. These comely Indian -women will bend their lithe, active bodies for -hours washing clothes on large round stones -which serve as wash-boards.</p> - -<p>Their clothes are simple and the latest fashion -has no attraction. The <i>rebosa</i> is a universal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span> -garment and answers for a shawl, a -carry-all for babies and bundles, and a covering -for the owner at night. These black-eyed -women with their half-concealed faces, sober, -unemotional manners, high-coloured garments -and curious Egyptian-shaped pottery might -well be from the shores of the Red Sea. Their -love of warm, bright colours is even seen in -their love for flowers since the many-hued, -brilliant-coloured blossoms are everywhere. -Mignonettes and roses, flowering geraniums -and scarlet poppies, gigantic oleanders and -dainty pansies share attention with the brilliant-hued -tropical birds in gayest colours -which usually hang beside the open door in -a home-made cage of dried rushes. They are -faithful workers in fancy work and will follow -the most intricate design and reproduce it with -fidelity and ease. Their art needle work on -handkerchiefs and other linen articles is extremely -fine and their drawn work is praised -everywhere. It is not the work of the dainty -fingers of educated women but of very humble -and ignorant peon women in floorless cabins of -adobe and of hands accustomed to drudgery.</p> - -<p>The women of Tehuantepec are remarkable -for their beauty of face and form. They are -easily the finest looking Indian women in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span> -America and in beauty of figure will compare -with any race in the world. They are dark-skinned, -almost a soft olive-brown, with sparkling -dark eyes, masses of wavy hair, exquisite -features and beautiful teeth, which are kept -clean and white. Their carriage will attract -attention, for they walk erect and with a peculiar -stride probably due to the prevailing habit -of carrying baskets and water jars always on -the head, where they are carefully balanced. -They are small in stature, with fine limbs, and -seem born models for an artist.</p> - -<p>The “Tehuanas” wear a quaint head-dress -called “huepil,” which is made of coarse white -lace. It is arranged in three different ways -according to the occasion. At a dance it is -wound round the neck and stands out like a -huge Elizabethan ruff. In church it is put on -the head something like a Boulogne fish-wife’s -cap. For ordinary wear it is simply laid back -on the hair and the folds hang down the back -resembling somewhat the feather head-dress -of a North American Indian chief. It is indeed -curious but is quite befitting. They always -dress becomingly, with the quaint little -short jackets which expose a section of brown -back above the skirt band and are cut low about -the neck in a fashion that women the world<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span> -over have found graceful, and with extremely -short sleeves. On extraordinary occasions this -short jacket, or waist, is of richer material embroidered -in handsome designs of brilliant colours. -Some of the designs show oriental characteristics. -The skirt of the dress is of soft material, -linen or cotton, to the knees and below -the knees is of a heavy lace or embroidery -starched very stiff. The material used is not -the usual cheap and gaudy fabrics sold to the -Mexican Indian, but is of good quality and -specially made by a certain Manchester house -for these people.</p> - -<p>These belles of Tehuantepec have a great -liking for American gold coins which are worn -on necklaces. British sovereigns or French -napoleons are usually not desired, but a big -premium will be paid for the eagle, half eagle, -or double eagles of Uncle Sam. Every centavo -that a woman can save goes into her fund for -purchasing gold pieces. The gorgeous necklace -with the gold coins attached makes a showy -and rather beautiful ornament. The fortune -and standing of a “Tehuana” is indicated by -the number of gold coins on her necklace. One -Tehuantepec heiress has—it is said—a necklace -which is valued at three thousand dollars. -The most striking feature in the dress of these<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span> -women is that not one will wear shoes. Dressed -in all her finery, head-dress, starched skirt, -polka-dot waist, necklace and smile, she will -appear barefooted—a strange anomaly. -Without shoes they will dance over a stone -floor, or even a dirt, gravel-bestrewn surface, -with a grace that violates all rules of art. -These dusky princesses will be found as graceful -as gazelles on all occasions.</p> - -<p>A visit to Tehuantepec will long be remembered -for it is an experience not easily forgotten. -The quaint costumes, the striking -dress, and the proud people combine to make -a memory worth carrying away.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE PEON</span></h2> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="verse">“And I have said, and I say it ever,</div> -<div class="verse">As the years go on and the world goes over,</div> -<div class="verse">’Twere better to be content and clever</div> -<div class="verse">In tending of cattle and tossing of clover,</div> -<div class="verse">In the grazing of cattle and growing of grain,</div> -<div class="verse">Than a strong man striving for fame or gain;</div> -<div class="verse center">...</div> -<div class="verse">For these have the sun, and moon, and air,</div> -<div class="verse">And never a bit of the burthen of care;</div> -<div class="verse">And with all our caring what more have we?”</div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>The distinction between the American and -Mexican Indian is not one of colour alone. -There is also a difference in nature. The -American Indian has never been fully subdued, -but the Aztecs were conquered by one overwhelming -blow and their spirit crushed. The -conquest wrought vast changes in the lives of -these people who once roamed over large estates -which they could call their own. The -lands then tilled by their slaves, they themselves -now cultivate for others. Yet they are -a satisfied people, and no one ever hears them<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span> -complain. Though poverty is their lot they are -content, believing that some people are born -rich and others poor, and that this contrast -is in the very nature of things.</p> - -<p>Centuries of neglect have not improved -either the moral or physical condition of the -peon, but it has not made a misanthrope of -him. Neither has the fact that he bears no part -in the government made him an anarchist or -filled his pockets with bombs. So long as a -beneficent providence provides present needs -he is supremely content. The mania for the -almighty dollar has not yet entered into his -life so that envy of others does not exist. It -is this envy that makes poverty a menace and -element of danger in our own land. The peon -neither feels shame for his own lowly condition -nor desires pity from others in more prosperous -circumstances.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 420px;" id="illus27"> -<img src="images/illus27.jpg" width="420" height="650" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">A PEON AND HIS WIFE</p> -</div> - -<p>Fully one-third of the population of Mexico -are full-blooded Indians and another one-half -are <i>mestizos</i>, those of mixed blood. Many of -the latter and a number of pure-blooded Indians -have reached high positions. A number of the -presidents also, including Guerrero and the -noble Juarez, were pure Indians, and more of -them are representatives of the <i>mestizos</i>. This -is proof that there is no prejudice against the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span> -Indians as a race such as the anti-negro sentiment -in the Southern States. These illustrious -examples are, however, the striking exceptions. -Most of them are in about the same -category as the southern negroes,—a race -without ambition. Content to be the servants -of another race they neither court nor welcome -change.</p> - -<p>These people make up the great peon class -of Mexico who constitute the bulk of the population. -They are the descendants of those who -were enslaved by the early conquerors. The -Aztecs were an industrious people as the great -structures erected by them, the irrigating -works still in use, and the evidences of judicious -and careful cultivation of every foot of -tillable soil bear mute witness. Poverty was -almost unknown among them and rigid laws -existed against begging. Among some of the -early tribes of Mexico one-third of the land was -divided equally among the able-bodied men in -proportion to the families they had to sustain. -Provision was made by the State for the sick -and other classes of unfortunates. No doubt -the enslaving of these people had a weakening -effect upon their character.</p> - -<p>A natural laziness, ignorance and a lack of -interest will probably always keep down the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span> -peon’s efficiency as a worker. The few and -simple wants of his nature and his general contentment -eliminate to a great extent the desire -to improve his condition and accumulate property. -Then, too, the evenness of the climate -and the fact that at all times some crop is being -harvested, thus making it unnecessary to lay -up for an unproductive season, has had its -influence. The labourer is usually given a certain -task for his day’s work. Nothing can induce -him to do more than that task except the -assurance that the excess, or over-time, will be -credited to some future day so that he will get -a longer holiday. These labourers are cheap -and it requires many of them to accomplish -much but there are millions to be had. They -are happy-go-lucky and are unconcerned for -the future. Yet the very fact that they do not -possess self-control and are always willing to -follow a leader who understands how to make -an appeal to their prejudices or fanaticism, -renders this class a serious obstacle to a progressive -government and one that must be intelligently -studied.</p> - -<p>The little brown man in the tall, broad-brimmed -hat which seems to give an unusual -height to his sturdy frame is a picturesque -figure and the landscape is not complete without<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span> -him. In the presence of strangers his face -is solemn, but among others of his own kind -he is gay and light-hearted, his face easily -bursting into smiles. He will wrap his tattered -shawl about him with as much dignity as the -Spanish cavalier his richly-embroidered <i>manta</i>. -The act of lighting a cigarette is a matter of -studied ceremony. He will light a match, and -first offer it to a friend with punctilious politeness. -The recipient of the favour never fails -to return <i>muchas gracias</i> (many thanks), -señor. In fact, this elaborate politeness between -these untidy, ill-clad Indians becomes a -farce-comedy at times. He is polite and never -fails to say <i>con permiso</i> (with your permission) -if he is obliged to pass by another person, -whether that person be in silks or rags. His -own inferiority is admitted by calling a white -man a <i>gente de razon</i> or “one who reasons,” -as distinguished from himself,—a peon.</p> - -<p>The peon is indispensable in Mexico for he -is not only the labourer, but the body servant -as well. In the latter capacity, if he becomes -attached to his employer, he will not think of -his own wants until the master is provided for, -and will be faithful unto death, if necessary. -His wages are always small, but he is satisfied -with the little he gets. Gambling is a natural<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span> -trait and he loses or gains with a stoicism -worthy of greater things. His money is likewise -spent freely at the pulque shop so that his -finances are never embarrassed by a surplus. -A little money will make him very full of liquor, -and a little liquor will sometimes make him a -bad man to handle.</p> - -<p>The tenacity with which these people cling -to an environment is a most notable trait. The -peon is a lover of locality. Seldom can these -Indians be induced to go away from their accustomed -habitations. It is this trait that has -made peonage an easy system to maintain in -Mexico. They do not apply much intelligence -to their work. Scratching the surface of the -soil with a crooked stick is the perfection of -ploughing in their estimation. The peon does -not know and does not care to learn any different -way of doing his work than the one -taught him by his fathers. The possibility of -earning more money by the use of labour-saving -devices does not possess the same attraction -as for the American labouring man.</p> - -<p>Peonage, which is a mild form of slavery, -is in force in Mexico. Earning from eighteen -to fifty cents (silver) wages per day and improvident -by nature, it is only natural for the -peon to want at some time a little more money<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span> -than that earned. An unscrupulous employer -can easily involve the poor, ignorant Indian in -a net of debt. After a while a debt of $50 to -$100 has accumulated and the worker is in -bondage until this amount is paid. It is an -impossible sum for him to save out of his small -wages, for live he must and support a family, -which is usually large. The price of freedom -is the total amount of the debt. Until that is -paid the law compels him to work for his creditor, -but he is free to get some one else to advance -this money and change masters. He cannot -be separated from his family, nor compelled -to leave the plantation on which the debt -was incurred without his consent. The owner -may, however, sell the plantation and transfer -the debt to his successor, and the peon must -serve the new master under the same conditions.</p> - -<p>On the immense <i>haciendas</i> of the uplands the -peons are almost as much of a fixture as the -buildings themselves. It is a strange adaptation -of the old feudal relation and the idea of -changing their abode never occurs to them. -They were born in debt, always remain in that -condition, and transmit the same burden to -their posterity. This condition is usually entered -into voluntarily by the Indians, so that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span> -in the beginning he has only himself to blame. -An Indian who desires work will apply to the -manager of a plantation or ranch for a retainer -which seldom exceeds thirty dollars. -He then signs a contract which binds himself, -his family and his posterity to work until this -advance is liquidated. Only a small part of -the weekly wages may be applied on the debt, -and it is tacitly understood that the debt may -be increased after a time. The employer is -obliged to furnish medical assistance free in -case of sickness, and to advance the necessary -fees for marriage, baptisms, confirmations -and burials. Furthermore, whenever overtaken -by old age and no longer able to work, -the peon must be taken care of and furnished -the necessities of life.</p> - -<p>Holidays, feast-days and saint-days are -many, and the peon insists on celebrating them -all. Whether he understands much of the ritual -and doctrines of the Catholic Church or -not, he understands full well the meaning of a -feast-day or “<i>fiesta</i>” for on that day he rests -from his labours. It would not be patriotic -to work on a national holiday (and they are -numerous) so he abstains from labour on these -occasions. Sundays are rest days and it generally -requires Monday to recuperate from the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span> -effects of the <i>pulque</i> or <i>tequila</i> imbibed on that -day. Then as each person has a patron saint, -he insists on celebrating the saint-days of the -master, mistress and each one of their family, -of his own family, his father, mother, his wife’s -father and mother, and, last, but not least, his -own saint-day. Then each marriage, birth -or death in the family gives occasion for another -off-day. After this list is gone through -with there remains only about two hundred -working days for the average labourer. The -peon is a philosopher. Knowing that it was -a curse that man should earn his bread by the -sweat of his brow, he tries to avoid as much -of the curse as possible.</p> - -<p>The system of peonage or contract labour -in the tropics is revolting and often inhuman. -The peon of the hot country is more independent, -is fond of social life and is not so -industrious as his brother in the uplands. -Hence it becomes necessary to transport hundreds -of labourers for work on tropical plantations. -These are secured through contract -agents who make this work a business. These -agents pick them up over the country and deliver -them in hundred lots to the plantation -managers. The contractor advances from -thirty to fifty dollars in silver to each labourer,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span> -and this amount together with his own fee, is -then charged up against the peon who has contracted -to work six months at perhaps fifty -cents per day in the same white metal. The -plantation manager binds himself to furnish -rations, which usually consist of little more -than <i>tortillas</i> (unleavened corn cakes), beans -and rice and a little meat for Sunday, and a -big palm hut will furnish accommodation for -fifty or more men. But little space is allowed -each worker, and here he spends all his time -when not at work, for these contract men are, -on many plantations, kept under guard night -and day by armed overseers. Many of these -poor fellows come from cities on the plateaus -and soon fall a victim to tropical fevers. Many -are men who have been convicted of petty offences -and sign a labour contract in return for -the payment of their fines by the contractor’s -agent and consequent release from confinement. -All, however, are treated alike on the -plantations and are worked under the lash if -necessary. At the end of the six months, there -are not many dollars due the poor peon after -deducting the price of the drinks and cigarettes -which he has purchased at the company’s -store. After drawing his money he is likely -to make for the first town and drink or gamble<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span> -it away. Then, not having funds enough to -get home, he is again at the mercy of the contract -agent or plantation owner.</p> - -<p>The little brown man with back bent under -a load has a countenance which is as full of -rest and patient philosophy as a modern financier’s -face is of care and wrinkles of anxiety. -It is almost unfair to the simple-minded, patient -and docile peon of Mexico to speak of -him as an Indian for he is at once confused -with the bloodthirsty redskin of the north. He -is a peaceful, if improvident, character, and -is a child in nature. He represents cheap labour -and is one of the great attractions that -brings wealth to Mexico. After a day’s work -he is content to share his little adobe hut with -the pigs and chickens, and can even find room -for the chance wayfarer. A family of three or -four generations, and numbering twenty people, -will live in a hut that would not be considered -a fit habitation for a donkey in the -north. One American writer who was obliged to -seek shelter in one of these huts gives an amusing -account of his experience which shows the -harmony and good-fellowship that exists in -these households between the human and brute -members. “I took an account of the stock -before I turned in, and found there were three<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span> -dogs, eleven cats, seven children, five men (not -including five of us), three women and a dozen -chickens, all sleeping, or trying to sleep, in the -same room, under the one roof. And when I -gave up sleeping, or trying to sleep, and wandered -out into the night, I stepped on the pigs -and startled three or four calves that had been -sleeping under the porch.” So it is not surprising -that a village of fifty huts may contain -a thousand souls.</p> - -<p>A cigarette given in proper spirit every day -will more effectually keep his friendship than -a present of a new suit of clothes. The latter -will not be remembered long while the former -keeps the memory ever fresh. They have been -called the best and the poorest servants in the -world. A trusted servant is, however, usually -an honest one. These wholly satisfied people -with whom our essentials are non-essentials -rather disprove the theory that modern civilization -is necessary to true happiness. Will -the peon in the future wearing shoes, eating -prepared breakfast foods and sleeping in a -bed, be any happier than he is now barefooted -and sleeping on a rush mat spread on an -earthen floor?</p> - -<p>A constantly increasing number of the peon -class are moving to the industrial centres.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span> -Slowly but surely the leaven is working, and -the opportunity for better wages is withdrawing -the labourers from the plantations. The -railroads, the mines and the factories are paying -much higher wages than formerly prevailed, -and find it difficult to secure sufficient -labourers. Only the selected men can fill these -positions for the average peon has not sufficient -intelligence. He has a great imitative -faculty and can learn a task, but is not a success -in an employment that needs the exercise -of reason and judgment. In many lines of -work more is accomplished at less expense by -peons with the rudest methods than by the -use of the latest labour-saving machinery operated -by peon labourers. Education will no -doubt work great changes in the lives and habits -of these people, but this will be a slow -process in this land of “to-morrow.” The -present conditions are interesting to one who -desires to see how the rest of the world lives, -and it will be a long time before the peon class -will change very materially.</p> - -<p>There is one class of the Indian worker that -deserves more extended mention. This is that -time-honoured institution called the cargador. -As you meet him at every place throughout -Spanish North America it may be interesting<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span> -to the reader to learn something of his history -and his accomplishments. It is not necessary -to institute a search for the cargador. -At the station you will be besieged by a small -army of them and the hotel entrance may be -blocked by them. When travelling across the -country there is a never-ending succession of -these picturesque characters singly and in -groups. Sometimes the entire family is along. -In such cases the boys, even down to little tots, -carry a small package on their backs and the -wife and girls balance a basket on their heads. -Perhaps all their earthly belongings are contained -in these various bundles.</p> - -<p>The cargador of Mexico and Central America -claims an ancient and honourable lineage. -His occupation may be a humble one, but he -can trace his ancestry back to the followers of -that haughty Aztec emperor, Montezuma, or -even to the still older race of the Toltecs. Not -many years ago almost everything in these -countries was carried on the backs of cargadors. -Even now in the City of Mexico the cargador -is an indispensable factor in the carrying -trade, though there are many express and -transfer companies engaged in that business. -In the smaller places of Mexico, in the mountain -districts, and in Central America he holds<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span> -his old-time prestige and, with the cargo mule, -monopolizes the carrying business.</p> - -<p>The strength of these little, brown-skinned -cargadors is wonderful. Short in stature and -with thin legs and arms they look very insignificant. -They cannot lift a very heavy weight, -but they can make their fairer-skinned brother -cry out in astonishment at the load they will -carry when it is once adjusted on their back. -The average load for a cargo mule is one hundred -and fifty pounds. A cargador will start -on a journey of two hundred or more miles -with such a load and will cover more miles in -a day over a rough mountain trail than a mule. -At the station you will see the little cargador -pick up a heavy trunk that you can scarcely -move and start off with it at a faster pace than -you care to walk. They always move in a peculiar -jog-trot, and can usually keep it up for -a long time. Up and down hill they go at an -even pace, and will average about six miles -per hour. For short distances some cargadors -will carry as great a load as five hundred -pounds, a seemingly impossible burden for so -slender a body.</p> - -<p>The strength in the back is a matter of training -extending over many centuries. The Aztecs -had no beasts of burden and the baggage<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span> -of their armies was always carried by cargadors. -The Spanish conquerors were obliged -to adopt the same methods. Now, although -there are mules and burros in great numbers, -the cargador is still the great burden bearer -and takes the place of the fast freight in the -commerce of those sections away from the railway -lines. A traveller can take his mule and -send his baggage by a cargador, and the latter -will reach the same stopping place each night -and sometimes ahead of the man on the mule. -Many cargadors carry their loads in a frame, -supported by a broad leather band across the -forehead. When thus loaded they cannot turn -their heads and they do not seem to hear well, -so that I have feared many times they would -be run over by the careless drivers. If there -are several together they trot along in the middle -of the road in Indian file. If going on a -long journey they carry along enough tortillas -for the entire trip, and must always be given -enough time to make these preparations. Several -times a day they will stop and make a fire, -prepare their coffee, and eat their tortillas and -fruit if it can be obtained. At night they will -sleep out in the open air under a porch, if possible; -if this shelter cannot be had, then they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span> -will lay themselves down to rest under the brilliant -starlit canopy of this tropical clime.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus28"> -<img src="images/illus28.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">A CARGADOR</p> -</div> - -<p>Many of the Indians are very swift runners. -An instance is told in Guatemala of a runner -who carried a dispatch one hundred and five -miles into the interior and returned with an -answer in thirty-six hours, making the trip -over mountains and a rough trail at an average -speed of six miles an hour, including stops -and delays. It is said that fish caught at Vera -Cruz in the evening were served at the dinner -table of Montezuma the following day at his -capital near the site of the present City of -Mexico, a distance of nearly three hundred -miles by road. This was done by a system of -relay runners stationed about a mile apart, -and they made almost as fast time as the railway -train to-day. Whether this is true or not -it is well known that the Aztecs had a wonderful -system of communication. The Spaniards -were frequently astonished at the rapidity with -which the news of their movements was spread. -These runners were trained to great speed and -endurance from their youth. Hundreds of -them were in constant use, and the Aztec emperors -were kept in communication with all -parts of their empire. The Aztecs also used -these runners as spies and they thus took the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span> -place of scouting parties in present-day campaigns.</p> - -<p>So it is that these cargadors come and go. -Each generation is like the last. They are -happy in that they want but little and that little -is easily supplied. They are contented because -they live for to-day and worry not for the morrow. -They are satisfied to go through life as -the bearers of other people’s burdens.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI<br /> -<span class="smaller">CUSTOMS AND CHARACTERISTICS</span></h2> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="verse">“A land of lutes and witching tones,</div> -<div class="verse">Of silver, onyx, opal stones;</div> -<div class="verse">A lazy land, wherein all seems</div> -<div class="verse">Enchanted into endless dreams;</div> -<div class="verse">And never any need they know,</div> -<div class="verse indent12">In Mexico,</div> -</div> -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="verse">“Of life’s unquiet, swift advance,</div> -<div class="verse">But slipped into such gracious trance,</div> -<div class="verse">The restless world speeds on, unfelt,</div> -<div class="verse">Unheeded, as by those who dwelt</div> -<div class="verse">In golden ages, long ago,</div> -<div class="verse indent12">In Mexico.”</div> -</div> -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="verse right">—<span class="smcap">Evaleen Stein.</span></div> -</div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>It is always interesting to know how the rest -of the world lives, but an experience with the -customs and characteristics of a people impresses -travellers in widely different ways. -Mexico is a land of strange customs and strong -characteristics which are deeply interesting to -the sympathetic tourist. “Oh! the charm of -the semi-tropical Spanish life!” says F. Hopkinson -Smith. “The balconies above the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span> -patios trellised with flowers; the swinging -hammocks, the slow plash of the fountains; -the odour of jasmine wet with dew; the low -thrum of guitar and the soft moonlight half-revealing -the muffled figures in lace and cloak. -It is the same old story, and yet it seems to -me it is told in Spanish lands more delightfully -and with more romance, colour and mystery -than elsewhere on the globe.” On the other -hand many matter-of-fact, unsympathetic travellers -see only the impractical ways, annoyances -and inconvenient customs like the writer -who describes Mexico as “A land of lace and -lice and love, of flowers and fights and fleas; -of babies and bull-fights where pillow slips are -open at both ends and where passengers get -off the front end of the street-cars; where keys -often six inches in length are fitted in keyholes -turned upside down and invariably turned -backward; where the weather forgets to change -from day to day and people sleep under the -same bed cover the year around.”</p> - -<p>The Mexican has learned the secret of daily -contentment. This is true generally of the -creole class as well as of the peon. The fact -that some seven thousand families practically -own the entire landed estate of the country -does not inspire envy in the bosoms of the other<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span> -millions. It is a question whether the Anglo-Saxon -and the Teuton can give these people -more than mere mechanical contrivances. -Home does not necessarily consist in an open -fire, drawn curtains and frequent visits of -curious neighbours. Here homes are found -where privacy is respected, family affection is -strong and there is respect for elders, love for -parents and kindly relations between masters -and servants. Such a country is not uncivilized -and barbarous. There may be many odd -and nonsensical customs but a reason can generally -be found for them. When studying the -natives it is enough to know that they are “an -unselfish, patient, tender-hearted people; a -people maintaining in their every-day life an -etiquette phenomenal in a down-trodden race; -offering instantly to the stranger and wayfarer -on the very threshold of their adobe huts -a hospitality so generous, accompanied by a -courtesy so exquisite, that one stops at the next -doorway to re-enjoy the luxury.”</p> - -<p>If one has absolutely nothing to do or suffers -from the constitutional ailment of having -been born tired, Mexico is the place for him -to rest. Nor will he be lonesome in the occupation -of loafing for on every bench is a wayfarer -for company. There is no Mexicanism<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span> -more pronounced than that of procrastination. -Never do to-day what can be put off until to-morrow -is the revised motto. Nothing is so -important that it cannot wait until <i>mañana</i> -(to-morrow). An American, whom I met in -Mexico, and who had lived there a number of -years characterized the country as the land of -<i>mañana</i>, <i>esperase</i> and <i>poco tiempo</i>, or the land -of “to-morrow” and “wait-a-while.” Time -is idled away. Nobody expects you to be punctual -and you are not censured should you fail -to keep an engagement. In fact, “you will -probably be designated as a bore should you -insist on scrupulously and punctually keeping -all your appointments, for the man who always -meets you on the dot is a nuisance in this southern -land. If you have an appointment with -a Mexican at noon, go at four o’clock in the -afternoon and you will probably find him waiting -for you. Had you gone on time, he might -have been absent. Never be in a hurry, for -constant hustle and bustle are the unpardonable -sins. Respect the native customs and doze -or read for a couple of hours after lunch and -get busy as the sun nears the horizon.” The -Mexican pays a compliment to Anglo-Saxon -push by adding <i>a la Inglesa</i> to an appointment -which is intended to be kept punctually<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span> -or “after the English fashion.” It is impossible -to educate the Mexican to American -methods, so it behooves the foreigner who goes -to Mexico to make up his mind to do business -after the standards of that country. However -lax or disappointing they may be he must remember -that in Mexico his methods are the -strange ones and not theirs, which are centuries -old. In society calls lengthen to visits -and last hours and the hurried five-minute calls -are happily unknown. The longer the stay, the -greater the compliment for it means that the -visitor is enjoying herself.</p> - -<p>In a country where, until recently, the purchase -of a foreign draft was an all-day operation -one cannot expect to do business in a very -strenuous way. The people have breathed the -somnolent atmosphere so long that they cannot -be hurried. In fact, in some of the towns, the -buzzards that encircle the town seem to be the -only living creatures actually looking for something -to do, for even the dogs would sneak -down the alley to avoid trouble. And yet in -the face of all this the Yankee drummer arrives -in a town and scarcely takes time to brush the -dust of travel from his clothes before he starts -out to visit his prospective customers. He expects -to round up his orders and take the train<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span> -on the following morning for the next town. -After running against a few <i>mañanas</i> from -day to day without an opportunity to show his -goods he feels about as disgusted as the enterprising -American who, intending to revolutionize -agriculture, took down a large stock of the -latest American farming implements, but after -a year’s effort had made no sale. The salesman -who will succeed is not the one who tries -to introduce the hurry-up methods of his own -land, but the one who adapts himself to the -country and does not attempt to rush things. -It will require days and perhaps weeks to work -a large city.</p> - -<p>I met an Englishman in one of these large -Spanish-American towns who was a fair example -of the successful European drummer. -He had made this route for years and was thoroughly -conversant with the language and understood -the ways of the people. His methods -were a good illustration of the reason why -English and German houses have for many -decades controlled trade in Spanish America. -They keep their old men on the route as long -as possible, for a new man will not do much -on his first trip. We stopped at the same -hotel and I had a good opportunity of observing -his business methods. For several days<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span> -after arriving in the town he did nothing but -make social calls on his customers, take them -to the theatre and entertain them in a general -way. During the next few days he invited them -to his rooms to inspect his stock which was -large and varied. Then he began to take orders. -This method seems like a waste of time -but the orders secured were large and well -repaid for the time taken. The American -drummer could not have controlled his impatience -to be on the move and would have made -a failure. Many who drop into Mexico on a -flying trip, jump to the conclusion that the -Mexican merchant is not so shrewd a business -man as the American. They are apt to mistake -the deliberate methods of the Latin race for -poor methods. He consumes more time in -placing his order and there is less rush and -bustle about his store, but an experienced man -will tell you that in the end he drives a pretty -hard bargain for he knows the market price -of the goods and wants the best discounts and -longest credit.</p> - -<p>Even the legal customs are peculiar and have -proven decidedly embarrassing to many Americans. -A number of years ago, before railroads -were so numerous, the local officers always -arrested the engineer and conductor in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span> -the event that any one was killed, and they -were thrust into jail “incommunicado.” This -means that you are to be incarcerated seventy-two -hours in solitary confinement without bail, -at the end of which time a judicial examination -is given. An American whom I met there -told me of his “incommunicado” experience. -He was arrested because he had witnessed an -affray and was held as witness, in solitary confinement, -but was released by the official after -the judicious use of thirty dollars. Their theory -is that after a man has been kept in confinement -for three days, with only his own -thoughts for company, he is much more likely -to tell the truth than if he had been in communication -with his lawyers, friends and the -reporters all that time. And who can deny the -truth of their claim?</p> - -<p>It is always best to keep out of the neighbourhood -of trouble, or get out of it as quickly -as you can if it comes your way, especially if -in the remote districts, for offender and victim -are both liable to arrest and imprisonment. -Most cases are put off from day to day until -one party or the other is weary of the proceeding. -An instance which illustrates this was -related to me by a man who was arrested for -misdemeanour. Knowing the custom prevalent<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span> -in the courts he hired an attorney to appear -each day for him. When the case was called -the judge would ask “<i>Que quiere</i>” (what do -you want). After the case was explained he -would dispose of it with the simple word <i>mañana</i>. -The other man appeared each day until -disgusted with the procedure and then dropped -the matter. Lawyers charge so much per word -and are paid for each article as it is written. -Mexican notaries are very important personages. -They take the place to a great degree -of the old-fashioned, family lawyer. They are -regarded in much the same light as the family -confessor and are told the family secrets. To -their credit, be it said, that the notary is usually -a man worthy of the confidence placed in -him.</p> - -<p>The ceremonial and punctilious politeness of -the Mexican, be he Don or peon, is interesting -and oftentimes amusing. The Spaniard on -meeting a friend on the street will stop and -inquire one by one after the health of his wife, -each of his children and the various other members -of his household and then in turn will submit -to the same interrogations from his friend. -After witnessing such a scene between two men -in silk hats you can turn down a side street and -see a meeting between a poor Indian in rags<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span> -and an old withered woman selling lottery -tickets. Removing his tattered <i>sombrero</i> he -bows gravely, and, in the softest of Spanish, -says, “<i>A los pies de usted, señora</i>” (at your -feet, lady). This is done with a grace and ease -of manner worthy of any station in life; and -her answer “My hands are for your kisses, -señor,” is said in the same gracious way -worthy of a duchess. Should you ask the man -for his name he would be sure to add “<i>Su -criado de usted</i>” (your servant).</p> - -<p>The Mexicans are very proud and exclusive, -and suspicious of the newcomer. Seldom indeed -is it that an American gains the <i>entree</i> -into their homes but, if he succeeds, they will -be found among the most charming hosts in -the world. This reserve is probably very natural. -The Mexican has been educated in the -strict Catholic schools and is a victim of custom -old as his country, while the American -coming to Mexico is a mercenary, ambitious -person engaged in commercial strife and in the -race for the almighty dollar. Then, the American -is of a more matter-of-fact temperament -and does not appreciate the impulsive nature -of the Mexican. Money does not appeal to him -except for the pleasure of spending it, and no -person is more lavish in the expenditure of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span> -money, if he has it, than a Mexican gentleman.</p> - -<p>The Mexican is a home lover and yet there -is no word in the Spanish language that corresponds -to our word for home. <i>Casa</i>, or house, -is the nearest to it and the Mexican always -speaks of his house when he means his home. -The exaggerated conventionalities are often -carried to the verge of the absurd. Perhaps -there may be as much truth in their expressions -as in the polite but oftentimes meaningless -civilities of our own land. An American, -on being introduced to a stranger, will feel -that he has satisfied the etiquette of the occasion -by simply expressing his pleasure in the -acquaintance. The Mexican goes a step further -and presents the newly-made acquaintance -with his house.</p> - -<p>“<i>Su casa es numero ——</i>,” he says with a -graceful bow giving the street and number of -his own house, which literally means “your -house is number ——,” and usually adds, “It -is entirely at your disposal; make yourself at -home.” It is simply a polite way of saying -“I am glad to meet you.” Perhaps five minutes -later the incident is forgotten by the giver. -One writer has said that he met fourteen men -at a club in Mexico and was presented with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span> -thirteen houses. The fourteenth man was unmarried -and not a householder. Occasionally -some one not familiar with the emptiness of -the phrase has presumed on its literal interpretation -and called at one of the houses presented -to him but has been turned away without -the least sign of recognition.</p> - -<p>If one expresses admiration for some article -worn by another, he is quickly informed that -the article is “at his disposal.” If you happen -upon a Mexican at the dining hour, he will -probably offer you his dinner. If you decline -it, the occasion requires that you should do -so with polite wishes for his digestion. These -forms of hospitality are derived from Spanish -ancestors and were by them probably copied -from the Moors, after the open hand and open -tent customs of the sons of the desert who -meant these expressions literally. It has an -empty meaning now, for nothing is left but -the words. With all this seeming inconsistency -and insincerity, the Mexicans are exceedingly -kind hearted and will willingly do favours if -approached in the right way; no service is too -great towards those for whom they have -formed an attachment. They will often accompany -the departing guest for a long distance<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span> -over hard roads as a mark of courtesy and -friendship.</p> - -<p>We are all victims of habit more or less. -But, whereas the American welcomes innovations -and adapts his habits to them, or forms -new ones, the Mexican does not want any -change from the customs of his ancestors. The -expression “<i>no es costumbre</i>,” meaning it is -not the custom, is a final and decisive answer -that does not admit of argument. You might -as well try to change the colour of the native -as his habits. Americans who keep Mexican -servants are for ever running contrary to the -customs or prejudices of their help. For instance -an American woman<a name="FNanchor_2" id="FNanchor_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> who lived here a -number of years relates the trouble she had to -induce her servant to use a cook stove which -she had imported from the United States. She -refused because “it would give her disease of -the liver.” In all seriousness she believed that -such would be the result and nothing could -induce her to have anything to do with the -new-fangled thing. A peripatetic merchant -came around selling eggs at six for a real. He -refused to sell two dozen for four reals because -“<i>no es costumbre</i>,” as eggs are always sold -at six for a real, an incontrovertible argument.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 420px;" id="illus29"> -<img src="images/illus29.jpg" width="420" height="650" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">MAKING <i>TORTILLAS</i></p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span></p> - -<p>A household will have difficulty in getting -along with only one servant for it is customary -to employ three or four in a small family and -from twenty to forty in a large house. Each -servant will do his or her own particular work -cheerfully and will move about so lightly and -airily that you hardly know any one is around. -However, ask the man <i>mozo</i> to scrub the floor, -or the cook to make the beds, and you will see -a regretful look of the eye and be met with -the ready answer, “<i>no es costumbre</i>.” Marketing -is a right jealously guarded too, for -<i>es costumbre</i> (it is the custom) and one of the -perquisites of the man servant, since he receives -a small fee from each person of whom -purchases are made. The Indian servants are -not accustomed to beds and want nothing but -a mat to sleep upon. The traveller can see -these in the halls at the hotel if he comes in -a little late. Here these dusky natives sleep -more soundly than do most Americans on the -most luxurious of beds. An American lady -in Oaxaca took pity on her girl servant and -bought a comfortable iron bed for her to occupy. -She then explained to her how the bed -was used. Several days later she asked the -servant how she liked her bed. The girl said -it was fine—to lay her clothes on. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span> -American woman finally gave up trying to -change the habits of her maid. Servants become -very devoted to their employers and their -attachment is sometimes embarrassing. In -case of a death in the family they immediately -don black and mourn as though the lost one -was a near relative of their own.</p> - -<p>The economy of housekeeping and especially -of the kitchen, even among the rich, is remarkable. -The Indian or <i>Mestiza</i> women rule here -and the customs of a thousand years ago are -the customs of to-day. The <i>tortillas</i>, cakes -made of maize, are the bread of the country. -For centuries these dusky women of Mexico -have ground the corn for their daily bread -between two stones, the grains having first been -soaked for several hours in a solution of lime -water. This smoothed, dished-out stone is -called a <i>metate</i>, an Aztec word, and the women -work for hours in beating the softened grains -to a fine paste. Small pieces of the dough are -then worked between the hands, tossed and -patted, and flattened out until very thin. After -this they are thrown upon a flat, iron griddle -over a charcoal fire. They are never allowed -to brown and are without salt or seasoning of -any kind. After becoming used to them they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span> -prove very palatable and many prefer them -to the ordinary corn bread.</p> - -<p><i>Frijoles</i>, or beans, and generally black ones, -are also invariably served and are eaten twice -every day without intermission on the table of -rich or poor. The <i>chili</i>, a pretty hot sort of -pepper, is a favourite dish that had better be -avoided by the Americans, for the ability to -relish it can only be approached by degrees. -<i>Tamales</i> are relished by the Mexican and can -be found for sale in almost any of the markets. -I never see <i>tamales</i> without thinking of the -description given of them by a big Texan in his -bread dialect, in answer to a question from me -as the train was speeding across the mesquit -prairies near San Antonio. “You take cawn -meal, some hawt (heart), livah and a little peppah -and you make a tamahle, suh.”</p> - -<p>The use of sacred names or names of great -personages among these people is often astonishing. -The names of Porfirio Diaz, Juarez -and Hidalgo are as numerous as the George -Washingtons among the negroes of the south. -However, when the American stumbles upon a -Pius Fifth, St. John the Evangelist or even -Jesus, in a dirty-face brown man clothed in -rags, it seems a strange incongruity. Talk -with this humble bearer of a sacred name or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span> -offer him a gratuity, and, as you depart, he will -say, “<i>Vaya usted con Dios</i>” (go, and God be -with you), in such a simple and benign manner -that you almost feel as though a benediction -were following you.</p> - -<p>We are told by the early writers that the -Aztecs had few stores, but that nearly all the -trading was done in the markets which were -found in every city, or by the great merchant -princes who traversed the country with their -large army of burden-bearers and retainers, -compelling trade as well as seeking it. It is -interesting to note the description of the market -in the capital in the time of Cortez written -by Bernal Diaz, one of his followers, and the -historian of his expedition. He expresses his -astonishment at the great crowds of people, -the regularity which prevailed and the vast -quantities of merchandise on display. “The -articles consisted of gold, silver, jewels, feathers, -mantles, chocolate, skins dressed and undressed, -sandals, and great numbers of male -and female slaves, some of whom were fastened -by the neck, in collars, to long poles. The meat -market was stocked with fowls, game and dogs. -Vegetables, fruits, articles of food ready -dressed, salt, bread, honey and sweet pastry -made in various ways, were also sold here.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span> -Other places in the square were appointed to -the sale of earthen ware, wooden household -furniture such as tables and benches, firewood, -pipes, sweet canes filled with tobacco mixed -with liquid amber, copper axes and working -tools, and wooden vessels highly painted. -Numbers of women sold fish and little loaves -made of a certain mud which they find in the -lakes, and which resembles cheese. The entire -square was enclosed in piazzas under which -great quantities of grain were stored and where -were also shops for various kinds of goods.”</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus30"> -<img src="images/illus30.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">A MEXICAN MARKET</p> -</div> - -<p>This description would answer very well to-day -except as to slaves and feathers. It is to -be regretted that the beautiful feather work -of that race is a lost art. The market of the -capital is located but a short distance from the -plaza and is an excellent place to study life. -The outer portion is occupied by small shops -covered with protecting piazzas but the central -part is wholly occupied by the Indian merchants. -During the morning hours it is so -closely packed that it is almost impossible to -force one’s way through the dense throng of -humanity. The native, squatted on the ground -on a rush mat, with another mat suspended -over him for protection from the fierce sun, and -his stock in trade spread before him, is a picture<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span> -worth studying. Many tribes are represented, -as their dress indicates, as well as the -products of many different zones from the -cocoanut of the hot lands to the inferior pears -of the cold zone. The pottery from Guadalajara -can be distinguished from that of Guadalupe -or Aguas Calientes by its colour and -design. Each piece might tell a history of an -art passed down from father to son for countless -generations, for the son usually follows -the occupation of his father. They never think -of changing method of manufacture or design. -It is quite probable that the pottery seen in -the market to-day is the same as that viewed -by Cortez. Many of the vessels are curious -and fantastic in form but always ornamental -in decoration. When one considers that much -of this pottery is made with no tools but pieces -of broken glass and a horsehair, the result is -a marvel. With the hair they trim the top -and with the glass smooth off the rough places. -The pottery market is an important one, for -articles used in the kitchen and on the tables -of the poorer classes are exclusively of this -ware. For a small sum an entire kitchen outfit -can be purchased.</p> - -<p>There are few Jewish merchants in Mexico -for the Mexican is even more persuasive in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span> -his mode of selling and his prices are fully as -elastic. In purchasing native articles on different -occasions I tried several dealers in order -to discover whether they had a uniform bottom -price. They would invariably ask at least -twice as much as they were willing to accept. -I found that if one would only show surprise -at the price asked, the question “What will -you give” would immediately follow. They -were perfectly willing to get as much from you -as possible but the lowest price quoted by the -various dealers was almost identical. Some -persons have facetiously characterized Mexico -as the land of “<i>no hay</i>” (pronounced eye) -because it is such a common answer in marketing -and means “there is none.” In fact, the -answer will always be “<i>no hay</i>” or “<i>si, hay</i>” -(yes, I have).</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 420px;" id="illus31"> -<img src="images/illus31.jpg" width="420" height="650" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">CANDY BOY AND GIRL</p> -</div> - -<p>There are many quaint and curious characters -that one will find around the market place. -The candy man, or, boy, moves around with -noiseless tread crying his wares in a song -which never varies any more than his stock, -which is always the same and arranged in exactly -the same way. His <i>dulces</i>, however, have -merit and it is not necessary to change anything -already good. The <i>evangelista</i>, or letter -writer, is here with a jug of ink and pen on a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span> -little table ready to write a business letter, or -a <i>billet doux</i> flaming with passion and extravagant -phrases for the unlettered lover. On -the corners of the street may be seen the cobblers -ready to cut and fit sandals “while you -wait.” His whole stock in trade consists of a -pile of scraps of sole leather and some leather -thongs, while his only tool is a curved, sharp -knife.</p> - -<p>In and out of the crowd the faithful <i>aguador</i>, -or water-carrier, winds his way bringing -the refreshing water to thirsty mortals. He is -not only a very necessary person in this land -of little rain, but is a person of importance -and knows the inner life of the household of -his customers. His costume and water vessels -vary in the different cities but he is the same -honest character who ingeniously carries the -love messages from the “bear” to his inamorata. -After a morning of hard work his faithful -wife brings his dinner of <i>tortillas</i> and <i>frijoles</i> -to the fountain or well, and there he sits -and eats his humble meal while she watches -her lord and master until he has finished. -Later in the day, tiring of his work or feeling -the burden of prosperity as his stock of copper -coins increases, he resorts to the pulque-shop -and there shows his contempt for the beverage<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span> -he has been distributing by imbibing large -quantities of his favourite liquor.