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diff --git a/old/60113-0.txt b/old/60113-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index ab72c9d..0000000 --- a/old/60113-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,16769 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of A student's history of education, by -Frank Pierrepont Graves - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: A student's history of education - -Author: Frank Pierrepont Graves - -Release Date: August 17, 2019 [EBook #60113] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A STUDENT'S HISTORY OF EDUCATION *** - - - - -Produced by Turgut Dincer, Wayne Hammond and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -book was produced from images made available by the -HathiTrust Digital Library.) - - - - - - - - - -A STUDENT’S HISTORY OF EDUCATION - - - - -BOOKS ON THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION - -By - -DEAN FRANK P. GRAVES - - -A HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN THREE VOLUMES - -Vol. I. Before the Middle Ages - - Vol. II. During the Middle Ages and the Transition to Modern Times - -Vol. III. In Modern Times - - -GREAT EDUCATORS OF THREE CENTURIES - - PETER RAMUS AND THE EDUCATIONAL REFORMATION OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY - -A STUDENT’S HISTORY OF EDUCATION - - - - - A STUDENT’S HISTORY - OF EDUCATION - - - BY - - FRANK PIERREPONT GRAVES - - (PH.D., COLUMBIA) - - DEAN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION AND PROFESSOR - OF THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN THE - UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA - - - New York - THE MACMILLAN COMPANY - 1922 - - _All rights reserved_ - - - COPYRIGHT, 1915, - BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. - - Set up and electrotyped. Published July, 1915. - - - Norwood Press: - Berwick & Smith Co., Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. - - - - - TO - - WILLIAM OXLEY THOMPSON, LL.D. - PRESIDENT OF THE OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY - - WITH APPRECIATIVE MEMORIES OF - SIX PLEASANT YEARS OF ASSOCIATION - - - - -PREFACE - - -There is a growing conviction among those engaged in training teachers -that the History of Education must justify itself. It is believed -that, if this subject is to contribute to the professional equipment -of the teacher, its material must be selected with reference to his -specific needs. Antiquarian interests and encyclopædic completeness are -alluring and may in their place prove praiseworthy and valuable, but -they do not in themselves supply any definite demand in the training -of teachers. The greatest services that the History of Education can -perform for the teacher are to impel him to analyze his problems more -completely and to throw light upon the school practices with which he -is himself concerned. By presenting a series of clear-cut views of past -conditions, often in marked contrast to his own, it should make him -conscious that the present educational situation has to a large degree -been traditionally received, and it should at the same time especially -help him to understand the origin and significance of current practices. - -In this way a study of the History of Education will disrupt the -teacher’s complacent acceptance of the present, and will enable him -to reconstruct his ideas in the light of the peculiar conditions out -of which the education of his times has sprung. Whenever historical -records do not assist in such an analysis and synthesis of present -day problems, they may be frankly dismissed from discussion. This -conception of the subject, I have myself, with much reluctance, come -to accept. My own regard for the classics, philosophy, and general -history as college disciplines has caused me to view with apprehension -any disposition to curtail their scope. It now seems clear, however, -that the modern tendency to emphasize the functional aspects of the -History of Education is both necessary and wise. The present work, -therefore, is not a mere condensation of my _History of Education in -Three Volumes_, but has been very largely re-written from the new angle. - -In the first place, I have sought to stress educational institutions -and practices, rather than theories that did not find embodiment in -the times. This has led to the omission of much that is unessential or -more strictly related to philosophy, general history, or literature. -For example, even the immortal work of Plato and Aristotle has been -epitomized; the entire subject of mysticism and most of scholasticism -have been dropped; the masterpieces of such pure theorists as Rabelais, -Montaigne, and Mulcaster, are barely mentioned; and the various -historical epochs are given only so much detail as may be needed to -form a social setting for the educational movements of those periods. - -Secondly, it has seemed to me that our present problems in education -can best be analyzed through a knowledge of the practices that have -developed in modern times. Hence, while this book includes an account -of all educational endeavor from the day of primitive man to the -present, somewhat more than one-half the material is connected with the -last two centuries. Even the attractive period of Hellenic activity -and the fascinating stories of monasticism and of chivalry have been -reduced to a minimum. But, though most of the changes in the earlier -half of the work are in the nature of shortening, or have to do with -more immediate connections, some topics, notably the development of -commerce and cities (Chapter XI) and the analysis of formal discipline -(Chapter XVI), have seemed to be so closely connected with subsequent -progress as to deserve more adequate treatment. - -Finally, since this book is intended chiefly for teachers in the United -States, I have believed it most helpful to give considerable space to -the discussion of American education. The account of each educational -movement has included at least an attempt to trace its influence upon -the content, method, and organization of education in the United -States, while three chapters have been devoted exclusively to the rise -of educational systems in this country. - -My indebtedness for many valuable features in this book is heavy. -The idea of an _Outline_, which appears at the beginning of each -chapter, was first suggested to me by the _History of Modern Elementary -Education_ of Dean S. C. Parker of the College of Education, University -of Chicago, although I have adopted a different explanation of its -value. Professor Parker also read through the manuscript and sent me a -general estimate of it. Professors J. H. Coursault of the University -of Missouri, A. J. Jones of the University of Maine, W. H. Kilpatrick -of Columbia University, A. R. Mead of Ohio Wesleyan University, and A. -L. Suhrie of the West Chester (Pennsylvania) State Normal School, have -all read the manuscript through with exceeding care and furnished me -with numerous corrections and criticisms, both particular and general. -Professor T. H. Briggs of Columbia University suggested a number of -improvements in the chapter upon Present Day Tendencies in Education -(XXVII). The chapter upon the Educational Influences of the Reformation -(XIII) has been relieved of several inaccuracies, and possibly of some -Protestant bias, through the assistance of the Rev. Benedict Guldner, -S. J., of St. Joseph’s College, and of Brother Denis Edward, F. S. C., -President of La Salle College, Philadelphia. I have also, as usual, -been greatly aided by my wife, Helen Wadsworth Graves. - - F. P. G. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - _PART I_ - - ANCIENT TIMES - - - CHAPTER I - - PAGE - - THE EARLIEST EDUCATION 3 - - The Value of the History of Education. Its Treatment - in This Book. Primitive Education. Oriental - Education. India: Its Religion and Castes. The Hindu - Education. Effect of the Hindu Education. India as - Typical of the Orient. Jewish Education. - - - CHAPTER II - - THE EDUCATION OF THE GREEKS 11 - - Progressive Nature of Greek Education. Spartan - Education: Its Aim and Early Stages. Training in - Youth and Manhood: Results. Old Athenian Education: - Its Aim and Early Training. Training for the - Youth. Effect of the Old Athenian Education. Causes - and Character of the New Athenian Education. The - Sophists and Their Training. Their Extreme Individualism. - The Reactionaries and the Mediators. The - Method of Socrates. Plato’s System of Education for - the Three Classes of Society. The Weakness of Plato’s - System. His Influence upon Educational Theory and - Practice. Aristotle’s Ideal State and Education. The - Permanent Value of His Work. The Post-Aristotelian - Schools of Philosophy. The Schools of Rhetoric. The - Hellenic Universities. Extension of Hellenic Culture. - - - CHAPTER III - - THE EDUCATION OF THE ROMANS 32 - - Roman Education Amalgamated with Greek. Early - Education in Rome. The Absorption of Greek Culture. - The Ludus. Grammar Schools. Rhetorical Schools. - Universities. Subsidization of Education. Decay of - Education. Influence of Roman Education. - - - CHAPTER IV - - THE EDUCATION OF THE EARLY CHRISTIANS 42 - - The Ideals of Early Christianity. Early Christian - Life as an Education. Catechumenal Schools. Amalgamation - of Christianity with Græco-Roman Philosophy. - Catechetical and Episcopal or Cathedral Schools. - Influence of Græco-Roman Culture upon Christianity. - Rise of the Monastic Schools. - - - _PART II_ - - THE MIDDLE AGES - - - CHAPTER V - - THE MONASTIC EDUCATION 53 - - The Middle Ages as a Period of Assimilation and Repression. - The Evolution and Nature of Monasticism. - Benedict’s ‘Rule’ and the Multiplication of Manuscripts. - Amalgamation of Roman and Irish Christianity. - The Organization of the Monastic Schools. The - ‘Seven Liberal Arts’ as the Curriculum. The Methods - and Texts. Effect upon Civilization of the Monastic - Schools. - - - CHAPTER VI - - CHARLEMAGNE’S REVIVAL OF EDUCATION 60 - - Condition of Education in the Eighth Century. - Higher Education at the Palace School. Educational - Improvement in the Monastic, Cathedral, and Parish - Schools. Alcuin’s Educational Work at Tours. Rabanus - Maurus, Erigena, and Others Concerned in the - Revival. - - - CHAPTER VII - - MOSLEM LEARNING AND EDUCATION 65 - - The Hellenization of Moslemism. Hellenized Moslemism - in Spain. Effect upon Europe of the Moslem - Education. - - - CHAPTER VIII - - EDUCATIONAL TENDENCIES OF SCHOLASTICISM 69 - - The Nature of Scholasticism. The History of Scholastic - Development. Scholastic Education. Its Value and - Influence. - - - CHAPTER IX - - THE MEDIÆVAL UNIVERSITIES 74 - - The Rise of Universities. The Foundation of Universities - at Salerno, Bologna, and Paris. Bologna and - Paris as the Models for Other Universities. Privileges - Granted to the Universities. Organization of the Universities. - Course in the Four Faculties. The Methods - of Instruction. Examinations and Degrees. The Value - and Influence of the University Training. - - - CHAPTER X - - THE EDUCATION OF CHIVALRY 83 - - The Development of Feudalism. The Ideals of Chivalry. - The Three Preparatory Stages of Education. - The Effects of Chivalric Education. - - - CHAPTER XI - - THE BURGHER, GILD, AND CHANTRY SCHOOLS 88 - - The Rise of Commerce and Industry. Development - of Cities and the Burgher Class. The Gilds and Industrial - Education. Gild Schools. Burgher Schools. Chantry - Schools. Influence of the New Schools. - - - _PART III_ - - THE TRANSITION TO MODERN TIMES - - - CHAPTER XII - - THE HUMANISTIC EDUCATION 99 - - The Passing of the Middle Ages. The Renaissance - and the Revival of Learning. Causes of the Awakening - in Italy. The Revival of the Latin Classics. The Development - of Greek Scholarship. The Court Schools - and Vittorino da Feltre. The Court School at Mantua. - The Relation of the Court Schools to the Universities. - Decadence of Italian Humanism. The Spread and Character - of Humanism in the Northern Countries. The Development - of Humanism in France. French Humanistic - Educators and Institutions. Humanism in the German - Universities. The Hieronymians and Their Schools. - Erasmus, Leader in the Humanistic Education of the - North. The Development of Gymnasiums: Melanchthon’s - Work. Sturm at Strassburg. Formalism in the - Gymnasiums. The Humanistic Movement in England: - Greek at Oxford and Cambridge. Humanism at the - Court Colet and His School at St. Paul’s. Humanism - in the English Grammar Schools. English Grammar and - Public Schools To-day. The Grammar Schools in the - American Colonies. The Aim and Institutions of Humanistic - Education. - - - CHAPTER XIII - - EDUCATIONAL INFLUENCES OF THE REFORMATION 124 - - The Relation of the Reformation to the Renaissance. - The Revolt and Educational Works of Luther. Luther’s - Ideas on Education. The Embodiment of Luther’s - Ideas in Schools by His Associates. The Revolt and - Educational Ideas of Zwingli. Calvin’s Revolt and His - Encouragement of Education. The Colleges of Calvin. - Henry VIII’s Revolt and Its Effect upon Education. - Foundation of the Society of Jesus. Organization of - the Jesuits. The Jesuit Colleges. The Jesuit Methods - of Teaching. Value and Influence of the Jesuit Education. - The Organization of the Education of the Port - Royalists. The Port Royal Course and Method of - Teaching. La Salle and the Schools of the Christian - Brothers. The Aim, Curriculum, and Method of the - Christian Brothers’ Schools. Influence of the Schools of - the Christian Brothers. Aim and Content of Education - in the Reformation. Effect of the Reformation upon - Elementary Education. Effect of the Reformation upon - the Secondary Schools. Influence of the Reformation - upon the Universities. The Lapse into Formalism. - - - CHAPTER XIV - - EARLY REALISM AND THE INNOVATORS 151 - - The Rise and Nature of Realism. Humanistic Realism. - Social Realism. The Relations of Humanistic to - Social Realism. The Influence of the Innovators upon - Education. The Ritterakademien. The Academies - In England. The Academies in America. - - - CHAPTER XV - - SENSE REALISM AND THE EARLY SCIENTIFIC MOVEMENT 162 - - The Development of the Sciences and Realism. Bacon - and His Inductive Method. Bacon’s Educational - Suggestions and Influence. Ratich’s Methods. Comenius: - His Training and Work. His Series of Latin - Texts. The Great Didactic. His Encyclopædic Arrangement - of Knowledge. The Method of Nature. The - Influence of Comenius upon Education. Realistic - Tendencies in Elementary Schools. Secondary Schools. - The Universities. - - - CHAPTER XVI - - FORMAL DISCIPLINE IN EDUCATION 179 - - Locke’s Work and Its Various Classifications. Locke’s - Disciplinary Theory in Intellectual Education. Disciplinary - Attitude in Moral and Physical Training. - Origin, Significance, and Influence of the Theory of - Formal Discipline. Opposition to the Disciplinary - Theory and More Recent Modification. Locke’s Real - Position on Formal Discipline. - - - CHAPTER XVII - - EDUCATION IN THE AMERICAN COLONIES 187 - - American Education a Development from European. - Conditions in Europe from Which American Education - Sprang. Colonial School Organization: The Aristocratic - Type in Virginia. The Parochial Schools in New Netherlands. - Sectarian Organization of Schools in Pennsylvania. - Town Schools in Massachusetts. Education - in the Other Colonies. - - - _PART IV_ - - MODERN TIMES - - - CHAPTER XVIII - - GROWTH OF THE DEMOCRATIC IDEAL IN EDUCATION 203 - - The Revolt from Absolutism. The Two Epochs in - the Eighteenth Century. Voltaire and the Encyclopedists. - Rousseau and His Times. Rousseau’s - Works. - - - CHAPTER XIX - - PAGE - - NATURALISM IN EDUCATION 210 - - The Influence of Rousseau’s Naturalism. Naturalistic - Basis of the _Emile_. The Five Books of the _Emile_. - Estimate of the _Emile_. The Sociological Movements in - Modern Education. The Scientific Movement in Modern - Education. The Psychological Movements in Modern - Education. The Spread of Rousseau’s Doctrines. Development - of Basedow’s Educational Reforms. Text-books - and Other Works. Course and Methods of the - Philanthropinum. Influence of the Philanthropinum. - - - CHAPTER XX - - PHILANTHROPY IN EDUCATION 230 - - Reconstructive Tendencies of the Eighteenth Century. - The Rise of Charity Schools in England. The - Schools of the S. P. C. K. Other Charity Schools. The - Charity Schools of the S. P. G. Charity Schools among - the Pennsylvania Germans. The ‘Sunday School’ - Movement in Great Britain. The ‘Sunday School’ - Movement in the United States. Value of the Instruction - in ‘Sunday Schools.’ The Schools of the Two Monitorial - Societies. Value of the Monitorial System in England. - Results of the Monitorial System in the United - States. The ‘Infant Schools’ in France. The ‘Infant - Schools’ in England. ‘Infant Schools’ in the United - States. The Importance of Philanthropic Education. - - - CHAPTER XXI - - THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 251 - - Evolution of Public Education in the United States. - Rise of the Common School in Virginia. Similar Developments - in the Other Southern States. Evolution of - Public Education in New York. New York City. Development - of Systems of Education in Pennsylvania and - the Other Middle States. Decline of Education in Massachusetts. - Developments in the Other New England - States. The Extension of Educational Organization to - the Northwest. Condition of the Common Schools - Prior to the Awakening. - - - CHAPTER XXII - - OBSERVATION AND INDUSTRIAL TRAINING IN EDUCATION 276 - - Pestalozzi as the Successor of Rousseau. Pestalozzi’s - Philanthropic and Industrial Ideals. His Industrial - School at Neuhof and the _Leonard and Gertrude_. His - School at Stanz and Beginning of His Observational - Methods. Continuation of His Methods at Burgdorf, - and _How Gertrude Teaches Her Children_. The ‘Institute’ - at Yverdon and the Culmination of the Pestalozzian - Methods. Pestalozzi’s Educational Aim and Organization. - His General Method. The Permanent Influence of - Pestalozzi. The Spread of Pestalozzian Schools and - Methods through Europe. Pestalozzianism in the - United States. Pestalozzi’s Industrial Training Continued - by Fellenberg. The Agricultural School and - Other Institutions at Hofwyl. Industrial Training in the - Schools of Europe. Industrial Institutions in the - United States. - - - CHAPTER XXIII - - DEVELOPMENT OF PUBLIC EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES 302 - - The Third Period in American Education. Early - Leaders in the Common School Revival. Work of James - G. Carter. Horace Mann as Secretary of the Massachusetts - Board. The Educational Suggestions and Achievements - of Mann. Henry Barnard’s Part in the Educational - Awakening. Barnard as Secretary of the Connecticut - State Board. Commissioner of Common - Schools in Rhode Island. State Superintendent of - Schools in Connecticut. _Barnard’s American Journal - of Education._ First United States Commissioner of - Education. Value of Barnard’s Educational Collections. - Educational Development in New England since the - Revival. Influence of the Awakening upon the Middle - States. Public Education in the West. Organization of - State Systems in the South. Development of the American - System of Education. - - - CHAPTER XXIV - - DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATIONAL PRACTICE 333 - - Froebel and Herbart as Disciples of Pestalozzi. The - Early Career and Writings of Herbart. Work at Königsberg and - Göttingen. Herbart’s Psychology. The Aim, - Content, and Method. The Value and Influence of - Herbart’s Principles. The Extension of His Doctrines - in Germany. Herbartianism in the United States. - Froebel’s Early Life. His Experiences at Frankfort, - Yverdon, and Berlin. The School at Keilhau. Development - of the Kindergarten. Froebel’s Fundamental - Concept of ‘Unity.’ Motor Expression as His Method. - The Social Aspect of Education. The Kindergarten. - The Value and Influence of Froebel’s Principles. The - Spread of Froebelianism through Europe. The Kindergarten - in the United States. The Relative Influence of - Pestalozzi, Herbart, and Froebel. - - - CHAPTER XXV - - THE DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN SYSTEMS 370 - - National Systems of Education in Europe and Canada. - The Beginning of State Control in Prussia. Educational - Achievements of Frederick the Great. Educational Influence - of Zedlitz. Foundation of the Ministry of Education - and Further Progress. The Elementary System. - The Secondary System. Higher Education. Educational - Development In France. The Primary School - System. The Secondary System. The Institutions of - Higher Education. Centralized Administration of - the French Education. Early Development of English - Education. Educational Movements in the Nineteenth - Century. Subsequent Educational Movements. Development - of Education in the Dominion of Canada. - The Public School System of Ontario. The System of - Ecclesiastical Schools in Quebec. - - - CHAPTER XXVI - - THE SCIENTIFIC MOVEMENT AND THE CURRICULUM 397 - - The Development of the Natural Sciences in Modern - Times. The Growth of Inventions and Discoveries in - the Nineteenth Century. Herbert Spencer and _What - Knowledge is of Most Worth_. Advocacy of the Sciences - by Huxley and Others. The Disciplinary Argument for - the Sciences. Introduction of the Sciences into Educational - Institutions in Germany, France, England, and - the United States. Interrelation of the Scientific with - the Psychological and Sociological Movements. - - - CHAPTER XXVII - - PRESENT DAY TENDENCIES IN EDUCATION 418 - - Recent Educational Progress. The Growth of Industrial - Training. Industrial Schools in Europe. Industrial - Training in the United States. Commercial Education - in Europe and America. Recent Emphasis upon Agricultural - Training. Moral Training in the Schools To-day. - The Development of Training for Mental Defectives. - Education of the Deaf and Blind. Recent - Development of Educational Method; Dewey’s Experimental - School. Other Experiments in Method. The - Montessori Method. The Statistical Method and - Mental Measurements in Education. Education and - the Theory of Evolution. Enlarging Conceptions of - the Function of Education. - - - CHAPTER XXVIII - - PAGE - - RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 441 - - The Development of Individualism. The Harmonization - of the Individual and Society. - - INDEX 447 - - - - -ILLUSTRATIONS - - - PLATE FIG. OPPOSITE PAGE - 1. 1. Elders explaining to young men of an Australian - tribe at the ‘initiatory ceremonies’ 8 - - 2. A Hindu school in the open air, with the - village schoolmaster teaching boys to write on - a strip of palm leaf with an iron stylus 8 - - 2. 3. The _palæstra_ in education at Athens 14 - 4. The _didascaleum_ in education at Athens 14 - - 3. 5. Roman school materials 36 - - 6. Scene at a ludus or Roman elementary school 36 - - 4. 7. A monk in the _scriptorium_ 56 - - 8. A monastic school 56 - - 5. 9. The temple of wisdom; an allegorical - representation of the mediæval course of study 72 - - 6. 10. The lecture in mediæval universities 80 - - 11. The disputation in mediæval universities 80 - - 7. 12 and 13. Preliminaries and termination of a - combat in the education of chivalry 86 - - 14. Boys playing tournament with a ‘quintain’ or - dummy man 86 - - 8. 15. Apprenticeship training in a gild 92 - - 16. Gild school at Stratford, where Shakespeare - learned ‘little Latin and less Greek’ 92 - - 9. 17. Great English Public Schools: Winchester and - Eton 120 - - 10. 18. Education of the Jesuits: Jesuit College at - Regensburg and diagram of a Jesuit schoolroom 136 - - 11. 19. School of the Christian Brothers at Rouen 146 - - 20. A Protestant school in a German village of - the sixteenth century 146 - - 12. 21. A page from the _Orbis Pictus_ of Comenius, - illustrating a lesson on a trade 170 - - 13. 22. Town school at Dedham (Massachusetts) with - watch-tower, built in 1648 198 - - 23. Boston Latin School, founded in 1635 198 - - 24. The buildings of Harvard College, erected in - 1675, 1699, and 1720 198 - - 14. 25. The child as a miniature adult 228 - - 26. A naturalistic school 228 - - 15. 27. A monitorial schoolroom 242 - - 28. Pupils reciting to monitors 242 - - 29. Monitor inspecting slates 242 - - 16. 30. A ‘kitchen school’ 268 - - 31. A colonial ‘summer school’ 268 - - 32. The first ‘academy’ founded by Benjamin - Franklin at Philadelphia in 1750 268 - - 17. 33. ‘Father’ Pestalozzi at Stanz 282 - - 34. The ‘table of units’ of Pestalozzi 282 - - 18. 35. Court of Fellenberg’s Agricultural Institute 298 - - 36. General view of Fellenberg’s schools and - workshops 298 - - 19. 37. James G. Carter 312 - - 38. Horace Mann 312 - - 39. Henry Barnard 312 - - 40. Francis W. Parker 312 - - 20. 41. The first high school, established at Boston - in 1821 332 - - 42. The University of Michigan in 1855 332 - - 21. 43. ‘The Carpenter’ from Froebel’s _Mother Play_ 360 - - 22. 44. Jean Jacques Rousseau 368 - - 45. Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi 368 - - 46. Johann Friedrich Herbart 368 - - 47. Friedrich Wilhelm August Froebel 368 - - In text. 48. Diagram of German education 380 - - In text. 49. Diagram of French education 392 - - In text. 50. Diagram of English education 392 - - 23. 51. Charles Darwin 404 - - 52. Herbert Spence 404 - - 53. Thomas H. Huxley 404 - - 54. Charles W. Eliot 404 - - In text. 55. Diagram of vocational education of boys in 424 - Germany - - 24. 56. Indian house constructed in Dewey’s - experimental school 436 - - 57. Part of the Thorndike Writing Scale 436 - - - - -FOREWORD - - -Each chapter in this book will be prefaced by an _Outline_, or -generalized statement of the ideas to be included in it. Logically such -an epitome is needed at the beginning as well as at the end of the -chapter. At the beginning, it serves as a hypothetical or tentative -generalization of the facts; at the end, as a conclusion whose -truth has been tested in the light of these facts and accepted with -conviction. - -By having this outline in mind when he studies the facts, the student -is enabled not only to see that the general statements are verified and -made more significant by the details, but at the same time to organize -the facts with reference to the generalization, and thereby secure -an easier control of them, and, through the relation of each to the -others, discover a fuller meaning in them all. Then, after this study -of the details has established the truth of the outline and enriched -its meaning, he can review the outline and fix it in mind as the -conclusion of the chapter. - - - - -PART I - -ANCIENT TIMES - - - - -A STUDENTS HISTORY OF EDUCATION - - - - -CHAPTER I - -THE EARLIEST EDUCATION - - -OUTLINE - - Even a brief survey of the history of education may greatly broaden - one’s view. - - Starting with primitive man, we find that his training aims only - at the necessities of life, and is acquired informally through the - elders and the medicine-men. - - In Oriental education, the next stage in progress, illustrated by - India, a traditional knowledge is acquired through _memoriter_ and - imitative methods. - - While Oriental, Jewish education afforded greater development of - individuality, but it was late in organizing schools, _memoriter_ - in methods, and restricted in content. - - Thus all education before the day of the Greeks was largely - _non-progressive_. - -[Sidenote: Breadth of view obtained] - -=The Value of the History of Education.=--The History of Education from -the earliest times should contribute largely to one’s breadth of view -and prove a study of the greatest liberal culture. A record of typical -instances of the moral, æsthetic, and intellectual development of man -in all lands and at all periods should certainly enlarge one’s vision -and enable him to appreciate more fully the part that education has -played in the progress of civilization. Such cultural values may be -found even in a limited survey of the world’s educational development. - -[Sidenote: Space and perspective here given to subject matter.] - -=Its Treatment in This Book.=--And this is all that will be undertaken -here. For, while valuable as a liberal study, the History of Education -finds its justification chiefly in the degree to which it functions -in the professional training of a teacher, and it will be necessary -in a brief treatise to omit or pass over hastily much that might be -of interest and value in a more complete account of the development -of civilization. Therefore, the amount of space and the perspective -afforded the various peoples, epochs, and leaders must here be -determined in large measure by the part they have played in the -evolution of educational institutions and practices, and by the light -their history sheds upon the aim, organization, content, and method of -education to-day. At times, too, the history of a single epoch, state, -or educational leader will be selected as a type, to the exclusion of -others equally important, and treated with considerable intensiveness, -instead of describing all sides of the subject with encyclopædic -monotony. Now the first historical epoch to leave a real impress upon -modern practice is that of Athens at its height. Hence a mere statement -of the salient features of education preceding that period is all -that can be afforded in this brief survey. A detailed account of the -educational processes used by savage tribes, Oriental nations, and even -Judæa may prove interesting and important in other connections, but it -must here be largely curtailed. - -[Sidenote: Training through elders and medicine-men ties the savage to -the present.] - -=Primitive Education.=--There is little to be noted in the training of -the young among primitive peoples, save that it is intended largely -for the satisfaction of immediate wants--food, clothing, and shelter. -Naturally no such actual institution as a school has yet been evolved, -but the training is transmitted informally by the parents. The method -used is simply that of example and imitation, or, more specifically, -‘trial and success.’ But a more conscious and formal education is given -at puberty through the ‘initiatory ceremonies’ (Fig. 1). In these rites -the youths are definitely instructed by the older men about their -relation to the spirits and the totem animals, subordination to the -elders, the relations of the sexes, the sacredness of the clansman’s -obligations, and other traditional usages. Strict silence is enjoined -upon them concerning this information, and to impress it upon their -minds, and test their endurance, they are required to fast for several -days and are often tortured and mutilated. As the savage does not -clearly distinguish between himself and the tribe to which he belongs, -there is practically no development of individuality, and since the -race has not yet learned to treasure its experience in writing, he has -no record of past experience and is virtually tied to the present. - -[Sidenote: Vocational training and class divisions of the Orient.] - -=Oriental Education.=--The nations of the ancient Orient--Egypt, -Babylonia, Assyria, China, India, and Persia--may be said to represent -the next higher stage in civilization. Their systems of education -prepare mostly for vocations, and are not sufficiently advanced to -undertake a training for manhood or citizenship. But since a division -of labor has now been evolved, the training has become more clearly -differentiated and fits for specific occupations. In this way, class -divisions, or even castes, have generally arisen in society, and the -young people are educated according to the position in life they -desire, or are required to fill. As an illustration of this stage of -development, we may consider somewhat in detail the social environment -and education of India. - -[Sidenote: Mystic religion and caste system in India.] - -=India: Its Religion and Castes.=--In India, largely as a result of -the debilitating climate, there was formulated about 1200 B. C. a -dreamy philosophy, according to which nothing except Brahma, the one -universal spirit, really exists. While men would seem to be temporarily -allowed a separate existence of their own, it was held that they should -remain inactive as far as possible and seek an ultimate absorption -into the great Eternal Spirit. Although somewhat modified by the -infusion of Buddhism, between 500 B. C. and 500 A. D., and by the -British occupation of the peninsula during the nineteenth century, -this mystic and static religion still dominates in India. Connected -with it is the caste system, by which the people are divided into -four hereditary classes. These are (1) the _brahmins_, or sacerdotal -class, which includes all those trained for law, medicine, teaching, -and other professional occupations; (2) the warriors, or military and -administrative caste; (3) the industrial group; and (4) the _sudras_, -or menial caste. Altogether outside the social order are the _pariahs_, -or outcasts. The caste system is exceedingly strict. One may fall into -a lower caste, but he cannot rise, and loss of caste by one person in a -family will degrade all the rest. - -[Sidenote: Knowledge of sacred books and training in laws and -traditions.] - -=The Hindu Education.=--Hence Hindu education has always endeavored -to fill the pupils with the tenets of their religion, and so prepare -them for absorption into the Infinite, rather than for activities in -this life, and to preserve the caste system and keep all within the -sphere of their occupation. The three upper castes are, therefore, -supposed to gain a knowledge of certain sacred works, especially -the four _Vedas_ or books of ‘knowledge,’ the six _Angas_ on -philosophical and scientific subjects, and the _Code of Manu_, which -is a collection of traditional customs; but few, outside the brahmin -class, are ever allowed to take advantage of this opportunity. The -warriors are expected to pay more attention to martial exercises, -and the industrial caste to acquire through apprenticeship the arts -necessary for its hereditary occupations. Sudras, pariahs, and women -are generally allowed no education. Except the sudras, all the castes -obtain elementary education from a study of the laws, traditions, and -customs of the country through the medium of the family, and more -recently through village schools held in the open air (Fig. 2). The -higher education is largely carried on in brahminic colleges, called -_parishads_, and, as also in the case of the elementary work, the -teachers have to be brahmins. Since all learning has been preserved by -tradition, the chief methods of instruction are those of memorizing -and imitation. Even the later texts are so written as to be easily -committed, and the lines are sung aloud by the pupils until they have -memorized them. Writing is learned by imitating the teacher’s copy on -the sand with a stick, then on palm leaves with a stylus (Fig. 2), and -finally on plane leaves with ink. - -[Sidenote: Much traditional learning, but no progress results.] - -=Effect of the Hindu Education.=--Hence, among the Hindus education is -forbidden to ninety-five per cent of the population, and, as far as it -does exist, it is a mere stuffing of the memory. It concerns itself but -little with mental culture or with preparation for real living. The -brahmins have handed down considerable traditional learning, grammar, -phonetics, rhetoric, logic, ‘Arabic’ notation, algebra, astronomy, and -medicine, but new knowledge of any sort is barred. The Hindus still -plow with sticks of wood, and their crops are harvested and threshed -by devices equally primitive. They bake bricks, work metals, and weave -cloth, but with the same kind of appliances that were used by their -remote ancestors. Until recently, they have been greatly lacking in -ambition, self-reliance, and personal responsibility, and have not yet -come to any feeling of solidarity or national unity. To them prosperity -and progress are foreign ideas. - -[Sidenote: Oriental education in bondage to the past.] - -=India as Typical of the Orient.=--The other countries of the ancient -Orient never fixed their social classes in so hard and fast a manner, -and have never included so elaborate a philosophy among the products -of their culture. But India may well be considered broadly typical -of the stage of development in the Orient. Certain common features -appear in the education of all the nations there. In the system of -each, the classes below the sacerdotal or priestly are given little -intellectual education, and the women none at all, but both are trained -by apprenticeship in their vocations. Actual schools, both elementary -and higher, have been instituted; and the latter, except in China, are -conducted at temples or priestly colleges by members of the sacerdotal -class. The educational content is naturally traditional. It is, for -the most part, ensured against change by being embalmed in sacred -books, such as the _Vedas_. The educational method consists largely in -the memorizing of the test and imitation of the copy set, and little -attempt is made to give a reason for the customs and traditional -knowledge taught. Hence, while individuality has begun to emerge, it is -suppressed by every agency possible; and, although these peoples have -largely overcome the primitive enslavement to nature and the present, -they are completely in bondage to the past. - -[Illustration: Fig. 1.--Elders explaining to young men of an Australian -tribe at the ‘initiatory ceremonies.’ - -(Reproduced from Spencer and Gillen’s _Across Australia_.)] - -[Illustration: Fig. 2.--A Hindu school in the open air, with the -village schoolmaster teaching boys to write on a strip of palm leaf -with an iron stylus. - -Reproduced from _Things as They Are_ by Amy Wilson-Carmichael, by -permission of the Fleming H. Revell Company.)] - -[Sidenote: Greater development of personality,] - -[Sidenote: but Oriental and non-progressive.] - -=Jewish Education.=--The Jews are classed among the nations of the -Orient, but they formulated loftier aims and have exerted more -influence upon modern ideals in education. While their theology greatly -developed in the course of their history, from the first they held to -an ethical conception of God, and the chief goal of their education -was the building of moral and religious character. Not until after -the Babylonish captivity (586-536 B. C.), however, did they establish -actual schools. Before that, children were given an informal training -in the traditions and observances of their religion by their parents. -But they brought back from Babylon the idea of institutions for higher -training and started such schools through their synagogues. In the -second century B. C. the founding of elementary schools also began, and -eventually the Jews made education well-nigh universal. The beneficial -effect of this training is seen in the respect shown by the Jews for -their women, their kind treatment of children, and their reverence for -parents. The defects of their education appear in the stereotyped and -formal way in which the religious material came to be interpreted, -and the consequent hostility to science and art, except as they threw -light on some religious festival or custom. Although appeal was made -to various types of memory, systems of mnemonics devised, and other -good pedagogical features suggested, their methods of instruction -were largely _memoriter_. The Jewish system of education, as a whole, -afforded a greater development of personality than that of the other -Oriental nations, and through it have been spread some of the world’s -most exalted religious conceptions. Nevertheless, it did not depart -much from its traditions and the past, and to this extent it may be -classed with the training of the primitive tribes and of the Oriental -nations as predominantly _non-progressive_. - - -SUPPLEMENTARY READING - -For general works, see Graves, F. P., _History of Education before the -Middle Ages_ (Macmillan, 1909), chaps. I-XI; Monroe, P., _Text-book in -the History of Education_ (Macmillan, 1905), chaps. I-II. A general -interpretation of the evolution of education in savagery and barbarism -is also given in Laurie, S. S., _Pre-Christian Education_ (Longmans, -Green, 1909), pp. 1-207; Morgan, L. H., _Ancient Society_ (Holt, -1907), Part I; and Taylor, H. O., _Ancient Ideals_ (Macmillan, 1913), -vol. I, chaps. I-V. An illustration of primitive training of especial -interest to American students is found in Spencer, F. C., _Education -of the Pueblo Child_ (Columbia University, Department of Philosophy -and Psychology, vol. 7, no. 1); and a detailed description of the -puberty rites of a variety of savage tribes, in Webster, H., _Primitive -Secret Societies_, (Macmillan, 1908), chaps. I-V. A more complete -account of the Hindu philosophy and education appears in Dutt, R. C., -_Civilization of India_ (Dent, London), and Taylor, H. O., _Ancient -Ideals_ (Macmillan, 1913), vol. I, chaps. III and IV. A systematic -statement of the Jewish training has been adapted from a German work, -in Leipziger, H. M., _Education of the Jews_ (New York Teachers -College, 1890), and a more detailed account worked out in Spiers, B., -_School System of the Talmud_ (Stock, London, 1898). - - - - -CHAPTER II - -THE EDUCATION OF THE GREEKS - - -OUTLINE - - The Spartan training was intended to serve the state by making - warriors, and little attention was paid to intellectual education. - - At first the Athenian education was also mainly concerned in - serving the state. For the earliest stage of the boy’s education, - there were schools of two types,--one for intellectual training, as - well as one for physical; from fifteen to eighteen a more advanced - physical training was given; and then, for two years, a preparation - for military life. - - After the Persian wars, the Athenians adopted ideals of education - affording a larger recognition of individualism. The sophists - introduced the new educational practices, and went to an extreme in - their individualism. - - The systematic philosophers,--Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, tried - to mediate the outworn institutional education and the extreme - individualism. Socrates held that the sophistic ‘knowledge’ was - only ‘opinion,’ and that the more universal knowledge could be - reached in every person by stripping off his individualistic - opinion. - - But Plato maintained that only the intellectual class could attain - to knowledge. For them he formulated a new course of study, in - addition to that in vogue, consisting of mathematical subjects and - dialectic. Aristotle held that the training for every one before - seven should be bodily; up to fourteen, the irrational soul should - be trained; and until twenty-one, the rational. While Plato and - Aristotle had little effect upon educational practice at the time, - they have since greatly influenced education. - - After Aristotle, there arose individualistic schools of philosophy - and formal schools of rhetoric, and out of them universities sprang - up. Then Greek culture and education spread throughout the world. - -[Sidenote: First development of individuality appeared among Greeks.] - -=Progressive Nature of Greek Education.=--Real educational progress -began with the Greeks. In their training gradually appeared -considerable regard for individuality. They were the first people whose -outlook seems to have been toward the future rather than the past, -and they first made a serious attempt to promote human development in -accordance with a remote ideal progressively revealed. As a result, -they not only gave a wonderful impetus to educational practice in their -own time, but ever since then the world has had constant recourse to -them for inspiration and counsel. While this intellectual emancipation -did not appear to any extent before its development among the Athenians -in the middle of the fifth century B. C., well-planned systems of -education existed in Greece several centuries before this and paved the -way for the system in Athens during the Age of Pericles. - -[Sidenote: Service to state the object.] - -[Sidenote: Exposure of sickly infants.] - -[Sidenote: Barracks training of boys.] - -=Spartan Education: Its Aim and Early Stages.=--Among the states of -ancient Greece, Sparta possessed the earliest education of which we -have any extended information. Its citizens dwelt in the midst of -hostile peoples they had subjugated, and this made it necessary to -produce a race of hardy and patriotic warriors. Strength, courage, and -obedience to the laws were held as the aim of education. The Spartan -educational system was intended to serve the state, and the rights of -the individual were given little or no consideration. State control -began with birth. The infant was immediately inspected by a council -of elders, and, if he were sickly or deformed, he was ‘exposed’ -to die in the mountains; but if he appeared physically promising, -he was formally adopted by the state and left with his mother for -rearing until seven. At that age the boys were placed in charge of a -state officer and ate and slept in a kind of public barracks. Here -their life became one of constant drill and discipline. In addition -to hard beds, scanty clothing, and little food, they were given a -graded course in gymnastics. Besides ball-playing, dancing, and the -_pentathlum_--running, jumping, throwing the discus, casting the -javelin, and wrestling--the exercises included boxing, and even -the brutal _pancratium_, in which any means of overcoming one’s -antagonist--kicking, gouging, and biting, as well as wrestling and -boxing--was permitted. - -[Sidenote: Little intellectual or moral training.] - -The Spartan boys, however, received only a little informal training -in the way of intellectual education. They simply committed to memory -and chanted the laws of Lycurgus and selections from Homer, and they -listened to the conversation of the older men during the meals at the -common table, and were themselves exercised in giving concise and -sensible answers to questions put to test their wisdom. Every adult was -also required to choose as his constant companion or ‘hearer’ a youth -to whom he might become an ‘inspirer.’ - -[Sidenote: Military training.] - -=Training in Youth and Manhood: Results.=--When a youth reached -eighteen, he began the distinctive study of warfare. For two years he -was trained in the use of arms and skirmishing, and every ten days had -his courage and his physique tested by being whipped before the altar -of Artemis. Then he regularly entered the army, and for ten years -guarded some border fortress and lived upon the coarsest of fare. When -he became thirty, he was considered a man and forced to marry at once, -but even then he could visit his wife only clandestinely and was still -obliged to live in common with the boys and assist in their training. - -[Sidenote: Similar education of girls.] - -The education of women was very like that of the men. While the girls -were allowed to live at home, they were given a similar physical -training in the hope that they would become the mothers of sturdy sons. -Thus the Spartan education was shaped entirely with reference to the -welfare of the state. Their educational system served well its purpose -of creating strong warriors and devoted citizens, but it failed to -make for the highest manhood. Sparta developed practically no art, -literature, or philosophy, and produced little that tended to promote -civilization. She has left to the world little but examples of heroism -and foolhardiness alike. - -[Sidenote: Two types of schools: (1) the _palaestra_, furnishing -physical training; (2) the _didascaleum_, furnishing music, reading, -and writing.] - -[Sidenote: The _paedagogus_.] - -=Old Athenian Education: Its Aim and Early Training.=--For many -centuries the Athenian education was not unlike the Spartan in -promoting the welfare of the state without much consideration of -individual interests. But even in early days Athens felt that the -state was best served when the individual secured the most complete -personal development. Hence, the Athenian boys began to receive at -seven years of age two kinds of training,--(1) the _pentathlum_ and -other physical exercises in the palaestra (Fig. 3) or exercising -ground, and (2) singing and playing upon the flute or lyre, and reading -and writing at the _didascaleum_ (Fig. 4.) or music school. After -the boy had learned his letters by tracing them in the sand, he was -taught to copy verses and selections from well-known authors, at first -upon wax-tablets with a stylus, and later upon parchment with pen -and ink. It was, moreover, necessary for the pupils in singing to be -taught the rhythm and melody, and to understand the poem so as to bring -out its meaning. Hence the explanations and interpretations given by -the teachers brought in all the learning of the times, and the moral -and intellectual value of the studies must have been much greater -than would be suggested by the meagerness of the course. Some moral -training and discipline were also given the boy by a slave called the -_paedagogus_, who conducted him to school and carried his lyre and -other appurtenances. This functionary was often advanced in years or -incapacitated for other duties by physical disability. - -[Illustration: Fig. 3.--The _palaestra_.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 4.--The _didascaleum_.] - -(Reproduced from illustrations taken from old vases by Freeman in his -_Schools of Hellas_.) - -[Sidenote: Advanced physical training in _gymnasia_, and ephebic course -in military duties.] - -=Training for the Youth.=--At fifteen the Athenian boy might take -physical training of a more advanced character at one of the exercising -grounds just outside Athens, which were known as _gymnasia_. He was now -permitted to go wherever he wished and become acquainted with public -life through first-hand contact. When eighteen the youth took the -oath of loyalty to Athens, and for two years as an _ephebus_ or cadet -continued his education with a course in military duties. The first -year he spent in the neighborhood of Athens and formed part of the city -garrison, but in the second year he was transferred to some fortress on -the frontier. At twenty the young man became a citizen, but even then -his training continued through the drama, architecture, sculpture, and -art that were all about him. - -[Sidenote: Women given little training.] - -[Sidenote: Resemblance of old Athenian education to Spartan.] - -=Effect of the Old Athenian Education.=--Little attention was, however, -given by the Athenians to the education of woman. It was felt that -her duties demanded no knowledge beyond ordinary skill in household -affairs. With this exception, the Athenian education was superior to -the Spartan in allowing greater opportunity for individual development -and in furnishing a more rounded training. Nevertheless, until about -the middle of the fifth century B. C., while differing considerably in -degree from Sparta, Athens may be grouped with that country as adhering -to the ‘old’ education, where the individual was subordinated to the -good of the social whole. - -[Sidenote: Extreme individualism in new Athenian education.] - -=Causes and Character of the New Athenian Education.=--This -characterization is, of course, in contrast to Greek education in the -‘new’ period, which is represented by Athens alone. This later type -of education was probably somewhat the result of the gradual rise of -democratic ideals in Athens, but a more immediate set of factors grew -out of the Persian wars (492-479 B. C.). This extended conflict with -a powerful Oriental people, possessing a well-organized but widely -different body of traditions tended to broaden the views of the -Athenians greatly, and the ensuing political and commercial intercourse -with a variety of dependent states and nations in the Delian League, -together with social contact with the foreigners from every land that -were thronging the streets of Athens, led even more directly to a -reconstruction of practices and beliefs. A rapid transition in the -old traditions took place and society seems for a time to have been -sadly disorganized. The old was shattered, and while new ideals were -being constructed, a groping ensued. Although the latitude given the -individual was destined, as always, to produce progress in the long -run, and was of great ultimate service to the world, more immediately a -low ebb in morals at Athens resulted. Individualism ran riot. Education -reflected the conditions of the period. Its ideals became more and -more individualistic. The times demanded a training that would promote -the happiness of the individual with little consideration for the -welfare of the state as a whole. The old education seemed narrow and -barren of content; and there arose a desire for all sorts of knowledge -that might contribute to one’s advancement, whether it increased his -social usefulness or not. Skill in debate and public speaking was -especially sought, because of the unusual opportunity for personal -achievement in politics. - -[Sidenote: Study of grammatical and rhetorical subtleties, in the place -of the old education.] - -=The Sophists and Their Training.=--To meet these new demands, a set of -teachers known as the _sophists_ came into prominence. They professed -to train young men for a political career, and some of them even -claimed to teach any subject whatsoever, or how to defend either side -of an argument. These pretensions, together with their charging a fee -for their services, contrary to Athenian custom, seriously offended -the more conservative of the citizens of Athens. But many of the first -sophists afforded an honest and careful training. The effect of their -teaching was especially felt by the adolescents in the _gymnasium_ -stage of education, since they were ambitious to distinguish -themselves politically. The physical training that had hitherto -dominated the gymnasium course gave way to a study of grammatical and -rhetorical subtleties, and whenever a sophist appeared in the street, -market-place, or house, the young men crowded about him to borrow from -his store of experience and wisdom, and acquire his method of argument. -To a less degree the same influence was felt in the lower schools and -by the cadets and younger citizens. The exercises of the palaestra were -no longer as rigorous, and existed for the sake of individual health -and pleasure rather than for the making of citizens. The literary work -of the didascaleum came to include, besides the Homeric epics, a wide -range of didactic, reflective, and lyric poetry, with a superabundance -of discussions. In music the old patriotic and religious songs sung to -the simple Doric airs and accompanied upon the seven-stringed lyre, -were replaced by rhythms of great difficulty, like the Lydian and -Phrygian, and by complicated instruments of all sorts. - -[Sidenote: Reaction from the old subordination of the individual to the -state.] - -=Their Extreme Individualism.=--All this inroad upon the time honored -curriculum shows how fully the sophists embodied the individualism of -the times. Although they held no body of doctrine common to them all, -they were generally at one in their position of extreme individualism. -They often went so far as to insist that there could not safely be -any universal criteria in knowledge or morals; that no satisfactory -interpretation of life could be made for all, but that every fact and -situation should be subject to the judgment of the individual. No doubt -the formula attributed to Protagoras, “Man (i. e. the individual) is -the measure of all things, both of the seen and the unseen,” would have -expressed the attitude common to most of them. They but carried to -its legitimate conclusion the complete reaction from the old ideal of -subordination of the individual to the state. - -[Sidenote: The attitude of Pythagoras and Aristophanes;] - -[Sidenote: and of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle.] - -=The Reactionaries and the Mediators.=--Meanwhile, the conservative -element was making its usual attempt to adjust the unsettled conditions -by suggesting a return to the old. Various schemes had been advanced, -even before the sophists had come into prominence. Of these the most -complete plan was that of Pythagoras (about 580-500 B. C.). By -adopting an analogy from the ‘harmony’ of the celestial bodies and from -the relation of the powers in the individual to each other, he arranged -a definite hierarchy in society, so that each member should have his -proper place, and complete harmony and social order should ensue. As -the influence of the sophists began to be felt, later representatives -of the reactionary movement, such as the matchless caricaturist, -Aristophanes (445-380 B. C.), began to appear and inveigh against -the new conditions. But the social process can never move backward, -and reconstruction on some higher plane was needed to overcome the -destructive tendencies of the times. To furnish this, was the task -set themselves by Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. Like the sophists, -they recognized that the traditional beliefs and sanctions, the old -social order, and the former ideals and content of education, had been -outlived, and that the individual could not find truth and morality -through an institutional system. At the same time they felt that the -extreme individualism of the sophists was too negative a basis upon -which to build, and that a more socialized standard of knowledge and -morality must be sought. - -[Sidenote: ‘Knowledge’ versus ‘opinion’.] - -[Sidenote: The ‘dialectic’ of Socrates.] - -=The Method of Socrates.=--This mediating effort was begun by Socrates -(469-399 B. C.). While he started with the formula of Protagoras, he -maintained that the ‘man’ indicated thereby was not the individual, but -mankind as a whole. It is not the peculiar view of any individual that -represents the truth, but the knowledge that is the same for everyone. -The former, which the sophists considered ‘knowledge,’ Socrates held -to be only ‘opinion,’ and declared that the reason men think so -differently is because each sees but one side of the truth. He believed -that everyone could get at universal knowledge by stripping off -individual differences and laying bare the essentials upon which all -men are agreed. He conceived it to be the mission of the philosopher or -teacher to enable the individual to do this, and he endeavored to deal -with the mind of all those with whom he came in contact, so that they -would form valid conclusions. By his method, known as the _dialectic_, -or ‘conversational,’ he first encouraged the individual to make a -definite statement of his belief, and then, through a set of clever -questions, caused the person to develop his thought, until he became so -involved in manifest contradictions that he was forced to admit that -his view had been imperfectly formed. He thus caused the individual to -see that the view he had first expressed was mere ‘opinion’ and but -a single phase of the universal truth. As Socrates further held that -morality consists in right knowledge and made no distinction between -the knowledge of an action and the impulse to perform it, he strove -through his methods of developing knowledge to harmonize the individual -welfare with that of the social group. - -[Sidenote: In the _Republic_ government was to be by the intellectual -class.] - -[Sidenote: Early education.] - -[Sidenote: Cadet training.] - -=Plato’s System of Education for the Three Classes of Society.=--But -the believers in the old traditions and institutional morality felt -that Socrates was atheistic and immoral. They persuaded Athens to give -him the hemlock, and thus destroyed the man who might have proved her -savior. A pupil, Plato (427-347 B. C.), undertook to continue his work, -but his aristocratic birth and temperament caused him to underestimate -the intelligence of the masses. He held that they were incapable of -attaining to ‘knowledge’--that they possessed only ‘opinion.’ In his -most famous dialogue, _The Republic_, he endeavors to show that the -ideal state can exist only when the entire control of the government -is entrusted to the ‘philosophers,’ or intellectual class, who alone -possess ‘real knowledge.’ Those who are to compose the three classes -of society Plato would have selected during the educational process on -the basis of their ability. For all boys up to eighteen years of age -he prescribes an education similar to that in vogue in the palaestra, -didascaleum, and gymnasium, except that he would somewhat expurgate -the literary element, and would confine the musical training to the -simpler melodies and instruments. The youths who prove capable of going -beyond this lower education are next to take up the cadet training -between eighteen and twenty, but those who are incapable of further -education are to be relegated to the industrial class. During the cadet -period are to be determined those capable of going on with the higher -education of philosophers, while those who here reach their limit -become members of the military class. - -[Sidenote: Higher education for philosophers:] - -[Sidenote: (1) mathematical subjects;] - -[Sidenote: (2) dialectic.] - -As Athenian education did not extend beyond the twentieth year, Plato -is here obliged to invent a new course of study that will enable -the future philosophers to acquire the habit of speculation. This -additional course, he declares, should also be graded, in order that -a further test of intellectual and moral qualities may be made. -Arithmetic, plane and solid geometry, music, and astronomy, are to -occupy the first ten years of the course. These subjects, however, -are not to be studied for calculation or practical purposes of any -sort, but entirely from the standpoint of theory or the universal -relations underlying them, since only thus can they furnish a capacity -for abstract thought. After this, at thirty, the young men who can go -no further, are to be placed in the minor offices of the state, while -those who have shown themselves capable of the study of dialectic, go -on with that subject for five years longer. It then becomes the duty of -these highest philosophers to guide and control the state until they -have reached the age of fifty, when they may be allowed to retire. - -[Sidenote: Return to subordination of the individual;] - -[Sidenote: neglect of human will;] - -[Sidenote: failure to see all human traits in each individual;] - -[Sidenote: no means of evolution.] - -=The Weakness of Plato’s System.=--Thus, where Socrates found the -basis of universal truth in everyone, Plato held that only one class -of people, the most intellectual, could attain to real knowledge. He, -therefore, maintained that the philosophers should absolutely guide -the conduct of the state, and that education should be organized -with that in view. Plato’s ideal state would thus become a sort of -intellectual oligarchy, and in a way was a return to the old principle -of subordinating the individual to society. _The Republic_ thus quite -neglected human will as a factor in society and assumed that men -can be moved about in life like pieces upon the chess board. Plato -failed to see, too, that each individual really possesses all human -characteristics. The workers have reason, and the philosophers have -passions, and a human being is not a man unless all these functions are -his. But even if his scheme had been a happy one, the treatise provided -no method of evolution from current conditions, and if it were further -granted that this order of things could be established at once. Plato -put the ban upon all innovation or change, and so closed the door to -progress. - -[Sidenote: _The Laws_ offered a more practical and traditional system -of education.] - -Hence _The Republic_ was viewed as a visionary conception, and had no -immediate effect upon education or any other institution of Athens. So -in his declining years, without denying _The Republic_ as ideal, he -wrote the more practical dialogue known as _The Laws_. In it he welded -elements from the educational systems of Sparta and older Athens, and -reverted to traditions and ideals not dissimilar to the doctrines of -Pythagoras. He replaced the philosophers with priests, an hereditary -ruler, a superintendent of education, and various other officials; and -the course of study reached its height with the subject of mathematics, -while dialectic was not mentioned. - -[Sidenote: Model for later Utopias.] - -[Sidenote: The ‘quadrivium’ and ‘formal discipline.’] - -=His Influence upon Educational Theory and Practice.=--Thus the efforts -of Socrates, as continued by Plato, to obtain the benefit of the -growing individualism for society and education without disrupting -them, had seemingly come to naught. Nevertheless, Plato has had -considerable influence upon the thought and practice of men since the -Greek period. The ideal society where everything is well managed and -everyone is in the position for which nature intended him, has ever -since the day of _The Republic_ been a favorite theme for writers, as -witness More’s _Utopia_ and the _New Atlantis_ of Bacon. A specific -movement that shows the impress of Plato, as we shall see later, is the -formulation of the more advanced studies of the mediæval ‘seven liberal -arts’ under the name of the ‘quadrivium.’ It is even possible that the -whole conception of ‘liberal’ studies, and so the doctrine of ‘formal -discipline’ (see p. 182), may be traced back to Plato’s idea that the -mathematical subjects in the course for philosophers should never be -studied from a practical point of view. On the whole, Plato has been a -factor in educational theory and practice that cannot be overlooked. - -[Sidenote: Theoretically a monarchy, but practically a democracy is -best.] - -=Aristotle’s Ideal State and Education.=--A more practical attempt to -unify the new with the old in Athenian society and education was made -by Aristotle (386-322 B. C.), the pupil of Plato. From his father, the -court physician at Macedon, and from his study under Plato, Aristotle -obtained an excellent scientific training, which is evident in the -way he approaches his problems. It is in his _Politics_ especially -that he discusses the ideal state and the training of a citizen. His -method of investigation to determine the nature of this ideal state -is inductive, and before formulating his conception of it, he makes a -critical analysis of Plato’s _Republic_ and _Laws_, and analyzes the -organization of many other states, both ideal and actual. He concludes -that a monarchy is theoretically the best type of government, but that -the form most likely to be exercised for the good of the governed is -the democracy. He then considers in detail the best natural and social -conditions for a state. Among these practical considerations is the -proper education to make its citizens virtuous. - -[Sidenote: Education necessary for virtue.] - -[Sidenote: Training of the body,--] - -[Sidenote: sensible advice.] - -Since virtue is of two kinds, moral or practical, and intellectual or -speculative, and the former is merely the stepping-stone to the latter, -the education needed for the virtue of the state must not, like that -of Sparta, be purely a training for war and practical affairs. In -marking off the periods of education, Aristotle holds that “the care -of the body ought to precede that of the soul, and the training of the -impulsive side of the soul ought to come next; nevertheless, the care -of it must be for the sake of the reason, and the care of the body -for the sake of the soul.” The development of the body he wishes to -start even before birth by having the legislator “consider at what age -his citizens should marry and who are fit to marry.” Also he deems it -necessary to sanction the usage of his time of ‘exposing’ (see p. 13) -all deformed and weakly children. However, his advice concerning the -food, clothing, and exercise of children is humane and in keeping with -the best modern hygiene. - -[Sidenote: Training of the irrational soul,--] - -[Sidenote: gymnastics, music, and literary subjects.] - -The training of the body is a preparation for the formal schooling, -which is to last from seven to twenty-one. This is divided into two -periods by puberty, the first to be devoted to the training of the -impulsive or irrational side of the soul, and the second to that of the -rational side. Education, he claims, should be public, as in Sparta, -for it is the business of the state to see that its citizens are all -rendered virtuous. However, the industrial classes, not being citizens, -have no need of education, and women are to be limited in the scope -of their training. The course of study for the irrational period is -largely the same as that in use at Athens,--gymnastics, music, and -literary subjects, although he recommends some reforms. Gymnastics -is intended for self-control and beauty of form, and the making of -neither athletes nor warriors should be the object, since the training -of the former exhausts the constitution, and that of the latter is -brutalizing. The literary subjects, which with Aristotle includes -drawing, as well as reading and writing, are not to be taught merely -for utilitarian reasons. Music is to be used not so much for relaxation -or intellectual enjoyment as for higher development. Since melodies -that afford pleasure are connected with noble ideas, and those -which give us pain are joined to debased ideas, the study of music -“cultivates the habit of forming right judgments, and of taking delight -in good dispositions and noble actions.” Another moral effect of music -is that it produces _katharsis_ or ‘purification’; that is, by arousing -in us pity and fear for humanity at large, it lifts us out of ourselves -and affords a safe vent for our emotions. - -[Sidenote: Training of the rational soul,--mathematical subjects, -dialectic, and sciences.] - -Such was to be the training for the body and for the irrational period, -but how Aristotle would have advised that the education of the rational -soul be carried on can only be surmised, since the treatise breaks off -suddenly at this point. It is probable that it would have included -a higher training in mathematical subjects and dialectic similar to -that advocated by Plato, and, from Aristotle’s own predilections, he -would have been likely also to add some of the physical and biological -sciences. - -[Sidenote: Somewhat in bondage to his times.] - -[Sidenote: Contribution to sciences, formulation of laws of thought, -and invention of terminology.] - -[Sidenote: Formulation of Church doctrine.] - -=The Permanent Value of His Work.=--Thus Aristotle, like Plato, -endeavored to work out the harmonizing of individual with social -interests by the creation of an ideal state, and he similarly failed -to answer the demand of the times. His work was much less visionary -than _The Republic_, but he did not fully recognize that the day of -the small isolated states of Greece, with their narrow prescriptions -for patriotism and social order, had passed forever. Hence he hoped to -achieve some reform by departing but little from existing conditions -and reading a philosophy into them, and this bondage to the times -prevented his educational system from making any advance beyond that -of Plato. But while Aristotle had little effect upon the society of -the times, his works have since been considered of great value, and -the methods that he formulated have been most important. He not -only started, or made the first great contributions to a number of -sciences, but he crystallized the laws of thought itself. Also, as -instruments to assist in fashioning the various sciences, Aristotle -invented a complete system of terminology, and created such pairs as -‘matter’ and ‘form,’ ‘mean’ and ‘extreme,’ and ‘cause’ and ‘effect,’ -and such convenient expressions as ‘principle,’ ‘maxim,’ ‘habit,’ and -‘faculty.’ A more important effect of Aristotle’s ideas has been that -upon the formulation of doctrine in the Christian Church. After the -spread of Mohammedanism, which had largely absorbed the Aristotelian -principles, the Church, though at first bitterly opposing them, finally -found it impossible to suppress them, and began to clothe her own -doctrine in their dress. The greatest of the scholastics began to study -Aristotelianism, and soon made it the effective weapon of the Church -by reducing all human knowledge to a finished Aristotelian system with -theology at the top. - -[Sidenote: Triumph of individualism.] - -=The Post-Aristotelian Schools of Philosophy.=--But the harmonizing -attempt of Aristotle was fruitless. Like Socrates and Plato, he failed -to reconcile with the old and settled order the ever-expanding movement -toward individualism. Thus all efforts to control the individualistic -and disintegrating tendencies of the times were in vain, and the -conquest of the Greek states by Philip of Macedon (358-338 B. C.) was -only symptomatic of the complete collapse of corporate life and the -inability to reconstruct it successfully. All possibility of social -unity disappeared, and philosophy no longer considered the individual -from the standpoint of membership in society. It was occupied no -further with the harmonization of the individual and the state, but -concerned itself with the welfare of the individual and the art of -living. Individualism was completely triumphant, and education was -considered simply as a means to personal development or happiness, -without regard to one’s fellows. The new theories of life and education -were formulated by such schools of philosophy as the Epicureans, -Stoics, and Skeptics, which kept themselves far removed from society. -None of these ‘schools’ could be so termed in the sense of offering -an education, but rather in the modern usage of a group of adherents -to certain teachings. They spent their energy, for the most part, in -interpreting, elaborating, and lauding the original teachings of the -founders, and with them a stereotyped dogmatism took the place of -philosophy. - -[Sidenote: Formal study and general knowledge.] - -=The Schools of Rhetoric.