</p> - -<p>Perhaps in no way is the general superstition -and ignorance of the Indian shown to better -advantage than in their ideas of disease -and medicine. The <i>curandera</i>, usually a -woman, admits having great knowledge of -anatomy and chemistry, and has a pharmacopœia -all her own. The accounts given here -are vouched for by a writer in <i>Modern Mexico</i> -who is a native of the country, understands -these people and is entitled to belief. <i>Aire</i> -(air), when introduced into the system through -blows or unusually forcible sneezing, causes -swellings, sore eyes and nervous tremblings. -It is treated with plasters and bandages and -lotions. When the alimentary canal is obstructed -it is <i>empacho</i>, which means that undigested -food has adhered to the stomach or -the food has formed into balls and marbles -that rattle around inside the stomach or intestines. -This disease demands immediate and -heroic treatment, and a drop of quicksilver -swallowed at a gulp is prescribed and will generally -dislodge it or kill the patient. <i>Tiricia</i> -is indicated by homesickness, melancholia or -insomnia, and is caused by a subtle vapour -produced by the action of the moon on the dew<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span> -and is absorbed through the pores. Change of -climate, good company and tonics are a sensible -prescription. <i>Mal de ojo</i>, or the evil eye, -causes the sufferer to fade away or die of inanition, -and is a common disease of children. -Bright attractive objects are hung up to draw -away the attention of the “evil eye.” If a -child is slow in talking, a diet of boiled swallows -is prescribed. One writer positively asserts -that blue and red beads ground fine and -mixed in equal portions have been given to -persons suffering with paralysis, and the sufferers -survived the treatment. The <i>curandera</i> -is also called upon to mix love potions and -poisons that will cause delirium or even insanity -and death.</p> - -<p>Another instance is told in the same periodical -of a woman who was very sick with a -disease from the effects of which she was practically -helpless. A <i>curandera</i> had told the husband -to get a white turkey and tie it in the -house and his wife would get well. When the -turkey had failed to cure her an old man <i>curandero</i> -was procured, who promised to make -her well if supplied with plenty of <i>aguardiente</i> -(brandy). Four dollars worth was supplied -him, and four dollars will buy a great deal of -poor brandy in Mexico. The old man laid himself<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span> -down on the ground, after filling himself -up with the fire-water, pounded his head and -kept repeating weird incantations which could -be heard a long distance away. This was continued -for several days until the supply of -spirits gave out. In the meantime the patient -had improved somewhat and could use her -arms and body as far as the waist. The shrewd -old man shrugged his shoulders and said, “I -have cured her as far as I can. You will have -to get a <i>curandera</i> to complete the cure.” The -poor woman soon died, because, as the husband -declared, she had been bewitched.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII<br /> -<span class="smaller">HOLIDAYS AND HOLY-DAYS</span></h2> - -<p>It is impossible to understand Mexico or the -Mexicans without knowing something of their -feasts and festivals which play such a large -part in the life of these people. In fact there -is very little of the social life in Mexico that -is not the outgrowth of or intimately connected -with the holy-days of the Church. The saint’s -day of each member, that is the day in the -church calendar devoted to the saint after -whom the person is named, takes the place of -the birthday for gifts and family celebrations. -The <i>fiestas</i>, or feast-days, of the church are -very numerous and are pretty well observed, -although business is not entirely suspended. -The church holidays are either different from -those in other Catholic countries or are observed -in a truly national way in Mexico.</p> - -<p>To one who enjoys mixing with the common -people and learning their customs, habits and -ways of thinking, in other words, endeavouring<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span> -to get into their real, inner life, it is a perpetual -delight to visit the cities and villages -on the <i>fiesta</i> occasions and mingle with the people -in their celebration. This association with -a free-hearted, pleasure-loving people on their -gala days unconsciously broadens the views of -a traveller in a new country, and develops a -sympathy which can be awakened in no other -way. The crowds jostle each other good naturedly -and will treat the stranger with respect. -Too many visitors to this country try to judge -everything from the American standard and -find little to commend. They should remember -that Mexico is Oriental rather than Anglo-Saxon, -and that the Spanish-Moorish civilization -is here blended with the Aztec. Such a -civilization cannot be without merit and it must -have some inherent good qualities. If one -wants to understand a country rightly, he must -first try to enter into the lives of the people -and then look at life from their point of view.</p> - -<p>It would be impossible within the limits prescribed -to describe all the celebrations in honour -of the hundreds of saints and the numerous -secular holidays. A description of a few -of these occasions, most generally observed, -will give the reader a good idea of the nature -of all.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span></p> - -<p>Christmas celebrations in Mexico are very -much different from those in the United States. -There is no merry jingle of the sleigh bells in -this land of Christmas sunshine and skies as -blue as those of Naples; and there are no plans -dependent upon whether the day may chance -to be white or green. The few lofty volcanic -peaks, on which alone snow is ever seen, would -not tempt the most enthusiastic tobogganist. -As there are no chimneys, the children need -not sit up at night until sleep overtakes them, -to see Santa Claus descend with his heavy pack -filled with the things that boys and girls like. -Even the time honoured custom of hanging -up stockings is unknown to Mexican children. -Perhaps they enjoy themselves quite as much -after their own fashion as we do after ours. -They have good things to eat, and the beautiful -flowers are so cheap that no matter how humble -the Mexican home may be, it affords a few -sprays of the scarlet <i>Noche Bueno</i>, the beautiful -Christmas plant. Their celebrations are -long continued for they begin nine days before -Christmas and last until the Feast of the -Epiphany on the 6th of January; and this -entire time is one long delightful jubilee.</p> - -<p>These celebrations, which begin on the sixteenth -of December and continue until the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span> -twenty-fifth, are called <i>posadas</i>. The word in -Spanish means an “inn,” or abiding place, -and while the celebration, in its origin, was -distinctly religious, it is now only semi-religious, -and has become an extremely gay and -sociable occasion. The <i>posadas</i> are limited to -the cities but, in those places, the poorest as -well as the richest families hold them and they -are a celebration peculiar to this country.</p> - -<p>The origin of the <i>posada</i> is in the gospel -narrative of the Nativity. Because Cæsar had -issued the decree that all the world should be -taxed, Mary and Joseph came to Bethlehem to -be enrolled. Mary made the journey mounted -upon an ass which Joseph led. As the shadows -of the night descended, they were obliged to ask -for shelter, and it is no wonder that the request -was not always granted readily and willingly, -but was many times refused during the trip -that is supposed to have taken nine days.</p> - -<p>On the last day, having arrived at Bethlehem, -and because the city was so full of people, -they wandered about for a long time without -finding admittance to either private house or -inn. At last, being tired and weary, and because -no room could be secured, they took refuge -in a stable where Christ was born. Therefore, -it is, that in order to celebrate this journey<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span> -fully, the <i>posadas</i> begin with the journey -at Nazareth. Each year a house is chosen in -a family circle, or among a group of friends, -and at that house for nine consecutive nights the -festival is held. Or, sometimes, the celebration -will be held at different houses during that -period.</p> - -<p>The journey from Nazareth to Bethlehem -and the difficulties encountered on the way, are -represented by the first part of the celebration. -At the appointed hour the guests assemble at -the house which has been chosen for the celebration -on that particular night. Each person -present, members of the family, guests and -servants, is furnished with a lighted candle, and -two and two, they march around the halls and -through the corridors several times chanting -the solemn “Litany of Loretto.” As each invocation -is ended the audience chant “<i>ora pro -nobis</i>” (“pray for us”). At the head of the -procession the figures of Joseph and Mary made -of clay or wax, dressed in gay, incongruously-coloured -satins are borne either in the hands or -lying in a basket. Sometimes these figures are -dressed in brilliant costumes of lace with tinselled -borderings. At each door the procession -pauses and knocks and begs admittance, but no -answer or invitation to enter is given. When<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span> -the litany is finished some of the party enter a -room while the rest with the figures of Joseph -and Mary remain outside and sing a chant something -like the following:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="verse">“In Heaven’s Name,</div> -<div class="verse">I beg for shelter;</div> -<div class="verse">My wife to-night,</div> -<div class="verse">Can go no further.”</div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>The reply to this is:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="verse">“No inn is this,</div> -<div class="verse">Begone from hence;</div> -<div class="verse">Ye may be thieves,</div> -<div class="verse">I trust ye not.”</div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>At last, however, the door is opened and all -go in and Joseph and Mary have secured shelter -for the night. The pilgrims are placed on an -improvised altar and some prayers are recited, -though the religious exercises are generally -hurried through in the quickest manner possible. -Sometimes, to make the scene more realistic, -a burro is introduced in the procession to -represent the faithful animal that carried the -holy family in their wanderings. Frequently, -on the last night, in a room, or on the roof, a -kind of stable is arranged in which the figures -of Joseph and Mary are placed with the utmost<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span> -reverence. On this night a figure of the infant -Jesus is also carried. After the litany the party -proceed to have a general good time which is -kept up until a late hour. Occasionally, in the -homes of the wealthy, these entertainments are -on a very elaborate scale and costly souvenirs -are presented to each guest. Everywhere in the -cities is heard the litany of the <i>posada</i>, for it -is celebrated almost universally. It is sung in -hundreds and thousands of homes and the processions -wind in and out of the rooms and round -the improvised shrines. The patios are hung -with venetian lights, and fireworks blaze skyward -in every direction. In the City of Mexico -the <i>posadas</i> are most elaborate among the official -and wealthy families, and the Zocalo plaza -is a bewitching place with its many lights and -the multitudes of children who gather here for -celebration. The clergy are now censuring the -“<i>posadas</i>” because of the irreverent spirit in -which they are celebrated.</p> - -<p>In Mexico the <i>piñate</i> takes the place of the -Christmas tree. It is an oval shaped, earthen -jar, handsomely decorated with tinsel and -streamers of tissue paper, made up to represent -curious figures. They represent clowns, ballet -girls, monkeys, roosters, various grotesque -animals, and even children almost life sized.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span> -The jars are crammed full of sweets, rattles, -whistles and crackers. The breaking of the -<i>piñate</i> follows the litany and is an exciting -event, which generally occurs in the patio. It -is suspended from the ceiling and then each -person desiring to take part is blindfolded in -turn, and, armed with a pole, proceeds to strike -the swinging <i>piñate</i>. Three trials are permitted. -Sometimes many are blindfolded before a successful -blow brings the sweets and bon-bons -rattling to the floor. Then there is a race and -a scramble for the dainties. Thousands of these -<i>piñates</i> are broken each Christmas season and -the vendors of them perambulating the streets -with a pole across the shoulders on which are -suspended the grotesque figures, add life and -zest to the season. Then to see a well dressed, -sedate-looking, business man hurrying home -with a grotesque tissue-paper creation of -gorgeous hues with tinselled decorations and -gay streamers under his arms is a curious but -not uncommon sight.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 420px;" id="illus32"> -<img src="images/illus32.jpg" width="420" height="650" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">BURNING AN EFFIGY OF JUDAS AT EASTER-TIME</p> -</div> - -<p>Holy week, as the week preceding Easter is -called, is celebrated in an elaborate and truly -original way. The religious processions which -formerly attended these celebrations are now -prohibited by law. During these few days the -bells, organs and choirs are silent, the stores are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span> -closed and there is a general holiday. As an -evidence that vanity is not entirely absent, on -Holy Thursday it is customary for men and -women to turn out in good clothes and many of -the ladies appear in handsome and elaborate -gowns. Then on Good Friday everything is -changed and the whole country mourns. Sombre -black takes the place of the more brilliant -raiment of the preceding day; downcast eyes -and solemn faces succeed the smiles and coquettish -glances of yesterday.</p> - -<p>On Saturday occurs the most grotesque and -curious of all the festivals of the Church. It is -the day on which final disposition is made of -that arch-traitor Judas Iscariot, and the day -is devoted to his humiliation and death. Effigies -of the traitor are hung over the streets everywhere -and all day long men parade the streets -with figures of the betrayer of Christ upon -poles. These effigies range in size from miniature -figures to those of gigantic proportions. -Each figure is made of <i>papier maché</i>, is filled -with explosives and has a fuse which is generally -the moustache. Hundreds of the images -are sold to the children in each city who explode -them with great glee. Judas is represented -with folded hands, arms akimbo, with legs in -running posture and in every conceivable attitude.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span> -Some of them bear suggestive mottoes -such as “I am a scion of the Devil” and “Let -me give up the Ghost.” Each person must destroy -a Judas.</p> - -<p>At ten o’clock as the great bells of the cathedral -in the City of Mexico sound and other -bells follow, the fuses to these effigies are -lighted. The great Judases strung across the -streets or tied to balconies are exploded amid -great rejoicing. Coins representing the thirty -pieces of silver paid to Judas are sometimes -thrown to the crowd from the windows of -wealthy residents or clubs. Every one grows -wild and the little folks become almost beside -themselves with excitement. The bells in the -towers ring out their rejoicings and a peculiar -apparatus gives out a sound which represents -the breaking of the bones of the thieves on the -cross. The crowds also have innumerable rattles -which make a hideous, grating sound intended -to represent the same incident. The -noise of the bells, the explosion of the fire-crackers, -and the shouts of the multitude form -a strange, exciting, ludicrous scene never to be -forgotten. When the last Judas has been demolished, -the excitement subsides and a good-natured -frolic follows.</p> - -<p>The national holidays, of which there are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span> -many, are greatly overshadowed by those pertaining -to the Church, and none of them are so -universally observed. Not all the feasts and -festivals of Mexico are of Romish origin. Some -of them are founded upon the remains of Aztec -idolatry, for the priests of the early days with -a wise foresight adopted the same day for feast-days -in many instances. Though these Indians -probably could not tell why, yet they have a -great reverence for the saints whom they worship -after their own fashion. They are delighted -to have more occasions for decorating -themselves and their churches with flowers, -marching in processions, dancing and letting -off rockets.</p> - -<p>The <i>Fiesta de las Flores</i>, or Feast of the -Poppies, celebrated in April, is held on the Viga -Canal and was originally a day devoted to the -worship of the Aztec god Quetzalcoatl, the god -of nature with them. On that day the bloody, -sacrificial rites were suspended and all joined in -this festival of flowers. This <i>fiesta</i> has lost all -its religious significance but it is said to be -celebrated much the same as in Aztec times. -All day long the canal is filled with boats large -and small manned by the dusky natives. Indian -women and nut-brown maids with wreaths of -poppies on their heads and garlands of the same<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span> -around their necks, sing the songs of the people -and dance as they move along. On the shore -and in the boats the native bands play, and the -broad highway along the banks of the Viga is -crowded with long lines of carriages filled with -the aristocracy of the Capital who have come -out to witness this unique celebration.</p> - -<p>Mexico, like each good Mexican Catholic, has -a patron saint who presides over her destinies. -This saint has not only been adopted by the -government in times past, but has been proclaimed -as the guardian of Mexico by the Holy -See, and only a few years ago was duly crowned -as the Virgin of Guadalupe in ceremonies made -memorable by the large number of church dignitaries -present. Her miraculous appearance -came at an apropos time and greatly assisted -in attracting the natives to the new worship.</p> - -<p>The Aztecs had long worshipped a deity -called Tonantzin, “Mother of Gods,” who was -supposed to reside on the Hill of Tepeyacac, -now called Guadalupe. Tradition says that a -devout Indian named Juan Diego, who resided -in the village of Tolpetlac, and who recently had -been converted to Christianity, was passing by -this way on the morning of the 9th day of -December, 1531, on his way to early mass. -When at the base of this hill there suddenly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span> -burst upon his ears a melody of sweet music, -as of a chorus of birds singing together in -harmony. Surprised at this unusual music he -looked up and lo, just above him, rested a cloud -more brilliant than a rainbow and in the centre -of the cloud stood a lady. Thoroughly frightened -he fell to his knees, but was aroused by a -voice which proceeded from the cloud and called -“Juan.” He looked up and the lady told him -to go to the Bishop of Mexico, and tell him that -she wanted a church built on this hill in her -honour. He did so, but the Bishop was loth to -believe this wonderful tale from a poor, ignorant -Indian. A second and yet a third time did the -same vision appear to the pious Juan and make -the same request. On this last occasion Juan -had passed on the opposite side of the hill to -avoid the woman but to no avail. Upon the -report of the third vision the Bishop told Juan -to ask for some unmistakable sign. The lady -appeared again on the following morning and -Juan told her of the Bishop’s request. She told -him to go up the hill and gather flowers from -the barren hillside where they had never been -known to grow. As soon as he reached there -many beautiful flowers appeared in a miraculous -manner, which Juan gathered up in his -tilma, or blanket, and took to the Bishop. When<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span> -he had emptied his tilma the image of the Virgin -was found on the blanket in most brilliant -colours.</p> - -<p>The Bishop reverently took the tilma and accepted -it as an unmistakable token. He at once -began the erection of a chapel where it had been -commanded. As soon as the chapel was completed, -he hung the tilma on the high altar where -it has remained ever since except for a few -short periods. It can now be seen under a glass -upon the payment of a small fee. Some persons -say that upon examination it proves to be only -a cheap daub upon coarse, cotton material; -others say that it was taken out a few years ago -and examined and they could not find any trace -of paint, but that the colours seemed to stay -there in some miraculous way. Not being permitted -to make a personal examination, I leave -the reader to make his choice as inclination -directs.</p> - -<p>From the time of its origin this legend has -had a wonderful and deep influence upon the -Indians. It is even so to-day. Our Lady of -Guadalupe is looked upon by them as their -patron and protector. Coming so soon after -the conquest and appearing on a hill already -sacred to that race, it led thousands to the new -religion. The main church is very large and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span> -imposing with a nave two hundred feet long -and one hundred and twenty-two feet wide, and -cost over two million dollars in gold. The altar -is magnificent and it has a solid silver railing -weighing several tons around the chancel. -There is another chapel connected with the -cathedral church. Back of these is the miraculous -spring which burst forth from the very -spot on which the Virgin stood at her last appearance. -Half way up the hill are some stone -sails erected by a grateful mariner, and on the -top of the hill is another chapel. Back of this -is a cemetery in which Santa Anna and other -noted persons are buried. A beautiful view of -the capital and the Valley of Mexico is obtained -from the top of the hill which well repays for -the exertion in climbing.</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="verse">“From Heaven she descended,</div> -<div class="verse">Triumphant and glorious,</div> -<div class="verse">To favour us—</div> -<div class="verse">La-Guadalupana.”</div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>Thus sing the Indians on the 12th of December -of each year. This is the day that has been -appointed for the great “<i>fiesta</i>” in honour of -the Virgin who appeared to Juan Diego. All -others fade into insignificance and are completely -overshadowed by the annual celebrations<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span> -in honour of Our Lady of Guadalupe. Any one -who happens to be in the City of Mexico on this -date, or a few days prior thereto, should not -fail to take the street car for Guadalupe, a -suburban town about three miles to the eastward. -The route follows an ancient Aztec -causeway which was old when Cortez invaded -this valley. To the merry hum of the trolley, -which seems strangely out of place on this -historic highway, the traveller is carried along. -One does not need to be told that something out -of the ordinary is about to take place. The -streets of the capital and all the roads leading -to Guadalupe are alive with people on their way -to this most sacred shrine. It is said that many -of these Indians tramp hundreds of miles to be -present on these occasions, taking their food -with them and sleeping out in the open air. -Tens of thousands of Indians are present at -each annual celebration and the number is said -in some years to equal a hundred thousand souls -and more.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus33"> -<img src="images/illus33.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">CANDLE BOOTHS IN GUADALUPE</p> -</div> - -<p>In Guadalupe the streets and plazas around -the famous church are crowded with booths for -the sale of native wares, candles, images of the -Virgin and for the carrying-on of many kinds -of gambling. There are many booths in which -refreshments are served by women in native<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span> -costumes. The viands include cold chicken, -eggs, tamales, <i>frijoles</i> (beans), cakes and -sweets. For beverages you can take your choice -between beer and pulque. A motley assemblage -is present. Indians from the hot lands mingle -with the purer types of the Aztec from the -mountains and table lands. The swarms of -Indians fairly crowd the plaza and streets, some -eating and drinking, some sleeping, some making -love and some whiling away the time with -cards or other gambling devices. All these people, -of course, belong to the peon class. Mingled -with the natives here and there are all types of -Mexicans, and a number of Americans drawn -here by curiosity add variety to the occasion. -The lame, the blind and the halt are there too; -for alms are plentiful and Our Lady possesses -wondrous powers of healing. Many testimonials -to this fact are seen in the little chapel -which shelters the miraculous spring. Hundreds -and thousands carry away with them a -bottle of these healing waters.</p> - -<p>A feeling of reverence pervades the sanctuary. -The kneeling figures with bodies motionless and -their eyes and faces fixed upon the high altar, -crowd the floor until it is impossible to move. -One can not help being impressed by this feeling -of reverence pervading the church and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span> -chapels. Outside it is different; for here the -throng moves around visiting the booths, eating, -drinking and gambling. Indian minstrels play -their weird airs. Beggars cry out to give them -something “<i>por el amor del Dios</i>” (“for the -love of God”). At night the plaza and streets -are one indistinguishable mass of dark, reclining -and slumbering figures wrapped in their -blankets and shawls. The elements are kind in -December for it is the dry season.</p> - -<p>The next day after one of these celebrations -I left the capital for Puebla. For many miles -we kept passing Indians singly, in groups, and -whole families together homeward bound. They -followed well-worn paths which were plainly -visible. The trails were narrow and all -marched along single file in regular Indian -fashion. They would stop and look at our train -as it noisily passed by. Perhaps they were -happy in their simple way in the thought that -for one year more, at least, Our Lady of Guadalupe -would watch over and protect them, her -humble worshippers.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 420px;" id="illus34"> -<img src="images/illus34.jpg" width="420" height="650" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">BEGGARS OF THE CITY OF MEXICO</p> -</div> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_XIII">CHAPTER XIII<br /> -<span class="smaller">A TRANSPLANTED SPORT</span></h2> - -<p>The bull-fight as an amusement is the exclusive -property of the Spaniard. It originated -in Spain and has never spread beyond the limits -of Spanish conquest. Perhaps it is this very -exclusiveness that causes them to cling to it so -tenaciously, though legislatures and governments -have made vigorous efforts to abolish -the brutal spectacles. It is, according to a native -writer, a proof of the superiority of the Spaniard, -because “the Spanish men are as much -more brave than other men, as the Spanish bull -is more savage and valiant than all other bulls.” -Rather, it seems to me to be a survivor of the -ancient gladiatorial contests, or fights between -man and beast in the great amphitheatres of -Rome.</p> - -<p>I had never before, even when standing -within the historic walls of the Colosseum, been -able to picture in my own mind the scene of the -arena crowded with combatants while the expectant<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span> -multitude filled the seats in tier upon -tier, until I found myself within the great bull-ring -of Madrid. There was the arena, and -round about were the eager throng, a crowd of -fourteen thousand human beings who impatiently -and anxiously awaited the sound of -the bugle which would announce the opening of -the spectacle of blood and brute torture. Then -it was possible to understand how, in an earlier -and more brutal age, the Roman populace -gloated over the combats where the death of -some of the participants was as much fore-doomed -as the fate of the bull who enters the -ring to-day with a defiant toss of his horns.</p> - -<p>If popularity is to be judged by the amount -of patronage, then the bull-fight is the most -popular amusement in Mexico to-day. The -national life is permeated with the sport. The -Sunday bull-fight is the topic of conversation -in the capital for the following week. Even the -children indulge in imitations of this favourite -game in their childish way. It is only on Sundays -and feast days that the <i>corrida de toros</i> -occurs. Six days shalt thou do nothing and on -the seventh go to the bull-fight, runs an old -Madrid saying. They probably go on the theory -that a good entertainment is better on that day -than any other. It is useless to argue with a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span> -Spaniard or Spanish-American about the -brutality or inhumanity of these spectacles as -they will immediately remind us of the prize-fights -within our own borders which frequently -result in death. This is a gentle hint that we -should clean our own Augean stables before -telling our neighbours what they should not do. -Perhaps it is a rebuke that is not entirely out of -place.</p> - -<p>The Plaza de Toros is always a great, circular -building of stone or wood with little pretence -or ornament. It is built for the bull-fight -and for no other purpose. The interior is an -immense amphitheatre, with seats in tiers rising -to the top where the private boxes are located. -These alone have a roof, as all the rest of the -structure is open to the sky. Half the seats are -exposed to the bright sun and the other half -are in shadow. The seats on the <i>sol</i>, or sunny -side, generally cost only about half as much as -those in the <i>sombra</i>, or shady part. The fights -are usually advertised “if the time and weather -permits.” The ring itself is an arena about a -hundred feet in diameter, encircled by a high -board fence with a lower barrier on the inside, -which serves as a means of escape for a <i>torero</i> -who is too closely pursued by the irate bull.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span> -Sometimes a bull will leap over this first barrier -and then an exciting race follows.</p> - -<p>An American will not soon forget the first -sight of the full amphitheatre. The scene is -an exciting one and there is a tension of the -nerves in anticipation of what is to come. The -bands play and, if there is any delay, the thousands -of impatient spectators will shout and -yell themselves hoarse. There is usually a -cheer when the president for the occasion and -his companions take their seats. At length the -gates opposite the president are opened and -a gaily caparisoned horseman, called the -<i>alguacil</i>, appears. He asks permission to kill -the bulls. This being granted, the president -tosses him the key to the bull-pen, which he -catches in his hat. He is cheered if he does -catch it and hissed if he fails. The gate opens -again and the gay company of bull-fighters is -announced by the blast of trumpets. These men -arrayed in costumes of red, yellow, green and -blue silks, satins and velvets, glittering with -beads, jewels and gold braid, form a brilliant -spectacle as they march across the arena to -salute the president, after the manner of the -gladiators of old. Every one taking part in this -exhibition appears in this procession, from the -<i>matador</i> to the men with wheelbarrows and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span> -shovels who clean up the arena after each performance. -I said all, but the principal character -himself is reserved until later. After saluting -the president the company march around -the ring to receive the plaudits of the people.</p> - -<p>The bull-fight is a tragedy in three acts. -After the company have withdrawn, the door -through which the bull enters is unlocked and -the first act begins with a flourish of trumpets. -The bull rushes out from a dark stall into the -dazzling light, furious with rage and trembling -in every limb. This is an intense moment and -all eyes are centred upon the newcomer. As -he enters, a barbed steel hook covered with -flowing ribbons is placed in his shoulder. The -ribbons indicate the ranch or <i>hacienda</i> from -whence he came. Even the street urchins can -recognize the colours of a <i>hacienda</i> which has -the reputation of producing animals that are -noted for their belligerent qualities.</p> - -<p>Startled by the intense light and enraged by -the stinging of the steel hook, the bull stands -for an instant recovering his senses. Sometimes -he will paw the earth, toss the dust over -his back and bellow his defiance. Around him -in the ring are the <i>capeadores</i>, men on foot -carrying red capes, and <i>picadores</i>, men on -horses armed with lances. These latter sit<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span> -motionless as statues upon their steeds that are -blindfolded ready for the sacrifice.</p> - -<p>After a moment of uncertainty, the bull -dashes either at a <i>capeador</i> or <i>picador</i>. The -former quickly runs to the barrier and nimbly -leaps over, leaving the bull more infuriated -than ever. The horse attracts his attention -next and there is no way of escape for this poor, -old, broken down servant of man. The <i>picador</i> -makes no effort to save his steed, which is blindfolded -so that he may not see his danger, but -simply plants his blunt spear-point in the -shoulder of the brute. Sometimes this will save -the horse, but it does not please the audience -for a certain number of horses must be sacrificed. -More frequently the bull will, with a -single toss of the horns, overthrow both horse -and rider in a heap. The <i>capeadores</i> then hover -around with their cloaks and distract the attention -of the bull from the prostrate rider who is -helpless because of his iron armour. Once I saw -a rider fall on the back of the bull much to the -surprise of both. It is seldom that a <i>picador</i> -is killed, for the bull will nearly always leave -him and chase a red cloak.</p> - -<p>Fortunate, indeed, is the horse that is instantly -killed. If able to walk, he is ridden -around in the ring again with blood streaming<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span> -from his wounds and trampling upon his own -bowels. Or the poor brute may be sewed up in a -crude, surgical way in order to enable him to -canter around the ring a few more times. Once, -only, in an experience covering several bull-fights -in several countries, have I seen a horse -drop dead from the first blow. The fight is not -complete without the shedding of the blood of -horses, and sometimes the crowd will clamour -for more horses before this act is closed. There -must be enough, for economy in this feature will -place the people in a bad mood. The audience -must be catered to, for if disappointed they are -likely to demolish the ring and tear up the seats -as a method of showing their displeasure. This, -in itself, is sufficient to prove the debasing and -brutalizing influence of this sport.</p> - -<p>In the second act the <i>banderilleros</i>, men who -plant the <i>banderillas</i> in the neck of the bull, appear -in the arena. This is the most artistic and -most interesting act in the entire performance, -for great skill is displayed and little blood -spilled. These men come in the ring without -cape or any means of defence and depend -entirely upon their skill and agility for safety. -They are finely dressed and are usually superbly -built fellows with lithe and muscular bodies. -The <i>banderillero</i> takes with him a pair of barbed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span> -darts about two feet long and covered with -fancy coloured paper with ribbon streamers. He -shakes these at the bull, thus provoking an -assault. Then, just when he seems to be on the -bull’s horns and the novice turns his face away -to avoid the scene, he plants the darts in the -gory neck of the bull and steps lightly aside. -These darts re-enrage the bull, who has been -getting rather tired of the whole affair. He -attacks whatever engages his attention. It may -be only a dead horse which he will then tear -open, being aroused to fury by the smell of the -blood.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus35"> -<img src="images/illus35.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">PLANTING THE <i>BANDERILLAS</i></p> -</div> - -<p>There are usually two of these men and each -plants four darts in the bull’s neck. They must -be placed in front of the shoulder and so firmly -inserted that they will not be shaken out. If -successful in these particulars, then the <i>banderillero</i> -who is a favourite will receive prolonged -applause and a perfect volley of complimentary -comments. Even the <i>matador</i> himself -ofttimes deigns to take part in this act. If so, -he performs the act in some daring and novel -way. They will sometimes sit in a chair and -thus plant the darts, or take a pole and vault -over the bull after placing them. Occasionally -a bull is cowardly and will not fight. Then -“fire” is called for and darts filled with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span> -powder which explodes in the flesh are used. -This will cause the bull to dance and skip around -in his agony, which is very pleasing to the audience -and furnishes variety to an otherwise -monotonous exhibition.</p> - -<p>The trumpet sounds the last act. This is the -duel,—the death. Everything has been done -with reference to this act. The first two acts -have been intended to madden the animal and -tire him by the violent exercise and loss of blood. -He is panting, his sides heave as though they -would burst, his neck is one mass of blood over -which, as if in mockery, hang the many-hued -darts. The man with the sword would not stand -much show with a fresh and unwearied animal. -This actor is the <i>matador</i>, or <i>espada</i>, and, if -known as one who kills his bulls with a single -stroke of the sword, he will receive great applause -on entering. He steps forward to the -president’s box and makes a little speech, offering -to kill the bull to the honour of Mexico. -Throwing his hat to some one in the seats, (for -it is considered an honour to hold any of his -apparel) the hero advances sword in hand toward -the bull, who, during this by-play, has -been entertained by the cape-bearers again. -He bears in his left hand a staff, called the -<i>muleta</i>, over which is a red flag, and in the right<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span> -a keen-edged sword. The flag serves both as a -lure to the beast and a protection to the man. He -is usually pale and always alert, and studies the -animal for a moment to ascertain his disposition. -This can not be prolonged for the audience -will not brook delay. The tension of nerves is -too great. As the bull makes a rush for the red -flag, with head lowered, the <i>matador</i> plunges the -keen blade into the bull’s shoulders up to the -hilt. The bull staggers and dies.</p> - -<p>It is wonderful to see how excited and enthusiastic -the crowd becomes when the <i>matador</i> has -made a skilful killing. They rise and cheer -and wave their handkerchiefs. As he passes -around the ring to receive their applause, a perfect -volley of hats, coats, handkerchiefs, and -cigars are thrown toward him. These are tossed -back except the cigars or any money that may -have been included. If the killing has been -poorly made, or in a bungling manner, hisses replace -cheers and boards or chairs may be thrown -instead of hats and cigars. At a fight in Guatemala -City I saw one <i>matador</i> chased out of the -ring, and he did not return again during that -performance. This was done after he had made -three unsuccessful attempts to kill the bull and -had plunged two swords into the poor, tortured -animal without striking a vital spot.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span></p> - -<p>Then comes the finale. Teams of gaily-decked -mules are brought in to drag out the dead -bull and horses. The bloody places are covered -over with sawdust in order to prevent slipping. -Even before the dead animals are removed, the -two or three <i>picadores</i> appear on other sorry-looking -steeds, even worse than the first ones if -such a thing were possible. The trumpet -sounds, the door flies open and another bull -comes rushing in to meet the same fate as the -first. The play begins again with the same -variety of sickening incidents. Others follow -in regular order until the usual number of six -bulls have been dispatched. The management -is usually very careful not to promise more -than will be performed, for they know the temper -of the audience too well. At a bull-fight -in Madrid, which I attended, the management -had promised ten bulls in its posters but the -tickets only called for eight. After the eighth -bull had been dispatched the end was announced, -but the crowd refused to leave. All over the -vast amphitheatre rang the cry “<i>otro toro</i>” -(another bull), repeated over and over again in -one swelling cadence with ever-increasing -volume. The management was obdurate and the -multitudes left muttering their maledictions.</p> - -<p>Formerly gentlemen of the court mounted on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span> -the finest horses in the kingdom entered the -arena and fought the bull like the knights of old. -Now the sport has degenerated and is performed -by professionals hired for the purpose. I once -had the opportunity of witnessing a bull-fight -by the Portuguese method. This is the bull-fight -deprived of its disgusting details. It is even -more exciting and dispenses with the killing of -both bull and horses. The men with the red -cloaks are employed just the same but the -men who place the <i>banderillas</i> are mounted on -horses. They are not broken-down hacks, but -magnificent, well-trained animals and good care -is taken that the bull does not make sausage -meat of them. As a further protection, the -points of the bull’s horns are covered with balls -to prevent injury to the horses. Their sport -consists in riding past the bull, and placing the -darts without permitting the bull to touch the -horse. It is a feat that requires great skill and -a steady nerve. After the bull is thoroughly -tired out, a number of oxen are driven in the -ring, the exhausted bull is taken out and another -one brought in to continue the sport. In any -form bull-fighting is bad enough, but if a line -can be drawn between degrees of evil, the -method of the Portuguese is the least to be condemned.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span></p> - -<p>Tauromachy has many devotees who follow -the fights in all their features as the base ball -fan watches the sporting page of the American -newspaper. In some places the spectacles are -reported in all their most minute details, even -down to the number of minutes it took the bull -to die after receiving the fatal stroke. The -killing of bulls is a science and there are many -different schools which have been founded by -great masters. A renowned <i>matador</i> receives -as much attention as the champion prize-fighter -in English speaking countries. They receive -great sums of money but are almost invariably -improvident and save little. The fights are not -unattended by danger, for deaths are not infrequent -and serious injuries are a common -occurrence.</p> - -<p>Ladies attend these spectacles and seem to -derive as much pleasure as those who are supposed -to be made of sterner stuff. Their black -eyes sparkle with excitement and they shower -their appreciation upon the successful one without -reserve. It is the place for dress as the -opera is in other lands. All the gallantry in the -Spanish nature comes to the front on the way -to and at the bull-fight. The enthusiasm, the -manners, the expressions—all are distinctly -national.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span></p> - -<p>In Mexico the light on the horizon seems to -be growing brighter, and the beginning of the -end of this brutal and un-American sport is -apparently in sight. It is not in favour with the -present officials in the national capital and in -many of the state capitals. Three of the most -important states absolutely forbid the bull-fights, -and heavy penalties are provided for any -violations of the law. Statutes to prohibit -them have been enacted in the federal district -on more than one occasion, but they have been -as often repealed so great was the popular demand -for them. The best people do not now attend -the performances in the City of Mexico but -this fact has made little diminution in the crowd. -Their places are taken by foreigners resident -there, many of whom are among the most ardent -supporters of the sport. I predict that within -the next decade there will be few states in the -Republic of Mexico that will permit the bull-fight -within their borders. Such action may -curtail a profitable industry and remove a good -market for worn-out horses, but these material -losses will be more than compensated in the development -of those elements of character which -can not be measured by the low standard of -mere dollars and cents.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_XIV">CHAPTER XIV<br /> -<span class="smaller">EDUCATION AND THE ARTS</span></h2> - -<p>Any one who is acquainted with the conditions -existing in Spain or any part of Spanish America -would naturally surmise that education in -New Spain is at a low ebb. What education -does exist is confined to a few. When you know -that districts can be found in Spain to-day -where scarcely ten per cent. of the inhabitants -have mastered the art of reading or writing, it -is not surprising to learn that after three centuries -of the rule of Spanish governors and -viceroys, ninety-five per cent. of the population -of Mexico still remained in profound ignorance. -Learning for the masses was regarded as prejudicial -by those representatives and misrepresentatives -of the home government. One viceroy -voiced this sentiment by saying that only the -catechism should be taught in America. Students -are not likely to go beyond the learning -of their teachers, and these were obliged to pass -examination in only the most elementary<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span> -branches. As a natural result, instruction soon -fell into the hands of the incompetent. Teaching -did not attract the bright minds. Those -who cared for scholastic attainments prepared -for the church or law. Others became soldiers -or adventurers.</p> - -<p>The first viceroy, Mendoza, was a broad-minded -man and interested in his new empire. -At his death he left a sum of money with which -to establish a university to be open to all classes. -This institution was actually established as -early as 1551.</p> - -<p>Very few of the aborigines attained much -culture, although a few of the Aztec nobles were -notable exceptions. Education was in general -left to the church but was neglected by that institution. -The Jesuits, whatever their faults may -have been, were interested in education, and at -the time of their expulsion in 1767 conducted a -large number of colleges and seminaries.</p> - -<p>In the seventeenth century the City of Mexico -was looked upon as a great seat of learning and -a literary centre. Even before the Shakesperian -era of English writers, literature had its beginnings -in that city. Bishop Zumarraga, the -first “Bishop of the Great City of Tenuchtitlan,” -encouraged writers as well as miraculous -visitations such as the Virgin of Guadalupe.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[259]</a></span> -Through his efforts, the first printing press of -the new world had been set up in this seat of -ancient Aztec civilization, in 1535, about a hundred -years before one was in use in the British -colonies. A dozen books had been printed in the -City of Mexico before 1550, and almost a hundred -before the close of the sixteenth century. -Some of these were printed in the Indian languages -including the Mixtec, Zapotec, Nahuatl, -Huaxtec, Tarascan and others.</p> - -<p>The very first book printed on this first press -bore the following impressive and “elevating” -title: <i>Escala Espiritual para llegar al -Cielo, Traducido del Latin en Castellano por el -Venerable Padre Fr Ivan de la Madalena, Religioso -Dominico, 1536</i>. Translated into English -it means the Spiritual Ladder for reaching -Heaven, Translated from Latin into Spanish -by Father Ivan, Dominican. This book was -written especially for students preparing for the -priesthood, and no copies of it are in existence -so far as is known. The second book was a -Christian Doctrine, printed in 1539 “to the -honour and glory of Our Lord Jesus Christ and -of the Most Sacred Virgin, His Mother.” It -was published in the native language also “for -the benefit of the native Indians and the salvation -of their souls.” A few of the books departed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[260]</a></span> -from a strictly religious character, but -all of them drew deep religious truths from -every event. One of the early books was an account -of a great earthquake in the City of -Guatemala which, as the title page suggests, -should be an example that “we amend our sins -and be prepared whenever God shall be pleased -to call us.” Nearly all of these early books were -written by Spanish priests and members of the -religious orders. The first music of the new -world was printed here also in the old illuminated -style, as well as the first wood-engraving.</p> - -<p>The first newspaper in Mexico was the <i>Mercurio -Volante</i>, or The Flying Mercury, established -in 1693. From that time until the present -day, newspapers have existed, but they were so -hampered and restricted in their utterances that -their influence and circulation was small until -long after independence had been proclaimed. -Now there are a great many newspapers and -periodicals of all kinds and descriptions published -in the capital. However, no American -would class them with our own newspapers, for -the reason that they do not seem to have the -“nose for news” of the American journalist. -A Mexican reporter would not think of invading -the sanctity of the home even for a “scoop” -over his competitors. Likewise the family<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a></span> -skeleton is generally safe, which is certainly a -commendable feature. Not one of the many -newspapers published could be classed as sensational -or of the “yellow” stripe. Mexico’s -reading public is comparatively small even to -this day because of the still large illiterate class. -<i>El Imparcial</i>, the leading daily and official organ -of the government, does not have a circulation -exceeding seventy-five thousand, scattered all -over the republic. Its editor is an influential -member of congress. It publishes an afternoon -edition called <i>El Mundo</i> (the world). The -<i>Popular</i> is second in circulation. <i>Tiempo</i> -(times) is the leading Catholic daily. Other -papers are <i>Pais</i> (country), <i>Patria</i> and <i>Sucesos</i> -(events). There are two English newspapers -published in the capital of which <i>The Mexican -Herald</i> is the leading one and is the best newspaper -in the country. It is widely read by both -foreigners and official and influential Mexicans. -There is an illustrated weekly, <i>El Mundo Illustrado</i>, -an agricultural paper, <i>The Heraldo -Agricola</i> and many other periodicals of various -kinds. <i>Modern Mexico</i> is an excellent illustrated -monthly magazine edited in the City of -Mexico and published in New York. It is -printed in both Spanish and English and is -devoted to Mexican interests in general. Many<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[262]</a></span> -of the cities have daily newspapers, but -they are generally inferior and uninfluential -publications. The best paper published in Vera -Cruz could not compare with an American -newspaper published in a little hamlet.</p> - -<p>Mexico has produced many writers and some -of them have been very prolific in their productions. -It can not be said that there was -much originality to the early writers when they -departed from historical lines, but there is a -sprightliness and rhythm in their epics that -holds the attention of the reader. The bright -spots in the history of literature for the first -generation after the conquest are made by a -group of Indian writers, bearing the unpronounceable -names of Ixtlilxochitli, Tezozomoc -and Nitzahualcoyotl. These men recorded the -glory of their ancestors in prose and poetry. -Although their Spanish is faulty, their genius is -clear. Bernal Diaz, the early companion of -Cortez and afterwards governor of Guatemala, -wrote from the latter place his “True History -of the Events of the Conquest of New Spain.” -It is a very readable work and a fascinating account -of an interesting country and a primitive -race. The writings of Las Casas have been -much criticised but they deserve mention. Other<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263]</a></span> -chroniclers are Bustamente, Alvarez and -Iglesias.</p> - -<p>Poetry has always had a leading place in the -literature of Mexico for the Spanish language -is well suited to verse and their love poems have -the highest rank. Some of the modern writers -are better known in Europe than on this continent. -The two leading poets are Juan de Dios -Pesa, called the Mexican Longfellow, and José -Peon y Contreras. The latter is foremost in the -ranks of living poets.</p> - -<p>Literary talent is much encouraged by the -government and any one showing marked -literary ability is almost sure to be offered some -government position. An instance of this is -seen in the career of Vicente Riva Palacio, a -well known novelist and dramatist who has been -governor, cabinet member and Justice of the -Supreme Court. Another example was the poet -Prieto who served in the cabinet of several -presidents and died a few years ago. The -Minister of Fomento (encouragement) can issue -deserving books from the government press, if -he so desires, and a number of works, especially -historical treatises, have been issued in this way. -The reason is, I suppose, because the reading -public is not yet very large and a meritorious -book would possibly have only a limited sale.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[264]</a></span> -These conditions are fast passing away. The -drama and the tragic have ever filled a large -place in the life of the Mexican people. A number -of their dramatic books have become well -known in Spanish-speaking countries but have -not been translated into English.</p> - -<p>After the struggle for independence, nothing -was done in the way of education until almost -the middle of the last century. The colleges and -schools already established had begun to -languish. Even after that date little was done, -because the church was so occupied in retaining -its own foothold, and each successive government -inherited only a burden of debt from its -predecessors. Juarez had the desire to establish -schools but not the means. Maximilian -would no doubt have promoted education but his -throne was never secure.</p> - -<p>The development of the school system is so -recent that it may safely be said to date from -the first inauguration of President Diaz in 1876. -Listen to what this so-called republican despot -says upon this subject, which expresses the attitude -of the present government: “Education is -our foremost interest. We regard it as the -foundation of our prosperity and the basis of -our very existence. For this reason we are doing -all that we can do to strengthen its activity<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[265]</a></span> -and increase its power. I have created a public -school for boys and another for girls in every -community in the republic. Education is such -a national interest that we have established a -Ministry of Public Instruction to watch over it. -We have learned from Japan, what we indeed -knew before, but did not realize quite clearly, -that education is the one thing needful to a -people; if they but possess it, all other distinctions -are added unto them.”