=--But these schools were not the only outcome -of the teaching of the sophists. Just as they came about gradually from -the speculative tendencies of the sophists as developed through certain -famous philosophers, there likewise grew up more directly from the -sophistic efforts to train young men in rhetoric and public speaking a -multitude of rhetorical schools. In these a formal study was made of -oratory and the knowledge of the day. Their professed object was to -make successful men of the world, and, although they at first included -such reputable and influential schools as that of Isocrates (436-338 -B. C.), they laid little claim to teaching anything solid or profound, -much less to forming any philosophic habits. They succeeded in -spreading a popular education among a people that had lost all hope of -a political life, but they soon degenerated into the use of narrow and -formal methods. The later rhetoricians attempted to hasten oratorical -training and preparation for life, by teaching their pupils ready-made -speeches and dialogues, together with a general knowledge of current -questions. Nevertheless, these schools flourished for several centuries -and closely rivalled those of the philosophers. - -[Sidenote: Origin of University of Athens.] - -[Sidenote: Other universities.] - -[Sidenote: Philosophy and science at Alexandria.] - -=The Hellenic Universities.=--From these two classes of schools, the -philosophical and the rhetorical, the fame of Athens spread rapidly, -and from the fourth century B. C. onward the number of young men -from all over the civilized world who came there to study steadily -increased. Before the close of the century the old cadet training of -Athens was united with this intellectual education, and there sprang -up a regular institution or university, which the young Athenians -and students from outside might attend. Before long, the Hellenic -world boasted other universities, such as those at Rhodes, Pergamon, -Alexandria, and Rome. Until almost 300 A. D. Athens remained the chief -intellectual center of civilization, and attracted students from all -parts of the Roman Empire. Gradually, however, the higher education -there tended toward the study of rhetoric alone and artificiality -grew apace. In consequence, Alexandria came to displace Athens as -the center of culture, and her university became the leading one of -the world. Here the various philosophic and religious sects gathered -to study and discuss, and the abstract Greek philosophy united with -the more concrete beliefs of the Orient, especially Zoroastrianism, -Judaism, and Christianity. Thus there flourished here the various -systems of religious philosophy known collectively as ‘Hellenistic,’ -such as Neopythagoreanism, Neomazdeism, Philonism, Gnosticism, and -Neoplatonism. Considerably before this, too, there had developed -at Alexandria the Ptolemaic theory of the universe. Other noted -investigations, like those of Euclid in geometry, Archimedes in -physics, Eratosthenes in astronomy, and Diophantus in algebra, also -bore witness to the intellectual activity of this university. - -[Sidenote: Spread through the Orient] - -[Sidenote: and the Roman world.] - -=Extension of Hellenic Culture.=--It can thus be seen that the -political downfall of Athens had only prepared the way for a larger -intellectual influence. As Alexander extended his yoke over one Eastern -country after another, he had carried with him all the culture of -Greece, and within a century of his death the whole Orient was dotted -with Greek gymnasia, stadia, and theaters, and saturated with Greek -literature, art, philosophy, and education. Similarly Rome, which had -come somewhat into contact with Greece before conquering her, had been -tinctured with Greek life and learning; and, after her absorption -of Macedon and Greece, she fell under the spiritual thrall of the -subjugated people. The history of Greek civilization and education was -so intermingled with the Roman that it can scarcely be distinguished -from it. The Greek schools of philosophy and rhetoric were continued -in Rome, Roman youths made up a great body of the attendance at the -universities of Athens and Alexandria, and the Roman emperors did much -for the support and extension of the work in these institutions. Hence -from the Greeks have developed some of the most advanced intellectual -and æsthetic ideas that civilization has known. - - -SUPPLEMENTARY READING - -Graves, _Before the Middle Ages_ (Macmillan, 1909), chap. XII; -Monroe, _Text-book_ (Macmillan, 1905), chap. III. See also Laurie, -_Pre-Christian Education_ (Longmans, Green, 1900), pp. 208-318. -Davidson, T., in his _Aristotle_ (Scribner, 1896), develops the -periods of Greek education in chronological order, and his _Education -of the Greek People_ (Appleton, 1903) gives the social setting of -its development. A most scholarly and brilliant work is Freeman, K. -J., _Schools of Hellas_ (Macmillan, 1907), which is illustrated by -vase-scenes and other reproductions of Greek education. Bosanquet, B., -_The Education of the Young in Plato’s Republic_ (Cambridge University -Press, 1908), Nettleship, R. L., _Theory of Greek Education in Plato’s -Republic_ (See Evelyn Abbott’s _Hellenica_, Longmans, Green, 1908), -and Burnet, J., _Aristotle on Education_ (Cambridge University Press) -afford a good interpretation of the theorists mentioned; while Capes, -W. W., in the _University Life in Ancient Athens_ (Harper, 1877), and -Walden, J. W., in the _Universities of Ancient Greece_ (Scribner, -1909), furnish a lively description of the students and professors. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -THE EDUCATION OF THE ROMANS - - -OUTLINE - - The contribution of the Romans to progress was largely due to their - absorption of Greek culture, but their primitive training had an - influence in itself. This was mostly civic and practical, and was - given informally in the family and the forum. - - Through amalgamation with the Greek, Roman education maintained - three grades of schools: (1) the elementary school or _ludus_, (2) - the ‘grammar’ school, and (3) the rhetorical school. Beyond the - education of these schools, a young Roman might attend a university. - - Schools were gradually subsidized by the emperors, but education - eventually deteriorated into a formal qualification for senatorial - rank. The practical Romans, however, created a universal empire - and legal system, a universal religion, and other institutions for - modern society. - -[Sidenote: Until Hellenized, Roman ideals were narrow.] - -=Roman Education Amalgamated with Greek.=--The name of Rome is still -suggestive of power and organization. These characteristics seem to -have been innate; but the significance of Roman development to the -history of progress and education was largely due to the fact that, -in her spread over the civilized world, the Eternal City amalgamated -the Greek civilization with her own. Until then her ideals of life, -while effective in conquest, had been narrow and little adapted to -the development of individuality or of cosmopolitanism. Unconsciously -realizing the need of broader ideals, she absorbed those of Greece. -But Rome could not be Hellenized without making some contributions to -the result from her own genius, and for that reason it is important -to learn something of Roman civilization and education, crude as they -were, before they came into contact with Greek culture. - -[Sidenote: Its civic and practical aim.] - -=Early Education in Rome.=--In the early days Rome was animated by -intense patriotism and love for military life, and felt that each -citizen was bound to merge his identity in that of the state. In -the surrender of individuality they were, to be sure, not unlike -the Spartans, although they believed that this subordination should -be brought about voluntarily rather than by compulsion of law and -state organization. But, with such a love as theirs for mere material -achievement, the Athenian ideal of a full and harmonious development -of one’s whole nature could scarcely be expected to make any appeal. -They looked not for harmony, proportion, or grace, but for stern -utility. They were sedate, grave, and serious, and their education was -practical, prosaic, and utilitarian. - -[Sidenote: Informal training in the family and in public.] - -Until the Greek institutions began to be adopted, schools did not exist -in Rome, except possibly the _ludus_ or elementary school. During this -pristine period education consisted in a practical training in Roman -ideals and everyday living conducted largely through the family. In -childhood the boys and girls alike were given a physical and moral -training by their mother, but, as the boy grew older, he went more in -the company of his father, and learned efficiency in life informally -through his example and that of the older men, while the girl was -taught at home by her mother. If the boy belonged to a patrician -family, he might acquire much knowledge concerning Roman custom and -law by hearing his father advise and aid the family _clients_, or -‘dependents,’ and by attending banquets with him. He might also receive -an apprenticeship training from his parent or some other older man in -the profession of soldier, advocate, or statesman. In case he was born -in a less exalted station, he might learn his father’s occupation at -the farm or shop. The girl, whatever her social status, was trained by -her mother in the domestic arts, especially in spinning and weaving -wool. Through their parents children probably learned to read and -write; and they committed to memory stories of Roman heroes, ballads, -martial and religious songs, and the _Twelve Tables_ of national laws, -after these had been codified (451 B. C.). Physical exercise was -secured largely by games, which were mostly in imitation of future -occupations, and gymnastics were employed simply as training for war. -The usages of home and public religion also played an important part -in the education of the young Romans, especially since almost every -activity in life was presided over by some deity, whom it was necessary -to propitiate when engaging in it. - -[Sidenote: Practical and occupational character.] - -Thus education in early Rome was practical, and, to some extent, -occupational. It was intended to produce efficiency as fathers, -citizens, and soldiers. It consisted in training the youths to -be healthy and strong in mind and body, and sedate and simple in -their habits; to reverence the gods, their parents, the laws, and -institutions; and to be courageous in war, and familiar with the -traditional agriculture, or the conduct of some business. It did -produce a nation of warriors and loyal citizens, but it inevitably -tended to make them calculating, selfish, overbearing, cruel, and -rapacious. They never possessed either lofty ideals or enthusiasm. -Their training was best adapted to a small state, and became -unsatisfactory when they had spread over the entire Italian peninsula. -The golden age of valor and stern virtue had then largely departed, and -they began unconsciously to seek a more universal culture. While such a -people regarded the Greeks as visionary, just as the Greeks looked upon -them as barbarians, they felt instinctively that only by absorption of -the Hellenic ideals could their cosmopolitan ambitions be carried out. -On the other hand, it was through the organization which the Romans -were able to furnish, that the great ideals formulated by the Greeks -were destined to be rendered effective and to become a matter of value -and concern to civilization ever since. - -[Sidenote: Spread through Alexander and Roman conquests.] - -[Sidenote: The schools resulting.] - -=The Absorption of Greek Culture.=--There was a gradual infiltration -of Greek culture into Rome from very early days. This received a great -impulse through the conquests of Alexander (334-323 B. C.) and the -absorption of Macedon by Rome (168 B. C.), but it was not until about -half a century after Greece itself had become a Roman province (146 B. -C.), that the Greek educational ideals and institutions can be said to -have been completely absorbed by Rome. This new type of education was -thus well established early in the first century B. C. It may be said -to have remained almost unmodified until toward the end of the second -century A. D., when political conditions at Rome became most unstable -and the period of degeneracy set in. During these three centuries of -Hellenized Roman education, three grades of schools resulted from the -amalgamation. They were the (1) _ludus_ or school of the _litterator_, -as the lowest school was called; (2) the ‘grammar’ school, taught by -a _grammaticus_ or _litteratus_; and (3) the schools of rhetoric and -oratory, which furnished a somewhat higher education. - -[Sidenote: Its content and methods.] - -=The Ludus.=--The ludus, or lowest school, may possibly have existed -before the process of Hellenization even began, but if it did, it must -have been intended simply to supplement the more informal training -of the home. Whenever originated, it probably taught at first only -reading, writing, and rudimentary calculation, as in the family, -through the medium of historical anecdotes, ballads, religious songs, -and the _Twelve Tables_. But as the Greek influence crept in more and -more, the literary content was somewhat extended. About the middle of -the third century B. C., Livius Andronicus translated the _Odyssey_ -into Latin; and a number of epics, dramas, and epigrams were soon -composed after Greek models. These works, in whole or part, were -introduced into the curricula of the _ludi_ and by the beginning of -the first century B. C., the _Twelve Tables_ had been displaced by -the Latinized _Odyssey_ of Andronicus. The methods of instruction -were _memoriter_ and imitative. The names and alphabetic order of the -letters were first taught without any indication of their significance -or even shape, and all possible combinations of syllables were -committed before any words were learned. Reading and writing were then -taught by dictation, and, in tracing the letters on wax-tablets with -the stylus (Fig. 5), the hand of the pupil was at first guided by the -teacher. Calculation was learned by counting on the fingers, by means -of pebbles, or upon the abacus, and eventually sums were worked upon -the tablets. - -[Illustration: - - (_a_) (_b_) (_c_) - -Fig. 5.--School materials from wall paintings: (_a_) Wax tablet and -_capsa_, containing rolls, or books. (_b_) Three _stili_, _capsa_, and -roll leaning against it. (_c_) Wax tablet, with _stilus_ tied to it.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 6.--Scene at a _ludus_ or Roman elementary school, -taken from a fresco found at Herculaneum.] - -[Sidenote: Discipline and teachers.] - -[Sidenote: Slaves to accompany pupils.] - -[Sidenote: Buildings.] - -Methods so devoid of interest were naturally accompanied by severe -discipline. The rod, lash, and whip seem to have been in frequent use, -and the names ordinarily applied to schoolmasters in Latin literature -are suggestive of harshness and brutality. Moreover, a fresco found -at Herculaneum depicts a boy held over the shoulders of another, with -the master beating the victim upon the bare back (Fig. 6). Under -these circumstances, no real qualifications were required of the -teacher, and his social standing was low. The Greek custom of having -the boy accompanied to and from school by a slave that was otherwise -incapacitated by age or physical disability soon came to be imitated -by the Romans. When a special building was employed for the school, it -was usually a mere booth or veranda, and the pupils sat on the floor or -upon stones. - -[Sidenote: Curriculum.] - -[Sidenote: Methods and discipline.] - -[Sidenote: Buildings.] - -=Grammar Schools.=--The ‘grammar’ school grew out of the increasing -literary work of the _ludus_. But, while offering a more advanced -course, it would seem to belong in part at least to the elementary -stage of education, especially as its work was never sharply divided -from that of the _ludus_. The young Roman might attend both a Greek -and a Latin grammar school, but, in case he did, usually went first to -the former. The curriculum in each consisted, according to Quintilian, -of ‘the art of speaking correctly’ and ‘the interpretation of the -poets,’ or, in other words, of a training in grammar and literature. -‘Grammar’ may, however, have included some knowledge of philology and -derivations, as well as drill on the parts of speech, inflections, -syntax, and prosody, and practice in composition and paragraphing. -The literary training was obtained by writing paraphrases of the best -authors, textual and literary criticism, commentaries, and exercises -in diction and verse-writing. Some other studies, like arithmetic, -geometry, astronomy, geography, and music may also have been added in -time, from the suggestions of Plato, but the Romans naturally gave them -a practical bearing. Some gymnastics, mostly for military training, -were often in the course. The methods in the grammar schools were -somewhat better than those of the _ludus_, but the commentary of the -teacher on the text was usually taken down _verbatim_ by the pupil. -The discipline, in consequence, was not much in advance of that of the -lower schools. But the accommodations for these secondary schools were -decidedly superior, and the buildings not only possessed suitable seats -for the pupils and teacher, but were even adorned with paintings and -sculpture. - -[Sidenote: Professional, but broad training.] - -=Rhetorical Schools.=--The ‘rhetorical’ schools were a development of -work in debate that had gradually grown up in the grammar schools. The -earliest of these institutions at Rome were Greek, but by the first -century B. C., there had arisen a number in which Latin was used. While -they afforded a legal and forensic training, and seem more professional -in spirit than the grammar schools, they were by no means narrow. The -orator was for the Roman the typical man of culture and education, and -he was supposed not only to have been trained in eloquence and law and -history, but to possess wide learning, grace, culture, and knowledge of -human emotions, sound judgment, and good memory. Besides a training in -oratory, these schools furnished a linguistic and literary education -of some breadth. They may be considered as belonging partly to the -secondary and partly to the higher stage of education. The youths were -exercised first in declamation on ethical and political subjects, which -would bring in fine distinctions in Roman law and ethics, and later -they were given practice in three types of speeches,--deliberative, -judicial, and panegyric. Attention was given to all the various factors -in making a successful oration: the matter, arrangement, style, -memorizing, and delivery. - -[Sidenote: Spread throughout the empire.] - -=Universities.=--When the young Roman had completed his course at a -rhetorical school, he might, if he were ambitious, go to the university -at Athens, Alexandria, or Rhodes for a higher training. Later, a -university also sprang up at Rome, and before long these institutions -spread throughout the empire. The Greek influence caused a large number -of these institutions to be established in the East, but some were -also located in the West. The latter gave more emphasis to practical -subjects. In several instances the universities found their nucleus in -one of the many libraries that were started with books brought from the -sacking of Greece and Asia Minor. - -[Sidenote: Imperial control of schools.] - -=Subsidization of Education.=--Thus, through the adoption of the -institutions of the Greeks, Roman education became thoroughly -Hellenized. Although all the types of schools spread everywhere in the -empire, there was, of course, no such thing as a real school system, -except as the government gradually came to subsidize all schools. This -the different emperors accomplished in various ways,--by contributing -to school support, paying a salary to certain teachers, or granting -them exemption from taxation and military service, or offering -scholarships to a given number of pupils. As a result, schools came to -be established in many cases for the purpose of getting these special -privileges for the teachers, rather than for promoting education. To -stop these abuses, the emperor in 425 A. D. decreed that he had the -sole authority to establish schools, and that a penalty would be laid -upon anyone else assuming this prerogative. In this way the schools -came fully into the hands of the imperial government, and the basis for -the idea of public education was laid for the first time in history. - -[Sidenote: Formal and superficial character.] - -=Decay of Education.=--Before this, however, Roman education had -deteriorated. With the political and moral decay that were obvious -after the second century A. D., it became a mere form and mark of the -aristocracy. The training in oratory was continued, because it was -a necessary qualification for entering the senatorial class, but it -had lost its real function, since there was no longer any occasion -for oratory when the emperor dominated all the government and law. -It was not intended to furnish a training of any value in life, and -the careful literary preparation was more and more shirked. While the -grammarians and rhetoricians were still held in high esteem, they -contented themselves with mere display, and wandered from town to town -more for the purpose of entertaining than of teaching. Glittering -phrases, epigrams, and other artificialities took the place of -instruction and argument. - -[Sidenote: Institutions furnished for the ideals of Judea and Greece.] - -=Influence of Roman Education.=--But the Roman education and -civilization had left their impress upon the world. This was -accomplished by the practical nature of the Romans, and by their -ability to make abstract ideals concrete and embody them in -institutions that have been useful to civilization and progress. -Through them was created the idea of a universal empire, which has been -influential throughout the world’s history. Similarly, the concept of -law originating with the Greek philosophers became in the hands of the -Romans the great system of principles that underlies and guides all our -present civilization. And it was the Roman genius for organization that -institutionalized a despised religious sect and expanded it into the -position of the greatest world religion. If Judaism furnished the world -with exalted religious ideals, and if from Hellenism came striking -intellectual and æsthetic concepts, the institutions for realizing -these ideals originated with Rome. - - -SUPPLEMENTARY READING - -Graves, _Before the Middle Ages_ (Macmillan, 1909), chap. XIII; -Monroe, _Text-book_ (Macmillan, 1905), chap. IV. Interesting brief -monographs on the subject are Clarke, G., _Education of Children -at Rome_ (Macmillan, 1896), and Wilkins, A. S., _Roman Education_, -(Cambridge University Press, 1905). See also the treatment in Laurie, -_Pre-Christian Education_ (Longmans, Green, 1900), pp. 319-436. - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -THE EDUCATION OF THE EARLY CHRISTIANS - - -OUTLINE - - Christianity accomplished much in the reform of the degraded - Roman society. The earliest education of the Christians came - through their ‘otherworldly’ life, but actual schools, called - ‘catechumenal,’ before long furnished a moral and religious - training. - - After the amalgamation of Christianity with Græco-Roman philosophy, - ‘catechetical’ schools furnished a higher training. When higher - education came to be utilized by the bishops for training their - clergy, institutions known as ‘episcopal’ or ‘cathedral’ schools - were founded. - - Later, although opposition grew up among the Christians to the - culture of Greece and Rome, its impress was found to have been left - upon the doctrines and organization of Christianity. - -[Sidenote: Impotence of Roman and other ideals.] - -[Sidenote: Universal appeal of Christianity.] - -=The Ideals of Early Christianity.=--The actual social conditions amid -which the religion of Christ was born, and which it was destined to -reform, were most degraded. The Roman world had become sunk in vice and -corruption. The Roman virtues of patriotism, bravery, and service to -the state had largely disappeared with the development of the empire, -and were impotent in checking the widespread depravity. Nor could the -lofty Greek thought accomplish much, since it was too intellectual -and philosophic to touch the masses. The debased Eastern religions, -which Rome had admitted in her easy-going skepticism, were still -less productive of good. While the more philosophic forms of Judaism -and the Roman development of Stoicism tended to raise the tone of -morals and pave the way for Christianity, not even these forces could -have accomplished a successful reform in Roman society, without the -stimulus and wide appeal of the Christian teachings. Christianity was -the ethical and universal religion needed as a leaven. Its truths were -based on faith rather than understanding, and its appeal was to the -instinctive promptings and emotions rather than to the intellect. This -made it democratic and enabled it to reach the masses, for everybody -can feel and have faith, even where he cannot understand. - -[Sidenote: Segregation.] - -[Sidenote: ‘Otherworldliness.’] - -=Early Christian Life as an Education.=--Thus it came about that, -while the earliest Christians were without schools of their own and -were largely illiterate, their religion itself served as an education. -They were practically deprived of intellectual development, but they -received moral training of a very high order. The very dishonor and -unpopularity of the Christian religion, and the segregation of their -Church membership, gave the Christian life itself all the effect of a -species of schooling. The early Christians showed an extreme reaction -to the vicious morals of the time, and endeavored to cultivate the -higher ideals inculcated by the teachings of Christ. They had gathered -from the statements of the Master that he would soon return and this -world would come to an end. They, therefore, concerned themselves -entirely with a preparation for ‘Jerusalem the golden’ and ‘the life -everlasting,’ and the ideal of this most primitive Christian training -may be described as ‘otherworldly.’ - -[Sidenote: Cause of their organization.] - -[Sidenote: Elementary content.] - -=Catechumenal Schools.=--Early in the second century, however, when -the Church began to extend itself rapidly, it seemed necessary to -insist upon some sort of formal instruction as preliminary to Church -membership. It was also deemed wise to fix a period of probation after -the profession of one’s faith in Christ, in order that informers might -not be admitted to the services, or the Church disgraced by apostasy or -the lapses of those who had not well considered the step. These demands -were met by the gradual institution of popular instruction in Christian -principles for the Jewish and pagan proselytes, who were known as -_catechumens_. While some effort was made to lift the pupils of these -‘catechumenal’ schools from the bondage of ignorance, they were -primarily trained in the things needful for their souls’ salvation, and -the ideal of Christian education remained prevailingly ‘otherworldly.’ -The instruction was carried on in the portico or other special portion -of the church; and consisted in moral and religious teachings, reading -and memorizing the Scriptures, together with some training in early -psalmody. The course usually lasted three years, and while some -distinction was made between the general division of catechumens and -those almost ready for baptism, there is little ground for supposing -that the schools were divided into actual classes. The meetings in the -church were held several times a week, or even every day. - -[Sidenote: Græco-Roman training a worldly one.] - -[Sidenote: Union of the worldly and otherworldly,--] - -[Sidenote: Apologists] - -[Sidenote: and Gnostics.] - -=Amalgamation of Christianity with Græco-Roman Philosophy.=--But while -the Christian ideals and training were developing and crystallizing, -the Greek philosophy in its Roman form was being continued and -expanded. This movement has been seen to be very different from early -Christianity in its general purpose. It concerned itself chiefly -with life in this world. The problem it attempted to solve was how -one should live so as to get the most satisfaction out of life. The -Hellenized Roman schools may, therefore, be accounted as ‘worldly’ -as the Christian schools were ‘otherworldly’ in their aim. A general -feeling of this marked difference in purpose and organization between -Christianity and the contemporaneous Græco-Roman culture was destined -to cause an opposition to pagan learning to spring up among the -Christians. But for two or three centuries this is scarcely noticeable, -especially in the Eastern empire, where it was felt that philosophy -was, like Christianity, a search after truth; and, as far as it went, -confirmed the Bible. There was even a tendency to unite the two -movements. As the new religion spread throughout the Roman world, and -was compelled to defend itself against charges of immorality, atheism, -and treason, the educated converts attempted to set forth the Christian -teachings in terms of Greek thought, and to solve speculative problems -that had never been considered by Jesus and his disciples. The first -Hellenizing Christians are known as _Apologists_, since their efforts -were directed toward reconciling Christianity with the Græco-Roman -philosophy. In general, they mingled Stoicism with the teachings of -Jesus. Later, other Hellenistic philosophers unified Christian doctrine -with the principles of Pythagoras, Plato, and Aristotle. Perhaps -the most extreme of these philosophic positions within Christianity -was a combination with Platonism known as _Gnosticism_, which was -intended to be a sort of esoteric knowledge and to show the relation of -Christianity to other religions and to the universe. - -[Sidenote: Pupils in the school at Alexandria allowed to study all -Greek subjects.] - -=Catechetical and Episcopal or Cathedral Schools.=--In this way, during -the second and third centuries, all the Christians at Alexandria, which -had become the great seat of Hellenistic philosophy, had their theology -tinctured with Greek thought. Before long, a sort of theological, or -‘catechetical’ school, was gradually organized at this center, to -counteract the heathen schools there and to afford higher instruction -for Christian teachers and leaders. This school had no building of its -own, and the students met at the teacher’s house, but they were able to -take advantage of the facilities at the University of Alexandria. In -addition to a thorough training in the Bible, the pupils were allowed -to study all types of Greek philosophy, except Epicureanism, the whole -range of sciences, classical Greek literature, grammar, rhetoric, and -other higher subjects of the pagan schools, but from a different point -of view. Thus the Græco-Roman and the Christian movements had formed -an alliance in education, and in this catechetical school we find an -attempted union of the ‘otherworldly’ ideal with the ‘worldly.’ - -[Sidenote: Other catechetical schools.] - -The best known heads of this school at Alexandria were Clement -(150-215) and Origen (185-253). They were among the most noted of the -Eastern Fathers in the philosophic interpretation of Christianity, -and their work contributed not a little to heretical doctrine. Origen -may even have been expelled for heresy. At any rate, he opened a new -school of the same sort at Cæsarea, where he was kindly received. Other -catechetical schools sprang up rapidly at Antioch, Edessa, Nisibis, and -elsewhere throughout the East. Later the accession of the followers -of Nestorius, whose Hellenized theology had in 431 been proscribed -by the Church at the Council of Ephesus, very greatly increased the -importance of these cities as intellectual centers. In addition to the -translations already there, the Nestorian Christians accumulated a -larger range of the original Greek treatises on philosophy, science, -and medicine. - -[Sidenote: Bishops start Hellenic schools for their clergy.] - -But before this, higher training of the Hellenic type came to be -regularly used by the bishops in training their clergy, and promotion -in the Church began to depend upon having had this education. So higher -schools of this sort were gradually instituted in every bishopric -at the see city, and became known eventually as ‘episcopal’ or -‘bishop’s’ schools, or, from their location at the bishop’s church, as -‘cathedral’ schools. These cathedral schools became the most important -educational institutions of the Middle Ages. From them were derived -all the schools of Western Europe, but the bishop soon became too busy -to attend to them himself and was forced to commit them to various -officials. Thus they developed in time into at least three types,--the -‘grammar’ school, taught by one of the cathedral canons, known as the -_scholasticus_; the ‘song’ or music school, taught by the _cantor_ or -_precentor_; and the ‘chorister’s’ school, which offered a combination -of the training in the two other schools. Thus the cathedral schools -virtually took the place of the old pagan schools supported by the -Roman emperors. - -[Sidenote: Growth of opposition to the Græco-Roman culture.] - -=Influence of Græco-Roman Culture upon Christianity.=--However, by the -century after the foundation of the catechetical school at Alexandria, -the Christians had begun to grow suspicious of Græco-Roman culture and -the ‘worldly’ ideal in education. Even the Eastern or Greek Fathers of -the Church appear to have cooled considerably in their attitude toward -philosophy, and the Western or Latin Fathers were more pronounced in -their opposition. Roman Christians could not forget the immorality -of those who had been connected with this culture, nor the abuse and -insults that these pagans had heaped upon them. They felt, too, that -the one great mission of the Church was ethical, and that Christ’s -second coming was at hand, and that all philosophy and learning were -somewhat impertinent. - -[Sidenote: But great influence of Greece and Rome upon Christian -doctrine and Church organization.] - -Nevertheless, despite this growth of opposition to pagan philosophy, -primitive Christianity could not endure in its simplicity after it -had been in contact with the advanced intellectual concepts of the -Greeks, as modified by the organizing genius of the Romans. Both -Greece and Rome left a permanent impress upon Christianity; and, -though dead, they yet live in the Christian Church. The influence of -Greek philosophy is seen in the formulation of a system of Christian -doctrine. This appears in the development of the _Apostles’ Creed_ -during the second century, in the selection of a canon of sacred -writings or _New Testament_ during the third century, and still more in -the _Nicene Creed_ (325), which was not formulated until Christianity -had been largely Hellenized. Similarly, the Greek tendency to attribute -universal validity to their sacred writings, and the pomp, ceremonies, -and mysteries of the Hellenic worship, are more or less apparent in the -various ecclesiastical tenets and usages. On the other hand, the Roman -concepts of administration appear in the organization of the Church, -which seems to have closely paralleled the Roman civil polity. By the -third century priests and bishops had largely come to be similarly -located, and to correspond in control, to the Roman district and city -magistrates respectively. And in 445 the recognition of the supremacy -of the Bishop of Rome established a visible head of the entire Church, -corresponding to the position of the emperor on the civic side. - -[Sidenote: Reversion to otherworldliness.] - -=Rise of the Monastic Schools.=--Thus it has been seen how the -two great movements of Græco-Roman culture and Christian teaching -arose independently, in time united and later separated, although, -after separation, the Christian doctrines were somewhat affected by -their long association with pagan philosophy. Eventually the pagan -schools were suppressed by the edict of Justinian in 529 A. D., -and the Christian education was left alone in the field. It then -found an additional means of expression in the ‘monastic’ schools, -in which there was naturally a tendency to revert to an ascetic or -‘otherworldly’ ideal, and to leave intellectual attainments largely out -of consideration. But these monastic institutions are to be grouped -with mediævalism and belong more distinctly to the next chapter. - - -SUPPLEMENTARY READING - -Graves, _Before the Middle Ages_ (Macmillan, 1909), chap. XII; Monroe, -_Text-book_ (Macmillan, 1905), pp. 221-243. For the moral effect -of Christianity, see Lecky, W. E. H., _History of European Morals_ -(Appleton, 1869), vol. II, pp. 1-100. Other places in the chapter -will be illumined by reading Ayer, J. C., Jr., _Catechumenal Schools_ -and _Catechetical Schools_ (Monroe Cyclopædia of Education, vol. I); -Dill, D., _Roman Society in the Last Century of the Western Empire_ -(Macmillan, 1899), especially book V; Hatch, E., _The Influence of -Greek Ideas and Usages upon the Christian Church_ (Hibbert Lectures, -1888, Williams, London, 1891); Hodgson, G., _Primitive Christian -Education_ (Clark, Edinburgh, 1906); and Leach, A. F., _Bishop’s -Schools_ and _Cathedral Schools_ (Monroe Cyclopædia of Education, vol. -I). - - - - -PART II - -THE MIDDLE AGES - - - - -CHAPTER V - -THE MONASTIC EDUCATION - - -OUTLINE - - During the Middle Ages the German hordes absorbed ancient - civilization under the authoritative guidance of the Church, and - the chief means of leavening the barbarian lump was found in the - cathedral and monastic schools. - - Monasteries grew up to counteract the prevailing worldliness. - To keep the monks busy, Benedict prescribed the copying of - manuscripts, and this literary work rendered schools necessary. - In these monastic schools were taught the ‘seven liberal arts’ by - catechetical methods. - - Thus monasticism helped preserve learning and education, although - it was somewhat hostile to the classics and science. - -[Sidenote: Absorption of Greek, Roman and Christian civilization.] - -=The Middle Ages as a Period of Assimilation and Repression.=--The -Middle Ages may be regarded as an era of assimilation and of -repression. On the one hand, the rude German hordes, who had by the -sixth century everywhere taken possession of the decadent ancient -world, were enabled during this period to rise gradually to such a -plane of intelligence and achievement that they could absorb the Greek, -Roman, and Christian civilization, and become its carriers to modern -times. On the other hand, that this absorption might take place, it -was necessary that the individual should conform to the model set, -and it was inevitable that a bondage to authority, convention, and -institutions should ensue. - -[Sidenote: Authoritative attitude of the Church.] - -The main power in effecting this subservience on the part of mediæval -society was the Christian Church. For it was but natural during the -period of assimilation that the Church, which had become completely -organized and unlimited in power, should stand as the chief guide and -schoolmaster of the Germanic hosts. By the decree of Justinian in -529 A. D., which closed the pagan schools and marks the beginning of -the Middle Ages, Christian education was left without a rival. Hence -the cathedral and monastic schools became almost the sole means of -leavening the barbarian lump. Contrary to the view commonly accepted, -the educational activities of the cathedral institutions were more -important and general than those of the monastic schools. But the -former have already been somewhat discussed, and so much relating to -the course and services of the latter will also apply to them that we -may now turn to a detailed description of the monastic schools. - -[Sidenote: Reaction to prevailing vice.] - -=The Evolution and Nature of Monasticism.=--To understand these -schools, it will be necessary to examine the movement out of which they -arose. Monasticism grew up through the corruption in Roman society and -the desire of those within the Church for a deeper religious life. -Christianity was no longer confined to small extra-social groups -meeting secretly, but was represented in all walks of society, and -mingled with the world. It had become thoroughly secularized, and even -the clergy had in many instances yielded to the prevailing worldliness -and vice. - -[Sidenote: Hermits and monasteries.] - -[Sidenote: Monasticism in the West.] - -Under these circumstances there were Christians who felt that the only -hope for salvation rested in fleeing from the world and its temptations -and taking refuge in an isolated life of asceticism and devotion. This -led eventually to the foundation of monasteries, in which the monks -lived apart in separate cells, but met for meals, prayers, communion, -and counsel. Monasticism started in Egypt, but soon spread into Syria -and Palestine, and then into Greece, Italy, and Gaul. But in the -West monasticism gradually adopted more active pursuits and milder -discipline, and the monks turned to the cultivation of the soil and the -preservation of literature. - -[Sidenote: Manual labor and reading required.] - -[Sidenote: Resulting literary activities.] - -=Benedict’s ‘Rule’ and the Multiplication of Manuscripts.=--These -monastic activities were especially crystallized and promoted by the -Benedictine ‘rule.’ This was a code formulated by St. Benedict in -529 for his monastery at Monte Cassino in Southwest Italy, and it -was generally adopted by the monasteries of Western Europe. In the -forty-eighth chapter of the ‘rule’ he commanded that the monks each -day engage in manual labor for at least seven hours and in systematic -reading for at least two hours. The requirement of daily reading led -to the collection and reproduction of manuscripts, and each monastery -soon had a _scriptorium_, or ‘writing-room,’ in one end of the building -(Fig. 7). Most of the works copied were of a religious nature and -were limited in number, but the monks were occasionally occupied with -the Latin classics, and they also became the authors of some original -literature, which included histories of the Church, the monasteries, -and the times, as well as works upon religious topics. - -[Sidenote: Especial preservation of learning in English monasteries.] - -=Amalgamation of and Irish Christianity.=--This preservation of -learning and development of literature was especially apparent in -the monasteries of England It came about through the amalgamation at -the Council of Whitby, in 664, of the Roman Church in England, with -Irish Christianity, which had preserved an unusually high order of -learning after its isolation. An immense enthusiasm for the Church, -culture, and literature of Rome resulted from this merging of the -rival organizations, and the English monasteries, such as Jarrow -and Wearmouth, and cathedral schools, like York, became the great -educational centers for Europe. - -[Sidenote: Length of course.] - -[Sidenote: Types of pupils.] - -=The Organization of the Monastic Schools.=--The literary work of -the monasteries soon led to the establishment of regular schools -within their walls (Fig. 8). The course in these monastic schools may -often have lasted eight or ten years, as boys of ten or even less -were sometimes received, and no one could become a regular member of -the order before he was eighteen. By the ninth century the schools -sometimes also admitted pupils who never expected to enter the order. -These latter were called _externi_ in distinction to the _oblati_, who -were preparing to become monks. Some training was also given women in -convents for nuns, such as that established by the sister of Benedict. - -[Illustration: Fig. 7.--A monk in the _scriptorium_.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 8.--A monastic school.] - -[Sidenote: Evolution and scope of the _trivium_ and _quadrivium_.] - -=The ‘Seven Liberal Arts’ as the Curriculum.=--The curriculum of the -monastic schools was at first elementary and narrow. It included only -reading, in order to study the Bible; writing, to copy the sacred -books; and calculation, for the sake of computing Church festivals. But -after a while the classical learning was gradually introduced in that -dry and condensed form of the ‘seven liberal arts’, which was also used -by the cathedral schools. This mediæval canon of studies was a gradual -evolution from Græco-Roman days. The discrimination of these liberal -subjects may be said to have begun with Plato, whose educational -scheme included a higher group of studies, consisting of arithmetic, -geometry, music, and astronomy; and during the later days of Greece -and Rome these ‘liberal’ subjects of Plato were combined with the -‘practical’ studies of the sophists,--grammar, rhetoric, and dialectic. -These ‘seven liberal arts’ were definitely fixed during the fifth -and sixth centuries A. D., through several treatises by such writers -as Martianus Capella, Boëthius, and Cassiodorus; and the grammar, -rhetoric, and dialectic eventually became classed as the _trivium_ or -lower studies, and the arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy as -the _quadrivium_ or higher (Fig. 9). While this curriculum was not a -broad one, the scope was much wider than would be supposed. ‘Grammar’ -was an introduction to literature, ‘rhetoric’ included some knowledge -of law and history, ‘dialectic’ paved the way for metaphysics, -‘arithmetic’ extended beyond mere calculation, ‘geometry’ embraced -geography and surveying, ‘music’ covered a broad course in theory, and -‘astronomy’ comprehended some physics and advanced mathematics. - -[Sidenote: Dictation and memorizing.] - -[Sidenote: Donatus and Priscian,] - -[Sidenote: Aristotle, Euclid, Boëthius, and Ptolemy.] - -=The Methods and Texts.=--The general method of teaching in the -monastic schools was that of question and answer. As copies of the -various books were scarce, the instructor often resorted to dictation, -explaining the meaning as he read, and the pupils took the passage down -upon tablets and committed it. The reading books preparatory to the -study of literature, many of which are still extant, were generally -arranged by each teacher, and careful attention was given to the -etymological and literary study of the authors to be read. As to texts, -the leading works upon grammar were at first the elementary work of -Donatus (fourth century) and the more advanced treatise of Priscian -(sixth century), but by the thirteenth century there had sprung up -a series of simplified grammars, which, for the sake of memorizing, -were often written in verse. As rhetoric was no longer much concerned -with declamation, Cicero and Quintilian were rarely used as texts, but -various mediæval treatises upon official letters, legal documents, and -forms came into use. Dialectic was studied through translations of the -_Organon_ of Aristotle, Euclid furnished the text on geometry, the -works of Boëthius were generally used for arithmetic and music, and in -astronomy adaptations of the treatises of Aristotle and Ptolemy became -the texts. - -[Sidenote: Maintenance of classical literature and education.] - -=Effect upon Civilization of the Monastic Schools.=--Thus monasticism -accomplished not a little for civilization. While the works produced in -the monasteries were uncritical and superstitious, they compose most of -our historical documents and sources in the Middle Ages. And, although -monastic schools were decidedly hostile to classical literature as -representing the temptations of the world, and at all times their rigid -orthodoxy prevented every possibility of science and the development of -individualism, they, together with the cathedral schools, preserved a -considerable amount of Græco-Roman culture. Without the cathedral and -monastic schools, the Latin and Greek manuscripts and learning could -scarcely have survived and have been available at the Renaissance. - - -SUPPLEMENTARY READING - -Graves, _History of Education during the Middle Ages and the Transition -to Modern Times_ (Macmillan, 1910), chaps. I-II; Monroe, _Text-book_ -(Macmillan, 1905), pp. 243-274. For the evolution of the ascetic life, -see Lecky, _History of European Morals_ (Appleton, 1869), vol. II, -pp. 101-274; for the development of monasticism, Taylor, H. O., _The -Classical Heritage of the Middle Ages_ (Macmillan, 1913), chap. VII, -and Wishart, A. W., _A Short History of Monks and Monasticism_ (Brandt, -Trenton, 1902). The contribution of Irish monasticism is shown in -Healy, J., _Insula Sanctorum et Doctorum_ (Sealy, Dublin, 1897), and -Zimmer, H., _The Irish Element in Mediæval Culture_ (Putnam, 1891). -Succinct articles on _Abbey Schools_, _Bishop’s Schools_, _Church -Schools_, and _Cloister Schools_ by Leach, A. F. (Monroe Cyclopædia of -Education, vols. I and II), furnish the most accurate ideas of monastic -education as far as it is known. An account of the monastic libraries -is given in Clark, J. W., _Libraries in the Mediæval and Renaissance -Monasteries_ (Macmillan and Bowes, Cambridge, 1894), and Putnam, G. H., -_Books and Their Makers during the Middle Ages_ (Putnam, 1896). The -best account of _The Seven Liberal Arts_ in English is that by Abelson, -P. (Columbia University, Teachers College Contributions, No. 11, 1906). - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -CHARLEMAGNE’S REVIVAL OF EDUCATION - - -OUTLINE - - Learning and schools had by the eighth century been sadly - disrupted, and, to restore them, Charlemagne invited Alcuin of York - to become his adviser in education. Alcuin induced Charlemagne to - conduct higher education at the Palace School, and to improve the - cathedral, monastic, and parish schools. - - Even after Alcuin retired from the active direction of education, - he continued his educational influence, but he became set and - narrow. A broader spirit, however, appeared in his pupils, and - intellectual stagnation never again prevailed. - -[Sidenote: Decay of learning.] - -[Sidenote: Charlemagne] - -[Sidenote: and Alcuin.] - -=Condition of Education in the Eighth Century.=--In the course of the -seventh and eighth centuries mediæval education met with considerable -retrogression. The learning of the sixth century was disappearing, -the copying of manuscripts had almost ceased, and the cathedral and -monastic schools had been sadly disrupted. The secular clergy, monks, -nobility, and others who might have been expected to be trained, -at times seem even to have lost the art of writing, although the -leading churchmen must generally have maintained their knowledge of -ecclesiastical Latin and some acquaintance with the classical authors -and various compilations of the seven liberal arts. Just before this -time the Franks had succeeded in establishing a supremacy over the -other barbarian tribes and had spread their rule through what is now -France, Belgium, and Holland, and most of Western Germany. Under a -dynasty of vigorous kings, they now drove back the Moslems, conquered -the Lombards and Saxons, and subdued the Slavs and Bohemians, and -finally Charlemagne (742-814) even planned to re-establish the Western -Roman Empire under his sovereignty. This monarch greatly strengthened -and centralized his dominions by a number of improvements in external -administration, but, even before his recognition as emperor by the -pope (800), he had realized that a genuine unity of his people could -be brought about only through a much more effective and universal -education. He had a keen sense of the unfortunate educational -situation, and made every effort to improve it. To assist him in his -endeavors, in 782 he called Alcuin (735-804) from the headship of the -famous cathedral school at York (see p. 56) to be his chief adviser in -education. - -[Sidenote: Methods and curriculum.] - -=Higher Education at the Palace School.=--Through this noted scholar -Charlemagne proceeded to revive the cathedral, monastic, and parish -schools, and to increase the importance of the ‘Palace School.’ At this -latter school the great king, all his family, and many of his relatives -and intellectual friends studied under the Saxon educator. Alcuin -must, however, have used a more discursive and less _memoriter_ method -with his adult students than the formal catechetical plan employed -in instructing the youth. Among the subjects taught were grammar, -including some study of the Latin poets and the writings of the Church -Fathers, rhetoric, dialectic, arithmetic, astronomy, and theology, but -Alcuin appears to have had but little command of the Greek learning. -Charlemagne himself seems to have become proficient in Latin and other -languages, but, in spite of strenuous efforts, he began too late in -life to train his hand to write. - -[Sidenote: Capitularies to abbots and bishops.] - -[Sidenote: Course in the monastic, cathedral, and village schools.] - -[Sidenote: Free tuition.] - -=Educational Improvement in the Cathedral, Monastic, and Parish -Schools.=--With the coöperation of Alcuin, Charlemagne also did -everything in his power to increase facilities and improve standards -in the existing types of schools. In 787 he issued an educational -‘capitulary’ or decree to the bishops and abbots, “urging diligence in -the pursuit of learning and the selection of teachers for this work -who are able, willing, and zealous to learn themselves and to teach -others.” Two years later he wrote a more urgent capitulary to the -bishops and abbots, in which he specified the subjects to be taught in -the cathedral and monastic schools and the care to be taken in teaching -them. Schools seem to have been everywhere established or revived in -the various cathedrals, monasteries, and villages, and the instruction -in several places became famous. All these schools came to offer at -least a complete elementary course, and some added considerable work -in higher education. Reading, writing, computation, singing, and -the Scriptures were taught first, but, beyond this, instruction in -grammar, rhetoric, and dialectic was often given, and at the more -noted cathedral and monastic schools the _quadrivium_ also appeared in -the course. The schools in the villages, under the care of the parish -priests, taught only the rudiments, the Lord’s Prayer, the Creed, -and the Psalms. Tuition was free in all schools for those intending -to become monks or priests, but for the higher work a small fee was -sometimes paid by the laity. It seems to have been generally intended -that education should be gratuitous and open to all. A letter of the -Bishop of Orleans required it of his clergy; and through a capitulary -in 802 Charlemagne strove to make it compulsory. - -[Sidenote: After retirement Alcuin’s influence continued, but he became -narrow.] - -=Alcuin’s Educational Work at Tours.=--After fourteen years of -strenuous service, Alcuin retired from the active headship of the -educational system to the abbacy of the monastery at Tours. But even -here his educational work did not cease. He soon established a model -house of learning and education, whither flocked the most brilliant -youths in the empire, and since they rapidly became prominent as -teachers and churchmen, his influence upon the schools remained fully -as marked as before. He also wrote a number of educational works, -mostly on the seven liberal arts, and had a large correspondence about -education with kings and the higher clergy. Alcuin, however, was by -nature conservative, and with his retirement he became decidedly set -and narrow. His fear of dialectic and the more advanced views of -certain Irish scholars is almost ludicrous, and his repudiation of the -classic poets, even his former favorite, Vergil, is pathetic. - -[Sidenote: His pupils retained his broader spirit.] - -=Rabanus Maurus, Erigena, and Others Concerned in the -Revival.=--Fortunately, Alcuin’s pupils, who at his death occupied -practically all positions of educational importance, retained his -broader spirit. This was true in particular of Rabanus Maurus -(776-856), whose leadership caused the monastic school at Fulda -to become the great center of learning. Rabanus wrote even more -prolifically than Alcuin upon grammar, language, and theology, but -was not afraid to emphasize the study of classic literature or the -new training in dialectic. He also greatly expanded the mathematical -subjects of the curriculum, and tended to ascribe all phenomena -to natural laws. Rabanus, in his turn, influenced a large number -of pupils, and a further impetus was given to the movement by a -cross-fertilization of Irish learning, which was also introduced, -especially through the mastership of Joannes Scotus Erigena (810-876) -at the Palace School. - -[Sidenote: Permanent effects of the revival.] - -Thus during the ninth century and the first half of the tenth there -arose, through the initiative of Charlemagne and Alcuin, a marked -revival in education, and for several generations the cathedral and -monastic schools enthusiastically fostered education and learning. -Curricula were expanded, and many famous scholars appeared. While, -owing to the weakness of Charlemagne’s successors and the attacks -of the Northmen, learning gradually faded once more, intellectual -stagnation never again prevailed. Through the revival of the great -Frankish monarch, classical learning had to some extent been recalled -to continental Europe from its insular asylum in the extreme West. - - -SUPPLEMENTARY READING - -Graves, _During the Transition_ (Macmillan, 1910), chap. III; Monroe, -_Text-book_ (Macmillan, 1905), pp. 274-279. Read also Gaskoin, C. J. -C., _Alcuin, His Life and His Work_ (Clay, London, 1904), or West, A. -F., _Alcuin and the Rise of Christian Schools_ (Scribner, 1892), and -Mullinger, J. B., _The Schools of Charles the Great_ (Longmans, London, -1877). - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -MOSLEM LEARNING AND EDUCATION - - -OUTLINE - - Moslemism amalgamated in Syria with Greek philosophy and science, - and the Moslem cities there became renowned for their learning. - - The masses of the Moslems were suspicious of the Greek learning, - however, and those who had absorbed the Hellenized philosophy were - driven from the Orient into Spain, where they founded Moorish - colleges. - - The Moslems thus stimulated learning in the Christian schools, and - introduced Aristotle once more, but, after bringing learning back, - Moslemism itself reverted to its primitive stage. - -[Sidenote: Illiteracy of early Moslemism.] - -[Sidenote: Learning of the Mohammedan cities of Syria.] - -=The Hellenization of Moslemism.=--One of the most important influences -in awakening mediæval Europe was the revival of learning and education -that came through the advent of the Moslems. Mohammed, the founder -of Moslemism, had been almost illiterate, and the _Koran_, or sacred -book, was a curious jumble of Judaistic, Christian, and other religious -elements with which Mohammed had become acquainted during his early -travels. As long as this religion was confined to the ignorant -and unreflecting tribes of Arabia, it served its purpose without -modification. But when it spread into Syria and came in contact with -Greek philosophy, in order to appeal to the people there, it had to -be interpreted in Hellenistic terms, and during the eighth, ninth, -and tenth centuries, through the influence of the Nestorian scholars -(see p. 46), the Mohammedans were engaged in rendering into Arabic -from the Syriac, or from the original Greek, the works of the great -philosophers, mathematicians, and physicians. The Mohammedan cities -of Syria soon became renowned for their learning. In them arose -such scholars as Avicenna (980-1037), who wrote many treatises on -mathematics and philosophy, and a _Canon of Medicine_ that remained -authoritative for five centuries. Similarly, there grew up a society -called the ‘Brothers of Sincerity,’ which in its course of study -amalgamated the Moslem theology with Hellenistic philosophy. - -[Sidenote: Averroës and the Moorish colleges.] - -=Hellenized Moslemism in Spain.=--But the masses of the Mohammedans -were as suspicious of the Greek learning as the orthodox Christians had -been, and toward the end of the eleventh century Hellenized Moslemism -was driven from the Orient and found a refuge in Northern Africa and -in Spain. Here the advanced Mohammedans became known as ‘Moors,’ and -their works were destined to have a pronounced influence upon the -Christians. There soon appeared such scholars as Averroës (1126-1198), -who became the authoritative commentator on Aristotle for several -centuries; and Moorish colleges were founded at Cordova, Granada, -Toledo, and elsewhere. In these institutions, while learning was -still at a low ebb in the Christian schools, were taught arithmetic, -geometry, trigonometry, astronomy, physics, biology, medicine, -surgery, jurisprudence, logic, and metaphysics. Arabic notation was -also introduced in place of the cumbersome Roman numerals and many -inventions and discoveries were made. - -[Sidenote: Learning stimulated in Christian education.] - -=Effect upon Europe of the Moslem Education.=--These schools and -colleges of the Moslems soon had their effect upon Christian education. -Through their influence, Raymund, Archbishop of Toledo, by the middle -of the twelfth century had the chief Arabic treatises on philosophy -translated into Castilian by a learned Jew, and then into Latin by -the monks; and Frederick II had scholars render the works of Averroës -into Latin. Such translations had, however, passed through several -media--Greek, Syriac, Arabic, Castilian, Latin--and could not be at -all accurate. But, stimulated by this taste of Greek learning, the -Christians sought a more immediate version, and a half century later -when the Venetians took the city of Constantinople, the works of -Aristotle were recovered in the original and translated directly into -Latin. Meanwhile the orthodox Mohammedanism had been coming to the -front in Spain and overwhelming the Hellenized form, and it was left -to Christian schools to continue the work of the advanced Moorish -institutions. Moslemism had returned to its primitive stage, but it -had helped bring back learning, especially the works of Aristotle, to -Christendom. As the classical learning had been restored from the West -during the revival of Charlemagne, it now returned from its refuge in -the East through the coming of the Moslems. - - -SUPPLEMENTARY READING - -Graves, _During the Transition_ (Macmillan, 1910), chap. V; Monroe, -_Text-book_ (Macmillan, 1905), pp. 331-334. For a further account of -Saracen education, see Coppée, H., _History of the Conquest of Spain -by the Arab-Moors_ (Little, Brown, Boston, 1881), especially bk. X; -Davidson, T., _The Brothers of Sincerity_ (International Journal of -Ethics, July, 1898), and Draper, J. W., _History of the Intellectual -Development of Europe_ (Harper, 1875), vol. I, chaps. XI and XIII, and -vol. II, chaps. II and IV. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - -EDUCATIONAL TENDENCIES OF SCHOLASTICISM - - -OUTLINE - - Scholasticism was a peculiar method of philosophic speculation in - the later mediæval period. At first, scholastic philosophers held - that faith must precede reason, but eventually reason itself tended - to become the means of testing the truth. - - Scholastic education was organized in the monastic and episcopal - schools, and consisted in the limited learning of the times, - systematized on the basis of Aristotelian deduction. Scholasticism - was extreme in its discussions, but it tended to rationalize the - Church doctrines. - -[Sidenote: Not a set of doctrines, but a peculiar method.] - -=The Nature of Scholasticism.=--One of the movements that most tended -to awaken the mediæval mind, especially during the latter part of -the Middle Ages, was the development of the Church philosophy known -as ‘scholasticism.’ This movement does not indicate any one set of -doctrines, but is rather a general designation for the peculiar methods -and tendencies of philosophic speculation that became prominent within -the Church in the eleventh century, came to their height during the -twelfth and thirteenth, and declined rapidly the following century. The -name is derived from _doctor scholasticus_, which was the title given -during the mediæval period to the authorized teachers in a monastic or -episcopal school, for it was among these ‘schoolmen’ that the movement -started and developed. Its most striking characteristics are the -narrowness of its field and the thoroughness with which it was worked. - -[Sidenote: Anselm] - -[Sidenote: and Abelard.] - -=The History of Scholastic Development.=--The history of scholasticism -belongs properly to the field of philosophy, but its influence in -bringing on the Renaissance and its effect upon education make a brief -consideration of its development necessary here. It began as an effort -to vanquish heresy in the interest of the Church dogmas, which until -late in the Middle Ages it had not generally been necessary to explain. -Even then it was assumed that the Church was in possession of all final -truth, which had come to it by Divine revelation, and was in harmony -with reason, when fully understood. It was, therefore, the aim of the -earlier schoolmen to show how these doctrines were consistent with -each other and in accordance with reason. At first, as with Anselm -(1033-1109), it was held that faith must precede reason, and where -reason was incapable of penetrating the mysteries of revealed doctrine, -it must desist from its efforts. But the conviction gradually gained -ground that human reason is reliable and that truth can be reached -only through investigation. Abelard (1079-1142) declared that the only -justification of a doctrine is its reasonableness, that reason must -precede faith, and that it is not sinful to doubt. - -[Sidenote: Aquinas, Scotus, and Occam.] - -A new epoch for scholasticism dawned in the twelfth and thirteenth -centuries through contact with the Greek philosophy of the Moors -in Spain and the subsequent recovery of some original treatises of -Aristotle (see p. 67). For a time the Church endeavored to suppress the -great philosopher, but, failing to do so, soon utilized his works for -its own defense, and even made reason identical with Aristotle, whose -authority was not to be disputed. A group of most prominent schoolmen -arose, and, as a result of the discussions of Aquinas (1225-1274), -Duns Scotus (1274-1308), and William of Occam (1280-1347), it came -to be held that truth is established by the _fiat_ of God, and that -ecclesiastical dogmas are, consequently, not matters of reason, but -purely of faith. As a result of this breach between revelation and -reason, there arose two types of truth, and a tendency to choose that -type which was supported by reason. - -[Sidenote: Aim,] - -[Sidenote: content,] - -[Sidenote: and method.] - -=Scholastic Education.=--The schoolmen were thus throughout attempting -to rationalize the teachings of the Church, and to present them -in scientific form. As an education, scholasticism aimed also at -furnishing a training in dialectic and intellectual discipline that -should make the student both keen and learned in the knowledge of -the times. The scholastic course of study, which was given at first -in the monastic and episcopal schools and later in the universities, -consisted in the beliefs of the Church and the limited learning of the -times arranged in a systematized form largely on the deductive basis -of the Aristotelian logic. This knowledge could all be grouped under -the head of philosophical theology. The best illustration of the formal -and dogmatic way in which these doctrines were usually presented can -be found in the _Sententiæ_ of Peter the Lombard (1100-1160) and the -_Summa Theologiæ_ of Aquinas (1225-1274), which were the standard texts -of the day upon theology. The work of Aquinas has four main parts, -under each of which is grouped a number of problems. Every problem -is concerned with some fundamental doctrine, and is further divided -into several subtopics. After the problem has been stated, first the -arguments and authorities for the various solutions other than the -orthodox one are given and refuted in regular order, then the proper -solution with its arguments is set forth, and finally, the different -objections to it are answered in a similarly systematic way. Peter the -Lombard’s work has a like arrangement. - -[Sidenote: It systematized Church doctrines, and liberated philosophy -from theology.] - -=Its Value and Influence.=--As a whole, the work of scholastic -education has been underestimated. It has been urged that it ruined -all spiritual realities by its extreme systemization of religion, that -it dealt with mere abstractions, and that it indulged in over-subtle -distinctions and verbal quibbles. But the scholastic arguments were -not as purposeless or absurd as they seem. For example, the celebrated -inquiry of Aquinas as to the number of angels that could stand on the -point of a needle is simply an attempt to present the nature of the -Infinite in concrete form. It is the characteristic of reasoning beings -to analyze, compare, abstract, and classify, and while scholasticism -may have carried its abstractions, hair-splittings, and scientific -terminology to an extreme, it performed a great service for knowledge. -It found a confused mass of traditional and irrational doctrines -and practices, made them systematic, rational, and scientific, -and greatly assisted accuracy in thinking. The discussions of the -schoolmen resulted in liberating philosophy from theology, and, without -intending it perhaps, scholastic education aided the cause of human -reason against dogmatism and absolute authority. It greatly stimulated -intellectual interests, produced the most acute and subtle minds of the -age, and helped to prepare the way for the Renaissance. - -[Illustration: Fig. 9.--The temple of wisdom. - -An allegorical representation of the mediæval course of study -reproduced from the _Margarita Philosophica_ of Gregorius Reisch, -Freiburg, 1504. Donatus (elementary grammar) on the first floor; -Priscian (advanced grammar) on second; Aristotle (logic), Cicero -(rhetoric), and Boethius (arithmetic) on the third; Pythagoras (music), -Euclid (geometry), and Ptolemy (astronomy) on the fourth; Pliny -(natural history) and Seneca (ethics) on the fifth; and Peter the -Lombard (theology) on top.] - - -SUPPLEMENTARY READING - -Graves, _During the Transition_ (Macmillan, 1910), chap. VI; Monroe, -_Text-book_ (Macmillan, 1905), pp. 292-313. For a good account of all -_The Great Schoolmen of the Middle Ages_ (Hodder, London, 1881), see -the work of Townsend, W. J.; for the beginnings of scholasticism, -Mullinger, J. B., _The University of Cambridge_ (Longmans, Green, -1888), vol. I, pp. 47-64; for the life and influence of Abelard, -Compayré, G., _Abelard_ (Scribner, 1893), chap. I; McCabe, J., -_Abelard_ (Putnam, 1901); and Rashdall, H., _The Universities of Europe -in the Middle Ages_ (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1895), vol. I, chap. II. - - - - -CHAPTER IX - -THE MEDIÆVAL UNIVERSITIES - - -OUTLINE - - Universities began to spring up toward the close of the Middle - Ages. Through local conditions, a course in medicine arose at - Salerno; in civil and canon law at Bologna; and in theology at - Paris. Bologna became the pattern for numerous universities in the - South; and Paris for many in the North. - - Popes and sovereigns granted privileges by charter to the various - universities. The term ‘university’ originally signified a - ‘corporation’ of students and teachers, and the students were - usually grouped according to ‘nations.’ The teaching body was - divided into four or five ‘faculties.’ - - The course in arts included the seven liberal arts and portions of - Aristotle; in civil and canon law, the _Corpus Juris Civilis_ of - Justinian and the _Decree_ of Gratian respectively; in medicine, - the treatises of Greek and other medical writers; and in theology, - mostly the _Sententiæ_ of Peter the Lombard. The texts were read - and explained by the lecturers, and a practical training in debate - was furnished. - - While the courses and methods were narrow and formal, the mediæval - university contained the germ of modern inquiry and did much to - foster independence of thought and action. - -[Sidenote: In general a product of all that was best in the Middle -Ages.] - -=The Rise of Universities.=--A most important effect upon subsequent -education came through the foundation of the mediæval universities. -These institutions grew out of the old cathedral and monastic schools, -but found their models largely in the liberal and professional courses -of the Moorish colleges. In general, they came into existence through -the many broadening influences of the later Middle Ages. Their rise -was intimately connected with the stimulus of the Moslem presentation -of Greek philosophy and science, with the interest in dialectic and -theological discussions, which led to the development of scholasticism, -with the reaction from ‘otherworldliness’ resulting from the ideals of -chivalry, and with the growth of cities and wealth, and the consequent -emphasis upon secular interests and knowledge (see chap. xi). However, -while they were all more or less the product of the same factors, no -two sprang from exactly the same set of causes, and special conditions -played a part in the evolution of each university. - -[Sidenote: Causes of the medical school at Salerno.] - -=The Foundation of Universities at Salerno, Bologna, and Paris.