</p> - -<p>The educational system has been revolutionized, -it might be said created, within a little more -than a quarter of a century under the guidance -of one man except for a period of four years. -The schools are non-sectarian and the teaching -of religion is absolutely prohibited. “That” -says Diaz, “is for the family to do, for the state -should teach only scholarship, industry and -patriotism.” The schools in the Federal District, -which includes the City of Mexico and -suburbs, and the territories of Tepic and Lower -California, are under the direct control of the -executive. The Federal District alone has nearly -four hundred schools, and a number of fine new -school buildings have been erected in the past -four years after American models. The idea of -a school building without a play ground is -strange to an American, yet in Mexico none,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[266]</a></span> -except the new ones, have any recreation ground -whatever, and they are housed mostly in the old -church properties that reverted to the government -after the disestablishment. Another -strange idea to the American mind is the separation -of the sexes which is almost universal. The -girls’ schools contain fewer pupils, for the -parents, if possible, send them to private institutions -or employ private teachers. Within the -past year several million dollars was appropriated -by congress for the erection and equipment -of new buildings in the Federal District. -Commissioners have been sent to the United -States to study school systems, and we find their -schools divided very much as our own.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 420px;" id="illus36"> -<img src="images/illus36.jpg" width="420" height="650" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">AN AZTEC SCHOOLGIRL</p> -</div> - -<p>The schools in the various states are under -their own control, and the number and condition -varies accordingly.<a name="FNanchor_3" id="FNanchor_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> In most of them primary<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[267]</a></span> -instruction is compulsory. There are not many -hamlets except in remote mountain regions -where primary schools have not been established, -although in many places greatly inadequate, -if all those of school age should attend. -In the cities, schools for the higher education -corresponding to our own high schools are maintained -at public expense. The English language -is a compulsory study in certain grades, and one -can almost see the time in the future when there -will be two idioms in Mexico. Free night -schools are maintained in some places for the -benefit of those who can not attend during the -day. The duties of citizenship are particularly -impressed upon boys, and some feminine work -is taught to the girls even in the primary -schools. In addition to the government schools, -the churches and private associations support -many schools for pupils of all ages.</p> - -<p>Perhaps nowhere are the results of the campaign -for education seen to better advantage -than in the soldiers’ barracks and penal institutions. -The soldiers are mostly recruited from -the Indians and are without education. The -same is true of those who fill up the jails and -penitentiaries. However much they may deserve -their punishment, humane methods prevail. -Attendance upon classes is compulsory<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[268]</a></span> -upon both soldiers and convicts, and instruction -is given in practical morals, civil government, -arithmetic, natural science, history of Mexico, -geometry, drawing and singing. If the prisoner -is studious and obeys the rules of the institution, -he is graduated and given his freedom. This -little insight into a better life has made a good -citizen out of many a former convict, and a better -one out of a soldier who has completed the -term of his enlistment. The native Mexicans are -bright and intelligent, but self-culture is not -common because of natural indolence. The -Indians, and especially the <i>Mestizos</i>, are promising -and quick to learn. Although there are no -accurate statistics, it is estimated that nearly -one-half of the adult population can at least read -and most of that number can also write.</p> - -<p>The first college established in North America -was founded in Mexico in 1540 and is now -located at Morelia. The federal government -supports normal schools for the preparation of -teachers, and schools of music, agriculture, -dentistry, medicine, law, mining, fine arts and -trades for both sexes. There are also schools -for the blind and mutes, and reform schools for -incorrigibles. The medical college has had a -greater reputation than any of the other institutions -of higher learning. This college now<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[269]</a></span> -occupies the old home of the inquisition. The -staffs of these schools are generally finely -educated men, and will compare favourably -with the staffs of similar institutions in other -countries.</p> - -<p>The Biblioteca Nacional, or National Library, -occupies a magnificent building that was formerly -a noted monastery. It contains several -hundred thousand volumes, and is a storehouse -of ancient documents and volumes of the -colonial periods. When the monastic orders -were suppressed, more than one hundred thousand -volumes were added to the national library -from these institutions. Although most of their -books and pamphlets were religious works, yet -many of them are extremely valuable and almost -priceless. There are a few books here that -date back before the discovery of America by -Columbus, and many rare old documents on -vellum and parchment. A few of the picture -writings of the Aztecs are also preserved in this -interesting library. The National Museum is a -vast storehouse of the antiquities of the country. -One can wander around through the rooms and -corridors for hours and days and continually -find some new object of interest in the vast -collection of relics of the prehistorical races.</p> - -<p>Like all Catholic countries Mexico has the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[270]</a></span> -traditional reverence for religious art. This -love has caused a careful preservation of all the -paintings that have been brought to the country, -and the names of the donors as well. Nearly -every church is adorned with some cherished -painting, most of which are copies of works by -the noted masters held in the great collections -of Europe. However, here and there will be -found a Michael Angelo, a Velasquez, a Guido, a -Murillo or a Rubens. Perhaps the most -cherished canvas in the entire country is a -Titian at the village of Tzintzuntzan on the -shores of Lake Patzcuaro. It is a large canvas -on the walls of a little dilapidated church and -represents the entombing of Christ. The room -that contains it has but one outside opening and -that an unglazed window.</p> - -<p>Mexico herself has developed some expert -copyists but few talented artists. One of the -most noted was Cabrera, a Zapotec Indian, who -has been called the Rafael of Mexico. He was -architect, sculptor and painter, and has done -some fine work in each line. Politics has in -times past absorbed too much of the time of the -young men of Mexico so that the arts have been -neglected.</p> - -<p>The Escuela National de Bellas Artes, or National -School of Fine Arts, in the City of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[271]</a></span> -Mexico is an excellent institution and is liberally -supported by the government.</p> - -<p>Charles Dudley Warner says: “It was a -marvellous time of original and beautiful work -that covered Mexico with churches, and set up -in all the remote and almost inaccessible villages -towers and domes that match the best work of -Italy and recall the triumphs of Moorish -art.”</p> - -<p>No one with even the slightest love of architecture -can help but be impressed with the great -variety of design and grandeur of construction -of the churches of Mexico. Though designed -by Spanish architects and retaining the Moorish -characteristics of that period, they are the work -of native workmen and have received some Aztec -touches. On the façades, towers and portals -are designs and figures made by these workmen -which are doubtless Indian legends or traditions -of a prehistoric age. They resemble strongly -those strange symbols of the ancient Egyptians -and Persians. Some of the churches which the -traveller encounters in villages consisting of -low adobe huts fairly overwhelm one with their -splendour. In places a great church will loom -up in the horizon with scarcely a sign of human -habitation near it. Only in the tropics are these -great houses of worship wanting. The danger<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[272]</a></span> -of earthquakes precluded the building of lofty -structures there, and the priests of the conquering -age, which was the great era of construction, -rather avoided the hot lands for the cooler -plateaus.</p> - -<p>The beauty and originality in the churches is -principally in the exterior. This is the reverse -of the architecture in the homes, for there the -outside walls are plain, and skill and ornamentation -are devoted to the decoration of the patio. -The interior is generally quite commonplace, -and a church in one city is very much like a -church in another. The ornamentation of the -exterior is very elaborate and of the rococo or, -as some would call it, the over-done style. However -when looking upon the extreme richness of -detail, one can see and appreciate the beauty -and merits of the style, even if there is a certain -floridness and flamboyancy present. The towers -resemble the towers which are a part of the -mosques in Moslem countries from which the -call to prayers is made by the priests. As Mr. -Warner says: “There is a touch of decay -nearly everywhere, a crumbling and defacement -of colours, which add somewhat of pathos to -the old structures; but in nearly every one there -is some unexpected fancy—a belfry oddly -placed, a figure that surprises with its quaintness<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[273]</a></span> -of its position, or a rich bit of deep stone -carving; and in the humblest and plainest -façade, there is a note of individual yielding to -a whim of expression that is very fascinating. -The architects escaped from the commonplace -and the conventional; they understood proportion -without regularity, and the result is not, -perhaps, explainable to those who are only accustomed -to our church architecture.”</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[274]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_XV">CHAPTER XV<br /> -<span class="smaller">MINES AND MINING</span></h2> - -<p>Humboldt speaks of Mexico as the treasure -house of the world. It is one of the most richly -mineralized regions ever discovered, and has -produced one-third of the world’s supply of the -white metal. Mexico, together with Peru, furnished -the wealth that enabled Spain to build -up her great empire. And many a real castle in -Spain was built with the gold and silver taken -out of these rugged mountains of New Spain. -The thirst for gold became a disease among -Spanish adventurers. The mind of Columbus -was distracted by the sight of natives along the -coast of Honduras, who were wearing pure gold -suspended around their necks by cotton cords, -and he temporarily gave up his voyage of discovery -to search for the source of this great -wealth.</p> - -<p>No country can compare with Mexico in the -amount of silver of pure quality that has been -produced. The largest lump of silver ever<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[275]</a></span> -found, weighing two thousand seven hundred -and fifty pounds, was discovered by a poor Indian -in the State of Sonora. Because of a dispute -as to the ownership, the crown solved the -question by appropriating the entire amount. -In fact the crown at first claimed two-thirds of -all the precious metals mined which was afterwards -reduced to one-fifth. Some authorities -estimate the amount of silver that has been produced -in Mexico at the enormous sum of $6,000,000,000, -but two-thirds of that sum is probably -in excess of the real value. The Taxco, Tzumepanco -and Temezcaltepec mines date from 1539 -but the greatest number of the “bonanzas” -were discovered between 1550 and 1700. Many -of them were located by priests, who, urged on -by a fanatical zeal to convert the natives, pushed -forth into unknown regions, and literally stumbled -upon the rich ore-bearing quartz. The -Spanish viceregal government kept an accurate -account of the silver mined in their red-tape -method, for the royal one-fifth was carefully and -jealously looked after. Mine owners were compelled -to make their reports regularly and correctly. -A reference to these reports shows a -record of almost untold wealth when it is remembered -that this was long before the depreciation -of silver.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[276]</a></span></p> - -<p>The story of the bonanza kings makes interesting -reading. They made money so fast that -it was almost impossible to spend it except over -the gaming table, in those days before the invention -of modern surplus-reducing luxuries. -One man, Zambrano, discovered a mine that -made him extremely wealthy. Although he lived -in the various capitals of Europe as extravagantly -as the age permitted, yet he left a comfortable -little fortune of $60,000,000 for his -heirs to fight over. He even proposed to lay a -sidewalk of silver bars in front of his house, -but the authorities objected. He took out fifty-five -million ounces of silver from one mine in -twelve years as is shown by the government -records.</p> - -<p>Many of those who accumulated great fortunes -were made grandees of Spain and some of -the present titled families in that country are -descendants of the famous bonanza kings of -Mexico. Juan de Oñata who colonized New -Mexico at his own expense, founding Santa Fe, -and became its first governor about 1598, was a -son of one of the mining kings, and the wealth -dug out of the earth in old Mexico by his father -furnished the means for founding that state.</p> - -<p>Joseph de la Borda was one of the romantic -characters of this age. He was a wandering<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[277]</a></span> -Frenchman who came from Canada in the first -half of the eighteenth century and no one ever -learned anything further about him. He made -three fortunes and lost two of them because of -his lavish gifts, most of which went to the -church. He built several large churches in what -is now the state of Hidalgo. After losing his -second fortune, the Archbishop of Mexico gave -him permission to sell a magnificent diamond-studded -ornament that he had given to the -church in Tasco. From this he realized $100,000, -and after a great deal of prospecting, -finally discovered another rich mine which -yielded him many more millions.</p> - -<p>Pedro Romero de Terreros, from a humble -shopkeeper, became Count of Regla, after acquiring -great wealth from his mine, La Viscayne. -He built two large ships, one of one hundred -and twelve guns, and presented them to his -sovereign. He also loaned the crown $1,000,000 -as freely as a man gives a friend a dollar, which -sum the king never found it convenient to repay. -In later life he founded the national pawn-shop, -which he called the Mount of Piety and which -has grown to be such a great humanitarian institution -in the capital and other cities.</p> - -<p>The Conde de Valenciana who discovered the -famous Valenciana mine of Guanajuato is reported<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[278]</a></span> -to have made and spent $100,000,000 in -a few years. One man discovered a rich mine -on his ranch near Durango that rendered him -immensely wealthy. He sent a present of $2,000,000 -to the king of Spain and asked permission -to build galleries and <i>portales</i> of silver -around his fine new home. This was refused -on the ground that such display was the privilege -of royalty only.</p> - -<p>A Guanajuato miner paved the street with silver -ingots for a distance of sixty yards for the -procession to pass over on their way to the -church on the occasion of the christening of his -son. Another story is told of a mining king who, -on a similar occasion, paved the main aisle of -the church with bars of silver for the baptismal -party to walk upon. After the ceremony he -wanted to remove the silver bars, but the wily -priest told him that it would be an act of impiety -which the Almighty would surely punish. It -was not done and the occasion proved to be an -expensive christening for the crœsus. Godfathers -became so reckless in throwing away -money that one viceroy issued a proclamation -forbidding them to fling handfuls of money in -the street as had been their custom, because such -acts encouraged improvidence.</p> - -<p>I have seen the statement that there is one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[279]</a></span> -man at Mazatlan to-day who owns a mine whose -entrance is protected by massive walls and -gates. Whenever he wants a hundred thousand -or so of lucre, he simply takes in a few miners -and digs out the ore and then gambles it away.</p> - -<p>There is one noted mining king of to-day, -Pedro Alvaredo, a full-blooded Indian, who is -known as the peon millionaire. A few years -ago a mine that he owned “bonanzad,” as they -call it, and he became immensely wealthy. However, -he and his wife still dress in the peon -clothes to which they were accustomed. He has -built a mansion and furnished it with every kind -of musical instrument to be obtained, including -many makes of pianos. A few years ago he -announced that he would pay off the national -debt, but he found it a little too large.</p> - -<p>The Spaniards worked only the very richest -of the mines. They would not touch ore that did -not yield nearly a hundred ounces to the ton. -Their early methods were of the very crudest -sort until the “<i>patio</i>” process was discovered -and came into general use. If difficulties were -met with in mining, these men simply worked -around them and left great amounts of rich -quartz untouched. The ore was so plentiful -that they did not attempt to do their operations -in a thorough manner. However they protected<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[280]</a></span> -the entrance by building great fortifications -around the shafts, that look like the walled cities -of old and were patrolled by armed guards. -Vast shafts were constructed down which run -ladders. The poor peon toils up these ladders -which sometimes aggregate more than a thousand -rounds carrying a rawhide sack on his back -containing two hundred and fifty pounds of ore -without a rest, and will make several trips a day. -In early times the natives were compelled to -work in these mines to all intents and purposes -as slaves, and were beaten and flogged even to -death if they refused to obey their taskmasters. -At night each peon was searched for fear he -might conceal some of the precious metal. However -as their costume was exceedingly simple -the search was a very easy matter. The mines -were cleared of water in the same way by the -peons carrying it up these long ladders in rawhide -buckets. Many mines were abandoned on -account of water in those days long before their -wealth was exhausted. Transportation was -slow and expensive, and the mountain trails -were kept dusty by the long trains of pack mules -transporting treasures and supplies.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus37"> -<img src="images/illus37.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">PEON MINERS AT LUNCH</p> -</div> - -<p>Until within the last few years since American -capital has undertaken to develop many of -the Mexican mines, only the most primitive<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[281]</a></span> -methods were in use. Even to-day many are -operated in the same old way, although modern -machinery is being rapidly introduced. The expense -of fuel has been a great drawback in the -less productive mines, and the shafts many hundreds -of feet deep are worked with a windlass -and mule power. Coal costs as high as $15 -(gold) per ton at the mine and is then cheaper -than wood at $14 (silver) per cord. At these -prices steam power becomes very expensive. In -those early days only those ores could be mined -at a profit that could be treated at the mine, because -of the great expense of transporting the -ore-laden rock on the backs of mules.</p> - -<p>The patio process of amalgamating silver is -still generally used. This first came into use in -1557, being discovered by Bartolome de Medina, -a miner. The ore is first crushed into a powder -by an immense rolling stone that is revolved by -teams of mules. This powder is then carried into -a patio, or paved court, by a stream of water -until the mass is about two feet deep. Quicksilver, -salt and blue vitriol are then thrown -into it and several teams of mules are driven -around and around until the mass is thoroughly -mixed, which requires several weeks. This is -then thrown into troughs of water, where the -amalgam of silver and quicksilver will sink to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[282]</a></span> -the bottom. By a process of distillation the silver -is then separated from the quicksilver. -Within five years after the discovery of this -process Zacatecas alone had thirty-five of these -reduction works in operation. It is claimed that -not over ten per cent. is lost by this simple -method. The poor mules eventually become -horrible looking sights from the action of the -vitriol on their legs. This patio mud has been -used in the construction of the huts of the peons. -A company was formed to tear down a whole -row of these huts in Guanajuato just to extract -the little metal that was left in them. The crown -retained a monopoly on the quicksilver, and -realized great profits upon this necessary metal -in treating the silver ore.</p> - -<p>The first bonanza mines were discovered at -Zacatecas in 1546 by Juan de Tolosa. So rich -were they and so great was the influx of miners, -that the place was made a city forty years later. -For two hundred and fifty years fabulous sums -of silver were taken from the hills surrounding -this quaint city. Some of the richest mines of -the country have been located near Pachuca. -More than three hundred silver mines are found -there and in the near-by districts of Regla and -Real del Monte. One mine, The Trinidad, is -said to have yielded $50,000,000 in ten years.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[283]</a></span> -There was very little stock speculation with the -mines in the early days. There was at least one -exception where an English company bought an -old producing mine and the $500 shares rose to -$80,000 but in the end the mine proved to be a -failure. Catorce is also a rich mining town, and -the mines have produced many millions of silver -ore. The State of Oaxaca is likewise rich in gold -and silver bearing quartz. None of the great -bonanzas were found there, but a steady stream -of gold and silver has been produced by the -Oaxaca mines. I heard an interesting story of -a young prospector who had spent several years -and all his money in the search for wealth near -Ejutla in that state. Having only a few dollars -left he invested his all in dynamite and placed -it in the lode with a prayer for luck. The blast -revealed a rich “lead” which he sold for $600,000 -a few days later.</p> - -<p>The richest mineralized section in the whole -republic is probably that in and around Guanajuato, -the “hill of the frogs.” This district -was discovered by two mule drivers in 1548 who -were on their way from Zacatecas to the City -of Mexico, and from that date until the present -time a billion and a half dollars’ worth of silver -has been produced. A hundred years ago Guanajuato -was one of the largest cities and it is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[284]</a></span> -admitted by all travellers to be one of the most -picturesque cities in the New World. Its -wealthy mine owners lived like princes and -spent their money like drunken sailors. Fortunes -were made and lost. About a hundred -years ago two mines there were producing four -million ounces of silver annually. These mines -were worked by the Aztecs long before the -Spaniards came. This is called the La Luz -district.</p> - -<p>To-day Guanajuato is a much smaller city -than it was a half century ago because of the -decrease in mining activity. The Theatre -Juarez is a beautiful building and was built -and is owned by the state, which seems strange -to an American. The state or municipal ownership -of theatres in Spanish-American countries -is quite common. The Republic of Guatemala -takes more pride in its national theatre, the -Teatre Colon (Columbus), than in any other -public building. A curious sight in this city of -Guanajuato is the panteon, or crypt, where bodies -are buried for five years. If burial fees are -not paid again at the end of that time, the bones -are thrown in a heap. However, many of the -bodies are found mummified and these are -placed against the wall making a horrible, gruesome -sight,—one that will not be soon forgotten<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[285]</a></span> -by the traveller. It is like the crypt -underneath the Capuchin Church in Rome.</p> - -<p>The Spanish conquerors mentioned nothing of -silver among the Aztecs, but all their ornaments -were of gold. The value of the presents -of gold ornaments given to Cortez by Montezuma -is estimated by Prescott at more than -$7,000,000. The source of this great gold supply -has never been discovered, for, although gold in -small quantities is found in many places intermingled -with silver, yet the amount mined was -very small in comparison with the value of the -silver. In more recent years owing to improved -methods of separating the precious metals from -the quartz, the proportion of gold produced has -been increasing. From 1810 to 1884 mining -reached a very low ebb because of the unstable -form of government and constant revolutionary -movements. The crude methods formerly in use -became unprofitable, and foreign capitalists -were afraid to invest money for fear that a -change in the government might occur over -night and wipe out everything. The old mines -had been worked to such a depth that they -were flooded and could not be kept in workable -condition by the bucket brigade. The disturbed -political conditions had developed large and -bold bands of robbers; and as all traffic had to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[286]</a></span> -be carried over lonely mountain trails, mining -became very insecure and consequently unprofitable.</p> - -<p>Since the extension of the railway systems -and the establishment of a stable government, -mining is again attracting a great deal of attention. -The government encourages foreign investments -in the mines. Many of the old bonanzas -have been taken over by new companies with -both good and bad results for the investors. -The introduction of modern machinery has so -reduced the cost of mining that lower grade ores -can be profitably worked. Even the dumps that -have been accumulating for centuries are being -worked over at a fair profit. Smelters and mills -for the cyanide process are springing up in all -of the mining regions. Modern pumps are taking -the place of the mule and windlass in keeping -the mines free from water. The fame of -the old bonanzas has no doubt aided in fleecing -the gullible through fake companies organized -by unscrupulous and even criminal promoters. -American miners and prospectors are met with -all over Mexico in the mining districts. It is -safe to say that the majority of them have -either met with disappointment or are living -in hope of a “strike.” These conditions are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[287]</a></span> -the same in every mining district the world -over.</p> - -<p>The mining laws are simple and practical. -Boards are established in every mining community -who look after the mining interests. -Any one discovering a claim can “denounce” -it before this board and he is protected. Foreigners -have the same rights as citizens in -“denouncing” a claim. A mining claim is -called a “<i>pertenencia</i>” and is one hundred -metres square thus consisting of ten thousand -square metres. The surface ground must be -settled for with the owner. A tax of ten dollars -must be paid annually to protect the claim -from forfeiture. More than twelve thousand -claims are now on record as shown by government -statistics. The government only claims -a one-twenty-fifth instead of the royal one-fifth -exacted by Spain.</p> - -<p>The number of men employed in the mines -at the present time is about two hundred thousand. -Wages are low and average about fifty -cents for common labour and one dollar for -native miners in Mexican money. However, -in recent years wages at the mines have had -a tendency to rise. Mexico’s annual production -of silver amounts to from $30,000,000 to -$35,000,000 in gold value and gives it first place.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[288]</a></span> -As the price of silver is advancing, the production -will no doubt be further stimulated. -It now occupies fifth place in the production of -gold, being exceeded only by the Transvaal, -Australia, United States and Russia. The production -of Mexico in 1906 reached a value of -$15,000,000.</p> - -<p>Many other minerals are found in Mexico. -Perhaps the most valuable, next after gold and -silver, is copper of which there are a number -of rich deposits. In 1906, one hundred and -thirty-five million pounds of copper were -mined. When this is compared with a production -of nine hundred and fifteen million pounds -in the United States for the same period it is -not a bad showing for Mexico. Iron is not generally -distributed but there is a mountain of -nearly ninety per cent. pure iron ore at Durango. -Tradition says that the Indians first -led the Spaniards to Durango by tales of a -mountain of gold where the yellow metal -sparkled on the surface. When they arrived -at this mountain, now called Cerro del Mercado, -they pointed to the outcroppings of pyrites -which the ignorant natives thought—or -pretended to think—were of the same metal -that these strange white men had come across -the unknown seas in search of. A little coal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[289]</a></span> -has been found but not in quantities sufficient -for local consumption, so that considerable coal -and coke are imported each year from England -and the United States. Lead is found in large -quantities, and most of the graphite used in the -United States is imported from Mexico. The -greatest development in recent years has been -in the production of petroleum. Some of the -most remarkable flowing wells in the world have -been struck near Tampico. Great rivalry has -resulted between the English and American -interests, and the Mexicans have profited by -it. Another profitable field has been found on -the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. The total production -for the year 1910 exceeded four million -barrels. Several of the railways have already -adopted this fuel.</p> - -<p>Wonderful progress is being made in developing -the mineral resources of this country, -and it is possible that greater discoveries will -yet be made. The wealth of Mexico to-day is -not being squandered after the manner of -many of the bonanza kings; but it is being -spent along legitimate lines, and is one of the -greatest aids in building up a strong republic -and developing a nation of intelligent and -liberty-loving citizens.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[290]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_XVI">CHAPTER XVI<br /> -<span class="smaller">RAILWAYS AND THEIR INFLUENCE</span></h2> - -<p>A work upon Mexico would be incomplete -without a description of the railways and the -present progressive railway movement. Nothing -has contributed in such a degree to the -great progress that has been made in the last -quarter of a century in Mexico, as the rapidly -increasing railway lines. This is true not only -of the influence these advance agents of progressiveness -have had upon commerce, but they -have enlarged the intercourse with other nations, -especially with the United States. -Through this means the dormant energies and -ambitions of the Mexican people have been -awakened, and a new era has dawned in our -Latin neighbour.</p> - -<p>The centres of population in Mexico have -always been situated in the great central plateaus -in the interior. Only a very small proportion -of the population live on, or near the -coast. Communication with the ports was over<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[291]</a></span> -long, narrow and rough trails. The transportation -of commerce was slow and expensive, -and required great droves of slow-moving pack -mules and patient burros, and whole armies of -cargadors. Furthermore, the very isolation of -the people and difficulty of communication kept -them aloof from modern progress, and left -them content with things as they were, with no -ambition for anything more advanced or better -than had been enjoyed by their forefathers. -It also prevented the development of a real, -national spirit, because one community was, in -a true sense, not familiar with the neighbouring -cities, and took a special pride in its local -interests rather than in the idea of a homogeneous, -strongly-centred whole.</p> - -<p>So jealous were those employed in the business -of transportation in the old crude way, -that, in order to placate them, some of the earlier -roads were obliged to commence construction -at the point furthermost from the port, -in order to give employment to these people -in transporting the material from the port to -the place of beginning. Those who are familiar -with the great development of the west, since -the construction of our own trans-continental -lines, will better appreciate the change that railroad -construction has wrought in Mexico.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[292]</a></span> -There is this difference, however, that the people -were in Mexico before the railroads were -built, and, instead of a newly-developed country -it is a rejuvenated old country.</p> - -<p>Prior to the beginning of the railway movement, -Mexico was noted chiefly for its minerals. -Now, although only a small portion of the -mineral wealth has been dug out of the earth, -mining has become of secondary importance. -The increase in commerce and manufacturing, -and the stimulus to agriculture brought about -by these avenues of communication, have -swelled the general wealth of the country far -more than the millions of white metal extracted -from old mother earth each year. Manufacturing -plants have sprung up on every hand, and -the products of the mills are increasing in -volume and variety each year. Mexico could, -probably, after a fashion, supply all the wants -of her people without any imports from the -outside world. The factories include almost -every line of trade from the making of articles -to adorn the outward man to the solid and -liquid goods which cheer and sustain the inward -man.</p> - -<p>The railroads have tended to enlarge the -wants of the people by throwing them into contact -with other civilizations and have raised<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[293]</a></span> -the general standard of wages so that the people -have more money to expend for material -needs and luxuries. The abolishment of the -<i>alcabales</i>, or local customs, was the logical result -of the development of railways and was -almost revolutionary. From the time of the -Spanish conquest each city had collected a local -tariff on all goods brought into the town for -sale, and had raised a great part of its revenues -in this way. Changes come slow in this country, -but are nevertheless sure. It may be that -at some time in the future the brown back of the -burden-bearing cargador will be relieved of its -load. It is a question, however, whether this -change would be welcomed by the dusky descendants -of Montezuma.</p> - -<p>The encouragement given to railroad construction -has been done with a lavish but well-directed -hand. It is estimated that more than -one hundred and fifty million dollars have been -spent by the Mexican government in subsidizing -railroads and in developing harbours, and the -end is not in sight yet. Perhaps the motive -has not been altogether unselfish for no one influence -has assisted so much in centralizing the -power in the hands of the Diaz government or -been such a potent force in tranquillizing a -naturally turbulent people, as the railways and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[294]</a></span> -the telegraph lines which always accompany -them. Instant notice would be sent of any -embryonic revolutionary movement and troops -could be hurried to the affected district at once. -There were at the close of 1906, according to -government report, twenty-one thousand six -hundred and eleven kilometers of railway track -in Mexico, or about thirteen thousand five hundred -miles, and this is increasing at the rate -of several hundred miles each year. The subsidies -on the principal lines have averaged -from $10,000 to $15,000 per English mile, with -the provision in most instances that after a -certain period (generally ninety-nine years) -the roads shall revert to the government at a -certain fixed valuation. Construction is either -of such a difficult character, or over such long -stretches of semi-desert territory with poor and -scattered population, that most of these roads -would never have been built except for government -assistance.</p> - -<p>After the manner of the Romans and with -equal truthfulness, the Mexicans say that all -roads lead to the City of Mexico. This saying -is almost literally true. The Valley of Mexico -is traversed from every direction with the <i>ferro -carriles</i>, or roads of iron, converging toward -the capital. It now has direct communication<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[295]</a></span> -by rail with almost every part of the republic -except Yucatan and the Pacific slope, and can -reach this coast at one point by a roundabout -way to Salina Cruz.</p> - -<p>The back-bone of the extensive railway system -is formed by the two great trunk lines -which reach out to the north from the City of -Mexico, gradually diverging until at the places -where they cross the muddy Rio Grande they -are several hundred miles apart. These railways -traverse the broad central plateau of -which Humboldt, the great traveller, wrote, “so -regular is the great plateau and so gentle are -the slopes where depressions occur, that the -journey from Mexico to Santa Fe, New Mexico, -might be made in a four-wheeled vehicle.” -There are hundreds of miles where construction -work was exceedingly easy, as it consisted -simply of shovelling up a slightly raised bed -and laying the ties and rail. Rough mountain -construction in other places, and especially in -entering the Valley of Mexico, required the -work of the very best engineers. By whichever -route the traveller enters Mexico it would be -well if he could sleep over the first two hundred -miles while the train is passing over the semi-desert -plains of Northern Mexico where the -dust filters through the car windows in clouds.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[296]</a></span></p> - -<p>The government of Mexico has entered the -railway field for economic reasons. It is simply -another indication of the intention on the part -of President Diaz to control the railway situation -in behalf of the people by preventing excessive -rates through the pooling of interests. -The spectre of railway consolidation similar to -the merging of the great systems in the United -States influenced the officials more than anything -else, and the government did not want the -railway situation in Mexico controlled by any -of the large American companies. The project -was begun only a few years ago by actual purchase -in the open market of a controlling interest -in the National railroad. This purchase -was made by a select firm of New York brokers, -and the real buyer was not revealed until sufficient -stock had been secured to insure control -of the properties. These lines are now known -as the National Lines of Mexico and have a -mileage of about eight thousand miles. They -will be held by a corporation with a capital of -$250,000,000, organized under the laws of -Mexico, the control of which will be vested in -the Mexican government, although there will be -a minority board in New York. They include -one hundred and sixty miles of track in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[297]</a></span> -United States from Laredo to Corpus Christi, -Texas.</p> - -<p>The main line of the system is the former -National Railroad extending from Laredo to the -capital, a distance of eight hundred and thirty-nine -miles, several hundred miles shorter than -the Central. It passes through the important -cities of Monterey, Saltillo, San Luis Potosi and -Celaya. Originally constructed as a narrow -gauge line, it has been changed to standard -width throughout its entire length. The Mexican -International Railroad, which enters Mexico at -Eagle Pass and runs through Torreon to Durango -with a branch to Monterey, has been -added. The Interoceanic Railway, whose main -line connects the capital with Vera Cruz, passing -through Puebla, the third largest city in -Mexico, is also now a part of this system. At -the present time this line is narrow gauge, but -preparations are now being made to widen it to -standard gauge. Quite recently the government -purchased the Hidalgo Railroad, which extends -from the City of Mexico to Pachuca, State of -Hidalgo. It is the intention of the government -to extend this line immediately to Tampico, thus -making a short and direct route to this port.</p> - -<p>In December, 1906, the government announced -the purchase of the Mexican Central<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[298]</a></span> -Railway, its only large competitor, and this road -will be added to the system known as the National -Lines. The reasons for this purchase -were stated by Minister of Finance Limantour -to be “the aggressive attitude assumed by certain -great railway systems in the United -States.” It was feared that the great railways -of the United States would step in and absorb -this important line, and saddle upon the people -the trust evil. The Mexican Central is the -largest railway system within the republic and -owns more than three thousand five hundred -miles of track. The main line extends from El -Paso, Texas, to the capital in a southeasterly -direction a distance of one thousand two hundred -and twenty-four miles. This was the first -road constructed to the United States border -and received the largest subsidy of any line, -amounting to $15,200 per mile. Construction -work was begun in 1880 at both terminal points -and rushed to completion so that through trains -were running less than four years later. This -made an average of nearly one mile for each -working day. It traverses sections rich in agriculture -and mineral resources and passes -through many of the important cities. Among -these are Chihuahua, Torreon, Zacatecas, Aguas -Calientes, Leon, Irapuato, Celaya and Querétero.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[299]</a></span> -It reaches a population of several millions -on the table lands.</p> - -<p>Two important branches of the main line run -to the gulf port of Tampico, which is second -only in importance to Vera Cruz. One of these -lines branches off at Aguas Calientes passing -through San Luis Potosi, and the other at -Torreon, passing through Monterey. At Irapuato -a branch line runs west to Guadalajara, -the second largest city in Mexico, and is being -extended through to Manzanillo, a good harbour -on the Pacific coast. It is expected that this -road will be completed January, 1908, and will -give the capital what has long been needed—a -direct route to the Pacific. The difficulty and -great cost of construction in reaching this coast -has delayed the various projected lines, for the -drop from the high plateaus to the sea level is -very abrupt. It is estimated that the last hundred -miles of this extension will cost $5,000,000 -in gold. Another branch of this system extends -south from the capital through ancient Cuernevaca -to the Balsas River, with an ultimate destination -of Acapulco, the finest harbour on the -Pacific Coast of either North or South America. -There are also numerous smaller and less important -feeders.</p> - -<p>The Mexican Railway which connects the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[300]</a></span> -port of Vera Cruz with the City of Mexico is the -oldest railroad in the republic. It was first incorporated -under the empire in 1864 as the Imperial -Mexican Railway and exceedingly favourable -concessions were granted. Owing to the -political disturbances it was not completed until -1873. It was built with English capital and cost -a fabulous sum. The monopoly which it held for -years enabled it to pay big returns to its owners -for a long period and even now its earnings -compare favourably with our own western lines. -This road is noted as one of the most picturesque -railways in the world, for in a few -hours one is transported from the high plateaus -to the sea level.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus38"> -<img src="images/illus38.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">ALONG THE MEXICAN SOUTHERN RAILWAY</p> -</div> - -<p>The Mexican Southern Railway is another -English road extending from Puebla south to -Oaxaca, which was opened for traffic in 1893, -a distance of 227 miles. This road received a -bonus of about $10,000,000 in government -bonds, and well it needed such an inducement, -for the traveller wonders in passing over the -line where the profit can come from, as there -are only a very few places of any size between -the two terminal points. It opens up a rich -agricultural and mineral section in the Valley -of Oaxaca, and will probably develop into a -profitable property in the future. As the line<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[301]</a></span> -runs through narrow ravines a great part of the -way, following streams, the traveller does not -see the best part of the country traversed.</p> - -<p>The Southern Pacific has a branch which -runs from Benson, Arizona, to Guaymas, the -chief port on the Gulf of California, passing -through Hermosillo, the capital of the State of -Sonora, the home of the Yaqui Indians. It -passes through an intensely interesting country, -possessing a wealth of scenery and natural resources. -This line is being extended farther -south, with an ultimate destination of Guadalajara -or possibly the capital city.</p> - -<p>Another important link in the system of railroads -in Mexico, and one which is practically -owned by the government is the Vera Cruz and -Pacific Railway. This road extends from Vera -Cruz to Santa Lucrecia, a station on the Tehuantepec -National Railway which is described in -another chapter. A branch line also extends -to Cordoba, there connecting with the Mexican -Railway, and forms what is at present the only -all-rail route from the capital to a Pacific port. -This road runs through the heart of the -tropics and alternately passes over prairie and -through tropical jungle.</p> - -<p>A trip over this road is a revelation to the -traveller who has never visited a tropical land.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[302]</a></span> -No one except those who assisted in the work -fully appreciates the enormous difficulties that -had to be overcome. I doubt if even mountains -present more perplexing problems in railroad -construction than these level prairies and -swamps, where there is no solid rock or gravel -and the country is deluged with an annual rainfall -of from twelve to sixteen feet. The surface -is a soft clay unfit for roadbed or ballast. After -heavy rains the ties and often the rails would -sink into it until completely covered. For a -few years the road was practically abandoned -for several weeks during the heaviest rainfall. -The track would sometimes slip sideways, or -in a cut the banks would slide in and cover it. -In the two hundred and forty-two miles of the -main line, the road crosses six large rivers, -whose size is due to the amount of rainfall -rather than the extent of territory drained. -These rivers and many smaller streams require -an average of more than one bridge for each -mile of track. The uncertainty and inefficiency -of native help and difficulty of getting skilled -American labour to go there because of the fear -of tropical fevers, rendered the work of the -contractor no easy task. Even an American -workman could not accomplish more than about -half as much as in a colder climate.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[303]</a></span></p> - -<p>I made this trip when it required twenty-six -hours to cover the two hundred miles from Vera -Cruz to Santa Lucrecia. No one asked the -engineer to go faster, and we considered ourselves -in luck not to run off the rails, which in -many places resembled the track made by a -wobbly wheel after we had passed over it. It -has now been placed in better condition, and the -run is made in much quicker time. No one -must expect quick time on Mexican railroads, -for twenty-five miles an hour is fast travelling -and the average is nearer fifteen miles. The -section traversed by this road must inevitably -be the richest part of Mexico in the near future, -now that it has an outlet. It passes through the -region best adapted for tropical plantations -where the soil is inexhaustible.</p> - -<p>One of the dreams of the late James G. Blaine -was a Pan-American railroad or all-rail route -from the United States to the southernmost republics -of South America. President Arthur -appointed a commission in 1884 which was sent -to the republics of Central and South America -along the proposed route. At the first Pan-American -conference held in Washington, this -projected railway was discussed at considerable -length. All the representatives were in favour -of it and a survey was decided upon. Several<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[304]</a></span> -parties of surveyors were set to work at different -points along the proposed route, and a -complete survey was made from Oaxaca, -Mexico, to the northernmost point reached by -the railways of the Argentine Republic. The -proposition excited a great deal of interest and -discussion at the time, but little has been heard -of it in recent years. There is one man in -Mexico, however, who has not lost sight of the -great project, and that man is J. M. Neeland. -He organized a company to build the Pan-American -Railroad from San Geronimo, a station on -the Tehuantepec National Railroad to the -boundary of Guatemala, a distance of about -three hundred miles. The Mexican government -promised a subsidy of $10,000 gold, per mile. -He has followed the base of the mountain range -in order to lessen the expense of construction, -and render it easy to connect with the ports -by means of branch lines. It follows as nearly -as possible an old military road constructed by -the Spaniards.</p> - -<p>Quietly and unostentatiously this line has -been pushed forward until it has been completed -to Pijijiapam, only one hundred and twenty-six -miles from the Guatemala boundary, and a contract -has been let for its completion by the close -of the year 1907. The importance of this line<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[305]</a></span> -to Mexico can hardly be overestimated, for it -connects the seat of government by an all-rail -line with the most remote corner of the republic. -It also opens up the rich coffee lands in the -State of Chiapas, the best coffee territory in -Mexico. The ports along this coast are all open -roadsteads without piers, and freight is carried -to and from the steamers in lighters. At one -time a steamer on which I was a passenger lay -at San Benito, the most southerly Pacific port -of Mexico and on the line of this railway, three -days in order to load a few thousand bags of -coffee. This part of the country has been so -isolated heretofore that it has never been developed -to any extent. The completion of this -Pan-American railroad will greatly increase -the influence of Mexico in the little Republic of -Guatemala, and will have a tendency to render -that country less turbulent. The promoters aim -to continue this road through all the republics -of Central America, clear to the Isthmus of -Panama. They have already secured a concession -with the promise of a good subsidy from -Guatemala, and will utilize a portion of a railroad -now in operation in that country. A remarkable -fact in connection with this road is -that it is already meeting its operating expenses<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[306]</a></span> -and fixed charges, which is an unusual showing -for a newly-built Mexican railroad.</p> - -<p>The government is now endeavouring to have -a railroad constructed from some point on the -Pan-American Railroad to connect with the railways -of Yucatan. This road and the other lines -already under construction will connect all parts -of the republic with the bands of steel, with the -single exception of Lower California. It will -not be many years before this great plan of a -great president will be a reality. Step by step -progress has been made but the improvement -has been permanent. In some places the innovation -was not welcomed at first, because of -extreme conservatism. Now everyone reaps -some benefit from it. Before the days of railroads -each community lived by itself, and the -poor natives were at the mercy of the rich -plantation owners in the dry years which sometimes -occurred. Now, transportation is cheap -and quick, and everyone can have food at a -reasonable cost. The paternal character of the -government in this respect was shown a few -years ago, when the corn crop was a partial -failure and a “corner” was attempted by the -dealers. The government immediately removed -the tariff, imported great quantities of grain, -and sold it to the people at cost. This could not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[307]</a></span> -have been done except for the facilities afforded -by the railway lines. The traffic does -not seem large, and there is only one train per -day each way on most of the lines, and on the -branches this is frequently a mixed passenger -and freight train. The tonnage is increasing -each year as the wants of the people increase, -and money to purchase things heretofore regarded -as luxuries becomes more abundant.</p> - -<div class="smaller"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Note to Revised Edition.</span> In 1911 the railway mileage of -Mexico exceeded 15,000 miles. The Pan-American Railroad -is now completed to Mariscal, on the Guatemala border. Work -on the connecting link with the lines of that republic, only -about thirty miles, is progressing, and it is estimated that within -a year it will be possible to travel by rail from New York to -Guatemala City. The Pan-American and the Vera Cruz and -Pacific Railroads are now a part of the National Lines. The -name of the latter has been changed to the Vera Cruz and -Isthmus Railroad. The Manzanillo branch was completed -almost on time. The extension of the Southern Pacific as far -as the city of Tepic, and the Kansas City, Mexico and Orient -Railway are described in a succeeding chapter.</p> - -</div> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[308]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_XVII">CHAPTER XVII<br /> -<span class="smaller">RELIGIOUS FORCES</span></h2> - -<p>The Aztecs, who originally believed in one -supreme invisible creator, Taotl, adopted the -gods of conquered races, like the Romans of -old, and became polytheists. The Toltecs, one -of the vanquished people, were nature worshippers, -and made offerings of fruits and -flowers to their deities. After their defeat, the -peaceful gods of the Toltecs, who took pleasure -in the offerings of the fruits of the soil, soon -took a place by the side of the terrible god of -war of the Aztecs, Huitzilopoxtli, and shared -with him the offerings of human sacrifices. -This repulsive deity is portrayed as a hideous -idol with broad face, wide mouth and terrible -eyes, but was covered with jewels of gold and -pearls and girt with golden serpents. At the -altars hung censers of incense and braziers -filled with the hearts of the victims offered in -sacrifice. It is said that this god was ministered -to by more than five thousand priests.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[309]</a></span></p> - -<p>When the Spanish conquerors came, the -policy of Cortez left the Mexicans no alternative -but the adoption of the Christian religion. -“Conversion” and “Baptism” became interchangeable -terms and the baptized pagan -was immediately considered a good Christian -even though the conversion only followed the -judicious use of the fire and rack. One of the -priests boasted that his “ordinary day’s work -was from ten to twenty thousand souls.” -Within a few years after the conquest baptism -had been administered to more than four million -Indians. Dreams of avarice swayed the -minds of the conquering legions, for it was believed -that from the unknown, western world -was to come the gold that was to make every -man a Crœsus. But first these ungodly people -must be converted to Romanism. As the unlettered -Indians could not understand the real -spirit and meaning of this new religion, visible -symbols and pictures were substituted for the -former idols. Humboldt, the traveller so often -quoted because of his careful research, says: -“The introduction of the Romish religion had -no other effect upon the Mexicans than to substitute -new ceremonies and symbols for the -rites of a sanguinary worship. Dogma has not -succeeded dogma, but only ceremony to ceremony.