=--The -oldest of these institutions, that at Salerno, near Naples, was simply -a school of medicine, and originated through the survival of the old -Greek medical works in Southwestern Italy, and through the attraction -of the mineral springs and salubrity of this particular place. By the -middle of the eleventh century Salerno was well known as the leading -place for medical study. It was, however, never chartered as a regular -university, although in 1231 Frederick II recognized it as the school -of medicine for the university he had created at Naples some seven -years earlier. - -[Sidenote: Origin of the courses at Bologna] - -[Sidenote: in civil law] - -[Sidenote: and canon law.] - -On the other hand, Northern Italy became known as a center for -the study of Roman law. The cities here, in order to defend their -independence, were led to study this subject, and endeavored to find -some special charter, grant, or edict from the old Roman emperors upon -which to base their claims. Several northern centers were renowned for -their investigation of the Roman civil law, but early in the twelfth -century Bologna became preëminent through the lectures of Irnerius. -By him the entire _Corpus Juris Civilis_, a compilation of Roman law -made by eminent jurists in the sixth century at the command of the -emperor Justinian, was collected and critically discussed. Influenced -by this example, a monk of Bologna, named Gratian, undertook to codify -all edicts and formulations of popes and councils in a convenient -text-book. The _Decree_ of Gratian, which resulted, was almost -immediately recognized as the authority upon the subject, and canon law -came to be studied here with the same thoroughness as civil law. The -university at Bologna was regularly chartered by Frederick Barbarossa -in 1158, probably as a recognition of the services of its masters in -support of his imperial claims, and faculties of arts, medicine, and -theology were established at various times. It was thus the first real -university, and its reputation soon became widespread. - -[Sidenote: Development of liberal arts and theology at Paris.] - -Next in order of foundation came the university at Paris, which was by -far the most famous of all. The special interest here, as in this part -of Europe generally, was dialectic and scholasticism. The university -grew out of the cathedral school at Notre Dame, which had acquired -considerable reputation under the headship of William of Champeaux, -Abelard, and Peter the Lombard, but it was not until 1200, after canon -law and medicine had been added to the liberal arts and theology, that -it received complete recognition by the charter of Philip Augustus. - -[Sidenote: ‘Master-universities’ in the North, but -‘student-universities’ in the South.] - -=Bologna and Paris as the Models for Other Universities.=--Salerno, -as we have seen, was not a real university, and it did not reproduce -its type; but Bologna, and even more Paris, became the mother of -universities, for many other institutions were organized after their -general plans. At Bologna the students, who were usually mature -men, had entire charge of the government of the university. They -selected the masters and determined the fees, length of term, and -time of beginning. But in Paris, where the students were younger, -the government was in the hands of the masters. Consequently, -new foundations in the North, where Paris was the type, usually -became ‘master-universities,’ while those of the South were -‘student-universities.’ During the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries -it became fashionable for the authorities, civil and ecclesiastical, -to charter existing organizations or to found new institutions on one -of these two plans, and by the time the Renaissance was well started -about eighty universities had been established in Europe. Not all of -these foundations were permanent, however, for some thirty have, in the -course of time, become extinct, and those which remain are much changed -in character. - -[Sidenote: Protection and autonomy.] - -[Sidenote: immunity from taxation and military service, and right to -license masters and to ‘strike’.] - -=Privileges Granted to the Universities.=--From the time of the -earliest official recognition of the universities, a large variety of -exemptions, immunities, and other special privileges were conferred -upon the organizations or upon their masters and students, by the -charters of popes, emperors, kings, and municipalities. The students -of the universities were in many instances taken under the immediate -protection of the sovereign, and were allowed to be tried in special -courts of their own, independent of civil jurisdiction, and to possess -complete autonomy in all their internal affairs. Generally masters, -students, and their retainers alike were relieved from all taxation -and from military service. Likewise, universities were granted -the right to license masters to lecture anywhere without further -examination (_jus ubique docendi_), and the privilege of ‘striking’ -(_cessatio_), when university rights were infringed. If no redress -were given in the latter case, the suspension of lectures was followed -by emigration of the university to another town. This could easily be -done, since none of the mediæval universities had buildings of their -own, and there was no need of expensive libraries, laboratories, and -other equipment. - -[Sidenote: Wandering students.] - -Through such special rights the universities obtained great power -and became very independent. Soon the liberty allowed to students -degenerated into recklessness and license, and they became dissipated -and quarrelsome. This is especially seen in the life of the so-called -‘wandering students,’ who migrated from university to university, -begging their way, and were shiftless, rollicking, and vicious. The -one compensating feature of such degeneracy was their production of -jovial Latin and German songs to voice their appreciation of forbidden -pleasures and their protest against restraint. - -[Sidenote: The ‘university’ a corporation.] - -[Sidenote: The nations,] - -[Sidenote: councilors,] - -[Sidenote: faculties, deans, and rector.] - -=Organization of the Universities.=--The term _universitas_, or -‘university,’ did not imply originally, as often claimed since, an -institution where ‘everything’ is taught, but it was used of any legal -corporation, and only in the course of time was it limited to an -organization of masters and students. The phrase _studium generale_ -was also often used of a university, to indicate a school where the -students from all parts of civilization were received, and to contrast -it with a _studium particulare_, which was confined to pupils of a -limited neighborhood. The formation of a university had been preceded -by the organization of ‘nations,’ or bodies of students grouped -according to the part of Europe from which they came, but these nations -soon began to combine for the sake of obtaining greater privileges and -power. Every year each nation chose a ‘councilor,’ who was to represent -it and guard its interests. On the side of the masters, the university -became organized into ‘faculties,’ of which there might be at least -four,--arts, law, medicine, and theology; and each faculty came to -elect a ‘dean’ as its representative. The deans and the councilors -jointly elected the ‘rector,’ or head of the university. - -[Sidenote: Arts.] - -[Sidenote: Law.] - -[Sidenote: Medicine.] - -[Sidenote: Theology.] - -=Course in the Four Faculties.=--The course of study to be offered -by each faculty was largely fixed by papal decree or university -legislation during the thirteenth century. The course in arts, which -occupied six years, included the texts on the liberal arts mentioned -for the monastic schools (see pp. 56 f.) and several of the treatises -of Aristotle, as rapidly as they were recovered. In the law course, -_Corpus Juris Civilis_ was the authorized text for civil law, and the -_Decree_ of Gratian for canon law. The faculty of medicine utilized the -Greek treatises by Hippocrates (c. 460-375 B. C.) and Galen (c. 130-200 -A. D.), the _Canon_ of Avicenna (see p. 66), and the works of certain -Jewish and Salernitan physicians. The students of theology put most of -their time upon the four books of Peter the Lombard’s _Sententiæ_ (Fig. -9), although the _Bible_ was studied incidentally. - -[Sidenote: Lectures.] - -[Sidenote: Debates.] - -=The Methods of Instruction.=--The training of a mediæval student -consisted not only in acquiring the subjects mentioned, but in -learning to debate upon them. The acquisition of the subject-matter -was accomplished through lectures, which consisted in reading and -explaining the text-book under consideration (Fig. 10). Beside the text -itself, the teacher would read all the explanatory notes, summaries, -cross-references, and objections to the author’s statements, which -often quite overshadowed the original, and might even add a commentary -of his own. The passage was read slowly and repeated whenever -necessary. The whole exercise was carried on in Latin, which had to be -learned by the student before coming to the university. The training -in debate was furnished by means of formal disputations, in which one -student, or group of students, was pitted against another (Fig. 11). -In these contests, which also were conducted in Latin, not only were -authorities cited, but the debaters might add arguments of their own. -Thus, compared with the memorizing of lectures, debating afforded some -acuteness and vigor of intellect, but by the close of the fifteenth -century it had become no longer reputable. The aim came to be to win -and to secure applause without regard to truth or consistency. - -[Sidenote: Master or doctor.] - -[Sidenote: Baccalaureate.] - -=Examinations and Degrees.=--At the close of the course, the student -was examined in his ability to define and dispute; and if he passed, -he was admitted to the grade of master, doctor, or professor. These -degrees seem originally to have been about on a par with each other, -and signified that the candidate was now ready to practice the craft of -teaching. The baccalaureate was at first not a real degree, but simply -permission to become a candidate for the license to teach. During the -thirteenth century, however, it came to be sought as an honor by many -not intending to teach, and eventually became a separate degree. - -[Illustration: - - The Mediæval Universities: - Fig. 10.--The lecture. - Fig. 11.--The disputation. -] - -[Sidenote: Meager and authoritative,] - -[Sidenote: but somewhat productive of inquiry and freedom.] - -=The Value and Influence of the University Training.=--Obviously the -mediæval universities had most of the defects of their times. From a -modern point of view, the content of their course of study was meager, -fixed, and formal, and the methods of teaching were stereotyped and -authoritative. They largely neglected the real literature of the -classical age, and permitted but little that savored of investigation -or thinking. Yet the universities were a product of the growing -tendencies that later burst the fetters of mediævalism. They were a -great encouragement to subtlety, industry, and thoroughness, and their -efforts toward philosophic speculation contained the germs of the -modern spirit of inquiry and rationality. They were even of immediate -assistance in promoting freedom of discussion and advancing democracy, -and to their arbitration were often referred disputes between the civil -and ecclesiastical powers. Thus they aided greatly in advancing the -cause of individualism and carrying forward the torch of civilization -and progress. - - -SUPPLEMENTARY READING - -Graves, _During the Transition_ (Macmillan, 1910), chap. IX; Monroe, -_Text-book_ (Macmillan, 1905), pp. 313-327. Standard works on the -universities in general are Laurie, S. S., _The Rise and Early -Constitution of Universities_ (Appleton, 1886), and the more complete -and accurate _Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages_ (Oxford, -Clarendon Press, 1895), by Rashdall, H. For a brief source account of -the privileges, courses, methods, and student life of universities, -see Norton, A. O., _Readings in the History of Education; Mediæval -Universities_ (Harvard University, 1909), or Munro, D. C., _The -Mediæval Student_ (Longmans, Green, 1899). For the history of -individual universities, see Compayré, G., _Abelard and the Origin and -Early History of Universities_ (Scribner, 1893); Lyte, H. C. M., _A -History of the University of Oxford_ (Macmillan, 1886); Mullinger, J. -B., _University of Cambridge_ (Longmans, London, 1888); and Paulsen, -F., _The German Universities_ (Macmillan, 1895; Scribner, 1906). - - - - -CHAPTER X - -THE EDUCATION OF CHIVALRY - - -OUTLINE - - Owing to the weakness of the regular sovereignty after - Charlemagne’s day, the feudal system sprang up, and by the middle - of the twelfth century it had developed a code of manners known as - chivalry. - - Out of this there arose a training for knighthood in religion, - honor, and gallantry. Before becoming a knight, the boy was early - trained at home, then at some castle, first as ‘page,’ and later as - ‘squire.’ - - This chivalric education produced many contradictory results, but - it tended to refine the times and to counteract ‘otherworldliness.’ - -[Sidenote: Dependence upon a powerful neighbor became a regular form of -government.] - -=The Development of Feudalism.=--The mediæval education thus far -described has had to do mostly with the schooling of the ecclesiastical -and other select professional classes. Quite a different type of -training was that given the knight. This has generally been known as -the education of chivalry. Chivalry is a name for the code of manners -in usage during the days of the feudal system. By this system is -meant an order of society and government that gradually grew up in -the Middle Ages alongside the regular political organization, and -when, under the successors of Charlemagne, the monarchy became weak, -tended to be substituted for it. Under feudalism small landowners and -freemen lacking land had come to depend upon some powerful neighbor -for protection, and even to seek from him a dependent tenure of land. -Then, in time, the lords acquired a species of sovereignty over their -tenants, and by the tenth century there had come to be a great social -gulf between the nobility, who owned the land and lived in castles, and -the peasantry, who tilled the soil and supported them. The only serious -business of the former was fighting with spear, sword, or battle-axe, -in their own quarrels or those of their feudal superiors. To prepare -for this warfare, mock combats may occasionally have been engaged in as -early as the tenth century (Fig. 12). - -[Sidenote: Religion, honor, and gallantry.] - -=The Ideals of Chivalry.=--But by the middle of the twelfth century, -when the old heroic age had lapsed into an age of courtesy, with -extravagant devotion to women and romantic adventure as its chief -ideals, these encounters were organized into a definite species of -pastime called ‘tournaments,’ and soon degenerated into mere pageantry. -Hence the rules of chivalry became fixed and formal, and the art of -horsemanship and the management of the lance and spear were developed -and settled. The ideals of knightly conduct and education could then -be stated as ‘service and obedience’ to God, as represented by the -organized church, to one’s lord, or feudal superior, and to one’s lady, -whose favor the knight wore in battle or tournament. The three ruling -motives of chivalric education were, therefore, held to be ‘religion, -honor, and gallantry.’ - -[Sidenote: Training (1) at home,] - -[Sidenote: (2) as a page,] - -[Sidenote: and] - -[Sidenote: (3) as a squire.] - -[Sidenote: The knighting.] - -=The Three Preparatory Stages of Education.=--There were three periods -in the preparatory training of a knight. First, until the child was -seven or eight, he was trained in religion, politeness, and physique at -home by his mother. After this he became a ‘valet’ or ‘page’ at the -home of a nobleman, who was generally his father’s feudal superior. -Here he performed personal duties for his lord and lady, and his -education was conducted mostly by the latter. He learned the game of -chess, acquired the etiquette of love and honor, and was taught to -play the harp and pipe and to sing, to read and write, and to compose -in verse. Outside the castle, the pages were trained in running, -wrestling, boxing, riding, and rudimentary tilting (Fig. 14). In the -third stage, at fourteen or fifteen the youth passed to the grade of -‘squire,’ and, while he still attended the lady and carved the meat -or handed around the viands for the guests, his chief service was to -the knight and his training came through him. He slept near him at -night, groomed his horses, kept his armor and weapons in condition, -and attended him at the tournament or upon the battlefield. Through -this service the squire himself was practiced in all the warlike -arts. Toward the close of the period the embryo knight also chose his -lady-love, and learned to write verses and dance. When the squire -became twenty-one, he was knighted with many religious ceremonies. -After a season of fasting, the candidate entered the church in full -armor and spent a night in vigil and holy meditation. In the morning he -confessed, had his sword blessed upon the altar by the priest, and took -an oath to defend the church, protect women, and succor the poor. He -then knelt before his lord, who laid his own sword upon the candidate -and dubbed him knight. - -[Sidenote: Courage, but cruelty;] - -[Sidenote: self-respect, but pride;] - -[Sidenote: liberality, but extravagance;] - -[Sidenote: and other anomalies.] - -[Sidenote: Counteraction of otherworldliness.] - -=The Effects of Chivalric Education.=--Such was the training of the -knight in the ‘rudiments of love, war, and religion.’ It contained -many apparent anomalies and contradictions, and every virtue seems to -have been balanced by a correlative vice. The knights were recklessly -courageous in battle, but their anger was ungovernable and their -cruelty extreme. A great self-respect was supposed to characterize -the true knight, but this often reacted into an overweening pride. -Likewise, while the knights were rated largely according to their -liberality and hospitality, these virtues degenerated into a great -love of display and extravagance beyond measure. Again, although great -respect for womanhood was inculcated, not much consideration could be -expected by the woman beneath a certain rank. Similarly, the knightly -word of honor, if accompanied by certain forms, would be held sacred, -but should these forms be omitted, a decided breach of faith was not -uncommon. As a whole, however, the chivalric training had a beneficial -effect upon the society of the times. It helped to organize the turmoil -and to refine the barbarism of mediæval Europe, and was an effective -instrument in raising the position of women. Moreover, while this -peculiar training was artificial and worldly, by that very tendency it -did much to counteract the ‘otherworldly’ ideal of monasticism and the -general asceticism of the period. It encouraged an activity in earthly -affairs and a frank enjoyment of this life, and thus helped to develop -a striking characteristic of the Renaissance. - - -SUPPLEMENTARY READING - -Graves, _During the Transition_ (Macmillan, 1910), chap. VII; Monroe, -_Text-book_ (Macmillan, 1905), pp. 284-291. Detailed descriptions of -the stages of chivalric training can be found in Cornish, F. W., -_Chivalry_ (Sonnenschein, London, 1901) (Macmillan, 1908); Furnival, F. -J., _Early Education in England (Forewords to The Babees Book_, Early -English Text Society, Original Series, vol. 32); and Mills, C., _The -History of Chivalry_ (Lea and Blanchard, Philadelphia, 1844), vol. -I, chaps. I-V, and vol. II, chap. VII. An ingenious, but uncritical -reconstruction of the life of a knight in story form, is found in -Gautier, L., _Chivalry_, chaps. V-XX. - -[Illustration: The Education of Chivalry: - -Figs. 12 and 13.--Preliminaries and termination of a combat. - -Fig. 14.--Boys playing tournament with a ‘quintain,’ or dummy opponent. - -(Reproduced from Strutt, _Sports and Pastimes of England_.)] - - - - -CHAPTER XI - -THE BURGHER, GILD, AND CHANTRY SCHOOLS - - -OUTLINE - - In the later Middle Ages the commerce of Europe was greatly - increased. Soon the towns received a large impulse from serfs that - flocked into them, and before long an influential ‘burgher class’ - arose. - - There also sprang up merchant and craft gilds, which afforded an - industrial training through apprenticeship, and a more formal - education through ‘gild schools.’ As the gilds merged with the - town, these institutions became ‘burgher schools,’ and afforded a - practical education in reading, writing, and reckoning. Various - ‘adventure,’ ‘chantry,’ and other schools were also absorbed by the - burgher schools. - - Thus these institutions came to represent the educational interests - of the industrial classes, and paved the way for the civic control - of education. - -[Sidenote: Impulse caused by Crusades and desire for luxuries.] - -=The Rise of Commerce and Industry.=--A most important influence in -producing a transition from the mediæval to modern times is found in -the increase of commerce during the later Middle Ages. From the Roman -days down, trade had never died out in Western Europe, especially -Italy, despite the injuries wrought by barbarian invasions, as the -nobles had always need of luxuries, and the Church of articles of -utility in its services. But the demand for vessels and transports -during the Crusades, and the desire for the precious stones, silks, -perfumes, drugs, spices, and porcelain from the Orient afterward, -gave a tremendous impulse to commercial and industrial activity. The -people of Europe began to think of what articles others outside their -own little groups might want in exchange for these luxuries, and to -strive to produce such commodities. They also undertook themselves -to make some of the new articles, such as light and gauzy cotton and -linen fabrics, silks, velvets, and tapestries. Thus the means of -communication between the European states was greatly facilitated, new -commercial routes and new regions were opened, geographical knowledge -was increased, navigation was developed, maritime and mercantile -affairs were organized, manufactures and industries were enlarged, -currency was increased, and forms of credit were improved. All this -tended toward a larger intellectual view and a partial dissipation of -provincialism and intolerance. - -[Sidenote: Contributed to the growth of cities,] - -=Development of Cities and the Burgher Class.=--The most noteworthy -consequence of this industrial and commercial awakening was the growth -of towns and cities. There was little town life in Western Europe -during the Middle Ages before the twelfth century, as the old Roman -towns had, through the invasions of the Germans, largely disintegrated, -and but few new organizations had sprung up in their place. While -some towns still existed in Italy and Southern France, most of the -people of Europe lived in the country upon feudal estates. These -little communities were largely isolated and independent of the rest -of the world. They produced among themselves all that their members -needed, and little or no money was necessary for their crude forms of -exchange. Their life was unbroken in its monotony, there was little -opportunity for them to better their condition, and their industries -were carried on in a perfunctory and wasteful fashion. But with the -growth of commerce and population, these serfs began to find it more -profitable to work in the towns and compensate the lord of the manor -with money rather than work, and the lords, in turn, found it of -advantage to accept money in lieu of services, especially as many of -them had been impoverished by the Crusades. Great bodies of serfs -flocked to the towns, and new centers sprang up around the manorial -estates and monasteries as manufactures, trades, and commerce increased. - -[Sidenote: and to the development of a burgher class.] - -Feudalism thus began to be threatened as early as the twelfth -century, and within a hundred years the extinction of serfdom was -assured. The people soon rebelled against the rule of their lords and -either expelled them altogether or secured from them for a monetary -consideration a charter conferring more liberal rights and privileges. -By these charters, the lord agreed to recognize the gild of merchants, -and to permit the people to govern themselves. As industries, trade, -and commerce continued to develop, the craftsmen and merchants grew -rapidly in wealth and importance. They were soon enabled to rival the -clergy in education, and the nobility in the luxury of their dwellings -and living. They began to read, and books were written or adapted for -their needs. The ‘burgher class’ came to have a recognized position by -the side of the clergy and nobility; and the king, in order to retain -their support, was forced to take counsel with them. This development -of industry and commerce, growth of town and city life, and rise of a -‘third estate’ is one of the most noteworthy changes of the late Middle -Ages. - -[Sidenote: Stages of] - -[Sidenote: (1) apprentice] - -[Sidenote: (2) journeyman, and] - -(3) master.] - -=The Gilds and Industrial Education.=--Such a new social attitude -naturally gave rise to new forms of education. An informal type of -training soon sprang up in connection with the development of ‘gilds.’ -Besides the original gild of merchants, through which the town had -presented a united front and gained its privileges, separate gilds -for the various crafts had been established in each town. These craft -gilds were the sole repositories of the traditional lore of the -vocations, and became the chief channel for transmitting it. While -their number and variety differed in each town, all the gilds sought to -prevent anyone who had not been regularly approved and admitted to the -corporation from practicing the trade he represented. In consequence -of this attempt at regulation, industrial training in the craft of -each gild grew up through an apprenticeship system. This was provided -upon a domestic basis. The ‘apprentice’ entered the household of his -‘master,’ and learned the craft under his direction (Fig. 15). The time -necessary for this varied greatly in different crafts. For example, -in Paris it took two years to learn to become a cook, eight years an -embroiderer, and ten years a goldsmith. While the apprentice received -no wages during this period, he was under the protection of the gild, -and might appeal to the organization against ill-treatment or defective -training. At the end of his apprenticeship, he became a ‘journeyman’ -and could earn wages, but only by working for a master, and not through -direct service for the public. After an examination by the gild, -which might include the presentation of a ‘masterpiece,’ or sample of -his work, the journeyman eventually became a master. In other ways, -the organization regulated and protected its craft. In order that -journeymen and masters might not become too numerous, all masters, save -those on the governing board of the gild, were forbidden to take more -than one apprentice. The methods of practicing each trade and the hours -to be devoted to it each day were specified, and the handiwork of each -man carefully scrutinized. In many instances, the gild put its own -stamp upon good work, and might often seize products that it considered -defective. - -[Sidenote: A more formal means of education was instituted through -priests of the gilds and endowments.] - -=Gild Schools.=--In this way there grew up a species of industrial -education, with three definite stages in its organization and with -inspection at every point. Before long, too, the gilds developed a -more formal means of education. The existing ecclesiastical schools -did not altogether meet the needs of the gilds, and they undertook -the establishment of additional institutions for this purpose. Where -the gilds had retained one or more priests to perform the necessary -religious offices for their members, before long they also utilized -these functionaries to keep a school for the benefit of their own and -sometimes other children in the town. Later, endowments were furnished -especially for a priest to teach school, or an amount sufficient for -the purpose was paid out of the common funds of the gild. Some of these -gild schools, like ‘Merchant Taylors’’ of London, or the Grammar School -at Stratford-on-Avon, where Shakespeare was educated (Fig. 16), still -survive as secondary institutions. Many instances, too, are recorded -where the members of a certain gild were appointed trustees of a -school established by an individual, and were granted the right of -appointing and dismissing the master, admitting the pupils, managing -the property, and formulating statutes. In some such fashion Colet -later vested the management of the famous St. Paul’s school (see p. -118) in the gild of mercers. - -[Illustration: Fig. 15.--Apprenticeship training in a gild. (The master -bootmaker and his wife, two journeymen, and an apprentice.)] - -[Illustration: Fig. 16.--Gild school and church at Stratford-on-Avon. -(In this ‘grammar’ school Shakespeare learned ‘little Latin and less -Greek.’)] - -[Sidenote: Gild schools absorbed by the burgher schools.] - -[Sidenote: Practical course.] - -=Burgher Schools.=--As the gild organizations gradually merged with -those of the towns, the gild schools were generally absorbed in the -institutions known as ‘burgher’ or town schools. At first these burgher -schools were not very dissimilar to those established by the Church, -except that they were more conveniently located, but later various -types of vernacular schools arose to meet special practical demands, -especially writing and reckoning. The Latin burgher schools were also -somewhat practical in their course, and often admitted some pupils who -desired to learn only to read, write, and reckon. Writing had become -an important vocation, since printing had not yet been invented; and -there was a definite demand for writers in public offices, private -secretaries, letter writers for the illiterate, and teachers of -writing. Reckoning grew directly out of the new commercial life, and -was often taught in the writing schools. It was not taught from the -standpoint of theory or discipline, as was the arithmetic in the Latin -schools, but for the sake of practical calculation and bookkeeping. But -even all the facilities of the regular Latin and vernacular schools of -the town were not sufficient to meet the demand for a more practical -education. In consequence, private ‘adventure’ schools, taught by -wandering teachers or by women, likewise often sprang up, and some -teachers were even licensed by the town authorities to teach the -vernacular. In most instances, however, these institutions were also -combined with the burgher schools. - -[Sidenote: Arose from foundations for masses for the dead.] - -=Chantry Schools.=--Another type of institution that came into -prominence toward the close of the Middle Ages was the ‘chantry -school.’ Schools of this sort at first arose out of bequests by wealthy -persons to support priests who should ‘chant’ masses for the repose of -their souls. Since these religious duties did not absorb all the time -of the priests, they were able to do some teaching. And before long, -the founders of chantries themselves came to direct that the priests -carrying out their will should be required to teach. Often two chantry -priests were provided, one to teach a ‘grammar’ school, and the other -a ‘song’ or vernacular school. From the first most of these chantry -schools were free of all tuition charges, the priest being requested -to “teach gratis, without asking anything beyond his stipend for his -pains,” but occasionally they were gratuitous only to the children of -his parishioners or to poor children whose parents or guardians asked -for the privilege. - -[Sidenote: Paved the way for a more secularized education.] - -=Influence of the New Schools.=--The chantry schools likewise were -often united with various other schools within a town, and became -jointly known as ‘burgher schools.’ Many new foundations of a similar -nature were also made. These burgher schools were largely controlled -and supported by the public authorities, although still generally -taught by the priests. They came to represent the interests of the -mercantile and industrial classes, and gave instruction in subjects -of more practical value than had any of the schools hitherto. Such -institutions sprang up everywhere during the later Middle Ages. They -were often strongly opposed by the ecclesiastical authorities, who -struggled hard to abolish them or bring them under control, but they -continued to grow and hold their own. The number of lay teachers in -them gradually increased, and thus paved the way for the tendency -toward the secularization and civic control of education that appeared -later on. The new schools, therefore, that arose in connection with the -development of commerce and industry and the growth of towns, were one -of the largest factors that led into the broadening of outlook known as -the Renaissance. - - -SUPPLEMENTARY READING - -Graves, _During the Transition_ (Macmillan, 1910), chap. X; Monroe, -_Text-book_ (Macmillan, 1905), pp. 337-339. Adams, G. B., _Civilization -during the Middle Ages_ (Scribner, 1894), furnishes an illuminating -chapter (XII) upon the _Growth of Commerce and Its Results_. The -development of towns and gilds in various countries of Europe is -described in detail by Ashley, W. J., _English Economic History and -Theory_ (Putnam, 1892), vol. I, chap. II; Green, Alice S., _Town Life -in the Fifteenth Century_ (Macmillan, 1894); Gross, C., _The Gild -Merchant_ (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1890); Staley, E., _The Guilds -of Florence_ (Methuen, London, 1906); and Unwin, G., _The Gilds and -Companies of London_ (Methuen, London, 1908; Scribner, 1909). Accounts -of the new types of schools are found in Leach, A. F., _English Schools -at the Reformation_ (Constable, 1896), chaps. 7-9; Nohle, E., _History -of the German School System_ (Report of the U. S. Commissioner of -Education, 1897-1898, vol. I), pp. 22-26; and Watson, F., _English -Grammar Schools to 1660_ (Cambridge University Press, 1909), chap. -VII. - - - - -PART III - -THE TRANSITION TO MODERN TIMES - - - - -CHAPTER XII - -THE HUMANISTIC EDUCATION - - -OUTLINE - - By the fourteenth century there appeared an intellectual awakening, - known as the _Renaissance_. It was accompanied by a ‘revival of - learning’ and an education called ‘humanistic.’ - - Italy first showed evidence of the new movement. The - characteristics of the Renaissance were embodied in Petrarch and - Boccaccio, but little was done with the Greek classics until - Chrysoloras came from Constantinople. - - The tyrants of various cities often had humanistic schools started - at their courts. Of these the most typical was that under Vittorino - da Feltre. These schools eventually forced the universities to - admit the humanities to their course. But humanism gradually - degenerated into ‘Ciceronianism.’ - - Humanistic education also gradually spread to the countries north - of Italy, but it there took on more of a moral color. In France, - the protection of Francis I encouraged the introduction of humanism - into educational institutions by various scholars. The German - universities likewise began to respond to humanistic influences. - - The Hieronymians first introduced the classics into the schools, - and Erasmus, who was trained by them, became the leader in - humanistic education. Through other humanistic schools started by - Sturm and others, the ‘gymnasium,’ the typical classical school of - Germany, was evolved, and the humanistic education became fixed and - formal. - - In England the movement gradually developed at Oxford and - Cambridge, and Colet started St. Paul’s school, which became the - model for all secondary schools. Humanism in England, however, - soon retrograded into a formalism, and the ‘grammar’ and ‘public’ - schools there are little changed to-day. - - The first secondary schools in the American colonies were modeled - after the grammar schools of the mother country. - -[Sidenote: Mediævalism contained the germ of its own emancipation.] - -=The Passing of the Middle Ages.=--It can now be seen that a new -spirit had crept into European civilization, and that the Middle Ages -were passing. We have previously noted (pp. 53f.) that, in order -to bring the German barbarians up to the level of the past, it was -necessary for the Church to set an authoritative standard and repress -all variation on the part of the individual. Yet such bondage of the -human spirit was unnatural, and there were periodic tendencies to -rebel against the system. In fact, mediævalism contained within itself -the germ of its own emancipation. During the eighth century there -came about a new political order, which culminated in Charlemagne’s -revival of education. While conditions were never again as desperate -after this stimulus, with the disruption of Charlemagne’s empire -another decline set in. But by the thirteenth century a new revival, -material and intellectual, had also appeared. Several developments gave -evidence of the expansion within, and assisted in producing it. The -broadening of horizon through contact with the Moors, the development -of scholasticism, the evolution of universities, the worldly appeal -of chivalry, and the growth of cities, gilds, and commerce were all -helping by accumulation to dispel the mediæval spirit. - -[Sidenote: The general tendencies of the Awakening] - -And by the fourteenth century a new dawn had been ushered in. The -period that followed was marked by a general intellectual and cultural -progress that began to free men from their bondage to ecclesiasticism -and to induce them to look at the world about them. The adherence to -an ‘otherworldly’ ideal, the restriction of learning, the reception of -the teachings of the Church without investigation, and the conformity -of the individual were by this time rapidly disappearing. Such -tendencies were clearly being replaced by a genuine joy in the life -of this world, a broader field of knowledge and thought, a desire to -reason and deal with all ideas more critically, and enlarged ideals of -individualism. The days of mere absorption and assimilation had passed. - -[Sidenote: While the Renaissance was caused by internal factors, it was -promoted by the Revival of Learning.] - -[Sidenote: Humanists and humanistic education.] - -=The Renaissance and the Revival of Learning.=--This tremendous -widening of horizon has been generally known as the _Renaissance_ -or ‘new birth.’ The term is used to indicate that the spirit of -the Græco-Roman development had returned, and that opportunity for -expression was granted to the individual once more. But this period -is also appropriately known as the ‘Revival of Learning.’ For, while -the awakening preceded and was caused by internal factors, rather than -by the recovery of classical literature and learning, intellectual -freedom was very greatly heightened and forwarded after a restoration -of the classics once began. The only food at hand that could satisfy -the awakened intelligence of the times was the literature and culture -of the classical peoples. The discovery that the writings of the -ancient world were filled with a genuine vitality and virility, and -that the old authors had dealt with world problems in a profound and -masterly fashion, and with far more vision than had ever been possible -for the mediævalists, gave rise to an eager desire and enthusiasm for -the classics that went beyond all bounds. A knowledge of classical -literature had never altogether disappeared, and various works had -been preserved by the monks and others. To search out the manuscripts -of the Latin and Greek writers, the monasteries, cathedrals, and -castles were now ransacked from end to end. The manuscripts found were -rapidly multiplied, and the greatest pains taken to secure the correct -form of every passage. The devotees of the new movement were generally -called ‘humanists,’ and the training embodying the classics has since -been termed ‘humanistic education.’ - -[Sidenote: Political storm center.] - -[Sidenote: Commercial activity.] - -[Sidenote: Home of the classics.] - -=Causes of the Awakening in Italy.=--While the general tendency toward -an awakening was apparent throughout Western Europe, it first became -evident in Italy. This was due to the fact that Italy was at the time -a seat of intellectual activity resulting from several factors. It was -a storm center for civic and interstate quarrels, and, as a result -of this political unrest, the citizens were kept constantly on the -outlook for their own safety and interests, and their wits were greatly -sharpened. Even the exile, into which one civic faction or another -was constantly forced, had the effect of broadening their vision -and bringing out the greatest possibilities within them. Again, the -commercial intercourse of the Italian cities with other countries had, -for various physiographic and historic reasons, become extraordinarily -active. This tended to open the minds of the Italians, break up their -old conceptions, free them of prejudice, and increase their thirst for -learning. Furthermore, the ghost of the classic ages still haunted its -old home. A knowledge of the Latin tongue had never ceased to exist in -Italy, and many manuscripts of the Latin and Greek authors had been -preserved. There was only needed an intellectual awakening sufficient -to shake off the thraldom to the Church and produce an appreciation of -classical literature and culture, in order to bring back this spirit of -the past into real pulsating life. - -[Sidenote: Petrarch embodied the Renaissance spirit,] - -[Sidenote: and was an enthusiast on the Latin classics.] - -[Sidenote: His influence.] - -=The Revival of the Latin Classics.=--The earliest of the great -humanists was Petrarch (1304-1374). In him we find the very embodiment -of the Renaissance spirit. He completely repudiated the ‘otherworldly’ -ideal of mediævalism, and was keenly aware of the beauties and joys of -this life. He did not hesitate to attack the most hoary of traditions, -nor to rely upon observation, investigation, and reason. He likewise -felt a kinship with the thinkers and writers of the classic age, when -independence and breadth were given more scope, and held that their -works must be recovered before their spirit could be continued. This -led to a tremendous enthusiasm for the Latin classics, and he spent -much of his life in restoring ancient culture. He devoted himself -during his extensive travels largely to collecting manuscripts of the -old Latin writers, which previously had been widely scattered, and -endeavoring to repair in them the ravages of time. And he inspired -every one he met with a desire to gather and study the works of the -classic authors. He also wrote a number of Latin works that were -filled with the classic spirit. Among them were several collections -of _Letters_, a work of erudition _On Famous Men_, and an epic poem -in honor of Scipio Africanus that he called _Africa_. Some of his -letters were indited to Cicero, Homer, and other classical authors as -if they were still living. After he had been crowned as poet laureate -by the University of Rome in 1341, he spent most of his time visiting -various Italian cities and spreading the humanistic spirit. Of the -younger scholars and literary men influenced by him probably the most -noted was Boccaccio (1313-1375). Through Petrarch this youthful poet -developed a perfect passion for the ancient writers, and devoted the -rest of his life to classical culture. He obtained a wide knowledge of -the Latin writers, and searched out, preserved, and had copied as many -manuscripts as possible. - -[Sidenote: Little was at first known of the Greek classics.] - -[Sidenote: Chrysoloras] - -[Sidenote: and his pupils.] - -=The Development of Greek Scholarship.=--With all this revival of -Latin literature by the _côterie_ of Petrarch, for some time there was -little done with the Greek. That language had almost disappeared in -Europe, and the greatest Greek authors were known only through Latin -translations. But a knowledge of the Greek language and literature -still persisted in the Eastern empire, and the humanists of Italy were, -through the works of the Latin authors, constantly directed back to the -writings of the Greeks. They became eager to read them in the original, -and several humanists began the study of Greek. Nevertheless, Petrarch -pathetically confessed: “Homer is dumb to me, while I am most certainly -deaf to him.” And while, with the aid of his Greek teacher, Boccaccio -made a translation of Homer, it showed little real appreciation of the -original. Not until Chrysoloras (1350-1415) came as an envoy from the -Eastern emperor and was induced in 1396 to settle in Italy and teach -Greek, was any systematic training possible. During the next sixteen -years this man of learning taught in the leading centers, established -schools, made translations of Greek authors, and wrote a Greek grammar. -From his efforts sprang a number of famous scholars, such as Vergerio, -Niccolo de’ Niccoli, Bruni, and Guarino da Verona and his son. These -men collected or copied hundreds of volumes, started libraries and -schools, made excellent translations, wrote treatises on humanistic -education, and trained a number of humanists, who became distinguished -later. - -[Sidenote: City tyrants fostered humanism and started court schools.] - -=The Court Schools and Vittorino da Feltre.=--A powerful support -for the work of these humanists resulted from the rivalry of the -Italian cities. The princes at the head of these centers were often -usurpers, and depended largely upon city pride to maintain their -power. To appeal to the classical enthusiasm of their people, they -did everything possible to propagate the humanistic movement and make -their cities illustrious. Probably the most typical examples of these -humanistic tyrants are found among the Visconti at Milan and the Medici -at Florence. In some instances these court circles promoted the new -learning informally, but often, where a scholar had been taken into -the family of a prince as private tutor, children of the neighboring -aristocracy were associated and a regular school was started. ‘Court -schools’ of this sort soon existed at Florence, Venice, Padua, Pavia, -Verona, Ferrara, and several other cities, but the best known of all -was that organized by Vittorino da Feltre (1378-1446) at Mantua. - -[Sidenote: Types of pupils.] - -[Sidenote: The aim was harmonious development of mind, body, and -morals.] - -=The Court School at Mantua.=--Vittorino undertook this school at -forty-five, when he had received the best possible education of the -times in Latin, Greek, and mathematics, and had greatly distinguished -himself as a teacher and a man of piety. He received into the school -not only the royal princes and the scions of the leading Mantuan -families, but, by special permission, the sons of his personal friends -and promising boys of every degree. He dwelt with his pupils, and was -most strict in his selection of masters and of attendants, that the -morals of his pupils might be of the highest. Likewise, ‘the father -of his pupils,’ as Vittorino held himself to be, looked out for their -food, clothing, and health, and shared in their games, interests, -and pleasures. It was his intention to secure for his pupils that -harmonious development of mind, body, and morals that the old Greeks -had known as a ‘liberal education,’ but he emphasized the practical and -social side of the individual’s efficiency, and wished to prepare his -pupils for a life of activity and service rather than to create mere -rhetoricians and pedants. - -[Sidenote: Course and methods.] - -[Sidenote: Classics and mathematical subjects.] - -[Sidenote: Physical and moral and religious training.] - -This he felt could be accomplished largely through a grammatical and -literary study of the Greek and Roman writers. The pupils learned from -the first to converse in Latin, and there were games with letters for -the youngest and simple exercises to train them in clear articulation -and proper accent and emphasis. Before they were ten, they were also -drilled in memorizing and reciting with intelligence the easier -portions of the classic authors. This elocutionary work, which was -increased in length and difficulty as the boys grew older, gave them an -excellent grasp of vocabulary, rhythm, and style. As they advanced, the -pupils read a variety of Latin writers, and soon took up a study of the -Greek authors and of the Church Fathers. The mathematical subjects were -also taught with an enlarged scope, especially in their applications -to drawing, mensuration, and surveying. Because of the lack of books, -the teaching was carried on largely by dictation. Vittorino, however, -carefully studied the ability, interests, and future career of his -pupils, and selected the subjects and methods best suited to each -intelligence. He thus inaugurated a thoroughly elastic course for the -school. Physical and moral education were likewise insisted upon quite -as fully as intellectual. Vittorino introduced especially fencing, -wrestling, dancing, ball-playing, running, and leaping, in all of -which he was himself an expert, but the purpose of these was to aid -and stimulate the mental powers. He also by both precept and example -inculcated piety, reverence, and religious observances. He believed, -moreover, that truth and moral beauty could be derived not only from -the Christian authors, but also, by means of expurgation, from the -classic writings. - -[Sidenote: Rivalry and adoption of the new learning by the -universities.] - -=The Relation of the Court Schools to the Universities.=--The court -school at Mantua had thus a most potent influence upon the educational -practice of the times, and trained a large number of distinguished -ecclesiastics, statesmen, scholars, and rulers. It doubtless was -broadly typical of the court schools and of the humanistic education of -Italy in general. These court schools, while taking pupils very early, -often retained them until they were twenty-one, and covered as much, -if not more, ground than the arts course of the university. They were, -in a way, competitors of the older institutions. A student might, for -the sake of a degree, go from a court school to a university, but, as -a rule, if what he wished were a general course, he would be satisfied -with the greater prestige that came from being a pupil of one of the -distinguished humanists that the court schools were generally able to -retain at their head. In fact, the want of hospitality, if not actual -hostility, of universities to the new learning, often stimulated the -growth of court schools. In many instances where the university was -especially conservative, a court school was set up by its side as a -professed rival. Gradually, however, the humanistic training crept -into all the universities of Italy, and the classical literature of -the Greeks and Romans largely took the place of the former grammar, -rhetoric, and dialectic. Before the close of the fifteenth century, -Florence, Padua, Pavia, Milan, Ferrara, Rome, and other cities had -admitted the humanities to their universities, and the other university -seats were not long in following their example. - -[Sidenote: Humanism eventually became formalized and largely a drill in -grammar.] - -[Sidenote: ‘Ciceronianism.’] - -=Decadence of Italian Humanism.=--Toward the close of the fifteenth -century, however, this liberal education of the humanists in Italy -began to be fixed and formal. Until the middle of the century the -ideals, content, and meaning of this training were constantly -expanding, but after that there was a gradual narrowing and hardening, -and during the early years of the sixteenth century the degeneration -became complete. As the subject-matter became institutionalized, -the literature of the Greeks and Romans failed more and more to be -interpreted in terms of life. Emphasis was placed upon the form rather -than the content of the classical writings, and grammatical drill -was more and more emphasized as a means of formal discipline. Before -long the course was limited largely to Cicero, and the new learning -fell into that decadent state known as ‘Ciceronianism.’ It consisted -simply in an attempt to teach a perfect style with Cicero as a model, -and to give one a conversational knowledge of Ciceronian Latin. The -structure, metaphors, and vocabulary of all Latin writing had to be -copied from the phrases of Cicero, and the literature of the day became -little more than a sequence of model passages from that author. - -[Sidenote: Through the invention of printing humanism leaped the Alps.] - -=The Spread and Character of Humanism in the Northern Countries.=--Such -was the effect of the Renaissance upon education in the country of its -birth. But the humanistic training could not be confined to Italy. By -the middle of the fifteenth century, with the invention of printing, -the texts of the classic authors were rapidly multiplied and spread -everywhere. The Renaissance and the classic literature leaped the Alps, -and made their way into France, the Teutonic countries, England, and -elsewhere. At first, humanistic scholars wandered into the North, soon -others were invited in large numbers by patrons of learning, and, at -length, students from the Northern countries thronged into Italy for -instruction. Towards the close of the fifteenth century the humanists -outside the peninsula became very numerous, and during the sixteenth -century the movement came to its height in the Northern lands. - -[Sidenote: Less individual and more social in the North.] - -[Sidenote: Use of Greek and Hebrew.] - -But the character and effects of the Renaissance and humanism in the -North differed greatly from those in the country of their origin. The -peoples of the North, especially those of Germanic stock, were by -nature more religious than the brilliant and mercurial Italians. With -them the Renaissance led less to a desire for personal development, -self-realization, and individual achievement, and took on more of -a social and moral color. The prime purpose of humanism became the -improvement of society, morally and religiously, and the classical -revival pointed the way to obtaining a new and more exalted meaning -from the Scriptures. Through the revival of Greek, Northern scholars, -especially the German and English, sought to get away from the -ecclesiastical doctrines and traditions, and turn back to the essence -of Christianity by studying the New Testament in the original. This -suggested a similar insight into the Old Testament, and an interest in -Hebrew was thereby aroused. In consequence, to most people in the North -a renewed study of the Bible became as important a feature of humanism -as an appreciation of the classics. - -[Sidenote: Expeditions of French kings into Italy.] - -[Sidenote: Francis I,] - -=The Development of Humanism in France.=--In France humanism appeared -early. In 1458 a professorship of Greek was established at the -University of Paris, but the humanistic movement did not amount to -much in France until it was stimulated by the expeditions of Charles -VIII (1494) and Louis XII (1498) into Italy. These undertakings of the -monarchs did not attain the military and political objects intended, -but through them France came into direct contact with humanism at -its sources, and a definite impression was made upon French art, -literature, and education. Even then, owing to the conservatism of the -university, the new learning met at first with formidable opposition. -Happily, it found an influential patron in the youthful Francis I (_r._ -1515-1547). - -[Sidenote: and Budæus.] - -[Sidenote: Corderius, and Ramus.] - -[Sidenote: College of Guyenne.] - -=French Humanistic Educators and Institutions.=--Under the protection -of Francis, many prominent humanistic scholars and educators, like -Budæus (1468-1540), appeared, classical manuscripts were collected, -Greek and Latin authors were translated, treatises on humanistic -education were produced, and the College of France, with chairs of -Greek, Hebrew, and Latin, was established (1530). Humanism was also -introduced into various colleges in Paris and Bordeaux by such scholars -and practical teachers as Corderius (1479-1564) and Ramus (1515-1572), -and many text-books and editions of the classics were published. Soon -most of the schools of France responded to the new training. It would -hardly be possible to consider many of them, but a brief description -of the course and administration in vogue at the College of Guyenne, -taken from an account of one of its teachers, may prove illuminating. -This college contained ten classes in secondary work, and two years -more in philosophy, which partially overlapped the faculty of arts in -the university. Latin and religion were taught throughout the secondary -school, and Greek, mathematics, rhetoric, and declamation could be -taken in the last three or four classes. The pupils were introduced -to the rudiments of Latin through the vernacular, and developmental -methods and enlivening disputations were used. Probably the general -conditions here were typical of the French humanistic schools -everywhere during the sixteenth century. - -[Sidenote: Erfurt and other existing universities.] - -[Sidenote: New universities.] - -=Humanism in the German Universities.=--Before humanism was well -established in France, however, it had also spread through the -Teutonic countries. By the end of the sixteenth century the German -universities had begun to adopt the new learning. In 1494 Erfurt -established a professorship of Poetry and Eloquence, which covered the -field of classic literature, and lectures on humanistic subjects were -before long given in Leipzig, Heidelberg, Tübingen, Ingoldstadt, and -Vienna. Likewise, a number of new universities, Wittenberg, Marburg, -Königsberg, and Jena, were started upon a humanistic basis, and before -the middle of the sixteenth century humanism prevailed in practically -all of the German universities. - -[Sidenote: At first instruction only in Bible and vernacular,] - -[Sidenote: but humanism added.] - -[Sidenote: Wessel, Agricola, Reuchlin,] - -[Sidenote: and] - -[Sidenote: Wimpfeling.] - -=The Hieronymians and Their Schools.=--The earliest factor in Germanic -humanism, however, appeared in the education furnished by the -Hieronymians, or Brethren of the Common Lot. For the instruction of -the poor, this order had started schools, or established teachers in -institutions already existing, throughout the Netherlands, Germany, -and France. At first, they stressed instruction in the Bible and the -vernacular, but, as the Italian influence began to be felt in the -upper countries, they broadened the course by the addition of classic -literature and Hebrew, and the schools soon became recognized centers -of humanism and intellectual interests. The pupils that were trained -there strengthened the new learning as teachers in the universities and -schools throughout Germany and the Netherlands. The first educator of -importance to introduce humanism into the Hieronymian training seems -to have been Wessel (1420-1489). He was preëminently interested in -teaching, and among his earliest pupils of distinction were Agricola -(1443-1485), who had a most potent influence in introducing classics, -and Reuchlin (1455-1522), who taught the classics and Hebrew at various -universities, and produced a monumental grammar and lexicon upon -the latter subject. An even more noteworthy teacher was Wimpfeling -(1450-1528), who became professor, dean, and rector at Heidelberg. He -lectured upon the classical authors and the Church Fathers, and wrote a -number of treatises upon education, in which he held to the attitude -of Northern humanism that all learning is vain which does not lead to -the advancement of mankind. But, while a true reformer, he never broke -from the Church. - -[Sidenote: Attitude of Erasmus.] - -[Sidenote: His text-books,] - -[Sidenote: satires,] - -[Sidenote: and educational treatises.] - -=Erasmus, Leader in the Humanistic Education of the North.=--A -similar attitude was held by Erasmus (1467-1531), the greatest of the -humanists trained by the Hieronymians. While he was bitterly opposed -to the corruption and obscurantism of ecclesiastics, he believed that -the remedy lay, not in a division of the Church, but in the study -of the classics and the Church Fathers, and in the general removal -of ignorance. Accordingly, to advance education, he assisted in the -preparation of Lily’s Latin grammar, translated into Latin the Greek -grammar of Theodore of Gaza, and wrote a work on Latin composition, -called _De Copia Verborum et Rerum_, and an elementary text-book -of Latin conversation on topics of the day, known as _Colloquies_. -Similarly, he produced treatises on the New Testament, and popularized -the Gospels and Church Fathers through paraphrases. Even better known -are the satires that he wrote in Latin to reform the abuses and -foibles of his times. His _Adages and Praise of Folly_ mercilessly -scored the absurdities and vices of the Church and the priesthood, -and in his _Dialogue on Ciceronianism_ he ridiculed some of the -narrower tendencies into which humanism had fallen. He also made -direct contributions to educational theory in his Latin treatises on -_The Liberal Education of Children_, _The Right Method of Study_, and -_Courteous Manners in Boys_, which are almost modern in some of their -recommendations. Learning, morality, religion, and good manners, he -held, must be trained together, and education must be open to everyone, -according to his or her ability. It should be started in infancy by -the mothers, and reading, writing, drawing, and some knowledge of -familiar animals and objects taught by informal methods. At seven -the boy is to be given a thorough training in the Scriptures, Church -Fathers, and the classics, and the content rather than the language and -form of these works is to be stressed. - -[Sidenote: Developed out of old schools for benefit of municipalities.] - -[Sidenote: Latin schools for Electorate of Saxony.] - -=The Development of Gymnasiums: Melanchthon’s Work.=--It can thus be -seen what a profound effect the humanists trained in the Hieronymian -schools had upon the Teutonic universities and other educational -institutions. But there sprang up another set of schools, known as -_Gymnasien_, that was an even more typical and lasting institutional -development of the Northern Renaissance. These ‘gymnasiums’ grew -largely out of the old cathedral and upper burgher schools, and -were established for the benefit of the municipality, rather than -for State and Church. Their development was gradual, but they were -given their first definite shaping by Melanchthon (1497-1560). After -a thorough humanistic training from his great-uncle, Reuchlin, and -from the universities at Heidelberg and Tübingen, that scholar had -become associated with Luther at the University of Wittenberg, and was -requested by the Elector of Saxony in 1528 to organize the schools in -his state. The ‘Latin Schools,’ which he planned for every town and -village of the electorate, were divided into three classes, and the -work in Latin and religion was adapted to the grade. Not even Greek or -Hebrew appeared in the course; much less the vernacular, mathematics, -science, and history. Nevertheless, it was from these municipal Latin -schools, when the course had been somewhat modified and expanded, that -the ‘gymnasium’ may be said to have sprung. - -[Sidenote: Piety, knowledge, and eloquence as ideals.] - -[Sidenote: Course of the ten classes.] - -=Sturm at Strassburg.=--A further step in fixing the type and the -first use of the term ‘gymnasium’ are found in the case of the -classical school organized by Johann Sturm (1507-1589) at Strassburg -in 1538. Here during his forty-five years as rector, Sturm worked -out a gymnasial course of ten classes, upon which the pupils entered -at six or seven years of age. The aim of this training he held to be -‘piety, knowledge, and eloquence,’ meaning by the last an ability to -speak and write Latin readily. For ‘piety,’ the Lutheran catechism was -studied in German for three years, and in Latin for three years longer. -The _Sunday Sermons_ were read in the fourth and fifth years, and -the _Letters_ of Jerome also in the fifth year, while the _Epistles_ -of St. Paul were carefully studied from the sixth year through the -rest of the course. On the ‘knowledge’ and ‘eloquence’ side, Latin -grammar was begun immediately and the drill continued for four years, -during which the pupil passed gradually from memorizing lists of words -used in everyday life and reading dialogues that embodied them to -the translation of Cicero and the easier Latin poets. In the fourth -year exercises in style were begun, and this was accompanied by a -grammatical and literary study of Cicero, Vergil, Plautus, Terence, -Martial, Horace, Sallust, and other authors, together with letter -writing, declamation, disputation, and the acting of plays. Greek was -begun in the fifth year, and after three years of grammatical training, -Demosthenes, the dramatists, Homer, and Thucydides were undertaken. - -[Sidenote: Formalism,] - -[Sidenote: but wide influence.] - -=Formalism in the Gymnasiums.=--This training, like that of the -Italian humanists, soon became set, formal, and mechanical. While other -authors than Cicero were read, the object was to acquire an ability -to read, write, and speak Ciceronian Latin, and words, phrases, and -expressions were carefully committed. The main emphasis throughout was -upon form, with little regard for content, and the Latin and Greek -were largely regarded as an end in themselves. Yet the gymnasium of -Sturm was an enormous success, and was soon crowded with students. -His pupils became the headmasters of all the most prominent schools, -and through his wide correspondence with sovereigns and educators, -the course of study formulated by Sturm became a model not only for -Germany, but, in a sense, for the rest of Europe. At any rate, most -of the existing secondary schools in Germany, and many founded later, -became gymnasiums. The majority of the Hieronymian schools soon adopted -the gymnasial course. This was also the case with the _Fürstenschulen_, -or ‘princes’ schools,’ a type of institution started in 1543 by Duke -Moritz of Saxony to train well-prepared officials for Church and -State at public expense, and afterward absorbed into the gymnasial -system. And the gymnasiums have to-day changed but little from Sturm’s -organization. Owing to the later influence of realism, the addition of -mathematics, modern languages, and the natural sciences has somewhat -mitigated the amount of classics prescribed, but otherwise the German -gymnasiums adhere to their formal humanism as tenaciously as in the -sixteenth century. - -[Sidenote: Grocyn and Linacre.] - -[Sidenote: Erasmus, Colet, and More.] - -[Sidenote: Cheke and Ascham.] - -=The Humanistic Movement in England: Greek at Oxford and -Cambridge.=--In its northward march the humanistic education also -effected profound changes in England. By the middle of the fifteenth -century many former students of Oxford began to study at various -humanistic centers in Italy. But the influence of such innovators was -scarcely felt until Grocyn and Linacre, who had gone to Florence about -1488, undertook to introduce Greek into education upon their return -home. Grocyn (1442-1519) became the first lecturer on Greek at Oxford, -but he was greatly assisted in the humanistic training by Linacre -(1460-1524), although his lectureship was nominally on medicine. Among -their pupils were Erasmus, More, and Colet. Humanistic education -did not reach Cambridge, however, until the close of the fifteenth -century, but, with the progress of the sixteenth, that university -rapidly overtook her sister institution. The real development began -when Erasmus, while a professor of theology at Cambridge (1510-1514), -consented also to lecture upon Greek as a labor of love. Erasmus was -succeeded by a number of lecturers, and in 1540 the new _regius_ -professorship was held for four years each by the great teachers, Cheke -(1514-1557) and Ascham (1515-1568). - -[Sidenote: More and Wolsey.] - -[Sidenote: Ascham’s _Scholemaster_.] - -=Humanism at the Court.=--As Cheke became private tutor to Prince -Edward and Ascham to Princess Elizabeth, an Hellenic atmosphere -was soon promoted in royal circles. A powerful assistance to the -development of humanism was also found at the court through the -influence of More, who was especially close to Cardinal Wolsey, and -so for a time to the king, Henry VIII. A number of treatises upon -humanistic education were written by members of the court, like More -and Vives; while Ascham produced his _Scholemaster_, a well-known work -on teaching Latin and Greek by ‘double translation.’ This famous -method consisted in having the child translate a passage into English, -and then, after an hour, render it back into the original and have the -master compare it with the text. - -[Sidenote: Religious training combined with the classics.] - -[Sidenote: Influence upon other grammar schools.] - -=Colet and His School at St Paul’s.=--The humanistic changes in English -education, however, were not limited to the universities and the -court. The schools also felt the effect of the new movement, and the -most important factor in bringing this about was the foundation of -St. Paul’s School in 1509 by Colet. This scholar devoted most of the -fortune left him by his father to establishing a humanistic school in -St. Paul’s churchyard, dedicated to ‘the child Jesus.’ The institution -was thus an outgrowth of Northern humanism, and combined religious -training with a study of the classics. In connection with certain -Latin authors and Church Fathers, the pupils studied the catechism in -English, the _Latin Grammar_ of Lily, who was the first headmaster of -the school, and the _De Copia_ of Erasmus. St. Paul’s school trained a -long list of brilliant scholars, literary men, clergy, and statesmen, -and became the immediate model for a host of other institutions. There -were in existence at the time St. Paul’s was founded some three hundred -‘grammar’ schools of various types. These had come down from the Middle -Ages, and their chief purpose had been the training of young men for -the priesthood. Their curriculum was usually of the mediæval monastic -type, but they soon felt the influence of the new school. Those which -survived the general dissolution of ecclesiastical foundations by Henry -VIII and Edward VI were gradually remodeled on the classical basis of -St. Paul’s. New schools were also established in accordance with the -humanistic ideals. - -[Sidenote: Soon became narrow and formal.] - -=Humanism in the English ‘Grammar’ Schools.=--But the humanism of the -‘grammar’ schools in England, as in Italy and Germany, soon became -narrow and formal. The purpose of humanistic education came to be -not so much a real training in literature as a practical command of -Latin as a means of communication in all lands and ages. Accordingly, -the training became one of dictionaries, grammars, and phrase-books. -Expressions and selections were culled from authors and treasured in -notebooks, and the methods became largely _memoriter_ and passive. -The formalism into which the schools of England had thus fallen by -the seventeenth century is depicted in Brinsley’s _Ludus literarius: -or the Grammar Schoole_, a work intended to ridicule and reform these -conditions. It indicates that the training in Latin was devoted to -drill in inflecting, parsing, and construing a fixed set of texts. -Lily’s _Grammar_ was memorized by the pupils, and references to it -were glibly repeated, with little understanding of their meaning. All -conversation was based upon some phrase-book, like the _Colloquies_ of -Corderius, and a Latin theme had to be ground out each week. - -[Sidenote: Largely unchanged.] - -[Sidenote: The great ‘public’ schools.] - -=English ‘Grammar’ and ‘Public’ Schools To-day.=--Although reforms have -since been made in many of these directions, the organization and the -formal humanism of the English ‘grammar’ school have been preserved -in principle even to this day. Mathematics, modern languages, and -sciences have been added, and a ‘modern side’ has been established -as an alternate for the old course, but the classics are still the -emphasized feature, and, to a large degree, the drill methods prevail. -But, while it was originally intended that the grammar schools should, -by means of the endowment, be open to rich and poor alike, because of -the great increase in expenses, necessary and unnecessary, there are -now not many opportunities for any one in the lower classes of society -to attend a grammar school. Similarly, a distinction has come to be -drawn between ‘grammar’ and ‘public’ schools, although it is not a -very clear one. In general, a ‘public school’ has a more aristocratic -and wealthier patronage. Nine ‘great public schools’ were recognized -by the Clarendon Commission in 1864,--Winchester (Fig. 17), Eton, St. -Paul’s, Shrewsbury, Westminster, Rugby, Harrow, Merchant Taylors’, -and Charterhouse; but several other old schools and a number of the -stronger foundations of Victoria’s reign are generally admitted, and -many others claim the dignity of the name that would not be considered -eligible outside of the immediate locality. - -[Sidenote: First American secondary schools modeled after English.] - -=The ‘Grammar’ Schools in the American Colonies.