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[310]</a></span> -I have seen them marked and adorned -with tinkling bells, perform savage dances -around the altar while a monk of St. Francis -elevated the Host.” It soon became a religious -duty for the Spaniard returning from Europe -to bring paintings and statues of saints to -adorn the newly-erected churches, and holy -relics of the saints to place therein. In this -way these cruel invaders no doubt sought to -satisfy their consciences for their outrages -upon a mild and unresisting people. It is little -wonder that the Indians could not fully appreciate -the humanity of the lowly Nazarene -when represented by such ferocious invaders.</p> - -<p>A few of the Aztec gods blossomed out as -Christian saints soon after the Conquest, -through the ingenious schemes of the early -priests who adopted this method to make the -new religion accepted. They brought with them -into the Roman Church the particular characteristics -and powers which they were credited -with as gods. As for example, the goddess of -the rains who was much worshipped in the -regions of little rain can be recognized in Our -Lady of the Mists, or Our Lady of the Rains -of the Mexican church. These saints are appealed -to for the much-needed rain and are believed -to have the same power to bring it which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[311]</a></span> -they, as Aztec or Toltec gods, were supposed to -have had. In many places there are shrines -erected to these saints of the Church who are -supposed to have power over the rain. It has -been proven that, in most instances, in Aztec -times, a temple existed on the same spot dedicated -to the goddess of the rains or mists, as -the case might be.</p> - -<p>These schemes of miraculous appearances -upon scenes already sacred made the transition -from the native ceremonies to the ritual of the -Catholic Church easy to a people who were accustomed -to outward show and symbolism. The -striking ceremonies of the Catholic Church, as -practised in Mexico, and its impressive services -in an unknown tongue, seemed in harmony -with the rites of the Aztecs, and it was not hard -for Cortez to force his religion upon the simple -and superstitious mind of the poor, conquered -Indian, who was more interested in form than -sentiment. The religion of the Roman Church -in Mexico is not free from pagan features even -to this day. As one writer expresses it -“paganism was baptized, Christianity paganized.” -Outward display means more than -spirituality and piety with the ignorant who -constitute a very large proportion of the population.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[312]</a></span></p> - -<p>One can still recognize in the rites of the -Catholic Church, as practised to-day in Mexico, -a tinge of the Aztec worship. A noted French -Catholic prelate, Abbe Domenech, in 1867 -wrote of that church as follows: “Mexican -faith is a dead faith. The abuse of external -ceremonies, the facility of reconciling the devil -with God, the absence of internal exercise of -piety, have killed the faith in Mexico. The idolatrous -character of Mexican Catholicism is a -fact well known to all travellers. The worship -of saints and madonnas so absorbs the devotion -of the people that little time is left to think -about God. The Indians go to hear mass with -their poultry and vegetables, which they are -carrying to market. The gobble of the turkeys, -the crowing of the cocks, the mewing of the cats, -the chirping of the birds in their nests in the -ceiling, and the flea-bites rendered meditation -impossible to me, unaccustomed to live in such -a menagerie.”</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 420px;" id="illus39"> -<img src="images/illus39.jpg" width="420" height="650" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">WAYSIDE SHRINE WITH AN OFFERING OF FLOWERS</p> -</div> - -<p>In remote caves of mountain regions it is -claimed, and, I believe, truthfully, that the -ancient deities are still worshipped. It is no -infrequent occurrence to see a bouquet of flowers -before the image of the virgin in the churches -or wayside shrines. Sometimes even offerings -of wheat or fruits are found, the gift of some<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[313]</a></span> -poor peon in whose mind the conception of the -Saviour and his mission on earth is very vague. -Several writers assert that they have personally -seen Indians on their way to the mountains to -sacrifice lambs, chickens and flowers to their -gods, thus proving that the grosser forms of -paganism have not been stamped out entirely. -The priests, of course, do not approve of this, -and try in every way to stop these practices, -but without success.</p> - -<p>The Catholic Church used to be all-powerful -in Mexico. It held the wealth and the learning, -and the priests preyed upon the people as well -as prayed for them. They were taxed to the -utmost, and “Pay or pray” was the motto affixed -to the cross by the priests. Rich men gave -freely of their substance. Poor peons—and -they are vastly in the majority—went clothed -in rags that the Church might be benefited. The -favourite method was by the sale of indulgences. -General Thompson, United States Minister to -Mexico in 1845, wrote as follows: “As a means -of raising money, I would not give the single -institution of the Catholic religion (in Mexico) -of masses and indulgences for the benefit of the -souls of the dead for the power of taxation -possessed by any government. I remember that -my washerwoman once asked me to lend her two<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[314]</a></span> -dollars. I asked her what she wanted with it. -She told me that there was a particular mass to -be said on that day which relieved the souls in -purgatory from ten thousand years’ torture -and that she wished to secure the benefit for her -mother.” It is like the harangue that so -aroused Martin Luther: “The very moment the -money clicks on the bottom of this chest the -soul escapes from purgatory and flies to -Heaven! Bring your money, bring money, -bring money!”</p> - -<p>Shrines and chapels were so numerous that -the true believer passed through the streets -with head uncovered and hat in hand, for fear -that he might pass one unobserved and not remove -his head covering as piety demanded. -During the latter years of Spanish rule in -Mexico, the Church became so enormously rich -that it was reported to have in its possession -one-third of all the wealth in Mexico. In addition -to the power the Church naturally held, this -immense wealth gave its leaders great prestige -in governmental affairs, for wealth everywhere -commands power and respect among those in -authority. At one time the clergy held property -to the value of about $180,000,000, yielding an -annual income of $12,000,000, according to reliable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[315]</a></span> -authorities. Some have estimated the wealth -at more than $600,000,000.</p> - -<p>It had secured control not only of the wealth, -but also much of the best agricultural land -within the republic, owning eight hundred -<i>haciendas</i> and more than twenty-two thousand -city lots. All this was tied up and became useless -and non-productive. The Church used its -great influence to oppose all progress. The opposition -finally broke forth, and the immense -wealth of convents, shrines and monasteries -was poured forth with lavish hand in what the -Church considered a holy war against heretical -ideas and persons. Reformers set envious eyes -upon this property, and numerous attempts -were made to dispossess the Church of it. An -edict aimed at the power of the Church was -issued by Commonfort in 1857, but the Indian -reformer and president, Juarez, was the first to -actually accomplish the separation of church -and state several years later. The establishment -of the empire with Maximilian as -Emperor was simply a reaction, and an attempt -to establish a government in which the interests -of the Church would again be paramount. It -is not much wonder that the native population -yielded so readily to the overthrow of the -priestly power. In accomplishing the complete<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[316]</a></span> -overthrow of church and state, Mexico only -did what Italy did a few years later, and what -France is endeavouring to do at the present -time. Even in Spain, the handwriting on the -walls seems to point to the same ultimate result. -And yet it is strange to see a nation so rigidly -and even unmercifully regulating a church to -which ninety-five per cent. of the people belong.</p> - -<p>The reactionary movement on the part of the -Church under the guise of French intervention -failed. The reform anti-clerical movement prevailed -once more, even though opposed by the -enormous wealth of the Church. The greater -portion of the property once owned by the -Church has been lost. The country abounds in -ruined churches and convents. The law went so -far as to prohibit the Church from holding the -title to property, and if it wished to own property, -it must be in the names of individuals. -Priests were forbidden, under penalty of fine -and imprisonment, to appear in the streets in -their clerical dress. Religious processions outside -the walls of the church, or churchyard, were -prohibited. Civil ceremonies were made obligatory -to render a marriage valid. Sisters of -Charity and the Jesuits were sent out of the -country, and even the ringing of bells was regulated<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[317]</a></span> -by law. It has now lost not only its property -but its prestige as well.</p> - -<p>The property was confiscated, or “denounced,” -and sold for beggarly sums in -numerous instances. Many hotels are now -located in former churches or convents, and -schools and barracks innumerable occupy former -homes of nuns. Even the famous prison of -Belem in the City of Mexico, where more than -three thousand offenders (most of them justly -no doubt) have been incarcerated at times, was -the old convent of that name; and the military -prison, Santiago de Tlalteloco, was one of the -oldest churches in Mexico, having been founded -by the first viceroy. Protestant services are -held in a number of places that were former -Catholic churches, the buildings having been -purchased by these organizations, or the use of -them granted by the authorities. The rich silver -plate and the altar rails were looted from -the sacred edifices, or were sold for small sums -by the officers.</p> - -<p>For many years Mexico has thus gone along -the line of reform. The ambition of the Church -has been held in check but not killed. They are -regaining some of their former power, and recovering -much of their former property, so it is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[318]</a></span> -claimed by good authority.<a name="FNanchor_4" id="FNanchor_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> The average Mexican -is superstitious. He is boastful and bold in -times of peace, but craven when the time of -trial comes. Consequently, when sick and about -to die, he will send for the priest, no matter -how he may have fought the Church when in -health. The priests, or some of them at least, -claiming that the Catholic Church, as the chosen -of the Lord, has a lien on all earthly goods, refuse -to administer the sacrament without some -restitution. If the dying man owns a confiscated -church property, he must restore its -value before he can get a clear title to a home -in Heaven. With the persistence characteristic -of the Mexican Catholic priests, they are -ferreting out their former property and again -accumulating wealth for their beloved Church. -Their fees are utterly out of proportion to the -earning capacity of the people. Marriage costs -$14.00, baptism $2.25 and plain mass $6.00. -Many of the poor peons are obliged to forego -the services of the Church because of these -high charges, for all services must be paid in -advance.</p> - -<p>They are also openly disregarding the established -laws in some of the restrictions imposed. -I travelled for two days on the railroad with the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[319]</a></span> -Bishop of Tehuantepec who wore his purple -robes of office all the time. At nearly every -station priests met him, and he was given a -continuous ovation. A few months ago, according -to a Mexican periodical, a well known -priest, in defiance of the law which prohibits -public religious processions, authorized such a -procession, and blessed at the altar those who -arrived with it. In many of the more remote -districts the law requiring marriage ceremonies -to be made by civil authorities is completely -disregarded. The priests tell the people that -the religious ceremony is all that is necessary. -Although the Church upholds such marriages, -in law they are absolutely null and void, and it -is a deceit upon the contracting parties. Some -priests go so far as to tell their people that the -civil marriage is positively impious. And yet -nothing is done to punish the above violations -of the established laws. The government probably -does not consider that these infractions of -the strict letter of the law have reached a -serious phase.</p> - -<p>If the Roman Church of Mexico to-day, with -its wealth confiscated, its public voice muzzled, -its political powers annulled, has still power -so that it can openly violate some of the fundamental -laws of the country, we can have some<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[320]</a></span> -faint idea of its power when it ruled the country -with an iron hand. Those who see trouble -ahead because of the avariciousness of some of -the clergy, are fond of quoting the old Spanish -proverb “The devil lurks behind the cross.” -Nevertheless, I believe that the clergy in Mexico -to-day are superior to those who served prior -to the change in status. Many of them are noble -men striving to uplift the people and aid the -government in its campaign for the enlightenment -of the masses. The strife has purified -them and they think less of the perquisites than -the duties of their office. The well meaning -priest no doubt suffers for the sins of his predecessors -as well as those of his contemporaries -who are blinded by the past glory of the Church. -The Church as an institution is probably to some -extent the victim of the ignorance and fanatical -zeal of its early founders in Mexico. The -Church will thrive far more when placed on the -same footing as all churches are in the United -States, and people and priest accept that condition. -As one prominent American priest has -recently said in commenting on the struggle in -France: “Everywhere that church and state -are united, the church is in bondage. Nowhere -is the church so free and untrammelled, or so -progressive, as in the United States.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[321]</a></span></p> - -<p>The churches in all the cities are numerous -and their capacity far greater than the number -of those attending. Puebla, the City of the -Angels, so called because of the many miraculous -visits of the angels who even, on their first -visit, measured off the city and fixed the site of -some churches, is called the city of churches as -it has the greatest number in proportion to the -population of any city in the republic, many of -them being erected in honour of the various -angelic visitations. The City of Mexico contains -the largest and most pretentious church -building in the new world—the cathedral. -It is also one of the largest church edifices -in the world. This grand cathedral begun -in 1573 was ready for service about three-quarters -of a century later but the towers -were not completed until 1791. It is four hundred -and twenty-six feet long and almost two -hundred feet wide with walls of great thickness, -and reaches a height of one hundred and -seventy-five feet in the dome. The towers are a -little more than two hundred feet high. Then -adjoining this building is another church, the -Sagrario Metropolitano, which, to all appearances, -is a part of the main structure, although -of an entirely different and less beautiful style -of architecture.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[322]</a></span></p> - -<p>Within these two edifices were concentrated -for centuries the pomp and ceremony of the -Church of Rome and within their walls much of -Mexico’s history was made. It is still the -headquarters of the church party while across -the plaza is the National Palace, the official home -of the government which conquered in the long -struggle between the two forces. The estimated -cost of the cathedral is $2,000,000, but that represents -only a fraction of the actual cost if the -labour is figured at a fair rate and the material -had all been purchased at market value. There -are some paintings by famous artists on the -walls and dome. A balustrade surrounds the -choir which is made of composite metal of gold, -silver and copper and is so valuable that an offer -of a speculative American to replace it with -one of equal weight in solid silver was refused. -Within the walls there are fourteen chapels -dedicated to the various saints, and candles are -kept constantly burning before the images, and -in these chapels are kept many gruesome relics -of these same saints. The remains of many of -the former viceroys and some of the other noted -men in Mexican history lie buried here. This, -the greatest church in the western world, is -also built on the foundations of the greatest -pagan temple of the continent—the imposing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[323]</a></span> -<i>Teocalli</i> of the Aztecs. From the top of the -towers we can look upon the same valley that -Cortez viewed when Montezuma took him by -the hand after ascending the great altar, and -pointed out the various places of interest. The -lakes have receded, the architecture is different, -but our admiring eyes see the same majestic -hills on every side.</p> - -<p>Listening to the bells in the towers of this -cathedral, once so powerful, one, who is a -“dreamer of dreams,” can almost imagine -them lamenting the changed times in the words -of the last poem written by the poet Longfellow:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="verse">“Is then the old faith dead,”</div> -<div class="verse">They say, “and in its stead</div> -<div class="verse">Is some new faith proclaimed,</div> -<div class="verse">That we are forced to remain</div> -<div class="verse">Naked to sun and rain,</div> -<div class="verse">Unsheltered and ashamed?</div> -</div> -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="verse">“Oh bring us back once more</div> -<div class="verse">The vanished days of yore,</div> -<div class="verse">When the world with faith was filled;</div> -<div class="verse">Bring back the fervid zeal,</div> -<div class="verse">The hearts of fire and steel,</div> -<div class="verse">The hands that believe and build.</div> -</div> -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="verse">“Then from our tower again</div> -<div class="verse">We will send over land and main</div> -<div class="verse">Our voices of command,</div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[324]</a></span> -<div class="verse">Like exiled kings who return</div> -<div class="verse">To their thrones, and the people learn</div> -<div class="verse">That the Priest is lord of the land!”</div> -</div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>The very first movement on the part of -Protestant organizations to evangelize Mexico -was made by the American Bible Society when -they sent out one of their representative with -the American army in 1846. This man distributed -several thousand copies of the scriptures -between Vera Cruz and the capital which afterwards -bore fruit. A few years later a woman, -Miss Matilda Rankin, who had been engaged in -missionary work in Texas, crossed over the -border and held services in Monterey. In 1862 -a Baptist missionary, Rev. James Hickey, -also began work in Monterey. However, no -organized effort was made by Protestant bodies -until the years from 1869 to 1880, when missionaries -were sent by the following denominations: -Protestant Episcopal, Methodist Episcopal, -Methodist Episcopal South, Presbyterian, -Baptist, Christian and Congregational. Bishop -H. C. Riley obtained an old church for the use -of the Protestant Episcopal Church and Rev. -William Butler purchased a part of the convent -of San Francisco, in the heart of the city, for -the Methodist Episcopal Church.</p> - -<p><i>Dios y libertad</i> had been the watchword of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[325]</a></span> -the reform movement, but it had not been put -into practice until the time of President Juarez, -who encouraged mission work, and exerted himself -to protect the missionaries from fanatics. -However frequent attacks upon these workers -were made in provincial towns and one foreign -missionary, Rev. J. L. Stephens, of the Congregational -Church, was slain at Ahualuco in 1874. -A number of native converts and preachers have -met with serious, and even fatal injuries, but -no other Americans have been killed. President -Diaz has also encouraged these ministers -when they were downhearted. Rev. William -Butler quotes an interview which several missionaries -had with him in which the President -expressed himself as follows: “I have seen -this land as none of you ever saw it, in degradation, -with everything in the line of toleration -and freedom to learn. I have watched its rise -and progress to a better condition. We are not -yet all we ought to be and hope to be; but we are -not what we once were; we have risen as a people, -and are now rising faster than ever. My -advice is, do not be discouraged. Keep on with -your work, avoiding topics of irritation and -preaching your gospel in its own spirit.” The -president has no warmer supporters than the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[326]</a></span> -Protestant missionaries and their little bands -of adherents.</p> - -<p>Their numbers to-day after thirty years of -aggressive work seem small, as the ten Protestant -denominations who maintain missions in -Mexico only claim about twenty-five thousand -members, or about one hundred thousand adherents -including those who attend the Sunday-school -and other services. The Presbyterians -are working in fourteen different states. They -have fifty organized churches and two hundred -and twenty-two outstations which are served by -twenty-one foreign missionaries and one hundred -and one native workers. The Methodist -Episcopal Church has twenty-nine missionaries -in the field and one hundred and twenty-two -native workers, and is holding services at -more than a hundred different places. The -various denominations have divided up the field -and are working together in harmony. The -Methodists, for instance, are working in Guanajuato, -Leon, Pachuca, Puebla, Silao, and -Oaxaca. The Presbyterians have centred their -efforts in Aguas Calientes, Zacatecas, Saltillo, -San Luis Potosi and Jalapa. All denominations -have missions in the City of Mexico. The Methodists, -Baptists, Presbyterians and Congregationalists -have their own publishing houses and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[327]</a></span> -issue periodicals and a great deal of printed -matter in Spanish. There are in all about two -hundred and fifty foreign missionaries in -Mexico serving about seven hundred congregations. -Many of these workers are medical missionaries -who are doing a vast amount of good, -and others are teachers who are instructing the -youth. The Protestant bodies own property -in Mexico valued at nearly two million dollars.</p> - -<p>An era of at least tolerance toward Protestants -is dawning in this land, and religious liberty -is an actual fact. The Young Men’s Christian -Association has a strong organization in the -capital. A fund has recently been raised -to erect a splendid new building for the association. -The President and his cabinet -have also attended some special memorial -services in the Protestant churches. This -may seem a small thing, but a quarter of -a century ago it would have been incredible. -Some of the broad-minded Catholic clergy are -even displaying a kindlier feeling toward the -Protestant workers. It may not be many years -before Catholic clergy and Protestant ministers -may unite together in working for a common -cause—the betterment of the morals and conditions -of the people.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[328]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_XVIII">CHAPTER XVIII<br /> -<span class="smaller">PASSING OF THE LAWLESS</span></h2> - -<p>A rude wooden cross set up in a pile of stones -is one of the striking features of Mexican landscape -that is frequently seen. As the train -whirls along through a narrow pass, high up on -the mountain sides the cross is seen outlined -against the sky; or, if you are pursuing your -journey by horse or mule, in the remote districts -away from the railways, your reverie is suddenly -interrupted by coming upon one of these -silent sentinels unawares. These crosses are -mute reminders of an age that is passing away. -Each one marks the spot where a murder has -taken place in times past. It is an appeal for -the good Catholic to mutter a prayer for the -soul of the murdered one, who was thus without -preparation thrust into the world beyond. -There was a time, and that not more than a -generation ago, when the murderous and lawless -classes were numerous in Mexico. The Mexican -bandit was so much feared, that, even to this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[329]</a></span> -day, some hesitate to travel in that country, and -many more make walking arsenals of themselves -before turning their faces toward our -southern neighbour.</p> - -<p>If the traditionary history that has come -down to us is to be believed, these robber clans -can trace their lineage back to the peregrinating -merchants of the Aztecs, and Toltecs. The rich -merchant of those days travelled over the country -visiting the various cities with his wares. -For self protection they were obliged to carry -with them a large force of armed retainers. -This knowledge of their own power led them to -violence. If, for any reason, these merchants -became angered at a town, or, if the people refused -to trade with them, they would attack it, -pillage it and carry off the inhabitants to be -sold as slaves in other remote places, or hold -them for ransom. This course generally proved -far more remunerative than the more prosaic -occupation of barter and trade. It was indeed a -strong town in those days that could afford to -refuse to trade with some of the powerful merchants. -If one trader was not strong enough -himself, he could easily enlist the assistance of -another of his class, as the loot and slaves -would be sufficient to remunerate both very well -for the undertaking.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[330]</a></span></p> - -<p>Later came the freebooters, who, in early -Spanish days, had things very much their own -way. Although many of these were well known, -they would visit the cities armed to the teeth -and no one would dare to molest them. It is -even claimed, and with good reason, that many -officials were in league with these knights of the -road, and gave them information, and assisted -them in their plans to waylay wealthy inhabitants. -So long as the outlaws did not interfere -with matters of government, their immunity was -practically secure. There is one city in the -northern part of Mexico named Catorce, the -Spanish numeral for fourteen, because, for a -long time, it was the stronghold of fourteen of -the boldest, bravest and worst bandits that -Mexico ever produced, who terrorized the country -round about and could not be captured or -subdued.</p> - -<p>After independence, came a series of revolutions -and uprisings for more than a half century. -The bandits then became guerillas, fighting on -whichever side offered the greatest advantage. -They would loot a church, or rob the hacienda -of some wealthy landowner, with equal cheerfulness. -The place or person robbed depended -upon whether the guerillas were enlisted in the -cause of the clericals, or anti-clericals. By reason<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[331]</a></span> -of the many turmoils and fights that took -place, these guerillas became a numerous and -powerful class with their rendezvous in the -mountains, which, in no part of Mexico, are far -distant. Before the advent of the railroads and -telegraph it was a difficult matter to cope with -these robber bands in Mexico because roads -were lacking, and their haunts were almost inaccessible. -This was one of the first problems -attacked by President Diaz when he came into -power, and he did it with the boldness, originality -and dash for which he was noted.</p> - -<p>This new leader found the army a disorganized -band of guerillas led by a few men, -not always over-scrupulous, and many parts of -the country overrun by bands of outlaws with -whom the local authorities were utterly unable -to cope. Having some veteran troops after his -many campaigns, Diaz sent them after the -bandits whenever opportunity afforded. They -were hunted and trailed into their mountain -fastnesses. The soldiers were instructed never -to take captives. A little heap of fresh dirt, or -a few stones, marked the place where a living -and breathing bandit had once stood. This war -of extermination made welcome to many the -proposition of Diaz. This was that he would -furnish employment to those outlaws who should<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[332]</a></span> -surrender, and would grant to them protection. -The President being known as a man of his -word, this proclamation had its effect and large -numbers formerly under the ban of law, surrendered.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus40"> -<img src="images/illus40.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">A <i>RURALE</i></p> -</div> - -<p>From this class of men the first companies of -<i>rurales</i> were formed. Finding it was more -profitable, or at least safer, to be in favour with -this aggressive government than under its ban, -they willingly entered this service. These men -were brave and thoroughly familiar with all the -mountain retreats and haunts of the outlaw -bands. They hunted down their former confederates -until a live bandit was a rare specimen. -Travelling once more became secure, and -now there are few places in Mexico where it is -not perfectly safe for a traveller to journey. -The companies of rurales, of which there are -many, form one of the most effective forces for -preserving order ever devised by any government. -Like the famous <i>guardia civil</i> of Spain, -the rurales patrol the remote mountain trails -and great plains of the central plateaus, and -are in reality a body of rural police. Many a -lonely traveller has been made glad by the sight -of the gray uniform of this band. They are -generally kind hearted, and will do everything -in their power for a foreigner. Their uniform<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[333]</a></span> -is the typical riding costume of the country, and -differs from the French appearance of the uniforms -of the regular army. They are fine horsemen, -expert in the use of pistol and carbine, -and form one of the most picturesque cavalry -bodies in the world.</p> - -<p>There is no sickly sentimentality wasted upon -law breakers, and the highwayman, or robber, -gets little sympathy. Few criminals get a -second opportunity to commit their outrages -through the pardoning process. The old <i>ley -fuga</i>, or law of attempted escape, which was in -force under Spanish rule, under which Indians -or slaves attempting to flee were shot, was revived. -Orders were promulgated to shoot highwaymen -on sight, and all other prisoners if -escape was attempted. Few attempts to escape -are now made by prisoners, for the guards have -a reckless way of sending bullets after fleeing -prisoners, so that no chains are needed to secure -them. The bullets are swift and any one in -custody, even though held as a witness, will be -followed by the quick, death-dealing messengers, -if an attempt to escape is made. Gangs of -convicts may be seen in various places working -on the streets, or on the roads, under military -guard but without shackle. The only report -necessary in the event a prisoner is killed is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[334]</a></span> -that he attempted to escape. It may be a harsh -proceeding, but it saves the state a great deal -of money, and conviction is sure. Furthermore, -it relieves judge, jury and prison officials of -much hard work and annoyance.</p> - -<p>A few years ago the Mexican army consisted -of a few thousand irregular, nondescript soldiers -so common in Spanish-American countries. -Such men it was who placed Porfirio -Diaz in power in 1876, the same year that we -were celebrating the first centennial of our independence. -In promoting peace this man of -Mexico has not forgotten the arts of war. The -army has been improved until it has ceased to -be made up of the comic-opera type of the barefooted, -half-naked soldier, and is now a well fed, -well equipped, and well clothed organization to -which Mexicans can point with pride. To the -American eye the soldiers appear rather indifferent -and insignificant, because of their smaller -stature and brown skin, which reveals the fact -that the regular soldier is generally drawn from -the lower classes of Mexicans.</p> - -<p>Although Mexico might be termed a military -nation, as military service is made obligatory -by the law of the country, yet in times of peace -this service is not enforced. It is said that the -majority of the enlistments are not even voluntary,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[335]</a></span> -but that recruits are drawn from the -ranks of those who are persistent law breakers—those -guilty of petty criminal offences which -we would term misdemeanours. Many of these -peon soldiers who before enlistment never -knew what it was to have regular meals and -wear clean clothes every day, leave the service -after a few years much better citizens, and -possessing a better education, for schools are -maintained in connection with all the barracks -where instruction is given in reading, writing -and mathematics. The pay is about forty cents -per day, in Mexican silver, and is good pay for -that country when you take into consideration -the fact that the soldier has absolutely no expenses -except for such luxuries as he may want.</p> - -<p>The standing army of Mexico consists of -thirty thousand men and three thousand two -hundred officers. Of this number the infantry -number twenty-two thousand six hundred, cavalry -five thousand five hundred, artillery -two thousand, engineers and other branches of -the service making up the remainder. This -gives a soldier for every five hundred inhabitants, -as compared with one for every fifteen -hundred inhabitants in the United States. Both -infantry and cavalry are equipped with the -Spanish Mauser rifles and carbines. The headquarters<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[336]</a></span> -of the army are in the City of Mexico, -and several battalions of infantry and regiments -of cavalry are stationed there at all times. -The country is divided into a number of districts, -at the headquarters of each of which are -stationed large bodies of troops. Nearly every -town of any size has a <i>commandancia</i> where a -few troops are quartered. This general distribution -of the military forces has been made with -a prudent foresight in order to prevent any -local uprising.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus41"> -<img src="images/illus41.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">ARMY HEADQUARTERS, CITY OF MEXICO</p> -</div> - -<p>In addition to the regular standing army, -there are a number of armed forces which would -swell the number of available troops in time of -war. First and foremost are the <i>Rurales</i> who -number about three thousand five hundred by -actual count, but double that number in effectiveness. -The Fiscal Guards number about one -thousand and are in the revenue service. The -police of the states and cities are compelled to -undergo military drill also, and could be drafted -into the army as trained soldiers. These several -forces would constitute another army -almost equal in number to the regular standing -army. Militia organizations have been provided -for by law similar to those organizations -in our own country, but as yet little has been -done. When these plans are perfected, it is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[337]</a></span> -designed to have the total war footing number a -force of one hundred and fifty thousand drilled -and disciplined men.</p> - -<p>The President of Mexico is the commander-in-chief -of the army and navy. The “West -Point of Mexico” is located next to the presidential -residence and is called the Chapultepec -Military Academy. It was founded in 1824. During -the war of 1847 Chapultepec was successfully -stormed by the American forces, but -heroically defended by the cadets. A monument -now stands at the foot of the hill in -memory of those cadets who fell in that engagement, -and a graceful tribute is paid to the -memory of those youthful patriots on each -fourth of July, when wreaths are placed on the -monument by the American residents of the -capital at the same time that they decorate the -graves of American soldiers who are buried -near the city. This school now ranks high as a -military school, and more than one-third of the -commissioned officers of the army are graduates -of this institution. The graduate leaves this -school with the rank of lieutenant. The student -must bind himself to serve seven years in the -army, if he takes the technical courses, and, if -he is discharged, or refuses to serve, must repay -to the government $16 for each month he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[338]</a></span> -remained in the academy. If war should occur, -all retired graduates would be compelled to report -for service.</p> - -<p>Not a generation ago the capital itself was the -home of innumerable thieves. In fact, a goodly -percentage of the people were either thieves, -robbers or beggars. These were drawn from -the <i>mestizo</i> class, and formed a picturesque but -filthy group of blackguards. They would -make love to any one’s pocket, and argue with -one another at the point of a long, sharp knife. -Each one carried a knife and revolver. “Unfortunate -men, women and children, the legitimate -heritage of wrong, oppression and misgovernment, -thronged the streets begging in -daytime, and committing petty robberies by -night. They slept by hundreds in doorways, on -benches in public parks, in ruined houses, and -in the dirtiest of apartments. A score or more -of filthy beings of all ages and both sexes would -sleep together in one small room reeking with -the miasma that rose from sewers and unclean -cobble-stone pavements.”</p> - -<p>Vice was the natural outcome of such conditions. -All natural feelings of delicacy and -shame were deadened. Morality was unknown, -and they lived like animals rather than human -beings. Marriages were unthought of, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[339]</a></span> -children knew not their parents, for even their -mothers deserted them. If not deserted, they -were frequently maimed and turned out into -the street to beg. Pulque and mescal added its -touch to the picture. Disfiguring diseases were -added, and the name <i>leperos</i> attached to them. -Brantz Mayer, a writer on Mexico, has given -the following definition of the <i>lepero</i>. “Blacken -a man in the sun, let his hair grow long and -tangled and become filled with vermin; let him -plod about the streets in all kinds of dirt for -years, and never know the use of a brush, or -towel, or water, even, except in storms; let him -put on a pair of leather breeches at twenty and -wear them until forty without change or ablution; -and over all place a torn and blackened -hat and a tattered blanket begrimed with abominations; -let him have wild eyes and shining -teeth, features pinched by famine into sharpness, -and breast bared and browned; combine -all these in your imagination and you have a -recipe for a Mexican <i>lepero</i>.”</p> - -<p>These <i>leperos</i> were the thieving class. They -frequented all parts of the city. Even the -churches were not exempt and you were just as -likely to be robbed by some apparently devout, -kneeling worshipper saying his <i>ave marias</i> in a -sacred edifice as on the street. In the less frequented<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[340]</a></span> -streets many hold-ups took place, and -the bodies of those murdered would be found -on the pavement in the morning. It was hardly -safe to move about the street after night had -fallen. The thieves’ market was well known and -did a thriving business. Here were the pawn-brokers -who did a profitable business acting as -“fences” for the thieves. Many instances are -told by foreigners who were robbed, and, in a -few hours, found their property exposed for -sale in this market. They were obliged to pay -considerable sums to recover their own property.</p> - -<p>All these types are now disappearing, and -even the beggars are less numerous. The former -lawless <i>leperos</i> are now seen in the poor -venders of lottery tickets who crowd every public -place. Begging is forbidden in most parts -of the city. Vice has not disappeared, it is true, -nor has it in American cities. The poor peon -still gets intoxicated and is dirty, but he is more -law-abiding than formerly. Conditions, which -are the result of neglect and misrule of centuries, -can only be overcome entirely by education, -immigration and the infusion of saner -ideas, and this is a gradual process. A whole -city, or a whole country, can not be plowed up -and re-sown in a season, as the corn fields of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[341]</a></span> -last year were transformed into the waving -fields of golden grain this year. A generation is -even too short a time. The change actually -wrought has been almost a miracle. Work can -now be had by all who are willing to work, and -the government is making strenuous efforts to -get rid of the idle classes. It is a long and hard -task, but another decade under present conditions -will work wonders.</p> - -<p>An excellent police system is found in the -capital and all the other cities. A policeman is -not hard to find. One is stationed at nearly -every street intersection. During the day he -stands like a statue, occasionally leaning against -a door post. At night the policeman brings a -lantern and a blanket, and sets the lantern in -the centre of the crossing, while he stands beside -it or not far away. The joker says the lantern -is intended to aid the thief in avoiding the -officer of the law. Sometimes after the people -quit passing, he may lean up against a building -and fall asleep, but you can locate his vicinity -by the lantern. As the windows are all heavily -barred, and the doors are heavy oaken affairs -that it would take a stick of dynamite to move, -and as fires are infrequent, his lot is not a very -hard one. The police are very numerous, however, -because the government wants to keep informed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[342]</a></span> -in order that a revolutionary movement -may not gain any headway. One seldom hears -of knock-downs now, and pocket picking is about -the only kind of robbery.</p> - -<p>These guardians of the peace are generally -called <i>serenos</i>. This name clings to them from -the old Spanish watchman whose duty it was to -call out the time of the night and state of the -weather. As this was usually clear, the watchman -would say “<i>tiempo sereno</i>” meaning -“weather clear.” From the frequent repetition -of this term the watchmen were dubbed <i>serenos</i>. -The Mexican <i>sereno</i> is generally a faithful and -reliable official and is obliging to a stranger. -They have made the streets in the City of -Mexico as safe as in Paris. The senses of sight -and smell may be offended more often, but purse -and life are just as secure.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[343]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_XIX">CHAPTER XIX<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE STORY OF THE REPUBLIC</span></h2> - -<p>There is a strange fascination about the history -of Mexico, and no one can thoroughly understand -the country or the people without a -little insight into those stirring events that preceded -the establishment of the present republic. -With the increasing friendly regard and the -growing commercial intercourse between the -two countries, a few pages devoted to this subject -will not be amiss; and the prospective -traveller, as well as the one who has already -travelled in that country, will find an additional -interest in Mexico and the Mexicans.</p> - -<p>However we may feel inclined to criticize -Cortez, the fact remains that he thoroughly subjugated -the country, and presented to Spain the -fairest jewel of her domain. Having been made -the first governor of New Spain, he was too -busy with fresh conquests and the task of keeping -order to make a successful ruler. In order to -reform the various abuses that had grown up,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[344]</a></span> -and represent in every way possible the person -of the king, King Charles V sent the first -viceroy in the autumn of 1535. This first of a -long line of viceroys, reaching down to the year -1821, was named Antonio de Mendoza, himself -of noble descent, a man of ability, and one who -had at heart the best interests of the colonists -and the welfare of the Indians. The latter had -been subjected to many humiliations and hardships -all of which were removed by him, and -they were encouraged in the cultivation of the -lands.</p> - -<p>The colonists themselves were a source of -great trouble for they were mostly adventurers -and were not, like the early American colonists, -men who were seeking religious liberty. The -arm of the church was stretched just as strongly -in new Spain as in the land of their birth, and to -the religious orders was due in great measure -the firm foundation upon which the Spanish -government was established. During the rule -of this man and his successor, Velasco, the country -prospered, agriculture was stimulated and -a number of industries suitable to the climate of -the country encouraged.</p> - -<p>At the close of the sixteenth century, Spain -underwent great changes. The line of able -rulers had passed away, and the government<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[345]</a></span> -fell into the hands of profligates who were -favourites of the reigning sovereign. The line -of viceroys continued in rotation, and most of -them were fair men who probably governed the -best they knew how, but their knowledge on that -subject was not very great. They were poor -rulers when compared with the first two above -mentioned. The church retained its firm grasp. -As one writer has put it, during the first century -of Spanish rule the church was a blessing to the -country, during the second an indifferent -quantity and during the third an actual menace. -The inquisition—that terrible institution—had -been established in Mexico as early as -1570. The first <i>auto-da-fé</i> was celebrated in -1574, when “there perished twenty-one pestilent -Lutherans.” Indians were exempt from -this institution and it was only aimed at heretics -of other nations. Large numbers were burned -in the capital and other cities. In Puebla, the -old house of the inquisition was remodelled -within the last half-century, and a number of -walled-up cells opened in which skeletons were -found—no doubt remains of victims who had -been buried alive. The inquisition was not -formally abolished until the beginning of the -last century, just prior to the beginning of the -movement for independence. Even this concession,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[346]</a></span> -and the promise of correcting other -abuses, did not stop the growing discontent, for -generations had grown up who had few ties -linking them to the mother country; who had -intermarried with native races; and who would -be satisfied with nothing but complete severance -of their relations.</p> - -<p>The beginning of the nineteenth century -opened with a feeling of unrest in all European -nations and their colonies. When Napoleon -overturned monarchies, the idea of the divine -right of kings received a shock. Among the -countries thus affected was Spain, which had -dropped down from the high pedestal it had -formerly occupied. The eyes of the people of -Mexico were opened by the events in Europe, -and also by the successful revolution of the -American colonies. All the offices of profit in -Mexico were held by Spaniards, and the policy -of the mother country toward her dependents -was well expressed by one of the viceroys as -follows: “Let the people of these dominions -learn once for all that they were born to be -silent and to obey, and not to discuss nor to have -opinions in political affairs.” The spirit of -revolution and liberty was in the air and restraint -became more and more galling. The -events leading to the independence of Mexico,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[347]</a></span> -and the stirring times subsequent thereto, can -best be treated by a glance at the men who were -in the limelight during the various periods.</p> - -<p>When Miguel Hidalgo, curate of the little -village of Dolores, sounded the “grito” of -independence by ringing the bell of the parish -church early on the morning of the 16th of -September, 1810, a struggle for independence -was started that lasted for eleven years, and -during which much of the soil of Mexico was -crimsoned with the blood of those slain in battle -or executed by the authorities as traitors. At -the outset no people were less prepared for such -a contest. They knew nothing of military -tactics; their weapons were primitive and their -leaders were without military training. No -more righteous cause ever existed for rebellion -against tyranny and usurpation. The first two -leaders were consecrated representatives of the -church that had assisted a despotic government -in bringing about such an unfortunate state of -affairs. These two martyrs who were excommunicated -by the church, and executed by the -government as traitors, are now honoured -with resting places in sacred ground by a grateful -nation.</p> - -<p>The first revolt was headed by a picture of -the patron saint of the country, and shouts of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[348]</a></span> -“Viva Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe” and -“Viva la Independencia” were intermingled. -Hidalgo and his compatriots were compelled to -begin their movement before thoroughly prepared, -because their plans had been discovered -and betrayed to the government. On the morning -of the memorable day above mentioned, -Hidalgo addressed the people from the pulpit -of the church where he had so often celebrated -mass, and, leading his followers forth, released -the prisoners in the town, and captured the -principal Spaniards. Soon afterwards this -priest-warrior patriot, who had been named -Captain-General, followed by a few hundred -of human beings (they can not be called soldiers), -marched forth to conquer Mexico and -give “death to the Spaniards.”</p> - -<p>It was a motley crowd armed with stones, -lances, <i>machetes</i>, arrows, clubs and swords, -whose numbers and enthusiasm were ever increasing -as they marched across the country -without meeting resistance. San Miguel and -Celaya, Irapuato and Querétero, yielded, and -the army which by this time numbered tens of -thousands marched towards Guanajuato. The -governor of that province assembled the terror-stricken -populace in the now famous Alhondiga -de Granaditas, built for storing grain but now a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[349]</a></span> -prison, as noted in that city as the Bastille of -Paris. Upon a refusal to surrender, Hidalgo -and his followers attacked this fortress with -fanatical zeal, and captured it by the mere force -of numbers. This supplied him with plenty of -food and a million dollars in money which furnished -the sinews of war.</p> - -<p>Terror struck the hearts of the Spaniards and -every town yielded to this new leader, who now -bore the title of Generalissimo, as the army approached -the City of Mexico. One terrible battle -occurred at Monte las Cruces and both forces -withdrew. Hidalgo—and this was probably -his greatest error—retreated, and his fortune -immediately turned. The volatile nature of the -people asserted itself and his followers deserted -by the thousands. He started for the United -States, but was betrayed and captured, and was -executed at Chihuahua on July 31st, 1811. For -ten years his head was suspended by a spike -from one of the corners of the Alhondiga de -Granaditas, once occupied by him as conqueror, -as a warning to revolutionists, but was afterward -buried with great ceremony in the cathedral -at the capital.</p> - -<p>It was around a disciple of Hidalgo that the -forces of discontent and patriotism rallied upon -the death of their first leader, and that man was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[350]</a></span> -also a priest, Jose Maria Morelas. Of low birth -and poor, this man drove mules until thirty -years of age before an opportunity presented -itself for education to fit himself for the priesthood, -which was his ambition. In that time he -had acquired the qualities of patience and cool -calculation from the animals he drove. A -student under Hidalgo, he had imbibed a love -for independence, and leaving his church upon -the sounding of the “grito,” offered his services -to the Generalissimo. He was an abler -leader than Hidalgo and showed great military -skill, winning a series of victories clear across -the country from Acapulco, on the Pacific Coast, -to Cuautla not far from Vera Cruz. At Cuautla -he was besieged for over two months, and then -successfully withdrew with all his forces by -night. Returning to Acapulco he summoned the -first Mexican Congress, which met at Chilpantzingo, -a small town near that city. This -congress met on the 14th of September, 1813, -and on the following day issued its famous -declaration of independence, as follows:—“The -Congress of Anahuac, lawfully installed -in the city of Chilpantzingo, of North America, -solemnly declares, in the presence of God, arbitrator -of kingdoms and author of society, who -gives and takes away according to the inscrutable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[351]</a></span> -designs of his providence, that, -through the present circumstances of Europe, -it has recovered the exercise of its sovereignty, -hitherto usurped, its dependence upon the -throne of Spain being thus forever disrupted -and dissolved.”<a name="FNanchor_5" id="FNanchor_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></p> - -<p>This congress provided a form of government -with a military executive called Generalissimo, -and Morelas was elected to this position -for life, or “so long as he was worthy.” -Shortly after this his forces were defeated at -Valladolid, now called Morelia, and his power -began to wane, though resistance was kept up -for some time afterwards with varying success. -Spanish troops had arrived, and stronger -leaders were in charge of the government -forces and the cause of independence looked -dark. The plans of Morelas were betrayed to -the enemy and he was captured. The ecclesiastical -tribunes covered him with ignominy. He -was then sentenced to death by the military authorities, -and shot in the little village of San -Cristobal Ecatepec, near the capital, on December -22d, 1815, dying the death of a hero. This -muleteer-priest-warrior was an able leader, an<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[352]</a></span> -honest man and a patriotic citizen. He seemed -devoid of personal ambition, although accepting -title for the sake of the cause he fought for. He -was possessed of restless energy and great -piety, for he always made confession before -entering battle. To-day, he is second only to -Hidalgo in the affections of the people, and -worthily fills that position. Over the door of -the house once owned by him in Morelia appears -the following inscription:—</p> - -<p class="center">“Morelas the illustrious<br /> -Immortal Hero.<br /> -In this house honoured by thy presence<br /> -Salute you the grateful people of Morelia.”</p> - -<p>The revolution was seemingly crushed at the -death of Morelas but a few patriots retired to -the mountains, and there kept alive for better -days the sacred fire of liberty. Guerrero was -one of those heroes who showed an unwearying -activity, and kept up a constant warfare upon -the government forces. The next prominent -name in succession among those leaders of the -movement for freedom was Agustin de Iturbide, -a former active and able officer of the royalist -forces, and to whom more than anyone else was -due the failure of Morelas. Deserting the cause -of Spain, because he thought injustice had been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[353]</a></span> -done him, General Iturbide issued the “Plan of -Iguala” on the 20th of February, 1820, composed -of three articles: preservation of the -Roman Catholic church; independence of -Mexico under a monarchical form of government -with a prince of the royal house of Spain -as ruler; union and equality of Spaniards and -Mexicans. From this proclamation his army became -known as the army of the three guarantees. -His act was full of duplicity, for he had -obtained the largest force possible from the -Viceroy Apodaca in order to turn them over to -the new scheme.</p> - -<p>Before the viceroy could recover from his -surprise, Iturbide, who had been joined by most -of the insurgent leaders, had started on his -victorious campaign. Valladolid, Querétero and -Puebla succumbed. The viceroy tried by suppressing -liberty, and enforcing enlistments in -the royal army, to stem the tide but in vain, and -he was deposed. O’Donoju, the sixty-fourth -and last viceroy, arrived about this time at Vera -Cruz, but was intercepted by Iturbide and entered -into the treaty of Cordoba in which the -independence of Mexico was recognized with a -sovereign to be selected from the royal house of -Spain, and a provisional Junta formed. Iturbide -was selected as president of this Junta, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[354]</a></span> -made a triumphal entry into the City of Mexico -on the 27th of September, 1821. This ended -three hundred years of Spanish rule in Mexico. -Iturbide had accomplished in a little more than -a year, and with little bloodshed, what ten years -of strife had failed to do. He can not be classed -with Hidalgo and Morelas as a pure patriot, -but he has been officially designated as the -“Liberator of Mexico.”</p> - -<p>The rejection of the treaty of Cordoba by the -Cortes of Spain gave new impetus to the smouldering -ambitions of Iturbide. The second -Mexican Congress having been called, Iturbide -at a packed session was declared Emperor by a -majority of four to one of those voting, but not -a constitutional majority, and he took the office -as Agustin I. When he was crowned and -anointed in the cathedral with much form and -solemnity, on the 21st of July, 1822, the ambition -of this self-made emperor had reached -its full. The saying that uneasy lies the head -that wears a crown never had better application -than in this instance. Other leaders in the -cause of liberty felt that they had been slighted, -and every discontented person made common -cause against the Emperor. A republic was -proclaimed at Vera Cruz in December of the -same year by Santa Anna, who was commander<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[355]</a></span> -of a regiment stationed there, and he issued a -<i>pronunciamento</i>. This plan failed, but it encouraged -Bravo, Guerrero and other revolutionary -leaders, and rebellion sprung up in a number -of places. Iturbide had dissolved congress -and this increased the dissatisfaction. A more -formidable revolt arose, and on March 19th, -1823, Iturbide abdicated without attempting to -retain his position by force of arms.</p> - -<p>A few weeks later the ex-Emperor left -Mexico and sailed for Italy, having been granted -an annual sum of $25,000 for his services. He -soon went to England and wrote the government -from there that the republic was in danger, and -he would come back to help fight the battles of -his country. He did not know that his death -had been decreed by congress, and so he set -sail upon his last voyage. When he arrived at -Vera Cruz he was captured, and after some delay -was executed at Padilla on the 19th of July, -1824, as a traitor, in his forty-first year. His -body was buried in a roofless old church and lay -there until 1838, when it was removed to the -Cathedral.</p> - -<p>Opinion is very much divided as to the rank -that should be accorded Iturbide. He was able, -brave, honest so far as is known, and probably -fell a victim to his ambition like many a man<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[356]</a></span> -before him. The relative regard in which he -is held is shown in the fact that the town which -gave both him and his former vanquished foe, -Morelas, birth, is now called Morelia, and a state -is also named Morelas. In contrast to this there -is neither city nor state named after Iturbide, -and the famous Iturbide Hotel in the capital -city, once his residence, is the only institution -perpetuating his name so far as I could learn. -The only things accomplished by him during his -brief reign were the settlement of the titles by -which he and his family should be addressed, -the succession to the throne, order of precedence -among the dignitaries, allowances of himself -and family, and the creation of the Order of -Guadalupe to bestow honours upon his followers.</p> - -<p>At last a so-called republic was established, -and Guadalupe Victoria was inaugurated as the -first president on the 10th day of October, 1824, -and served until 1828. When the fort of San -Juan de Ulua at Vera Cruz lowered its flag, in -1825, the last vestige of Spanish power was -gone, and the red and yellow striped banner of -the Iberian peninsula was not to be seen on -Mexican soil. And Mexico, as then constituted, -was a big country, containing almost twice as -much territory as to-day. From the end of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">[357]</a></span> -administration of President Victoria until after -the death of Maximilian, there was not a year -of peace in Mexico. Revolutions, <i>pronunciamentos</i>, -“plans” and restorations followed -each other in quick succession. Generals, presidents -and dictators sprang up like mushrooms, -and their position was as evanescent. The congress -unwisely decreed the expulsion of the -Spaniards, and their departure took much of the -wealth of the country. Revolutions were an -every-day affair. A man in position of authority -did not know when his time to be shot -might come. A sudden turn of fortune might -send him either to the national palace, or before -a squad of men with guns aimed at his heart.</p> - -<p>A good illustration of this uncertainty of affairs -is seen in the treatment and fate of the -grim old patriot Guerrero. Born of very low -Indian parents he had climbed to the front and -borne many of the burdens of the struggle with -Spain. He cheerfully yielded his command to -the renegade Iturbide, and fought valiantly -under that leader for liberty. By a turn of -fortune he became the third president in 1829. -A few months later he was compelled to flee, -but was soon afterwards betrayed and captured -at Acapulco. At a farcical trial he was condemned -to death as “morally incapable” to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">[358]</a></span> -act as president, and shot on the 15th of February, -1831, at Cuilapa. Soon afterwards he -was declared a martyr and his body removed -to the capital with honours. Two monuments -to this martyr now adorn that city, and a state -has been named after him. Under his short rule -slavery was abolished by statute.</p> - -<p>Elections eventually became a farce. The unfortunate -habit was acquired of appealing to -arms instead of submitting to the result of the -ballot. The trouble was that the people had -copied the letter, and not the spirit of the American -constitution. Liberty was interpreted as -license, after their exaggerated ideas of the former. -The scheming politicians would hesitate -at nothing—revolution or civil war—to attain -private ends or personal aggrandizement. A -general indolence of character, and the hindrances -to the acquirement of property among -the masses, made the people more willing to -yield to disturbing and designing politicians. -They are impetuous by nature, impatient of restraint -and easily fired up. The rapid changes -in government can be seen when you read that -there were five different presidents in each of -the years 1846 and 1847, and four in 1855—not -an evidence of tranquillity at least. The two<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">[359]</a></span> -leading parties constantly at war were the -“progresistas” and “retrogrados.”</p> - -<p>During this period a few prominent names -are constantly recurring, and by far the most -prominent one is that of the notorious Santa -Anna, who, for more than fifty years, occupied -a prominent, but not always honourable, place -in Mexican affairs. Earlier in life his restless -energy was expended in a fairly commendable -way, and he fought some battles in defense of -the rights of the people. During the war of intervention -with France in 1838 he lost his leg in -the defense of Vera Cruz. Ever afterwards, -when in trouble, he would flourish his severed -limb and remind the people how he had been -mutilated in the defense of his country, with the -effect of restoring himself in public favour. -As he grew older his naturally quarrelsome disposition -increased, his vanity knew no bounds, -and when at the height of his glory, he declared -himself dictator and ordered all people -to address him as “most serene highness.” -Never honest except as a matter of policy, his -cupidity became more pronounced, until, near -the close of the war with the United States, he -offered to appoint commissioners and confirm -a treaty of peace for the sum of one million dollars. -First elected president in 1833, he was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">[360]</a></span> -again either chosen to, or assumed the office, in -1839, 1846, 1847, 1853 and 1855, but did not serve -long at any time. On one occasion his amputated -leg was buried with great ceremony, but -afterwards fickle sentiment changed, and the -martyr part of this hero was brought forth by -the rabble, dragged through the streets of the -capital, and insulting epithets heaped upon the -former idol.</p> - -<p>Santa Anna led the forces against the Texas -insurrectionists, and was the man responsible -for the Alamo slaughter, when one hundred and -forty brave Texans were trapped and slain. -Visitors to that place are still shown the stains -made by the blood of that brave frontiersman, -Davy Crockett, and the cry of “Remember the -Alamo” still has potency. This insurrection -was soon followed by the war between Mexico -and the United States.</p> - -<p>Franklin says, there never was a good war -nor a bad peace. The United States can not be -justified in warring upon Mexico, though the results -have perhaps been for the best with both -nations. Bancroft does not mince words in his -treatment of the subject for he says: “It (the -Mexican War) was a premeditated and predetermined -affair; it was the result of a deliberately -calculated scheme of robbery on the part<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">[361]</a></span> -of the superior force.” The result was a foregone -conclusion, for Mexico, torn by internal -dissensions, impoverished by the expense of -revolutions and official robbery, and with a government -changing with every change of the -seasons, had neither armies, money nor supplies -for such a conflict. The people were used -to the smell of powder but were not trained soldiers, -and the “generals” were simply a few -of the twelve thousand recipients of military -commissions that had been distributed by -various presidents in the preceding three years. -“Plans” promulgated by one party were bombarded -with “pronunciamentos” from another. -This was the condition of affairs when General -Taylor assumed the offensive and fought the -battle of Palo Alto.</p> - -<p>Mexico might have sued for peace at this time, -but no government was in power long enough -to negotiate a treaty. A special envoy sent from -Washington at the request of one president was -refused an audience by a new one, who had -usurped the office before his arrival. Generals -Taylor and Fremont subdued Northern Mexico, -and General Scott later began his memorable -march toward the ancient Aztec capital, from -Vera Cruz, like Cortez of old. Santa Anna, who -had been “recuperating” from public unpopularity<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">[362]</a></span> -at Havana, returned and state after state -immediately “pronounced” in his favour. He -issued a manifesto assuming the executive control -and took the field against the invaders. He -first tried to secure $15,000,000 from the Church, -but although the priests hated the “northern -heretics” they were loth to give up the coin, -and little was secured. Vera Cruz fell after two -weeks’ bombardment, and Puebla yielded to the -Americans. Patriotism was finally aroused to -save the City of Mexico, but the victories of -Chapultepec, Chorubusco and Molino del Rey -were followed by the triumphal entry of General -Scott into the capital. The treaty of -Guadalupe-Hidalgo ceded to the United States -more than six hundred thousand square miles of -the Mexican domain, including some of the -richest mineral lands of the republic. Disgraced -and humiliated as Mexico had been, it was, I believe, -the beginning of better things for that -country.</p> - -<p>Santa Anna went into voluntary exile to -Jamaica. The first president after the war, -Herrera, actually served the appointed time of -his office, but disorder soon began under his -successor. “Pronouncing” became popular -again, and Santa Anna returned. He was made -dictator for a short time by his favourites. This<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">[363]</a></span> -was the last office held by this selfish politician. -He exiled himself to St. Thomas again, and -afterwards in Elizabethport, New Jersey. During -the second empire he tried to curry favour -with both sides, but neither would listen to him. -Discouraged and disheartened he lived abroad, -until, burdened by the weight of eighty years, he -sought and obtained permission to return to -the capital, and died on the 20th of June, 1876. -Thus passed a man who had lived in stirring -times, was most intensely hated, had been -president six times, military dictator four times, -had upset fifteen governments, had been marked -for the assassin’s bullet many times; and yet -he lived to a ripe old age and died a natural -death. However, all his glory had faded, and, -blind, lame and infirm, he spent his last days in -extreme poverty.</p> - -<p>Here is a picture of this man drawn by -Rev. William Butler,<a name="FNanchor_6" id="FNanchor_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> who visited him about a -year before his death: “Santa Anna was living -in an obscure street, neglected and forgotten by -all parties. On entering the apartment we found -the old man sitting on a sofa, behind which hung -a picture of his wife ‘her serene highness, -Dolores Tosta de Santa Anna’ arrayed as a -vice-queen. The magnificence of the painting<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">[364]</a></span> -contrasted sadly with the poverty-stricken aspect -of the room and furniture. To him, however, -this could make but little difference, as we -soon saw that he was totally blind as well as -feeble and broken in spirit, with a tendency to -mental weakness.” He was buried in the cemetery -at Guadalupe without honours or recognition -by the government, and his remains still -rest there. As I gazed upon his tomb I could not -help thinking what a contrast between his career -and that of the patriots Hidalgo, Morelas, and -Juarez.</p> - -<p>The early constitution had declared that the -Roman Catholic religion should perpetually be -the religion of Mexico. Nevertheless a struggle -had been growing up between the clericals and -liberals for many years with increasing intensity. -It finally centred in a struggle over the -sequestration of the church property, and became -wider and wider until the whole country -was involved and divided into two great parties. -The liberals were probably just as good Christians -as the others but thought the Church had -too much wealth.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 420px;" id="illus42"> -<img src="images/illus42.jpg" width="420" height="650" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">A VILLAGE CHURCH</p> -</div> - -<p>At this juncture there arose a pure Indian, -of lowly parentage, who never saw a school until -he was twelve years of age. His name was -Benito Juarez. Although ever professing devout<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">[365]</a></span> -faith, he early espoused the cause of the -anti-clerical party. He was banished by Santa -Anna and fled to New Orleans, but opinion -changed and his sentiments became the popular -views. The new constitution of 1857 declared -the separation of church and state. Juarez had -been elected President of the Supreme Court -under Comonfort. The latter was compelled to -flee the country and Juarez became president -under the constitution, in 1857. Congress -passed a law confiscating church property and -civil war was begun. Juarez took the field in -person and did not reach the capital until three -years later. These three years have been called -the years of horrors. The liberals were excommunicated -by the church, and the papal delegate -and several bishops were ordered out of the -country in turn by Juarez. Ministerial crises -and resignations became chronic. Guerillas and -robbers were bold and attacked many aliens, -and foreign obligations were unpaid because of -the impoverished condition of the country.</p> - -<p>Juarez alone remained cool in the midst of all -these disturbances. The convention entered -into between France, England and Spain for a -joint intervention in Mexican affairs on the 31st -day of October, 1861, brought new embarrassment -to the Indian reformer. Underneath these<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">[366]</a></span> -acts of the convention the crafty hand of Napoleon -can be seen. The man who had accomplished -one <i>coup d’Etat</i> was a sworn enemy to -all republican institutions. The pretext for this -intervention was the collection of some money -claims and reparation for alleged offences. -Spain no doubt looked forward to a little revenge. -The Spanish fleet occupied Vera Cruz -on the 14th of December, 1861, followed by the -other armies. A conference took place at -Orizaba with Juarez who acknowledged the -money claims, and Spain and England withdrew -their forces. The French remained, -secretly supported and encouraged by the extreme -church party, and advanced to and -captured Puebla. Distracted and disheartened -by the state of affairs, the prospect of a stable -government made the way easy to place Maximilian -upon the throne as Emperor of Mexico, -and this was done. He and the empress arrived -on the 28th of May, 1864. Maximilian was a -liberal ruler and the Empress Carlotta won the -people by her charming personality and benevolences.</p> - -<p>As long as the French forces remained his -throne was secure. The prompt and decisive -action of Secretary Seward sounded the death -knell of Maximilian’s ambitions. Napoleon<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">[367]</a></span> -withdrew his troops, and Maximilian might have -easily escaped had he not wavered between -ambition and discretion,—the former eventually -winning. He met death with dignity and -said “May my blood be the last spilt for the -welfare of the country.”</p> - -<p>During all of these years Juarez maintained -a semblance of authority and kept a cabinet under -appointment although he was finally driven -to the American border. Yet he could wait, for -he had inherited from his dusky ancestors the -qualities of patience, endurance and imperturbability. -He also had executive ability and -an abundance of good sense. After the execution -of Maximilian he made a triumphal entry -into Mexico. The country was impoverished. -The short empire had added a national debt of -$187,000,000. More than one thousand battles -and skirmishes had occurred between 1863 and -1867, and a hundred thousand Mexicans had -been killed or disabled. The people were still -restless and an increasing element began to say -that he had been president long enough. He -was unmoved, but kept steadily on his way trying -to better the condition of the people, improve -the finances and bring prosperity to his -country. The iron constitution finally gave way -and he died on the 19th of July, 1872, beloved<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368">[368]</a></span> -and honoured by his country. He deserves to -be called the Washington of Mexico, for the -real liberty of a republican form of government -began with him. He had prepared the -way for his successors to bring peace, prosperity -and liberty to a country that for centuries -had been groping and striving after such -a condition. Juarez lies buried beneath a magnificent -monument in the Panteon de San Fernando, -in the City of Mexico.</p> - -<p>Upon the death of Juarez the constitutional -succession to the chief magistracy fell upon -Lerdo de Tejada, who occupied that office for -four years. The subsequent history of Mexico, -however, centres around the personality of -Porfirio Diaz, and the events of his long administration -and final downfall are treated in the -two following chapters.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">[369]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_XX">CHAPTER XX<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE GUIDING HAND</span></h2> - -<p>“I should like to live fifty years to see the -result of the seed I have planted,” said Porfirio -Diaz a number of years ago. It is not within -the limit of human possibility that such a boon -could be granted this amiable “republican -despot” but he had lived long enough to see the -good results of the policies established by him -for the upbuilding of his country.</p> - -<p>Succeeding to a government that had been -in the throes of revolution ever since the patriot-priest -Hidalgo first proclaimed independence -on the 16th of September, 1810, President Diaz -at once restored peace to the country that has -lasted for thirty years. Inheriting a bankrupt -treasury from his predecessors, and a large -foreign debt that had on several occasions -brought about foreign intervention, he succeeded -in placing the finances of the country -in a prosperous condition and has accomplished -more for Mexico than had been done in three<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">[370]</a></span> -centuries of Spanish rule. He organized the -army along modern lines and established the -<i>rurales</i> which insured the safety of life and -property. Railroads under the wise system of -encouragement inaugurated by him have increased -from three hundred and fifty miles to -thirteen thousand five hundred miles; telegraph -lines from four thousand five hundred miles to -thirty-five thousand miles; the number of post-offices -now number two thousand three hundred -and fifty instead of seven hundred and twenty as -it was in 1876. Imports and exports have -doubled several times, and the annual balance -sheet now shows a comfortable surplus instead -of a deficit as in former days. All this has been -done and old obligations met in spite of the -serious loss in exchange due to the depreciation -in silver, and the fact that the heavy foreign -obligations had to be met in gold purchased with -silver at a low and constantly varying valuation.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus43"> -<img src="images/illus43.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">A COMPANY OF <i>RURALES</i></p> -</div> - -<p>The life of Porfirio Diaz is fascinating. It -savours of the days of knighthood and romance. -We are reminded of those heroes of old around -whom time has cast a glamour, for he has had -adventures as exciting, escapes as miraculous -and a life seemingly as charmed as any hero -created by the masters of romance, and his life -may well be termed “stranger than fiction.”<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">[371]</a></span> -One is naturally inclined to be rather eulogistic -in his treatment of such a character.</p> - -<p>The present President of Mexico was born in -the city of Oaxaca in an unimposing house on -the Street of La Soledad, that is now used as a -sugar factory, on the 15th of September, 1830, -a day already celebrated in Mexican annals. His -father, Captain José Faustini Diaz, was of -Spanish descent and followed the occupation of -innkeeper, but died when Porfirio was only -three years of age. His maternal grandmother -was a Mixteca Indian. The church and law were -the only two occupations open to an ambitious -youth in those days, and this young lad was intended -for the former. He chose the law much -to the disgust of his relatives but never followed -that calling. The fighting blood in him impelled -him to the sanguinary conflicts on the field -rather than the bloodless battles in the courts -between contending counsel.</p> - -<p>About this time the war with the United -States broke out and the future president, a -youth of seventeen, volunteered but saw no -fighting, although he thus early in life showed -his genius for organization by forming his fellow-students -of the academy into a battalion -for the defence of his home city. Benito Juarez, -afterwards president, was attracted by this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">[372]</a></span> -youth and invited him to read law in his office, -which offer was accepted. Thus was begun an -association between two men who were -destined in later years to occupy such a prominent -place in Mexican history. Through the influence -of Juarez, the younger man was made -assistant librarian and by the aid of the salary -attached to this position, and money earned as -tutor, he completed his course, and received his -law degree.</p> - -<p>Politics and war seem to have divided the -attention of Diaz from the very first with a preference -for the latter in early life. Diaz was a -military genius. I can say this in all seriousness. -Although he never commanded a large -army yet, under his hands, the rawest recruits -soon became valuable troops. He is possessed -of a personal magnetism and the quality of -<i>simpatica</i>, (which can not be translated into -English) that draws people to him and, when -once aroused, they become his enthusiastic -partisans. In a land of lethargy and procrastination -his movements were quick and decisive, -and he soon became noted for night marches and -early morning attacks. He never was overcome -except by superior forces, and then only after -his stores and ammunition were exhausted. -Even when beaten and his army captured or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373">[373]</a></span> -separated, a few days of freedom would again -place him at the head of a respectable force -ready to take aggressive stand against the -enemy. Had he been in command of a hundred -thousand men, he would have met the situation -with the same tact and ability.</p> - -<p>The first of the many political offices held by -Diaz was that of Jefe Politico, or mayor, of the -little Indian town of Ixtlan when only twenty-five -years of age. Here he devoted his time to -organizing the Indians into a company of -militia, and this little body of soldiers formed a -nucleus that proved a great help to him in the -troublous times which followed. Later he was -made Jefe of Tehuantepec where he showed -great administrative ability. Soon afterward, -in 1861, he was elected a deputy to congress from -Oaxaca, but at that time would not sacrifice the -excitement of war for the more prosaic duties of -law-making.</p> - -<p>Captain Diaz had seen his first military service -in the revolts against the notorious Santa -Anna, of Alamo fame. He had the courage to -sign a remonstrance against this usurper, and -was compelled to fly for his life. Later, in the -campaigns against Santa Anna, he was so successful -that he had become almost a hero in the -eyes of his fellow Oaxacans. At the beginning<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374">[374]</a></span> -of the French invasion, the rank of general of -a brigade had been conferred upon him at the -early age of thirty-two years, and he was assigned -to the defense of Puebla under General -Zaragoza. It was due to his tactics more than -anything else that the way was paved for the -great victory of <i>Cinco de Mayo</i>, 1862, when an -inferior force of Mexicans defeated a numerically -larger army of veteran French troops. It -was nearly a year later before the armies of the -allied French and Austrians, greatly augmented -by new arrivals, were able to capture Puebla -after a two months’ siege, the ammunition of -the Mexicans had been exhausted. General Diaz -refusal to give <i>parol</i> and was made prisoner -but escaped after a short confinement.</p> - -<p>Because of the approach of the invading -armies toward the capital, President Juarez had -removed the seat of government to San Luis -Potosi. He made General Diaz commander-in-chief -of the armies south of the Valley of -Mexico. Returning to his favourite haunts in -Oaxaca, he soon gathered together an army and -some money and marched forth on the offensive. -By this time General Diaz had become such a -formidable opponent that General Bazaine himself, -later of European fame, leader of the -French forces, took the field against this young<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_375" id="Page_375">[375]</a></span> -leader with the determination to crush him. He -finally shut him up in Oaxaca and captured that -city in 1865. The French general had carefully -laid his plans for this campaign, having transported -a large number of guns, and was at the -head of an army, Diaz claims, of sixteen thousand. -The fame of this general and his large -force created a panic among the troops of Diaz -and his little army had dwindled to a few hundred. -General Diaz was captured and taken to -Puebla by his captors where he was prisoner for -more than seven months in a former house of the -Jesuits in that city. His escape is celebrated -in Mexican annals, and his own account is as -follows, although I have greatly abbreviated -it:—</p> - -<p>“After taps for silence had been sounded for -the night, I went to a room which was roofless -and which on that account was used as a yard. -I had with me three ropes, wrapped up in -canvas, and I threw them onto the roof. I also -had another rope, and I succeeded in throwing -it around a projecting stone spout which seemed -to be sufficiently firm. When I had satisfied myself -that the support was sufficient, I climbed -up by the rope to the roof. My progress along -the roof to the corner of San Roque street, -where I had made up my mind to descend, was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_376" id="Page_376">[376]</a></span> -attended with much danger, for on the roof of -the church a detachment and sentries were stationed -to keep watch. Gliding on all-fours I -made towards the point where I was to let myself -down. I often had to stop to feel my way, -for the roof was strewn with many fragments of -glass which sounded when touched. Moreover, -there were frequent flashes of lightning, which -exposed me to being discovered.</p> - -<p>“I finally reached the wall of the church. In -order to arrive at the corner of the street of San -Roque it was necessary to pass through a portion -of the edifice which was occupied by the -priest in charge of the church, and I was aware -that shortly before he had denounced to the -court martial some political prisoners who had -bored a hole through their place of confinement -into his dwelling, and as a consequence they had -been shot the next day.</p> - -<p>“I let myself down into an upper yard of the -priest’s house at the moment when a young man -who also lived there had come in from the street; -he had probably been to the theatre, for he was -in gay humour and was humming an air from an -operetta. He did not see me as he passed, and -I remained quiet until he had entered his room. -When I considered that sufficient time had -elapsed for him to get into bed, and perhaps to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_377" id="Page_377">[377]</a></span> -fall asleep, I climbed to the roof of the convent -on the opposite side to that by which I had descended -and pushed forward to the corner of the -street of San Roque, and I arrived there at -last. There is at the corner, in a niche, a -statue of St. Vincent Ferrer which I proposed -using to fix the rope by which I was to descend. -The saint wobbled when touched, but probably -there was inside the statue an iron spike to hold -it. In any case, in order to be more sure, I -adjusted the rope around the pedestal of the -statue which seemed to be quite firm. I resolved -to alight in a vacant lot which adjoined -and which was only fenced in. I did not know -that there was a drove of hogs in this yard. As -when I began the descent I turned somewhat -with my rope, my back struck against the wall, -and the impact caused a poniard which I carried -at my waist to fall from its sheath among -the hogs, probably wounding one of them, for -they set up a grunting which grew louder as -they saw me descending among them. I had to -wait for some time for them to quiet down. I -then climbed to the top of the partition separating -the lot from the street, but I had at once to -bob down again for just at that moment a -gendarme was passing on his round, seeing if<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_378" id="Page_378">[378]</a></span> -the doors were well fastened. When he had retired -I sprang into the street.”</p> - -<p>In a few days he had rallied around him a -few faithful followers and captured the small -garrison of Tehuitzingo. From this time his -career was a succession of victories until the -capture and execution of Maximilian. These -victories and the firm stand of the United States -government re-established republican supremacy. -Early in 1867 preparations were made -to regain Puebla which city was defended by a -force of several thousand French troops. On -April 2nd he made a feint with a few hundred -men on the convent of “El Carmen” which -caused the army of the defenders to be concentrated -there. Then a concerted attack followed -from several points, and the soldiers of -Diaz drove back the hardened troops of the -third Napoleon, and the flag of liberty waved -over the city in the early dawn. He followed up -the fleeing foreigners and a series of engagements -followed in which Diaz was victorious. -The war was ended by the capture of the City -of Mexico after a siege of several assaults.</p> - -<p>From boyhood until the close of the empire -in 1867, General Diaz had worked against great -odds. He was by this time easily the most -popular man in Mexico. One party at the general<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_379" id="Page_379">[379]</a></span> -elections of that year nominated him -for president, but he refused to run against -his old friend and patron, President Juarez. He -even refused an office and resigned his commission -in the army. In search of rest he retired -to the place of his birth, and his trip from the -capital was a triumphal journey. The citizens -of Oaxaca received him with open arms, and -presented him with the estate of La Noria near -that city. Hither he went with the wife whom -he had married by proxy during the war and -spent a few years in comparative quiet. In -1871 another presidential election was held. -Juarez, who had failed both mentally and physically, -had advocated a number of unpopular -measures, but was determined to have himself -reëlected to office. Diaz was also a candidate. -When Juarez was declared elected, the “Porfiristas” -declared a revolution with the slogan -“less government and more liberty.” However -Juarez died in a few months and the executive -power temporarily fell upon the president of -the Supreme Court, Lerdo de Tejada, who was -afterwards elected to that office to serve the unexpired -term.</p> - -<p>General Diaz refused reconciliation with this -government, and, fearing trouble before the -next presidential election, for Lerdo was an<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_380" id="Page_380">[380]</a></span> -active candidate, he sold his estate and left for -the United States after a “<i>pronunciamento</i>,” -called the “Plan of Tuxtepec,” had been issued -to which he gave his allegiance, if he was not the -author of it. This “plan” declared a president -ineligible to succeed himself. By the time -the revolution was well underway in several -states, General Diaz had crossed the Rio Grande -at Brownsville, Texas, with forty followers. -These forty men increased to four hundred in -a few days and they captured Matamoros on -April 2nd, 1876.</p> - -<p>Learning that a large force had been sent -after him, General Diaz decided to return south. -He went to New Orleans and took a steamer -from there, called the City of Habana, sailing -for Vera Cruz, and passed himself off as a -Cuban doctor. He was not suspected until some -of the troops he had captured at Matamoros a -few weeks before got on board the ship at Tampico. -They immediately made arrangements to -secure him on arriving at Vera Cruz. Although -the ship was four miles from land, Diaz jumped -overboard and attempted to swim ashore. He -was picked up after nightfall in an exhausted -condition, and taken on board the ship again. -However the purser was won to his cause and -concealed him in a wardrobe, where he remained<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_381" id="Page_381">[381]</a></span> -for several days on a diet of ship’s biscuit and -water. The purser, as a matter of policy and -in order to disarm all suspicion, invited the -Lerdist officers into his cabin, where they -would spend hours in playing at cards. Oftentimes -the chair of the one sitting in front of -the wardrobe would be tilted back against the -door behind which was the man they would have -given almost anything to catch. From his -cramped position General Diaz was in torment. -He could not stand upright, nor was he able to -sit down. When the <i>City of Habana</i> arrived -at Vera Cruz the chief of the coast guard service, -who was the fugitive’s friend, managed to -smuggle in to him a dilapidated sailor’s suit -and a very old pair of boots. At the same time -the chief sent word that a rowboat, in charge -of a man he would recognize by certain signals, -would come alongside for him. When the ship -began to unload bales of cotton into barges, -this boat appeared among them, and the noted -prisoner made his escape to land.</p> - -<p>After several exciting adventures on the way, -General Diaz again appeared at Oaxaca among -his friends and ardent supporters. His popularity -and prestige in Oaxaca have always been -remarkable. Never did he appeal to his neighbours -and friends of that state in vain. It was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_382" id="Page_382">[382]</a></span> -not long until he was at the head of an army -of four thousand “Porfiristas”—men who -would follow their leader to the death if need -be, and many of whom had fought with him at -Puebla and elsewhere. The news of the escape -of Diaz brought gloom to the “Lerdistas.” -Lerdo immediately marched his army southward. -The two armies met on the 16th of November, -1876, at Tecoac, and for a few hours -the battle waged hotly and bitterly. The Lerdist -army, which was considerably larger, began -the engagement with every prospect of -success. At the last moment Diaz led a charge -in person which routed the enemy, and the -result was a complete triumph for the “Porfiristas.”</p> - -<p>Flushed with victory, and determined to -press his advantage to the utmost, General -Diaz promptly proceeded toward the capital -with his augmented army. Panic seized Lerdo -and his followers. He took all the public funds -available, and, with his ministers, fled to Acapulco. -Upon arriving there he embarked for -San Francisco, and made no further effort to -impede the progress of the Diaz forces. Iglesias, -President of the Supreme Court, upon -whom the succession legally fell upon the death -or resignation of the President, established<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_383" id="Page_383">[383]</a></span> -headquarters at Guanajuato and issued a proclamation -assuming the office of chief executive. -Diaz at once marched upon Puebla, which he -entered without opposition. City after city -sent representatives announcing their adherence -to his cause. The onward march was continued -without a halt until Guadalupe, about -three miles from the capital, was reached. -Here he halted for a day in order to get his -forces into presentable condition to make a -triumphal entry into the historic capital.</p> - -<p>It was on the 24th of November, 1876, that -General Diaz made his memorable march into -the City of Mexico. Riding at the head of an -army of several thousand armed men he made -a triumphal entry into that ancient capital, -while thousands gathered along the route to -see this new adventurer—as he was styled by -his enemies. The Plaza was packed with the -populace. This son of an innkeeper, this man -with the blood of the Indian in his veins, this -hero of many battles passed through the portal -of the National Palace and became master -of Mexico. From there he issued a proclamation -assuming the provisional presidency of -the republic, until an election could take place -in regular form and a constitutional ruler -should be chosen. This was held in December.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_384" id="Page_384">[384]</a></span> -With the government in his hands the result -of that election was never in doubt. After a -three months’ campaign his authority was recognized -over the entire republic. Since that -time Porfirio Diaz occupied that high office continuously, -except for an interval of four years -from 1880 to 1884, when Manuel Gonzalez held -that title, until May 25th, 1911, when he resigned. -Diaz himself became a victim of the -“Tuxtepec Plan,” forbidding two consecutive -terms, and gracefully retired at the end of his -first term, although urged by a large following -to remain at the head of the government. For -the first time in Mexican history was seen the -spectacle of one President voluntarily relinquishing -the sceptre to his successor, and returning -to private life without an effort to -retain himself in power. Gonzalez entered the -office one of the most popular men in Mexico, -having been elected by an almost unanimous -vote. Four years later he left it under a cloud -of almost universal execration and contempt. -During the four years of Gonzalez’s administration -Diaz was not idle, but served in the -cabinet, as governor of Oaxaca and senator -from Morelas. Isolated disturbances have -arisen at times, but no formidable opposition -arose against him until 1910. This revolution<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_385" id="Page_385">[385]</a></span> -is treated in the succeeding chapter. The law -limiting the succession was revoked during his -second term, and the length of office was subsequently -extended to six years. At the various -elections the reported vote was almost -unanimous for Diaz. On December 1st, 1910, -he was inaugurated President for the seventh -consecutive term, or eighth term in all.</p> - -<p>Immediately upon first assuming the executive -office after the flight of Lerdo, Diaz issued -a statement in which he set forth in clear terms -his intention to restore constitutional order -and institute reforms. He invited all factions -and cliques to coöperate with him. This soon -won the regard of the intelligent and honest -partisans of all factions, and he early showed -his impartiality by selecting his advisers irrespective -of party. It was not long until most -of the Lerdistas and Juaristas were won to his -cause. By this skilful handling of the leaders, -he secured the good will of Congress in furthering -his plans for reforms, and in organizing -the finances on a better basis. New treaties -were negotiated with foreign nations and -able diplomatic representatives sent abroad.</p> - -<p>It has been said that the best peacemakers -are those who have made war. Those who -detest powder most are generally those who<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_386" id="Page_386">[386]</a></span> -have smelled it on the field of battle. To them—more -than all others—are known the horrors -and hardships of war, and what it entails -upon the innocent and guilty alike. Even -though a battle-scared hero may have profited -by the advantages gained by military success, -the tragedy of empty homes and nameless -graves is known to and acknowledged by him. -General Sherman said: “The main thing is -to deal as hard blows at the enemy’s forces as -possible, and then cause so much suffering to -the inhabitants that they will long for peace.” -A similar belief animated President Diaz. He -himself has said in explaining his actions in -suppressing brigandage: “Sometimes we were -harsh to the point of cruelty. But it was all -necessary to the life and progress of the nation. -If there was cruelty, the results have justified -it. It was better that a little blood be shed -that much blood be saved. The blood that was -shed was bad blood; the blood that was saved -was good blood.” Almost before they knew -what was happening the professional malcontents -found themselves in the grip of this masterful -new leader. It was to this quality of -firmness that he owed his pronounced success -during the first years of his presidency.</p> - -<p>Several scattered uprisings occurred during<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_387" id="Page_387">[387]</a></span> -the first term, most of them being fostered by -the “Lerdistas.” Lerdo issued a proclamation -on the 24th of February, 1877, from New -York, claiming to be the constitutional President, -and, a few months later, Iglesias did the -same thing from New Orleans. Neither of -these manifestos were looked upon seriously -by the Mexicans, but they were in a great -measure responsible for the tardy recognition -of the Diaz government by the United States -and other foreign powers. One revolt is -worthy of mention because of its novelty. A -part of the crew of the armed vessel <i>Trinidad</i> -mutinied during the absence of the commander -at Vera Cruz. They headed for a Campeche -port, where they seized several thousand dollars -of public funds. While the leaders of the -mutiny were ashore enjoying the money, a -counter mutiny was led by the boatswain, who -took the ship back to Vera Cruz and returned -it to the government.</p> - -<p>Judging this man at a distance, we, who live -in a country where even a third term is a -“bogie,” are inclined to smile at these successive -elections to the presidency, and dismiss -the matter with the charge of “dictator” and -“republican despot,” with all the odium that -those terms imply. President Diaz was both.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_388" id="Page_388">[388]</a></span> -But, above all, he was, I believe, a true patriot. -Whatever may have been his original motives -in seeking this high office his later actions -prove the statement. Responsibility will often -develop a man, and that may have been true -with Diaz. In securing the control by driving -out Lerdo, and assuming the provisional presidency -over Iglesias, who was the official designated -by the constitution in case of a vacancy, -he only did what many had done before. -Whether his retention of the office for so long -was a good or bad thing for the country, the -historian of the future will be a better judge.</p> - -<p>The accomplishments of Diaz were many. -It would require a long enumeration to give -them in detail. The very fact that he succeeded -to a government which had seen fifty-four -different rulers, including two emperors -and a number of avowed dictators, in the fifty-five -years preceding his own accession, and -ruled the country for more than a generation, -is in itself sufficient to stamp him as an extraordinary -man. Those were indeed troublous -times in Mexico while we were celebrating -the centennial of our independence. The -strong spirit of Juarez had been broken by the -long strain from 1857 to 1872, during which -time he was nominally President. His successor<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_389" id="Page_389">[389]</a></span> -was a weak, ambitious man who accomplished -little. Disorder everywhere, the country -overrun with bandits and a worse than -empty treasury were the conditions when Diaz -grasped the reins. It was not until nearly two -years afterward that his government was formally -recognized by the United States. Few -men could have steered the country through -such a state of affairs so successfully. He did -it without repudiating any valid claims. He -established credit by paying foreign obligations -rather than the salaries of government -employees. He surrounded himself with an -able cabinet, and started the machinery of government -in a business-like way.</p> - -<p>I do not subscribe to the doctrine of Shakespeare -that all the world is a stage, and that -each person is a player, for that would take -away sincerity. Porfirio Diaz has been accused -of only acting a part. He could not -always be acting, for his course was too consistent -under many and diverse circumstances. -As a young man he refused pay for military -services because the government was so poor. -He declined promotion over the heads of men -older in the service for fear of jealousies. He -refused remuneration after the close of the war -of intervention, although not a rich man at that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_390" id="Page_390">[390]</a></span> -time. He turned a deaf ear to the emissaries -of Maximilian, who wanted to place him in -command of the Mexican army when that ruler -abdicated, which would practically have made -him President. He was a humane adversary, -as is shown by his treatment of prisoners of -war. He disregarded ceremony as much as is -possible in a Latin country. He declined to -live in the National Palace, but resided in a -private house the most of the time, and at -Chapultepec a part of the year.</p> - -<p>It is not to be wondered at that the man who -rules with a strong arm will make bitter enemies -as well as warm partisans. Likewise such -a policy will always have its defamers as well -as its supporters. Opinion is still divided -upon Napoleon, and whether his high-handed -methods wrought more good than evil. Hence -it is that some can see nothing in Diaz but a -tyrant, an enslaver of his people, and a man -unfit for even life itself. They forget that -peonage was not originated by Diaz, but was -inherited from the Spaniards and supported -by the voters of the country. They do not look -into the conditions faced by Diaz when he first -became President, nor the bloody history of -the republic before that time. I believe that -Diaz would have been permitted to serve his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_391" id="Page_391">[391]</a></span> -term had it not been for his efforts to control -the vice-presidency, and the fact that his -choice fell upon a man who was very unpopular. -Knowing that at his age the President’s -span of life was uncertain, the politicians -wanted to control this office because of the -succession. For this reason discontent and -jealousies had been growing for several years. -Diaz had publicly declared his intention not to -seek another term, so that those ambitious for -that office took him at his word and began their -wire-pulling. This was in February, 1908. -Then, in the spring of 1910, he announced that -yielding to importunity he would accept another -term. This was the one great mistake -in his political career. Had Diaz adhered to -his previous declaration, he would have retired -from the office of chief executive full of honours. -As it is he resigned under pressure, and -left the City of Mexico unannounced and accompanied -only by his family and a few -friends. He boarded a steamer in the harbour -of Vera Cruz and sailed for Spain, where he -has quietly resided since that time.</p> - -<p>The personality of this dictator-president, -who has filled such an important place in the -world’s history, is most interesting. As I sat -in the great salon of the National Palace,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_392" id="Page_392">[392]</a></span> -awaiting the appearance of President Diaz, I -spent the intervening fifteen or twenty minutes -in examining the room. On the high walls -were pictures of General Washington, the -father of liberty in the whole of the two Americas; -of the patriot-priest Hidalgo, who first -raised the standard of revolt in Mexico, and of -Diaz himself. Then Diaz appeared—a man -tall for a Mexican, solidly built, with white -closely cropped hair and white moustache. He -approached with an elastic, graceful and -springy step entirely belying his almost eighty -years. The Indian blood could easily be traced -in his complexion and features. The most -striking feature of this man is his eyes, which -seem to look into the very soul of all he meets. -It is probably this intuitive perception that -has been one of the key-notes of his success. -He has always been a democratic sort of man -and easy of approach, and impresses his sincerity -on all those who talk with him. Diaz -was always a tireless worker and methodical -in his habits. He is abstemious, and it is probably -due to this characteristic and his methodical -habits, that at eighty years of age he remained -as active and energetic as the average -man twenty years younger. He kept in touch -with the most remote parts of the republic,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_393" id="Page_393">[393]</a></span> -even to the most distant village. His advisers -were often surprised at the vast knowledge he -displayed in all matters of state. The private -life of Diaz has always been above reproach. -He has been twice married. His first wife was -Delfina Ortega y Reyes, who died in 1880 before -sharing in the full greatness of her husband, -leaving a son and two daughters, all of -whom are still living. Three years later he -was married to a daughter of Romero Rubio, -whose full name is Señora Doña Carmen Romero -Rubio de Diaz. She is a woman who by -her sweetness of character, kindly disposition -and charities won a warm place in the affections -of the Mexican people.</p> - -<p>The end of the political career of Diaz is -not without a touch of pathos, as well as an -element of personal dignity. Broken in health, -and deserted by many of his former friends, -he resigned the office of President in the following -letter addressed to Congress:—</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p>“<span class="smcap">Señores</span>: The Mexican people, who have -generously covered me with honours, who proclaimed -me as their leader during the international -war, who patriotically assisted me in all -works undertaken to develop industry and the -commerce of the republic, to establish its<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_394" id="Page_394">[394]</a></span> -credit, gain for it the respect of the world and -obtain for it an honourable position in the concert -of the nations; that same people has revolted -in armed military bands, stating that -my presence in the exercise of the supreme -executive power was the cause of this insurrection.</p> - -<p>“I do not know of any facts imputable to -me which could have caused this social phenomenon; -but acknowledging as possible, -though not admitting, that I may be unwittingly -culpable, such a possibility makes me -the least able to reason out and decide my own -culpability.</p> - -<p>“Therefore, respecting, as I always have -respected, the will of the people and in accordance -with Article 82 of the Federal Constitution, -I come before the supreme representatives -of the nation in order to resign, unreservedly, -the office of Constitutional President -of the republic with which the national vote -honoured me, which I do with all the more -reason, since in order to continue in office it -would be necessary to shed Mexican blood, endangering -the credit of the country, dissipating -its wealth, exhausting its resources and -exposing its policy to international complications.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_395" id="Page_395">[395]</a></span></p> - -<p>“I hope, señores, that, when the passions -which are inherent to all revolutions have been -calmed, a more conscientious and justified -study will bring out in the national mind a correct -acknowledgment, which will allow me to -die carrying engraved in my soul a just impression -of the estimation of my life, which -throughout I have devoted and will devote to -my countrymen.