=--It was after these -‘grammar’ schools of the mother country that the first secondary -schools in America were modeled and named. In many instances the -fathers of the colonies, such as Edward Hopkins, William Penn, and -Roger Williams, had been educated in the grammar schools of England, -and naturally sought to model the institutions in their new home after -them as nearly as the different conditions would permit. The Boston -Latin (Grammar) School was founded as early as 1635 (Fig. 23), and -other towns of Massachusetts,--Charlestown, Ipswich, Salem, Dorchester, -Newbury, Cambridge, and Roxbury, also before long established grammar -schools. Similarly, towns of Connecticut, Rhode Island, New York, -Pennsylvania, Virginia, and the other colonies, had in many cases -founded grammar schools before the close of the century. Moreover, -the legislatures of Massachusetts (1647) and Connecticut (1650) soon -ordered that a ‘grammar’ school be established in every town having one -hundred families. The American grammar schools, like their prototypes, -were secondary and sustained no real relation to the elementary -schools. They were mostly intended to fit pupils for college, although -sometimes the college had not yet been established, and thus to -furnish a preliminary step to preparation for the Christian ministry. -Hence their course consisted chiefly in reading the classics and the -New Testament, and used among its texts Lily’s _Grammar_ and the -_Colloquies_ of Corderius. And while the hold of formal humanism upon -secondary education was somewhat relaxed during the subsequent stages -of the ‘academy’ and the ‘high school,’ the formal classical training -was considered the only means of a liberal education until well into -the nineteenth century. - -[Illustration: - -_a._ Drawing of Winchester College and its inmates by Warden Chandler -of New College, Oxford, in 1460. The picture reveals the relationship -of Winchester to the old monastic institutions, before it became -humanistic.] - -[Illustration: _b._ Eton College in 1688, from the drawing of David -Loggan. - -Fig. 17.--Great English Public Schools.] - -[Sidenote: Interests of this life.] - -[Sidenote: More social and moral in the North, and more individual in -Italy.] - -=The Aim and Institutions of Humanistic Education.=--It can now be -seen how far the ideals of humanism had departed from those of the -mediæval period. The ‘otherworldly’ aim, the monastic isolation, and -the scholastic discussions had given way to the interests of this -life, personal and social development, and a study of the classics. -In the North the movement took on rather a different color from what -it did in the peninsula that gave it birth. While Northern humanism -was narrower in not concerning itself so much with self-culture, -personal expression, and the various opportunities of life, it had a -wider vision through interesting itself in society as a whole and in -endeavoring to advance morality and religion. It was democratic and -social in its trend, where Italian humanism was more aristocratic and -individual. - -[Sidenote: Organization,] - -[Sidenote: content,] - -[Sidenote: methods,] - -[Sidenote: and effect.] - -In Italy the chief educational institutions resulting from the -humanistic movement were the schools that arose at the brilliant courts -of the city tyrants. These institutions were sometimes connected with -the universities, and gradually the universities themselves were forced -to admit the new learning to the curriculum. In the North a number of -new institutions--Hieronymian schools, princes’ schools, gymnasiums, -and grammar schools--were developed from humanism, and the existing -institutions soon showed the influence of the movement, but all of -them stressed moral and religious studies, as well as classical. -Everywhere the curriculum of the humanistic foundations consisted -mostly in the mastery of Latin and Greek, but in the North the renewal -of Greek meant also a study of the New and Old Testaments and the -Church Fathers. Where the Italian Renaissance re-created the liberal -education of Plato and Aristotle, Cicero and Quintilian, the movement -in its Northern spread found in the classical revival a means of moral -and religious training. But just as humanism in Italy by the beginning -of the sixteenth century had degenerated into mere Ciceronianism, -so the humanistic education in the North, after about a century of -development, began to grow narrow, hard, and fixed. By the middle of -the sixteenth century the spirit of criticism, investigation, and -intellectual activity had begun to abate, and by the opening of the -seventeenth humanism had been completely formalized. In the study of -the classics all emphasis was placed upon grammar, linguistics, and -style; form was preferred to content; and methods became _memoriter_ -and imitative. Humanism had largely performed its mission, and a new -awakening was needed to revivify education and society in general. - - -SUPPLEMENTARY READING - -Graves, _During the Transition_ (Macmillan, 1910), chaps. XII-XIV; -Monroe, _Text-book_ (Macmillan, 1905), chap. VI. An interesting -interpretation of the Renaissance both in Italy and the North is found -in Adams, G. B., _Civilization during the Middle Ages_ (Scribner, -1894), chap. XV. An account of the movement, including its educational -aspects in Italy, is found in Burckhardt, J., _Civilization of the -Renaissance in Italy_ (Sonnenschein, London, 1892; Macmillan), vol. -I, especially part III; Symonds, J. A., _Renaissance in Italy_ (Holt, -Scribner), vol. II, especially chaps. III-VIII; or Symonds’ _Short -History of the Renaissance_ (Holt, 1894), especially chaps. I and -VII, and IX-XI. Woodward, W. H., gives us a vivid account of the -educational work of _Vittorino da Feltre and Other Humanist Educators_ -(Cambridge University Press, 1897), and of _Erasmus concerning -Education_ (Cambridge University Press, 1904), and of _Education -during the Renaissance_ (Cambridge University Press, 1906) as a whole. -_Peter Ramus and the Educational Reformation of the Sixteenth Century_ -(Macmillan, 1912), by Graves, F. P., furnishes some idea of conditions -in France. _The Italian Renaissance in England_ (Columbia University -Press, 1905), especially chap. I, is succinctly described by Einstein, -L.; and an account of Colet and St. Paul’s School can be found in -Barnard, H., _English Pedagogy_, second series, pp. 49-117. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII - -EDUCATIONAL INFLUENCES OF THE REFORMATION - - -OUTLINE - - Luther’s educational positions are most fully revealed in his - well-known _Letter_ and _Sermon_. He holds that education should - prepare for citizenship, and should be state-supported, and these - recommendations were somewhat embodied in actual schools by his - associates. - - Zwingli was killed before he could greatly influence education, - but the educational institutions of Calvin spread rapidly through - Switzerland, France, Netherlands, Puritan England, and Scotland. - - In England Henry VIII and Edward VI confiscated the property of - some three hundred monastic and other ecclesiastical schools, but - subsequently many of these were refounded. - - The Jesuit colleges were organized to extend Catholic Christianity. - The lower colleges were humanistic, and the higher taught - ‘philosophy’ and theology. The teachers were trained, and the - methods, though _memoriter_ and emulative, were effective. The - influence of the Jesuit colleges was phenomenal, but they have - failed to meet new conditions. - - The Port Royalists held that reason was more important than memory, - but, while their ‘little schools’ stressed vernacular, logic, and - geometry, they offered nothing beyond the best elements in the - education of the past. - - Elementary and industrial education was given an impulse for - the Catholics by the schools of the Christian Brothers. They - also opened training schools for teachers, and perfected the - ‘simultaneous’ method. - - Among the Protestants and some Catholics in Germany, Holland, - Scotland, and certain of the American colonies, the Reformation - inclined toward universal elementary education and control of the - schools by the state. The secondary schools in Protestant countries - also came largely under civic authorities, although the clergy - still taught and inspected them; while Catholic secondary education - was furnished mostly by the Jesuit colleges. In many instances the - universities turned Protestant; and new universities, Protestant - and Catholic, were founded. - -[Sidenote: A series of revolts from the Church accompanied Northern -humanism.] - -=The Relation of the Reformation to the Renaissance.=--The series -of revolts from the Catholic Church, generally known collectively -as the ‘Reformation,’ may be regarded as closely connected with the -Renaissance. As shown in the last chapter, humanism in the North led -to a renewed study of the Scriptures and a reform of ecclesiastical -doctrines and abuses, and took on a moral and religious color. -Reformers arose, like Wimpfeling and Erasmus, who, while remaining -within the Church, sought to purify it of corruption and obscurantism. -But the Church at first stubbornly resisted all efforts at internal -reform. Its immense wealth, large numbers, and training enabled it -for a long time to thwart the spirit of the age, and a condition of -ecclesiastical upheaval followed. Revolts against papal authority -ensued in various parts of Europe north of Italy, and were furnished -support by the awakened intellectual and social conditions of the -sixteenth century. The result was the establishment of a church, or -rather a set of churches, outside of Catholic Christianity. While -each revolt had some peculiarities of its own, there were underlying -them all certain general causes that indicated their relation to the -Renaissance. - -[Sidenote: In his revolt, Luther relied upon the individualistic spirit -of the times.] - -=The Revolt and Educational Works of Luther.=--Even the attitude -of Martin Luther (1483-1546) seems to have been bound up with the -tendencies of the day. Apparently he had at first no idea of breaking -from the Church, and supposed that the ninety-five theses he nailed -to the church door at Wittenberg (1517) were quite consistent with -Catholic allegiance. But even before this he had attacked Aristotle and -scholasticism with great vigor, appealing to primitive Christianity -and the right of free thought, and thus identified himself in spirit -with the Northern Renaissance. And two years later, in his contest -with Eck, when he was actually led to deny the authority of both -pope and council, he was evidently relying upon the humanistic and -individualistic atmosphere of the times. - -[Sidenote: His translation of the Bible] - -[Sidenote: and his catechisms.] - -[Sidenote: His _Letter_ and _Sermon_.] - -When once he had revolted, Luther gave much of his time to promoting -the reform and education of the masses by writing. All his works, -whether religious or pedagogical, were clearly intended, in a broad -sense, to be educational. After his condemnation at the Diet of Worms -(1521), when he had taken refuge at the Wartburg, he undertook to -awaken the minds and hearts of the common people by a translation of -the Greek Testament. Contrary to general opinion, a large number of -translations had preceded that of Luther, and their popularity must -have proved suggestive to him, but his edition was unusually close -to the colloquial language of the times. A dozen years later, he -had completed a translation of the entire Bible, which contributed -greatly to education by getting the masses to read and reflect. For -the further instruction of the people, he also followed the fashion of -the day in producing two catechisms, one for adults and the other for -children, together with many tracts, addresses, and letters, filled -with allusions to the organization and methods of education. But the -documents which most fully reveal his educational positions are his -_Letter to the Mayors and Aldermen of All Cities of Germany in behalf -of Christian Schools_ (1524), and his _Sermon on the Duty of Sending -Children to School_ (1530). - -[Sidenote: Civic aim.] - -[Sidenote: Industrial and academic training.] - -[Sidenote: Enlarged content.] - -[Sidenote: Rational methods.] - -=Luther’s Ideas on Education.=--The purpose of education, Luther -everywhere holds, involves the promotion of the State’s welfare quite -as much as that of the Church. The schools were to make good citizens -as well as religious men. Educational institutions should, on that -account, be maintained at public expense for every one,--rich and poor, -high and low, boys and girls, alike, and attendance should be compelled -by the civic authorities. Realizing that some pupils may find it hard -to give the time to school, Luther planned that “they should spend an -hour or two a day in school, and the rest of the time in work at home, -learn some trade and do whatever is desired, so that study and work may -go on together.” But he also desired a more academic course “for the -brightest pupils, who give promise of becoming accomplished teachers, -preachers, and workers.” In any case, Luther naturally believed that -the chief studies should be the Bible and the catechism. But, as a -Northern humanist, he recommended the ancient languages--Latin, Greek, -and Hebrew--for the light they would throw on the Scriptures and the -patristic writers. He likewise approved of rhetoric and dialectic, -which were very valuable subjects in those days of controversy; and -he made a decided advance in advocating history, natural science, -vocal and instrumental music, and gymnastic exercises. History is -advised, not only, as was common with the humanists, for the sake of -illustrating moral truth, but also for the purpose of understanding -social institutions. The study of nature was intended to reveal “the -wonders of Divine Goodness and the omnipotence of God.” Gymnastics he -considered of value both for the body and the soul, and music a means -of “driving away all care and melancholy from the heart.” The methods -he recommended were equally rational. He would utilize the natural -activity of children and not attempt to repress them, and would make -use of concrete examples, wherever possible. Languages he would teach -less by grammar than by practice. This belief in the importance of -selecting the proper content and method in education led him to rate -the function of the teacher as higher, if anything, than that of the -preacher. - -[Sidenote: Melanchthon and Sturm.] - -[Sidenote: Bugenhagen in Northern Germany.] - -[Sidenote: Other associates.] - -=The Embodiment of Luther’s Ideas in Schools by His Associates.=--These -recommendations of Luther were largely embodied in actual institutions -by his associates. The year after his _Letter to the Mayors_ was -published, the Protestants were requested by the Count of Mansfeld -to establish in Luther’s native town, Eisleben, a school that should -put his educational theories into practice, and this was performed by -Melanchthon. The subsequent organization of Latin schools throughout -the Electorate of Saxony, and the foundation of the gymnasium of Sturm -at Strassburg upon the Protestant basis have already been touched upon -(pp. 114 ff.). But of fully as much importance were the educational -foundations of Bugenhagen (1485-1558). While engaged in reorganizing -the churches in the cities and states of Northern Germany, by his -general ‘church orders’ to each, he made ample provision for schools -of the Lutheran type. For instance, at Hamburg in 1520 he organized a -single Latin school with a rector and seven teachers, together with a -German school for boys and one for girls in every parish. Eight years -afterward, the ‘church orders’ of Brunswick provided two classical -schools, two vernacular schools for boys, and four for girls, so -located in the city that all children could conveniently reach a -school. Within a half dozen years he made similar requirements for -Lübeck, Minden, Göttingen, Soest, Bremen, Osnabrück, and other cities, -and throughout some entire states of Germany, such as Holstein and his -own native duchy of Pomerania. The educational theories of Luther were -also put into practice in a number of schools taught by Trotzendorf, -Neander, and other pupils of Melanchthon. - -[Sidenote: Sprang from Northern humanism.] - -[Sidenote: Schools and course similar to Luther’s.] - -=The Revolt and Educational Ideas of Zwingli.=--The revolt under -Zwingli (1484-1531) was more directly the outcome of Northern humanism -than was that of Luther. Through Erasmus and others he had come to -believe that there was little basis in the Bible for the traditional -theology, and he carefully read the accounts himself in the original -Greek and Hebrew. After he took charge of the cathedral at Zurich, he -began his attack upon the dogmas and traditions of the Church, and, by -securing the support of the town, managed in a fairly peaceful way to -drop one form of the Church after another, until, within five years, -he had abolished even the mass. Zwingli likewise made the extension -of educational facilities a part of his reform. He founded a number -of humanistic institutions, and introduced elementary schools into -Switzerland. He also published a _Brief Treatise on the Christian -Education of Youth_ (1523), which recommended a course of studies not -unlike that of Luther, except that, from his practical temperament, he -did not mention history, but did add arithmetic and surveying. - -[Sidenote: Also began through Northern humanism.] - -[Sidenote: Calvin’s colleges] - -[Sidenote: and Corderius.] - -=Calvin’s Revolt and His Encouragement of Education.=--While -endeavoring to spread his reforms, Zwingli was slain in the prime of -life. His positions were maintained by his successor in the cathedral, -but the work was soon overshadowed and merged in the movement of Calvin -(1509-1564). Calvin’s break with the Church, like that of French -Protestants generally, also began through the influence of Northern -humanism and the study of the Greek Testament. He had, however, -received an excellent legal and theological education, and did not -content himself with merely attacking Catholic doctrine, but was the -first Protestant to formulate an elaborate system of theology. The -call of Calvin to reorganize the civil and religious administration of -the city of Geneva gave him an excellent opportunity for working out -his theories. Although he was much engrossed in religious disputes, -he established ‘colleges’ at Geneva and elsewhere, and in other ways -undertook to found schools and promote education. He succeeded, too, -in persuading his former teacher, Corderius (see p. 111), to come -to Switzerland, and organize, administer, and teach in the reformed -colleges. - -[Sidenote: Aim, content, and organization.] - -[Sidenote: Spread in Switzerland, France, Netherlands, England, and -Scotland.] - -=The Colleges of Calvin.=--Corderius here wrote four books of -_Colloquies_, with the purpose of training boys by means of -conversation on timely topics to speak Latin with facility, and from -this work we can learn much of the character of the Calvinistic -colleges. Clearly the ideal was the ‘learned piety’ of Melanchthon, -Sturm, and the other Northern humanists and Protestants. An attempt -seems to have been made to teach Latin in such a way as to cultivate a -moral and religious life, and psalms were sung, public prayers offered, -and selections from the Bible repeated each day. We also know that in -the seven classes of a college at Geneva the pupils learned reading -and grammar from the Latin catechism, and then studied Vergil, Cicero, -Ovid, Cæsar, Livy, and Latin composition. Greek seems to have been -begun in the fourth year, and, beside classical Greek authors, the -Gospels and Epistles were read. Likewise, as in the other Reformation -schools, logic and rhetoric were studied in the higher classes. -The colleges of this type not only spread rapidly among Calvin’s -co-religionists in Switzerland and France, but, as Geneva became a city -of refuge for all the oppressed, a regard for humanistic, religious, -and universal education was absorbed by the persecuted Netherlander, -the English Protestants of Mary’s time, and the Scotch under the -leadership of Knox in the days of Mary, Queen of Scots (1505-1572). - -[Sidenote: Due to personal reasons.] - -[Sidenote: Suppression of grammar schools.] - -=Henry VIII’s Revolt and Its Effect upon Education.=--In England a -revolt from the Church likewise occurred. This also may have been -due in part to the investigative spirit of Northern humanism, but -the immediate cause of the breach was the desire of Henry VIII (_r._ -1509-1547) to control the national Church, that he might divorce -his wife, and there was at first little change in doctrine. Once in -ecclesiastical power, Henry began in 1536 to confiscate the monastic -lands and property, and enlarged the scope of his operations until -he had suppressed a large number of monastic, cathedral, collegiate, -hospital, and other schools. During the reign (1547-1553) of his -successor, Edward VI, the acts of suppression were extended to chantry -and gild foundations, and it is estimated that, of the three hundred -grammar schools that had come down in England from the Middle Ages, -but few were not destroyed under Henry and Edward. Some, however, -remained by the terms of the parliamentary acts of suppression, and -popular sentiment caused others to be refounded. And during the reign -of Elizabeth (1558-1603) and of the first two Stuart kings (1603-1649) -these foundations were greatly increased out of royal funds or through -the philanthropy of wealthy men. All of these schools, as we have seen -(p. 118), following the example of St. Paul’s, adopted the Northern -ideals of humanism and furnished a curriculum of classics and religious -training. The latter became based, of course, upon the teachings of the -Church of England. - -[Sidenote: Aimed to strengthen the authority of the pope.] - -=Foundation of the Society of Jesus.=--We may now turn back to -the Mother Church and see what efforts she was putting forth in -behalf of education during the period of Protestant revolts. Both -before and after the time of Luther there were reformers inside the -Church who wished to improve its practices without changing its -administration, but the Catholics in general felt it their chief -duty to crush the Protestant heresy and recover the ground they had -lost. This resulted in a number of religious wars, in which both -sides displayed great bitterness and cruelty. But a more effective -and constructive instrument in advancing the interests of Catholicism -was the organization of the ‘Society of Jesus.’ This order was -founded by Ignatius de Loyola (1491-1556) in 1534. He persuaded six -fellow-students at Paris to join with him in devoting themselves to -the conversion of the heathen, and to strengthening the authority of -the pope. Six years later, after considerable opposition, the new order -was recognized by the pope and began to add rapidly to its numbers. -The Jesuits have always striven first through missionary labors to -extend Catholic Christianity throughout the world, and then by means -of schools to hold their converts and educate all peoples to papal -allegiance. - -[Sidenote: The _Constitution_ and the _Ratio Studiorum_.] - -[Sidenote: The ‘general,’] - -[Sidenote: ‘provincial,’] - -[Sidenote: ‘rector,’ and other officials.] - -=Organization of the Jesuits.=--The organization of the Society of -Jesus was outlined in its _Constitution_. This fundamental document of -the order received its final revision shortly after Loyola’s death, -but the _Ratio Studiorum_, which was an expansion of Part IV of the -_Constitution_ and described the educational administration in detail, -was not finally formulated until 1599. It thus summed up the experience -of the Jesuit schools during more than sixty years. The administration -of the society has always been of a military type. Loyola had -originally started upon the career of a soldier, and did not believe -that any system could be effective unless it were based upon implicit -obedience to one’s official superiors. At the head of the order is the -‘general,’ who is elected for life and has vast administrative powers. -As the society spread, the countries that came under its control were -divided into provinces, and at the head of the Jesuit interests in -each of these districts is the ‘provincial,’ who is appointed by the -general for three years. In each province there are various colleges, -whose presiding officer, or ‘rector,’ is chosen for three years by the -general, but is directly responsible to the provincial and reports -to him. Similarly, within each college are ‘prefects,’ immediately -subordinate to the rector, but selected by the provincial; and under -the inspection of the prefects are the ‘professors’ or ‘preceptors.’ - -[Sidenote: The lower colleges are secondary and humanistic,] - -[Sidenote: with curriculum largely unchanged.] - -=The Jesuit Colleges.=--The Jesuits have never engaged in elementary -education, but have required that pupils know how to read and write -before being admitted to any of their schools. This may have been -brought about in the first place by the fact that the number of their -teachers was limited, or that the public elementary school was just -coming to be regarded as of importance, and secondary education of -the humanistic type was everywhere dominant. The Jesuit educational -organization has, therefore, consisted of ‘lower colleges’ with a -gymnasia course, and of ‘upper colleges,’ which are of university -grade. Boys are admitted to the lower colleges at from ten to fourteen -years of age, and spend five or six years there. The first three -classes were at first devoted to a careful study of Latin grammar, and -a little of Greek; in the fourth year a number of the Greek and Latin -poets and historians were read; while the last class, to which two -years were usually given, took up a rhetorical study of the classical -authors. Only slight variations in the curriculum have ever been -allowed since the _Ratio Studiorum_ was issued, until the revision -in 1832. In that year work in mathematics, natural science, history, -and geography was added in the lower colleges, but the classics still -compose the body of the course. - -[Sidenote: The upper colleges furnish training in ‘philosophy’ and -theology.] - -The full course of the upper colleges lasts seven or nine years,-the -first three in ‘philosophy,’ followed by four or six in theology. The -training in ‘philosophy’ now includes not only logic, metaphysics, -psychology, ethics, and natural theology, but also work in algebra, -geometry, trigonometry, analytics, calculus, and mechanics, and such -natural sciences as physics, chemistry, geology, astronomy, and -physiology. A successful completion of the course leads to the degree -of Master of Arts. After the course in philosophy, most of the Jesuits -teach in the lower colleges five or six years before going on with the -work in theology. In the theological course four years are devoted to a -study of the Scriptures, Hebrew, and other Oriental languages, together -with Church history, canon law, and various branches of theology. -After this one may elect a further training of two years, to review -the work in philosophy and theology, and to prepare a thesis. After a -public examination and defense of his thesis, the successful candidate -is awarded the degree of Doctor of Divinity. Hence a complete Jesuit -training will take from eighteen to twenty years, and a member of the -order may be from thirty to thirty-five years of age before completing -his formal education. - -[Sidenote: Trained teachers,] - -[Sidenote: the ‘prelection,’] - -[Sidenote: memorizing,] - -[Sidenote: reviews,] - -[Sidenote: and rivalry.] - -=The Jesuit Methods of Teaching.=--The methods of teaching and -the splendid qualification of the instructors were from the first -distinctive features in the Jesuit colleges, especially when one -considers how little attention up to their time had been given to the -preparation of teachers. No one could teach in the lower colleges who -had not passed through the course in philosophy, while professors -in the universities had first to complete the theological course. -Instruction was generally imparted orally, and then memorized or taken -down in lecture notes. The method was the ‘prelection,’ which meant -a preliminary explanation of the passage or lectures upon the topic -under consideration by the teacher. It consisted in giving, first, the -general meaning of the whole passage or proposition; then, a more -detailed explanation of the construction or phraseology; next similar -thoughts in other authors; fourthly, ‘erudition’, or informational -comment upon the passage; then, a study of the rhetorical figures; and -finally, the moral lesson to be drawn. Obviously, with such a method, -great stress would be placed upon memorizing, especially in the lower -colleges. To fix subjects firmly in mind, short hours, few studies, and -brief lessons were early found to be necessary. Likewise, reviews have -always been frequent and systematic, and the Latin motto of the Jesuit -method declares that “repetition is the mother of learning.” Each day -begins with a review of the preceding day’s work, and closes with a -review of the work just accomplished. Each week ends with a repetition -of all that has been covered in that time, and the last month of every -year reviews the course of the year. To maintain interest in the midst -of so much memorizing and reviewing, many devices to promote emulation -are used. The pupils are arranged in pairs as ‘rivals,’ whose business -it is to check on the conduct and studies of each other (Fig. 18); and -public ‘disputations’ between two sides are engaged in each week. - -[Sidenote: Systematic,] - -[Sidenote: interesting, and devoted,] - -[Sidenote: but authoritative and uniform.] - -=Value and Influence of the Jesuit Education.=--The Jesuit system, -then, seems to have been in advance of that in the schools at the time -of its foundation. It was organized upon a systematic and thorough -basis, and was administered by a set of splendidly trained teachers -through the best methods that were known in that day. The schools were -interesting and pleasant, and were free to all who had the ability and -desire to attend. The Jesuit teachers, too, were indefatigable and -devoted to their duty. The criticism that has been offered to this -educational system is based on its insistence upon absolute authority -and the consequent opposition to the development of individuality. The -Jesuit courses, subjects, and methods have become somewhat uniform and -fixed. In the lower colleges they depend largely upon memory and appeal -to interest through a system of rivalry, honors, and rewards. Such a -system is likely to tend toward a reproductive attitude in the pupil. - -[Illustration: _a._ Jesuit College at Regensburg in 1600.] - -[Illustration: - -_b._ Plan of a Jesuit schoolroom of the seventeenth century. B -represents the teacher, C the monitors, and D, E, O, X, and I various -student officials. The numbered lines represent rows of students, known -as _decuriae_. When a student was called upon, his ‘rival’ arose from -the corresponding place in the other group; and as each recited, the -other endeavored to correct him in some error. - -Fig. 18.--Education of the Jesuits.] - -[Sidenote: Phenomenal growth of the number of colleges and students.] - -[Sidenote: Prominent graduates.] - -[Sidenote: Quarrels and banishments.] - -Nevertheless, the Jesuits furnished the most effective education during -the latter half of the sixteenth, the entire seventeenth, and the -early part of the eighteenth centuries. The growth of their schools -was phenomenal. By the death of Loyola (1556) there were already one -hundred colleges, and a century and a half later they had increased -to seven hundred and sixty-nine institutions, spread throughout the -world. The average number of students in attendance at any of these -colleges during the seventeenth century was about three hundred, and in -several of the larger centers there were between one and two thousand, -and the famous College of Clermont (now _Lycée Louis le Grand_) at -Paris is said to have run up to three thousand. At a modest estimate, -there must have been some two hundred thousand students in the Jesuit -colleges when they were at their height. Their graduates seem to have -become prominent in every important activity of life, and included a -large number of the noted authors, prelates, statesmen, and generals of -the time. By the middle of the eighteenth century, however, the ideals -and content of education had somewhat changed, and the Jesuits did -not adapt their course to the new conditions. Moreover, the Jesuits -seem to have become powerful, ambitious, and somewhat arrogant. They -quarreled frequently with bishops, other monastic orders, governments, -and universities. Finally, after they had been banished from France, -Spain, and Portugal, in 1773 the pope himself dissolved the Society -of Jesus. Forty years later the order was restored, but, owing to the -development of educational ideals and organization and the increase of -educational institutions, their work has never since become relatively -as effective or held as important a place in education. - -[Sidenote: Adopted rationalistic philosophy.] - -[Sidenote: ‘Little’ schools.] - -=The Organization of the Education of the Port Royalists.=--A type -of Catholic education radically opposed to that of the Jesuits was -created by a group of men belonging to the religious body known as -the Jansenists. The doctrines of the Jansenists were formulated in -1621 by Cornelius Jansen, a professor in the University of Louvain. -While striving to retain their place within the Church, the Jansenists -opposed the prevailing doctrines of confession and penance, and adopted -the rationalistic philosophy of Descartes. They also held that humanity -is naturally corrupt, except as it is watched and guided, and that only -a relatively few can be saved. These doctrines probably influenced -a body of Jansenists that established a new departure in the way of -education at the convent of Port Royal at Chevreuse. In 1643 the ‘Port -Royalists’ endeavored to remove what few children they could from the -temptations of the world to a school started in this convent. Similar -institutions quickly sprang up in the vicinity and then spread through -Paris. To carry out their ideal of careful oversight, these schools -usually took only twenty to twenty-five pupils, and each master had -under him five or six boys, whom he never allowed out of his immediate -supervision day or night. Hence these institutions were known as -‘little schools.’ - -[Sidenote: Reason rather than memory.] - -[Sidenote: Latin through the vernacular.] - -[Sidenote: Logic and geometry.] - -[Sidenote: Phonetic method.] - -[Sidenote: Indifference.] - -=The Port Royal Course and Method of Teaching.=--Since the Port -Royalists held that character was of more importance than knowledge, -and reason was to be developed rather than memory, these ‘little -schools’ sought to impart an education that should be sound and -lasting, rather than brilliant. Unlike the Jesuits, they did not start -their pupils with Latin, but with the vernacular, since this was within -their comprehension. As soon as they possessed a feeling for good -literature, they began the study of Latin through a minimum grammar -written in French, and soon took up the Latin authors, rendering them -into the vernacular. Greek literature was treated in similar fashion. -To train the reason, the older pupils were also taught logic and -geometry. The course of study, however, was mostly literary, and had -no regard for science or investigation. Port Royal presented the best -elements of the education of the past, but did not see beyond it. The -methods introduced some striking innovations. The leaders in the Port -Royal education departed from the alphabetic plan in teaching their -pupils to read, and developed a phonetic method. The Port Royalists -also refused to permit the use of emulation and prizes in their -schools, but their exclusion of rivalry resulted in indifference. -They were never able to secure the energy, earnestness, and pleasing -environment of the Jesuit colleges. They did, however, succeed in -inculcating a general spirit of piety without the formal teaching of -doctrine. - -[Sidenote: Jesuits lost sympathy.] - -[Sidenote: Port Royalists produced educational treatises.] - -=Closing of the Port Royalist Schools and Its Effects.=--In 1661 the -Port Royalist schools were closed by the order of Louis XIV through the -influence of the Jesuits. But this act cost the Jesuits dearly. Not -only did it lose them sympathy, but it furnished the Port Royalists -occasion to issue tracts against Jesuitism that have injured its repute -ever since. This closing of their schools also gave the Port Royalists -the opportunity of becoming educators in a larger sense by producing -a great variety of writings upon their system. Later on, too, Rollin -(1661-1741), who was twice elected rector of the University of Paris, -summarized in his _Treatise on Studies_ the Port Royalist reforms -wrought in that institution. - -[Sidenote: Little elementary education before La Salle.] - -[Sidenote: Development of the schools at Rheims:] - -=La Salle and the Schools of the Christian Brothers.=--The Port -Royalists were, however, like the Jesuits, engrossed with secondary -and higher education, and gave little heed to the education of all -the people in the rudiments. In fact, until toward the close of the -seventeenth century, the Catholics generally did not succeed in -inaugurating any effective or widespread movement toward elementary -education. Numerous attempts before this were made through catechism -schools and various reformers and religious orders, but teachers were -scarce and often ignorant and poorly trained, and there was little -progress before the organization of the Brothers of the Christian -Schools through the self-sacrificing efforts of Jean Baptiste de la -Salle (1651-1719). The organization sprang out of a group of five -masters engaged in teaching schools for the poor in the city of Rheims -in 1679, but it was not until three years later that La Salle completed -his regulations, founded the brotherhood, and moved the members into -a permanent home. The order flourished, and neighboring towns soon -endeavored to secure its members as teachers in their schools for the -poor. Within a year or two, four schools in and about Rheims were -placed under masters trained in the house of the Christian Brothers, -and a number of other institutions were soon organized in the vicinity -upon the same basis. - -[Sidenote: Paris,] - -[Sidenote: and Saint Yon.] - -But, being unable to supply the constant demands for his teachers that -came from districts outside the towns, La Salle undertook to train boys -who were sent him by the rural clergy, and were expected to return -to their homes to teach after their training. To accomplish this, he -established in 1684 a ‘seminary for schoolmasters’ in a wing of the -house of the brotherhood, and two other seminaries were opened in -neighboring towns the following year. Four years later La Salle opened -a house for the brotherhood near Paris, and the Christian Brothers -were speedily requested to take charge of the schools of several -parishes. Despite the jealousy and opposition of the established order -of schoolmasters and of many parties in Church and State, the schools -and seminaries of the Brothers greatly increased in Paris, and were -rapidly extended throughout France. At Paris also La Salle started -the ‘Christian academy,’ in which drawing, geometry, and architecture -were taught ambitious poor boys on Sunday, and introduced boarding -colleges for higher secondary training. And these institutions likewise -spread through France and the rest of Europe (Fig. 19). In 1705 La -Salle retired to the estate known as Saint Yon, near Rouen, and there -opened a home for the brotherhood. Here he also founded a famous -boarding-school in which he trained boys for soldiery, farming, trade, -and various other vocations. Before long he likewise organized in -conjunction an industrial training for youthful delinquents, and both -the vocational school and the ‘protectory’ soon became models for many -similar institutions in France and elsewhere. - -[Sidenote: Religious aim.] - -[Sidenote: Besides rudiments and religion, more practical subjects.] - -[Sidenote: ‘Simultaneous’ method.] - -[Sidenote: Training of teachers.] - -=The Aim, Curriculum, and Method of the Christian Brothers’ -Schools.=--The plan of the schools of the Christian Brothers was -eventually worked out and crystallized in a fixed system under the -title of _Conduct of Schools_. This code has not remained quite as -definite and uniform as the _Ratio Studiorum_ of the Jesuits, for -changes and revisions are permitted, and modern methods and subjects -have from time to time been introduced. Considerable latitude, -moreover, has been allowed to the individual houses by the Superior -General at the head of the order, and by the Brothers Visitors, who -have charge of the districts. The educational aim of the Christian -Brothers has been preëminently religious, and the chief means -of attaining this have been strict vigilance, good example, and -catechetical instruction. The course has included the studies of the -best schools of the time, and added other more practical subjects. -Besides the rudiments--reading, writing, and arithmetic--and religious -instruction and good manners, mathematics, history, botany, geography, -drawing, architecture, hydrography, navigation, and other technical -subjects have often been taught, and in the industrial schools a manual -and vocational training has been furnished. La Salle seems to have made -a great advance, too, in educational economy by perfecting and applying -the ‘simultaneous’ method, which had been practiced in a crude form by -some of his forerunners. By this method is meant grading the children -according to their capacity, and having those in each grade use the -same book and follow the same lesson under a single master, instead of -instructing each pupil individually, as was generally the custom then. -Likewise, the seminaries or training schools of the Christian Brothers -contributed much to the advancement of efficiency in teaching. For the -first time teachers of ability and training were made possible for the -elementary schools. - -[Sidenote: Spread] - -[Sidenote: and expansion of the work.] - -=Influence of the Schools of the Christian Brothers.=--The work of the -Christian Brothers has met with steady growth and development. By the -time of La Salle’s death (1719), there had come to be twenty-seven -houses of the order, with two hundred and seventy-four brothers, -educating about nine thousand pupils. Before the close of the century -these numbers had about quadrupled, and now they have increased nearly -a hundredfold since the founder’s day. During the nineteenth century -these institutions were established in all the states of Europe, -Asia, Northern Africa, and America. The educational system has been -much modified and expanded, and now includes colleges, technical and -industrial schools, academies and high schools, elementary and grammar -schools, commercial schools, asylums, and protectories. Thus La Salle -and his schools of the Christian Brothers have performed a great -service for education in all lines, but especially in the promotion -and enrichment of elementary training, which had previously been so -neglected. - -[Sidenote: Religious and theological.] - -=Aim and Content of Education in the Reformation.=--It can now be seen -that, as a result of the Reformation, the religious and theological aim -of education at all stages became very prominent with Catholics and -Protestants alike. In the elementary schools, beside the rudiments, the -Scriptures, the Lord’s prayer, the ten commandments, and the Catholic, -Lutheran, Calvinist, or Anglican creed and catechism were taught, and, -with the Protestants, also the hymns of the church. The courses in the -secondary schools and universities contained large religious elements, -as well as the formal humanism into which the Renaissance of the North -had degenerated. Likewise, there was furnished in all universities a -training in dialectic, rhetoric, and theology for the sake of efficient -controversy with ecclesiastical opponents. - -[Sidenote: Coöperation with civil officials.] - -=Effect of the Reformation upon Elementary Schools.=--But while the -Catholics were inclined to leave the organization of education in the -hands of various religious bodies, the Protestants more often thought -it wise to have its support and control administered by the princes -and the state. Owing to this secular management and their position -on universal education, the Protestants, with the exception of the -Anglicans, who had altered but little in doctrine, were inclined to -establish state school systems and hold to the duty of providing and -requiring elementary education at public expense. In this way the germs -of the modern tendency toward universal, free, and compulsory education -began to appear, although they did not ripen until much later. - -[Sidenote: Germany,] - -In the German states there were many illustrations of the spread of -elementary education and civic control. As an immediate result of -Luther’s _Letter to the Mayors_ in 1524, the city of Magdeburg united -its parish schools under one management and adopted the Protestant -ideals. So, in 1525, the school at Eisleben, organized upon a -Protestant basis (see p. 128), included elementary as well as secondary -work. Similar ideals and organization appear in the provision for -‘German’ schools in the ‘Church orders’ sent out by Bugenhagen (see -pp. 128 f.) to the Protestant cities and states of Northern Germany. -A further step was taken in 1528 when Melanchthon drew up a plan for -schools throughout the entire Electorate of Saxony. This, the first -state school system in history, was followed by one in Würtemberg, -where in 1559 Duke Christopher adopted an improvement upon the Saxon -plan, which called for a religious and elementary training for the -children of the common people in every village of the duchy. Brunswick -in 1569, and Saxony in 1580, followed the lead of Würtemberg in -revising their school systems. Before the middle of the next century, -a number of other states of Germany, such as Weimar, Hessen-Darmstadt, -Mecklenburg, Holstein, Hessen-Cassel, and Gotha modeled elementary -school systems after those of Saxony and Würtemberg. While the -Catholics did not in general maintain public elementary education, the -Christian Brothers and others undertook a great work in this direction, -and Duke Albrecht V of Bavaria even ordered throughout his state -the establishment of ‘German’ schools with instruction in reading, -writing, and the Catholic creed. This organization of universal -education continued its advance, despite the decimation and the general -havoc upon finance and education wrought by the Thirty Years’ War -(1618-1648), and by the end of the eighteenth century practically every -village throughout the German states had its _Volksschule_ or ‘people’s -school.’ These institutions were under the direction of the pastor of -each parish, and while actual conditions may often have been somewhat -below the statutory level and in many cases were a wretched apology, -every child not studying at a secondary school was in theory obliged, -between the ages of six and thirteen, to attend one of these schools of -the people (Fig. 20). - -[Sidenote: Holland,] - -[Sidenote: Scotland,] - -[Sidenote: and the American colonies.] - -As a result of the Dutch Reformed movement, Holland also made early -provision for instruction in religion, reading, and writing. The Church -at various synods, and civic authorities in many statutes, recognized -the need of universal training, and finally the great Synod of Dort, -by a combination with the civil government, in 1618 required every -parish to furnish elementary education for all. Similarly, through -Knox, Scotland established elementary schools under the control of the -parishes. Preliminary steps in this direction were taken by the Privy -Council and the Scotch Parliament early in the seventeenth century, -and in 1646 the parliament further enacted that there be “a Schoole -founded, and a Schoole master appointed in every Parish,” and provided -that if a parish should fail in this duty, the presbytery should have -power to establish the school and compel the parish to maintain it. -Half a century later this school system was given over more fully to -the control of the State, but even then much of the old connection -with the Church was apparent. These schools gave instruction in -reading, writing, and religion, with the Bible as text, and have done -a wonderful work in raising the level of intelligence and affording an -opportunity to the children of the lower classes in Scotland. England -herself continued to hold to aristocratic and ‘selective’ education, -and gave little heed to the establishment of elementary schools; but -the American colonies, as far as they were founded by Calvinists or -Lutherans, provided early for elementary education (see p. 189). The -Puritan towns of the Massachusetts colony established schools almost -as soon as they were settled, and in 1647 the legislature enacted that -all towns with fifty families should provide an elementary school. -Connecticut followed the example three years later, and before the -close of the century, similar action was taken by New Hampshire -and Vermont (see pp. 197 and 199). Likewise, New Amsterdam and the -villages of New Netherlands followed the example of the Mother Country -and provided public schools in connection with each church through -the support of the Dutch West India Company or of the civil and -ecclesiastical bodies jointly (see pp. 193 f). - -[Illustration: - -Fig. 19.--A school of the Christian Brothers. (Visit of James II and -the Archbishop of Paris to the school at Rouen.)] - -[Illustration: - -Fig. 20.--A Protestant school in a German village of the sixteenth -century. (Visit of the school committee and catechising by the pastor.)] - -[Sidenote: Civic control among Protestants,] - -[Sidenote: though direct management through the Church.] - -[Sidenote: Catholic education largely in hands of Jesuits.] - -=Effect of the Reformation upon the Secondary Schools.=--While the -development of elementary instruction and state systems of education -was the most important educational outcome of the Reformation, the -movement had a somewhat similar effect upon the humanistic secondary -education of the time. In Protestant Germany the Latin schools and -gymnasia came under the control of the princes and the State rather -than the Church, and gradually became the backbone of the state school -systems. But they stressed the religious element in their curriculum, -and the direct management of education was simply transferred to -Protestant ministers or leaders. The schools were still taught and -inspected by representatives of the Church, but the form of the -organization and administration of education was radically changed. In -England there was a similar transfer of management to the Protestant -clergy. The existence of the schools had to be authorized and their -teachers licensed by the bishop, and they were at all times liable to -visitation from ecclesiastical authority. The grammar schools, however, -were never organized like the gymnasia, but each school remained -independent of the rest and of any national combination. Nor were -the Calvinistic colleges united into a national system, except where -they came into Germany, when they were absorbed into the system of -the gymnasia. The state system of education established by the Scotch -parliament in the parishes, often gave secondary training, as well -as elementary. And in America the establishment and control of the -‘grammar’ schools, inherited from the mother country, were vested in -the authorities of the state and the several towns. On the other hand, -the Catholic education in all countries found its secondary schools -largely in the colleges of the Jesuits, and the subordination of the -individual to authority and the Church was insisted upon. - -[Sidenote: Many universities adhered to Catholic authority.] - -[Sidenote: Others changed to Protestantism with their princes.] - -=Influence of the Reformation upon the Universities.=--In the case of -the universities, many remained loyal to Catholicism and a few new -Catholic foundations grew out of the Reformation. All these adhered -to the principle of submission to ecclesiastical authority. But the -majority of the universities in the Protestant states of Germany -followed their princes when they changed from the old creed to the new. -Wittenberg, through its connection with Luther and Melanchthon, was the -first German university to become Protestant, but others, like Marburg, -Königsberg, Jena, Helmstadt, and Dorpat followed rapidly. Altdorf and -Strassburg were developed out of gymnasia. The English universities, -Oxford and Cambridge, went over to Protestantism with the national -Church. In America, too, Harvard and other early colleges were closely -connected with the various commonwealths and with the Calvinistic or -the Anglican communion, according to the colony. - -[Sidenote: Memory stressed, rather than reason; authority emphasized; -and individuality repressed.] - -=The Lapse into Formalism.=--There came to be both in Catholic and -Protestant institutions a tendency to regard the subjects taught as -materials for discipline rather than as valuable for their content. The -studies largely became an end in themselves and were deprived of almost -all their vitality. The curriculum of the institutions became fixed and -stereotyped in nature, and education lapsed into a formalism but little -superior to that of the mediæval scholastics. The methods of teaching -came to stress memory more than reason. The Protestants had claimed -to depend less upon uncritical and obedient acceptance of dogma than -upon the constant application of reason to the Scriptures, but they -soon tended to emphasize the importance of authority and the repression -of the individual quite as clearly as the Catholics, who definitely -held that reason is out of place and unreliable as a final guide in -education and life. Hence, except for launching the great conception of -state support and control of education, the Reformation accomplished -but little directly making for individualism and progress, either -through the Catholic awakening or the Protestant revolts. Education -fell back before long into the grooves of formalism, repression, and -distrust of reason. There resulted a tendency to test life and the -educational preparation for living by a formulation of belief almost as -much as in the days of scholasticism. - - -SUPPLEMENTARY READING - -Graves, _During the Transition_ (Macmillan, 1910), chap. XV-XVI; -Monroe, _Text-book_ (Macmillan, 1905), chap. VII. An excellent -interpretative account of the Reformation is that in Adams, G. B., -_Civilization during the Middle Ages_ (Scribner, 1894), chaps. XVI and -XVII. Painter, F. V. N., furnishes a good translation of _Luther on -Education_ (Lutheran Publication Society, Philadelphia). Richard, J. -W., gives a good account of _Melanchthon, the Protestant Preceptor of -Germany_ (Putnam, 1898), especially chaps. II-IV and VII; Watson, F., -of _Maturinus Corderius, the Schoolmaster of Calvin_ (School Review, -vol. XII, nos. 4, 7, and 9); Graves, F. P., _Ramus and the Educational -Reformation of the Sixteenth Century_ (Macmillan, 1912) of conditions -in France; and Leach, A. F., of the dissolution acts of Henry VIII and -Edward VI in _English Schools at the Reformation_ (Constable, London, -1896), pp. 58-122. On the side of Catholic education, one should read -Schwickerath, R., _Jesuit Education_ (Herder, St. Louis), chaps. -III-VIII and XV-XVIII; Cadet, F., _Port Royal Education_ (Bardeen, -Syracuse, 1899; George Allen and Co., London) pp. 9-119; and Wilson, -Mrs. R. F., _Christian Brothers_ (London, 1883), which gives an epitome -of Ravelet, A., _Life of La Salle_. The influence of the Reformation -upon the German schools and universities, both Protestant and Catholic, -is shown in Nohle E., _History of the German School System_ (Report -of the United States Commissioner of Education, 1897-98, vol. I), pp. -30-40; and Paulsen, F., _German Education_ (Scribner, 1908), pp. 79-85. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV - -EARLY REALISM AND THE INNOVATORS - - -OUTLINE - - The intellectual awakening that appeared in the Renaissance and the - Reformation found another avenue for expression in early realism. - - This movement had two phases: (1) humanistic realism, which - emphasized the content of classical literature; and (2) social - realism, which strove to adapt education to actual life. But the - two phases generally occurred together, and the classification - of a treatise under one head or the other is largely a matter of - emphasis. - - The influence of the two phases was mostly indirect, but through - social realism a special training arose in the _Ritterakademien_ - in Germany, while Milton’s humanistic realism was embodied in the - ‘academies’ of England, and afterward of America. - -[Sidenote: A new channel for the emancipation of the individual.] - -[Sidenote: A method by which ‘real things’ may be known.] - -[Sidenote: ‘Sense realism’] - -[Sidenote: and the earlier realism.] - -=The Rise and Nature of Realism.=--By the seventeenth century it -is obvious that humanism was everywhere losing its vitality and -declining into a narrow ‘Ciceronianism,’ and that the Reformation was -hardening once more into fixed concepts and a dogmatic formalism. -The awakened intellect of Europe, however, was tending to find still -another mode of expression in the educational movement that is usually -known as ‘realism.’ The process of emancipating the individual from -tradition and repressive authority had not altogether ceased, but it -was manifesting itself mainly through a rather different channel. -The movement of realism implied a search for a method by which ‘real -things’ may be known. In its most distinct and latest form,--‘sense -realism,’ it held that real knowledge comes through the senses and -reason rather than through memory and reliance on tradition, and in -this way it interpreted the ‘real things’ as being individual objects. -Educational realism, therefore, concerned itself ultimately with -investigation in the natural sciences; and it might well be denominated -‘the beginnings of the scientific movement,’ were it not that such a -description neglects the earlier phases of the realistic development. - -[Sidenote: ‘Real things’ in ideas, rather than words.] - -[Sidenote: Milton’s _Tractate_ as an illustration.] - -=Humanistic Realism.=--For, even before objects were regarded as -the true realities, there seems to have been an effort among some -later humanists to seek for the ‘real things’ in the ideas that were -represented by the written words. This broader type of humanism, in -consequence, tended to break from a restriction to words and set forms -and return to the interest in the content of classical literature that -marked the Renaissance before its decline into formalism. It may, -therefore, properly be called ‘humanistic realism.’ With its emphasis -upon content usually went a study of social and physical phenomena, -in order to throw light upon the passages under consideration. -Illustrations of this humanistic realism are found in many writers -of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Milton (1608-1674), for -example, while a remarkable classicist himself, in his _Tractate -of Education_ objects to the usual humanistic education with “its -grammatic flats and shallows where they stuck unreasonably to learn a -few words with lamentable construction”; and says of the pupil, “if -he have not studied the solid things in them as well as the words -and lexicons, he were nothing so much to be esteemed as any yeoman -or tradesman competently wise in his mother dialect only.” And he -would teach the Latin writers on agriculture, and the Greek writers -on natural history, geography, and medicine for the sake of the -subject-matter. - -[Sidenote: Preparation for living in a real world.] - -[Sidenote: Its content.] - -=Social Realism.=--But there was another phase of early realism, which -often appeared in conjunction with humanistic education, and may be -called ‘social realism.’ Its adherents strove to adapt education -to actual living in a real world, and to afford direct practical -preparation for the opportunities and duties of life. It was generally -recommended as the means of education for all members of the upper -social class. It sought to combine with the literary elements taught -the clergy in the Middle Ages and the scholar in the Renaissance, -certain remnants of the old chivalric education as the proper training -for gentlemen. It held schools to be of less value as an agency for -educating the young aristocrats than training through a tutor and -travel. Hence an education in social realism usually included a study -of heraldry, genealogy, riding, fencing, and gymnastics, and involved -a study of modern languages and the customs and institutions of -neighboring countries. - -[Sidenote: Montaigne’s _Education of Children_ as an example.] - -A good illustration of this type of education is found in the -educational essays of Montaigne (1533-1592). In the _Education of -Children_ he holds that virtue comes from experience and breadth of -vision rather than from reading, and declares: “I would have travel the -book my young gentleman should study with most attention; for so many -humors, so many sects, so many judgments, opinions, laws, and customs, -teach us to judge aright of our own, and inform our understanding to -discover its imperfection and natural infirmity.” This training, too, -he feels, should be under the care of a tutor, who is to be a man of -the world, one “whose head is well tempered, rather than well filled.” -While a gentleman has need of Latin and Greek, Montaigne maintains that -one should first study his own language and those of his neighbors. He -also stresses physical exercise, and fears the training of boys near -their mothers, who “will not endure to see them mount an unruly horse, -nor take a foil in hand against a rude fencer.” - -[Sidenote: Locke’s _Thoughts_ better known.] - -[Sidenote: Aim of education.] - -[Sidenote: ‘Accomplishments’ as part of its content.] - -An educational work based on social realism that has been studied -even more than the _Essays_ of Montaigne is _Some Thoughts concerning -Education_ by John Locke (1632-1704). Locke states the aims of -education in the order of their value as ‘_Virtue_, _Wisdom_ (i. e., -worldly wisdom), _Breeding_, and _Learning_’; and holds that such a -training can be secured by the young gentleman only through a tutor, -who “should himself be well-bred, understanding the Ways of Carriage -and Measures of Civility in all the Variety of Persons, Times and -Places, and keep his Pupil, as much as his Age requires, constantly -to the Observation of them.” In considering the subject-matter of -the training, he maintains that “besides what is to be had from -Study and Books, there are other _Accomplishments_ necessary for a -Gentleman,--dancing, horseback riding, fencing and wrestling.” - -[Sidenote: Difficult to distinguish an author as of one type or the -other, as can be seen in Milton.] - -[Sidenote: Montaigne,] - -=The Relations of Humanistic to Social Realism.=--Humanistic and -social realism, however, constantly appear together in the works of -the same author, and it is often difficult to distinguish a writer -as advocating one type or the other. The differentiation seems to -be largely a matter of emphasis. While one element or the other -may seem to be more prominent in the treatise of a certain author, -the two phases of education are largely bound up in each other. -While Milton, for instance, is in the main a humanistic realist and -advises an education in languages and books, he recommends that -considerable time be given, toward the end of the course, to the social -sciences--history, ethics, politics, economics, theology--and to such -practical training as would bring one in touch with life. He also -specifically advocates the experience and knowledge that would come -from travel in England and abroad; and defines education as “that which -fits a man to perform justly, skillfully, and magnanimously all the -offices both private and public of peace and war.” On the other hand, -Montaigne, the social realist, seems quite as strenuous in urging a -more realistic humanism. In his essay, _On Pedantry_, he launches most -vigorous ridicule against the prevailing narrow humanistic education, -with its memorizing of words and forms, and insists: “Let the master -not only examine him about the words of his lesson, but also as to the -sense and meaning of them, and let him judge of the profit he has made, -not by the testimony of his memory, but that of his understanding.” - -[Sidenote: and others.] - -[Sidenote: Distinctive social realists.] - -And it is equally difficult to state whether humanistic or social -elements prevail in Locke’s _Thoughts_, the _Gargantua_ of Rabelais -(1495-1553), the _Positions_ of Mulcaster (1530-1611), and other -treatises of the period. It is true, of course, that in certain other -works written upon the training of the aristocracy, social realism -is more exclusively stressed. The titles of most of these reveal -their content, as can easily be seen in the case of such productions -as Castiglione’s _The Courtier_ (1528), Elyot’s _The Governour_ -(1531), Peacham’s _The Compleat Gentleman_ (1622), and Brathwaite’s -_The English Gentleman_ (1630). But, in most of the early realistic -works, humanistic and social elements are inextricably interwoven; and -humanistic and social realism, taken together, seem to constitute a -natural bridge from humanism over to sense realism. - -[Sidenote: Other suggestions in the early realists.] - -[Sidenote: But their influence was indirect.] - -=The Influence of the Innovators upon Education.=--There is, however, -a variety of other brilliant educational suggestions in each of -these early realists. All of them hold to a broader and better -rounded training and more natural and informal methods than those -in vogue. Mulcaster even advocates universal elementary education, -the professional training of teachers, and the education of girls, -and undertakes to make a naïve analysis of the mind as the basis of -a philosophy of education. So suggestive have the recommendations -of the early realists proved to modern education that these authors -are often known as the ‘innovators.’ Yet their theories do not seem -to have affected greatly the educational practice of the times. They -did tend to disrupt traditionalism and the formal humanism, to bring -education into touch with society and preparation for real life, and -to popularize a wider content and a more informal procedure, but their -influence appeared through their successors and later education rather -than directly in the schools of the period. Locke, for instance, in -addition to the influence he had upon Rousseau, Pestalozzi, and other -reformers, must in some measure have been responsible for the great -development of the physical and ethical sides of education in the -public and grammar schools of England, together with the tendency of -these institutions to consider such aspects of rather more importance -than the purely intellectual. His plea for a tutor as the means of -shaping manners and morals has also probably had its effect upon the -education of the English aristocracy. - -[Sidenote: Training for the nobility in modern languages, chivalric -arts, and the sciences.] - -[Sidenote: Absorbed into secondary system.] - -=The Ritterakademien.=--In the German states, on the other hand, there -arose at the courts during the seventeenth century an actually new -type of educational institution as the outgrowth of social realism. -Here, in place of the old humanistic education, there was developed a -special training for the young nobles in French, Italian, Spanish, and -English, in such accomplishments as courtly conduct, dancing, fencing, -and riding, and in philosophy, mathematics, physics, geography, -statistics, law, genealogy, and heraldry. The educational institutions -in which this training was embodied were known as _Ritterakademien_ or -‘academies for the nobles.’ Such academies were founded at Colberg, -Luneberg, Vienna, Wolffenbüttel, and many other centers before the -close of the century. They originally covered the work of the gymnasia, -although substituting the modern languages, sciences, and the knightly -arts that have been mentioned for the Greek and Hebrew, and adding a -little from the course of the university. Gradually, however, they -became part of the regular secondary system. - -[Sidenote: Milton’s suggestions adopted by Puritans after the Act of -Uniformity.] - -[Sidenote: The first academies.] - -[Sidenote: Their content.] - -=The Academies in England.=--Milton’s suggestions were ultimately -materialized in an even more influential type of school. In the -_Tractate_ he had recommended that his ideal education be carried -out in an institution to be known as an ‘academy.’ Such a school was -to be erected ‘in every city throughout this land.’ It should train -boys from the age of twelve to twenty-one, and should provide both -secondary and higher education. ‘Academies,’ based very closely upon -this plan, were about a generation later actually organized in a number -of places by the Puritans. Under the harsh Act of Uniformity (1662) two -thousand non-conforming clergymen were driven from their parishes, and -in many instances found school-teaching a congenial means of earning -a livelihood, and at the same time of furnishing higher education to -the young dissenters, who were excluded from the universities and -grammar schools. The first of these academies was that established by -Richard Frankland at Rathmill in 1665, and this was followed by the -institutions of John Woodhouse at Sheriffhales, of Charles Morton at -Newington Green, and of some thirty other educators of whom we have -record at other places. These academies were largely humanistic in -their realism, and, since their chief function was to fit for the -ministry, they included Latin, Greek, and Hebrew in their course, but -they were also rich in mathematics, natural and social sciences, modern -languages, and the vernacular. The new tendency was also broadened and -amplified by Locke’s _Thoughts_ (1693), which became the great guide -for the managers of the Puritan academies. In 1689, when the Act of -Toleration put non-conformity upon a legal footing, the academies were -allowed to be regularly incorporated. - -[Sidenote: Their rise as a supplement to the narrow ‘grammar schools’.] - -[Sidenote: The early academies.] - -=The Academies in America.=--Academies arose also in America. When -the number of religious denominations had greatly increased and -the demands upon secondary education had expanded, the ‘grammar -schools’ (see pp. 120 f.), with their narrow denominational ideals -and their limitation to a classical training and college preparation, -proved inadequate, and efforts were made to organize academies as a -supplement. There may have been earlier academies in America, but -the first well-known suggestion of an academy was made in 1743 by -Benjamin Franklin. He wished to inaugurate an education that would -prepare for life, and not merely for college. Accordingly, he proposed -for the youth of Pennsylvania a course in which English grammar and -composition, penmanship, arithmetic, drawing, geography, history, the -natural sciences, oratory, civics, and logic were to be emphasized. He -would gladly have excluded Latin and other languages altogether, but -for politic reasons these courses were allowed to be elective. Through -the efforts of a number of leading citizens, such an academy was opened -at Philadelphia (Fig. 32), in January, 1750 (although not chartered -until July, 1753). During the next generation a number of similar -institutions sprang up, especially in the middle and southern colonies. -A great impulse was given the movement by the foundation of the two -Phillips academies,--one in 1780 at Andover, Massachusetts, and the -other the next year at Exeter, New Hampshire. The Dummer Grammar School -was reorganized as an academy in 1782, and the movement spread rapidly -throughout New England during the last two decades of the eighteenth -century. - -[Sidenote: After the Revolution the prevailing type of secondary -education.] - -[Sidenote: Support, location, and functions.] - -Shortly after the Revolution, owing in part to the inability or -unwillingness of the towns to maintain grammar schools, and in part -to the wider appeal and greater usefulness of the academies, the -latter institutions quite eclipsed the former, and became for about -half a century the prevailing type of secondary school in the United -States. They were usually endowed institutions managed by a close -corporation, but were often largely supported by subscriptions from the -neighborhood, and sometimes subsidized by the state. Located in small -towns or villages, they served a wide constituency and made provision -for boarding, as well as day pupils. Unlike the grammar schools, they -were not originally intended to prepare for the learned professions -exclusively, but, as time passed, they tended more and more to become -preparatory schools for the colleges, instead of finishing schools -for the middle classes of society. The academies were also the first -institutions of secondary education to offer opportunities to women. -Many of them were co-educational, and others, frequently burdened with -the name of ‘female seminary,’ were for girls exclusively. Academies -for some time likewise furnished the only means of training teachers -for the elementary schools, and have generally played an important part -in education in the United States. - - -SUPPLEMENTARY READING - -Graves, _During the Transition_ (Macmillan, 1910), chap. XVII; and -_Great Educators of Three Centuries_ (Macmillan, 1912), chaps. I and -V; Monroe, _Text-book_ (Macmillan, 1905), pp. 442-460. An excellent -edition of Milton’s _Tractate of Education_ is that by Morris, E. -E. (Macmillan, 1895); of Montaigne’s _Education of Children_ that -by Rector, L. E. (Appleton, 1899); of Locke’s _Thoughts concerning -Education_, and of Mulcaster’s _Positions_, those by Quick, R. H. -(Cambridge University Press, 1895, and Longmans, 1888, respectively); -and of Rabelais’ _Gargantua_, that by Besant, W. (Lippincott, Foreign -Classics for English Readers). The works of Castiglione, Elyot, -Peacham, Brathwaite, etc., are also extant. For an account of the -_Ritterakademien_, see Nohle, E., _History of the German School System_ -(Report of the U. S. Commissioner of Education, 1897-98), pp. 41 f., -and Paulsen, F., _German Education_ (Scribner, 1908), pp. 112-116; and -of the academies, Brown, E. E., _The Making of Our Middle Schools_ -(Longmans, Green, 1902), chaps. VIII and IX. - - - - -CHAPTER XV - -SENSE REALISM AND THE EARLY SCIENTIFIC MOVEMENT - - -OUTLINE - - In the seventeenth century scientific investigation developed - rapidly, and led theorists to introduce science into the curriculum - and to advocate a study of ‘real things.’ - - Bacon undertook to formulate induction, and while he did not - understand the importance of an hypothesis, he did much to rid the - times of _a priori_ reasoning. - - On the basis of sense realism, Ratich anticipated many principles - of modern pedagogy, but he was unsuccessful in applying his ideas. - - Comenius (1) produced texts for teaching Latin objectively, (2) - crystallized his educational principles in the _Great Didactic_, - and (3) attempted an encyclopædic organization of knowledge. He - wished to make this knowledge part of the course at every stage of - education, and, while he was not consistently inductive, he made a - great advance in the use of this method. - - Through sense realism, rudimentary science was introduced into the - elementary schools; the _Ritterakademien_ and the pietist schools - stressed the subject; and professorships of science were founded in - the universities. - -[Sidenote: Earlier realism a transition to sense realism.] - -[Sidenote: Opposition to the sciences.] - -=The Development of the Sciences and Realism.=--The realistic tendency -did not pause with reviving the ideas represented by the words nor -with the endeavor to bring the pupil into touch with the life he was -to lead. The earlier realism seems to have been simply a stage in the -process of transition from the narrow and formal humanism to a realism -obtained through the senses, which may be regarded as the beginning -of the modern movement to develop the natural sciences. Science had -started to develop as early as the time of the schoolman, Roger Bacon -(1214-1294), but for three centuries it was not kindly received. Even -during the Renaissance the Church had continued to oppose it bitterly, -because it tended to conflict with religious dogma, although this age -did not object to the revival of the classics. Accordingly, the latter -subject became strongly intrenched in educational tradition, and its -advocates offered the most obstinate opposition to the sciences. Its -numerous representatives struggled hard to keep the sciences out of -education. - -[Sidenote: Development of physics and astronomy in the seventeenth -century.] - -However, concomitant with the growth of reason and the partial removal -of the theological ban, there was developed a remarkable scientific -movement, with a variety of discoveries and inventions. For more than -a millennium the Greek developments in astronomy and physics had been -accepted as final, but toward the close of the sixteenth and during the -seventeenth century these _dicta_ were completely upset. The hypothesis -of a solar system, which replaced the Ptolemaic interpretation, was -published by Copernicus (1473-1543); Kepler (1571-1630) explained -the motion of the planets by three simple laws; and, through the -construction of a telescope, Galileo (1564-1642) revealed new celestial -phenomena. Galileo also demonstrated that all bodies, allowing for -the resistance of the air, fall at the same rate; by means of the -barometer, Torricelli (1608-1647) and Boyle (1627-1691) proved the -existing theories of a vacuum incorrect, and formulated important -laws concerning the pressure of gases; and Guericke (1602-1686), -inspired by their discoveries, succeeded in constructing an air-pump. -Investigations of this kind paved the way for the formulation of the -law of universal gravitation and the laws of motion by Sir Isaac Newton -(1642-1727), which united the universe into a single comprehensive -system and completed the foundations for modern mechanics. - -[Sidenote: Development of anatomy and physiology.] - -Likewise, about the same time, the other great development in -science among the Greeks,--anatomy and physiology, was completely -revolutionized. Through the discovery of valves in the veins by -means of dissection and vivisection, the hypothesis of the double -circulation of the blood by Harvey (1578-1657), and the microscopic -demonstrations by Malpighi (1628-1694) of the existence of capillaries -connecting the veins and the arteries, the old theory of the motion of -the blood through suction, which had been promulgated by Galen, was -completely shattered, and a great impetus was given to investigations -in anatomy and physiology. In consequence of this scientific progress, -the educational theorists began to introduce science and a knowledge -of real things into the curriculum. It came to be widely felt that -humanism gave a knowledge only of words, books, and opinions, and did -not even at its best lead to a study of real things. Hence, new methods -and new books were produced, to shorten and improve the study of the -classical languages, and new content was imported into the courses -of study. The movement also included an attempt at a formulation of -scientific principles in education and an adaptation to the nature of -the child. - -[Sidenote: Bacon rejected the deductive method of the day,] - -[Sidenote: but created a mechanical procedure.] - -=Bacon and His Inductive Method.=--The new tendency, however, did not -appear in education until after the time of Francis Bacon (1561-1626). -The use of the scientific method by the various discoverers was -largely unconscious, and it remained for Bacon to formulate what he -called the method of ‘induction’ and by advocating its use, to point -the way to its development as a scientific method in education. He is, -therefore, ordinarily known as the first sense realist. He reacted from -deductive logic, which was currently supposed to be the sole method of -Aristotle, and took his cue in formulating a new method of reasoning -from the many scientific workers of his time. He made a great advance -in his rejection of the contemporary method of attempting to establish -the first principles of a science, and then deducing from them by -means of the syllogism all the propositions which that science could -contain. However, his _Novum Organum_, or ‘new instrument’ as he called -his treatise, in endeavoring to create a method whereby anyone could -attain all the knowledge of which the human mind was capable, undertook -far too much, and resulted in a merely mechanical procedure. Briefly -stated, his plan was, after ridding the mind of individual prejudices, -to observe and carefully tabulate lists of all the facts of nature, and -from these discover the underlying law by comparing the cases where a -certain phenomenon appears and where it does not. - -[Sidenote: He failed to formulate the true inductive method,] - -[Sidenote: though he rid the times of _a priori_ reasoning.] - -But by this method neither Bacon himself nor anyone else has ever made -any real contribution to science. It does not follow that, because all -observed cases under certain conditions produce a particular effect, -every other instance not yet observed will necessarily have the same -effect. The true method of induction, which was evident even in the -work of Kepler, and came to be more so in the discoveries of Harvey and -Newton, stresses rather the part played by scientific imagination, as -it is manifested by men of genius in the forming of an hypothesis. The -modern procedure is as follows:--When certain effects are observed, of -which the cause or law is unknown, the scientist frames an hypothesis -(i. e., makes a conjecture) to account for them; then he tests this -hypothesis, by collecting facts and comparing with these facts the -conclusions to which his hypothesis would lead; and, if they correspond -or agree, he holds that his hypothesis has been confirmed or verified, -and maintains that he has discovered the cause or law. Nevertheless, -while Bacon did not formulate the inductive method of modern science, -he largely helped to rid the times of an unwise dependence upon _a -priori_ reasoning, and he did call attention to the necessity of -careful observation and experimentation, and thus opened the way -for real inductive procedure. Probably no book ever made a greater -revolution in modes of thinking or overthrew more prejudices than -Bacon’s _Novum Organum_. - -[Sidenote: Bacon was not especially interested in education,] - -[Sidenote: but his suggestions influenced Ratich and Comenius.] - -=Bacon’s Educational Suggestions and Influence.=--Bacon was not a -teacher, and his treatment of educational problems appears in brief and -scattered passages. While he offers isolated suggestions concerning -the mental and moral training of the young, he plans no serious -modification in the existing organization of schools. He does, however, -in his _New Atlantis_ imply an interest in promoting scientific -research and higher education. In the ideal society depicted in that -work, he describes an organization of scholars called ‘Salomon’s -House,’ whose members in their investigations anticipate much that -scientists and inventors have to-day only just begun to realize. Among -these anticipations were the variation of species, the infusion of -serums, vivisection, telescopes, telephones, flying-machines, submarine -boats, and steam-engines. From this description Bacon would seem to -believe that education should be organized upon the basis of society’s -gradually accumulating a knowledge of nature and imparting it to all -pupils at every stage. At any rate, in his _Advancement of Learning_, -he definitely suggests a wider course of study, more complete equipment -for scientific investigation, a closer coöperation among institutions -of learning, and a forwarding of ‘unfinished sciences.’ And such a -plan of _pansophia_, or ‘universal knowledge,’ was specified in the -educational creed of the later sense realists, who worked out the -Baconian theory of education. Hence, while not skilled or greatly -interested in education himself, Bacon influenced profoundly the -writing of many who were, and has done much to shape the spirit of -modern practice. His method was first applied directly to education by -a German known as Ratich, and, in a more effective way, by Comenius, a -Moravian. - -[Sidenote: Linguistic training.] - -[Sidenote: Other realistic principles.] - -[Sidenote: Influence.] - -=Ratich’s Methods.=--Ratich (1571-1635) probably became acquainted with -the sense realism of Bacon while studying in England, and, when about -forty years of age, undertook to found a system of education upon it. -In linguistic training, like all realists, he insisted that one “should -first study the vernacular” as an introduction to other languages. He -also held to the principle of “one thing at a time and often repeated.” -By this he meant that, in studying a language, one should master a -single book before taking up another. In his teaching at Köthen, as -soon as his pupils knew their letters, they were required to learn -_Genesis_ thoroughly for the sake of their German. Each chapter was -read twice by the teacher, while the pupil followed the text with his -finger. When the pupils could read the book perfectly, they were taught -grammar from it as a text. The teacher pointed out the various parts -of speech and made the boys find other examples, and had them decline, -conjugate, and parse. In taking up Latin, a play of Terence was treated -in similar fashion. Others of the principles that he used in teaching -language and grammar, and especially those which applied to education -in general, were even more distinctly realistic. Such, for example, -were his precepts,--“follow the order of nature” and “everything by -experiment and induction,” and his additional recommendation that -“nothing is to be learned by rote.” Thus Ratich not only helped shape -some of the best methods for teaching languages, but anticipated -the main principles of modern pedagogy. While, owing to obtrusive -failings in character and experience, he was uniformly unsuccessful -in his practice, he, nevertheless, stirred up considerable thought -and stimulated many treatises of others. Thus, through Comenius, -who carried out his principles more fully, this German innovator, -impractical as he was, became a spiritual ancestor to Pestalozzi, -Froebel, and Herbart. - -[Sidenote: Education,] - -[Sidenote: wanderings,] - -[Sidenote: and achievements.] - -=Comenius: His Training and Work.=--John Amos Comenius (1592-1670) was -born at Nivnitz, Moravia, and was by religious inheritance a staunch -adherent of the Moravian Church. After a course in a Latin school, he -spent a couple of years in higher education at the Lutheran College -of Herborn and at the University of Heidelberg. In consequence of -many vicissitudes in life, he lived and wrote in a number of places, -and became acquainted with the work of a variety of men engaged in -educational reform and advancement. While the problems with which -they were dealing were similar to his own and largely influenced his -educational positions, he far surpassed them all in scope of work and -greatness of repute. His educational achievements were the outgrowth of -sense realism, and appear in three directions:--(1) the series of texts -for learning Latin; (2) his _Great Didactic_; and (3) his attempts to -create an encyclopædic organization of knowledge (_pansophia_). - -[Sidenote: The plan of the _Janua_.] - -=His Series of Latin Texts.=--The first of the famous texts that -Comenius produced to facilitate the study of Latin was issued in 1631, -and has generally been known by the name of _Janua Linguarum Reserata_ -(The Gate of Languages Unlocked). It was intended as an introductory -book to the study of Latin, and consisted of an arrangement into -sentences of several thousand Latin words for the most familiar objects -and ideas. The Latin was printed on the right-hand side of the page, -and on the left was given a translation in the vernacular. By this -means the pupil obtained a grasp of all ordinary scientific knowledge -and at the same time a start in his Latin vocabulary. In writing this -text, Comenius may have been somewhat influenced by Ratich, a review of -whose methods he had read at Herborn, but he seems to have been more -specifically indebted both for his method and the felicitous name of -his book to a Jesuit known as Bateus, who had written a similar work. - -[Sidenote: The _Vestibulum_,] - -[Sidenote: _Atrium_,] - -[Sidenote: _Palatium_,] - -[Sidenote: and _Orbis Pictus_.] - -It was soon apparent that the _Janua_ would be too difficult for -beginners, and two years later Comenius issued his _Vestibulum_ -(Vestibule), as an introduction to it. While the _Janua_ contained -all the ordinary words of the language,--some eight thousand, there -were but a few hundred of the most common in the _Vestibulum_. Later -both of the works were several times revised, modified, and enlarged; -and grammars, lexicons, and treatises were written to accompany them. -He also published a third Latin reader, the _Atrium_ (Entrance Hall), -which took the pupil one stage beyond the _Janua_. We know, too, that -he intended also to write a still more advanced work, to be called -_Sapientiae Palatium_ (Palace of Wisdom). This fourth book was to -consist of selections from the best Latin authors, but it was never -completed. He did, however, produce as a supplementary text-book a -simpler and more extensive edition of the _Janua_, accompanied with -pictures. Each object in the illustrations of this book was marked with -a number corresponding to one in the text. This work, which he called -_Orbis Sensualium Pictus_ (The World of Sense Objects Pictured), is the -first illustrated reading book on record (Fig. 21). - -[Sidenote: Indebtedness to others.] - -[Sidenote: His aim and organization of education.] - -=_The Great Didactic._=--But these books on teaching Latin -realistically were only part of the work that Comenius contemplated. -During his whole career he had in mind a definite idea of the aim of -education, and of what, in consequence, he wished the organization, -subject-matter, and methods to be. His ideas on the whole question -of education were formulated in his _Great Didactic_ even before the -_Janua_ appeared, but the work was not published until 1657. In it -he strove to assimilate all that was good in the realistic movement -and use it as a foundation. He developed many of the principles and -methods of Ratich, Bateus, and others, but he owed a greater debt for -the suggestions he took from Bacon’s _Advancement of Learning_, and -even more from the _Encyclopædia_ of Alsted, one of his teachers at -Herborn. In the _Great Didactic_ Comenius formulated an educational -aim and constructed an educational organization of his own. Probably, -as an outgrowth of his religious attitude, he held to ‘knowledge, -morality, and piety’ as the ideals of education, and advocated -universal education for ‘boys and girls, both noble and ignoble, rich -and poor.’ His organization of education consisted of four periods -of six years each. The first period of instruction was that through -infancy, or up to the age of six. It was to be given in the school of -‘the mother’s lap,’ which should exist in every house. For childhood, -or from six to twelve, was to be organized the ‘vernacular school,’ -which should appear in every hamlet and village. From that time up to -eighteen comes the ‘Latin school,’ to be maintained in every city; -and, finally, for youth from eighteen to twenty-four, there should be -a university in every kingdom or province. Such an organization would -have made education universal, and would tend to bring about the custom -of education according to ability, rather than social status, which was -a suggestion some three centuries in advance of the times. - - - _Muntero Caps_, 20. &c. | _Amiculum_, 20. &c. - So the _Furrier_ | Sic _Pellio_ - maketh _Furred Garments_ | facit _Pellicia_ - of _Furs_. | è _Pellibus_. - --------------------------------------------------------------------- - The Shoemaker. LXIII. Sutor. - -[Illustration] - - - The _Shoemaker_, 1. | _Sutor_, 1. - maketh _Slippers_, 7. | conficit _Crepidas_ - | (Sandalia,) 7. - _Shoes_, 8. | _Calceos_, 8. - (in which is seen | (in quibus spectatur - above, the _Upper-leather_, | superne _Obstragulum_, - beneath the _Sole_, | inferne _Solea_, - and on both sides | et utrinque - the _Latchets_) | _Ansæ_) - _Boots_, 9. | _Ocreas_, 9. - and _High Shoes_, 10. | et _Perones_, 10. - of _Leather_, 5. | e _Corio_, 5. - (which is cut with a | (quod discinditur - _Cutting-knife_), 6. | _Scalpro Sutorio_, 6.) - by means of an _Awl_, 2. | ope _Subulæ_, 2. - and _Lingel_, 3. | et Fili _picati_, 3. - upon a _Last_, 4. | super _Modum_, 4. - -Fig. 21.--A page from the _Orbis Pictus_ of Comenius, illustrating a -lesson on a trade. - -(Reproduced from the edition published by C. W. Bardeen, 1887.) - -[Sidenote: Pansophic training at every stage of education.] - -=His Encyclopædic Arrangement of Knowledge.=--The rest of the works -of Comenius may be regarded as amplifications of various parts of -this _Great Didactic_. Besides the Janual series, which he seems to -have written for the Latin school, he produced a set of texts for -the vernacular school, which soon disappeared, and a handbook for -the lowest work, called _The School of Infancy_. But the phase of -the _Great Didactic_ most often elaborated was the realistic one of -_pansophia_ or ‘universal knowledge.’ This principle was not only -exemplified in such works as the _Janua_ and _Orbis Pictus_ and -in treatises he wrote upon astronomy and physics, but in various -educational institutions that he undertook to found, and it remained -the ruling passion throughout his life. In the _Great Didactic_ he -went so far as to hold that an encyclopædic training should be given -at every stage of education,--mother school, vernacular school, Latin -school, and university. - -[Sidenote: Each succeeding stage to enlarge the body of knowledge.] - -[Sidenote: The ‘didactic college’ for all nations.] - -But, while even in the mother school the infant was to make a beginning -with geography, history, and various sciences, grammar, rhetoric, -and dialectic, music, arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy, and the -rudiments of economics, politics, ethics, metaphysics, and religion, -his attainment was not expected to be as formidable as the names of -the subjects sound. It was to consist merely in understanding simple -causal, temporal, spatial, and numerical relations; in distinguishing -sun, moon, and stars, hills, valleys, lakes, and rivers, and animals -and plants; in learning to express oneself; and in acquiring proper -habits. It was, in fact, not unlike the training of the modern -kindergarten. In a similar way each succeeding stage is to enlarge -the body of knowledge along all these lines. “The different schools -are not to deal with different subjects, but should treat the same -subjects in different ways; throughout graduating the instruction to -the age of the pupil and the knowledge that he already possesses. In -the earlier schools everything is taught in a general and undefined -manner, while in those which follow the information is particularized -and exact.” Moreover, beyond the university, which, like the lower -schools, was to make teaching its chief function, Comenius held it to -be important that somewhere in the world there should be a ‘didactic -college’ devoted to scientific investigation, in which learned men from -all nations should coöperate. Such an institution would form a logical -climax to his system of schools, bearing the same relation to them that -the stomach does to the other members of the body by “supplying blood, -life, and strength to all.” - -[Sidenote: Often fanciful analogies,] - -=The Method of Nature.=--The way in which this pansophic instruction -should be given, Comenius also intended to have in full accord with -sense realism. He insists that the ‘method of nature’ must be observed -and followed, and then shows how nature accomplishes all things ‘with -certainty, ease, and thoroughness,’ in what respects schools have -deviated from the principles of nature, and how they can be rectified -only by following her plans. These principles concerning the working -of nature were laid down _a priori_, but it is probable that they had -been previously worked out inductively from his schoolroom experience. -At times, though, they were put in the form of fanciful analogies. For -example, he declares that because a bird by nature hatches her young -in the spring or early part of the year, schools have erred (1) in not -requiring education to begin in the springtime of life, or boyhood, and -(2) in not selecting the springtime of the day, or the morning hours, -for study. - -[Sidenote: but more fully inductive elsewhere.] - -But it is not remarkable that, with all his realistic tendencies, -Comenius did not consistently employ induction. The natural sciences -were young in his day, so that he did not altogether grasp their -content and method, and he had partially inherited the scholastic -notion that truth cannot be fully secured through the senses or by -reason. It is sufficient merit that Comenius, for the first time in -history, applied anything like induction to teaching. Moreover, in the -application of his general method to the specific teaching of various -lines,--sciences, reading, writing, singing, languages, morality, and -piety, he utilized more fully the induction of Bacon. For example, -after showing the necessity for careful observation in obtaining a -knowledge of the sciences, he gives nine useful precepts for their -study that are clearly the inductive result of his own experience as -a teacher. Likewise, he insists that, in teaching the sciences, in -order to make a genuine impression upon the mind, one must deal with -realities rather than books. The objects themselves, or where this -is not possible, such representations of them as can be conveyed by -copies, models, and pictures, must be studied. After the same principle -he formulates inductive rules and methods for instruction in the other -subjects. - -[Sidenote: Popularity of his Latin text-books,] - -[Sidenote: but ignorance of the _Great Didactic_,] - -[Sidenote: which was the indirect basis of modern education.] - -=The Influence of Comenius upon Education.=--Thus the work of -Comenius was based primarily upon sense realism, but he added many -modifications and new elements of his own. He may in the fullest sense -be considered the great educational theorist and practical reformer -of the seventeenth century. His practical ability is especially shown -in the series of Latin text-books, which far excelled the works of -several contemporaries on similar lines. The _Janua_ was translated -into a dozen European, and at least three Asiatic languages; the -_Orbis Pictus_ proved even more popular, and went through an almost -unlimited number of editions in various tongues; and the whole series -became for many generations the favorite means of introducing young -people to the study of Latin. But the remarkable theoretical work -of Comenius had little effect upon the schools of the period, and -until about the middle of the nineteenth century the _Great Didactic_ -was scarcely known. At that time, when this treatise of Comenius was -brought to light by German investigators, it was discovered that the -old realist of the seventeenth century had been the first to deal -with education in a scientific spirit, and work out its problems -practically in the schools. And the principles of Comenius were at the -time unconsciously taken up by others and indirectly became the basis -of modern education. His spirit appeared not only in the ideas of -subsequent theorists--Francke, Rousseau, Basedow, Pestalozzi, Herbart, -Froebel--but even in the actual curricula and methods of educational -institutions. - -[Sidenote: Slow and indirect, but the vernacular and elementary science -introduced.] - -=Realistic Tendencies in Elementary Schools.=--While the effect of -sense realism upon the schools seems to have been slow and indirect, -the movement was obvious even in the seventeenth century. In Germany -there came a decided tendency throughout the elementary schools to -increase instruction in the vernacular, as recommended by Ratich -and Comenius, and to learn first the German grammar rather than the -Latin. With this movement was joined the increase in universal and -compulsory education urged by the reformers, and an introduction of -elementary science, in addition to reading, writing, arithmetic, -religion, and singing. At Weimar in 1619, through a pupil of Ratich, -a new school system was organized; and in 1642, under the order of -Duke Ernst, Andreas Reyher prepared a new course for Gotha, which -afforded elementary instruction in the natural sciences, as well as -the rudiments and religion. This work included teaching the children -to measure with the hour-glass and sun-dial, to observe the ordinary -plants and animals, and to carry on other objective studies of a simple -character. Many other attempts at instruction in science were made -elsewhere in the German states, both in private and public education, -and the same tendency appeared in the states of Italy, and in France, -Holland, and England. - -[Sidenote: Science in the _Ritterakademien_,] - -[Sidenote: _Pädagogium_,] - -[Sidenote: and _Realschule_,] - -[Sidenote: and in grammar schools and academies.] - -=Secondary Schools.=--But the new realistic tendencies appeared also in -secondary education. While in Germany it was not until the eighteenth -century that there were any evidences of sense realism in the gymnasia, -languages of neighboring countries and considerable science appeared in -the _Ritterakademien_ (see p. 157) by the middle of the seventeenth, -and toward the end of the century in the schools of Francke and -other ‘pietists’ at Halle were embodied all the realistic elements -of Comenius. While the pietists adopted these ideas largely for -their religious side, as a protest and reaction to the rationalistic -_Ritterakademien_, they did not hesitate also to stress the science -content and the study of the vernacular. In the secondary school known -as the _Pädagogium_, which he had started for well-to-do boys, Francke -included training in the vernacular, mathematics, geography, natural -science, astronomy, anatomy, and materia medica; and the _Realschule_, -established by his colleague, Semler, went even more fully into -the vernacular, mathematics, and the sciences, pure and applied. -This realistic instruction of the pietists was brought by Hecker to -Berlin, where he started his famous _Realschule_ in 1747, and similar -institutions soon spread throughout Prussia. In England, while very few -of the grammar and public schools (see p. 120) as yet introduced even -the elements of science into their course, the academies (see p. 157) -were rich in sciences, mathematics, and the vernacular. This was also -true of the academies that sprang up in America (see p. 158). - -[Sidenote: Sciences in Halle, Göttingen, and other universities,] - -[Sidenote: and in Oxford and Cambridge.] - -[Sidenote: Great work of Newton.] - -[Sidenote: Science in American colleges.] - -=The Universities.=--The universities were slower in responding -to the movement of sense realism. As the result of its pietistic -origin, however, the University of Halle was realistic almost from -its beginning in 1692. Göttingen, the next institution to become -hospitable to the tendency, did not start it until 1737. But soon -afterward the movement became general, and by the end of the eighteenth -century all the German universities--at least, all under Protestant -auspices--had created professorships in the sciences. While the English -universities, Oxford and Cambridge, were much slower than those of -Germany in adopting the new subjects, and it was a century and a half -before these institutions became known for their science, during the -professorship of Isaac Newton (1669-1702) considerable was done toward -making Cambridge mathematical and scientific, and in the course of the -eighteenth century several chairs in the sciences were established. -Besides formulating the law of gravitation, Newton lectured and wrote -at Cambridge upon calculus, astronomy, optics, and the spectrum. He -became one of the greatest mathematicians and physicists the world -has known, and he did much to create a scientific atmosphere in other -educational institutions, as well as Cambridge. America also felt the -scientific impulse in its higher institutions. Some study of astronomy, -botany, and physics was possible at Harvard even in the seventeenth -century, and during the eighteenth Yale, Princeton, King’s (afterward -Columbia), Dartmouth, Union, and Pennsylvania all came to offer a -little work in physics, and at times in chemistry, geology, astronomy, -and biology. In his proposals for the prospective ‘seminary’ in New -York (1753), which was destined to become Columbia University, and in -the actual course of the academy at Philadelphia (later the University -of Pennsylvania), over which he presided, Dr. William Smith put a -most progressive program of sciences, including the rudiments of -mechanics, physics, chemistry, geology, astronomy, botany, zoölogy, and -physiology. But for half a century after this American institutions did -little with the sciences as laboratory studies. - - -SUPPLEMENTARY READING - -Graves, _During the Transition_ (Macmillan, 1910), chap. XVIII; and -_Great Educators of Three Centuries_ (Macmillan, 1912), chaps. II, -IV, and VI; Monroe, _Text-book_ (Macmillan, 1905), pp. 461-501. The -following works are standard for the authors mentioned: Adamson, J. W., -_Pioneers of Modern Education_ (Macmillan, 1905), chap. III (Bacon); -Barnard, H., _German Teachers and Educators_, pp. 343-370 (Ratich); -Fowler, T., Bacon’s _Novum Organum_ (Oxford, Clarendon Press); Laurie, -S. S., _John Amos Comenius_ (Bardeen, Syracuse, 1892); Monroe, W. S., -_Comenius_ (Scribner, 1900); and Quick, R. H., _Educational Reformers_ -(Appleton, 1896), chap. IX (Ratich) and X (Comenius). An account of -sense realism is afforded by Adamson, _op. cit._, chap. I, and of its -effect upon the schools by Barnard, _op. cit._, pp. 302-317, and by -Paulsen, F., _German Education_ (Scribner, 1908), pp. 117-133. - - - - -CHAPTER XVI - -FORMAL DISCIPLINE IN EDUCATION - - -OUTLINE - - Locke is often classed with the advocates of realism or of - naturalism, but the keynote to his thought is ‘discipline.’ This - is to be obtained in intellectual training through mathematics; in - moral training, through the control of desires by reason; and in - physical training, through a ‘hardening process.’ - - Locke has, therefore, often been viewed as the great advocate - of the theory of formal discipline, according to which certain - subjects yield a general power that may be applied in any - direction, and should be studied by all. - - This doctrine has greatly influenced education, but in the late - nineteenth century there was a decided reaction from it. Recently - this extreme reaction has been modified, and a position taken with - which Locke’s real attitude would seem to be in harmony. - -[Sidenote: Often classed as an early realist, a sense realist, or a -naturalist.] - -=Locke’s Work and Its Various Classifications.=--Because of their -relation to an important topic in modern education, the theories of -John Locke (1632-1704) should receive further attention than they -have yet been given. No writer on education has been more variously -classified than he. We have already seen (p. 154) that the general -tenor of his _Thoughts concerning Education_ would lead us to group -him with the early realistic movement. There are also elements in this -work that would seem to place him with the sense realists, and many -of his ideas proved so similar and suggestive to Rousseau’s thought -(see p. 213), that he has sometimes been classed among the advocates -of naturalism. But Locke’s _Thoughts_, by which his educational -position is often exclusively judged, were simply a set of practical -suggestions for the education of a gentleman, written for a friend as -advice in bringing up his son. They make clear his general sympathy -with the current educational reform, but do not bring out his main -point of view. His central thought appears more definitely through the -philosophical principles in his famous _Essay concerning the Human -Understanding_, and through the intellectual training suggested in -his other educational work, _Conduct of the Understanding_, which was -originally an additional book and application of the _Essay_. - -[Sidenote: But his underlying thought is ‘discipline’.] - -[Sidenote: To train the mind, mathematics and a range of sciences -should be studied.] - -=Locke’s Disciplinary Theory in Intellectual Education.=--Probably -Locke’s underlying thought as to the proper method of intellectual, -moral, and physical training may best be summed up in the word -‘discipline.’ This educational attitude is a natural corollary of his -philosophic position. In his _Essay_ he holds that ideas are not born -in one, but that all knowledge comes from experience. The mind, he -declares, is like ‘white paper, or wax,’ upon which impressions from -the outside world are made through our senses. When the ideas are once -in mind, it is necessary to determine what they tell us in the way -of truth. Hence, to train the mind to make proper discriminations, -he declares in the _Conduct of the Understanding_ that practice and -discipline are necessary. “Would you have a man reason well, you must -use him to it betimes, exercise his mind in observing the connection -of ideas and following them in train.” As to the means of effecting -this mental discipline, Locke holds: “Nothing does this better than -mathematics, which therefore I think should be taught all those who -have the time and opportunity, not so much to make them mathematicians -as to make them reasonable creatures, that having got the way of -reasoning, which that study necessarily brings the mind to, they might -be able to transfer it to other parts of knowledge as they shall have -occasion.” Similarly, he advises a wide range of sciences, “to accustom -our minds to all sorts of ideas and the proper ways of examining their -habitudes and relations; not to make them perfect in any one of the -sciences, but so to open and dispose their minds as may best make them -capable of any, when they shall apply themselves to it.” - -[Sidenote: For moral training, the desires should be guided by reason.] - -[Sidenote: For physical training, the ‘hardening process’ should be -used.] - -=Disciplinary Attitude in Moral and Physical Training.=--The same -disciplinary conception of education underlies Locke’s ideals of -moral training: “That a man is able to deny himself his own desires, -cross his own inclinations, and purely follow what reason directs as -best, tho’ the appetite lean the other way. This power is to be got -and improved by custom, made easy and familiar by an early practice.” -And even more definitely disciplinary is the well-known ‘hardening -process,’ which he recommends in physical training: “The first thing to -be taken care of is that children be not too warmly clad or covered, -winter or summer. The face, when we are born, is no less tender than -any other part of the body. It is use alone hardens it, and makes it -more able to endure the cold.” He likewise advises that a boy’s “feet -be washed every day in cold water,” that he “have his shoes so thin -that they might leak and let in water,” that he “play in the wind and -sun without a hat,” and that “his bed be hard.” - -[Sidenote: Evolved through the disappearance of the utilitarian -argument.] - -[Sidenote: A general power afforded.] - -[Sidenote: Every one should take certain studies, regardless of -interest.] - -=Origin, Significance, and Influence of the Theory of Formal -Discipline.=--This emphasis upon discipline in training of every -sort--intellectual, moral, physical--has often caused Locke to be -regarded as the first great exponent of the educational doctrine of -‘formal discipline.’ That theory has been so widespread and important -during the past two centuries as to require consideration here. During -the Middle Ages and the early period of humanism Latin was not only of -cultural, but of practical utilitarian value. It was the language of -the Church and of diplomacy, and in it was locked up all the learning -of the times. All guidance in science, literature, philosophy, and -politics that received any consideration was couched in its terms. -But with the decline of ecclesiastical influence, the development of -vernacular languages, and the scientific awakening in the seventeenth -century (see pp. 163 f.), this utilitarian argument for the study of -Latin was largely swept away. Appeal was then made in behalf of the -subject to the doctrine of ‘formal discipline,’ which was supported -by the ‘faculty’ psychology of Aristotle. It was held that the study -of Latin yields results out of all proportion to the effort expended, -and gives a general power that may be applied in any direction. -A similar claim was before long made for Greek and mathematics. -Mathematics was declared to sharpen the ‘faculty of reason,’ while the -classic languages were believed to improve the ‘faculty of memory.’ -Consequently, it gradually came to be argued by formal disciplinarians -that every one should take these all-important studies, regardless -of his interest, ability, or purpose in life, since he would thus -best prepare himself for any field of labor. All who proved unfitted -for these particular subjects have, therefore, been supposed to be -not qualified for the higher duties and responsibilities, and to be -unworthy of consideration in higher education. - -[Sidenote: Used by scientists.] - -[Sidenote: Effect upon institutions of various countries.] - -This doctrine of formal discipline has had a tremendous effect upon -each stage of education in practically every country and during -every period until recently. Even the scientists and advocates of a -variety of other subjects, instead of arguing for content value and -particular training, have made strenuous efforts to meet this argument -by pointing out the formal discipline in their own studies (see pp. 404 -f.). Excellent examples of the effect of this theory upon educational -institutions are found in the formal classicism of the English grammar -and public schools and universities and of the German gymnasiums. While -in the United States a newer and more flexible society has enabled -changes to be more readily made, as late as the last decade of the -nineteenth century, Greek, Latin, and mathematics largely made up the -staples in many high schools, colleges, and universities, and the husks -of formal grammar were often defended in elementary education upon the -score of formal discipline. - -[Sidenote: Specific, not general, power.] - -[Sidenote: Content, rather than form, stressed.] - -[Sidenote: But some generalized powers possible.] - -=Opposition to the Disciplinary Theory and More Recent -Modification.=--At the beginning of the twentieth century, however, -with the abandonment of the ‘faculty psychology’ and the development -of educational theory, a decided reaction from the doctrines of formal -discipline began among psychologists and common sense educators. It is -now almost universally conceded that specific, rather than general, -power is developed by the various studies, and no student is held to -be unworthy of education or impervious to culture, simply because he -is not adapted to the classics or mathematics. In consequence, the -content of studies, rather than the process of acquisition, has come -to be emphasized, the curriculum has everywhere been broadened, and -the principle of the election of subjects largely recognized. It has, -however, been felt within the last half dozen years that in reacting -from the old theory of formal discipline, educators went too far. While -it is still held that emphasis must be laid upon the specific character -of mental training, there are some generalized powers and values to -be obtained. It is realized that “a general benefit can be derived -from specific training in so far as the person trained has consciously -wrought out in connection with the specific training a general concept -of method, based upon the specific methods used in that training” (F. -A. Hodge). Thus a student who has once realized the value of close -reasoning through mathematical demonstrations is likely to develop -a general concept of method, and can hardly be satisfied any longer -with slovenly thinking in other fields; and the fine discriminations -discovered in the classical authors, the balanced judgment used in -historical method, and the accuracy required in the study of the -sciences, may well be abstracted and tend to furnish a generalized -ideal for other lines of endeavor. - -[Sidenote: And Locke’s ‘discipline’ is of this kind.] - -[Sidenote: Generalized values of mathematics.] - -[Sidenote: Locke did not defend the formalism of public schools.] - -=Locke’s Real Position on Formal Discipline.=--It would seem as if -this modified form of general power were all that Locke had in mind. -He definitely concedes that “learning pages of Latin by heart, no more -fits the memory for retention of anything else, than the graving of -one sentence in lead makes it the more capable of retaining firmly any -other characters.” And while he holds that the method of reasoning -in mathematics can be transferred ‘to other parts of knowledge,’ he -declares that men who are reasonable in some things are often very -unreasonable in others, and “men who may reason well in one sort of -matters to-day may not do so at all a year hence.” The generalized -benefits that students may obtain from mathematics are simply that it -“would show them the necessity there is, in reasoning, to separate all -distinct ideas, and see the habitudes that all those concerned in the -present inquiry have to one another, and to lay by those which relate -not to the proposition in hand and wholly to leave them out of the -reckoning. This is that which in other subjects is absolutely requisite -to just reasoning.” Thus Locke appears to be rather in harmony with -modern educational theory than a thorough-going advocate of formal -discipline. At any rate, it should be recognized that he did not -defend, but vigorously assailed, the grammatical and linguistic grind -in the English public schools. His attitude toward formal discipline -seems to have sprung from his desire to root out the traditional and -false, rather than to support the narrow humanistic curricula of the -times. - - -SUPPLEMENTARY READING - -Graves, _During the Transition_ (Macmillan, 1910), pp. 305-311; and -_Great Educators_ (Macmillan, 1912), chap. VI; Monroe, _Text-book_ -(Macmillan, 1905), chap. IX. For a more extended account of Locke, read -his _Thoughts_ and _Conduct_, and Fowler, T., _John Locke_ (Macmillan, -1901). The literature of formal discipline is most extensive and the -subject is still under discussion; but a good summary of all written -up to 1911 is furnished in Heck, W. H., _Mental Discipline and -Educational Values_ (John Lane, New York), and later articles can be -found by consulting the index of _The American Psychological Review_. -In a doctoral dissertation (University of Virginia), _John Locke and -Formal Discipline_, Hodge, F. A., makes it clear that the common -interpretation of Locke as a formal disciplinarian is unfair. The -most typical of the earliest opposition to the disciplinary argument -is probably found in Thorndike, E. L., _Educational Psychology_ -(Teachers College, New York, 1910), chap. VIII; the sanest discussion -of the possible transfer of ideals appears in Bagley, W. C., -_Educative Process_ (Macmillan, 1905), chap. XIII; and the reaction -to the reaction is best portrayed by Angell, Pillsbury, and Judd in -_Educational Review_, vol. XXXVI, pp. 1-43. Lyans, C. K., in his -article upon _Formal Discipline_ (_Pedagogical Seminary_, vol. XXI, -pp. 343-393) makes a most careful analysis of the interpretations of -the defenders and opponents of the theory, and gives a very thorough -discussion of transfers. - - - - -CHAPTER XVII - -EDUCATION IN THE AMERICAN COLONIES - - -OUTLINE - - The schools of the American colonies closely resembled those of - the European countries from which the colonists came, and were - influenced by the various religious conceptions of education that - were current in each case. In general, where the Calvinistic - attitude prevailed, the colonies attempted universal education, but - where the Anglican communion dominated, the aristocratic ideal of - education was in evidence. - - Three types of colonial school organization appeared: (1) _laissez - faire_ in Virginia; (2) ‘parochial’ in New Netherlands; and (3) - governmental activity in Massachusetts. The South generally - followed the same plan as Virginia, and New York (after the English - occupation) and Rhode Island also developed on this basis. The - other Middle and New England colonies followed the parochial and - governmental patterns respectively. - -[Sidenote: The seventeenth century a period of ‘transplantation of -schools.’] - -=American Education a Development from European.=--We have hitherto -had little occasion to speak of American education, except by way -of anticipating certain great waves of influence and important -institutions that have come into America from Europe. But we have -now reached the period when the New World began to be extensively -colonized, and in the rest of our study educational practices in -America will become increasingly distinctive and influential. The -schools of America are the offspring of European institutions, and -have their roots deep in the social soil of the lands from which the -colonists came. While the universal, free, and secular schools of the -United States are a natural accompaniment of its republican form of -government, like the new democracy itself, this development of popular -education was not reached at a bound. At first the American schools -resembled the institutions of the Mother Country as closely as the -frontier life would permit. The seventeenth century was, therefore, for -American education distinctly a period of ‘transplantation of schools,’ -with little or no conscious change; and it is only toward the middle of -the next century, as new social and political conditions were evolving -and the days of the Revolution were approaching, that there are evident -the gradual modification of European ideals and the differentiation of -American schools toward an ideal of their own. - -[Sidenote: Influence of Reformation period upon the colonists.] - -=Conditions in Europe from Which American Education Sprang.=--Hence, in -order to understand American education in the colonial period, we must -briefly consider the social and educational conditions in Europe during -the early part of the seventeenth century, when the colonists began -their migrations. The thirteen American colonies were started while -the fierce agitations of the Reformation period were still at their -height. The settlers, for the most part, were Protestants, and many -of them had emigrated in order to establish institutions--political, -ecclesiastical, educational--that would conform to their own ideals, -and in all cases education in the New World was given a peculiar -importance by the dominant religious interests and conflicts of the -old. At this time in practically all the states of Europe, educational -institutions were controlled and supported by the Church and religious -orders, with the assistance of private benevolence; but a few schools -everywhere, and especially in Teutonic countries, were maintained -by pre-Reformation craft gilds, and so had a close connection with -municipalities (see p. 92). Thus the American schools at first -naturally adopted the religious conception of education and religious -domination, but had some acquaintance with free schools and municipal -management. - -[Sidenote: Tendency toward universal education among Calvinists, but -aristocratic ideals among Anglicans.] - -In addition to these characteristics, the religious reformers, like -Luther and Calvin, generally held to the idea that a system of schools -should be supported, or at least established, by the state, and -that all children should have an opportunity to secure an education -sufficient to make them familiar with the Scriptures. If people were -to be guided by the word of God, they must all be able to read it. -But this view of education was not held by those for whom, as in the -English Church, the Reformation was not primarily a religious and -theological, but rather an ecclesiastical and political revolt. In -Holland and Scotland, for example, where Calvinism prevailed, universal -education was upheld by the mass of the people, but in France and -England only a small minority, the Huguenots and Puritans respectively, -adopted this attitude. Hence it happens that, wherever in America -the influence of Puritanism, the Dutch Reformed religion, Scotch -Presbyterianism, or other forms of Calvinism was felt, the nucleus of -public education appeared, while in the colonies where the Anglican -communion was dominant, the aristocratic idea of education prevailed -and training of the masses was neglected. However, even among the -Calvinists, who held that elementary education should be universal, -and that the State as well as the Church should hold itself responsible -for its being furnished, the logical solution of the problem was not -perceived for scores of years. In the Calvinistic colonies it was not -at first believed that education should be the same in character for -all or that the State should bear the expense through taxation. This -distinctively American interpretation of public education did develop -later, but in the beginning even the most advanced colonies to some -extent placed the financial responsibility upon the parent or guardian. - -[Sidenote: Three chief types.] - -[Sidenote: In Virginia, selective education, inherited from England.] - -[Sidenote: Consequent educational legislation.] - -=Colonial School Organization: The Aristocratic Type in Virginia.=--As -a result of these general traditions and characteristics, there -would seem to have been three chief types of school organization in -the colonies. These were (1) the _laissez faire_ method, current -in Virginia and the South; (2) the parochial organization of New -Netherlands and the Middle Colonies in general; (3) the governmental -activity in Massachusetts and most of the other New England colonies. -We may profitably discuss these typical organizations in order. -Turning first to the aristocratic colonies of the South, we may select -Virginia, the oldest of these provinces, as representative of the type. -That colony constituted the first attempt of England at reproducing -herself in the New World, and here are found an order of society, form -of government, established church, and distinction between classes, -similar to those of the Mother Country. For some time there existed a -sharp line of demarcation between the gentry, or landowning class, and -the masses, which included the landless, indentured servants, and other -dependents. In education, the colonists had brought with them the idea -of a classical higher and secondary training for the upper classes in -the semi-monastic type of university and the (Latin) grammar school -(see pp. 120 f.), and but little in the way of elementary education, -except private ‘dame’ schools and the catechetical training by the -clergy. There were, in addition, the family ‘tutorial’ education, -both secondary and elementary, for the children of the wealthy, and -evident attempts at perpetuating the old English industrial training -through apprenticeship for orphans and children of the poor. But no -such institution as a public elementary school was at first known. -In consequence, the educational legislation in colonial Virginia is -concerned mainly with (a) the organization of a college or university, -(b) individual schools of secondary grade, and (c) apprenticeship -education for the poor. - -[Sidenote: Efforts to found a college] - -[Sidenote: and secondary schools.] - -During the first quarter of a century most educational efforts in -Virginia were in behalf of the foundation of an institution of higher -learning, and were aided by the king, the Anglican bishops, and the -London Company. By 1619 over £2000 and a grant of ten thousand acres -of land had been obtained for a University at Henrico, but this rather -indefinite plan was brought to a violent end by the Indian massacre -of 1622, and the funds were diverted to a school in the Bahamas. An -even more fruitless endeavor to found a college was made in 1624 by -Sir Edwin Palmer upon an island in the Susquehanna. During this period -also there was at least one abortive attempt to establish a school by -collections and gifts, and during the second quarter century of the -colony there were chartered a number of secondary schools, endowed with -bequests of land, money, cows, horses, slaves, or other property. -These schools, however, were local, and resembled the endowed Latin -schools of England, except that they may sometimes have been obliged -by circumstances to include more or less elementary instruction. In -1660 there was also a renewed attempt to establish by subscriptions -a college and “free (secondary) school for the advance of learning, -education of youth, supply of the ministry and promotion of piety.” -But none of the efforts at founding schools could have been very -successful, for, a decade later, when interrogated as to what kind of -education existed in the colonies, Governor Berkeley made his famous -reply: “The same course that is taken in England out of towns; every -man according to his ability instructing his children.... I thank God -there are no free schools, and I hope we shall not have them these -hundred years; for learning has brought disobedience and heresy and -sects into the world.” - -[Sidenote: Apprenticeship education for the poor.] - -However, despite these biased remarks of the testy governor, by -1692 the constant efforts to obtain an institution of learning were -finally rewarded. Through the management of the Reverend James -Blair, D. D., the bishop’s commissary in Virginia, a charter for the -College of William and Mary, a gift of £2000 and of twenty thousand -acres of land, and the right to certain colonial taxes were obtained -from the king, and large donations were made by the planters and -additional support provided by the assembly. In fact, the college was -munificently endowed for the times, and it did a great work in training -the greatest scholars, statesmen, judges, military officers, and -other leaders during the struggle for independence. Moreover, ‘free’ -schools now greatly increased in number and their courses were much -improved. But education was throughout this early period regarded as -a special privilege, and the masses were mostly employed in making -tobacco, and other manual pursuits. For the sons of these people -the only educational legislation was that provided between 1643 and -1748 in various acts concerning the industrial training of the poor, -apprentices, wards, and orphans. In keeping with English precedents, -these children were taught a trade by the masters to whom they were -indentured, or trained in the flax-house established by public funds -at James City. Thus, by the middle of the eighteenth century a fair -provision of secondary and higher education had been voluntarily made -in various localities, but as yet no real interest in common schools -had been shown by the responsible classes in Virginia. Education was -there predominantly ‘selective’ in character. - -[Sidenote: Calvinistic conception of universal education, as in -Holland.] - -[Sidenote: Catechism and prayers of Reformed Church, as well as -elementary branches, taught.] - -[Sidenote: But, with English occupation, replaced by _laissez faire_ -organization.] - -=The Parochial Schools in New Netherlands.=--A second type of colonial -organization of education appears in the New Netherlands, as the -country between the Delaware and Connecticut rivers was called during -the period of Dutch control (1621-1674). In contrast to the _laissez -faire_ attitude of Virginia, the foundation of schools was parochial. -Instead of the chance endowment of schools wherever the benefactors -happened to be located, a school was founded in connection with every -church. This arrangement grew out of the Calvinistic conception of -universal education, which formed an essential part of the social -traditions in Holland during the seventeenth century. Long before the -Dutch came to America, the parochial school, as a means of preserving -the Reformed faith, had become an indispensable part of church -organization. But the Dutch state also had concerned itself with the -facilities for education. The Reformed Dutch Church was granted the -right to examine teachers, enforce subscription to the creed, and, -in the case of the elementary schools at least, largely determine -the appointments, but the legal support and control of education -were vested in the civil authorities. Hence there early arose in New -Amsterdam and the villages of New Netherlands a parochial school system -and a distribution of control between Church and State very similar -to that in Holland. Besides the ordinary elementary branches, these -parochial schools of the New Netherlands taught the ‘true principles -of Christian religion,’ and the catechism and prayers of the Reformed -Church. Thus the Dutch school differed from those in the Anglican -colonies of the South, which stressed secondary education, in being -chiefly elementary, although some attempt at conducting a Latin or -‘grammar’ (see p. 120) school was also made in New Amsterdam from 1652 -on. However, after the English took permanent possession of New York -(1674), the parochial school of the city was limited to the support -of the Reformed Church, and, as a result of its long refusal to adopt -the English language, its possible influence toward the realization -of universal education was completely lost. While the Dutch schools -of the villages generally retained the joint control and support of -the local court and church, with a constantly increasing domination of -the former, as a whole the English occupation of New York would seem -to have set public education back about a hundred years. At any rate, -by the eighteenth century colonial New York seems to have fallen -into the same _laissez faire_ support of education that prevailed in -the Southern colonies. The policy of universal education by means of -parochial schools no longer existed. - -[Sidenote: More sects and the municipality not coördinated.] - -[Sidenote: Friends,] - -[Sidenote: Lutherans,] - -[Sidenote: Mennonites,] - -[Sidenote: and others.] - -=Sectarian Organization of Schools in Pennsylvania.=--As a colony, -Pennsylvania developed a church school organization, similar to that -of the New Netherlands, except that it was carried on in connection -with a number of creeds, and that the municipality was seldom a -coördinate factor. Pennsylvania was more heterogeneous in population -than New York, as the tolerant attitude of the Quaker government had -attracted a large variety of German sects, Swedes, Dutch, English, -Welsh, and Scotch and Irish Presbyterians, and each was devoted to -its own denominational schools. Early in the eighteenth century all -Protestant religious bodies were authorized by statute to conduct -schools and to receive bequests and hold land for their support. Even -before this the Friends had started the ‘Penn Charter School,’ which, -while itself a secondary school, soon established elementary schools -as branches throughout the city upon various arrangements. In keeping -with the conclusions of various ‘Yearly Meetings’ (1722, 1746, etc.), -the Friends also provided elementary, and to some extent secondary, -schools in close proximity to all meeting-houses throughout the colony. -Similarly, the Lutheran congregations, for example, each set up a -school alongside of the church as early as possible. Likewise the -Mennonites included in their system the famous schools of Christopher -Dock, who in 1750 produced the first elaborate educational treatise -in America. There was also some attempt at ‘grammar’ schools (see p. -120) or secondary education, especially in the case of the well-known -Moravian institutions at Bethlehem, Nazareth, and Lititz, and the -Presbyterian Log College at Neshaminy, which became the cradle of -Princeton, Washington and Jefferson, Hampden-Sidney, and Union Colleges. - -[Sidenote: Broader attempts.] - -A somewhat broader spirit was manifest in the voluntary ‘neighborhood’ -schools of Western Pennsylvania and elsewhere, in the attempts at -universal education of the Connecticut colonists in the Wyoming Valley, -and in the ‘academy’ (see p. 159) set up at Philadelphia through -Franklin, to train public men and teachers, and fuse the various -nations in a common citizenship. But, as a whole, parochial schools -exerted the greatest influence in the colony of Pennsylvania. - -[Sidenote: Democratic and homogeneous society produced governmental -activity.] - -=Town Schools in Massachusetts.=--The third type of colonial school -organization appeared first in Massachusetts. As compared with the -_laissez faire_ and the parochial methods, governmental activity here -prevailed. Accordingly, Massachusetts may be said to have inaugurated -the first real system of public education in America. The character of -the schools in this colony developed from its peculiar form of society -and government. It was democratic, concentrated, and homogeneous, -as compared with the cosmopolitan and sectarian social structure -in the Middle colonies, or the class distinctions and scattered -population of the South. While there were some servants and dependents -in the Massachusetts Bay Colony and a distinction was made between -‘freemen’ and others, there were at no time rival elements that were -unable to combine. The settlements were not a mere confederation, -but the blending of all elements into a single organism, where the -individuality of each was merged in a new social whole. This condition -was a result of the radical ingrained religious conviction that every -one was a child of God, capable of becoming a vital and useful member -of society, and that the community was obligated to give him training -to that end in the home, the church, and the school. - -[Sidenote: Acts of 1642] - -[Sidenote: and 1647.] - -Out of this Calvinistic attitude sprang a spirit of coöperation -and helpfulness, a general participation of all townsmen in local -government, and the Massachusetts type of school organization. Common -schools seem to have been supported in most towns from the first by -voluntary or compulsory subscriptions, and before the close of the -first quarter of a century there had been established by the colony -at large an educational system in which every citizen had a working -share. Because of this inclusiveness and unity in matters theological, -the schools, while religious and moral, could hardly be considered -sectarian. The first educational act of the colony, passed in 1642, -was similar to the old English apprenticeship law in its provision for -industrial education, and, while it was broadened so as to include some -literary elements and a rate to procure materials was established, no -school is mentioned in it. But in 1647 each town of fifty families was -required, under a penalty of £5, to maintain an elementary school (Fig. -22), and every one of a hundred families a (Latin) ‘grammar’ (Fig. 23) -school. These schools might be supported in part by tuition fees, as -well as by the town rate, and the obligation seems to have still rested -on the parents to see that the children did ‘resort’ to the school, but -the germs of the present common school system in the United States -appear in the educational activity of the legislature in colonial -Massachusetts. The ‘grammar’ schools were to prepare boys for Harvard -College (Fig. 24), which had been founded in 1636. - -[Sidenote: County schools in Maryland.] - -[Sidenote: Parish schools in South Carolina.] - -[Sidenote: Georgia financed by parliament.] - -[Sidenote: Democratic tendencies in North Carolina.] - -=Education in the Other Colonies.=--In general, the organization of -education in the remaining nine colonies can be classed under one of -the three types, described above, but there are various modifications -and some exceptions to be noted. The _laissez faire_ foundation of -schools and colleges during the colonial period, which was evident in -Virginia, seems to be characteristic of the four other colonies of the -South. But the problems were in every case a little different, and in -each there were variations in development. Maryland, for example, while -mainly following the same random foundation of schools as Virginia, -also seriously endeavored (1696) to support schools in every county by -a general colonial tax. South Carolina likewise made an unsuccessful -attempt (1722) at establishing a county system of schools, and, a -decade before, it undertook to subsidize a school in each parish. -Georgia, on the other hand, until the Revolution, had its entire -budget, including the items for education, financed by the English -parliament. And North Carolina, through a large number of Irish and -Scotch Presbyterians, German Protestants, and other immigrants, mostly -from Pennsylvania, after 1728 began to break away from the aristocratic -policy. - -[Sidenote: Random organization in New York and Rhode Island.] - -[Sidenote: Governmental activity in New England.] - -Moreover, after the permanent occupation (1674) by the English, New -York went over to the _laissez faire_ plan (see p. 194). And, although -in the remaining ‘middle’ colonies, New Jersey and Delaware, something -was accomplished by the parochial schools of the various sects, much -of the school organization there was _laissez faire_. Likewise, Rhode -Island, dominated by a fanatical devotion to freedom in thought and -speech, failed throughout colonial days to pass any general regulations -on education, like those of Massachusetts, and followed more closely -the random organization of schools in Virginia. But the other New -England colonies, Connecticut and New Hampshire, when it separated -from Massachusetts, tended to provide schools after the Massachusetts -plan. The Hartford colony of Connecticut in its statutes of 1650 -copied almost _verbatim_ the phraseology used by Massachusetts in the -establishment of schools. It remains for later chapters to show how -the practices suggested by this type of organization have eventually -overcome those of the other two, for that did not come to pass until -after the colonial period. - -[Illustration: Fig. 22.--Town school at Dedham (Massachusetts) with -watch-tower, built in 1648.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 23.--Boston Latin School, founded in 1635.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 24.--The buildings of Harvard College (founded -1636) erected in 1675, 1699, and 1720.] - - -SUPPLEMENTARY READING - -Graves, _History of Education in Modern Times_ (Macmillan, 1913), chap, -iv; Clews, Elsie W., affords primary source material in _Educational -Legislation and Administration of the Colonial Governments_ (Columbia -University, Department of Philosophy and Psychology, No. 6). The -interpretation of educational organization in _Colonial Schools_ used -in this chapter is furnished by Monroe and Kilpatrick in the Monroe -_Cyclopædia of Education_ (Macmillan, 1910-14). For conditions in the -various colonies, consult Dexter, E. G., _History of Education in the -United States_ (Macmillan, 1904), chaps. I-VI; Jackson, G. L., _The -Development of School Support in Colonial Massachusetts_ (Columbia -University, Teachers College Contributions, No. 25, 1909); Kilpatrick, -W. H., _The Dutch Schools of New Netherland_ (Bulletin, U. S. Bureau -of Education, 1912); McCrady, E., _Education in South Carolina_ -(Collections of the Historical Society of South Carolina, vol. IV); -Smith, C. L., _History of Education in North Carolina_ (U. S. Bureau -of Education, Circular of Information, no. 2, 1894); Steiner, B. C., -_History of Education in Connecticut_ (U. S. Bureau of Education, -Circular of Information, no. 2, 1893) and _History of Education in -Maryland_ (U. S. Bureau of Education, Circular of Information, no. 2, -1894), chaps. I-IV; Stockwell, T. B., _History of Public Education -in Rhode Island_ (Providence Press Co., Providence, 1876), pp. -281-404; and Wickersham, J. P., _History of Education in Pennsylvania_ -(Lancaster, Pennsylvania, 1886), chaps. I-XII. - - - - -PART IV - -MODERN TIMES - - - - -CHAPTER XVIII - -GROWTH OF THE DEMOCRATIC IDEAL IN EDUCATION - - -OUTLINE - - During the eighteenth century, there appeared the climax to the - revolt against absolutism. - - This movement was directed against repression of intellect in the - first half of the century, and against repression of political - rights in the second half. The former phase, through Voltaire, - made reason the basis of society and education, but introduced - the tyranny of an intellectual few; the latter, through Rousseau, - promoted an emotionalism and ‘naturalism’ that were in keeping with - the sentiments of the times. - - The early treatises of Rousseau advocated a complete return to - nature, but his later works somewhat modified this attitude. - -[Sidenote: The eighteenth century marked the climax of the rebellion -against the enslavement of the individual.] - -=The Revolt from Absolutism.