</p> - -<p class="center">“With all respect,</p> - -<p class="right">“<span class="smcap">Porfirio Diaz</span>.”</p> - -</div> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_396" id="Page_396">[396]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_XXI">CHAPTER XXI<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE REVOLUTION OF 1910</span></h2> - -<p>The year 1910 marked the completion of one -hundred years of Mexican independence. In -September of that year this event was celebrated -with all the pomp and pageantry customary -in Latin countries. Nearly the whole -month was given up to public functions in -various parts of the republic, and especially -in the City of Mexico, the national capital. -Representatives of all the great nations of the -world were sent there to assist in the ceremonies -incident to the celebration. Dedications -of public buildings, magnificent balls, -public fêtes and exercises commemorative of -independence and of the national heroes, who -led the struggle against the Spaniards, were -numerous. The 15th and the 16th of September -were the great gala days of this centennial -anniversary. The further fact that added lustre -to the event was the eightieth anniversary -of the birth of President Diaz, who had established<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_397" id="Page_397">[397]</a></span> -a substantial government after the many -years of strife through which the country had -passed between the years 1810 and 1876. In -all the speeches made by foreign representatives -the great work of this man was extolled, -as well as the progress that had been made by -the nation itself.</p> - -<p>The culmination of the centennial ceremonies -was on the night of the 15th, just a little while -before midnight. By half past ten o’clock the -immense Plaza, which faces the National Palace, -was filled with an immense crowd of Mexican -dignitaries, distinguished foreigners and -the population of the city. It was a mass of -living, breathing, expectant humanity. The -many coloured lights formed veritable rainbows -of colour, and this added an additional -attraction to the teeming, seething crowd. The -door leading to the central balcony on the front -of the National Palace opened, and President -Diaz appeared. An intense stillness fell upon -the crowd. In his right hand the President -carried the national flag of Mexico, and immediately -on his appearance the red, white and -green lamps (the national colours) surrounding -the old bell with which Hidalgo first -sounded the call to liberty, and which has -found a permanent resting place here, flashed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_398" id="Page_398">[398]</a></span> -into a radiant glow. As the strains of the -national anthem floated out on the breeze, the -President waved his flag, rang the bell and -shouted “Viva Mexico!” The great crowd -went wild with excitement. The cry of “Viva -Mexico!” was taken up by the crowd near to -the President, and then by those farther away, -until the great shout might have been heard -all over the capital. The bells of the grand -old cathedral pealed forth their loudest tones, -the factory whistles shrieked, sky-rockets were -sent up in the air and every noise-making device -was turned loose. Pandemonium reigned. -“Viva Diaz!” and “Viva el Presidente!” -were mingled with the cry of “Viva Mexico!”</p> - -<p>In the light of later events this wonderful -celebration seems to have been a sham, or at -least only on the surface. At that time a political -volcano was simmering all over the republic, -and was just ready to break forth into violent -eruption. Diaz had already been re-elected -for the eighth term, but the inauguration was -not to take place until the fifth of December. -In November the first outbreaks against the -civil authorities occurred. An abortive rising -occurred in Puebla in which blood was shed. -Armed bodies appeared in the states of Chihuahua -and Sonora, in the northwestern part<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_399" id="Page_399">[399]</a></span> -of the republic. These bodies attacked the -outlying <i>haciendas</i>, robbed the owners of horses -and foraged at will to secure supplies for themselves -and their horses. The country in which -these outbreaks occurred is ideal for the guerilla -warfare that followed. Both of those -states are mountainous and thinly settled, so -that it was comparatively easy for even a small -band of armed men to make a great deal of -trouble and escape from a much larger force -that might attempt to pursue them.</p> - -<p>Government troops were promptly dispatched -to the scene of trouble, but it was difficult to -catch up with the marauders and engage them -in battle. Their outbreaks would first be heard -of in one neighbourhood, and a few days later -reports of trouble would be received from sections -quite remote. Additional armed bodies -appeared in other sections, and it was not many -weeks until the trouble began to present a serious -aspect. Many of the government troops -sent against the insurrectos were either cowardly -or were in secret sympathy with those -opposed to the government. Whenever actual -engagements did occur the outcome was generally -in favour of the Federal troops, but the -defeated ones were always able to escape into -the country, where it was difficult for them to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_400" id="Page_400">[400]</a></span> -be followed. The first battle of any note was -fought at Mal Paso, when the Federals were -routed, but a battle at Ojinaga a few days later -was a decided defeat for the revolutionists. -The failure of the government to stamp out -the trouble promptly gave encouragement to -all the disaffected ones, and the old spirit of -lawlessness that once prevailed seemed about -to break forth with all its animus and disregard -of the rights of private property.</p> - -<p>The predominant figures among the insurrectos -were the Maderos, a wealthy family that -owned great estates near the city of Torreon. -In the presidential campaign that had just -passed, Francisco Madero had been a candidate -for the presidency. He was thrown into -prison, as that family asserted, simply because -he dared to oppose the dictator who had held -power for so long. The reason given out by -the government was, of course, far different. -Nevertheless all the disaffected factions of the -republic rallied around this family, which did -the principal financing of the revolutionists. -A propaganda was conducted in the United -States by the Maderos, and they obtained a -great deal of encouragement from the majority -of the newspapers of the United States, which -had recently taken a position extremely antagonistic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_401" id="Page_401">[401]</a></span> -to the Diaz government. Francisco -Madero established a revolutionary junta in -El Paso, and large quantities of ammunition -were sent across the border. A warrant for -his arrest having been issued because of violation -of the neutrality laws, Madero with a -handful of followers crossed into Chihuahua -and entered actively into the campaign.</p> - -<p>“No re-election” and “effective suffrage” -were the two catch-words of Madero. It was -very similar to that of Porfirio Diaz when he -swept everything before him. At no time were -there, according to the best reports that can be -obtained, more than a few thousand men enrolled -under the Madero banner. These troops -were scattered throughout northern Mexico, -from Ciudad Juarez to the Pacific Ocean. -Into their ranks were drawn many soldiers of -fortune from the United States, as well as from -Europe. A part of these men were no doubt -really patriotic in their motives, while others -simply grasped the chance of engaging in an -exciting campaign because of the freedom of -action which was offered, and also partly because -of the rewards that were promised by -those at the head of the revolution. An eye-witness -of the engagement at Tia Juana says -that not over ten per cent. of the insurrectos<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_402" id="Page_402">[402]</a></span> -who captured that town were Mexicans, the -remainder being made up of Americans, including -some negroes, Germans, English and -other nationalities. This engagement occurred -on May 8th and 9th, 1911. The Federals threw -up breastworks of bags of sand, and the women -and children were sent out of town to the -American side. The fighting was severe and -many were killed on both sides. On the second -day the government forces yielded, and the -rebels immediately pillaged the town and -stores.</p> - -<p>Most of the engagements took place at towns -near the border, at Ciudad Juarez, Nogales -and Douglass, as well as Tia Juana. Two -reasons were probably responsible for this fact. -One was that it gave the insurrectos, in case -they were defeated, an easy escape across the -border, and another was that they were anxious -to capture the custom-houses in order to -secure the revenue from that source. This -would also enable them to set up a <i>de facto</i> -government, which might secure for them recognition -from countries that looked upon them -with favour. Because of these fights on the -border, and the reckless shooting by the combatants, -no fewer than twenty citizens of the -United States were killed and twice that number<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_403" id="Page_403">[403]</a></span> -wounded upon the American side, including -men, women and children, none of whom had -taken any part in the conflict. The camps of -the Maderistas at all times contained numerous -American correspondents, and the reports -of the majority of them were favourable to the -cause of that faction. The battle of Casas -Grandes was all but decisive. In this engagement -Madero took part and was slightly -wounded, while the opposing leader lost an -arm. But Madero was soon in the field again -at the head of his forces. The movement had -likewise spread, and the government faced -trouble in the country even as far south as the -Isthmus of Tehuantepec.</p> - -<p>The aim of the Maderistas was to secure recognition -as belligerents from the government -of the United States, and it was also the desire -of the government to put down the insurrection -in order to prevent action by the United States -to suppress the trouble because of the complaint -of many Americans whose property had -been destroyed, or was in danger of destruction. -Railroad tracks were torn up, mines -were tampered with and much other interference -with the property of foreigners followed. -European governments did not dare to interfere -because of the Monroe Doctrine, and pressure<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_404" id="Page_404">[404]</a></span> -was brought upon the government at Washington -to restore order. On May 8th there was -great excitement in the United States following -orders issued by the Department of War -for the mobilization of American troops along -the Mexican border. Almost twenty thousand -troops were sent to Texas and centralized at -San Antonio. From there they were sent to -various places along the international border, -but with positive instruction to take no part -in the trouble on the other side of the Rio -Grande. The press looked upon this action as -preliminary to armed intervention, but no such -result followed. This movement of troops was -no doubt actuated by the motive of showing -what the United States could do, and of impressing -both sides to the conflict that foreign -property must be left undisturbed and the -rights of neutral parties carefully observed.</p> - -<p>Several attempts were made by the Maderistas -to capture Ciudad Juarez, the prosperous -city directly opposite El Paso. The Federal -troops in the city were under the command -of General Navarro, while the insurrectos in -the final siege were commanded by Gen. Pascual -Orozco. After a battle of several days, -including considerable street fighting, General -Navarro surrendered his command of fifteen<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_405" id="Page_405">[405]</a></span> -hundred men to General Orozco on the 10th of -May. Shortly after this Madero himself entered -the city as victor, and immediately set up -a provisional government, giving himself the -title of Provisional President. This gave the -insurrectos control of the important custom -house at Ciudad Juarez, and was a great victory -for their cause. “On to Mexico” then -became the popular cry, and preparations began -to be made for that long march. Torreon -had fallen, and Pachuca, only forty miles from -the capital, had been taken possession of by -the revolutionists. Chihuahua and a number -of other cities were besieged by them.</p> - -<p>At this stage Diaz and his advisers asked for -an armistice in order that negotiations might -be conducted. Each side appointed commissioners, -and efforts were made to agree upon -terms for settling the trouble into which the -country had been plunged. The Maderistas -refused to consider any terms which did not -involve the resignation of President Diaz, -Vice-President Corral and the entire cabinet. -President Diaz, in order to avoid further bloodshed, -the outcome of which would be very uncertain, -finally acceded to these terms and -agreed to resign before the end of the month. -His resignation was delayed, however, for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_406" id="Page_406">[406]</a></span> -some time, and disorder again broke out in -several places. Even in the City of Mexico -mobs formed, and practically took possession -of the city on the 24th and 25th of May. Before -the close of the latter day President Diaz -handed in his resignation, as the Vice-President -had previously done, and the government -was turned over to Francisco de la Barra, who -had been agreed upon as the Provisional President -until a new executive could be chosen at -a special election. President Diaz secretly left -the City of Mexico, and embarked on a vessel -at Vera Cruz for Europe. A new cabinet was -selected by Acting-President Barra, the majority -of whom were suggested by Francisco Madero. -A wiser selection than Dr. de la Barra -it would have been difficult to make for such -a troublesome position. He had represented -Mexico at Washington just prior to the troubles -of his country, and commanded great respect -among the officials in that city.</p> - -<p>With the downfall of Diaz the real troubles -of the Maderistas began. It is almost always -true that the victorious are impatient to secure -the fruits of their victory. Extravagant promises -had been made by the leaders of the revolution, -which included free land, lower taxes, -higher wages and a decreased cost of living.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_407" id="Page_407">[407]</a></span> -It was impossible for the leaders to do these -things at once, as it would take several years -to work out such a program. Although Francisco -Madero held no office, he had been designated -as an adviser of the new government, -and no appointments were made by the Provisional -President without his approval. This -brought about jealousies among the ambitious -leaders, and there has been more or less fighting -in various sections of the republic in -which much blood has been shed. A few generals -deserted the standards of Madero and -have kept up fighting on their own account. A -serious outbreak occurred in the city of Puebla -in which many were killed. Many political -parties followed, as it had been many years -since there was a definite party organization -in Mexico. Some of these were very small, -being made up simply of factional groups. -The Church party again became prominent and -started to take an active part in the approaching -election. Bernardo Reyes, who had been -sent on a mission to Europe by Diaz in order -to get him out of the country, returned, and -a strong party known as the Reyesistas arose -and wanted to nominate him for the presidency. -He left the country, however, before the final -elections, claiming to be in fear of his life.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_408" id="Page_408">[408]</a></span> -This voluntary expatriation of General Reyes -on September 28th, when, disguised as an invalid, -he walked up the gang-plank of a steamer -at Vera Cruz, bound for New York, removed -the only obstacle in the path of Sr. Madero. -The election, which was held on Sunday, October -1st, 1911, was as peaceful as such an -event could be in most parts of Mexico. It -does not necessarily mean that they were not -inclined to fight, but there was nothing to fight -about. The result was that the electors chosen -were almost unanimous for Francisco Madero.</p> - -<p>To an American this election would seem -almost farcical. For the purpose of the election -the country was divided into districts, -with one presidential elector for every five -hundred inhabitants. Before election day two -officials were appointed in each district. One -of these officials compiled a list of the voters -in his little subdivision. When he had looked -up the voters in his district, and the names -were printed and posted on some convenient -street corner, this official’s duties ended. Any -one whose name did not appear on the printed -list had a right to go to the proper authorities -and state his case. All those qualified to vote -received a ballot on which they were to write -the names of the electors they wished to vote<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_409" id="Page_409">[409]</a></span> -for. The second official appointed took charge -of the election booth on the morning of the -election, and these booths were generally placed -at the entrance to business houses or even in -the parks. The voting places were supposed -to open at 9 o’clock. The first seven voters -who appeared, with the one commissioner appointed, -constituted the election board. In -American cities one could imagine a great rush -of voters to be among the first seven, but in -many of the Mexican booths that number did -not arrive until half an hour or an hour after -the time the booth was supposed to open. The -commissioner in charge sat at the table with -a list of the voters beside him, and, as the -voters appeared, they indicated the names of -the electors for whom they wished to vote, and -the commissioner then communicated this information -to the other members of the board in -an audible voice. As a general rule there was -no closed ballot box, but the ballots were merely -laid in an open pasteboard box with a paperweight -on top to hold them down. Of secrecy -or an attempt at secrecy there was none. Some -citizens sent their wives to vote for them with -the information that they themselves were indisposed, -and these ballots were accepted. It -is claimed that the peons generally abstained<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_410" id="Page_410">[410]</a></span> -from voting, partly because of pride because -they were not able to write, but more likely -because of indifference since they had never -been allowed such a privilege before.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 420px;" id="illus44"> -<img src="images/illus44.jpg" width="420" height="650" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">SR. DON FRANCISCO I. MADERO.</p> -<p class="caption">Courtesy of the Bulletin of the Pan-American Union.</p> -</div> - -<p>The only real contest in the election was over -the choice of a Vice-President. Dr. Vasquez -Gomez, who had been the principal aid of Sr. -Madero in the revolution, had been cast aside -by him in favour of José Maria Pino Suarez. -The cause of the disagreement between these -two leaders of the revolution was in part over -the name of the party. Dr. Gomez insisted -upon the original name of the revolutionist -party, which was Anti-reelectionista, while Sr. -Madero decided upon the name of Constitutional -Progressive. Dr. Gomez continued as a -candidate under the name chosen by him. -Many also voted for the Acting-President, -although he was not an active candidate. Other -names of parties with tickets in the field were -Pure Liberal Party, Red Liberals, Evolutionist -Party and Reyesistas. An active campaign -was carried on by several of the candidates, -and Señor Madero visited many of the states -in a speaking tour. Everywhere he was received -with respect and at many times with -real enthusiasm. Soldiers were present at the -voting booths in many places on election day<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_411" id="Page_411">[411]</a></span> -to prevent trouble, but there was very little -disturbance in any part of the country.</p> - -<p>On the 6th of November, 1911, Francisco -Indalecio Madero was inaugurated President of -Mexico with elaborate ceremonies, and Pino -Suarez was inducted into the office of Vice-President. -The new chief executive of the republic -was born on the Hacienda del Rosario, -in the state of Coahuila, on the 4th of October, -1873, and is still a young man. He is the eldest -of a family of thirteen children, and both of his -parents are members of wealthy land-owning -families. It is estimated that the revolution cost -the Maderos more than a million dollars, but -they could well afford it. He married Señorita -Sara Pérez, the daughter of a prominent Mexican, -in 1900. For several years President -Madero has been the leader of the opposition -in the republic. His appearance is not that of -a leader, for the new President is barely five -feet four in height and weighs less than one -hundred thirty-five pounds. His figure is -slight, with small hands and feet, and he wears -a full beard. By way of preparing for his -campaign Madero wrote a book entitled “The -Presidential Succession in 1910,” which created -such a tremendous sensation that it was finally -suppressed by the Diaz government. It was a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_412" id="Page_412">[412]</a></span> -fearless arraignment of what he considered to -be the evils of that administration. On June -7th, 1910, he was arrested at Monterey and -imprisoned for several weeks, not being released -until after the election had been held. -It was then that he published his political platform -known as the “Plan of San Luis Potosi,” -which was issued from that city on the 5th of -October. Among the reforms advocated by -him were a more equitable distribution of the -lands of the republic, free restitution of lands -wrested from the Yaquis and a return of that -tribe to their native state, and an abolition of -the practice of admitting malefactors into the -national army.</p> - -<p>It is impossible to predict the outcome of -the Madero administration. If the people -stand by him many needed reforms may be -accomplished. The main difficulty to be overcome -will be that personalism enters so much -into Mexican politics. If parties backed by -real and genuine principles and not dependent -for their strength upon a single personality, -shall arise, then peaceful conditions will return -and President Madero will be permitted to -work out his program. He showed himself -humane and considerate during the revolution, -although he did not distinguish himself especially<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_413" id="Page_413">[413]</a></span> -as a strategist or military leader. He -broke all precedents in yielding the provisional -presidency to Dr. de la Barra, instead of seizing -that office himself as he might easily have -done. In his speeches he has counselled moderation -among his followers. He has a difficult -task before him, but it is the hope of the writer -that he will not disappoint those who have -raised him to power.</p> - -<p>President Madero has been accused of being -anti-American in his sympathies. As an answer -to this I quote from an authorized statement -by him in an American newspaper:</p> - -<p>“I am glad at this time to have the opportunity -to assure the American people of my -great friendship and regard for them, and to -assure them that I will do all in my power -during my administration to strengthen still -more the already strong friendly relations existing -between the two nations. I feel very sure -that during my administration the bonds which -unite the sister republic will become far -stronger than they have ever been. I am a -great admirer of the American people, for I -went to school in the United States and I have -travelled much in your country. I will welcome -Americans to Mexico at all times. I want -to see American energy, American brains and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_414" id="Page_414">[414]</a></span> -American capital come to this country and -assist in its development and progress, and -Americans will always find a friend in me and -my government.”</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_415" id="Page_415">[415]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_XXII">CHAPTER XXII<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE SIERRAS AND BEYOND</span></h2> - -<p>“Las Madres,” says the Mexican, whenever -he is asked the name of the lofty range of -mountains that runs through the western part -of the northern half of Mexico, and which separate -the lofty interior plateaus from the Pacific -Ocean and the Gulf of California. This -range of mountains effectually cuts off the west -coast from the best developed part of Mexico, -and for that reason this section is not so well -known as those parts which are visited by travellers. -At the present time no railway has -been completed across this range of mountains, -but it will not be long until this disadvantage -will exist no longer. This district includes the -great states of Sonora and Sinaloa, the territory -of Tepic, and a large part of the states -of Chihuahua and Durango. To-day it is almost -a counterpart of what California was -before the gold rush of 1849—little known, -isolated and undeveloped—but with just as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_416" id="Page_416">[416]</a></span> -great natural advantages. Dense jungles cover -the lower levels along the coast, where water -is plentiful, while great areas in the north are -semi-arid. In the higher altitudes vast forests -of pine and oak crown the serrated peaks. -The population is generally sparse and scattered.</p> - -<p>In the future the main gateways to reach -this part of the country from the United States -will be El Paso, and Benson, Arizona. From -El Paso it is a distance of a little more than -two hundred miles to Chihuahua. The traveller -has no sooner crossed the Rio Grande than -the change is seen in the Mexican town of Ciudad -Juarez, formerly Paso del Norte. This -city was the objective point of the revolutionists -in the late trouble in that country, and was -the scene of a great deal of fighting before it -was finally captured. After its capture it was -the seat of the temporary government of the -Maderistas. For several hours on the journey -southward there is nothing to be seen but the -chaparral and desolate-looking hills, with just -enough novelty in the little towns that may be -passed to make the trip strange and rather -old-fashioned. Big-hatted, shiftless peons stare -at you from their leaning positions against the -station walls. The “hee-haw” of a lone burro<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_417" id="Page_417">[417]</a></span> -or the “cough” of a gasoline engine will be -the only sounds to break the silence.</p> - -<p>The train rolls along through a narrow valley -which is quite level, and with high tablelands -all about. Then the route reaches the -land of <i>haciendas</i>, where herds of cattle, sheep -and goats may be seen. It is a land of deep -valleys, with glimpses of majestic mountains, -and sometimes with broad spreading plains as -well, but the mountains are always in view. At -length, after a ride of a little more than half -a day, the train reaches Chihuahua, which is -the principal city and metropolis of this section -of Mexico. Chihuahua is not a very beautiful -city; nor is it as attractive as many of the -other Mexican cities, for its location and the -climate are not such as can greatly be recommended. -It is destined to be a much larger -city than at present, however, by reason of the -mineral wealth surrounding it, and also because -it is the starting point for what will ultimately -be the principal trade route between -the United States and northwestern Mexico. -Like Monterey this city has become very much -Americanized, and that influence is noticeable -in both people and architecture.</p> - -<p>Chihuahua is on the line of the Kansas City, -Mexico and Orient Railway, which, when completed,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_418" id="Page_418">[418]</a></span> -will form a direct route from Kansas -City, Missouri, to Topolobampo, a new port on -the Pacific. At the present time trains are running -from Wichita, Kansas, almost to the Mexican -border, and two detached sections are in -operation in the Republic of Mexico. One of -these starts from a point near the Rio Grande -and runs to Chihuahua. From Chihuahua -westward this railroad, in conjunction with the -Mexican Northwestern Railway, traverses one -of the finest grazing sections of the republic. -Broad prairies which are covered with grass -stretch out on either side to the foothills, and -form rich grazing lands. The vast ranges, the -temperate climate and a fair average rainfall -makes this almost an ideal country for cattle. -Upon them are fattened the beef that feeds the -country, and many animals find their way to -the markets of the United States. It is a region -of immense <i>haciendas</i>, which form almost empires -in themselves, for they are larger than -some of the principalities of Europe. One -estate near Chihuahua would make a commonwealth -as large as the states of Massachusetts -and Rhode Island combined, with a small farm -of a million acres besides. The Zuloaga family -own a <i>hacienda</i> directly on this line of railway, -which is thirty-five miles wide and nearly one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_419" id="Page_419">[419]</a></span> -hundred miles long, and includes about two -million acres. Most of this estate consists of -fine grazing land, and it ships about forty thousand -head of cattle each year, as well as from -three to six thousand mules and horses. A -few years ago the late proprietor of this estate -bought an adjoining farm for two hundred -thousand dollars, and his method of paying for -it is a good illustration of Mexican business -methods. He secured silver coin for this -amount, which weighed nearly six tons, and -hauled it over to the seller in two great carts.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus45"> -<img src="images/illus45.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">A GROUP OF PEONS</p> -</div> - -<p>The buildings of the Zuloaga <i>hacienda</i>, which -I visited, lie about fifty miles west of Chihuahua, -in one of the most beautiful locations that -could be found anywhere. They are near the -foot of a range of low mountains, and in front -projects out a plain that gently slopes down -to a lake a couple of miles distant. Beyond -the lake is another range of wooded hills which -seem to complete the picture. Within the walls -are the home of the <i>hacendado</i>, the church, the -stables and a store. The church is a beautiful -structure, artistic in its details, and all of the -materials used in its construction were secured -upon the plantation; and all of the work, including -some magnificently carved woodwork -and some creditable paintings, was done on the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_420" id="Page_420">[420]</a></span> -premises and by those living there. The buildings -are all one-storied in height, with walls -thick enough to withstand any earthquake. -The rooms are large and airy, with extremely -high ceilings, through which you might drive -a carriage, and the parlours are nearly as large -as public halls. More than three thousand -peons are employed on this <i>hacienda</i>, most of -whom live in buildings arranged in big hollow -squares just outside of the walls of the family’s -quarters.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus46"> -<img src="images/illus46.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">TARAHUMARI INDIANS.</p> -</div> - -<p>There are a number of small towns along -this trans-continental line of railway, the principal -of which is Miñaca, a quaint little old-fashioned -place. The inhabitants would rather -attend a chicken fight than work or go to mass. -From Miñaca this road begins the real climb -over the divide on its way to the Pacific coast. -For scenic beauty it equals any railroad in -Mexico, not excepting the ride over the Mexican -railway from the City of Mexico to Vera -Cruz, hitherto described. Deep cuts, high -hills, and tunnels succeed each other, as the -railroad climbs up on its way toward the line -of perpetual snow. It passes through one of -the best timber sections of Mexico, where tall -pine trees, straight as an arrow, rise up for -a hundred feet or more without a limb. Huge<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_421" id="Page_421">[421]</a></span> -crags of fantastic outline, tall pines silhouetted -against the low-hanging clouds and the mysterious -depths of the barrancas combine to -form scenes of awe-inspiring grandeur. At -dangerous points crosses on the trail tell the -story of tragedies—of riders who have probably -stumbled into eternity without a moment’s -warning.</p> - -<p>This Sierra region of Mexico should appeal -to the sportsman, for much game abounds. At -nearly all elevations may be found the white-tail -deer. The mountain lion, called <i>tigre</i>, -lurks in the fastnesses of the mountains. The -bear may be found wherever there are good -feeding grounds. The wild turkey is plentiful -in many sections. The Mexicans do not hunt -much, so that there are many game birds. -Quail are numerous in the foothills, and wild -duck, snipe and curlew are exceedingly numerous -on the lagunas and marshes of the coast, -as well as in the lakes of the mountain region. -Hunting is inexpensive, and it is strange that -more Americans do not visit this unhunted region.</p> - -<p>One of the strangest of the many tribes of -Mexican Indians inhabit the valleys and barrancas -of this part of the republic. These are -the Tarahumaris, a timid race who rather<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_422" id="Page_422">[422]</a></span> -shrink from contact with the white people to -any greater extent than is necessary. Occasionally -these Indians may be seen on the -streets of Chihuahua, whither they go to buy -some things, or, perhaps, to carry a message -for a Mexican or American. But they do not -linger any longer than is necessary. They can -always be distinguished from the other Indians -because the men almost invariably have their -legs absolutely bare in all kinds of weather. -They also wear their hair long, and it hangs -down over the shoulder like our red men, while -the Mexican Indians usually wear their hair -short. Their features are coarse, but their -bearing has a kind of native dignity about it -that attracts. One of their medicine men once -cut his hair to get some new ideas. While the -new hair was growing he kept his head tied -up to prevent his thoughts from escaping. I -mention this to give an idea of the primitiveness -and simplicity of these strange people.</p> - -<p>The Tarahumaris pay no taxes or tribute to -the Mexican government. They are quiet and -inoffensive, however, and for that reason they -are allowed to inhabit the mountain slopes and -inhospitable barrancas in peace. Their houses -are very simple. They are usually made by -setting up forked poles across which other<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_423" id="Page_423">[423]</a></span> -straight poles are laid, and then roughly-hewed -boards are set up along the sides. Sometimes -they are made entirely of small rocks. Many -of them live in the natural caves which abound -in that region, and of which I have seen scores. -They are nomadic and change their domicile -frequently, although the new location may be -only a few hundred rods away from the old. -Store-houses may be seen in which the family -stores its surplus supply of corn and beans, -which are the only food supplies cultivated by -these people. Upon the mountains the men kill -deer and squirrels, and these, together with fish, -rats and little ground animals which abound in -that region, constitute their principal meat -supply.</p> - -<p>The Tarahumaris are not a sociable people, -nor are they industrious, for they like too well -to lie on their backs or breasts in the hot sun. -They are great runners and have been known -to run day after day, stopping only to eat and -secure some necessary sleep. When they are -travelling across the country one will seldom -see them walking. Even on a mountain trail -they usually keep up a trot. I have seen them -running up a steep path where most of us would -not want to walk very long without stopping -to rest. The chief men of the tribes carry<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_424" id="Page_424">[424]</a></span> -canes as their emblem of authority. If a man -is charged with an offence a messenger is sent -to him, armed with a cane made of red Brazil -wood, and the person summoned would not -dare to disobey the order. No writ issued by -any court in a civilized land commands greater -obedience. It is generally the older men who -are entrusted with this badge of authority, and -they are very jealous of the privilege. This -method of designating authority is quite common -among the aborigines of the Americas. -The Tarahumaris are very superstitious. They -are afraid to travel after night because the -dead are supposed to be abroad at that time. -The <i>shaman</i>, as the medicine man is called, is -a man of great importance among these superstitious -people. He is always present at all -family celebrations, such as weddings and funerals, -and he is generally called in when there -is sickness in the family.</p> - -<p>About one hundred and fifty miles southwest -of El Paso, in the state of Chihuahua, is a colony -of considerable interest to Americans. -After travelling that number of miles of semi-desert -land over the Rio Grande and Sierra -Madre Railway from Ciudad Juarez, as dreary -a landscape as one could imagine, the appearance -suddenly changes as one approaches the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_425" id="Page_425">[425]</a></span> -lands of the Mormon colony that has settled -here. Fearful of the results of the anti-polygamy -agitation in the United States a few hundred -followers of Brigham Young banded together, -and sought a new “promised land.” -They travelled in caravans that contained all -their worldly goods until they crossed the border -into Mexico. Here they were welcomed, -for farmers are what northern Mexico needed, -and religious or ethical questions did not disturb -the Mexican government. The colonists -were exempted from taxes for ten years, and -their implements were allowed free entry. -Each colonist was granted a certain number of -acres at low interest and on easy terms.</p> - -<p>The original colony has expanded into several -settlements numbering more than five thousand -persons. The principal colony is named -Colonia Juarez, and it is a few miles from the -station of Casas Grandes. The Mormons are -splendid agriculturalists, and they sell large -quantities of alfalfa, grains, potatoes and dairy -products. They use the very latest of American -agricultural machinery on their farms. -Every village has a graded school supported -by a voluntary tax, and a large central academy -is also maintained for higher education. They -are devout followers of the Mormon prophets,—these<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_426" id="Page_426">[426]</a></span> -colonists across the Rio Grande,—although -they claim that no open polygamy is -practised. Each man will deny the possession -of more than one wife. The excess of women -with families over the men, however, and the -fact that the Mormon man is thoroughly at -home in more than one house would easily lead -one to a different conclusion. To this must be -added the knowledge that these Mormons left -good homes in Utah for a tract of almost desert -land in Mexico, mainly because of the efforts -of the government of the United States to -stamp out plural marriages.</p> - -<p>The other main route to the Sierra regions -is an extension of the Southern Pacific Railroad, -which is known as the Sonora Railway. -This railroad extends from Nogales, and it is -destined to run to the city of Guadalajara, a -distance of about eleven hundred miles. Nogales -is a city of about three thousand inhabitants, -half of which lies on either side of the -border line. A simple glance without any explanation -would show the visitor which part of -it belongs to the United States, because of the -difference in the buildings and the energy of -the inhabitants. From there the railroad runs -south through Magdalena and across some fertile -plains until, at a distance of almost three<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_427" id="Page_427">[427]</a></span> -hundred miles from the border, it reaches Hermosillo, -the capital of the state of Sonora, -which is the second largest state in the republic. -Much of this state is useless for agriculture, as -it is dry and arid, and a part is very mountainous. -In other sections the soil is extremely -fertile, and irrigation would render it invaluable. -Such projects could be carried out if -there was as much enterprise on that side of -the border as on the northern side. Near the -Yaqui River the soil and climate are as well -adapted to fruit culture as southern California. -There are many large mining enterprises, -the largest being at Cananea, and nearly all -are American enterprises. The trouble with -the Yaqui Indians has greatly hindered development -in Sonora during the past decade. Several -parties of American prospectors and miners -were attacked and a number of Americans -killed. The government finally deported thousands -of the Yaquis to other sections of the -republic, and their depredations then ceased.</p> - -<p>Hermosillo is situated on the Sonora River, -in the midst of an agricultural district and surrounded -by rugged mountains, where there are -many mines of gold and silver. It is the seat -of a Catholic diocese, for which a fine new -cathedral has been built, and also has some<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_428" id="Page_428">[428]</a></span> -very creditable buildings. It is a city of perhaps -ten or twelve thousand people, and is the -largest city in the state. From Hermosillo this -railroad runs to the port of Guaymas, which -is quite an important commercial town, and less -than a hundred miles from the capital. The -Bay of Guaymas is one of the best on the Pacific -coast, and the marine trade is quite important. -For a long time this town was the -terminus of this railroad, but it is too far up -the Gulf of California to ever become a very -important ocean port. Within the last few -years construction work has been rapidly -pushed southward at a little distance from the -coast, and through trains are now running as -far as the city of Tepic, on the way to Guadalajara.</p> - -<p>Not a great distance south of Guaymas the -Sonora Railroad enters Sinaloa, a state nearly -as large as Indiana. This state is destined to -be a great agricultural state, as it is well watered -and contains a number of fine rivers. -Besides the Fuerte, Sinaloa, Culiacan and -Elota Rivers, there are a hundred or more -smaller streams traversing it. It stretches -along the Pacific coast for a distance of nearly -four hundred miles, and has an average -breadth of eighty miles. One-half of the state<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_429" id="Page_429">[429]</a></span> -is little known, and is traversed only by obscure -and difficult trails. Cane and corn culture -have been the chief industry, but it offers -good inducements for the raising of almost all -kinds of grains. In undeveloped natural -wealth, both agricultural and mineral, and in -its splendid water powers, Sinaloa is unsurpassed -by any Mexican commonwealth. An -American land company has recently opened -up a tract of two million acres, and is establishing -a colony that promises good results. -The capital is Culiacan, a short distance from -the coast. Heretofore the only outlet for this -city of fifteen thousand has been a miserable -railroad to its port, Altata, but the new line -enables passengers to go by Pullman cars to -all points in the United States. It is an old -city, for the Spaniards found a considerable -settlement there. They immediately established -a town which was well fortified. The -present city is quite attractive and possesses -a little manufacturing. It is the residence seat -of quite a colony of rich and cultured Mexicans, -and a number of Americans interested in -mining also reside there.</p> - -<p>Mazatlan, a little further down the coast, is -the largest city and principal port of Sinaloa. -It is a picturesque place, with its cathedral<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_430" id="Page_430">[430]</a></span> -spires outlined against the sky, and cocoanut -palms and thatched roofs below. The blue -Cordilleras in the distance complete the picture. -A lighthouse at the north entrance is -said to be the highest lighthouse in the world, -with the exception of the one at Gibraltar. It -is a city of about twenty thousand inhabitants, -and the largest city on the Pacific coast. Although -a great deal of shipping is done in -Mazatlan, the harbour is poor and offers no -protection to vessels. Plans have been approved -for a safe harbour, to cost several million -pesos, in order to prepare it for the anticipated -increase in business. Whether the internal -troubles will stop the building of this -much-needed west coast railroad improvement -remains to be seen. Its completion will not -only give an outlet for this rich region to the -United States, but also to the City of Mexico, -and the stimulus can already be seen wherever -the railroad is in operation. There is not a -richer section in the whole republic than these -coast lands, but because of their isolation everything -has been backward, and all work has -been done in the very crudest and most primitive -ways. The only development that has -taken place is in mining, and most of the -mines are even yet operated in the old-fashioned<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_431" id="Page_431">[431]</a></span> -ways, because of the difficulty of transporting -machinery and fuel.</p> - -<p>The territory of Tepic is almost as large as -the states of Massachusetts and Connecticut -combined. In natural resources it will compare -with Sinaloa, for it is well watered and -affords fine opportunities for agriculture. -Some day the jungles will be transformed into -orange groves and banana plantations, while -the higher lands will produce rich harvests of -grain and coffee. The water power could be -utilized to turn the wheels of factories or to -run the railroads which are so much needed.</p> - -<p>The capital city of Tepic, a municipality of -fifteen thousand people, has been asleep, but -will now be awakened daily by the noise of the -locomotive. At an elevation of three thousand -feet the air is fresh and invigorating. The -climate is pronounced almost ideal by those -who live there, and it is free from the fevers -that prevail in the low coast lands. It does -not differ in general appearance from many -other Mexican cities, but is a quaint and interesting -town.</p> - -<p>Separated from the mainland of Mexico by -the Gulf of California and the Colorado River, -lies that little known territory of Baja (lower) -California. It is a long narrow peninsula that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_432" id="Page_432">[432]</a></span> -projects about eight hundred miles southeasterly -from the southern border of California. -Its width varies from about thirty to over one -hundred miles, with an irregular coast line -over two thousand miles long bordered by numerous -islands, and in size is a trifle larger -than the state of Iowa. Lower California is -mainly mountainous, with irregular plains -along the Pacific coast, and smaller plains and -valleys along the north coast and in some parts -of the interior. In climatic and other physical -features the northern part of the peninsula is -very similar to southern California, with some -local modifications. The southern end of the -Colorado Desert crosses the border, and continues -down along the northern coast for some -distance. Along the Pacific coast a low range -of mountains recedes a short distance inland, -and continues for some distance. In the southern -part of the peninsula they become higher, -forming the San Pedro Martir Mountains, -which reach a height of over ten thousand feet -above the sea. Vast desolate plateaus of black -lava, which surround little gem-like valleys, -are succeeded by extensive stretches of desert -upon which nothing but the cactus will grow. -The western coast is bathed by cool waters -and fogs, while the eastern shores are washed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_433" id="Page_433">[433]</a></span> -by the waves of a warm inland sea, and have -almost continuous sunshine.</p> - -<p>Lower California was one of the early discoveries -of the Spaniards, and was promptly -placed in charge of the Jesuits, whose missionaries -were quite successful. They explored all -parts of the peninsula and established missions -among the Indians, and at the same time -introduced many of the crops and fruits of the -Old World. They established three main trails -throughout the length of the peninsula, one -following each coast and the other running -near the centre. These roads are to-day the -only routes of travel, and, except for short -distances, can only be pursued on mule-back. -Most of the Indians who formerly inhabited -the peninsula have disappeared, and the population -to-day is very small. Some of the old -mission churches are still in use, while others -are represented simply by fragments of ruined -walls and choked-up irrigating ditches.</p> - -<p>Agriculture has never flourished to any great -extent in Lower California. Numerous colonies -have been practically failures, with the -exception of some recent ones near the international -border, where water for irrigation has -been obtained from the Colorado River. All -of the peninsula has been traversed many times<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_434" id="Page_434">[434]</a></span> -by prospectors in search of gold, silver and -other minerals, and a number of valuable -mines have been located in various places. -The general climate is hot and arid, as is evidenced -by the vegetation, although in the southern -regions there are districts which have -regular summer rains. As a consequence of -the arid conditions the surface water is scarce, -and is limited to isolated waterfalls or to -springs from which small streams sometime -flow for a short distance, and then sink into -the earth.</p> - -<p>The country is divided for administration -into the northern and southern portions, with -Ensenada, a small port on the west coast as -the capital of the northern part, and La Paz, -on the eastern coast, the capital of the southern -portion. La Paz is the only city of any particular -size, and is a place of about six thousand -people. The streets are well laid out, -and there are some excellent stores and many -comfortable houses. The gardens are filled -with palms and various tropical trees, so that -the city has quite a decided tropical appearance, -although it is surrounded by an arid district. -It is the seat of the pearl fisheries, which -are quite flourishing in the Gulf, and the output -of pearls is quite an important item. Tia<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_435" id="Page_435">[435]</a></span> -Juana (Aunt Jane) is a small town on the -border not far from San Diego, and it is, perhaps, -better known than any other town on the -peninsula. Several skirmishes took place -within its borders during the recent revolution -led by Madero, and many of the participants -were Americans.</p> - -<p>Magdalena Bay, concerning which there has -been considerable talk of the United States -trying to secure as a coaling station, is the -finest land-locked harbour on the Pacific coast, -with a narrow entrance which is protected by -the high headlands. The bay is about fifteen -miles across, with low sandy shores, and would -furnish a fine protection for scores of the -largest vessels. It is also within sight of the -regular sailing route of steamers bound for -Panama. For that reason it would be a very -advantageous possession of the United States, -if it could be obtained by negotiations with the -Mexican government.</p> - -<p>The plant life of Lower California is different -from that of any other part of the world—so -naturalists say. There is a veritable riot -of strange forms of cacti and other plants -which manage to live without rainfall. The -cacti vary from giant forms, which raise their -massive fluted trunks to a height of fifty to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_436" id="Page_436">[436]</a></span> -sixty feet, to little straggling species which are -too weak to stand upright. Another peculiar -form is the creeping devil cactus, as it is called, -which has the appearance of gigantic caterpillars -crawling in every direction. These plants -do actually travel away from a common centre, -as the stem sends down rootlets every little -distance, and then the older stems in the rear -die about as fast as it advances in the front. -There are not many species of birds or animals, -and only such kinds as can live where -water is scarce will be found. It is said that -some animals have been found that never drink -water, and even in captivity can not be taught -to drink, as it does not seem necessary to their -existence.</p> - -<p>Owing to its desert character the peninsula -is very thinly peopled, and there are extensive -sections where not a single inhabitant will be -found. The most populous section is that -south of La Paz, where the rains are more -regular. A few small towns or villages will be -found scattered around the coast, with a limited -number of prospectors and miners gathered -in the interior. The effort to colonize -Lower California has been a tale of unbroken -failure for more than fifty years. A few rainy -years will cause apparent prosperity, but the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_437" id="Page_437">[437]</a></span> -succeeding years may be rainless and disaster -follows. Those who have studied Lower California -say that it is not all a hopeless desert, -but that there are possibilities of agriculture -through irrigation in many parts.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_438" id="Page_438">[438]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_XXIII">CHAPTER XXIII<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE RUINED CITIES OF YUCATAN</span></h2> - -<p>The Mayas (pronounced My-yah) were an -ancient people of whom little is known. They -dwelt on the broad plains of Yucatan and Central -America, and built many cities, or governmental -centres, for no ruins of private dwellings -have yet been found. The groups of -buildings resemble in no way our cities of the -present day. They consist everywhere of -temples and palaces of the reigning princes -or caciques, of public buildings scattered about -apparently at random, covering a vast area, -with cemented roads and gardens intervening. -The centres of the towns were occupied by the -public squares and temples; around these were -the palaces of the priests and lords, and the -outskirts were evidently allotted to the lower -classes. Religion and government seem to -have gone hand in hand among these primitive -Mexicans. The Maya civilization had -reached a height unexcelled by any people of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_439" id="Page_439">[439]</a></span> -the western hemisphere prior to the coming of -the white man. They were skilled in architecture, -in sculpture and in writing. The priests -had developed the science of astronomy to a -considerable extent. They had studied with -some success the solar system. They had developed -a calendar system and created a chronology. -So far as these chronological accounts -have been worked out they run back -three thousand years or more. They reckoned -time much as we do, from a fixed date, namely, -the birth of Christ. The later dates of the -Quirigua inscriptions are generally believed to -be somewhere about the beginning of the Christian -era.</p> - -<p>The oldest of the ruins of the Maya race is -said to be that of Copan, which is situated in -Honduras, just across the border from Guatemala. -It also seems to have been the southernmost -point of their migration, as Tula was the -northerly terminus of their wanderings. Then -comes Quirigua, in Guatemala, which is one -of the most remarkable and inexplicable of all -the ruins. Tradition sheds no light whatever -on these ruins of Copan or Quirigua. The -mysterious silence that surrounds these forms -a void in the history of the human race. There -are doubtless other ruins awaiting the traveller<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_440" id="Page_440">[440]</a></span> -and explorer in the wilderness around -Lake Peten, in the northern part of Guatemala. -The founder of the race was Izamat-Ul. “To -him were brought,” says an old writer, “the -sick, the halt and the dead, and he healed and -restored them all to life by the touch of his -hand.” Hence he was generally known as the -Miraculous Hand, and in inscriptions is frequently -represented by a hand only.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus47"> -<img src="images/illus47.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">CRUMBLING RUINS OF THE ANCIENT MEXICAN CIVILIZATION</p> -</div> - -<p>In the extreme southeastern part of Mexico, -on a small peninsula known as Yucatan, is a -section which was at one time the abode of this -progressive and migrating race known generally -among anthropologists as the Mayas. -This distant province deserves far more mention -than it usually receives from passing travellers. -Though possessing few natural attractions -Yucatan is a never-ending source of -interest for the anthropologist and archeologist. -The whole peninsula is a vast limestone -formation, with little or no surface water. -Rain is infrequent in most parts, and one might -travel for miles without crossing a river or -brook, or even chancing upon a spring. In -most sections of this peninsula the water is -at least seventy feet below the surface of the -ground. At the present time windmills aid -the inhabitants of that section where the henequen,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_441" id="Page_441">[441]</a></span> -from which binder twine is made, is -raised, but centuries ago such facilities were -unknown. There were, however, in some places -natural wells which reached down to the depth -of what seem to be underground rivers, and -it was near these that several ancient cities -were located. At least a score of these ancient -cities have been explored, of which the best -known and most important are Palenque, Uxmal -and Chichen Itza. It is known that since -the Spaniards first set foot on this peninsula -many monuments and practically entire cities -have disappeared. At one time, a contemporary -writer asserts, there were destroyed in -Yucatan five thousand idols of various forms -and dimensions, thirteen huge stones which -were used as altars, twenty-two smaller stones -of various shapes, one hundred and ninety-seven -manuscripts of all kinds, including -twenty-seven written on deer skins.</p> - -<p>Chichen Itza, which is generally interpreted -to mean “the mouth of the wells of the Itzas,” -seems to have been the leading city, and it was -located near two of the largest natural wells, -which are immense natural pits with perpendicular -sides. It is probable that these phenomena -attracted the Mayas in their northern -migration. As the tribes quarrelled different<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_442" id="Page_442">[442]</a></span> -factions separated from the original body and -established new cities as capitals. Thus Chichen -Itza came into being. On this desolate -soil,</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="verse indent6">“ ... buried ’mid trees,</div> -<div class="verse">Upspringing there for sunless centuries,</div> -<div class="verse">Behold a royal city, vast and lone,</div> -<div class="verse">Lost to each race, to all the world unknown,</div> -<div class="verse">Like famed Pompeii, ’neath her lava bed.</div> -<div class="verse center">...</div> -<div class="verse">At every step some palace meets the eye,</div> -<div class="verse">Some figure frowns, some temple courts the sky.”</div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>Before Cortez landed on Mexican soil the -star of these ancient peoples had already set. -Their oldest cities had their birth so far back -in the twilight of time that not even tradition -was able to tell the history of the tribes, the -causes that led to their decay or the time of -their disaster. Some traditions were told to -the Spaniards, but they are of such uncertain -origin that very little credence can be placed -in them. Upon the walls are sculptures which -speak to us in an unknown language; hieroglyphics, -and the chiselled types of a people long -since departed. The hieroglyphics would probably -explain all, but no interpreting key has -yet been discovered to give an explanation to -the writings. Some authorities assert, however,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_443" id="Page_443">[443]</a></span> -that Chichen Itza was inhabited at the -time of the Conquest. A Spaniard by the name -of Aquilar was wrecked on this coast and lived -with a powerful cacique for several years, but -he left behind him no written memoirs. At -any rate, it is known that the Spanish forces -occupied this place for at least two years. At -first the submission of the natives was complete, -but after a time they rallied from their -stupor, tiring of ministering to the insatiable -wants of their conquerors, and much severe -fighting followed.</p> - -<p>Of the two great wells at Chichen Itza one -was used for the general water supply, the -<i>cenote grande</i>, and the other was reserved for -religious use exclusively, the <i>cenote sacra</i>. -Picturesque indeed must have been the throngs -of white-robed women who peopled the steps of -the <i>cenote grande</i> at all hours of the day to -fetch water for household purposes. They -probably carried double-handled urns on their -hips or shoulders just as their descendants do -at this present day. From far and near all -over Yucatan pilgrimages were made to the -sacred well, which was on the outskirts of the -city, just as pilgrimages are made to-day to -holy shrines by Catholics and Mohammedans. -It was this that gave the city its holy character.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_444" id="Page_444">[444]</a></span> -Offerings of many kinds were made to -the deities. It is said that in time of drouth -offerings of precious stones and other valuables -were thrown into it, and in specially protracted -cases human beings were thrown into -it as sacrifices. Even after the time of the -Spanish conquest there are recorded instances -of pilgrimages to the sacred well for the purpose -of sacrificing slaves to relieve a drouth. -These victims were supposed to live even -after they had disappeared beneath the sacred -waters. A Spanish writer of the -time asserts that this was done as late as -1560.</p> - -<p>The Chichen Itza of the olden times, filled -with pilgrims from far and near, would -scarcely be recognized in the place of to-day. -The jungle has gradually crept its way into -the very holy of holies. Columns have been -overthrown, and some of the structures have -been almost lost in a tangle of thorns and -creepers. Even in the last half century the -destruction and disintegration has been very -noticeable. To reach the place it is necessary -to ride about fifteen miles over a rough and -wearisome road. All around lie buried in thick -jungle ruins of palaces and other buildings. -Pyramid-like structures seem to have been one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_445" id="Page_445">[445]</a></span> -of the favourite forms of building. The most -imposing of these on this site rises sixty-eight -feet above the plain, and each side is almost -one hundred and seventy-five feet in length, -the whole covering about an acre of ground. -This structure is called the Castillo, although -it was really a temple. It is made up of nine -terraces of faced masonry, narrowing toward -the top, each one elaborately panelled to relieve -the monotony. On each side there is a -broad stairway, with a flight of ninety steps, -with stone balustrades, which are generally -carved to represent reptiles. A stone building -almost forty feet square crowns the summit. -The northern façade must have been very -striking before time and the destroying hand -of man wrought their work. There were no -doors on any of the buildings, and no traces of -hinges have been found. At the western base -of the pyramid is the walk that leads to the -sacred well. It is believed that on the top of -this pyramid the sacred rites of the priests of -their faith were performed, and it is said that -the sacrificial victims were led down these -stairways, then along the causeway and finally -cast into the sacred well. It is easy for the -imagination to picture the scene in all its -splendour of white-robed priests, smoking censors,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_446" id="Page_446">[446]</a></span> -and—saddest of all—the victims bedecked -with garlands of flowers.</p> - -<p>There are ruins of colonnades, courts, buildings -and other structures of which many columns -are standing at Chichen Itza, and it has -been called “the city of a thousand columns” -by some writers. One of the most important -monuments is the Nun’s Palace, as it is called. -It is not so large as others, but contains a -greater number of apartments. It is said to -have been the custom of these people to educate -girls of noble birth to the service of the -gods, on their attaining the age of twelve or -thirteen. Their service was similar to that of -the Vestal Virgins, although the vows were not -always perpetual. It was their duty to keep -the altar supplied with fresh flowers and to -sweep the temples. One group of structures -is called the Ball Court, as it is believed to -have been used for a game similar to the modern -basket ball. It consists of two perpendicular -parallel walls from north to south thirty-two -feet high, three hundred and twenty-five -feet long and one hundred and thirteen feet -apart. The ends of this quadrangle are each -occupied by a small temple. In the centre of -each wall, about fifteen feet from the ground, -there are two stone discs with holes through<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_447" id="Page_447">[447]</a></span> -the centre, which seem to have had a part in -this or some other game. The vast proportions -of this court, or tlachtle, would seem to -indicate that this game was very popular with -the Yucatecos. Some of the well preserved -ruins present beautiful sculptured façades, to -which names have been given because of the -fancied resemblance to something. For instance, -one has been called the ruins of the -“House of the Tigers,” because of a frieze of -stalking tigers divided by richly fringed shells; -another round building, known as El Caracol, -“The Snail,” is the best preserved building at -Chichen; “The Red House,” and the “House -of the Dark Writing,” are still other structures. -In all directions for several miles the -bush is strewn with ruins. Crumbling walls -and courts overgrown with jungle growth are -encountered on every side, but because of the -disintegration these once splendid palaces and -temples are now little more than shapeless -masses of crumbled masonry. The human figures -seen on these monuments have the usual -types of the Toltec carvings on the plateaus -of Mexico. The total area covered by these -ruins has been estimated by some investigators -as high as ten square miles.</p> - -<p>The next largest and most interesting city<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_448" id="Page_448">[448]</a></span> -of ruins is known as Uxmal, which was the -capital of the Tutal Xiu branch of the Mayas. -This city is located between low ranges of hills, -perhaps one hundred miles from Chichen Itza. -When seen from an eminence a dozen or more -imposing structures of white limestone are -presented to view. This city, no doubt, supplied -a very important part in the early history -of Yucatan—at least if one is to judge -from its size. It is believed that this was the -original city of the Toltecs. A dozen or more -imposing structures of considerable size still -stand here that can be identified, in addition -to the large numbers of ruins which can -scarcely be outlined. The most notable sanctuary -of Uxmal, which is now known as the -“House of the Dwarf,” is over fifty feet high, -and also surmounts a steep-sloped pyramid -one hundred feet in height. Two stairways -on opposite sides lead to this building. It is -so named because the natives say it was built -by a savage dwarf in a single night. Long -after the city was abandoned this temple was -held in especial veneration. The Spanish -priests used to find offerings of cocoa and -copal on it, and they attributed this to devil -worship. Two lines of parallel walls, parts -of which are still standing, enclose a court or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_449" id="Page_449">[449]</a></span> -quadrangle, which is similar to the Ball Court -at Chichen. The group of buildings around it -encloses more than one hundred rooms. All -of the buildings seem to have been built on low -platforms or terraces. There is also at this -place a high terrace, or platform, that covers -over three acres of ground, and on which is a -second and a third terrace, upon the latter of -which is the ruin of a building known as the -Governor’s Palace. This building is one of -the finest samples of early American architecture -still extant. It stands at an elevation of -forty-four feet above the plains, and commands -a splendid view of the city. Its exterior -walls are decorated with sculptured masonry, -in the making of which it is estimated there -are upward of twenty thousand sculptured -pieces of stone. The building is three hundred -and twenty-two feet long, and is divided into -three parts by two arcades which pass clear -through. It is built entirely of stone without -ornament to a height of ten feet, then comes -a cornice, above which is a wall that is a bewildering -maze of beautiful sculpture. This -frieze has a row of colossal heads, and is divided -into panels which are alternately filled -with grecques in high relief, and diamond or -lattice work. All the lintels of the building<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_450" id="Page_450">[450]</a></span> -here are of wood in an excellent state of preservation.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus48"> -<img src="images/illus48.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">AN OLD CHURCH</p> -</div> - -<p>At Uxmal there is a building called the -“House of Turtles,” because of a row of -turtles used as ornaments in the upper cornice. -It is the freest from ornamentation of any of -the structures. The turtles are found sculptured -at various places along the cornice. The -“House of the Pigeons” is the name of another -building, because of the fancied resemblance -to a dove-cote. The crest of the roof -is perforated with many rectangular openings—but -the resemblance for which the name is -given is very fanciful. At this site there were -none of the natural wells described at the other -city, but these people constructed some natural -reservoirs a short distance from the town in -which the rainfall was collected, and which -gave the necessary water supply for the people. -Furthermore, some of the buildings seem to -have had subterranean cisterns of large size -under them. Heavy rainfall occurs here for -about one-half the year, but during the other -half there is practically no rainfall, and water -becomes very scarce and valuable. The so-called -“House of the Nuns” is the largest -building and bears the richest and most intricate -carving at Uxmal. It is composed of four<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_451" id="Page_451">[451]</a></span> -buildings, the largest of which is two hundred -and seventy-nine feet in length. The four -buildings enclose a great court, with sides two -hundred and fourteen and two hundred and -fifty-eight feet in length, the entrance to which -is through a high triangular-arched gateway. -This building originally contained no less than -eighty-eight apartments of various sizes. A -number of writers believe that many of these -buildings at Uxmal are comparatively recent, -because of the appearance of the stone and the -well-preserved character of the wood used in -the construction.</p> - -<p>These structures are only a part of the ruins -that still remain, for the jungle on either side -hides the remains of what were once imposing -buildings. Many of these have been literally -torn asunder by trees, whose roots have forced -themselves between the stones and pried them -apart. No doubt this city once housed many -thousands of people, but to-day it is without -inhabitants. The pomp and glory of former -times have disappeared; and all is silent save -for the birds that nest in the trees and bushes.</p> - -<p>The third city of ruins, Palenque, is situated -at a considerable distance south and west of -the two just described, and not far from San -Juan Bautista. Palenque, according to Charney,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_452" id="Page_452">[452]</a></span> -was a holy city—a place for pilgrimage. -In the carvings neither sword, spear, shield -nor arrow appear. The representations are all -of peaceful subjects, usually a personage standing -with a sceptre and with prostrated acolytes -at his feet. From the expression one would -judge that they were worshippers, and not -slaves or captives. Their expression is always -peaceful and serene and that of worshippers -and believers. The city is built in the form -of an amphitheatre, on the lowest slope of the -lofty Cordilleras beyond. Its high position -affords a magnificent view over the forest-covered -plain below stretching as far as the -sea. In all the structures the builder levelled -out the ground in narrow terraces, on which -artificial elevations of pyramidal forms were -reared, and the hillside was faced with hewed -stones. At Palenque there are in all ten buildings -in view, each one crowning an elevation -artificially made. As one enters the grounds -there are several buildings to the right and -left, but directly in front are the remains of the -Palace. At one time this building has been -very large and imposing. Remains of a broad -flight of steps that led to the imposing entrance -corridor are in plain evidence. Flights of steps -led down to the first patio, which was surrounded<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_453" id="Page_453">[453]</a></span> -by lofty corridors with roofs of -pointed arches and which led into small apartments. -There were two of these patios in the -Palace of irregular size. Double galleries -which made a sort of cloister surrounded them. -Gloomy entrances from these corridors lead to -underground chambers, where there are tables -which are called altars, beds and dining tables -by different writers. A lack of system seems -to prevail in the building of the Palace. On -top of one of the walls two immense forest -trees are now growing. In the central portion -are the ruins of a tower, of which three stories -are still standing, with many windows. It is -a square tower ornamented to the north with -pointed niches; otherwise it is almost devoid of -ornamentation. On the contrary the galleries -are richly ornamented with medallions, probably -representing priests and priestesses. -Many human figures are sculptured in low relief -representing priests with mitres on their heads -and in uncomfortable attitudes. The faces are -oftentimes defaced in order to give an appearance -of ferocity. Some of the figures of the -deities are fantastic, monstrous and even terrible.</p> - -<p>The Temple of Inscriptions stands on a hill -about fifty feet high. A magnificent view of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_454" id="Page_454">[454]</a></span> -the ruins is afforded by this elevation, as -well as the broad tablelands surrounding. -There are three large mural tablets covered -with picture writing and hieroglyphs, supposed -to be copies of the laws of these ancient people, -in the building. Across a little valley over -which an aqueduct leads the land rises in terraces, -and is surmounted with artificially made -hills on which are the ruins of more buildings—two -Temples of the Cross and the Temple -of the Sun. The Temple of the Sun is almost -perfectly preserved. The interior is one large -room with a sanctuary at one end. In each -of these are mural tablets which contain what -is known as the Cross of Palenque. The cruciform -shape, such as the swastika and other -forms, is not uncommon among aboriginal people, -but this is what is known as the Latin -cross. Whether this arose by chance through -the invention of the artist, or the cross had -some religious significance among these people, -still remains an absolute mystery. Charney -asserts that it is one of the symbols of Tlaloa, -the god of rain, but other writers differ with -him. The body of the cross, which rests on a -hideous head, is sculptured in the centre, and -at the upper end are two human figures. On -one there is an inscription of sixty-eight characters,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_455" id="Page_455">[455]</a></span> -which doubtless explain the ceremony -represented by the sculpture. Again it is surmounted -by the sacred bird of the Mayas, the -quetzal. In another this place is taken by a -representation of the sun with its spreading -rays. Where did the Mayas get their idea of -the cross so sacred among Christian people? -No one has yet been able to answer this question -satisfactorily.</p> - -<p>Who built these structures? For what purpose -were they reared? Various are the theories, -and many are the speculations covering -them. But authentic information is absolutely -wanting, and the passing years shed little -light. The modern Yucatecos are an attractive -people. No people in the world are pleasanter -or have more delightful manners than they. -The young women have a winning grace and -charm that is peculiarly their own. Their costume -is not greatly unlike that of the Tehuanas—and -it is fully as unique and becoming. It -is quite probable that their customs and characteristics -have not changed much since the -Spanish occupation. They have always been -an independent people, and have caused much -more trouble than the majority of the aboriginal -tribes of Mexico.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_456" id="Page_456">[456]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_XXIV">CHAPTER XXIV<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE PRESENT AND THE FUTURE</span></h2> - -<p>The old-fashioned Don, accustomed to ox-carts, -wooden ploughs, and a horde of men -ready to serve him, no doubt views with dismay -the changes being wrought by steam and -electricity. The younger generation has been -educated abroad, or in the States, and rather -welcomes the innovations. The spirit of revolution -and political unrest that prevailed for -the first sixty years of the republic has lessened, -even if it has not entirely passed away. -Education and immigration have worked wonders -in the country; and, above all, the establishment -of a government that for almost a -third of a century commanded obedience at -home and respect abroad is responsible for the -mutation in Mexico. It was an absolute republic -and under a strong controlling hand. It -was the family government applied to the state, -for it was very paternal in its rule.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus49"> -<img src="images/illus49.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">PRIMITIVE TRANSPORTATION</p> -</div> - -<p>Mexico is a human country and is not without -its faults. The greatest of these are, however,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_457" id="Page_457">[457]</a></span> -the result of conditions for which the -present generation of nation-builders are not -responsible. A transformation can not be -wrought in a decade, nor in a generation. And -yet the real accomplishments of the past -twenty-five years in Mexico are marvellous. -Americans who have lived there during that -time wax eloquent in describing the great -change for the better. Whereas formerly people -hesitated to invest money for fear of political -changes, investments in that country are -now looked upon as safe, and Mexican securities -are given a fixed value on the bourses of -the world.</p> - -<p>Modern luxuries and conveniences are being -introduced everywhere. The people are simply -installing in a hurry the things that other -countries have been acquiring for the half of -a century. Every city is bestirring herself, -and electric light plants, modern sewerage -systems and water works are being constructed -as rapidly as things can move in this land of -procrastination. Old and crude methods of -power are being replaced by up-to-date machinery -in mines and manufactures. Electric -railways are replacing the mule tram lines, and -the merry hum of the trolley is fast succeeding -the bray of the long-eared motor just mentioned.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_458" id="Page_458">[458]</a></span> -Mexico lagged behind so long that she -has had quite a distance to go, and it will be -a long while before she can entirely catch up -with the head of the procession. Material -wealth is increasing. Better wages are paid, -and the surplus is being expended for more -and better goods. The wants of the great bulk -of the people are so few, that it must be a long -time before there will be a great change in -their method of living; but their children are -being educated, and that in itself works wonders -in their uplifting.</p> - -<p>For more than twenty years the finances of -the government have shown a surplus. What -a contrast to all the years of the republic before -that time. In 1876 the total revenue of -the government was but $19,000,000 silver. -For the fiscal year ending June 30th, 1910, this -had increased to $53,164,242 United States -gold. From a yearly deficit a surplus has been -evolved which annually amounts to several -million dollars. The total cash in the treasury -at the date of the above report amounted to -$37,042,857 gold. This statement shows a -healthy condition of affairs. The government -now finds willing buyers for its bonds, and all -its obligations have been met promptly for a -number of years.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_459" id="Page_459">[459]</a></span></p> - -<p>Finance Minister Limantour, who held that -position for many years, proved himself to be -a Napoleon of finance, and his reputation extended -to every financial centre in the world. -Establishing the gold standard was a great -achievement. Just a few years ago Mexican -silver varied from $2.05 to $2.40 for a gold dollar, -and all business was unsettled as a result. -Now the government has established a rate of -exchange of two silver dollars for one of gold, -and all this was done without any friction or -disturbance. It is to be hoped that the new -administration will maintain the same high -standard of financial integrity that has been -handed down by its immediate predecessor.</p> - -<p>The foreign trade of Mexico runs into big -figures. The total extra-territorial trade of -the republic for the year ending June 30th, -1910, amounted to $227,456,025 in United -States gold. Of this amount $130,023,135 represented -exports and $97,432,890, imports. Of -the exports $78,260,037 were of mineral products, -while vegetable products were less than -half that amount. An analysis of the imports -shows by far the largest items were included -under manufactured articles, such as machinery, -textiles, chemical products, etc. Arms and -explosives imported exceeded a million and a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_460" id="Page_460">[460]</a></span> -half dollars in value, thus showing that the -government and people were even then preparing -for the struggle to follow. By far the -largest proportion of exports and imports was -with the United States. Imports from the -United States amounted to the tidy sum of -$56,421,551, an increase of twelve million dollars -over the preceding year, and the exports -to the United States were $98,432,859, an increase -of almost an equal amount. The United -Kingdom is the nearest competitor in the foreign -trade with our neighbouring republic. -While the imports from the United States -showed an increase of twenty-four per cent. -over the preceding year, the increase from the -United Kingdom and Germany was only twelve -and eighteen per cent. respectively. Imports -from the mother country, Spain, were less than -three per cent. of the whole.</p> - -<p>In the matter of trade, as is shown by the -trade statistics, the United States is easily the -predominant factor. The proximity of the -country has probably been the cause of this, -as it has led Americans to investigate the natural -resources and invest money in railroads, -mines, public works and many other enterprises. -The same influence can be seen in the -banking interests. There are a number of very<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_461" id="Page_461">[461]</a></span> -strong banks in Mexico, of which the Banco -Nacional, or National Bank of Mexico, is the -most influential. This bank was established in -1881, at a time when the financial condition of -the country was anything but prosperous, and -its growth has been continuous and at times -almost phenomenal. This bank and one other -are the only institutions that have the privilege -of issuing bank notes in the Federal District, -although some banks in other parts of the -country have the same privilege. The Bank -of London and Mexico, originally a British -concern, but now owned by French capital, -ranks next in importance, although it is very -closely followed by the United States Banking -Company, an American enterprise with a number -of branches throughout the republic. There -are many other banks, some of them under the -banking laws of the republic, and others private -enterprises, which gives Mexico very good -facilities for the transaction of all kinds of -banking and commercial business. In 1893 -there were only eight banks in the entire republic, -but now there are more than sixty. -They have a circulation of nearly $100,000,000, -and a capital in excess of that sum. The American -influence, and the banks controlled by -Americans, have aided greatly in the development<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_462" id="Page_462">[462]</a></span> -of business between the two countries, -and it is the writer’s belief that similar establishments -throughout the rest of Latin America -would be one of the greatest aids to the -extension of American influence and commerce -that could be devised.</p> - -<p>The increase of manufacturing has been -quite noticeable in recent years, and eventually -will cause a diminution in the imports of certain -articles. Quite a number of cotton factories -have been established in certain sections -of the country, and the labour has been found -quite well adapted to that class of manufacturing. -Establishments for the preparation -and curing of meats have also been built under -government concessions, while tobacco factories, -which work up the very excellent tobacco -grown in the country, and breweries have been -established in many sections of the country. -The Mexican tobacco is said by those who pose -as experts to have a very excellent flavour, and -by many is claimed to be superior even to the -Cuban article. The product grown in the state -of Vera Cruz has the best flavour, but a number -of other states produce large quantities of -the weed.</p> - -<p>The greatest enterprise now operating in -Mexico, excepting only the railroads, is the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_463" id="Page_463">[463]</a></span> -Mexico Light and Power Company, a Canadian -corporation. This group of men own the -electric light and gas plants and the tramways -of the City of Mexico, Puebla and a number -of other cities. As a part of their enterprise -they have built a great dam by means of which -the waters of the Necaxa River are utilized for -the production of the electricity. This is distant -ninety-six miles to the northeast of the -capital. Fed by springs this river becomes a -good sized stream before it plunges over a -precipice of four hundred and sixty feet, and -a short distance beyond is one of a still greater -fall. The main dam is one hundred and ninety-four -feet high and about thirteen hundred feet -wide, and contains an immense amount of material. -It is built of stone and concrete. By -means of this and the auxiliary dams a valley -has been made into an immense reservoir, so -that the dry season might be provided for -when the natural flow of water would be insufficient. -It is claimed that enough water can -be stored to run the power plant through two -years of continual drouth. The water is carried -to the turbines by means of pipes which -pierce the mountain, bringing to each turbine -a stream of water six feet in diameter and carrying -all the force of a drop exceeding one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_464" id="Page_464">[464]</a></span> -thousand feet. The total transmission lines -reach a length of more than two hundred miles, -and the capacity of the plant is two hundred -and fifty thousand horse power. At the present -time this company supplies all the electric -power in the capital, as well as several mining -enterprises, and as soon as the plant is wholly -completed, will supply Puebla and other cities. -Its franchise is from the Mexican government -and is in perpetuity. This simply gives an -indication of what can be done in the development -of the natural resources of Mexico. In -a country where fuel is scarce and high priced, -the value of the water power is accordingly -increased. There are many other waterfalls -awaiting development, and it only needs the -necessary capital, and a combination of far-sighted -men, such as those who compose the -Canadian corporation above mentioned, to supply -the great need of Mexico for cheap and satisfactory -power.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;" id="illus50"> -<img src="images/illus50.jpg" width="650" height="420" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">PRIMITIVE PLOUGHING NEAR OAXACA</p> -</div> - -<p>It is unfortunate for Mexico that mining has -absorbed almost all of her energies, and agriculture -has been allowed to drop into a secondary -position. One cause for this has been the -Spanish characteristic, as represented by the -original conquerors, of seeking quick wealth -instead of attempting to coax out of mother<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_465" id="Page_465">[465]</a></span> -earth the treasure that she possesses. There -are labourers in plenty, if they are properly -instructed, but the <i>hacendados</i>, as well as labourers, -adhere to the most primitive methods. -It has been said that “earth is here so kind -that just tickle her with a hoe and she laughs -with a harvest.” This is not true of all parts -of the country, of course, for much of it is -mountainous and of a broken character, but -the statement will apply to large portions of -the republic.</p> - -<p>The government of Mexico has endeavoured -to improve agricultural conditions by disseminating -information as to scientific methods of -cultivation, irrigation and fertilization, but -very little of it has had a noticeable effect. -The government has also distributed large -quantities of seeds and plants with little effect. -In most parts of the republic the land is tilled -just as it was four centuries ago. It is really -surprising that, in spite of these antiquated -methods, the results have been so good as they -are. As mentioned heretofore the wooden -plough with a small iron shoe, which merely -scratches the surface of the earth, is still used; -men may be seen cutting wheat with the sickle, -and much of the threshing is done by driving -horses and mules around a ring covered with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_466" id="Page_466">[466]</a></span> -grain, just as it was done in the old Biblical -days. The winnowing is accomplished by tossing -the wheat and the chaff into the air, and -then the grain is hauled to the <i>haciendas</i> or -markets in clumsy and ponderous two-wheeled -carts.</p> - -<p>A <i>hacienda</i> run upon modern American -methods would certainly be a much more profitable -enterprise than when conducted after -this style. In a few sections of the country, -one will find a plantation here and there where -some new methods have been introduced and -American machinery employed, but these are -rare. Even in the Valley of Mexico, not far -from the City of Mexico, the most antiquated -methods will be seen employed at all times. -The richness of the land and its cheapness has -caused the floating of many land companies in -the United States. They can show great prospects -on paper, but the trouble is that many -of them have been floated by unscrupulous -men, who care nothing for the interests of the -stockholders, but are looking simply for promoters’ -profits. When the real buyers reach -the land they discover that things are not as -represented, do not find conditions of living to -their liking, and in a very short time the whole -enterprise is dropped. Many have probably<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_467" id="Page_467">[467]</a></span> -lost practically all of their savings. These -things, of course, cannot be entirely guarded -against, and they certainly fail to prove that -Mexico is not a rich agricultural country. -They simply demonstrate what fraud can be -perpetrated upon people in a country where -the land is teeming with fertility. Land values -have undoubtedly advanced in the past few -years, and some enormous tracts have been -purchased by Americans, which are already -showing profits for the owners.</p> - -<p>There has been much criticism heaped upon -the Mexican courts, and a great deal of it has -been deserved. The judicial system of Mexico -is copied rather after the French and Spanish -than the Anglo-Saxon system. In recent years -the procedure has been improved greatly, but -it still needs other changes in order to bring it -up to the twentieth century standards. In -years past American railroad engineers, who -were unfortunate enough to run over some one, -received harsh treatment in Mexican jails. The -law of <i>incommunicado</i>, by which an accused -person is locked up for three days, is still in -force. It used to be that a wounded person -could not be touched or moved before the arrival -of the authorities, which caused much -suffering; but this at least has been abolished.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_468" id="Page_468">[468]</a></span> -The judicial system, which includes supreme -courts, district courts, circuit courts, police -courts and other minor courts, is intended to -give justice to the defendant in a criminal action, -and to both parties in a civil action, but -in many cases—to an American—the result -does not seem to be satisfactory.</p> - -<p>The jury system is in use in Mexico, and nine -persons compose a jury. The jurymen may -consist of both natives and foreigners, but the -members must have some occupation, education -or independent means. The law provides -that the accused must be acquainted with the -names and number of his accusers, and must -be confronted with the witnesses who testify -against him. The testimony is all taken down -in longhand writing, which is a tedious process, -as followed out in Mexican courts. In criminal -cases it is generally read over to the witness -and signed by him, which method, although it -is cumbersome, sometimes gives a degree of -certainty and correctness to the testimony. It -is true that in many cases the points that are -raised by the accused are treated with very -little consideration. This is not the fault of the -law, but is the result of its maladministration -by the officials, just as similar instances are the -world over. Arrests of natives are made for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_469" id="Page_469">[469]</a></span> -all sorts of offences, many of which are trivial, -and they are generally kept in jail for several -days before they are finally given a hearing. -Foreigners are usually treated with great consideration -and substantial justice is done them. -It probably is not good policy for citizens of -another country to criticise Mexico, when there -are so many blots upon the administration of -justice in every civilized country, and the -United States is not an exception. Local conditions, -public clamour and other things influence -the action of courts in Mexico, just as -they do in every other country.</p> - -<p>In addition to the railroad connections the -steamship lines form a very important part in -the national transportation of Mexico. The -long coast line on both the Pacific Ocean and -Gulf of Mexico provides many ports. The -national traffic between these ports is quite a -considerable item, but the foreign commerce is -still greater. At the present time Mexico has -direct steamship connection with the United -States, Canada, Europe, South America, Central -America, the West Indies and the Orient. -The principal ports are Tampico, Puerto Mexico -(formerly Coatzacoalcos) and Progresso on -the Gulf, and Salina Cruz, Acapulco, Manzanillo, -and Mazatlan on the Pacific. There are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_470" id="Page_470">[470]</a></span> -in all more than twenty steamship lines that -have contracts with the government for carrying -the mails, and nearly all of these enjoy -subsidies of large or small amounts or enjoy -certain privileges or concessions.</p> - -<p>The most important company operating is -the one known as the Ward Line, which conducts -a weekly service between several Mexican -ports, Havana and New York. This company -has some very good boats, and does a large -business between all of those ports. The Mallory -Line, the Mexican-American Line and the -Munson Line have regular service between -Mexican ports, Galveston and New Orleans. -There are also several companies that make -regular trips between Vera Cruz, Tampico and -European ports. On the Pacific coast the Kosmos -Line, operated by the Hamburg American -Company, have a regular service from Seattle -down the west coast of the United States, -Mexico, Central America and South America -to Europe by the way of the Straits of Magellan. -The Pacific Mail Steamship Company -operate about three boats a month from San -Francisco to Panama, where connections are -made for New York and West Coast ports of -South America. The American-Hawaiian Company -have boats which sail between Hawaii<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_471" id="Page_471">[471]</a></span> -and Salina Cruz. There are also, in addition -to these mentioned, a number of coast lines on -both the Pacific and Atlantic side, which do a -considerable traffic between the various ports. -The Canadian-Mexican Pacific Steamship Company -recently began to operate boats between -Victoria, British Columbia and Salina Cruz, -and gives a monthly service between those -ports. In order to develop and facilitate this -coast traffic the Mexican government has spent -a great deal of money in providing harbours and -docks at a number of the smaller ports, in addition -to the larger enterprises that have heretofore -been described.</p> - -<p>Mexico has not a great number of navigable -rivers. On the Pacific side the Mayo, the Yaqui, -the Balsas, the Rio Grande de Santiago and -one or two others are classed as navigable -streams, but because of bars and other obstructions -they can be used only by boats of comparatively -light draft. On the Atlantic side, -just below the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, is the -Grigalva River, which is a broad and imposing -stream. Large boats ply regularly up this -stream to San Juan Bautista, a distance of -about seventy-five miles. Small boats go up -still farther, the boat traffic extending clear to -the mountains. The Usumasinta River is an<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_472" id="Page_472">[472]</a></span> -affluent of this stream, and is navigable for -small boats even beyond the Guatemala border. -The Coatzacoalcos River, which flows into the -Gulf at the town of the same name, is quite an -important stream, and furnishes an outlet to -a considerable territory. The Papaloapan -River, which flows into the Gulf of Mexico near -Vera Cruz, has been dredged and made navigable -for a considerable distance into the interior. -It has proved a great benefit to many -small towns and plantations there situated.</p> - -<p>North of Vera Cruz are the Soto La Marina, -the Tuxpan and the Panuco Rivers, all of which -are navigable for a hundred miles or more. -As an adjunct to the navigable streams and the -deep water ports the government is now building -an intercoastal canal, which is similar to -the one proposed along the Gulf coast of Louisiana -and Texas to connect the Mississippi and -Rio Grande Rivers. There are a series of lagoons -and small lakes that lie just a short distance -within the coast line, and which can be -connected and deepened. They will then form -a convenient and safe waterway for navigation. -The government is spending several million dollars -on the first link of this system, which will -connect the ports of Tampico and Tuxpan, a -distance of about a hundred miles. Half of this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_473" id="Page_473">[473]</a></span> -section is already finished and in operation, -and it is estimated that in three or four years -more this part of the canal will be finished. -This waterway has a width of seventy-five feet -and a uniform depth of ten and one-half feet, -and will connect the mouths of the Panuco and -the Tuxpan Rivers. The Panuco, near Tampico, -is fifty feet deep, and the deepest draft -ocean vessels can come in and unload at the -docks of Tampico. The section of the canal -already opened is constantly filled with long -and narrow boats, manned by natives, which -are propelled by means of long poles when the -wind fails.</p> - -<p>The opening of this section of the canal has -worked wonders in the development of this part -of the coast land, because it places the products -of the plantations and ranches within easy -reach of the markets. It has also served to -drain thousands of acres of land, which were -formerly considered to be of no use whatever. -On this route the canal passes through Lake -Tamiahua, which is seventy-nine miles long and -from five to twenty miles wide. Lake Tampamachoco, -a much smaller lake, will also be traversed -by this canal. The water in these lakes -is comparatively shallow, and it has been necessary -to deepen them considerably in order to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_474" id="Page_474">[474]</a></span> -make the canal of uniform depth with the other -portion. The distance between Tampico and -the mouth of the Rio Grande is about three -hundred miles, but a number of salt water lagoons, -which lie near the coast, can be utilized -as a portion of the canal. If this project, and -the similar one planned by the United States, -are completed, it will furnish a very long inland -waterway for the coast region. It will serve -the double purpose of draining and making -more healthful that portion of the country, and -likewise giving an outlet for the development -that will surely follow. The land when once -drained has been proved to be of unusual fertility.</p> - -<p>The influence of the Anglo-Saxon in Mexico -has been very marked. What the English have -done in Argentina and many parts of the world, -the Americans have done in our neighbouring -republic. It is a significant fact that the Spanish -influences have been perceptibly disappearing, -while that of the Anglo-Saxon has been -in the ascendency. This change can be noted in -a great many ways, both in thought, customs -and foreign relations. This transition has not -been promptly recognized, and in some quarters -it has been strongly objected to by the -extreme conservative elements; but, nevertheless,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_475" id="Page_475">[475]</a></span> -it has been steadily marching on. Many -of the Mexicans prominent in the political and -business life recognize this trend and encourage -it, for they feel that Mexico needs Anglo-Saxon -methods and ideas in order to develop the country, -and give it the prestige that its importance -deserves. There are perhaps twenty or twenty-five -thousand Americans who permanently reside -in Mexico, and, in addition, there is the -effect of the many millions of American money -invested in the country, and the thousands of -tourists and business men who annually cross -the borders.</p> - -<p>There is, doubtless, a strong prejudice against -the American and his methods in many parts of -Mexico, and this feeling seems to have been -somewhat intensified in the recent revolution. -It is not to be wondered at that such a feeling -exists. From first to last Mexico has ceded to -the United States almost one million square -miles of territory, which is almost one-third -more than the present size of the republic. -First came the separation of Texas, which was -undoubtedly due to the intriguing of Americans -who had crossed over into that section of Mexico. -These pioneers and adventurers brought -about the declaration of independence by the -Lone Star State. A few years later that territory<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_476" id="Page_476">[476]</a></span> -was admitted into the United States as -one of its integral parts. Then came the Mexican -War, which most of us admit was an unjust -war, and which resulted in the cession of more -than half a million of square miles of territory. -A few years later, by the Gadsden Purchase, -which was due to disputes over the boundary -line, another block of territory, as large as the -state of Ohio, was added to the domain of the -United States.</p> - -<p>In the revolution of 1910 many Americans -crossed the border, joined the forces of the revolutionists, -and aided in the troubles of the then -existing government. Furthermore, very many -American tourists who visit Mexico make themselves -disagreeable by their actions and their -criticisms, which also add to the anti-American -feeling. So many include all Mexicans under -the general title of “greasers,” and can see no -good in anything that is not American. It is -a fortunate thing that the good people of Mexico -understand very little English; otherwise -they would frequently be excited to anger, if -they could hear the remarks that are made by -Americans in visiting their churches, battle -fields and other places surrounded by sacred -associations. They are not fools, however, and -even if they do not understand the words they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_477" id="Page_477">[477]</a></span> -can catch the trend of remarks by the gesture -and laugh that accompanies them. As the -Spanish race are exceedingly sensitive this lack -of sympathy and almost open contempt cannot -result otherwise than do injury to a general -good feeling. Some Americans grumble at -everything, get mad because all the waiters and -porters do not understand English, complain -about the hotels because they cannot obtain -everything just like they would in a Fifth Avenue -hotel, and, in fact, find fault with everything -that they see. As a contrast to this one -might consider the attitude of Mexicans. It is -difficult to do justice to the innate courtesy of -officials and people when Americans show them -so little. You can murder his beloved Spanish -in attempting to address a Mexican, and he -will listen with infinite patience and never a -smile of amusement or expression of vexation -on his face. The Mexican is polite not only to -his superiors and equals, but to his servants as -well.</p> - -<p>The republic of Mexico has passed through -dark days. It has suffered from the evil government -of foreigners and from the reckless -ambitions of its own rulers. The burdens of -former mistakes still remain, and there is a -lingering distrust of the powerful republic to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_478" id="Page_478">[478]</a></span> -the north in many places. This distrust has -been fanned into greater intensity by recent -political agitators. The good sense of the leaders -will quickly reassert itself, however, and a -more perfect understanding will surely result. -American intelligence and capital have done too -much in bringing about the material prosperity -of the country for such conditions to exist permanently. -Mexico needs capital for the development -of her resources, and American capital -is most available for that purpose. Americans -will even be interested in the moral and material -advancement of their neighbours across the -Rio Grande.</p> - -<p>To the reader who has followed this narrative -to the end, I give my valediction, <i>a la Mexicana</i>:</p> - -<p><i>Adios! Vaya usted con Dios.</i></p> - -<p class="titlepage">THE END.</p> - -<hr /> - -<div class="footnotes"> - -<h2>FOOTNOTES</h2> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_1" id="Footnote_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> “Wonderful, Mysterious Mexico,” by Madge Morris.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_2" id="Footnote_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Mrs. Gooch in “Face to Face with the Mexicans.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_3" id="Footnote_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Mexican statistics of public instruction show that the state of -Jalisco has one school for every 2,354 inhabitants; Aguascalientes, -one for every 3,103; Campeche, one for every 1,236; Coahuila, -one for every 2,090; Chihuahua, one for every 2,731; Durango, -one for every 2,468; Guanajuato, one for every 4,596; Hidalgo, -one for every 1,020; Michoacan, one for every 2,888; Morelos, -one for every 687; Nuevo Leon, one for every 1,158; Puebla, one -for every 886; Queretaro, one for every 1,444; San Luis Potosi, -one for every 2,592; Sinaloa, one for every 1,041; Sonora, one for -every 1,092; Tabasco, one for every 1,018; Tamaulipas, one for -every 1,777; Tlaxcala, one for every 700; Vera Cruz, one for every -1,268; Yucatan, one for every 792; Zacatecas, one for every 1,316, -and Mexico, one for every 936.—<i>Modern Mexico.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_4" id="Footnote_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> F. A. Ober in “Travels in Mexico.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_5" id="Footnote_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> This citation and some of the other quotations in this chapter, -as well as a number of the historical facts, are from the “Story of -Mexico,” by Susan Hale, published by G. P. Putnam’s Sons of -London and New York.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_6" id="Footnote_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> “Mexico in Transition” by William Butler.</p> - -</div> - -</div> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_479" id="Page_479">[479]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="APPENDICES">APPENDICES</h2> - -<h3>I</h3> - -<p>The following table gives the area and population -of the various states, territories of -Tepic, Quintana Roo and Lower California, and -the Federal District; also the name of the capital -and number of its inhabitants, the figures -being for the year 1900:—</p> - -<table summary="Comparison of Mexico's states and territories"> - <tr> - <th>State.</th> - <th>Sq. Miles.</th> - <th>Population.</th> - <th>Capital.</th> - <th>Inhabitants.