=--The ideal of universality and of state -control in the education of America and other countries was greatly -assisted by the climax to the general revolt against absolutism and -ecclesiasticism that appeared in the eighteenth century. During this -period of time most strenuous efforts were made to interpret life -from a more reasonable and natural point of view and to overthrow -all customs and institutions that did not square with these tests. -This century marked the climax of the rebellion against authority and -against the enslavement of the individual that had been manifesting -itself in one form or another from the close of the Middle Ages. One -revival after another--the Renaissance, the Reformation, realism, -Puritanism, Pietism--had burst forth only to fade away or harden into -a new formalism and authoritative standard. Yet with each effort -something was really accomplished for freedom and progress, and the -way was paved for the seemingly abrupt break from tradition that -appears to mark the period roughly included in the eighteenth century. -At this point despotism and ecclesiasticism were becoming thoroughly -intolerable, and the individual tended more and more to assert his -right to be an end in himself. At times all institutional barriers -were swept aside, and in the French Revolution destruction went to an -extreme. The logical consequence of these movements would have been -complete social disintegration, had not the nineteenth century happily -made conscious efforts to justify the eighteenth, and bring out the -positions that were only implied in the negations of the latter. Thus -the revolutionary tendencies and destruction of absolutism in the -eighteenth century led to evolutionary movements and the construction -of democracy in the nineteenth. - -[Sidenote: The revolt against repression (1) of intellect and (2) of -political rights.] - -=The Two Epochs in the Eighteenth Century.=--But this revolt of the -eighteenth century from absolutism in politics, religion, and thought, -falls naturally into two parts. During the first half of the century -the movement was directed against repression in theology and intellect, -and during the second half against repression in politics and the -rights of man. The former tendency appears in the rationalism and -skepticism of such men as Voltaire and, the ‘encyclopedists,’ while the -latter becomes evident chiefly in the emotionalism and ‘naturalism’ -of Rousseau. Although these aspects of the revolutionary movement -somewhat overlapped each other and had certain features in common, -they should be clearly distinguished. The one prepared the way for the -other by seeking to destroy existing abuses, especially of the Church, -by the application of reason, but it gave no ear to the claims of the -masses, and sought merely to replace the traditionalism of the clergy -and monarch with the tyranny of an intellectual few. In distinction to -this rule of ‘reason,’ ‘naturalism’ declared that the intellect could -not always be trusted as the proper monitor, but that conduct could -better be guided by the emotions as the true expression of nature. It -opposed the control of intellectual aristocracy and demanded rights for -the common man. - - -[Sidenote: Championed reason against traditions,] - -[Sidenote: and undertook to transplant English scientific movement.] - -=Voltaire and the Encyclopedists.=--The rationalistic and scientific -tendency was chiefly developed by Diderot, Voltaire, Condillac, -D’Alembert, and others interested in the production of the French -_Encyclopédie_. Of all these ‘encyclopedists’ the most keen and -brilliant was Voltaire (1694-1778), who may well serve as the type -of the whole movement. With matchless wit and literary skill, in a -remarkable range of poems, epistles, epigrams, and other writings, he -championed reason against the traditional institutions of State and -Church. His chief object of attack was the powerful Roman Catholic -Church, which seemed to him to stand seriously in the way of all -liberty, individuality, and progress, and the slogan with which -he often closed his letters was,--“crush the infamous thing.” The -Protestant beliefs he likewise condemned as hysterical and irrational. -While an exile in England, as the result of a quarrel with a member of -the nobility, he became acquainted with the work of Newton, Harvey, -Bacon, Locke, and others (see pp. 164 f.), and undertook to transplant -the English scientific movement to France, and make it the basis of a -new régime in society, religion, and education. - -[Sidenote: New theories of education.] - -[Sidenote: Degenerated into skepticism and license.] - -The other rationalistic writers had similar doctrines and purposes, -and, although details of their ideas are hardly worthy of consideration -here, most of them produced treatises upon education. In these they -freely criticised the traditional school systems, and proposed new -theories of organization, content, and method, which must later have -assisted to demolish the existing theory and practice in France. -Thus rationalism sought to destroy despotism and superstition, and -to establish in their place freedom in action, social justice, and -religious toleration. But in casting away the old, it swung to the -opposite extreme and often degenerated into skepticism, anarchy, -and license. In their fight against despotic ecclesiasticism, the -rationalists often failed to distinguish it from Christianity, and they -opposed the Church because it was irrational rather than because it was -not sincere. They felt that it might have a mission with the masses who -were too dull and uneducated to be able to reason. So while rationalism -wielded a mighty weapon against the fettering of the human intellect, -it cared little about improving the condition of the lower classes, who -were sunk in poverty and ignorance, and were universally oppressed. - - -[Sidenote: Sentimentalism and want of control.] - -[Sidenote: Love of nature.] - -[Sidenote: Sympathy with poor.] - -[Sidenote: Sporadic education.] - -=Rousseau and His Times.=--In opposition to this intellectualistic and -rationalistic attitude, Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) developed his -emotionalism and ‘naturalism.’ The social and educational positions of -this reformer find a ready explanation in his antecedents and career. -From his father he inherited a mercurial temperament, love of pleasure, -and irresponsibility, and from his mother a morbid and emotional -disposition. His tendency toward sentimentalism, idleness, and want of -control was also strengthened by the indulgent aunt that brought him -up, and by low companions during his trade apprenticeships in the city -of Geneva. At sixteen he ran away from the city, and spent several -years in vagrancy, menial service, and dissoluteness. A love of nature -was impressed upon him by the wonderful scenery of the country in which -he spent his boyhood and his years of wandering. He also learned to -sympathize with the poor and oppressed, whose condition was at this -time forced upon his attention. He received some sporadic instruction, -but his education was inaccurate and unsystematic. - -[Sidenote: Blended well with inchoate sentiments of the period.] - -At twenty-nine Rousseau settled down in Paris, but his days of -vagabondage had left an ineffaceable stamp upon him. His sensitiveness, -impulsiveness, love of nature, and sympathy for the poor were ever -afterward in evidence. These characteristics blended well with a body -of inchoate sentiments and vague longings of this period. It was the -day of Louis XV and royal absolutism, when affairs in the kingdom -were controlled by a small clique of idle and extravagant courtiers. -A most artificial system of conduct had grown up in society. Under -this veneer the degraded peasants were ground down by taxation and -forced to minister to the pleasure of a vicious leisure class. But -against this oppression there had gradually arisen an undefined spirit -of protest and a desire to return to the original beneficent state of -nature from which it was felt that man had departed. Hence it happened -that Rousseau, emotional, uncontrolled, and half-trained, was destined -to bring into consciousness and give voice to the revolutionary and -naturalistic ideas and tendencies of the century. - -[Sidenote: His discourses,] - -[Sidenote: _New Heloise_,] - -[Sidenote: _Social Contract_,] - -[Sidenote: and _Emile_.] - -=Rousseau’s Works.=--In 1750 he first crystallized this spirit of the -age and resultant of his own experience in a discourse on _The Progress -of the Arts and Sciences_. In this he declared with much fervor and -conviction, though rather illogically, that the existing oppression -and corruption of society were due to the advancement of civilization. -Three years later he wrote his discourse on _The Origin of Inequality -among Men_. Here again he held that the physical and intellectual -inequalities of nature which existed in primitive society were scarcely -noticeable, but that, with the growth of civilization, most oppressive -distinctions arose. This point of view in a somewhat modified form he -continued in his remarkable romance, _The New Heloise_, published in -1759, and three years afterward in his influential essay on political -ethics, known as the _Social Contract_, and in that most revolutionary -treatise on education, the _Emile_. The _New Heloise_ commends as -much of primitive conditions as the crystallized institutions of -society will permit. In the _Social Contract_, Rousseau also finds the -ideal state, not in that of nature, but in a society managed by the -people, where simplicity and natural wants control, and aristocracy -and artificiality do not exist. But the work that has made the name -of Rousseau famous is the _Emile_. This, while an outgrowth of his -naturalism, assumes the modified position of the later works, and -undertakes to show how education might minimize the drawbacks of -civilization and bring man as near to nature as possible. But the -educational influence of the _Emile_ has been so far-reaching that we -must turn to another chapter to study the positions of Rousseau and the -effects of naturalism in education. - - -SUPPLEMENTARY READING - -Graves, _During the Transition_ (Macmillan, 1910), pp. 311-313; -_History of Education in Modern Times_ (Macmillan, 1913), pp. 1-10; and -_Great Educators_ (Macmillan, 1912), pp. 77-85; Monroe, _Text-book_ -(Macmillan, 1905), pp. 533-542. See also Boyd, W., _The Educational -Theory of Rousseau_ (Longmans, Green, 1911); Morley, J., _Voltaire_ and -_Rousseau_ (Macmillan). - - - - -CHAPTER XIX - -NATURALISM IN EDUCATION - - -OUTLINE - - Rousseau attempts in the _Emile_ to outline a natural education - from birth to manhood. The first book takes Emile from birth - to five years of age, and deals with the training of physical - activities; the second, from five to twelve, treats of body and - sense training; the third, from twelve to fifteen, is concerned - with intellectual education in the natural sciences; the fourth, - from fifteen to twenty, outlines his social and moral development; - and the fifth describes the parasitic training of the girl he is to - marry. - - The _Emile_ is often inconsistent, but brilliant and suggestive; - and, while anti-social, the times demanded such a radical - presentation. Through it Rousseau became the progenitor of the - social, scientific, and psychological movements in education. - - The first attempt to put the naturalism of Rousseau into actual - practice was made by Basedow. He suggested that education should be - practical in content and playful in method, and he produced texts - on his system, and started a school known as the ‘Philanthropinum.’ - He planned a broad course, and taught languages through - conversation, games, and drawing, and other subjects by natural - methods. The Philanthropinum was at first successful, and this type - of school grew rapidly, but it soon became a fad. - -[Sidenote: The _Emile_ forced educational thinking.] - -=The Influence of Rousseau’s Naturalism.=--The influence of Rousseau’s -_Emile_ upon education in all its aspects has been tremendous. It is -shown by the library of books since written to contradict, correct, or -disseminate his doctrines. During the quarter of a century following -the publication of the _Emile_, probably more than twice as many books -upon education were published as in the preceding three-quarters of a -century. This epoch-making work forced a rich harvest of educational -thinking for a century after its appearance, and has affected our ideas -upon education from that day to this. - -[Sidenote: The substitution of a natural education for the conventional -type in vogue.] - -=Naturalistic Basis of the _Emile_.=--In the _Emile_ Rousseau aims -to replace the conventional and formal education of the day with a -training that should be natural and spontaneous. Under the existing -_régime_ it was customary for boys and girls to be dressed like men -and women of fashion (Fig. 25), and for education to be largely one -of deportment and the dancing master. On the intellectual side, -education was largely traditional and consisted chiefly of a training -in Latin grammar, words, and _memoriter_ work. Rousseau scathingly -criticises these practices, and applies his naturalistic principles -to an imaginary pupil named Emile “from the moment of his birth up to -the time when, having become a mature man, he will no longer need any -other guide than himself.” He begins the work with a restatement of his -basal principle that “everything is good as it comes from the hands of -the Author of Nature; but everything degenerates in the hands of man.” -After elaborating this, he shows that we are educated by “three kinds -of teachers--nature, man, and things, and since the coöperation of the -three educations is necessary for their perfection, it is to the one -over which we have no control (i e., nature) that we must direct the -other two.” Education must, therefore, conform to nature. - -[Sidenote: Emile’s impulses examined and trained at different periods:] - -=The Five Books of the _Emile_.=--Now the natural objects, through -which Emile is to be educated, remain the same, but Emile himself -changes from time to time. In so far, therefore, as he is to be the -guide of how he is to be educated in a natural environment, his -impulses must be examined at different times in his life. Hence the -work is divided into five parts, four of which deal with Emile’s -education in the stages of infancy, childhood, boyhood, and youth -respectively, and the fifth with the training of the girl who is to -become his wife. The characteristics of the different periods in the -life of Emile are marked by the different kinds of things he desires. - -[Sidenote: In infancy, physical activities.] - -In the first book, which takes him from birth to five years of age, -his main desire is for physical activities, and he should, therefore, -be placed under simple, free, and healthful conditions, which will -enable him to make the most of these. He must be removed to the -country, where he will be close to nature, and farthest from the -contaminating influence of civilization. His growth and training must -be as spontaneous as possible. He must have nothing to do with either -medicine or doctors, “unless his life is in evident danger; for then -they can do nothing worse than kill him.” His natural movements must -not be restrained by caps, bands, or swaddling clothes, and he should -be nursed by his own mother. He should likewise be used to baths of -all sorts of temperature. In fact, the child should not be forced into -any fixed ways whatsoever, since with Rousseau, habit is necessarily -something contrary to impulse and so unnatural. “The only habit,” says -he, “which the child should be allowed to form is to contract no habit -whatsoever.” His playthings should be such simple products of nature as -“branches with their fruits and flowers, or a poppy-head in which the -seeds are heard to rattle.” Language that is simple, plain, and hence -natural, should be used with him, and he should not be hurried beyond -nature in learning to talk. He should be restricted to a few words that -express real thoughts for him. - -[Sidenote: In childhood, limb and sense development,] - -The education of Emile during infancy is thus to be ‘negative’ and -purely physical. The aim is simply to keep his instincts and impulses, -which Rousseau holds to be good by nature, free from vice, and to -afford him the natural activity he craves. Next, in the period of -childhood, between the years of five and twelve, which is treated in -the second book, Emile desires most to exercise his legs and arms, and -to touch, to see, and in other ways to sense things. This, therefore, -is the time for training his limbs and senses. “As all that enters the -human understanding comes there through the senses, the first reason -of man is a sensuous reason. Our first teachers of philosophy are our -feet, our hands, and our eyes.... In order to learn to think, we must -then exercise our limbs, our senses, and our organs, which are the -instruments of our intelligence.” To obtain this training, Emile is -to wear short, loose, and scanty clothing, go bareheaded, and have -the body inured to cold and heat, and be generally subjected to a -‘hardening process’ similar to that recommended by Locke (see p. 181). -He is to learn to swim, and practice long and high jumps, leaping -walls, and scaling rocks. But, what is more important, his eyes and -ears are also to be exercised through natural problems in weighing, -measuring, and estimating masses, heights, and distances. Drawing and -constructive geometry are to be taught him, to render him more capable -of observing accurately. His ear is to be rendered sensitive to -harmony by learning to sing. - -[Sidenote: no geography, history, or reading,] - -This body and sense training should be the nearest approach to an -intellectual training at this period. Rousseau condemns the usual -unnatural practice of requiring pupils to learn so much before -they have reached the proper years. In keeping with his ‘negative’ -education, he asks rhetorically: “Shall I venture to state at this -point the most important, the most useful, rule of all education? It -is not to gain time, but to lose it.” During his childhood Emile is -not to study geography, history, or languages, upon which pedagogues -ordinarily depend to exhibit the attainments of their pupils, although -these understand nothing of what they have memorized. “At the age of -twelve, Emile will hardly know what a book is. But I shall be told -it is very necessary that he know how to read. This I grant. It is -necessary that he know how to read when reading is useful to him. Until -then, it serves only to annoy him.” - -[Sidenote: though moral training through ‘natural consequences.’] - -Incidentally, however, in order to make Emile tolerable in society, for -he cannot entirely escape it, he must be given the idea of property -and some ideas about conduct. But this is simply because of practical -necessity, and no moral education is to be given as such, for, “until -he reaches the age of reason, he can form no idea of moral beings or -social relations.” He is to learn through ‘natural consequences’ until -he arrives at the age for understanding moral precepts. If he breaks -the furniture or the windows, let him suffer the consequences that -arise from his act. Do not preach to him or punish him for lying, but -afterward affect not to believe him even when he has spoken the truth. -If he carelessly digs up the sprouting melons of the gardener, in order -to plant beans for himself, let the gardener in turn uproot the beans, -and thus cause him to learn the sacredness of property. As far as this -moral training is given, then, it is to be indirect and incidental. - -[Sidenote: In boyhood, intellectual training through curiosity -concerning natural phenomena.] - -However, between twelve and fifteen, after the demands of the boy’s -physical activities and of his senses have somewhat abated, there -comes “an interval when his faculties and powers are greater than his -desires,” when he displays an insistent curiosity concerning natural -phenomena and a constant appetite for rational knowledge. This period, -which is dealt with in his third book, Rousseau declares to be intended -by nature itself as the time for instruction. But as not much can be -learned within three years, the boy is to study only those subjects -which are useful and not incomprehensible and misleading, and so is -limited to the natural sciences. Later in this third book, in order -that Emile may informally learn the interdependence of men and may -himself become economically independent, Rousseau adds industrial -experience and the acquisition of cabinet-making to his training. The -most effective method of instruction, Rousseau holds, comes through -appealing to the curiosity and interest in investigation, which -are so prominent in the boy at this time. He contrasts the current -methods of teaching astronomy and geography by means of globes, maps, -and other misleading representations, with the more natural plan of -stimulating inquiry through observing the sun when rising and setting -during the different seasons, and through problems concerning the -topography of the neighborhood. Emile is taught to appreciate the -value of these subjects by being lost in the forest, and endeavoring -to find a way out. He learns the elements of electricity through -meeting with a juggler, who attracts an artificial duck by means of a -concealed magnet. He similarly discovers through experience the effect -of cold and heat upon solids and liquids, and so comes to understand -the thermometer and other instruments. Hence Rousseau feels that all -knowledge of real value may be acquired most clearly and naturally -without the use of rivalry or textbooks. But he finds an exception -to this irrational method in one book, _Robinson Crusoe_, “where all -the natural needs of man are exhibited in a manner obvious to the -mind of a child, and where the means of providing for these needs are -successively developed with the same facility.” - -[Sidenote: In youth, sex interests, as basis of moral and social -training.] - -The fourth book takes Emile from the age of fifteen to twenty. At -this period the sex interests appear and should be properly guided -and trained, especially as they are the basis of social and moral -relationships. Emile’s first passion calls him into relations with his -species, and he must now learn to live with others. “We have formed -his body, his senses, and his intelligence; it remains to give him a -heart.” He is to become moral, affectionate, and religious. Here again -Rousseau insists that the training is not to be accomplished by the -formal method of precepts, but in a natural way by bringing the youth -into contact with his fellowmen and appealing to his emotions. Emile -is to visit infirmaries, hospitals, and prisons, and witness concrete -examples of wretchedness in all stages, although not so frequently as -to become hardened. That this training may not render him cynical or -hypercritical, it should be corrected by the study of history, where -one sees men simply as a spectator without feeling or passion. Further, -in order to deliver Emile from vanity, so common during adolescence, he -is to be exposed to flatterers, spendthrifts, and sharpers, and allowed -to suffer the consequences. He may at this time also be guided in his -conduct by the use of fables, for “by censuring the wrongdoer under an -unknown mask, we instruct without offending him.” - -[Sidenote: The passive and parasitic education of woman.] - -Emile at length becomes a man, and a life companion must be found for -him. A search should be made for a suitable lady, but “in order to -find her, we must know her.” Accordingly, the last book of the Emile -deals with the model Sophie and the education of woman. It is the -weakest part of Rousseau’s work. He entirely misinterprets the nature -of women, and does not allow them any individuality of their own, but -considers them as simply supplementary to the nature of men. Like -men, women should be given adequate bodily training, but rather for -the sake of physical charms and of producing vigorous offspring than -for their own development. Their instinctive love of pleasing through -dress should be made of service by teaching them sewing, embroidery, -lacework, and designing. They ought to be obedient and industrious, -and they ought early to be brought under restraint. Girls should also -be taught singing, dancing, and other accomplishments. They should be -instructed dogmatically in religion, and in ethical matters they should -be largely guided by public opinion. A woman may not learn philosophy, -art, or science, but she should study men. “She must learn to penetrate -their feelings through their conversation, their actions, their looks, -and their gestures, and know how to give them the feelings which are -pleasing to her, without even seeming to think of them.” - -[Sidenote: Defects outweighed by merits.] - -=Estimate of the _Emile_.=--Such was Rousseau’s notion of the natural -individualistic education for a man and the passive and repressive -training suitable for a woman, and of the happiness and prosperity -that were bound to ensue. To make a fair estimate of the _Emile_ and -its influence is not easy. It is necessary to put aside all of one’s -prejudices against the weak and offensive personality of the author, -and to forget the inconsistencies and contradictions of the work -itself. The _Emile_ has always been accounted a work of great richness, -power, and underlying wisdom, and each of its defects is more than -balanced by a corresponding merit. Moreover, the most fundamental -movements in modern educational progress--sociological, scientific, and -psychological--may be said to have germinated through the _Emile_. - -[Sidenote: Revolt from social control,] - -[Sidenote: but extreme doctrine needed,] - -[Sidenote: and those who followed Rousseau stressed social activities.] - -=The Sociological Movements in Modern Education.=--The most marked -feature of the Rousselian education and the one most subject to -criticism has been its extreme revolt against civilization and all -social control. A state of nature is held to be the ideal condition, -and all social relations are regarded as degenerate. The child is to -be brought up in isolation by the laws of brute necessity and to have -no social education until he is fifteen, when an impossible set of -expedients for bringing him into touch with his fellows is devised. -One should remember, however, that the times and the cause had need -of just so extreme a doctrine. Such radical individualism alone could -enable him to break the bondage to the past. By means of paradoxes -and exaggerations he was able to emphasize the crying need of a -natural development of man, and to tear down the effete traditions -in educational organization, content, and methods. And many of the -social movements in modern educational organization and content were -made possible and even suggested by him, after having thus cleared -the ground. He held that all members of society should be trained -industrially so as to contribute to their own support and should be -taught to be sympathetic and benevolent toward their fellows. Thus -through him education has been more closely related to human welfare. -The industrial work of Pestalozzi and Fellenberg, the moral aim of -education held by Herbart, the ‘social participation’ in the practice -of Froebel, and the present-day emphasis upon vocational education, -moral instruction, and training of defectives and of other extreme -variations, alike find some of their roots in the _Emile_. In fact, -the fallacy involved in Rousseau’s isolated education is too palpable -to mislead anyone, and those who have best caught his spirit and -endeavored to develop his practice have in all cases most insistently -stressed social activities in the training of children and striven to -make education lead to a closer and more sympathetic coöperation in -society. - -[Sidenote: Opposed to all books, but emphasized observational work.] - -=The Scientific Movement in Modern Education.=--Moreover, since -Rousseau repudiated all social traditions and accepted nature as -his only guide, he was absolutely opposed to all book learning and -exaggerated the value of observation. He consequently neglected the -past, and would have robbed the pupil of all the experience of his -fellows and of those who had gone before. But he emphasized the use -of natural objects in the curriculum and developed the details of -nature study and observational work to an extent never previously -undertaken. Partly as a result of this influence, schools and colleges -have come to include in their course the study of physical forces, -natural environment, plants, and animals. Therein Rousseau not only -anticipates somewhat the nature study and geography of Pestalozzi, -Basedow, Salzmann, and Ritter, but, in a way, foreshadows the arguments -of Spencer and Huxley, and the modern scientific movement in education. - -[Sidenote: Though defective in knowledge of children, Rousseau saw the -need of studying them.] - -=The Psychological Movements in Modern Education.=--A matter of even -greater importance is Rousseau’s belief that education should be in -accordance with the natural interests of the child. Although his -knowledge of children was defective, and his recommendations were -marred by unnatural breaks and filled with sentimentality, he saw -the need of studying the child as the only basis for education. In -the Preface to the _Emile_ he declares that “the wisest among us are -engrossed in what the adult needs to know and fail to consider what -children are able to apprehend. We are always looking for the man in -the child, without thinking of what he is before he becomes a man. This -is the study to which I have devoted myself, to the end that, even -though my whole method may be chimerical and false, the reader may -still profit by my observation.” As a result of such appeals, the child -has become the center of discussion in modern training. Despite his -limitations and prejudices, this unnatural and neglectful parent stated -many details of child development with much force and clearness and -gave an impetus to later reformers. - -[Sidenote: Theory of ‘delayed maturing.’] - -[Sidenote: Physical activities and sense training] - -[Sidenote: Sympathetic understanding of the child.] - -In this connection should especially be considered Rousseau’s theory -of stages of development. He makes a sharp division of the pupil’s -development into definite periods that seem but little connected with -one another, and prescribes a distinct education for each stage. -This seems like a breach of the evolution of the individual, and the -_reductio ad absurdum_ of such an atomic training is reached in his -hope of rendering Emile warm-hearted and pious, after keeping him -in the meshes of self-interest and doubt until he is fifteen. But, -as in the case of his attitude toward society, Rousseau takes an -extreme view, and he has thereby shown that there are characteristic -differences at different stages in the child’s life, and that only -as the proper activities are provided for each stage will it reach -maturity or perfection. He may, therefore, be credited to a great -degree with the increasing tendency to cease from forcing upon children -a fixed method of thinking, feeling, and acting, and for the gradual -disappearance of the old ideas that a task is of educational value -according as it is distasteful, and that real education consists in -overcoming meaningless difficulties. Curiosity and interest rather -are to be used as motives for study, and Rousseau therein points the -way for the Herbartians. It is likewise due to him primarily that we -have recognized the need of physical activities and sense training in -the earlier development of the child as a foundation for its later -growth and learning. To these recommendations may be traced much of -the object teaching of Pestalozzianism and the motor expression of -Froebelianism. Thus Rousseau made a large contribution to educational -method by showing the value of motivation, of creating problems, and of -utilizing the senses and activities of the child, and may be regarded -as the father of the psychological movements in modern education. He -could not, however, have based his study of children and his advanced -methods upon any real psychological foundation, for in his day the -‘faculty’ psychology (see p. 182) absolutely prevailed. Instead of -working out his methods from scientific principles, he obtained them, -as did Pestalozzi afterwards, through his sympathetic understanding of -the child and his ability to place himself in the child’s situation and -see the world through the eyes of the child. - -[Sidenote: Intellectual progenitor of modern reformers, but influence -upon schools not immediate.] - -[Sidenote: First attempt through Basedow.] - -=The Spread of Rousseau’s Doctrines.=--Thus seeds of many modern -developments in educational organization, method, and content, were -sown by Rousseau, and he is seen to be the intellectual progenitor -of Pestalozzi, Herbart, Froebel, Spencer, and many other modern -reformers. But his principles did not take immediate hold on the -schools themselves, although their influence is manifest there as -the nineteenth century advanced. In France they were apparent in the -complaints and recommendations concerning schools in the lists of -desired reforms (_cahiers_) that were issued by the various towns, -and afterward clearly formed a basis for much of the legislation -concerning the universal, free, and secular organization of educational -institutions. In England, since there was no national system of -schools, little direct impression was made upon educational practice. -But in America this revolutionary thought would seem to have had much -to do with causing the unrest that gradually resulted in upsetting the -aristocratic and formal training of the young and in secularizing and -universalizing the public school system. The first definite attempt, -however, to put into actual practice the naturalistic education of -Rousseau occurred in Germany through the writings of Basedow and the -foundation of the ‘Philanthropinum,’ and is of sufficient importance to -demand separate discussion. - -[Sidenote: Naturally captivated by Rousseau’s doctrines.] - -[Sidenote: Education of the day needed naturalism.] - -=Development of Basedow’s Educational Reforms.=--Johann Bernhard -Basedow (1723-1790) was by nature the very person to be captivated -by Rousseau’s doctrines. He was talented, but erratic, unorthodox, -tactless, and irregular in life. He had been prepared at the University -of Leipzig for the Lutheran ministry, but proved too heretical, and, -giving up this vocation, became a tutor in Holstein to a Herr von -Quaalen’s children. With these aristocratic pupils he first developed -methods of teaching through conversation and play connected with -surrounding objects. A few years after this, in 1763, Basedow fell -under the spell of Rousseau’s _Emile_, which was most congenial to his -methods of thinking and teaching, and turned all his energy toward -educational reform. As in the case of Rousseau with education in -France, he realized that German education of the day was sadly in need -of just such an antidote as ‘naturalism’ was calculated to furnish. The -schoolrooms were dismal and the work was unpleasant, physical training -was neglected, and the discipline was severe. Children were regarded -as adults in miniature (Fig. 25), and were so treated both in their -dress and their education. The current schooling consisted largely of -instruction in artificial deportment. The study of classics composed -the entire intellectual curriculum, and the methods were purely -grammatical. As a result, suggestions made by Basedow for educational -improvement attained as great popularity as his advanced theological -propositions had received abuse. - -[Sidenote: Success of his _Address_ and production of his text-books.] - -In 1768 by his _Address on Schools and Studies, and their Influence -on the Public Weal_, he called generally upon princes, governments, -ecclesiastics, and others in power, to assist him financially in -certain definite educational reforms. In addition to suggesting that -the schools be made nonsectarian and that public instruction be placed -under a National Council of Education, he proposed that, in contrast -to the formal and unattractive training of the day, education should -be rendered practical in content and playful in method. To assist this -reform, he planned to bring out a work on elementary education, which -he described in outline. Great interest in his proposals was shown -throughout Europe by sovereigns, nobles, prominent men, and others -desiring a nonsectarian and more effective education, and a subsidy of -some ten thousand dollars was speedily raised, to enable him to perfect -his plans. Six years later, Basedow completed his promised text-book, -_Elementarwerk_, and the companion work for teachers and parents known -as _Methodenbuch_. The _Elementarwerk_ was accompanied by a volume -containing ninety-six plates, which illustrated the subject-matter of -the text, but were too large to be bound in with it. While in these -manuals Basedow included many naturalistic ideas from Rousseau, he also -embodied features from other reformers and even additions of his own. - -[Sidenote: _Elementarwerk_] - -[Sidenote: and _Methodenbuch_.] - -[Sidenote: Popular story books for children.] - -=Text-books and Other Works.=--The _Elementarwerk_ clearly combines -many of the principles of Comenius as well as of Rousseau. It has, -in fact, been often called ‘the _Orbis Pictus_ (see p. 170) of the -eighteenth century,’ and gives a knowledge of things and words in the -form of a dialogue. The _Methodenbuch_, while not following Rousseau -completely, contains many ideas concerning natural training that are -suggestive of him. In this study of the nature of children, the book -makes some advance upon the Rousselian doctrine by finding that they -are especially interested in motion and noise, although Basedow would -have shocked Rousseau by being so much under the control of tradition -as to suggest using these interests in the teaching of Latin. Later, -Basedow, together with Campe, Salzmann, and others of his followers, -also produced a series of popular story books especially adapted to -the character, interests, and needs of children. These works are all -largely filled with didactics, moralizing, religiosity, and scraps -of scientific information. The best known of them is _Robinson der -Jüngere_ (Robinson Crusoe Junior), which was published by Campe in -1779. It seems to have been suggested by Rousseau’s recommendation of -_Robinson Crusoe_ as a text-book, and in turn a generation later it -became the model for _Der Schweizerische Robinson_ (The Swiss Family -Robinson) of Wyss, which has been so popular with children in America -and elsewhere. - -[Sidenote: Salary, equipment,] - -[Sidenote: teachers,] - -[Sidenote: and pupils.] - -=Course and Methods of the Philanthropinum.=--Eight years before this, -however, Prince Leopold of Dessau had been induced to allow Basedow to -found there a model school called the ‘Philanthropinum,’ which should -embody that reformer’s ideas. Leopold granted him a generous salary, -and three years later gave him an equipment of buildings, grounds, and -endowment. At first Basedow had but three assistants, but later the -number was considerably increased. The staff then included several very -able men, such as Campe, formerly chaplain at Potsdam, and Salzmann, -who had been a professor at Erfurt. The underlying principle of the -Philanthropinum was ‘everything according to nature.’ The natural -instincts and interests of the children were only to be directed and -not altogether suppressed. They were to be trained as children and not -as adults, and the methods of learning were to be adapted to their -stage of mentality. That all of the customary fashion and unnaturalness -might be eliminated, the boys were plainly dressed and their hair cut -short. - -[Sidenote: Universal education, but social distinctions.] - -[Sidenote: Industrial training] - -[Sidenote: and wide objective course.] - -While universal education was believed in, and rich and poor alike were -to be trained, the traditional idea still obtained that the natural -education of the one class was for social activity and leadership, -and of the other for teaching. Consequently, the wealthy boys were to -spend six hours in school and two in manual labor, while those from -families of small means labored six hours and studied two. Every one, -however, was taught handicrafts,--carpentry, turning, planing, and -threshing, as suggested in the third book of the _Emile_, and there -were also physical exercises and games for all. On the intellectual -side, while Latin was not neglected, considerable attention was paid -to the vernacular and French. In keeping with the _Elementarwerk_, -Basedow planned a wide objective and practical course very similar -to that suggested by Comenius. It was to give some account of man, -including bits of anthropology, anatomy, and physiology; of brute -creation, especially the uses of domestic animals and their relation to -industry; of trees and plants with their growth, culture, and products; -of minerals and chemicals; of mathematical and physical instruments; -and of trades, history, and commerce. He afterward admitted that he had -overestimated the amount of content that was possible for a child, and -greatly abridged the material. - -[Sidenote: Languages taught by conversation and games.] - -[Sidenote: Progressive methods in other subjects.] - -The most striking characteristic of the school, however, was its -recognition of child interests and the consequently improved methods. -Languages were taught by speaking and then by reading, and grammar -was not brought in until late in the course. Facility in Latin was -acquired through conversation, games, pictures, drawing, acting -plays, and reading on practical and interesting subjects (Fig. 26). -His instruction in arithmetic, geometry, geography, physics, nature -study, and history was fully as progressive as that in languages, -and, while continuing Rousseau’s suggestions, seems to anticipate -much of the ‘object teaching’ of Pestalozzi. Arithmetic was taught by -mental methods, geometry by drawing figures accurately and neatly, -and geography by beginning with one’s home and extending out into the -neighborhood, the town, the country, and the continent. - -[Sidenote: Great expectations.] - -[Sidenote: Stimulus for younger pupils.] - -=Influence of the Philanthropinum.=--The attendance at the -Philanthropinum was very small in the beginning, since the institution -was regarded as an experiment, but eventually the number of pupils -rose to more than fifty. Most visitors were greatly pleased with the -school, especially on account of the interested and alert appearance -of the pupils. Kant declared that it meant “not a slow reform, but a -quick revolution,” although afterward he admitted that he had been too -optimistic. While it may not have served well for older pupils, it was -certainly excellent in its stimulus to children under ten or twelve, -who can be reached by appeals to physical activities and the senses -better than by books. - -[Sidenote: Similar institutions of Campe,] - -[Sidenote: Salzmann,] - -[Sidenote: and Rochow.] - -Basedow, however, proved temperamentally unfit to direct the -institution. Joachim Heinrich Campe (1746-1818), who first succeeded -him, withdrew within a year to found a similar school at Hamburg. -Institutions of the same type sprang up elsewhere, and some of them -had a large influence upon education. The most striking and enduring -of these schools was that established in 1784 by Christian Gotthilf -Salzmann (1744-1811) at Schnepfenthal under the patronage of the royal -family of Saxe-Gotha. The natural surroundings--mountains, valleys, -lakes--were most favorable for the purpose of the institution, and much -attention was given to nature study, ‘lessons on things,’ organized -excursions, gardening, agricultural work, and care of domestic animals. -Manual training, gymnastics, sports, informal moral and religious -culture, and other features that anticipated later developments in -education also formed part of the course. During the decade before the -establishment of Salzmann’s school, institutions embodying many of -Basedow’s ideas were also opened at Rechahn and his other Brandenburg -estates by Baron Eberhard von Rochow (1734-1805). His schools were -simply intended to improve the peasantry in their methods of farming -and living, but, when this step toward universal education proved -extraordinarily successful, Rochow advocated the adoption of a complete -national system of schools on a nonsectarian basis. - -[Sidenote: Becomes a fad, but accomplished some good.] - -In 1793 the Philanthropinum at Dessau was closed permanently. Its -teachers were scattered through Europe, and gave a great impulse to the -new education. An unfortunate result of this popularity was that the -Philanthropinum became a fad, and schools with this name were opened -everywhere in Germany by educational mountebanks. These teachers -prostituted the system to their own ends, degraded the profession into -a mere trade, and became the subject of much satire and ridicule. -Nevertheless, the philanthropinic movement seems not to have been -without good results, especially when we consider the educational -conditions and the pedagogy of the times. It introduced many new ideas -concerning methods and industrial training into all parts of France and -Switzerland, as well as Germany, and these were carefully worked out by -such reformers as Pestalozzi, Froebel, and Herbart. In this way there -were embodied in education the first positive results of Rousseau’s -‘naturalism.’ - -[Illustration: Fig. 25.--The child as a miniature adult. - -(Reproduced from a French fashion plate of the eighteenth century.)] - -[Illustration: Fig. 26.--A naturalistic school. - -(Reproduced from the _Elementarwerk_ of Basedow.)] - - -SUPPLEMENTARY READING - -Graves, _In Modern Times_ (Macmillan, 1913), chap. II; and _Great -Educators_ (Macmillan, 1912), chaps. VII and VIII; Monroe, -_Text-book_ (Macmillan, 1905), chap. X; Parker, S. C., _History -of Modern Elementary Education_ (Ginn, 1912), chaps. VIII-X. The -_Emile_ (Translated by Payne; Appleton, 1895) should be read, and -the _Elementarwerk_ (Wiegandt, Leipzig, 1909) should be examined. -A judicial description of the life and work of Rousseau is that by -Morley, J. (Macmillan), while Davidson, T., furnishes an interesting -interpretation of _Rousseau and Education from Nature_ (Scribner, -1902), but the standard treatise on _The Educational Theory of -Rousseau_ (Longmans, Green, 1911) at present has been written by -Boyd, W. A good brief account of _Basedow: His Educational Work and -Principles_ (Kellogg, New York, 1891) is afforded by Lang, O. H. See -also Barnard, H., _American Journal of Education_, vol. V, pp. 487-520. - - - - -CHAPTER XX - -PHILANTHROPY IN EDUCATION - - -OUTLINE - - In England, during the eighteenth century, there were numerous - attempts to provide education for the poor through charity schools. - The most important factor in maintaining these institutions was the - Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge. - - Among other organizations, there sprang up a Society for the - Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, which supported schools - throughout the American colonies, except Virginia. Charity schools - were also maintained in America by various other agencies. - - An attempt was likewise made by Raikes of Gloucester, England, to - establish Sunday schools, for training the poor to read, and these - institutions spread throughout the British Isles and America. - - A system of instruction through monitors, developed by Lancaster - and Bell, while formal and mechanical, furnished a sort of - substitute for national education in England, and, spreading - throughout the United States, paved the way for state support, and - greatly improved the methods of teaching. - - ‘Infant schools’ for poor children also grew up during the - nineteenth century in France, England, and the United States, and - found a permanent place in the national systems, but they soon - became formalized and mechanical. - - Philanthropic education proved a first step toward universal and - national education. - -[Sidenote: Even in Rousseau and the philanthropinists,] - -[Sidenote: and especially in England.] - -=Reconstructive Tendencies of the Eighteenth Century.=--The eighteenth -century cannot be regarded altogether as a period of revolution and -destruction. While such a characterization describes the prevailing -tendencies, there were also social and educational forces that looked -to evolution and reform rather than to a complete disintegration -of society and a return to primitive living. Even in Rousseau, -the arch-destroyer of traditions, we found many evidences of a -reconstruction along higher lines, and such a positive movement was -decidedly obvious in Basedow, Salzmann, and other philanthropinists. -But in England reforms were especially apparent. In the land of the -Briton, progress is proverbially gradual, and sweeping victories -and Waterloo defeats in affairs of society and education are alike -unwonted. The French tendency to cut short the social and educational -process and to substitute revolution for evolution is out of accord -with the spirit across the English Channel. - -[Sidenote: Wretched conditions of laboring class.] - -[Sidenote: Charity schools as remedy.] - -=The Rise of Charity Schools in England.=--And yet conditions in -England at this time might well have incited people to revolution. -Wages were low, employment was irregular, and the laboring classes, who -numbered fully one-sixth of the population, were clad in rags, lived in -hovels, and often went hungry. Opportunities for elementary education -were rare. The few schools that remained after the Reformation had -largely lost their endowments or had been perverted into secondary -institutions, and had suffered from incompetent and negligent masters -and from the religious upheaval of the times. It was as a partial -remedy for this situation, that, toward the close of the seventeenth -century, there sprang up a succession of ‘charity schools,’ in which -children of the poor were not only taught, but boarded and sometimes -provided with clothes, and the boys were prepared for apprenticeship -and the girls for domestic service. Probably about one thousand schools -upon this general philanthropic basis had been established in England -and Wales by the middle of the eighteenth century. Most of these had -received substantial endowment, but numbers of them were maintained by -private subscriptions. - -[Sidenote: Foundation,] - -[Sidenote: management,] - -[Sidenote: books,] - -[Sidenote: teachers,] - -[Sidenote: and course.] - -=The Schools of the S. P. C. K.=--A factor that was even more important -in opening charity schools was the ‘Society for the Promotion of -Christian Knowledge’ (often abbreviated to S. P. C. K.). This society -was founded in 1698 by Reverend Thomas Bray, D. D., and four other -clergymen and philanthropists. As a rule, its schools were established, -supported, and managed by local people, but the Society guaranteed -their maintenance, and assisted them from its own treasury whenever -a stringency in funds arose. The S. P. C. K. also inspected schools, -and advised and encouraged the local managers, and furnished bibles, -prayer books, and catechisms at the cheapest rates possible. It made -stringent regulations of eligibility for its schoolmasters, requiring, -in addition to the usual religious, moral, pedagogical, and age tests, -that they be members of the Church of England and approved by the -minister of the parish. Each master was expected to teach the children -their catechism, and purge them of bad morals and manners, besides -training them in reading, writing, and elementary arithmetic. The -pupils were, moreover, clothed, boarded, and at times even lodged. - -[Sidenote: Development,] - -[Sidenote: opposition and advocacy,] - -[Sidenote: decadence,] - -[Sidenote: and influence.] - -The number of charity schools of the S. P. C. K. grew by leaps and -bounds, and by the close of the first decade there were eighty-eight -within a radius of ten miles of London. The gifts made had amounted to -almost ten thousand pounds, and nearly one thousand boys and over four -hundred girls had been sent out as apprentices. And before the middle -of the eighteenth century the total number of these charity schools -in England and Wales reached nearly two thousand, with about fifty -thousand boys and girls in attendance. This increase in facilities for -the education of the poor was not kindly received by many in the upper -classes, who often felt that “there is no need for any learning at all -for the meanest ranks of mankind: their business is to labour, not to -think.” But the charity schools had also many warm supporters, and -Addison even believed that as a result of them there would be “few in -the next generation who will not at least be able to write and read, -and have not an early tincture of religion.” The benefactions for these -institutions continued to increase for nearly half a century, but by -the middle of the eighteenth century popular interest had waned. The -subscriptions began to fall off, the system of inspection and the -teaching became less effective, and the schools ceased to expand. -Nevertheless, the S. P. C. K. had succeeded in impressing the Church -of England with a sense of responsibility for the establishment of a -national school system upon a religious basis. Its schools were largely -continued throughout the eighteenth century, and in most instances -after 1811 were absorbed by the new educational organization of the -English Church, the so-called ‘National Society’ (see p. 239). - -[Sidenote: Nonconformist schools.] - -[Sidenote: ‘Circulating schools.’] - -[Sidenote: Foundation of the S. P. G.] - -=Other British Charity Schools.=--These institutions of the Church of -England society may be regarded as typical of British charity schools -in general. There were, however, also a dozen well-known foundations -by nonconformists, including the ‘Gravel Lane School’ of Southwark, -London, which was started over a decade before the S. P. C. K. was -organized. And an interesting type of philanthropic institution known -as ‘circulating schools’ was founded in Wales. These schools simply -aimed to teach pupils to read the Bible in Welsh, and when this had -been accomplished in one neighborhood, the school was transferred to -another. But a much more important organization was the offshoot of -the S. P. C. K., that arose chiefly to carry on charity schools in the -American colonies. This association, the ‘Society for the Propagation -of the Gospel in Foreign Parts,’ (commonly known as S. P. G.), was -founded by Dr. Bray three years after the parent society, but no -schools were established for several years. - -[Sidenote: S. P. G. school in New York City,--] - -[Sidenote: now ‘Trinity Church School.’] - -=The Charity Schools of the S. P. G.=--The first school of the S. P. G. -was opened in New York City in 1709 under William Huddleston, who had -been conducting a school of his own there. It was intended that the new -school should follow the plan of the charity schools in England, but, -while free tuition and free books were granted from the beginning, it -was not until many years later that the means of clothing the children -gratuitously was provided. Under different masters and with varying -fortunes, the school was supported by the society until 1783, when the -United States had finally cut loose from the Mother Country and started -on a career of its own. Meanwhile Trinity Church had come more and more -to take the initiative in the endowment and support of the school, and -since the withdrawal of the society from America the institution has -been known as ‘Trinity Church School.’ - -[Sidenote: Other colonies] - -[Sidenote: Attendance,] - -[Sidenote: course, and books.] - -Schools of the same type were active throughout the colonies in the -eighteenth century. We possess more or less complete accounts of these -institutions in New York and all the other colonies, except Virginia, -where they were not believed to be needed. Except for size and local -peculiarities, all of them closely resembled the school in New York -City. The attendance ranged from eighteen or twenty pupils to nearly -four times that number. Girls were generally admitted, and occasionally -equalled or exceeded the boys in number. As a rule, children of other -denominations were received on the same terms as those of Church of -England members, and at times nearly one-half the attendance was -composed of dissenters, but often those outside the Church were given -secondary consideration, or the catechism was so stressed by the school -that the dissenting children were withdrawn and rival schools set -up. The character of the course of study in these charity schools is -further indicated by the books furnished by the society. In packets of -various sizes it sent over horn-books, primers, spellers, writing-paper -and ink-horns, catechisms, psalters, prayer books, testaments, and -bibles. There is also some evidence that secondary instruction was -carried on intermittently in the various centers by the missionaries or -by the schoolmasters in conjunction with their elementary work. - -[Sidenote: Opposition to the S. P. G.] - -[Sidenote: Its devotion and generosity,] - -[Sidenote: and influence upon universal education.] - -Throughout its work in the American colonies the S. P. G. met with -various forms of opposition. The dissenters, Quakers, and others were -often openly hostile through fear of the foundation of an established -national church similar to that of England, and both sides displayed -considerable sectarianism and bigotry. After 1750 the opposition to the -society increased in bitterness and became more general, owing to the -feeling that its agents were supporting the king against the colonists. -Yet its patronage of schools was most philanthropic and important for -American education in the eighteenth century. While it insisted upon -the interpretation of Christianity adopted by the Church of England, it -stood first and foremost for the extension of religion and education -to the virgin soil of America. It carried on its labors with devoted -interest and showed great generosity in the maintenance of schools, -and the support of schools in the colonies by the S. P. G. must have -exerted some influence toward universal education. - -[Sidenote: Organization,] - -[Sidenote: course, and] - -[Sidenote: disappearance of S. P. K. G. schools.] - -=Charity Schools among the Pennsylvania Germans.=--During the -eighteenth century the efforts of the S. P. G. were supplemented by the -formation of minor associations and the establishment of other charity -schools in various colonies. Perhaps the most noteworthy instance was -the organization in 1753 of ‘A Society for Propagating the Knowledge of -God among the Germans,’ and the maintenance of schools among the sects -of Pennsylvania. These schools were managed by a general colonial board -of six trustees, who visited the schools annually and awarded prizes -for English orations and attainments in civic and religious duties. The -course of study included instruction in “both the English and German -languages; likewise in writing, keeping of common accounts, singing -of psalms, and the true principles of the holy Protestant religion.” -Twenty-five schools were planned, but probably there were never more -than half that number. The schools lasted only about a decade, as the -Germans soon came to feel that this English schooling threatened their -language, nationality, and institutions. - -[Sidenote: Foundation,] - -[Sidenote: opposition,] - -[Sidenote: advocacy, and spread.] - -=The ‘Sunday School’ Movement in Great Britain.=--A variety of charity -school, quite different from those already mentioned, sprang up -toward the close of the century under the name of ‘Sunday Schools.’ -To overcome the prevailing ignorance, vice, and squalor in the -manufacturing center of Gloucester, England, Robert Raikes in 1780 set -up a school in Sooty Alley for the instruction of children and adults -in religion and the rudiments. Six months later he started a new school -in Southgate street, and soon had other schools established. He paid -his teachers a shilling each Sunday to train the children to read in -the Bible, spell, and write. This charity education, meager as it was, -was attacked by many of the upper classes, and was often viewed with -suspicion by the recipients themselves. Yet the new movement had warm -supporters among the nobility and such reformers as Wesley, and the -schools soon spread to London, and then throughout England, Wales, -Ireland, Scotland, and the Channel Islands. A Sunday School Society was -founded in 1785, and within a decade distributed nearly one hundred -thousand spellers, twenty-five thousand testaments, and over five -thousand bibles, and trained approximately sixty-five thousand pupils -in one thousand schools. - -[Sidenote: Individual centers] - -[Sidenote: and permanent associations.] - -=The ‘Sunday School’ Movement in the United States.=--The Raikes system -of Sunday instruction was also soon introduced in America. The first -school was organized in 1786 by Bishop Asbury at the house of Thomas -Crenshaw in Hanover County, Virginia, and within a quarter of a century -a number of schools arose in various cities. Before long, permanent -associations were also started to promote Sunday instruction. ‘The -First Day or Sunday School Society’ was organized at Philadelphia in -1791, and during the first two decades of the nineteenth century a -number of similar societies for secular instruction on Sunday were -founded in New York, Boston, Philadelphia, and elsewhere. In 1823 these -associations were all absorbed into a new and broader organization, -known ever since as the ‘American Sunday School Union.’ At the start -it published suitable reading-books, and furnished primers, spellers, -testaments, and hymn-books to needy Sunday schools at a reasonable rate. - -[Sidenote: Makeshift, but prepared the way for universal education.] - -=Value of the Instruction in ‘Sunday Schools.’=--Both in Great Britain -and the United States, however, the Sunday schools gradually tended to -abandon their secular instruction and become purely religious. At the -same time the teachers came to serve without pay and to instruct less -efficiently. And the value of the secular teaching was not large at the -best, as the work was necessarily limited to a few hours once a week. -Raikes and all others interested in these institutions recognized their -inadequacy as a means of securing universal education, and regarded -them merely as auxiliary to a more complete system of instruction. -But while a makeshift and by no means a final solution for national -education, they performed a notable service for the times, and helped -point the way to universal education. - -[Sidenote: Lancaster] - -[Sidenote: and the British and Foreign Society;] - -=The Schools of the Two Monitorial Societies.=--While philanthropic -education started largely in the eighteenth century, some of the -schools continued well into the nineteenth. This was especially the -case with the ‘monitorial’ system, started at Southwark in 1798. This -district of London was thronged with barefoot and unkempt children; and -Lancaster, the founder of the school, undertook to educate as many as -he could. His schoolroom was soon filled with a hundred or more pupils. -In order to teach them all, he used the older pupils as assistants. -He taught the lesson first to these ‘monitors,’ and they in turn -imparted it to the others, who were divided into equal groups. Each -monitor cared for a single group. The work was very successful from -the first, but Lancaster, attempting to introduce schools of this kind -throughout England, fell so recklessly into debt that an association -had to be founded in 1808 to continue the work on a practical basis. -Within half a dozen years Lancaster withdrew from the organization, but -the association, under the name of the ‘British and Foreign Society,’ -continued to flourish and found new schools. - -[Sidenote: Bell and the National Society.] - -So successful was the Lancasterian work that the Church of England, -fearing its nonsectarian influence upon education, in 1811 organized -‘The National Society for Promoting the Education of the Poor in the -Principles of the Established Church.’ This long-named association was -to conduct monitorial schools under the management of Doctor Andrew -Bell, who had experimented with the system in India before Lancaster -opened his school. Although they had formed no part of Bell’s original -methods, the Anglican catechism and prayer book were now taught -dogmatically in the schools founded by the National Society. Bell -proved an admirable director, and a healthy rivalry sprang up between -the societies. - -[Sidenote: Differences in the two systems.] - -[Sidenote: Both were unoriginal] - -[Sidenote: and mechanical.] - -=Value of the Monitorial System in England.=--The plans of the two -organizations were similar, but differed somewhat in details. Both used -monitors and taught writing by means of a desk covered with sand, but -the system of Lancaster was animated by broader motives and had many -more devices for teaching. It also instituted company organization, -drill, and precision, and developed a system of badges, offices, -rewards, and punishments. Monitorial instruction, however, was not -original with either Lancaster or Bell. It had long been used by the -Hindus and others, although the work of the two societies brought it -into prominence. It overemphasized repetition and recitation mechanics, -and consisted of a formal drill rather than a method of instruction. - -[Sidenote: Afforded substitute for national education.] - -[Sidenote: Training colleges.] - -[Sidenote: British and Foreign schools absorbed, but National a system -by themselves.] - -Yet the monitorial schools were productive of some achievements. -Most of them afforded a fair education in the elementary school -subjects and added some industrial and vocational training. They -also did much to awaken the conscience of the English nation to the -need of general education for the poor. The British and Foreign and -the National Societies afforded a substitute, though a poor one, for -national education in the days before England was willing to pay -for general education, and they became the avenues through which -such appropriations as the government did make were distributed. In -1833 the grant of £20,000, constituting the first government aid to -elementary education, was equally divided between the two societies -(see p. 388), and this method of administration was continued as the -annual grant was gradually increased, until the system of public -education was established. Likewise, in 1839, £10,000 for normal -instruction was voted to the societies, and was used by the British -and Foreign for its Borough Road Training College, and by the National -for St. Mark’s Training College. These were followed by several other -training institutions, established by each society through government -aid. In 1870, when the ‘board,’ or public elementary, schools were at -length founded, the schools of the British and Foreign Society, with -their nonsectarian instruction, fused naturally with them; but the -institutions of the National Society, though transferred to school -boards in a few cases, have generally come to constitute by themselves -a national system on a voluntary basis. - -[Sidenote: Adoption by New York and other cities.] - -[Sidenote: Introduced into high schools and academies.] - -=Results of the Monitorial System in the United States.=--In the -United States the monitorial system was introduced into New York City -in 1806. The ‘Society for the Establishment of a Free School,’ after -investigating the best methods in other cities and countries, decided -to try the system of Lancaster (see p. 260). The method was likewise -introduced into the charity schools of Philadelphia (see p. 261). The -monitorial system then spread rapidly through New York, Pennsylvania, -Massachusetts, Connecticut, and other States. It is almost impossible -to trace the exact extent of this organization in the United States, -but before long it seems to have affected nearly all cities of any -size as far south as Augusta (Georgia), and west as far as Cincinnati. -There are still traces of its influence throughout this region,--in -Hartford, New Haven, Albany, Washington, and Baltimore, as well as in -the places already mentioned (Figs. 27, 28, and 29). In 1818 Lancaster -himself was invited to America, and assisted in the monitorial schools -of New York, Brooklyn, and Philadelphia. A dozen years later the system -began to be introduced generally into the high schools and academies. -Through the efforts of Dr. John Griscom, who had been greatly pleased -with the monitorial high school of Dr. Pillans in Edinburgh, a similar -institution was established in New York City in 1825, and the plan was -soon adopted by a number of high schools in New York and neighboring -states. Likewise, the state systems of academies in Maryland and in -Indiana, which became high schools after the Civil War, were organized -on this basis. For two decades the monitorial remained the prevailing -method in secondary education. Training schools for teachers on the -Lancasterian basis also became common. - -[Sidenote: Increased school facilities] - -[Sidenote: and improved organization and methods.] - -In fact, the monitorial system was destined to perform a great service -for American education. At the time of its introduction, public and -free schools were generally lacking, outside of New England, and the -facilities that existed were meager and available during but a small -portion of the year. In all parts of the country illiteracy was almost -universal among children of the poor. This want of school opportunities -was rendered more serious by the rapid growth of American cities. -‘Free school societies,’ like that in New York City, formed to relieve -the situation, came to regard the system of Lancaster, because of its -comparative inexpensiveness, as a godsend for their purpose. And when -the people generally awoke to the crying need of public education, -legislators also found monitorial schools the cheapest way out of the -difficulty, and the provision made for these schools gradually -opened the road to the ever increasing expenditures and taxation -that had to come before satisfactory schools could be established. -Moreover, the Lancasterian schools were not only economical, but most -effective, when the educational conditions of the times are taken into -consideration. Even in the cities, the one-room and one-teacher school -was the prevailing type, and grading was practically unknown. The whole -organization and administration were shiftless and uneconomical, and -a great improvement was brought about by the carefully planned and -detailed methods of Lancaster. The schools were made over through his -definite mechanics of instruction, centralized management, well-trained -teachers, improved apparatus, discipline, hygiene, and other features. - -[Illustration: Fig. 27.--A monitorial school, with three hundred pupils -and but one teacher.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 28.--Pupils reciting to monitors.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 29.--Monitor inspecting slates.] - -[Sidenote: Disappeared when educational sentiment improved.] - -But while the monitorial methods met a great educational emergency in -the United States, they were clearly mechanical, inelastic, and without -psychological foundation. Naturally their sway could not last long, -and as enlarged material resources enabled the people to make greater -appropriations for education, the obvious defects of the monitorial -system became more fully appreciated and brought about its abandonment. -Before the middle of the century its work in America was ended, and it -gave way to the more psychological conceptions of Pestalozzi and to -those afterward formulated by Froebel and Herbart. - -[Sidenote: Beginning with Oberlin;] - -[Sidenote: development in Paris;] - -[Sidenote: part of national system.] - -=The ‘Infant Schools’ in France.=--Another form of philanthropic -education that came to be very influential during the nineteenth -century and has eventually been merged in several national systems is -that of the so-called ‘infant schools.’ The first recorded instance of -these institutions occurred late in the eighteenth century through the -attempt of a young Lutheran pastor named Oberlin to give an informal -training to the small children in all the villages of his rural charge -in northeastern France. This type of training was copied in Paris as -early as 1801, but did not amount to much until its revival through the -influence of a similar development in England a quarter of a century -later. It then rapidly expanded, and in 1833 was adopted as part of -the French national system of education. In 1847 a normal school was -founded to prepare directresses and inspectors for these institutions, -and in 1881 they became known as ‘maternal schools,’ and the present -type of curriculum was adopted. Besides reading and writing, these -schools have always included informal exercises in the mother tongue, -drawing, knowledge of common things, the elements of geography and -natural history, manual and physical exercises, and singing. - -[Sidenote: Owen at New Lanark;] - -[Sidenote: Buchanan’s school in London,] - -[Sidenote: became model for Wilderspin,--formal and mechanical.] - -=The ‘Infant Schools’ in England.