</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Aguas Calientes,</td> - <td class="tdr">2,950</td> - <td class="tdr">101,910</td> - <td>Aguas Calientes,</td> - <td class="tdr">35,052</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Campeche,</td> - <td class="tdr">20,087</td> - <td class="tdr">84,218</td> - <td>Campeche,</td> - <td class="tdr">17,109</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Coahuila,</td> - <td class="tdr">63,569</td> - <td class="tdr">280,899</td> - <td>Saltillo,</td> - <td class="tdr">23,936</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Colima,</td> - <td class="tdr">2,700</td> - <td class="tdr">65,026</td> - <td>Colima,</td> - <td class="tdr">20,698</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Chiapas,</td> - <td class="tdr">29,600</td> - <td class="tdr">363,216</td> - <td>Tuxtla,</td> - <td class="tdr">10,982</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Chihuahua,</td> - <td class="tdr">87,802</td> - <td class="tdr">327,004</td> - <td>Chihuahua,</td> - <td class="tdr">30,405</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Durango,</td> - <td class="tdr">42,200</td> - <td class="tdr">371,274</td> - <td>Durango,</td> - <td class="tdr">31,092</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Guanajuato,</td> - <td class="tdr">12,300</td> - <td class="tdr">1,065,317</td> - <td>Guanajuato,</td> - <td class="tdr">41,486</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Guerrero,</td> - <td class="tdr">24,996</td> - <td class="tdr">474,594</td> - <td>Chilpanzingo,</td> - <td class="tdr">7,497</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Hidalgo,</td> - <td class="tdr">8,917</td> - <td class="tdr">603,074</td> - <td>Pachuca,</td> - <td class="tdr">37,487</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Jalisco,</td> - <td class="tdr">31,846</td> - <td class="tdr">1,137,311</td> - <td>Guadalajara,</td> - <td class="tdr">101,208</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Mexico,</td> - <td class="tdr">9,247</td> - <td class="tdr">924,457</td> - <td>Toluca,</td> - <td class="tdr">25,904</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Michoacan,</td> - <td class="tdr">22,874</td> - <td class="tdr">935,849</td> - <td>Morelia,</td> - <td class="tdr">37,278</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Morelos,</td> - <td class="tdr">2,773</td> - <td class="tdr">161,697</td> - <td>Cuernavaca,</td> - <td class="tdr">9,584</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Nuevo Leon,</td> - <td class="tdr">23,592</td> - <td class="tdr">326,940</td> - <td>Monterey,</td> - <td class="tdr">62,266</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Oaxaca,</td> - <td class="tdr">35,382</td> - <td class="tdr">947,910</td> - <td>Oaxaca,</td> - <td class="tdr">35,049</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Puebla,</td> - <td class="tdr">12,204</td> - <td class="tdr">1,024,446</td> - <td>Puebla,</td> - <td class="tdr">93,521</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Queretaro,</td> - <td class="tdr">3,556</td> - <td class="tdr">228,489</td> - <td>Queretaro,</td> - <td class="tdr">33,152</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>San Luis Potosi,</td> - <td class="tdr">25,316</td> - <td class="tdr">582,486</td> - <td>San Luis Potosi,</td> - <td class="tdr">61,019</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Sinaloa,</td> - <td class="tdr">33,671</td> - <td class="tdr">296,109</td> - <td>Culiacan,</td> - <td class="tdr">10,380</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Sonora,</td> - <td class="tdr">76,900</td> - <td class="tdr">220,553</td> - <td>Hermosillo,</td> - <td class="tdr">10,613</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_480" id="Page_480">[480]</a></span>Tabasco,</td> - <td class="tdr">10,072</td> - <td class="tdr">158,107</td> - <td>San Juan Bautista,</td> - <td class="tdr">10,543</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Tamaulipas,</td> - <td class="tdr">32,128</td> - <td class="tdr">220,253</td> - <td>Victoria,</td> - <td class="tdr">10,086</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Tlaxcala,</td> - <td class="tdr">1,595</td> - <td class="tdr">172,217</td> - <td>Tlaxcala,</td> - <td class="tdr">2,847</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Vera Cruz,</td> - <td class="tdr">29,201</td> - <td class="tdr">960,570</td> - <td>Jalapa,</td> - <td class="tdr">20,388</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Yucatan,</td> - <td class="tdr">20,203</td> - <td class="tdr">227,264</td> - <td>Merida,</td> - <td class="tdr">43,630</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Zacatecas,</td> - <td class="tdr">24,757</td> - <td class="tdr">496,810</td> - <td>Zacatecas,</td> - <td class="tdr">32,856</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Tepic,</td> - <td class="tdr">11,257</td> - <td class="tdr">149,677</td> - <td>Tepic,</td> - <td class="tdr">15,488</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Lower California,</td> - <td class="tdr">58,328</td> - <td class="tdr">47,082</td> - <td>La Paz,</td> - <td class="tdr">5,046</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Federal District,</td> - <td class="tdr">463</td> - <td class="tdr">530,723</td> - <td>City of Mexico,</td> - <td class="tdr">344,721</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Quintana Roo,</td> - <td class="tdr">15,000</td> - <td class="tdr">85,000</td> - <td>Santa Cruz de Bravo,</td> - <td class="tdr">2,000</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<h3>II</h3> - -<p>The broken character of the surface of Mexico -is shown by the many high mountain peaks -which are scattered over the country. Most -of these peaks are extinct volcanoes, although -one of them, Colima, is in constant eruption. -The following table gives the name, location -and height of all the peaks over ten thousand -feet in height:—</p> - -<table summary="Comparison of mountains"> - <tr> - <th>Mountain.</th> - <th>State.</th> - <th>Elevation.</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Popocatepetl,</td> - <td>Mexico,</td> - <td class="tdr">17,782 ft.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Orizaba,</td> - <td>Vera Cruz,</td> - <td class="tdr">17,362 ft.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Ixtaccihuatl,</td> - <td>Puebla,</td> - <td class="tdr">16,060 ft.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Toluca,</td> - <td>Mexico,</td> - <td class="tdr">15,019 ft.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Colima,</td> - <td>Jalisco,</td> - <td class="tdr">14,263 ft.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Ajusco,</td> - <td>Federal District,</td> - <td class="tdr">13,660 ft.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Cofre de Perote,</td> - <td>Vera Cruz,</td> - <td class="tdr">13,641 ft.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Zapotlan,</td> - <td>Jalisco,</td> - <td class="tdr">12,743 ft.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Tancitaro,</td> - <td>Michoacan,</td> - <td class="tdr">12,653 ft.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Zempoaltepec,</td> - <td>Oaxaca,</td> - <td class="tdr">11,141 ft.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Pico de Quinco,</td> - <td>Michoacan,</td> - <td class="tdr">10,900 ft.</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_481" id="Page_481">[481]</a></span></p> - -<h3>III<br /> -<span class="smaller">SUGGESTIONS FOR TRAVELLERS</span></h3> - -<p>The visitor to Mexico will find few inconveniences -in the way of railway travel. The coaches -are, with only occasional exceptions, of American -manufacture, and the through trains on -most of the railroads have Pullman coaches at -fares that are considerably lower than in the -United States. It is well to make the trip going -and coming to the capital by different routes, -choosing the El Paso route for one trip and -the Laredo gateway for the other. If the visitor -is from the eastern part of the United -States, a sea voyage from either New York or -New Orleans to Vera Cruz makes a pleasant -variation to the monotony of railroad travel. -If bound for San Francisco one can travel -through the republic to Salina Cruz, and there -embark for that city. When the Southern Pacific -extension is completed to Guadalajara this -will also furnish another good way either to -enter or leave Mexico.</p> - -<p>The Mexican customs examination is a very -formal affair and causes very little inconvenience -to the traveller, for the officials are usually -very courteous. An ignorance of the Spanish<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_482" id="Page_482">[482]</a></span> -language will not cause a great deal of -trouble to the experienced traveller in the cities, -as it is a very easy matter to find some one who -can speak English. In the remoter districts -more trouble will be encountered, so that one -should have at least a few stock phrases to use.</p> - -<p>The money of Mexico is easy for one to familiarize -himself with, as the peso is equal to fifty -cents in American money. The only inconvenience -at times is the trouble of carrying so -many of these pesos, each of which is the size -of one of our American silver dollars. The -minor coins are all on the decimal system, the -peso counting as one hundred centavos.</p> - -<p>Hotel accommodation in the cities is fair, -although it will take the traveller some time to -get used to the large rooms that he will oftentimes -be placed in. The charges are generally -based on the European plan, but occasionally -one will find a hotel on the American plan, and -the charges are reasonable. On arriving at a -hotel the guest is usually shown a room, and, -if it is accepted, he may then register and his -name is written on a blackboard with his room -number. The cab charges are usually reasonable. -In the City of Mexico there are three -classes of cabs, indicated respectively by blue, -red and yellow flags, the latter being the cheapest<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_483" id="Page_483">[483]</a></span> -class. The driver always expects a small -fee in addition to the regular fare.</p> - -<p>Good stores will be found in the cities, and -the prices are not excessive. Most people are -interested in things that may be purchased as -souvenirs of the country. The famous drawn -work can be bought to the best advantage in -northern Mexico, and especially at Aguas Calientes. -Mexico is also noted for her onyx, opals -and the turquoise.</p> - -<p>The proper clothing to be worn is that used -in the United States for spring or fall in the -higher altitudes, and a light coat should be a -part of the wardrobe. In the lower levels lightweight -summer clothing can be worn at all seasons -of the year. Most people visit Mexico -during the winter months, but summer, which -is the rainy season, is likewise delightful.</p> - -<h3>IV<br /> -<span class="smaller">BIBLIOGRAPHY</span></h3> - -<div class="hanging"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Ballou, M. M.</span>: Aztec Land. Boston, 1890.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Bancroft, H. H.</span>: History of Mexico. 6 vols. San Francisco, -1888.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Bandelier, A. F.</span>: Report of an Archeological Tour. Boston, -1885.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Beart, Lucien</span>: The Aztecs, their History, Manners and -Customs. From the French. Chicago, 1900.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Bishop, W. H.</span>: Old Mexico and Her Lost Provinces. New -York, 1883.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_484" id="Page_484">[484]</a></span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Brooks, N. C.</span>: History of the Mexican War. Philadelphia, -1849.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Charnay, Desiré</span>: Ancient Cities of the New World. Translated -from French. New York, 1887.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Conklin, Howard</span>: Mexico and the Mexicans. New York, -1883.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Creelman, James</span>: Diaz: Master of Mexico. New York, -1910.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Diaz del Castillo, Bernal</span>: The True History of the Conquest -of Mexico. Written in 1568. Translation. New -York, 1803.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Edwards, William Seymour</span>: On the Mexican Highlands. -Cincinnati, 1906.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Flandrau, C. M.</span>: Viva Mexico. New York, 1908.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Gadnow, Hans</span>: Through Southern Mexico. New York, 1908.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Gooch, Fannie C.</span>: Face to Face with the Mexicans. New -York, 1887.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Griffin, S. B.</span>: Mexico of To-day. New York, 1886.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Hale, Susan</span>: Story of Mexico. New York, 1889.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Haven, Gilbert</span>: Our Next Door Neighbor: A Winter in -Mexico. New York, 1875.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Humboldt, Alexander von</span>: Political Essay on the Kingdom -of New Spain. London, 1822.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Kirkham, Stanton Davis</span>: Mexican Trials. Boston, 1909.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Lumholtz, Carl</span>: Unknown Mexico. 2 vols. New York, 1902.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Lummis, Charles F.</span>: The Awakening of a Nation. New -York, 1899.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Martin, Percy F.</span>: Mexico of the Twentieth Century. London, -1907.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Mayer, Brantz</span>: Mexico as It Was and Is. London, 1844.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Noll, A. H.</span>: A Short History of Mexico. Chicago, 1903.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Ober, Frederick A.</span>: Travels in Mexico. Boston, 1885.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Prescott, W. H.</span>: Conquest of Mexico. 1843.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Romero, Matias</span>: Mexico and the United States. New York, -1898.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Smith, F. H.</span>: A White Umbrella in Mexico. Boston. 1889.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Starr, Frederick</span>: In Indian Mexico. Chicago, 1908.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Stephens, John L.</span>: Incidents of Travel in Yucatan. New -York, 1843.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Stevenson, Sara</span>: Maximilian in Mexico. New York, 1899.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Tweedie, Mrs. Alec</span>: The Maker of Modern Mexico: Porfirio -Diaz. London, 1906.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Wallace, Dillon</span>: Beyond the Mexican Sierras. Chicago, -1910.</p> - -</div> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_485" id="Page_485">[485]</a></span></p> - -<h2 id="INDEX">INDEX</h2> - -<ul> - -<li class="ifrst">Acapulco, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Agriculture, <a href="#Page_464">464-467</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Agave Americana, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Aguador (water carrier), <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Agua miel (honey-water), <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Aguas Calientes, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Aqueduct of Oaxaca, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of Querétero, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ahuehuete (cypress) of Chapultepec, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of Popotla, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of Tule, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Alameda, The, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Alamo, Battle of the, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Alcabales, Abolishment of, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Alhondiga de Granaditas, The, of Guanajuato, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Altata, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Alvaredo, Pedro, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">American Capital in Mexico, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">American Colony, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Anahuac, Valley of, <a href="#Page_74">74 <i>et seq.</i></a></li> - -<li class="indx">Apam, Plains of, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Architecture, Mexican, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271-273</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Army, The Mexican, <a href="#Page_334">334-337</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Art in Mexico, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Auto-da-fé, The first, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Aztecs, History of the, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Subjugation of, <a href="#Page_14">14-16</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Descendants of, <a href="#Page_183">183 <i>et seq.</i></a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Markets of, <a href="#Page_217">217-218</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Celebrations of, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Banana, Culture of the, <a href="#Page_106">106-108</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Baptism of Indians, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Baptist Missions, <a href="#Page_324">324-326</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bargaining, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Barra, Francisco de la, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bear, Playing the, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170-172</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Beggars, Mexican, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Belem, Prison of, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Boca del Monte, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bonanzas (meaning mines worked at great profit), <a href="#Page_275">275 <i>et seq.</i></a></li> - -<li class="indx">Books, first printed in Mexico, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Borda, Joseph de la, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Buena Vista, Battle of, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bull-fight, <a href="#Page_243">243 <i>et seq.</i></a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bull-ring, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Cacao, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Campo Santo, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Capitals, Population of the, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cargadors (burden-bearers), <a href="#Page_195">195-199</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cart, Mexican, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Casa (meaning home), <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210-211</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Casas Grandes, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cathedral of Capital, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321-323</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Catorce, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cattle ranches, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418-419</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Celaya, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Celebrations in honour of the Virgin of Guadalupe, <a href="#Page_236">236 <i>et seq.</i></a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_486" id="Page_486">[486]</a></span>Cemeteries, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Centennial of Independence, 1910, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396-398</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Central Railway, <a href="#Page_297">297-299</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cerro (a hill) de las Campañas, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Chalco, Lake, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Chamber of Deputies, The, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Chapala, Lake, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Chapultepec, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">military academy, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Chiapas, State of, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Chichen Itza, <a href="#Page_441">441-447</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Chihuahua, City of, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417-419</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">State of, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Execution of Hidalgo at, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Chinampas, or floating gardens, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Chilpantzingo, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cholula, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Pyramid of, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Chorubusco, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Christmas celebrations, <a href="#Page_227">227-232</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Churches, Mexican, <a href="#Page_271">271-273</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Church, The Mexican, <a href="#Page_308">308 <i>et seq.</i></a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cinco de Mayo, Victory of, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Street of, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ciudad Juarez, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Climate of the Capital, <a href="#Page_54">54-55</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Variety of, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of Oaxaca, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Coahuila, State of, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Coal, <a href="#Page_288">288-289</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Coatzacoalcos, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cock-fighting, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Coffee culture, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Colonia Juarez, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Comonfort, President, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Congress, First Mexican, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Second, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of to-day, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Congregational Missions, <a href="#Page_324">324-326</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Conquest, Manner of the, <a href="#Page_14">14-16</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Conquistadores (conquerors), Vandalism and nature of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Contrasts, A land of, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Copper, Production of, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cordillerias, The, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cordoba, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Treaty of, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Corral, Hon. Ramon, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cortez, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Defeat of, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">as governor, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Landing of, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">and his followers, <a href="#Page_13">13-16</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cosmopolitan character of City of Mexico, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Coyoacan, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Creole, The, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">women, <a href="#Page_165">165-166</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cuautla, Battle of, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cuernevaca, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cuilapa, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cuitzeo, Lake, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Culiacan, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Curandera (native doctor), <a href="#Page_222">222-224</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Currency reform, <a href="#Page_459">459</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Customs, Domestic, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Strange, <a href="#Page_201">201 <i>et seq.</i></a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">officials, polite, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cypress of Noche Triste, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of Chapultepec, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of Tule, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Denouncing a mining claim, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Desierto, El, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Diaz, Bernal, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Diaz, Porfirio, <a href="#Page_18">18-19</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Birthplace of, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">and education, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">encouragement of railroads, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">and Protestantism, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">organizes <i>Rurales</i>, <a href="#Page_331">331-333</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Sketch of, <a href="#Page_369">369 <i>et seq.</i></a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Revolution against, <a href="#Page_396">396 <i>et seq.</i></a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_487" id="Page_487">[487]</a></span>Diego Juan, Vision of, <a href="#Page_236">236-238</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dolores Hidalgo, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Douglass, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dude, The Mexican, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dulces (Mexican candy), <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Durango, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Mountain of iron in, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">State of, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Easter, Celebration of, <a href="#Page_232">232-234</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Education in Mexico, <a href="#Page_257">257 <i>et seq.</i></a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of soldiers, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ejutla, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">El Paso, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Embrace, A Mexican, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">English language, Teaching of, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ensenada, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Esperanza, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Evangelista (letter-writer), <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Exclusiveness of Mexicans, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Exports and imports, <a href="#Page_459">459-460</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Farming in the tropics, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Antiquated, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Feasts and festivals, <a href="#Page_225">225 <i>et seq.</i></a></li> - -<li class="indx">Feather work, Aztec, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Federal District, Schools of, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ferrocarriles Mexicanos, <a href="#Page_294">294 <i>et seq.</i></a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fibre-producing plants, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fiesta, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">at Oaxaca, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">at Guadalupe, <a href="#Page_236">236 <i>et seq.</i></a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">de las Flores, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Finances of Mexico, <a href="#Page_458">458-459</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Floating gardens, <a href="#Page_82">82-84</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Flower market, The, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Frijoles, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Funeral cars, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Germans, Affiliation of, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Goat raising, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gold of Aztecs, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Production of, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gomez, Vasquez, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gondola, The Mexican, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gonzalez, Manuel, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Graphite, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Grasshoppers as food, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gringo, a term of derision originally applied to foreigners.</li> - -<li class="indx">Grito, The, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Guadalajara, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Guadalupe, Town of, <a href="#Page_240">240-242</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Church of, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Virgin of, <a href="#Page_236">236-242</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Guadalupe-Hidalgo, Treaty of, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Guanajuato, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Battle at, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Guatemotzin, eleventh and last Aztec Emperor, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Guaymas, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Guaxaca (<a href="#Oaxaca"><i>See</i> Oaxaca</a>).</li> - -<li class="indx">Guerrero, The patriot, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Guatemala City, Bull fight in, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Earthquake in, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Theatre of, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Hacienda, The, <a href="#Page_27">27-30</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of Mitla, <a href="#Page_124">124-128</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of Zuloaga, <a href="#Page_418">418-420</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Labour on, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hacendado, The, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Henequen, <a href="#Page_40">40-41</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hermosillo, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_427">427-428</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hidalgo, Miguel, <a href="#Page_347">347-349</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hidalgo Railway, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Holidays, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225 <i>et seq.</i></a></li> - -<li class="indx">Home, Regard for, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Horsemen, Mexican, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Huamantla, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Huitzilopoxtli, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Iglesias, <a href="#Page_382">382-383</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Improvements, Contemplated, in Capital, <a href="#Page_71">71-73</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_488" id="Page_488">[488]</a></span>Independence, Declaration of, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Indians, <a href="#Page_183">183 <i>et seq.</i></a>, <a href="#Page_421">421-424</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">habits and characteristics, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of the hotlands, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">cargadors, <a href="#Page_195">195-199</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">market, <a href="#Page_120">120-122</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Independent tribe of, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">miners, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Inquisition, Establishment of the, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">International Railway, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Interoceanic Railway, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Irapuato, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Iron, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Irrigation, Benefits of, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Iturbide, Agustin de, <a href="#Page_352">352-356</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Hotel, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ixtaccihuatl, Volcano of, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ixtlan, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ixtle, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Japanese, Resemblance of Mexicans to, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Jardenas flotandas, <a href="#Page_82">82-84</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Jesuits, The, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Juarez, Benito, Birthplace of, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">attitude toward education, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">crushes temporal power of the Church, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">favours Diaz, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">sketch of career, <a href="#Page_364">364-368</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Judas, Burning of, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Judicial System, <a href="#Page_467">467-469</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Labourers, Mexican, <a href="#Page_183">183 <i>et seq.</i></a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lajartija, (Mexican dude), <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">La Paz, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Laredo, <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Las Madres, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lead, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Legal customs, <a href="#Page_207">207-209</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Leon, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Leperos, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx" id="Lerdo">Lerdo, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Liberty Bell, The, of Mexico, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Library, National, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Limantour, Minister of Finance, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_459">459</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Literary men, <a href="#Page_262">262 <i>et seq.</i></a></li> - -<li class="indx">Literature, Mexican, <a href="#Page_258">258 <i>et seq.</i></a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lovemaking, Mexican, <a href="#Page_170">170-172</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lower California, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431-437</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Madero Family, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Madero, Francisco, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406-408</a>, <a href="#Page_410">410-414</a>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Madrid, Bull-ring of, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Bull-fight in, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Magdalena, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Magdalena Bay, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Maguey, <a href="#Page_41">41-45</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mal Paso, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Maltrata, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mañana, The Land of, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Manzanillo, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Markets, Ancient, <a href="#Page_217">217-218</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of capital, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of Oaxaca, <a href="#Page_117">117-119</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of Tehuantepec, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Marsh-flies as food, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Matamoros, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Maximilian, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366-367</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Execution of, <a href="#Page_34">34-35</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mayas, The, <a href="#Page_438">438 <i>et seq.</i></a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mazatlan, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_429">429-430</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mendoza, Viceroy, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Merchants, Aztec, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mesas, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mescal (native brandy), <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mestizos, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Metate, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Methodist Missions, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mexican races, Origin of, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mexican, Conservatism of, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">his view of Anglo-Saxon, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_489" id="Page_489">[489]</a></span>Mexican Central Railway, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297-299</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mexican National Railway, Route of, <a href="#Page_24">24 <i>et seq.</i></a>, <a href="#Page_297">297-298</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mexican Railway, <a href="#Page_90">90 <i>et seq.</i></a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mexican Southern Railway, <a href="#Page_112">112-114</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mexico, Antiquity of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Resources of, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">The United States of, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Miñaca, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mines of Mexico, <a href="#Page_274">274 <i>et seq.</i></a>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Missions, Protestant, in Mexico, <a href="#Page_324">324-327</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mitla, Village of, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Ruins of, <a href="#Page_152">152 <i>et seq.</i></a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Hacienda of, <a href="#Page_124">124-127</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Molino del Rey (the king’s mill), <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Monte de Piedad, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Monte las Cruces, Battle of, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Monterey, <a href="#Page_24">24-25</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Battle of, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Montezuma, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Moon, Pyramid of the, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Morelas, Jose Maria, <a href="#Page_350">350-352</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Morelia, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mormon Colony, <a href="#Page_425">425-426</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mountains, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415 <i>et seq.</i></a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mozo, a servant.</li> - -<li class="indx">Museum, National, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Nahuals, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">National Palace, The, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">National Railway, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Navarro, General, <a href="#Page_404">404-405</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Newspapers and periodicals, <a href="#Page_260">260-261</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Noche Bueno, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Noche Triste, Tree of, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Nochistongo cut, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>No es costumbre</i>, <a href="#Page_213">213-214</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Nogales, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>No hay</i>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Northers,” The, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Notaries, Mexican, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Nuevo Leon, State of, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst" id="Oaxaca">Oaxaca, <a href="#Page_111">111 <i>et seq.</i></a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Markets of, <a href="#Page_117">117-119</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Valley of, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151-152</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Mines of, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">O’Donoju, Viceroy, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ojinaga, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Oñata, Juan de, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Oranges, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Orient, Resemblance to, <a href="#Page_1">1-3</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121-123</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Oriental habits of women, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Orizaba, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Volcano of, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Orozco, Pascual, <a href="#Page_404">404-405</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Pachuca, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Padilla, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Palace, The National, <a href="#Page_68">68-69</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Palenque, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>, <a href="#Page_451">451-455</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Palo Alto, Battle of, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Panama Canal, A competitor of, <a href="#Page_136">136 <i>et seq.</i></a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pan American Railroad, <a href="#Page_303">303-305</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Panteon of Guanajuato, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">National, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Paseo de la Reforma, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Patio (courtyard) in houses, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Patio process, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Patzcuaro, Lake, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pawnshop, The National, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Peon, The, <a href="#Page_183">183 <i>et seq.</i></a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">as a soldier, <a href="#Page_334">334-335</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Peonage, <a href="#Page_188">188-189</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191-192</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pertenencia, a mining claim, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Petroleum, Production of, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Piedad, Monte de, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pijijiapam, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Piñate, Breaking the, <a href="#Page_231">231-232</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Plateaus, The, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_490" id="Page_490">[490]</a></span>Plaza Mayor, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">de Toros, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Poets and poetry, Mexican, <a href="#Page_262">262-264</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Police, The, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Politeness, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Popocatapetl, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Popotla, Village of, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Poppies, Feast of the, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Population of Mexico, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of states and capitals, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Posadas, The, <a href="#Page_228">228-232</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pottery, Mexican, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Presbyterian Missions, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Printing press, First, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Prisons, schools in, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Procrastination, A land of, <a href="#Page_203">203-205</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Protestantism in Mexico, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324-327</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Puebla, <a href="#Page_37">37-39</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">city of churches, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">house of the inquisition in, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Battles at, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pulque, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">shop, <a href="#Page_65">65-67</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pyramid of Cholula, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of the Sun, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of the Moon, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Quetzalcoatl, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Querétero, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Railroads, Mexican, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290 <i>et seq.</i></a>, <a href="#Page_417">417-418</a>, <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rainfall, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Real del Monte, Mines of, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rebosa, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Regla, Count of, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Mines of, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Religion of Mexico, <a href="#Page_308">308 <i>et seq.</i></a></li> - -<li class="indx">Reyes, Bernardo, <a href="#Page_407">407-408</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rincon Antonio, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Robbers and bandits of former days, <a href="#Page_328">328-333</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ruins of Yucatan, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_440">440 <i>et seq.</i></a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of Mitla, <a href="#Page_152">152 <i>et seq.</i></a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rurales, <a href="#Page_331">331-334</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Sagrario Metropolitano, Church of, <a href="#Page_321">321-322</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Saint, Mexico’s patron, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Saint days, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Salina Cruz, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139 <i>et seq.</i></a>, <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Saltillo, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">San Antonio, Texas, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">San Benito, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">San Blas, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">San Cristobal, Lake, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">San Cristobal Ecatepec, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">San Geronimo, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">San Juan de Ulua, Fort of, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">San Juan Teotihuacan, <a href="#Page_146">146-148</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">San Luis Potosi, City of, <a href="#Page_30">30 <i>et seq.</i></a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">State of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Santa Anita, Village of, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Santa Anna, General, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359-364</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Burial place of, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Santa Lucrecia, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">School of fine arts, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Schools, Public, <a href="#Page_264">264-266</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Scott, General, in Mexico, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Seasons, Only two, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Senate, The, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Señoritas, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Serenos, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sheep Raising, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Shoemaker, Mexican, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Silver, <a href="#Page_275">275 <i>et seq.</i></a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Production of, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sinaloa, State of, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428-431</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Society in the capital, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Soldiers, Schools for, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sonora, State of, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Southern Pacific Railway, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">States, The, of Mexico, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Area and population of, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_491" id="Page_491">[491]</a></span>Steamship Lines, <a href="#Page_469">469-471</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Streets of the capital, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Suarez, José Maria Pino, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sugar cane, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sun, Pyramid of, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sunday, a day of pleasure, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Tablelands, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tacuba, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tacubaya, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tajo de Nochistongo, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tamales, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tampico, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Taotl, an Aztec god, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tarahumari Indians, <a href="#Page_421">421-424</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tasco, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Taylor, General, Invasion by, <a href="#Page_24">24 <i>et seq.</i></a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">at Palo Alto, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tecoac, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tehuacan, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tehuantepec, Isthmus of, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289 <i>et seq.</i></a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Town of, <a href="#Page_132">132-134</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Women of, <a href="#Page_180">180-181</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">National Railway, <a href="#Page_136">136 <i>et seq.</i></a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tejada, Lerdo de (<a href="#Lerdo"><i>See</i> Lerdo</a>).</li> - -<li class="indx">Temperature of the tropics, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of the capital, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tenochtitlan, The ancient capital, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Teocalli, the Aztec, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tepic, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tequila (native brandy), <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Texcoco, Lake, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Town of, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Thieves, <a href="#Page_338">338-342</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tia Juana, <a href="#Page_401">401-402</a>, <a href="#Page_434">434-435</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tierra Blanca, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tierra caliente, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100-105</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tierra fria, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tierra templada, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tlacolulu, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tlacochahuaya, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tolpetlac, Village of, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Toltecs, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Gods of the, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Topo Chico, Springs of, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Topolobampo, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Torreon, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tortillas, Making of, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Transition, The, in Mexico, <a href="#Page_456">456 <i>et seq.</i></a></li> - -<li class="indx">Travellers, Suggestions for, <a href="#Page_481">481-483</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tropics, Vegetation of, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Need of, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Railroading in, <a href="#Page_301">301-303</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tula, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tule, Big Tree of, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tzintzuntzan, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">United States, War with, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Uxmal, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>, <a href="#Page_448">448-451</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Valenciana, Conde de, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Valley of Mexico, View of, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Vera Cruz, <a href="#Page_95">95-97</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Fall of, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Escape of Diaz, at, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Vera Cruz and Pacific Railway, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Victoria Guadalupe, first president, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Viga canal, <a href="#Page_82">82-84</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Villa Reyes, Great hacienda of, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Volcanoes, Height of, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Vomito, <a href="#Page_95">95-96</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Wages of miners, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of labourers, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Wheat, Introduction of, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Woman, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162 <i>et seq.</i></a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">The creole, <a href="#Page_165">165-166</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Xaltocan, Lake, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Xochimilco, Lake, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Yaqui Indians, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Yellow Fever, <a href="#Page_95">95-96</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_492" id="Page_492">[492]</a></span>Young Men’s Christian Association, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Yucatan, Ruins of, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_440">440 <i>et seq.</i></a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Railways in, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Zacatecas, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Zambrano, a Mexican miner, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Zapotec Indians, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Zaragossa, General, Victory of, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Zocalo, The, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Zopilotes (buzzards), <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Zuloaga Hacienda, <a href="#Page_418">418-420</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Zumarraga, Bishop, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Zumpango, Lake, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> - -</ul> - -<p> </p> -<p> </p> -<hr class="full" /> -<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MEXICO AND HER PEOPLE OF TO-DAY***</p> -<p>******* This file should be named 60135-h.htm or 60135-h.zip *******</p> -<p>This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:<br /> -<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/6/0/1/3/60135">http://www.gutenberg.org/6/0/1/3/60135</a></p> -<p> -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed.</p> - 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