=--Quite independently, though over a -generation later than Oberlin, Robert Owen opened his ‘infant school’ -in 1816 at New Lanark, Scotland. He was a philanthropic cotton-spinner, -and wished to give the young children of his operatives a careful -moral, physical, and intellectual training. From the age of three they -were taught in this school for two or three years whatever was useful -and within their understanding, and this instruction was combined with -much singing, dancing, amusement, and out-of-door exercise. They were -not “annoyed with books,” but were taught about nature and common -objects through maps, models, paintings, and familiar conversation, and -their “curiosity was excited so as to ask questions concerning them.” -To afford this informal training, Owen secured a “poor simple-hearted -weaver, named James Buchanan, who at first could scarcely read, write, -or spell,” but who, by following the instructions of Owen literally, -made a great success of the system. But when Buchanan, with the consent -of Owen, had been transferred to London, to start a similar school for -a group of peers and other distinguished philanthropists, his lack -of intelligence reduced the training to a mere mechanical imitation -of the procedure he had learned at New Lanark. Unfortunately, this -London school became the model for Samuel Wilderspin, who was destined -to become the leading exponent of infant schools. The schools of -Wilderspin, while retaining some of the principles and devices of Owen, -were much more formal and mechanical. He thought too highly of ‘books, -lessons, and apparatus,’ and confounded instruction with education. -He overloaded the child with verbal information, depending upon the -memory rather than the understanding. Before the child was six, it was -expected that he had been taught reading, the fundamental operations -in arithmetic, the tables of money, weights, and measures, a knowledge -of the qualities of common objects, the habits of different animals, -the elements of astronomy, botany, and zoölogy, and the chief facts of -the New Testament. Even the games were stereotyped, and the religious -teaching most formal. - -[Sidenote: Spread of schools;] - -[Sidenote: Infant School Society;] - -[Sidenote: Home and Colonial Society;] - -[Sidenote: Part of public system.] - -Wilderspin’s first school was opened at Spitalfields, London, and soon -attracted a horde of visitors. He then began lecturing upon the subject -throughout the United Kingdom, often demonstrating his methods with -classes of children he had taken along, and organized infant schools -everywhere. In 1824 an ‘Infant School Society’ was founded and through -it several hundred schools were established. A dozen years later -an organization for training infant school teachers, known as ‘The -Home and Colonial School Society,’ was founded at London by Reverend -Charles Mayo, D. D., and others. This society undertook to graft -Pestalozzianism upon the infant school stock. While the combination -resulted in some improvement of the infant schools, and real object -teaching and sense training were more emphasized than they had been, -the spirit of Pestalozzi was largely lost, and there was too much -imitation of the formal instruction of older children, and there was an -evident attempt to cultivate infant prodigies. Through these agencies -infant schools spread rapidly in Great Britain, and were adopted as a -regular part of the public system, when it was established in 1870 (p. -388). And four years later a marked advance was made through merging in -them some of the methods and games of the kindergarten. - -[Sidenote: Boston ‘primary schools.’] - -=‘Infant Schools’ in the United States.=--Schools open to all younger -children also sprang up in the United States during the first quarter -of the nineteenth century. For many years they were nowhere regarded -as an essential part of the public school system, and were managed -separately, but about the middle of the century they were generally -united. In 1818 Boston made its first appropriation for “primary -schools, to provide instruction for children between four and seven -years of age.” These schools were divided into four grades, beginning -with the study of the alphabet and closing with reading in the New -Testament. Besides reading, writing, and spelling, sewing and knitting -were taught the girls. A formal course and the monitorial method were -employed until about 1840, when the primary schools became largely -inoculated with the informal procedure of Pestalozzi. The primary -schools were for a long time under a separate committee, but in 1854 -the management was fused in a general city board. - -[Sidenote: ‘Primary departments’ in New York.] - -New York started an ‘Infant School Society’ in 1827. This organization -opened two ‘infant schools’ for poor children between three and six -years of age. One of these schools was located in the basement of a -Presbyterian Church and the other in that of a monitorial institution -belonging to the Public School Society (see p. 261). The Pestalozzian -methods used in these infant schools greatly commended themselves, and -in 1830 the Public School Society added them as ‘primary departments’ -in all their buildings, but under separate management. A committee -was appointed in 1832 to examine the Society’s schools and suggest -improvements. Upon the recommendation of two of this committee, who -had inspected education in Boston, primary schools were established -in rented rooms in sufficient numbers to be within easy reach for the -young children. The subject-matter and methods were likewise made less -formal. - -[Sidenote: ‘Infant schools’ in Philadelphia] - -[Sidenote: and other centers.] - -[Sidenote: Improvements through infant schools.] - -In 1827 three ‘infant schools’ were also founded in Philadelphia -and other centers of Pennsylvania through Roberts Vaux. By 1830 the -number of infant schools in the state had risen to ten, with two to -three thousand pupils. As the numbers would indicate, the schools -were largely organized upon the Lancasterian plan. Two years later -a model infant school was started in Philadelphia, and in 1834 six -others were organized. By 1837 there were thirty primary schools in -Philadelphia alone. Several other cities started infant schools early. -Hartford began them in 1827, and Baltimore in 1829. These institutions -were in most cases fostered by the leading men of the community, and -the ultimate service performed for American education by this form of -philanthropy was considerable. Among other improvements, the infant -schools developed a better type of schoolroom, secured separate rooms -for different classes, introduced better methods and equipment, -encouraged a movement toward playgrounds, and brought women into the -city schools of the United States. - -[Sidenote: Purpose,] - -[Sidenote: location,] - -[Sidenote: course,] - -[Sidenote: and methods.] - -=The Importance of Philanthropic Education.=--Many other types of -charity school arose during the eighteenth century both in Great -Britain and America, but the chief movements have been described, and -sufficient has been said to indicate the important part in education -played by philanthropy. The moral, religious, and economic condition of -the lower classes had been sadly neglected, and by means of endowment, -subscription, or organized societies, a series of attempts was made to -relieve and elevate the masses through education. As a result, charity -schools of many varieties and more or less permanent in character -arose in all parts of the British Isles, the United States, and even -France. In many instances the pupils were furnished with lodging, -board, and clothes. The curriculum in these institutions was, of -course, mostly elementary. It generally included reading, spelling, -writing, and arithmetic, while a moral and religious training was -given through the Bible, catechism, prayer book, and psalms, and -sometimes through attendance at church under supervision of the master. -Frequently industrial or vocational subjects were taught, or the pupils -apprenticed to a trade or to domestic service. The course was usually -most formal both in matter and method, but occasionally in the later -types drawing, geography, nature study, physical exercises, and games -were added, and the more informal methods of Pestalozzi or Froebel were -partially employed. Sometimes the training was especially intended for -and adapted to children under the usual school age. - -[Sidenote: Various sorts of opposition.] - -These efforts to improve social conditions by means of philanthropic -education encountered various sorts of opposition. Often the upper -classes held that the masses should be kept in their place, and feared -that any education at all would make them discontented and cause an -uprising. The poor themselves, in turn, were often suspicious of any -schooling that tended to elevate them, and were unwilling to stamp -themselves as paupers. Moreover, the sectarian color that sometimes -appeared in the religious training not infrequently repelled people of -other creeds or kept the schools from receiving their children. - -[Sidenote: Paved the way for national and public education.] - -However, this philanthropic education may, in general, be considered -a fortunate movement, although its greatest service consisted in -paving the way for better things. In contrast to the negative phase -of ‘naturalism,’ it represented a positive factor in the educational -activities of the century. Instead of attempting to destroy existing -society utterly, it sought rather to reform it, and when the work of -destruction gave opportunity for new ideals, it suggested and even -furnished a reconstruction along higher lines. Hence philanthropy -in education exercised an important influence in the direction of -universal, national, and public training for citizenship. It was in -many of its forms merged in such a system in several countries, and in -succeeding chapters references to the S. P. C. K., S. P. G., Sunday, -monitorial, and infant schools will naturally appear. - - -SUPPLEMENTARY READING - -Graves, _In Modern Times_ (Macmillan, 1913), chap. III; and _Great -Educators_ (Macmillan, 1912), chap. XII; Parker, _Modern Elementary -Education_ (Ginn, 1912), pp. 101-107. Allen, W. O. B. and McClure, E., -have presented _The History of the S. P. C. K._ (Christian Knowledge -Society, London, 1901), and Pascoe, C. F., _Two Hundred Years of the -S. P. G._ (Christian Knowledge Society, London, 1898), while Kemp, W. -W., gives a detailed history of _The Support of Schools in Colonial -New York by the S. P. G._ (Columbia University, Teachers College -Contributions, no. 56, 1913), and Weber, S. E., of _The Charity -School Movement in Pennsylvania_ (Doctoral dissertation, University -of Pennsylvania). Harris, J., furnishes a good description of _Robert -Raikes; the Man and His Work_ (Dutton, New York, 1899); Salmon, D., of -_Joseph Lancaster_ (Longmans, Green, 1904); Meiklejohn, J. M. D., of -_An Old Educational Reformer, Dr. Andrew Bell_ (Bardeen, Syracuse); and -Salmon, D., and Hindshaw, W., of _Infant Schools, Their History and -Theory_ (Longmans, Green, 1904). - - - - -CHAPTER XXI - -THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION IN AMERICAN EDUCATION - - -OUTLINE - - Between the ‘transplantation’ period and that of the purely - American conception of education was a distinctive stage in - American education,--the ‘period of transition.’ - - During this period Virginia and the other Southern states began to - develop sentiment for universal education, and started permanent - school funds and ‘permissive’ laws for common schools. - - In the state of New York, appropriations were made for elementary - education, but the public system was not really extended to the - secondary field; while in New York City the way for universal - education was prepared by quasi-public societies. In Pennsylvania, - school districts were established at Philadelphia and elsewhere, - but not until 1834 was the state system of common schools started. - New Jersey and Delaware were even slower in getting their systems - started. - - The generous support of colonial education in Massachusetts was - followed by a decline, and the control of schools was transferred - from the towns to the districts. Academies were subsidized by the - state and took the place of the grammar schools. A similar decline - took place in the schools of the other New England states, except - Rhode Island, which for the first time began to develop schools at - public expense. - - In the new states erected out of the Northwest Territory during - this period there was a prolonged struggle to introduce common - schools among those who had come from states not yet committed to - this ideal, and state systems of education began to appear toward - the close of the first quarter of the nineteenth century. - - Thus before the educational awakening spread through the land, a - radical modification had taken place in the European institutions - with which America began its education. - -[Sidenote: Transition to American conception began about the middle of -the eighteenth century.] - -=Evolution of Public Education in the United States.=--We may now -return to our discussion of education in America. It has already been -seen (chap. XVII) that the organization of schools in the various -colonies was largely the result of educational ideals and conditions in -the Mother Country. At first the schools of America closely resembled -those of the European countries from which the colonists came, and -the seventeenth century in American education is largely a period of -‘transplantation.’ But toward the middle of the eighteenth century, as -new social and political conditions were evolving and the days of the -Revolution were approaching, there were evident a gradual modification -of European ideals and the differentiation of American schools toward -a type of their own. America has long stood, in theory at least, for -equality of opportunity, and this conception of society is apparent -in its views of education. The distinguishing characteristic of the -American schools has throughout been the attempt of a free people to -educate themselves, and, through their elected representatives, the -people of the various states have come, in harmony with the genius of -American civilization, to initiate, regulate, and control their own -systems of education. While the purely American conception of education -cannot be fully discerned until almost the middle of the nineteenth -century, there can for three-quarters of a century before be clearly -distinguished ‘a period of transition’ from the inherited ideals to -those of America to-day. This intervening stage of evolution covers -roughly the last quarter century of colonial life and the first half -century of statehood. To it we must now direct our attention. - -[Sidenote: The ‘field school.’] - -[Sidenote: Jefferson’s plan for universal education.] - -=Rise of the Common School in Virginia.=--By the opening of the period, -as we noted (p. 193), Virginia had voluntarily made a fair provision -for secondary and higher education in various localities, but as -yet no real interest in common elementary schools had been shown by -the responsible classes. The nearest approach to such institutions -was found in the plantation ‘field school.’ Organized by a group of -neighbors, these schools were supported by tuition fees and were not -dependent upon any authority other than the good sense of the parents -and pupils. But by the close of the Revolution a desire for genuine -public education began to appear. The leader in the movement was -the great statesman, Thomas Jefferson. As early as 1779, he first -introduced into the legislature a scheme of universal education. His -bill proposed to lay off all the counties into small districts five -or six miles square, to be called ‘hundreds.’ Each hundred was to -establish at its own expense an elementary school, to which every -citizen should be entitled to send his children free for three years, -and for as much longer as he would pay. The leading pupil in each -school was to be selected annually by a school visitor and sent to one -of the twenty ‘grammar’ (i. e. secondary) schools, which were to be -erected in various parts of the state. After a trial of two years had -been made of these boys, the leader in each grammar school was to be -selected and given a complete secondary course of six years, and the -rest dismissed. At the end of this six-year course, the lower half of -the geniuses thus determined were to be retained as teachers in the -grammar schools, while the upper half were to be supported from the -public treasury for three years at the College of William and Mary, -which was to be greatly expanded in control and scope. - -[Sidenote: Permissive law and ‘literary fund.’] - -[Sidenote: University of Virginia.] - -This comprehensive plan for a system of common schools was, in the face -of most discouraging opposition, constantly adhered to by Jefferson, -although he did not live to see universal education an accomplished -fact. He did, however, stimulate some movements toward this end. In -1796 the legislature passed an ineffective law whereby the justices of -each county were permitted to initiate a school system by taxation, -and in 1810 a ‘literary fund’ was established for public education. -When, in 1816, this fund had been increased to a million dollars, those -in charge of it recommended to the legislature the establishment of -“a system of public education, including a university, to be called -the University of Virginia, and such additional colleges, academies, -and schools as should diffuse the benefits of education through -the Commonwealth.” This revision of Jefferson’s suggestion did not -immediately result in any legal steps toward universal education, -except the appropriation in 1818 of $45,000 from the income of the -literary fund to have the poor children of each county sent to a -proper school, but it did bring about in 1820 the foundation of the -University of Virginia and a generous grant for the erection of a set -of buildings. In the same year the effectiveness of the ‘permissive’ -law for common schools of 1796 and of the appropriation act of 1818 -was somewhat strengthened by the division of the counties into -districts, among which the appropriation for education of the poor was -distributed and managed by special commissioners. - -[Sidenote: Hindrances to universal education,] - -[Sidenote: but gradual improvement.] - -While this law marked one more step in advance, it was hampered by -several of the features that in various states continually delayed -the establishment of common schools at public expense. In the first -place, it was based on the conception of public education as poor -relief, rather than universal training for citizenship. It was often -viewed with hostility or indifference by the wealthy, who felt that -they were paying for that from which they received no benefit, and with -pride and scorn by the poor, who refused to be considered objects of -charity. Moreover, the sum distributed ($45,000) was totally inadequate -for over one hundred thousand children, and every variety of school, -private as well as public, was subsidized without distinction. The -system lacked a strong central organization, and the commissioners, -often appointed by the county judges from the classes most opposed to -the arrangement, were notoriously inefficient. The teachers also were -generally incompetent, as it was practically impossible to persuade -college or academy graduates to undertake the instruction of the poor. -Nevertheless, under this apology for a people’s common school, the -state went on for a score of years, and there was a steady growth in -the literary fund, the appropriations, the length of the school term, -and the number of pupils who were willing to take advantage of such -opportunities as it afforded. State officials of wide vision, moreover, -sought in every way to improve the teaching corps and the defective -administration. While the great majority of the school children still -attended the denominational, private, and ‘field’ schools (see p. 253), -this system of subsidies was educating public opinion for something -better. By the close of the first half century of statehood, while -Virginia was not yet ready to establish a complete system of public -education, we shall later (see pp. 327f.) find that the ground had -been prepared for the development of common schools that was spreading -throughout the country. - -[Sidenote: Maryland,] - -[Sidenote: South Carolina,] - -[Sidenote: Georgia,] - -[Sidenote: North Carolina,] - -=Similar Developments in the Other Southern States.=--This advance -toward the common school in Virginia is typical of the South. The -development in Maryland was very similar to that of Virginia. The -state began to move slowly toward universal education by subsidizing -the education of the poor (1816), and by the passage of a ‘permissive’ -law for common schools in the counties (1825). In South Carolina an -annual appropriation for ‘free schools’ was started in 1811. A law -was passed establishing a number of schools in each election district -equal to that of its members in the legislature and providing $300 -for each school. But these schools were largely regarded as pauper -institutions, and, because legislative representation was based upon -property, the distribution of the appropriation was very inequitable, -for the inland parts of the state, which most needed assistance, -received least. Yet the amount of appropriation gradually increased, -and sentiment for universal education steadily developed. Within the -first half dozen years of statehood, Georgia began the provision of -land endowment for schools, and the organization of a state system -under the title of the ‘University of Georgia.’ While the value of the -land was too small to establish a genuine system of public education -so soon, before the close of the transition period, a permanent school -fund had been started, and sentiment for public education had begun to -grow. North Carolina made even earlier progress toward common schools. -The constitution of 1776 provided for the establishment of schools, -and, by 1817, at the request of the legislature, Judge Archibald D. -Murphy, a statesman with broad educational traditions, even formulated -an elaborate plan for a complete system of public schools. This scheme -failed, because it proposed to ‘maintain,’ as well as educate, the -children of the poor. But the suggestions of the Murphy committee -shortly brought about the establishment of a ‘literary,’ or common -school fund (1825), the income of which was to be used for the support -of public schools. - -[Sidenote: and afterward other commonwealths, had the beginnings of a -state system;] - -[Sidenote: and the larger cities had organized their schools.] - -In the case of the other Southern commonwealths, which were admitted -after the union had been formed, there was similarly a very gradual -growth of sentiment for universal education. In every state there -appeared an alliance between far-sighted statesmen and educators and -the great middle class of citizens for the purpose of establishing -common schools for all white children, and the old ecclesiastical and -exclusive idea of education was beginning to fade. By the close of -the first half century of national existence, a public system had not -actually materialized in any of the states, but most of them had begun -to create ‘literary funds,’ subsidize schooling for the poor, and enact -‘permissive’ laws for establishing public schools. Except in Virginia -and South Carolina, provisions had been made for general administration -in state, county, and district; and in North Carolina the organization -of a complete common school system awaited only a first hint of the -great educational awakening (1835-1860). Moreover, most of the larger -cities--Baltimore, Charleston, Louisville, Nashville, Memphis, Mobile, -New Orleans--had already organized a regular system of public schools, -and all of the older commonwealths had made some attempt at supporting -a state institution of higher learning, which was virtually the head -of a public school system. The various denominations had begun to -found colleges in some numbers, but even these institutions were not -so strictly ecclesiastical as William and Mary started out to be, and -assumed a wider function than merely training for the ministry, while -the aristocratic and classical ‘grammar’ schools had largely given way -to the ‘academies’ (Fig. 32), which were nonsectarian, democratic, and -more comprehensive in their curriculum. - -[Sidenote: System under Board of Regents, but did not include -elementary schools.] - -[Sidenote: Endowment of common schools.] - -=Evolution of Public Education in New York.=--After the English took -possession of New York, we have seen (p. 195) how that territory lapsed -into the _laissez faire_ support of education. The upper classes of -society largely sought their education abroad or through tutors and -the clergy, although in 1754 King’s College (now Columbia University) -was founded, and during the century a number of secondary schools were -organized and granted gratuities by the legislature. The few elementary -schools that existed were either private or maintained by some church -or philanthropic society. As already shown (pp. 234 ff.), this was -the period distinguished for the schools founded by the Society -for the Propagation of the Gospel. At the close of the Revolution, -however, the various elements of the population had been welded -together in the common struggle, and a sentiment for public education -began to prevail over vested interests and sectarian jealousies. A -series of broad-minded governors--the Clintons, Lewis, Tompkins, and -Marcy--constantly reminded the legislature of its duty to establish -common schools. In 1787 a system of public education was theoretically -organized under the management of a Board of Regents, with the title -of ‘The University of the State of New York,’ but it did not include -elementary schools. Two years later lands in each township were set -apart for the endowment of common schools, and in 1795 it was enacted -that the sum of $50,000 for five years should be distributed for the -encouragement of elementary education in counties where the towns -would raise by taxation half as much as the amount of their share. -This arrangement was not carried on beyond the five years, but in -1805 the proceeds from 500,000 acres of land were appropriated for a -common school fund, which was not to be used until the interest reached -$50,000 per annum. - -[Sidenote: State superintendency and further progress.] - -[Sidenote: Combination with secretaryship of state.] - -[Sidenote: Public secondary and normal schools delayed by academy -appropriations.] - -In 1812 further organization was enacted whereby a state superintendent -of common schools was to be appointed, and the county unit replaced by -a more democratic town and district basis. But it had been supposed -that the state fund would provide for the entire support of the -schools, and there still remained an obstinate opposition to local -taxes. The towns, however, were gradually persuaded to raise the amount -required to secure their share of the state donation. Much progress -was brought about through the first superintendent, Gideon Hawley, -and while, after eight years of service, he was removed by political -manipulation and the office combined with the secretaryship of state, -each of his successors undertook to distinguish the educational side -of his administration by some marked advance or improvement in the -common schools. But for a generation the academies and colleges -remained under supervision of the regents, and, except for state -appropriations to academies, no one undertook to extend the public -system into secondary and higher education. Moreover, the professional -training of teachers in the academies was encouraged by the state, and -thereby the organization of normal schools was delayed. Hence, while -New York started the first system of public education adjusted to the -political and social conditions of the new nation, and probably had -the most effective schools of the times, not until the great period of -common school development (1835-1860) were its people fully willing -to contribute for a general school system, make it entirely free, or -develop it consistently in all directions. - -[Sidenote: ‘Free School Society.’] - -[Sidenote: Change of name.] - -[Sidenote: Bethel Baptist Church controversy.] - -[Sidenote: City board of education.] - -=New York City.=--Meanwhile, an interesting development of educational -facilities was taking place in New York City. In 1805 the opportunities -offered in the private, church, and charity schools were seen by -certain of the most prominent citizens to be totally inadequate for a -city of seventy-five thousand inhabitants, and a ‘Free School Society’ -was founded to provide for the boys who were not eligible for these -schools. The president was De Witt Clinton, afterward governor, and -in 1806 the first school was opened, from motives of economy, upon -the monitorial basis (see p. 241). The state fund did not reach a -sufficient amount to be available until 1815, but special gifts were -made to the school society from time to time by the legislature, the -city, and private individuals, and there was a rapid increase in the -number of the society’s schools during the first quarter of a century. -In 1826 the legislature authorized the organization to charge a small -tuition fee and change its name to the ‘Public School Society.’ While -the fee system was soon found to injure the efficiency of the work and -was abolished within six years, the new title persisted, as it did not -suggest pauperism in the way the old name had. In 1828 the society was -allowed the benefit of a small local tax. For quite a time the work of -the association was unhindered, but in 1820-1825 a vigorous effort was -made to obtain a share of the state appropriation for the sectarian -schools of the Bethel Baptist Church. This move was finally defeated, -but the Roman Catholics made a more successful protest fifteen years -later by indicating that the society, while nominally nonsectarian, -was really Protestant. To settle this dispute, the legislature in -1842 established a city board of education, and after eleven years -the institutions of the Public School Society were merged in this -city system. Thus was the way prepared for a public school system in -New York City, and this development was typical of the training of -educational sentiment through quasi-public societies that took place in -Buffalo, Utica, Oswego, and several other cities. - -[Sidenote: Constitutional provision in Pennsylvania produced only ‘poor -schools.’] - -[Sidenote: Public system in Philadelphia and elsewhere.] - -=Development of Systems of Education in Pennsylvania and the Other -Middle States.=--The rise of public systems in the other Middle states -was also gradual. In Pennsylvania, the state system slowly arose -through a prolonged stage of ‘poor schools.’ The new constitution -(1790) of the state declared: “The legislature shall, as soon -as conveniently may be, provide by law for the establishment of -schools throughout the State, in such manner that the poor may be -taught gratis.” Men of broad vision, like Franklin, Benjamin Rush, -and Timothy Pickering, had striven hard to have popular education -introduced, but the general sentiment of the times could not reach -beyond providing free education for the poor. Moreover, although this -moderate constitutional provision was a compromise, it was not until -some years later (1802, 1804, and 1809) that the legislature passed -acts to make it effective. Even then public institutions to fulfill -the legislation were not established, but it was arranged that the -tuition of poor children should be paid for at public expense in -private, church, and neighborhood schools, and the proceeds of the -sixty thousand acres of land appropriated for ‘aiding public schools’ -went to subsidize private institutions. But the idea of common schools -continued to develop, and governors and other prominent men constantly -called attention to the need of universal education. Philadelphia -was the first municipality to be converted, and in 1818, under a -special act of the legislature, it became ‘the first school district -of Pennsylvania,’ with the power to provide a system of education on -the Lancasterian plan at public expense. After three or four years -this special legislation was extended to five more ‘districts’, and in -1824 a general law permitting the establishment of free schools in any -community was enacted, though soon repealed. - -[Sidenote: Establishment of a state school fund and a state school -system.] - -[Sidenote: Effort to repeal unsuccessful.] - -Finally, in 1828, ‘the Pennsylvania Society for the Promotion of -Common Schools,’ after demonstrating the ineffectiveness of the -‘pauper school’ law in a series of memorials, succeeded in having a -state school fund established, and in 1834, “an act to establish a -general system of education by common schools” was passed. This law -established a state system of schools under the general superintendency -of the secretary of state. For this system it appropriated $75,000 -per annum from the income of the state school fund, and permitted the -wards, townships, and boroughs, which it constituted school districts, -to share in this, provided they levied local taxes for schools. The -Northern counties, settled mostly by New England colonists, and the -Western portion of the state, with its large element of Scotch-Irish -Presbyterians, ardently favored this encouragement of universal -education, but the law was only ‘permissive’ and was bitterly opposed -by the Quaker and German inhabitants of ‘old’ Pennsylvania, who feared -that their own parochial schools would be replaced. The wealthy classes -were also hostile to the new law, on the ground that they ought not to -be taxed to educate other people’s children. In a vigorous campaign -to repeal the act, however, the opponents of the law, largely through -the eloquent speech of Thaddeus Stevens, were defeated the following -year (1835), and the desire to establish public schools was greatly -increased in 1836 by the passage of a new law, which enlarged the -annual appropriation to $200,000, in which the school districts might -participate only on condition of local taxation. Even then not more -than one-half the districts took advantage of the opportunity, and it -was several years before most of them claimed their share. Hence, while -the battle was won by 1835, the consummation of public education in -Pennsylvania did not take place until the great awakening of common -schools had swept over the country. - -[Sidenote: Similar hindrances in New Jersey and Delaware.] - -After the formation of the Union, New Jersey and Delaware met with -the same kinds of hindrance to the development of common schools -as did Pennsylvania, and they were even slower in getting a system -established. In both commonwealths a state school fund was started -early in the nineteenth century, but it was not distributed for about -a dozen years, and then it was used mostly for the education of -paupers in subsidized private schools. Some ‘permissive’ legislation -for the organization of school districts and commissioners and the -establishment of public schools was also passed, but it accomplished -little before the middle of the century. - -[Sidenote: Disintegration of the domination of Calvinism.] - -=Decline of Education in Massachusetts.=--In Massachusetts, on the -other hand, efforts for the provision of universal training degenerated -during the eighteenth century. The generous support of public education -that had been started in 1647 was followed by a period of decline for -about a century and a half. The causes of this decadence of local -interest in education were rather complicated. In the first place, -the complete domination of Calvinism gradually disintegrated and was -replaced by a toleration of several creeds. The non-Puritans, who were -constantly increasing in numbers, were obliged by the law of 1638 -to preserve an outward conformity to the Calvinistic régime under -penalty of banishment, but by 1662 a compromise was granted, whereby -persons not conforming in every respect might be admitted to all church -privileges, except communion, and the persecution of Quakers, Baptists, -and other sects was largely abandoned. In 1670 came the successful -secession of the Old South Church from the original church of Boston, -as the result of a quarrel concerning this very compromise, and within -a decade the Baptists were permitted to build a meeting-house in -Boston. By 1692 recognition had been largely granted to all Protestant -beliefs, and to be a ‘freeman,’ or voter on all colonial questions, -it was no longer necessary to be a member of a Puritan church. While -every town was still required to support by tax an orthodox pastor, by -1728 the Episcopalians, Quakers, and Baptists were permitted to pay -their assessments to their own ministers, and the alliance of the State -with a despotic Church, which had made possible the system of public -education, was largely broken. - -[Sidenote: Lowering of intellectual standards.] - -[Sidenote: Dispersion of population.] - -[Sidenote: Consequent attempts to evade the school law.] - -Moreover, there was a decided lowering of intellectual standards upon -the part of the colonists. The hard struggle to wring a living from an -unpropitious soil, and the disturbances due to wars, Indian skirmishes, -and the difficulties of pioneer life greatly lessened their feeling -of need for a literary training. Another reason for the educational -decline was the dispersion of the population in the towns. At first, -because of possible attacks by the Indians, a law forbade any dwelling -to be built more than half a mile from the church and school, and not -infrequently the school was equipped with a watch-tower (Fig. 22). -But, as the best land near the center was more and more taken up, the -towns spread out in various directions, and the intervening hills, -streams, swamps, and poor roads, together with the fear of Indians and -wild animals, greatly hindered those on the outskirts in reaching the -church and school of the town. As a result of all these conditions, the -towns, most of which had been eager to establish schools even before -being compelled to do so, began to seek various methods of evading -the school law without incurring the fine. The minister was at times -made the nominal schoolmaster, or a teacher was even employed during -the session of the ‘General Court’ (i. e., legislature) and discharged -upon adjournment. Laws were enacted against these subterfuges, greater -vigilance was exercised, and the fine was increased first to £10 (1671) -and then to £20 (1683), with a progressive increase where the number of -families ran over one hundred (1712). Thus the fine came to be almost -sufficient to support a schoolmaster, and it was made more and more -unprofitable for a town to disobey the law. - -[Sidenote: Influence of ‘dame’ and private elementary schools and of -parishes.] - -[Sidenote: The ‘moving,’] - -[Sidenote: ‘divided,’] - -[Sidenote: and ‘district’ schools.] - -Under these circumstances it became advantageous to many citizens, -especially those at the center of a town, to have the entire support -of the school come through general taxation rather than partially by -means of tuition fees. But the people in the more distant portions of -the town refused to vote a rate from which they themselves obtained -no profit. They demanded that, in return for their taxes, the public -school should be brought nearer to them. Probably they were influenced -in this stand by the fact that private ‘dame’ schools, and possibly -elementary schools, had for some time been opened in various parts of -the town conveniently near their homes. Another factor that may have -aided in suggesting this solution was the legal recognition of various -remote settlements within the town, known as ‘parishes’ or ‘districts,’ -through the grant of self-government, separate church organizations, -and other privileges similar to those of the town as a whole, though -on a smaller scale. At any rate, we find that in the early part of -the eighteenth century, wherever a rate was adopted as the sole means -of school support, it was agreed that, instead of holding the town -school for twelve months in the center alone, opportunities should -be offered for a fraction of that period in various portions of the -town. Usually the compromise at first took the form of having one town -master teach in different districts through the year, and the result -was known as a ‘moving’ school. This necessitated holding the school -in a number of isolated communities, and the temple of learning often -came at first to be located in a private house, usually in the kitchen. -And although, in time, another room was added to the farm house for -the accommodation of the school, the institution has since then been -known as a ‘kitchen school’ (Fig. 30). But, by a later development, -when separate schools under different masters or mistresses came to -be taught at the same time, the town school was said to be ‘divided.’ -Then in the winter, when the big boys were out of the fields and came -to school, the session was held in the center of the town, and usually -required the brawn of a man. But in summer, when only the younger -children could attend, schools were held in various parts of the town -and were taught chiefly by women (Fig. 31). The divisions of the town -that thus came to be recognized were allowed more and more control of -their schools until they practically became autonomous. Before the -time of the Revolution ‘divided schools’ were recognized as a regular -institution, and, together with other customs that had grown up during -the eighteenth century, they were given legal sanction and denominated -‘district schools’ in the law of 1789. By 1800 the districts were -not only allowed to manage their own share of the town taxes, but -were authorized to make the levy themselves; in 1817 they were made -corporations and empowered to hold property for educational purposes; -and in 1827 they were granted the right to choose a committeeman, who -should appoint the teacher and have control of the school property. - -[Sidenote: Degeneracy of the district system.] - -[Sidenote: Endowment of academies with public lands.] - -[Sidenote: High schools not yet influential.] - -Thus the year 1827 “marks the culmination of a process which had been -going on for more than a century,--the high-water mark of modern -democracy, and the low-water mark of the Massachusetts school system.” -The district system did in its earlier stages bind the families of a -neighborhood into a corporation whose intent was the most vital of -human needs,--education, and the people came to feel the necessity of -supporting it by their own generous contributions. But in the course -of time the districts became involved in private and petty political -interests, and had but little consideration for the public good. The -choice of the committeeman, the site, and the teacher caused much -unseemly wrangling, and as each received only what it paid in, the poor -district obtained only a weak school and that for but a short term. The -increasing expense of the district system had also made it impossible -for any except the larger towns to support the old-time ‘grammar’ -school, and this part of the old school requirements had fallen into -disuse before the close of the eighteenth century. To meet the needs -of secondary education, the policy of endowing ‘academies’ (Fig. 32) -with wild lands in Maine had gradually grown up, and this custom was -legalized in 1797. Seven academies,--four in Massachusetts proper and -three in the province of Maine, had originally been endowed with a -township apiece, and some fourteen more had been chartered by towns at -an early date, and empowered by the state to hold educational funds. -By the time of the educational awakening there were some fifty of -these private secondary institutions subsidized by the state, although -managed by a close corporation. The first public high school -(Fig. 41) had been established in Boston (1821), but this type of -secondary school had not begun to have any influence as yet. Into such -a decadence had the liberally supported system of public education -fallen, before the rapid development in common schools began and the -influence of Horace Mann and other reformers was felt. - -[Illustration: Fig. 30.--A ‘kitchen school.’] - -[Illustration: Fig. 31.--A colonial ‘summer school.’] - -[Illustration: - -Fig. 32.--The first ‘academy,’ founded by Benjamin Franklin at -Philadelphia in 1750, and later developed into the University of -Pennsylvania.] - -[Sidenote: Connecticut,] - -[Sidenote: Vermont,] - -[Sidenote: New Hampshire, and Rhode Island.] - -=Developments in the Other New England States.=--The development -of common schools in Massachusetts may be considered typical of -New England in general, except Rhode Island. Connecticut similarly -degenerated into a district system, which was recognized by law in -1794, and was destined later to constitute one of the greatest problems -during the period of educational development (see pp. 313 and 320). -Vermont likewise made provision for town and district schools, and -eventually established a state school fund and school commissioners, -but this legislation was soon repealed, and the schools of the state -were in a parlous condition when the awakening found them. New -Hampshire and Maine also present very similar features. In Rhode Island -the voluntary organization of education continued throughout the -eighteenth century. In 1800 a law permitting each town to maintain ‘one -or more free schools’ was passed, but no municipality availed itself -of this permission, except Providence, and the act was repealed in -1803. The basal state law for common schools was not passed until 1828, -when at length $10,000 was appropriated, and each town was required to -supplement its share by such an amount as should annually be fixed in -town meeting. - -[Sidenote: Conditions at close of transition period in the Southern] - -[Sidenote: and Middle states,] - -[Sidenote: as opposed to those in New England.] - -=The Extension of Educational Organization to the Northwest.=--It -is thus evident that by the close of the first half century of the -republic, there was everywhere slowly growing up a sentiment for -public education. The development of common schools had, however, been -greatly hindered in the Southern states by the separation of classes -in an aristocratic organization of society. Yet the superior class -had shown no lack of educational interest in their own behalf and had -through the facilities offered reared a group of intellectual leaders, -some of whom, like the far-sighted Jefferson, had caught the vision of -universal education. The great diversity of nationality and creed in -the Middle states, on the other hand, had fostered sectarian jealousies -and the traditional practice of the maintenance of its own school by -each congregation. This had proved almost as disastrous to the rise -of a system of public schools, although Pennsylvania, and even more -New York, had well begun the establishment of a public system. In both -sections of the country public education was at first viewed as a -species of poor relief, and the wealthy were unable to see any justice -in being required to educate the children of others. As a result, the -young ‘paupers’ at times had their tuition paid in private schools, and -these institutions were not infrequently allowed to share in public -funds. The New England states, however, as a result of the homogeneity -of their citizens, had early adhered to a system of public schools -for all, organized, supported, and supervised by the people. While -the efficiency of their common schools was eventually crippled by the -grant of autonomy to local districts and the arising of petty private -and political interests, they had initiated this unique American -product,--a public system for all, dependent upon local support and -responsive to local wishes. - -[Sidenote: Effect of these conditions upon the Northwest Territory.] - -[Sidenote: The Ordinance of 1787, and its provisions for education.] - -This growth of a ‘common schools consciousness’ was destined, as the -result of a great educational awakening, to increase rapidly during the -second quarter of the nineteenth century in the Middle and Southern, as -well as the New England, states. But before describing this development -further, it is important to see the effect of the ideals of these -three sections of the country when introduced into a new part of the -United States by emigrants from the older commonwealths. The new domain -referred to was those large tracts of unsettled territory, belonging, -according to claims more or less overlapping, to six or seven of the -original states, and finally (1781), in settlement of these disputes, -ceded to the federal government, with the understanding that the -territory should be ‘formed into distinct republican States.’ After -much discussion and various acts of Congress for half a dozen years, -the famous ‘Ordinance of 1787’ was passed for the government of this -‘Northwest Territory.’ An earlier act (1785) had divided the entire -territory into townships, six miles square, after the New England -system, and of the thirty-six sections into which each township was -subdivided, section sixteen was reserved for the support of public -schools. A special contract also started the practice of providing two -townships for the establishment of a university in each state. These -provisions were later extended to the vast territory purchased from -France in 1803 and known as ‘Louisiana,’ and to all the other territory -afterward annexed to the United States. - -[Sidenote: Hindrances to educational development.] - -This federal land endowment gave an additional stimulus to the -establishment of public education in the four commonwealths--Ohio, -Indiana, Illinois, and Michigan--that were admitted from the Northwest -Territory before 1840. But the final system of public education in -these new states took form slowly for various reasons. The settlers -were poor; incessant Indian wars, the wilderness, wretched roads, and -lack of transportation facilities tended to repel immigrants and leave -the country sparsely settled; the large tracts of school land were slow -in acquiring value, and, to attract settlers, were often leased at -nominal rates or sacrificed at a small price; and social distinctions -and sectarian jealousies persisted among the immigrants. As a whole, -immigration from the earlier commonwealths had followed parallels -of latitude, and the northern parts of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois -were occupied mostly by people from New England and New York, and -the southern by former inhabitants of Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, -Louisiana, and other states where the public school system was not -yet as well developed. In Michigan, however, because of its northerly -location, the great influx throughout the state had come from New York, -New England, and Northern Ohio. - -[Sidenote: Struggle to secure public school system,--] - -[Sidenote: Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois;] - -[Sidenote: Michigan.] - -Consequently, the history of public education in the first three of the -new states seems to be in each case largely a record of a prolonged -struggle to introduce common schools among those of the people who -had come from states not yet committed to this ideal, but Michigan, -whose inhabitants had migrated from states where public education was -in vogue, showed the germs of a public system even before statehood -was conferred. The history of the common schools in Ohio, Indiana, -and Illinois is very similar in general outline. Each one started off -by claiming two townships of land for a university and the sixteenth -section for schools, and the state constitution committed it to equal -school opportunities for all. But not until the close of the first -quarter of the nineteenth century was a system of common schools, with -the organization of districts, appointment of school officers, and -local taxation provided by the legislature. Even then the acts were -largely ‘permissive,’ the tax was not exacted from anyone who objected, -and for some time various laws allowed public funds to be paid to -existing private schools for the tuition of the poor. The complete -system with a state superintendent was first organized in Ohio by -1836, but a similar stage of development was not reached by the other -two states until after the great wave of common school development -(1835-1860) had passed over the country. Michigan, on the other hand, -as early as 1817 established a ‘catholepistemiad,’ which was to include -a university and a system of schools of all grades, and a dozen years -later in its revision of the school laws provided for a department -of Education at the university and a territorial superintendency of -schools. While under this law of 1829 tuition fees were to be required, -except from the poor, by the first state constitution in 1837 the -school lands were taken over from the wasteful management of the towns, -and a public school was required to be open for three months in every -district. The state superintendency was also established, and before -1840 Michigan was well started with a complete system of common schools. - -[Sidenote: Progress in all sections of the country.] - -=Condition of the Common Schools Prior to the Awakening.=--Thus, while -some of the New England states, New York, and Ohio possessed the only -definitely organized systems of public education, the movement for -common schools had made some progress in all sections of the country -even before the educational awakening spread through the land. A -radical modification had taken place in the European institutions -with which education in the United States began. To meet the demands -of the new environment, education had become more democratic and -less religious and sectarian. Wealth had become much greater and -material interests had met with a marked growth. The old aristocratic -institutions had begun to disappear. Town and district schools had -been taking the place of the old church, private, and ‘field’ schools, -and in some of the cities the foundation for public education was -being laid by quasi-public societies or even through local taxation. -The academies (Fig. 32) had replaced the ‘grammar’ schools, and the -colleges had lost their distinctly ecclesiastical character. State -universities were starting in the South and Northwest. All these -evidences of the growth of democracy, nonsectarianism, and popular -training in education were destined to be greatly multiplied and spread -before long. Such an awakening will be found to be characteristic of -the great development of common schools that took place in the decades -around the middle of the nineteenth century. But, before pursuing the -subject further, we must direct our attention to some new reforms -in method and content that were being introduced by Pestalozzi into -education in Europe and were destined to produce a great stimulus in -the public systems of the United States. - - -SUPPLEMENTARY READING - -Graves, _In Modern Times_ (Macmillan, 1913), chap. IV; Parker, _Modern -Elementary Education_ (Ginn, 1912), chap. XII. A general, but not -always accurate account of the period has been contributed by Mayo, A. -D., to the Report of the U. S. Commissioner of Education, 1893-94, XVI; -1894-95, XXVIII; 1895-96, VI and VII; 1897-98, XI; and 1898-99, VIII. -For the special states, see Adams, H. B., _Thomas Jefferson and the -University of Virginia_ (United States Bureau of Education, Circular -of Information, 1888, no. 1); Boone, R. G., _History of Education -in Indiana_ (Appleton, 1892), chaps. I-III, and V-VII; Johnston, R. -M., _Early Educational Life in Middle Georgia_ (Report of the U. S. -Commissioner of Education, 1894-95, XVI, and 1895-96, VII); Martin, G. -H., _Evolution of the Massachusetts Public School System_ (Appleton, -1894), lect. III; Palmer, A. E., _The New York Public School_ -(Macmillan, 1905); Randall, S. S., _History of the Common School System -of the State of New York_ (Ivison, Blakeman, Taylor, New York, 1871) -Second Period; Smith, C. L., _History of Education in North Carolina_ -(U. S. Bureau of Education, Circular of Information, no. 2, 1888); -Smith, W. L., _Historical Sketch of Education in Michigan_ (Lansing, -1881), pp. 1-7, 39-49, and 57-78; Steiner, B. C., _History of Education -in Connecticut_ (U. S. Bureau, Circular of Information, no. 2, 1893), -and _History of Education in Maryland_ (U. S. Bureau, Circular of -Information, no. 2, 1894), chaps. II-IV; Stockwell, T. B., _History of -Public Education in Rhode Island_ (Providence Press Co., Providence, -1876), chaps. II-V; Updegraff, H., _The Origin of the Moving School in -Massachusetts_ (Columbia University, Teachers College Contributions, -no. 17, 1907), chaps. V-X; Wickersham, J. P., _History of Education in -Pennsylvania_ (Lancaster, Pennsylvania, 1886), chaps. XIII-XVII. - - - - -CHAPTER XXII - -OBSERVATION AND INDUSTRIAL TRAINING IN EDUCATION - - -OUTLINE - - Pestalozzi was the first prominent educator to develop the negative - naturalism of Rousseau into positive reforms. - - He desired to elevate the peasantry about him, and, failing - in other expedients, undertook to accomplish this through a - combination of industrial and intellectual training at Neuhof. - This training he continued at Stanz, and began the development of - his observational methods. In his work at Burgdorf, he was forced - to suspend his industrial training, but he further developed his - ‘A B C of observation,’ and at Yverdon the method reached its - culmination. - - Like Rousseau, Pestalozzi conceived of education as a natural - development of innate powers, and he extended its application to - all children. In his method he held that clear ideas could be - formed only by means of sense perceptions, and he undertook to - analyze each subject into its simplest elements and develop it by - graded exercises. - - While not original, practical, or scientific, Pestalozzi made - education the remedy for corruption in society, and started the - modern methods in the elementary studies. Pestalozzian schools and - methods spread rapidly through Europe and the United States. - - The attempt to combine industrial training with intellectual, which - Pestalozzi had to give up, was continued by his friend, Fellenberg, - in his institutions at Hofwyl. Similar training was developed - throughout Europe. In the United States it stimulated the ‘manual - labor’ movement, and was later utilized as a solution for racial - and other peculiar problems in education. - -[Sidenote: Development of naturalism of Rousseau by Pestalozzi.] - -=Pestalozzi as the Successor of Rousseau.=--Having outlined the various -phases of philanthropic education and surveyed the development of the -common school in America, we may now turn again to the more immediate -development of the movements that found their roots in Rousseau. It has -been noted how Rousseau’s ‘naturalistic’ doctrines logically pointed -to a complete demolition of the artificial society and education -of the times. A pause at this point would have led to anarchy. If -civilization is not to disappear, social destruction must be followed -by reconstruction. Of course the negative attitude of the _Emile_ was -itself accompanied by considerable positive advance in its suggestions -for a natural training, but this advice was often unpractical and -extreme and its main emphasis was upon the destruction of existing -education. Hence the happiest educational results of Rousseau’s work -came through Pestalozzi, who especially supplemented that reformer’s -work upon the constructive side. Pestalozzi became the first prominent -educator to develop the negative and somewhat inconsistent ‘naturalism’ -of Rousseau into a more positive attempt to reform corrupt society by -proper education and a new method of teaching. - -[Sidenote: Example of mother and grandfather,] - -[Sidenote: and early attempts to elevate the peasantry.] - -=Pestalozzi’s Philanthropic and Industrial Ideals.=--Johann Heinrich -Pestalozzi was born at Zurich in 1746. After the death of his father, -he was brought up almost altogether by his mother. Through her -unselfishness and piety, and the example of his grandfather, pastor in -a neighboring village, Pestalozzi was inspired to relieve and elevate -the degraded peasantry about him. He first turned to the ministry as -being the best way to accomplish this philanthropic purpose, and later -took up the study of law, with the idea of defending the rights of his -people, but he was not able to succeed in either profession. Then, in -1769, he undertook to demonstrate to the peasants the value of improved -methods of agriculture. He took up a strip of waste land at Birr, which -he called _Neuhof_ (‘new farm’), but within five years this experiment -also proved a lamentable failure. Meantime a son had been born to him, -whom he had undertaken to rear upon the basis of the _Emile_, and the -results, recorded in a _Father’s Journal_, suggested new ideas and -educational principles for the regeneration of the masses. He began to -hold that education did not consist merely in books and knowledge, and -that the children of the poor could, by proper training, be taught to -earn their living and at the same time develop their intelligence and -moral nature. - -[Sidenote: Scholastic instruction given while the children were -working.] - -=His Industrial School at Neuhof and the _Leonard and -Gertrude_.=--Hence the failure of his agricultural venture afforded -Pestalozzi the opportunity he craved to experiment with philanthropic -and industrial education. Toward the end of 1774 he took into his home -some twenty of the most needy children he could find. These he fed, -clothed, and treated as his own. He gave the boys practical instruction -in farming and gardening on small tracts, and had the girls trained in -domestic duties and needlework. In bad weather both sexes gave their -time to spinning and weaving cotton. They were also trained in the -rudiments, but were practiced in conversing and in memorizing the Bible -before learning to read and write. The scholastic instruction was given -very largely while they were working, and, although Pestalozzi had not -as yet learned to make any direct connection between the occupational -and the formal elements, this first attempt at an industrial education -made it evident that the two could be combined. Within a few months -there was a striking improvement in the physique, minds, and morals -of the children, as well as in the use of their hands. But Pestalozzi -was so enthusiastic over the success of his experiment that he greatly -increased the number of children, and by 1780 was reduced to bankruptcy. - -[Sidenote: After the school was closed, he published his views.] - -Nevertheless, his wider purpose of social reform by means of education -was not allowed to languish altogether, for a friend shortly persuaded -him to publish his views. His first production, _The Evening Hour of a -Hermit_, embodied most of the educational principles he afterward made -famous, but he was advised to put his thought into more popular form, -and soon wrote his highly successful story of _Leonard and Gertrude_ -(1781). This work, with subsequent additions, gives an account of the -degraded social conditions in the Swiss village of ‘Bonnal’ and the -changes wrought in them by one simple peasant woman. ‘Gertrude’ reforms -her drunkard husband, educates her children, and causes the whole -community to feel her influence and adopt her methods. When finally a -wise schoolmaster comes to the village, he learns from Gertrude the -proper conduct of the school and begs for her continued coöperation. -Then the government becomes interested, studies the improvements that -have taken place, and concludes that the whole country can be reformed -in no better way than by imitating Bonnal. - -[Sidenote: Having no other facilities, he instructed through -‘observation’ in] - -[Sidenote: morals,] - -[Sidenote: number, language, and other subjects,] - -=His School at Stanz and Beginning of His Observational Methods.=--In -1798 he was given an opportunity to carry on his philanthropic and -industrial ideals in education through the orphan home and school at -Stanz, of which he was put in charge. Here he found it impossible to -obtain any assistants, books, and materials, but he felt that none of -these conventional aids could be of service in the work he desired to -do. Hence he sought to instruct the children rather by experience and -observation than by abstract statements and words (Fig. 33). This was -the real beginning of his teaching through ‘observation,’ and, while -at Stanz he further developed his correlation of intellectual with -manual training, his observational methods were thereafter destined to -be more stressed. Religion and morals, for example, were never taught -by precepts, but through instances that arose in the lives of the -children he showed them the value of self-control, charity, sympathy, -and gratitude. In a similarly concrete way the pupils were instructed -in number and language work by means of objects, and in geography -and history by conversation rather than by books. While they did not -learn their natural history primarily from nature, they were taught -to corroborate what they had learned by their own observation. About -this method he said: “According to my experience, success depends -upon whether what is taught to children commends itself to them as -true through being closely connected with their own observation. As a -general rule, I attached little importance to the study of words, even -when explanations of the ideas they represented were given.” - -[Sidenote: reducing perception to its lowest terms.] - -In connection with his observational method, Pestalozzi at this time -began his attempt to reduce all perception to its lowest terms, ‘the A -B C of observation,’ as he afterward called it. It was while at Stanz, -for example, that he first adopted his well-known plan of teaching -children to read by means of exercises known as ‘syllabaries.’ These -joined the five vowels in succession to the different consonants,--‘ab, -eb, ib, ob, ub,’ and so on through all the consonants. From the -phonetic nature of German spelling, he was able to make the exercises -very simple, and thus to furnish a necessary practice in basal -syllables. In a similar way he hoped to simplify all education to such -an extent that schools would eventually become unnecessary, and that -each mother would be able to teach her children and continue her own -education at the same time. - -[Sidenote: Suspension of combination of industrial with intellectual -elements.] - -[Sidenote: ‘Syllabaries’ and other language exercises,] - -[Sidenote: arithmetic,] - -[Sidenote: geometry, and other studies.] - -=Continuation of His Methods at Burgdorf, and _How Gertrude Teaches -Her Children_.=--From these experiments and concrete methods that -Pestalozzi started at Stanz gradually developed all his educational -contributions. But before the close of a year he was forced by -circumstances to remove to Burgdorf. Here, on account of the social -position of many of his pupils, he had to suspend his experiment of -combining industrial with intellectual training, although, as will -later be seen, his special efforts in this direction were greatly -enlarged and perpetuated by Fellenberg. He now devoted himself to -his ‘A B C of observation,’ and further worked out and graduated his -‘syllabaries.’ Language exercises were also given his pupils by means -of examining the number, form, position, and color of the designs, -holes, and rents in the wall paper of the school, and expressing their -observations in longer and longer sentences, which they repeated after -him. For arithmetic he devised charts upon which were placed dots or -lines concretely representing each unit up to one hundred. By means of -this ‘table of units’ (Fig. 34), the pupil obtained a clear idea of -the meaning of the digits and the fundamental processes in arithmetic. -The children were also taught the elements of geometry by drawing -angles, lines, and curves, and the development of teaching history, -geography, and natural history by this method of observation was -likewise continued. - -[Sidenote: Success of the school.] - -[Sidenote: Principles in his _How Gertrude_.] - -Despite a want of system and errors in carrying out his method, -Pestalozzi seems to have produced remarkable results from the start. -Pupils poured in; a number of progressive teachers came to assist him; -many persons of prominence visited the school and made most favorable -reports upon its methods; and during the following three years and a -half the Pestalozzian views on education were systematically developed -and applied. While at Burgdorf also, he undertook a detailed statement -of his method by the publication of his _How Gertrude Teaches Her -Children_ (1801). This work does not mention Gertrude, but consists of -fifteen letters to his friend, Gessner. Like all of Pestalozzi’s works, -it is quite lacking in both plan and proportion, and is filled with -repetitions and digressions, but the following portion of the summary -of its principles, made by a biographer of Pestalozzi, may serve to -give an idea of his educational creed: - - “1. Observation is the foundation of instruction. - - “2. Language must be connected with observation. - - “3. The time for learning is not the time for judgment and - criticism. - - “4. In each branch, instruction must begin with the simplest - elements, and proceed gradually by following the child’s - development; that is, by a series of steps which are - psychologically connected. - - “5. A pause must be made at each stage of the instruction - sufficiently long for the child to get the new matter thoroughly - into his grasp and under his control. - - “6. Teaching must follow the path of development, and not that of - dogmatic exposition.” - -[Illustration: Fig. 33.--‘Father’ Pestalozzi at Stanz. (The orphan -school in the Ursuline convent).] - -[Illustration: Fig. 34.--The ‘table of units’ of Pestalozzi, copied by -Warren Colburn in the first edition (1821) of his _Mental Arithmetic_.] - -[Sidenote: Great prosperity.] - -[Sidenote: Syllabaries, and tables of units, fractions, and fractions -of fractions;] - -=The ‘Institute’ at Yverdon and the Culmination of the Pestalozzian -Methods.=--As a result of political changes, Pestalozzi was obliged -in 1805 to transfer his school to Yverdon. The ‘institute’ here -sprang into fame almost immediately, and increased in numbers and -prosperity for several years. Children were sent from great distances, -and teachers and visitors thronged there to learn and apply the new -principles at home. The work of the institute formed a continuation and -culmination of the observational methods started at Stanz and Burgdorf. -The simplification introduced through the ‘syllabaries’ and ‘table of -units’ was further elaborated. A ‘table of fractions’ was also devised -for teaching that subject concretely. It consisted of a series of -squares, which could be divided indefinitely and in different ways. -Some of the squares were whole, while others were divided horizontally -into two, three, or even ten equal parts. There was further developed a -‘table of fractions of fractions,’ or compound fractions, in which the -squares were divided, not only horizontally, but vertically, so that -the method of reducing two fractions to the same denominator might be -self-evident. - -[Sidenote: drawing,] - -[Sidenote: writing,] - -[Sidenote: and constructive geometry;] - -Further, in order to draw and write, the pupil was first taught the -simple elements of form. Objects, such as sticks or pencils, were -placed in different directions, and lines representing them were drawn -on the board or slate until all elementary forms, straight or curved, -were mastered. The pupils combined these elements, instead of copying -models, and were encouraged to design symmetrical and graceful figures. -This also paved the way for writing. The children wrote on their -slates, beginning with the easiest letters and gradually forming words -from them, but soon learned to write on paper with a pen. Writing was, -however, taught in connection with reading, although begun somewhat -later than that study. Constructive geometry was also learned through -drawing. The pupils were taught to distinguish, first vertical, -horizontal, oblique, and parallel lines; then they learned right, -acute, and obtuse angles, different kinds of triangles, quadrilaterals, -and other figures; and finally discovered at how many points a certain -number of straight lines may be made to cut one another, and how many -angles, triangles, and quadrilaterals can be formed. To make the matter -concrete, the figures were often cut out of cardboard or made into -models. - -[Sidenote: nature study and geography;] - -[Sidenote: and music.] - -In nature study, geography, and history the concrete observational work -was likewise continued. Trees, flowers, and birds were viewed, drawn, -and discussed. The pupils began in geography by acquiring the points of -the compass and relative positions, and from this knowledge observed -and described some familiar place. The valley of the Buron near at hand -was observed in detail and modeled upon long tables in clay brought -from its sides. Then the pupils were shown the map for the first time -and easily grasped the meaning of its symbols. His ideas on geography, -however, were more fully worked out by the scientist, Karl Ritter, -who had already been trained in principles similar to Pestalozzi’s -in Salzmann’s school at Schnepfenthal (see p. 228). Instead of the -“arbitrary and unmethodical collection of all facts ascertained to -exist throughout the earth,” which constituted the old ‘encyclopædic’ -type of geography, Ritter presented a work based on principles -indicated by the title,--_The Science of the Earth in Relation to -Nature and the History of Man_. Similarly, Pestalozzi’s method was -applied to music by his friend, Nägeli, a noted Swiss composer, who -began with the simplest tone elements and then combined and developed -these progressively into more complex and connected wholes. - -[Sidenote: Analogy with the development of the tree.] - -[Sidenote: Universal education.] - -=Pestalozzi’s Educational Aim and Organization.=--From the beginning -of his work, Pestalozzi held that “all the beneficent powers of man -are due to neither art nor chance, but to nature,” and that education -should follow “the course laid down by nature.” So in all his works -he constantly returns to the analogy of the child’s development -with that of the natural growth of the plant or tree. He even holds -that “the whole tree is an uninterrupted chain of organic parts, -the plan of which existed in its seed and root,” and that “man is -similar to the tree.” Consequently, he defines education as “the -natural, progressive, and harmonious development of all the powers -and capacities of the human being.” This belief in the observance of -development from within is in keeping with the naturalism of Rousseau, -but that reformer viewed it chiefly from the negative side, and failed -to make his educational doctrine concrete and explicit and to apply it -to the school. Pestalozzi further modified and extended the Rousselian -doctrine by recommending its application to all children, whatever -their circumstances and abilities. Where Rousseau evidently had only -the young aristocrat in mind in the education of Emile, Pestalozzi -held that poverty could be relieved and society reformed only through -ridding each and every one of his degradation by means of mental and -moral development. Accordingly, he was the stanch advocate of universal -education. - -[Sidenote: Clear ideas only through sense perceptions,] - -[Sidenote: reduced to simplest terms, and expressed in words.] - -=His General Method.=--Pestalozzi’s general method of giving free play -to this natural development of the powers of all and so for reforming -social conditions was to train his pupils through ‘observation.’ He -felt that clear ideas could be formed only by means of careful sense -perceptions, and he was thoroughly opposed to the mechanical memorizing -with little understanding that was current in the schools of the day. -His method in general consisted in analyzing each subject into its -simplest elements, or ‘A B C,’ and developing it by graded exercises -based as far as possible upon the study of objects rather than words. -Yet Pestalozzi felt that “experiences must be clearly expressed in -words, or otherwise there arises the same danger that characterizes -the dominant word teaching,--that of attributing entirely erroneous -ideas to words.” Accordingly, as shown in the summary of _How Gertrude -Teaches Her Children_ (see p. 282), in all instruction he would connect -language with ‘observation.’ The special applications of this general -method that were worked out by him and his followers in the most -common subjects of the curriculum have been described in detail in the -account of his work at Stanz, Burgdorf, and Yverdon, and do not require -repetition here. - -[Sidenote: Unoriginal, unpractical, inconsistent, wanting in science -and organization;] - -=The Permanent Influence of Pestalozzi.=--It is easy to exaggerate -the achievements of this almost sainted reformer of Switzerland. -Pestalozzi’s methods were neither very original nor well carried out. -His chief merit lay in developing and making positive the suggestions -offered by Rousseau, and in utilizing them in the work of the schools. -Even in this he failed somewhat in practicality and consistency. -Moreover, Pestalozzi was groping and never possessed full vision. He -did not grasp definite educational principles in a scientific way, but, -like Rousseau, obtained his ideas of teaching from sympathetic insight -into the minds of children. His writings for the most part record -his empirical efforts at an effective training, and are revelations -of methods of teaching in the concrete rather than the abstract. His -works are also poorly arranged and inaccurate, and there was little -organization or order in his schools. - -[Sidenote: but sought to elevate society by education,] - -But all these deficiencies are of small import when compared with -Pestalozzi’s influence upon society and education. In the eighteenth -century caste ruled through wealth and education, while the masses, -who supported the owners of the land in idleness and luxury, were sunk -in ignorance, poverty, and vice. The schools for the common people -were exceedingly few, the content of education was largely limited -by ecclesiastical authority, and the methods were traditional and -verbal. The teachers generally had received little training, and were -selected at random. Ordinarily the pay was wretched, no lodgings were -provided for the teacher, and he had often to add domestic service -to his duties, in order to secure food and clothing. In the midst of -such conditions appeared this most famous of modern educators, who -never ceased to work for the reformation of society. As Voltaire, -Rousseau, and others had held that the panacea for the corrupt times -was rationalism, atheism, deism, socialism, anarchy, or individualism, -Pestalozzi found his remedy in education. Like Rousseau, he keenly felt -the injustice, unnaturalness, and degradation of the existing society, -but he was not content to stop with mere destruction and negations. He -saw what education might do to purify social conditions and to elevate -the people by intellectual, moral, and industrial training, and he -longed to apply it universally and to develop methods in keeping with -nature. - -[Sidenote: and was the progenitor of all modern pedagogy.] - -Pestalozzi’s achievements contained the germ of modern pedagogy, as -well as of educational reform. It was he that stimulated educational -theorists, instead of accepting formal principles and traditional -processes, to work out carefully and patiently the development of the -child mind and to embody the results in practice. From him have come -the prevailing reforms in the present teaching of language lessons, -arithmetic, drawing, writing, reading, geography, elementary science, -and music. In harmony with his improved methods, Pestalozzi also -started a different type of discipline. His work made clear the new -spirit in the school by which it has approached the atmosphere of the -home. He found the proper relation of pupil and teacher to exist in -sympathy and friendship, or, as he states it, in ‘love.’ This attitude, -which appears so fully in his kindly treatment of the poor children at -Neuhof and Stanz (Fig. 33), constituted the greatest contrast to that -of the brutal schools of the times, and introduced a new conception -into education. - -[Sidenote: Switzerland,] - -=The Spread of Pestalozzian Schools and Methods through Europe.=--The -‘observational’ methods of Pestalozzi and institutions similar to his -were soon spread by his assistants and others throughout Europe. -Strange to say, as a result of their familiarity with his weaknesses -and the conservatism resulting from isolation, the Swiss were, as a -whole, rather slow to incorporate the Pestalozzian improvements. In -Zurich, however, Zeller of Würtemberg, who had visited Burgdorf and -had helped conduct a Pestalozzian training school, was early invited -to give three courses of lectures in aid of the establishment of a -teachers’ seminary based upon the principles of Pestalozzi. Krüsi, -after leaving the institute at Yverdon, also founded a number of -schools and carried Pestalozzianism into various parts of Switzerland. -And other disciples eventually started or reorganized schools in -various parts of Switzerland. - -[Sidenote: Prussia] - -But the Pestalozzian reforms in method secured their best hold -upon Germany. The innovations were most remarkable in Prussia, and -the elementary education there has come to be referred to as the -‘Prussian-Pestalozzian school system.’ By the opening of the nineteenth -century Pestalozzianism began to find its way into that state. In -1801 the appeal of Pestalozzi for a public subscription in behalf -of his project at Burgdorf was warmly supported. In 1802 Herbart’s -account of _Pestalozzi’s Idea of an A B C of Observation_ (see p. -337) attracted much attention. A representative was sent from Prussia -to Burgdorf to report upon the new system in 1803. Meanwhile the -Pestalozzian missionaries were fast converting the land. Plamann, -who had visited Burgdorf, in 1805 established a Pestalozzian school -in Berlin, and published several books applying the new methods to -language, geography, and natural history. Zeller lectured to large -audiences at Königsberg, and organized a Pestalozzian orphanage -there. A similar institution for educating orphans was opened at -Potsdam by Türck. In 1808, two of Pestalozzi’s pupils, Nicolovius and -Süvern, were made directors of public instruction in Prussia, and sent -seventeen brilliant young men to Yverdon to study for three years. -Upon their return these vigorous youthful educators zealously advanced -the cause. The greatest impulse, however, was given the movement by -the philosopher, Fichte, who was ardently supported by King Frederick -William III, and even more by the noble queen, Louise. They held that -only through these advanced educational principles could a restoration -of the territory and prestige lost to Napoleon at Jena be effected. - -[Sidenote: and the rest of Germany,] - -A similar spirit animated the other states of Germany, and Bavaria, -Detmold, and other states early undertook to introduce the new -principles. Everywhere in Germany the greatest enthusiasm prevailed -among teachers, state officials, and princes. Thus in place of the -reading, singing, and memorizing of texts, songs, and catechism, under -the direction of incompetent choristers and sextons, with unsanitary -buildings and brutal punishment, all Germany has come to have in each -village an institution for training real men and women. Each school -is under the guidance of a devoted, humane, and trained teacher, and -the methods in religion, reading, arithmetic, history, geography, and -elementary science are vitalized and interesting. - -[Sidenote: France,] - -In France the spread of Pestalozzianism was at first prevented by -the military spirit of the time and by the apathy in education, -and later, when the reaction occurred, the schools came under -ecclesiastical control and had little influence upon the people. -Nevertheless, there were evidences of interest in the new doctrines. -General Jullien came to Yverdon to study the methods, and issued two -commendatory reports, which induced some thirty French pupils to go to -Pestalozzi’s institute. Chavannes also published a treatise upon the -Pestalozzian methods in 1805. These efforts, however, had little effect -upon education, and the Pestalozzian principles did not make much -headway in France up to the revolution of 1830. After that time they -rapidly became popular, especially through Victor Cousin. This famous -professor, who was later minister of public instruction, issued in 1835 -a _Report on the State of Public Instruction in Prussia_, which showed -the great merit of Pestalozzianism in the elementary schools of that -country. - -[Sidenote: and England.] - -In England the influence of Pestalozzi was large, but the use made of -his methods was not altogether happy. The private school opened by -Mayo after his return from Yverdon employed object teaching in several -subjects, and a popular text-book, entitled _Lessons on Objects_, -was written by his sister. This book of Elizabeth Mayo consisted of -encyclopædic lessons on the arts and sciences arranged in a definite -series, and much beyond the comprehension of children from six to eight -years old, for whom it was intended. Together with several texts of a -similar sort, it had a wide influence in formalizing object teaching -and spreading it rapidly. The Mayos were also interested in infant -schools, and when they helped organize ‘The Home and Colonial School -Society’ in 1836, they combined the Pestalozzian methods with those of -the infant school (see p. 246). Through the model and training schools -of this society, formalized Pestalozzianism was extended through -England and America. - -[Sidenote: McClure and Neef.] - -=Pestalozzianism in the United States.=--Pestalozzianism began to -appear in the United States as early as the first decade of the -nineteenth century. It was introduced not only from the original -centers in Switzerland, but indirectly in the form it had assumed in -Germany, France, England, and other countries. The instances of its -appearance were sporadic and seem to have been but little connected at -any time. The earliest presentation was that made from the treatise -of Chavannes in 1805 by William McClure. By this and other articles, -McClure did much to make the new principles known in the United States, -and in 1806 he induced Joseph Neef, a former assistant of Pestalozzi, -to come to America and become his “master’s apostle in the New World.” -Neef maintained an institution at Philadelphia for three years and -afterward founded and taught schools in other parts of the country. But -his imperfect acquaintance with English and with American character -and his frequent migrations prevented his personal influence from -being greatly felt, and the two excellent works that he published upon -applications of the Pestalozzian methods were given scant attention. - -[Sidenote: Griscom,] - -[Sidenote: Brooks,] - -[Sidenote: the Alcotts,] - -[Sidenote: Colburn,] - -[Sidenote: Guyot,] - -[Sidenote: Parker,] - -[Sidenote: and Lowell Mason.] - -A large variety of literature, describing the new education, and -translating the accounts of Chavannes, Jullien, Cousin, and a number of -the German educationalists, was also published in educational journals, -which were just beginning to appear in the United States (see p. 304). -Returned travelers, like Professor John Griscom (see p. 305) published -accounts of their visits and experiences at Yverdon and Burgdorf, -such lecturers as the Reverend Charles Brooks began to suggest the -new principles as a remedy for our educational deficiencies, and -educational reformers, like the Alcotts, began to show the Pestalozzian -spirit in their schools. Pestalozzi’s objective methods and the oral -instruction resulting from them were used in various subjects by a -number of educators. For example, the methods advocated in arithmetic -were introduced into America by Warren Colburn. He spread ‘mental -arithmetic’ throughout the country, and in his famous _First Lessons in -Arithmetic on the Plan of Pestalozzi_, published first in 1821, he even -printed the ‘table of units’ (Fig. 34). The Pestalozzi-Ritter method -in geography was early presented in the United States through the -institute lectures and text-books of Arnold Guyot, who had been a pupil -of Ritter and came to America from Switzerland in 1848. The promotion -of geographic method along the same lines was later more successfully -performed by Francis Wayland Parker, who had studied with Guyot, in his -training of teachers and his work on _How to Teach Geography_. Colonel -Parker has also had several successful pupils, who are to-day largely -continuing the Pestalozzian tradition. The Pestalozzian method in music -was brought into the Boston schools and elsewhere about 1836 by Lowell -Mason, who was influenced by the works of Nägeli. - -[Sidenote: Mann and his _Seventh Annual Report_;] - -[Sidenote: Sheldon and the Oswego ‘object lessons.’] - -The most influential propaganda of the Pestalozzian doctrines in -general, however, came through the account of the German school methods -in the _Seventh Annual Report_ (1843) of Horace Mann (see p. 308), -and through the inauguration of the ‘Oswego methods’ by Dr. Edward -A. Sheldon. Mann spoke most enthusiastically of the success of the -Prussian-Pestalozzian system of education and hinted at the need of -a radical reform along the same lines in America. The report caused a -great sensation, and was bitterly combated by conservative sentiment -throughout the country, but the suggested reforms were largely -effected. Dr. Sheldon, on the other hand, caught his Pestalozzian -inspiration from Toronto, Canada, where he became acquainted with the -formalized methods of the Mayos through publications of the Home and -Colonial School Society (see p. 291). He resolved to introduce the -principles of Pestalozzi into the Oswego schools, of which he was at -that time superintendent, and in 1861 secured from the society in -London an instructor to train his teachers in these methods. There was -some criticism of the Oswego methods on the ground of formalism, but as -a whole they were pronounced a success, and in 1865 the Oswego training -school was made a state institution. This was the first normal school -in the United States where ‘object lessons’ were the chief feature, but -a large number of other normal schools upon the same basis sprang up -rapidly in many states, and the Oswego methods crept into the training -schools and the public systems of numerous cities. As a consequence, -during the third quarter of the nineteenth century, Pestalozzianism, -though somewhat formalized, had a prevailing influence upon the -teachers and courses of the elementary schools in the United States. - -[Sidenote: Estate at Hofwyl to train Pestalozzian teachers.] - -=Pestalozzi’s Industrial Training Continued by Fellenberg.=--Such was -the wide influence of Pestalozzi upon education. But while throughout -his work he continued to make new applications of his observational -methods, his principle of combining industrial training with -intellectual education, which he had begun so successfully at Neuhof -and Stanz, could not be continued at Burgdorf. His pupils there came -chiefly from aristocratic families and were not obliged to support -themselves by manual labor. However, Pestalozzi still hoped to save -enough of the income from the school payments of the rich to found a -small agricultural school for the poor on this plan and connect it with -the ‘institute,’ and while this institution was never started, the -opportunity for carrying out his aim came through his friend, Emanuel -von Fellenberg (1771-1844). Fellenberg belonged to a noble family -of Berne, but, like Pestalozzi, he believed that an amelioration of -the wretched moral and economic conditions in Switzerland should be -accomplished by education. To secure the means for an experiment in -this direction, he persuaded his father to purchase for him an estate -of six hundred acres at Hofwyl, just nine miles from Burgdorf. Here -Pestalozzi urged him to undertake his favorite idea of industrial -education, and in 1806, with the aid of Zeller (see p. 289), who had -been sent him by Pestalozzi, he opened a school to train teachers in -the Pestalozzian method. - -[Sidenote: Combination of observational work and industrial training in -the ‘agricultural institute;’] - -=The Agricultural School and Other Institutions at Hofwyl.=--Fellenberg -especially desired, however, to combine Pestalozzi’s observational work -and his older principle of industrial training in an ‘agricultural -institute’ for poor boys. This plan was not fully realized until 1808, -when he secured the enthusiastic Jacob Wehrli as an assistant. The -work was so arranged that each old pupil, as fast as he was trained, -took charge of a newer one as an apprentice, and the school from the -first became a sort of family. The chief feature of the institute -was agricultural occupations, including drainage and irrigation, -but, from the requirements of farm life, it was natural to train also -cartmakers, blacksmiths, carpenters, locksmiths, shoemakers, tailors, -mechanics, and workers in wood, iron, and leather. Workshops for these -industries were established upon the estate, and the pupils in the -agricultural institute were enabled to select a training in a wide -range of employments, without neglecting book instruction (Fig. 35). -By this means, too, they could support themselves by their labor while -being educated. Through the institute also, a considerable number -of the pupils were trained to be directors of similar institutions, -or to become rural school-teachers. Fellenberg thought it important -that all who were to teach in the common schools should have a -thorough acquaintance with the practical labor of a farm, the means of -self-support, and the life and habits of the majority of their pupils. - -[Sidenote: the ‘literary institute’ for the wealthy;] - -[Sidenote: school for poor girls, and ‘real school’ for the middle -classes.] - -But the work of Fellenberg did not stop there. From the beginning he -had felt that the wealthy should understand and be more in sympathy -with the laboring classes, and learn how to direct their work more -intelligently. Hence he began very early an agricultural course for -landowners, and many young men of the wealthy classes came to show a -striking interest in his deep-soil ploughing, draining, irrigation, and -other means of educating the poor. But these wealthier youths remained -at the institute so short a time that he could not extend his ideals -very widely. To retain them longer at Hofwyl, in 1809 he opened a -‘literary institute,’ which, besides the usual academic studies, used -Pestalozzi’s object lessons and strove to develop physical activities. -Moreover, the pupils in the literary institute had to cultivate -gardens, work on the farm, engage in carpentering, turning, and other -mechanical occupations, and in many ways come into touch and mutual -understanding with the poorer boys in the agricultural institute. The -wealthy learned to dignify labor, and the poor, instead of envying -those in the higher stations of life, became friendly and desirous of -coöperating with them. Eventually there arose an independent community -of youth, managing its own affairs outside of school, arranging its -own occupations, games, and tours, choosing its own officers, and -making its own laws. Within this little world was provided a training -for society at large, with its various classes, associations, and -corporations, which Fellenberg seems to have regarded as divinely -ordained. Likewise, in 1823, a school for poor girls was opened by -his wife, and four years later he started a ‘real,’ or practical, -school for the middle classes, which was intermediate between the two -‘institutes.’ - -[Sidenote: Switzerland,] - -[Sidenote: Germany,] - -[Sidenote: France, and England.] - -=Industrial Training in the Schools of Europe.=--The educational -institutions of Fellenberg (Fig. 36) were well managed and proved -very successful, and the idea of education through industrial -training spread rapidly. While, after the death of Fellenberg in -1844, the schools at Hofwyl gradually declined, various types of -industrial education everywhere came to supplement academic courses, -and extend the work of the school to a larger number of pupils. -Thus the tendency of modern civilization to care for the education -of the poor, the defective, and the delinquent through industrial -training has sprung from the philanthropic spirit of Pestalozzi and -his practical collaborator, Fellenberg, and has become apparent in -all advanced countries. Industrial institutions rapidly increased -in Switzerland, beginning in 1816 with the school in the neighboring -district of Meykirch. In 1832 a cantonal teachers’ association was -formed at Berne, with Fellenberg as president and Wehrli as vice -president, and every canton soon had its ‘farm school.’ Industrial -training was also introduced into most of the Swiss normal schools. -In Germany the industrial work suggested by Pestalozzi and Fellenberg -came into successful operation in many of the orphanages and most -of the reform schools. Later, industrial education was taken up by -the _Fortbildungsschulen_ (‘continuation schools’) of the regular -system (see p. 420). At the reform and continuation schools of France -industrial training has long formed the distinctive element in the -course. Educators and statesmen of England likewise early commended the -work of Fellenberg, and industrial training shortly found a foot-hold -in various technical and reform schools of that country. - -[Sidenote: ‘Manual labor’ institutions.] - -=Industrial Institutions in the United States.=--The industrial work -of the Pestalozzi-Fellenberg system also began to appear in the United -States about the close of the first quarter of the nineteenth century. -After that, for twenty years or so, there sprang up a large number -of institutions of secondary or higher grade with ‘manual labor’ -features in addition to the literary work. The primary object of -the industrial work in these institutions was to enable students to -earn their way through school or college and at the same time secure -physical exercise. It was the first serious academic recognition of -the need of a ‘sound mind in a sound body,’ and did much to overcome -the prevailing tendency of students toward tuberculosis and to furnish -a sane substitute for the escapades and pranks in which college -life abounded. The first of these manual labor institutions were -established in the New England and Middle states between 1820 and -1830, but within a dozen years the manual labor system was adopted in -theological schools, colleges, and academies from Maine to Tennessee. -The success of this feature at Andover Theological Seminary, where it -was begun in 1826 for ‘invigorating and preserving health, without -any reference to pecuniary profit,’ was especially influential in -causing it to be extended. The ‘Society for Promoting Manual Labor -in Literary Institutions,’ founded in 1831, appointed a general -agent to visit the chief colleges in the Middle West and South, call -attention to the value of manual labor, and issue a report upon the -subject. Little attention, however, was given to the pedagogical -principles underlying this work. As material conditions improved and -formal social life developed, the impracticability of the scheme was -realized, and the industrial side of these institutions was given up. -The physical exercise phase was then replaced by college athletics. By -1840-1850 most of the schools and colleges that began as ‘manual labor -institutes’ had become purely literary. - - -FELLENBERG’S INSTITUTIONS AT HOFWYL - -[Illustration: Fig. 35.--Court of the Agricultural Institute.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 36.--General view of all the schools and workshops. - -(Reproduced by permission from Monroe’s _Cyclopedia of Education_.)] - -[Sidenote: Industrial education for racial problems, prison reform,] - -[Sidenote: defectives and delinquents,] - -[Sidenote: and efficiency of the public system.] - -A further movement in industrial education has been found in the -establishment of such schools as Carlisle, Hampton, and Tuskegee, which -adopted this training as a solution for peculiar racial problems. But -the original idea of Pestalozzi, to secure redemption through manual -labor, has been embodied in American institutions since 1873, when Miss -Mary Carpenter, the English prison reformer, visited the United States. -Contract labor and factory work in the reformatories then began to be -replaced by farming, gardening, and kindred domestic industries. At the -present time, moreover, the schools for delinquents and defectives in -the New England, Middle Atlantic, Middle West, and most of the Southern -states, have the Fellenberg training, though without much grasp of the -educational principles involved. Finally, there has also been a growing -tendency in the twentieth century to employ industrial training or -trade education for the sake of holding pupils longer in school and -increasing the efficiency of the public system. In so far as it has -tended to replace the more general values of manual training, once so -popular, with skill in some particular industrial process, this modern -movement represents a return from the occupational work started by -Froebel to the philanthropic practice of Fellenberg and Pestalozzi. - - -SUPPLEMENTARY READING - -Graves, _In Modern Times_ (Macmillan, 1913), chap. V; and _Great -Educators_ (Macmillan, 1912), chap. IX; Monroe, _Textbook_ (Macmillan, -1905), pp. 597-622; Parker, _Modern Elementary Education_ (Ginn, 1912), -chaps. XIII-XVI. The _Leonard and Gertrude_ has been well arranged -for English readers in the edition of Eva Channing (Heath, 1896) and -_How Gertrude Teaches Her Children_ has been translated by Lucy E. -Holland and Frances C. Turner (Bardeen, 1898). The standard English -treatises on Pestalozzi are Guimps, R. de, _Pestalozzi, His Aim and -Work_ (Appleton, 1890); Holman, H., _Pestalozzi_ (Longmans, 1908); -Krüsi, H., _Pestalozzi, His Life, Work, and Influence_ (American Book -Co., 1875); Pinloche, A., _Pestalozzi and the Foundation of the Modern -Elementary School_ (Scribner, 1901), and, more recently, Green, J. A., -_Life and Work of Pestalozzi_ (Clive, London, 1913) and _Pestalozzi’s -Educational Writings_ (Longmans, Green, 1912). Monroe, W. S., has -furnished an interesting _History of the Pestalozzian Movement in the -United States_ (Bardeen, 1907). _The Institutions of De Fellenberg_ -were fully described by King, W. (London, 1842); and by Barnard, H., -in his _American Journal of Education_, vol. III, pp. 591-596; XIII, -323-331; and XXVI, 359-368. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIII - -DEVELOPMENT OF PUBLIC EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES - - -OUTLINE - - During the second quarter of the nineteenth century a third - period in the educational history of America, marked by further - democratization and a great expansion of public education, appeared. - - It began with an awakening generally known as ‘the revival of - common schools,’ which was most noticeable in New England. Here, - owing to the attacks made upon him by reactionaries, Horace Mann - was the most conspicuous reformer; while Henry Barnard, through his - _American Journal of Education_, enabled educators to look beyond - the educational experience of America. But the influence of this - awakening was also felt in every other section of the United States. - - It was followed by a steady growth in universal education, state - support and control, local supervision, and the organization of - normal schools in New England and the Middle states. - - In the Northwest, common school advocates overcame the opposition - of settlers from states not committed to public education, and - in the further expansion of the United States progress in common - school sentiment has kept pace with the settlement of the country. - - The South made considerable progress during the early years of - the awakening, and while the Civil War crushed its educational - facilities, the struggle for public education has since been won. - -[Sidenote: Development of democratic ideals and extension of state -systems of schools.] - -=The Third Period in American Education.=--Interest in the improved -methods of Pestalozzi and other reformers that was manifesting itself -everywhere in the United States during the second quarter of the -nineteenth century seems to have been but one phase of a much larger -movement. It was about this time that a third period in American -education, which was marked by the development of democratic ideals and -the extension of state systems of public schools, may be said to have -begun. During the period of ‘transition,’ we found (chap. XXI), half -a dozen of the states had started an organization of common schools, -and in a dozen others permanent school funds had been established, an -influential minority of leading citizens were constantly advocating -universal education, and public interest in the matter was evidently -increasing. But the consummation of a regular system was still much -hindered by sectarian jealousies, by the conception of public schools -as institutions for paupers and the consequent custom of allowing -private schools to share in public funds, by the unwillingness of the -wealthy to be taxed locally for the benefit of other people’s children, -and, in New England, by the division of the system into autonomous -districts and the interference of petty politics. Hence, while much -progress had been made since the early days of ‘transplantation’ -of European ideals and institutions, there was still much need of -the expansion and further democratization that now began to appear. -Of the rapid development that took place during this final period -of Americanization, much was accomplished before the middle of the -nineteenth century, but educational progress continued through the -final decade. - -[Sidenote: Storm center of ‘revival’ in Massachusetts and Connecticut.] - -[Sidenote: Efforts to establish a training institution.] - -=Early Leaders in the Common School Revival.=--The educational -awakening with which the beginning of this third period seems to be -marked, has been generally known as ‘the common school revival.’ It -first became evident during the latter part of the decade between 1830 -and 1840, and had its storm center in Massachusetts and Connecticut. -While it greatly furthered the cause of public education everywhere, -because of the decadence into which New England had fallen, the demand -for an educational awakening was strongest there. In this revival -the most conspicuous figure was probably Horace Mann, but there were -several leaders in the field before him, many were contemporaneous, and -the work was expanded and deepened by others of distinction long after -he withdrew from the scene. For a score of years before Mann appeared, -definite preparation for the movement had been in progress, and the -labors of the individuals and associations engaged in these endeavors -should be briefly noted. Many of the reformers seem to have recommended -an improvement in methods through the creation of an institution for -training teachers, thus anticipating one of the greatest achievements -of Mann. Actual attempts at a private normal school were even made -by the Reverend Samuel R. Hall at Concord, Vermont (1823), Andover, -Massachusetts (1830), and Plymouth, New Hampshire (1837). - -[Sidenote: Articles in educational journals.] - -[Sidenote: Reports on European education.] - -A number of educational journals, moreover, published articles -on schoolbooks, the methods of Lancaster, Pestalozzi, Neef, and -Fellenberg, the infant and Sunday schools, physical education, -European school systems, and a variety of other timely topics and -reforms. Among these progressive publications were the _American -Journal of Education_, edited by William Russell from 1826-1830, -and then continued from 1831 to 1839, as the _American Annals of -Education_ under the editorship of William C. Woodbridge, and the -_Quarterly Register_, published 1828-1843 by the ‘American Educational -Society.’ The latest European ideas were also reported from first-hand -observation by a number who had gone abroad to investigate. The most -influential of these reports was _A Year in Europe_, written in 1819 by -Professor John Griscom (see p. 292), who was a lecturer before several -New York associations, including the Public School Society. Almost as -widely read were the reports of William C. Woodbridge in 1824, and of -Professor Calvin E. Stowe of Lane Theological Seminary, Cincinnati, in -1836. - -[Sidenote: Advocated normal schools,] - -[Sidenote: and secured town school committees,] - -[Sidenote: support of high schools,] - -[Sidenote: and the State Board of Education.] - -=Work of James G. Carter.=--All these movements indicate the -educational ferment that was going on. But the predecessor of Mann, -who accomplished most for the common schools, and influenced that -reformer most directly, was James G. Carter (1795-1849). Carter (Fig. -37) was a practical teacher and wrote continually on the need of a -training institution to improve instruction in the public schools. -These appeals proved very successful, and earned him the title of -‘father of the normal schools.’ After being elected to the legislature, -he accomplished much by his zeal and skill in parliamentary tactics. -In 1826 he secured an act by which each town as a whole was required -to choose a regular committee, instead of the ministers and selectmen, -to supervise the schools, choose text-books, and examine, certify, -and employ the teachers. But the effect of this enactment was largely -lost the following year by allowing the districts, as a compromise, -to choose a committeeman, who should appoint the teachers. In 1826 he -placed secondary education, then largely conducted by academies, more -under public control through a law requiring each town of five hundred -families to support a free English high school (Fig. 41), and every one -of four thousand inhabitants to maintain a classical high school. Next, -in 1834, Carter succeeded in getting a state school fund established -from the proceeds of the sale of lands in the province of Maine and the -state’s claims against the federal government for military services. -But his most fruitful victory was won in 1837, when he procured the -passage of the bill for a State Board of Education, after it had been -once defeated, by inducing the house to discuss it in ‘committee of the -whole.’ - -[Sidenote: Peculiarly fitted by heredity and training.] - -=Horace Mann as Secretary of the Massachusetts Board.=--By reason -of his merits as an educator, his persistent efforts in behalf of -educational reform, and his advocacy of the bill, it was assumed by -most people that Carter would be chosen secretary of the new board. To -their surprise, a lawyer named Horace Mann (1796-1859), at that time -president of the senate, was selected for the post, but the choice is -now known to have been most fortunate. By both heredity and training -Mann (Fig. 38) was suffused with an interest in humanity and all -phases of philanthropy and education. He possessed a happy combination -of lofty ideals, intelligence, courage, enthusiasm, and legislative -experience, which equipped him admirably for leadership in educational -reform. The law proposed for the new Board of Education numerous -duties in the way of collecting and spreading information concerning -the common schools and of making suggestions for the improvement and -extension of public education, but it provided no real powers, and the -permanence and influence of the board depended almost wholly upon the -intelligence and character of the new Secretary. - -[Sidenote: Effected his reforms by educational campaigns,] - -[Sidenote: _Annual Reports_,] - -[Sidenote: _School Journal_,] - -[Sidenote: school libraries,] - -[Sidenote: and state normal schools.] - -During his twelve years in the office, Mann subserved the interests of -the state most faithfully. To awaken the people, he made an educational -campaign through every portion of the state each year, but an even more -effective means of disseminating his reforms was found in his series -of _Annual Reports_. These documents were by law to give information -concerning existing conditions and the progress made in the efficiency -of public education each year, and they deal with practically every -educational topic of importance at the time. Sometimes they seem -commonplace, but it must be remembered that they were not so then, and -that the work of Mann did much to render them familiar. They vitally -affected school conditions everywhere in New England, and were read -with great interest in all parts of the United States, and even in -Europe. He also published semi-monthly the _Massachusetts Common School -Journal_, to spread information concerning school improvement, school -law, and the proceedings of the State Board. But it consisted of only -sixteen pages, and was not as valuable as some of the educational -journals that had preceded it (see pp. 304 f.). Another medium in the -improvement of educational facilities was Mann’s general establishment -of school libraries by state subsidy throughout Massachusetts. But -probably the most permanent means of propagating his reforms came -through securing the foundation of the first public normal schools in -this country. Massachusetts was in 1838 induced to establish three -schools, so located that all parts of the state might be equally -served. The course in each school consisted in a review of the common -branches from the teaching point of view, work in educational theory, -and training in a practice school under supervision, and, while not -largely attended, these institutions were a great success from the -start. - -[Sidenote: Opposed by Boston schoolmasters,] - -[Sidenote: the ultra-orthodox, and other reactionaries.] - -The arduous and unremitting labors of Mann in instituting and promoting -the various means of school reform made the greatest inroad upon his -strength and financial resources. Moreover, he was for years violently -assailed by reactionaries of all types. His controversy with the Boston -schoolmasters was especially sharp. Mann’s _Seventh Annual Report_ -(1843) gave an account of his visit to foreign schools, especially -those of Germany, and praised with great warmth the ‘Pestalozzian’ (see -p. 289) instruction without text-books, the enthusiastic teachers, -the absence of artificial rivalry, and the mild discipline in the -Prussian system. The report did not stigmatize the conservatism of the -Boston schools or bring them into comparison with those of Berlin, -but the cap fitted. The pedagogues were disquieted, and proceeded to -answer savagely. But when the smoke of battle had cleared away, it was -seen that the leaders of the old order had been completely routed. -A more insidious attack was that led by the ultra-orthodox. The old -schools of the Puritans, with their dogmatic religious teaching, had -been steadily fading for more than a century before the new board had -been inaugurated, but many narrow people were inclined to charge this -disappearance to the reformer, whose liberal attitude in religion was -well known. The assaults, however, were vigorously and successfully -repelled by the Secretary. And while these controversies wore Mann out -and probably led ultimately to his resignation, they had much to do -with making his reputation as a great educator. They have even caused -us at times to forget that he was but a striking figure in a general -movement. Men like Carter were in the field long before him, and his -co-worker, Barnard, served the cause of education for nearly half a -century after Mann withdrew. - -[Sidenote: Universal and free education,] - -[Sidenote: with character as chief aim;] - -[Sidenote: material equipment,] - -[Sidenote: scientific methods,] - -[Sidenote: trained teachers,] - -[Sidenote: and practical studies.] - -=The Educational Suggestions and Achievements of Mann.=--In surveying -his educational positions, we find Mann’s foremost proposition was -that education should be universal and free. Girls should be trained -as well as boys, and the poor should have the same opportunities as -the rich. Public schools should furnish education of such a quality -that the wealthy would not regard private institutions as superior. -This universal education, however, should have as its chief aim moral -character and social efficiency, and not mere erudition, culture, and -accomplishments. And morality, he felt, would not be accomplished -by inculcating sectarian doctrines. Mann was, however, mainly a -practical, rather than a theoretical reformer, and to the material -side of education he gave serious attention. He declared that school -buildings should be well constructed and sanitary. This matter seemed -to him so important that he wrote a special report upon the subject -during his first year in office. He carefully discussed the proper -plans for rooms, ventilation, lighting, seating, and other schoolhouse -features, and insisted that the inadequate and squalid conditions -which existed should be improved. As to methods, he maintained that -instruction should be based upon scientific principles, and not upon -authority and tradition. He advocated the word method of reading, in -the place of the uneconomical, artificial, and ineffective method of -the alphabet, and the Pestalozzian object methods and oral instruction -were introduced by him. He held that the work should be guided by -able teachers, who had been trained in a normal school, and should be -imparted in a spirit of mildness and kindness through an understanding -of child nature. In the matter of the studies to be pursued, Mann was -inclined to be exceedingly practical. In discussing educational values, -he failed to see any reason “why algebra, a branch which not one man -in a thousand ever has occasion to use in the business of life, should -be studied by more than twenty-three hundred pupils, and bookkeeping, -which every man, even the day laborer, should understand, should be -attended to by only a little more than half that number.” Similarly, -he holds that of all subjects, save the rudiments, physiology should -receive the most attention. - -[Sidenote: Doubled appropriations for public education; increased -salaries, length of the school year, and the number of high schools;] - -[Sidenote: and effected other reforms.] - -In order that these various reforms might be realized, Mann insisted -frequently that the state should spare no labor or expense. But in a -republic he felt that “education can never be attained without the -consent of the whole people.” It was a general elevation of ideals, -effort, and expenditure that he sought, and for which he began his -crusade. And the general progress that resulted in this period covers -a wide range. During his secretaryship the appropriations made for -public education in Massachusetts were more than doubled, and the -proportion of expenditure for private schools in the state was, in -consequence, reduced from seventy-five to thirty-six per cent of the -total cost of education. The salaries of masters in the public schools -were raised sixty-two per cent, and, although the number of women -teachers had grown fifty-four per cent, the average of their salaries -also increased fifty-one per cent. The school attendance enormously -expanded, and a full month was added to the average school year. When -Mann’s administration began, but fourteen out of forty-three towns had -complied with the high school law of 1826, but, by the middle of the -century, fifty new high schools had been established. The efficiency -of supervision was largely increased by making the compensation of the -town visiting committees, established through Carter, compulsory by -law. The first state normal schools at last appeared, and teachers’ -institutes, county associations, and public school libraries were given -general popularity. Quite as marked was the improvement effected in the -range and serviceability of the school studies, in text-books, methods -of teaching, and discipline. Thus under the leadership of Horace Mann a -practically unorganized set of schools, with diverse aims and methods, -was welded into a well-ordered system with high ideals, and the people -of Massachusetts renewed their faith in the common schools. - -[Sidenote: A systematic exposition of European education needed,] - -[Sidenote: and Barnard specially qualified to make it.] - -=Henry Barnard’s Part in the Educational Awakening.=--But there -was another important contribution to the awakening made by a New -Englander, which was of a rather different nature from that connected -with the influence of Horace Mann. Before that reconstruction of the -common schools, which was responsible for the best elements in our -national civilization, could be at all complete, it was necessary -that America should have a better comprehension of what was being -done in education elsewhere. The United States had for two centuries -been undergoing a gradual transition from the institutional types -transplanted from England and the Continent in colonial days, and was -coming more and more to blossom out into democracy and the people’s -schools, but for a long time there was little knowledge of what was -being done by the other countries that had by this time adopted -similar ideals. Conceptions of universal and democratic education -and of improved organization and methods had been slowly developing -in Prussia and other German states, and had extended to France and -elsewhere. A literature connected with the advanced theories of such -reformers as Rousseau, the philanthropists, Pestalozzi, and Fellenberg -had likewise grown up in Europe. It was very important that America, -now keenly alive to the need of educational reorganization, should -become acquainted with all this, that the New World might secure the -advantages of comparison, corroboration, and expansion of view from -the work of older civilized peoples. Some reports on foreign education -and translations of European treatises had already appeared (pp. 304 -f.), but the time was now ripe for a more extensive and systematic -exposition of European education and its application to popular -education in America, and for a really capable scholar to bring these -world views within the grasp of all classes of teachers and educational -authorities. This literary representative of the awakening appeared at -length in Henry Barnard (1811-1900), who is fully worthy of a place in -the educational pantheon of America. Barnard (Fig. 39) made a brilliant -record at Yale for general scholarship, and a position as assistant -librarian during his last two years in college did much to afford him a -wide grasp of bibliography. After graduation, he obtained a valuable -experience in teaching, and, by travelling extensively in America and -Europe, formed a broad acquaintance with educational institutions, -libraries, galleries, and social conditions in all the leading states -and nations. - -[Illustration: Fig. 37--James G. Carter (1795-1849).] - -[Illustration: Fig. 38.--Horace Mann (1796-1859).] - -[Illustration: Fig. 39.--Henry Barnard (1811-1900).] - -[Illustration: Fig. 40.--Francis W Parker (1831-1902).] - -GREAT AMERICAN EDUCATORS - -[Sidenote: Untoward educational conditions in Connecticut,] - -[Sidenote: and Barnard’s attempt to reform;] - -[Sidenote: _School Journal_] - -[Sidenote: and publication of educational material.] - -=Barnard as Secretary of the Connecticut State Board.=--Two years after -Barnard’s return to Connecticut, he began his part in the educational -awakening as Secretary of the new State Board of Commissioners of -Common Schools, and undertook to do a work similar to that of Mann -in Massachusetts. Throughout the eighteenth century Connecticut -schools had been among the most efficient in the country, but since -the income from the Western Reserve lands had begun in 1798, and -especially since this had been increased by the United States deposit -fund in 1836, public education had steadily declined. A state tax was -still maintained, but all local effort was paralyzed through lack -of exercise. Another factor in producing this decline was connected -with the transferal of the management of the common schools from the -town to the ‘school society,’ which was a species of district, almost -identical with the parish of each Congregational church. The results -of this ruinous policy had been revealed in an investigation made by -the legislature, which showed that not one-half of the children of -school age were attending the common schools, and that the teachers -were poorly trained and supervision was neglected. Barnard at once -began to urge many reforms, and in his reports and the _Connecticut -Common School Journal_ made suggestions for a complete plan of public -education. He also began the publication of his rich collection of -material bearing upon popular training at home and abroad. But he was -more a scholar and literary man than an educational statesman like -Mann. He succeeded in getting the legislature to pass several reforms -and a general revision and codification of the school laws, and in -arousing several towns to amend their educational plans, although the -crucial difficulty of the ‘school societies’ could not be touched, and -within four years the conservatives succeeded in legislating him out of -office and in undoing all his reforms. - -[Sidenote: Radical reforms accomplished.] - -=Commissioner of Common Schools in Rhode Island.=--This gave Barnard -an opportunity to pursue his favorite investigations, and for about a -year and a half he was engaged in collecting material for a history of -education in the United States. Then he was persuaded by the governor -of Rhode Island to become the first Commissioner of Common Schools -for that state. While he found in Rhode Island a better educational -sentiment and less opposition than in Connecticut, the actual condition -of the decentralized and individualistic schools was far worse (see -p. 269). But, through his assemblies of teachers and parents and his -educational treatises, he soon began to convince the people of the -unwisdom of district organization, untrained teachers, short terms, -irregular attendance, poor buildings and ventilation, and meager -equipment. He also continued to publish his collection of educational -material through the foundation of the _Rhode Island School Journal_. -As a result of his efforts, when failing health compelled him to resign -in 1849, the state no longer regarded wilfulness and personal opinion -as praiseworthy independence, and he could honestly claim that Rhode -Island had at the time one of the best school systems in the United -States. - -[Sidenote: When recalled, carried out and extended his reforms.] - -=State Superintendent of Schools in Connecticut.=--But the _clientèle_ -that Barnard had built up in Connecticut continued his reforms and -constructive work after his departure, and improved upon them. In -1851, they even succeeded in having him recalled virtually to his old -duties. He was designated as State Superintendent of Common Schools, -as well as Principal of the State Normal School, which had been -established through the efforts of his adherents. The state had now -learned its error in mingling politics with education, and Barnard was -able to carry out his reforms unmolested. Through the normal school -he sent out a great body of trained teachers. He revised the school -code, checked the power of the ‘school societies,’ consolidated and -simplified the organization and administration of public education, -made a more equitable distribution of the school fund, and encouraged -local taxation. But his most distinctive work, as might be expected, -was on the literary side. He prepared a valuable series of documents -upon foreign education, normal schools, methods of teaching, school -architecture, and other topics, and a long report upon _The History of -Legislation in Connecticut Respecting Common Schools up to 1838_. - -[Sidenote: Published at his own expense,] - -[Sidenote: in thirty-one large volumes and fifty-two special treatises,] - -[Sidenote: accounts of educational history and systems, and other -themes.] - -=_Barnard’s American Journal of Education._=--It was, too, during -the last days of his Connecticut superintendency that Henry Barnard -suggested the establishment of a national journal of education. -He first broached the matter to the ‘American Association for the -Advancement of Education’ at its meeting in Washington, December, -1854. But the association soon found itself unable to pursue this -enterprise for lack of financial support, and in May of the next year -Barnard began the publication of the _American Journal of Education_ -at his own expense. It was at first planned to run the journal for -five years only, but, although the work was somewhat interrupted upon -occasions by other duties, it continued for more than a generation, -until at length thirty-one large octavo volumes, averaging about eight -hundred pages each, had been issued. In addition, fifty-two special -treatises reprinted from articles in the journal brought the material -together in a connected way. Besides giving nearly all his time to -editing this _magnum opus_, Barnard sank his entire fortune of $50,000 -in its publication. This great treasury of material includes every -phase of the history of education from the earliest times down into -the latter half of the nineteenth century. It furnishes accounts of -all contemporaneous systems in Europe and America, descriptions of -institutions for the professional training of teachers, and essays upon -courses of study for colleges and technical schools, the education of -defectives and delinquents, physical education, school architecture, -great educators, and a large variety of other themes. While it is -always most reliable in its treatises upon foreign education, of even -greater value is its practical grasp of educational life in America -from the beginning. It contains the greatest collection of interesting -monographs upon the development of ideals and organization in the -various states, and gives the most complete description in literature -of the educational life of a nation. - -[Sidenote: While in office, suspended his _Journal_ and embodied -investigations in his reports.] - -=First United States Commissioner of Education.=--In 1867 Barnard was -appointed the first United States Commissioner of Education. This -office he had been constantly trying to have established ever since -he had found, as Secretary of the Connecticut Board, how absolutely -lacking the federal government was in school statistics and documents. -He hoped that, through the agency of the government, facilities might -be secured to collect and publish trustworthy educational statistics, -and to issue a library of independent treatises. The bureau was not -created for many years, and then through the immediate initiative -of another, but when Barnard was called to the commissionership, he -organized the office practically upon the lines he had previously -suggested. He suspended his _Journal_ and used the product of his -investigations in the annual reports of the office. He started that -searching inquiry into the administration, management, and instruction -of institutions of every grade, and into all educational societies, -school funds, legislation, architecture, documents, and benefactions -that has since been maintained by the Bureau of Education. However, -within three years a change in politics brought a new incumbent into -the commissionership, and Barnard gave his literary efforts once more -to his beloved _Journal_. - -[Sidenote: This life work marked him as leading representative of the -awakening.] - -=Value of Barnard’s Educational Collections.=--Hence, Barnard’s real -life work may be considered the collection of a great educational -compendium. By temperament, native ability, and habit, he proved -himself well fitted to be the leading representative of the literary -side of the awakening. Through his work American education was, in its -period of greatest development, granted the opportunity of looking -beyond the partial and local results of the first half century of -national life. It was enabled to modify and adapt to its own uses the -educational theories, practices, and organizations of the leading -civilized peoples, and to bring together for a comparative view -sections and states that were widely separated. _Barnard’s American -Journal of Education_ was not intended to be a universal encyclopædia -of education, but often includes a condensation of important works or -a presentation of highly scientific methods and profound philosophic -systems in popular form. It was not possible, either, to classify -and work out a connected and complete historical account, when there -were no reliable records or collections of materials in existence. It -was necessary that some one should first gather the information from -newspapers, pamphlets, memorials, monographs, and plans, and publish it -as it was found. In this way he accomplished a more valuable work than -if he had published a systematic history of education in the United -States. - -[Sidenote: The ‘revival’ was general, but its results were most -striking in New England.] - -=Educational Development in New England since the Revival.=--This great -storehouse of information published by Barnard and the virile efforts -of Mann and other practical leaders were but prominent evidences of -the progress that was at the time sweeping over the entire country. -The educational awakening of 1835-1860 was general and proved one of -the most fruitful in history. Its influence was felt in every state, -and it led to the third period of American education, which has been -characterized by the expansion of public schools and state educational -systems. During this period new ideals of democracy have come to be -felt in American education, and a rapid advance has taken place in -the evolution of that unique product, the American public school. In -describing this development, we may turn first to New England. - -[Sidenote: Development since then in Massachusetts in universal -education and improved schooling.] - -[Sidenote: Death of district system.] - -In Massachusetts Horace Mann has been followed in the central -administration by a succession of seven scholarly and experienced -educators, who believed as firmly as he that all stages of education -below the college should be open at public expense without let or -hindrance to the richest and poorest child alike. Since the revival the -state has seen a steady growth of sentiment for universal education -and improved schooling, and never again has such an upheaval of the -educational strata been necessary. The income of the state school fund -and additional appropriations have been steadily increased, their -apportionment among the towns has been rendered more equitable from -time to time, and an effort has constantly been made to distribute them -in such a way as to encourage local effort and coöperation. The school -term has been lengthened to ten months and the average attendance -of pupils to seven years. The improvements in school buildings, -sanitation, and equipment have steadily advanced. The district system -died hard, and not until 1882 was it altogether forced out of existence. - -[Sidenote: Growth of high schools, superintendents,] - -[Sidenote: and teacher training.] - -Most of the academies, too, which proved such a hindrance to the -development of public secondary education, gradually died or were -merged in the public system as high schools. By means of state aid, it -has been possible since 1903 for the smallest towns to afford a high -school training for their children at public expense. Supervision has -also become universal during the past quarter century. Springfield -first introduced a superintendent of schools in 1841, Gloucester in -1850, Boston in 1851, and the other cities much later, but since 1888, -through increasing state aid and the combination of smaller towns into -a district superintendency, expert supervision has become possible -everywhere, and during the last decade it has been compulsory. The -normal schools, which have now increased to ten, have brought about -a striking improvement in teaching. It is practically impossible at -present for an untrained teacher to secure a position in the elementary -schools of Massachusetts, and, through a system of examinations and -investigations, teachers of exceptional ability have, since 1896, been -granted an extra weekly allowance by the state. Since the middle of -the century, the state board has been permitted to appoint a number of -agents, to assist in inspecting and improving the schools, especially -in the smaller towns and rural districts. - -[Sidenote: Similar development in Connecticut, Rhode Island, and other -New England states.] - -The course of development since the awakening has been very similar -in the other New England states. The successors of Barnard in the -central administration both in Rhode Island and Connecticut have been -skilled and earnest educators, and, while their reports lacked his -literary touch, they were of rather more practical character. Until -1856, Connecticut made no attempt to return from the parish to the town -organization. Even then, as well as later, legislation on the subject -was ‘permissive,’ and not until the twentieth century was the ‘school -society,’ or district system, given up in half of the towns. In Rhode -Island, even after Barnard’s reforms, almost one-third of the districts -did not own their school buildings, owing to the survival of the method -in use when the schools were private, but this condition has gradually -been remedied. Likewise, the number of towns levying sufficient local -taxes to secure a share in the state apportionment rapidly grew, -and the state appropriation itself doubled and quadrupled within a -generation. In Vermont, New Hampshire, and Maine, owing to insufficient -wealth, infertility of soil, and sparseness of population, effective -public education has been reached only by slow and cautious steps. -But even these states have gradually centralized their educational -administration through the abolition of the district system and -the creation at various times of a state superintendent, a state -commissioner, or a state board and secretary. This reorganization has -been followed by increased state school funds and appropriations, more -systematic statistics and reports from the schools, and great advances -in universalizing and improving all stages of public education. - -[Sidenote: Increased enthusiasm for public education in Middle states.] - -=Influence of the Awakening upon the Middle States.=--Although this -awakened sentiment for education and progress in the common school -has been most patent and spectacular in New England, it has not -been peculiar to that part of the country. Nearly all of the other -states seem to have felt the influence of the awakening. In close -conjunction with the ‘revival’ in New England, the movement appeared -in New York, especially the western part, and was more or less -evident in Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and Delaware. But because of its -cosmopolitanism and the need of fusing so many different political, -religious, and industrial traditions, the older parts of New York, -where the school system had until the awakening been rather in advance -of other states, did not progress as rapidly in the development of -public education as Massachusetts and Connecticut. It had, however, by -the time of the Civil War, succeeded in working over its heterogeneous -people into a unified civilization and in causing their children to be -educated together for a common citizenship. - -[Sidenote: New York’s advances in normal training, supervision, and -school funds.] - -[Sidenote: Board of education in New York City.] - -The most distinct advances during this period of final organization -have been in the establishment of state normal schools, instead of -subsidizing academies to train teachers, in the administration and -supervision of the system, and in the methods of state support of -education. The first state normal school was opened at Albany in 1844, -and this pioneer institution has eventually been followed by ten -others. In 1854 the state superintendency had once more been separated -from the secretaryship of state, with which it had been combined for -thirty-five years (p. 259). In 1856 local supervision was established -through the appointment of school commissioners for the cities and -villages. In the same year, a three-quarters of a mill tax was placed -upon the property valuation of the state, and during the next dozen -years many improvements were made in the disbursing and accounting of -public funds. At length, in 1867, the long fight that had been made -for entirely free education was successful. Until then nearly fifty -thousand children had been deprived of all education, because their -parents were too proud to secure payment of their tuition fees by -confessing themselves paupers. It was during this era of progress, -too, that New York City was, in 1842, allowed to place the direction -of its schools in the hands of a board of education, elected by the -people, instead of giving over the city’s share of the state funds to -a quasi-public society, controlled by a close corporation. For eleven -years, however, the Public School Society refused to give up its work, -but by 1853 it decided to disband and merge its buildings and funds -with those of the city school system (see p. 261). - -[Sidenote: Pennsylvania abolished permissive feature of its school law,] - -[Sidenote: made state educational system complete, and provided system -of normal schools.] - -Pennsylvania was slower than New York in showing the effects of the -educational awakening, but the leaven was at work. While a number of -progressive governors and other statesmen continually recommended the -development of public education, and the ‘Pennsylvania Society for the -Promotion of Common Schools’ had been organized, the towering leader -in this movement was Thomas H. Burrowes. As secretary of state and _ex -officio_ superintendent of schools (1836-1838), as a public speaker -and educational journalist (1838-1860), and as state superintendent -(1860-1862), he constantly urged a complete system of public education, -the establishment of normal schools, a separate state department of -education, and the organization of state and county supervision. In -1849 the ‘permissive’ feature of the law of 1834 was abolished, and the -two hundred districts that had thus far refused to establish public -schools were forced to do so under the new provisions. In 1854 a -revised school law was passed, which, after twenty years, now made the -state system of education complete. It established in the secretary of -state’s office a deputy superintendent of schools, who had virtually -a separate department, and provided for county superintendents. -Three years later the state educational department became absolutely -independent under the care of a superintendent, and provision was -made for a system of normal schools. These institutions were to be -established at first by private enterprise and without state subsidy. -By 1877 there were ten in operation, largely maintained by the state. -Three others have since been added, and the state has begun to take -over into its own hands the entire support and control of them all. - -[Sidenote: Advances in New Jersey rapid, when once started.] - -[Sidenote: Delaware slower, but now making progress.] - -Educational progress in New Jersey also took some time to get under -way, but when the reforms once started, they continued until an -excellent system of common schools had been inaugurated. In 1838 the -limitation of state funds to the education of the poor was removed, -and the apportionment of the income from them was thereafter applied -only to public schools. Since 1848, when a state superintendency was -established, the development has been more rapid. County supervision -has been introduced, state normal schools have been established at -Trenton and Upper Montclair, and appropriations have been greatly -increased. In 1911 a state commissioner of education with an efficient -corps of deputies was provided. Delaware, on the other hand, failed to -live up to the possibilities under her early ‘permissive’ laws. Even -the organization of ‘the friends of common school education’ showed -itself very conservative, and would not advocate the creation of a -state superintendency or the establishment of state normal schools. In -fact, Delaware did not organize a complete state system until after -the war. Even then, while a state board and state superintendency were -established in 1875, there were no county superintendents, and when -county supervision was introduced in 1888, the state superintendency -was abolished. It was not reëstablished until 1912, but since then the -state system has made evident progress. - -[Sidenote: In Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, opponents of public -education overcome, and state system established.] - -=Public Education in the West.=--The budding of a common school -system, which had just begun to appear in the new commonwealths of -the Northwest before 1840, rapidly unfolded into full blossom during -this educational springtime. Through this awakening the common school -advocates in Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois were greatly aided in their -struggle to overcome the opposition of settlers from the states not -committed to public education (see p. 272), and they were favored to -some extent by accessions of emigrants from the home of the public -school movement. During the decade just preceding the middle of the -century, there was a decided elevation of public sentiment going on. -Under the leadership of Samuel Lewis and Samuel Galloway in Ohio, -Caleb Mills in Indiana, and Ninian W. Edwards in Illinois, the friends -of public education had marshalled themselves for battle. Reports -and memorials were constantly presented to the legislatures of these -states, and public addresses in behalf of common schools were frequent -in most large communities. A group of devoted schoolmen appeared, -who were as successful in lobbying for good legislation as they were -with institutes and public lectures. While reactions occasionally -happened, like that in Ohio between 1840 and 1845, when the state -superintendency was temporarily abolished, public education gradually -came to be regarded as something more than merely free education for -the poor, and public school funds were no longer granted as a subsidy -to private institutions. After a quarter century of ‘permissive’ laws, -local taxation and free common schools were fully realized in all three -states early in the fifties. The contest, of course, was not ended, as -reactionary elements, with selfish, local, and sectarian interests, -still remained, but their contentions have never again been more than -partially successful. New features of the common schools, such as -efficient teachers for the rural districts, county supervision, state -normal training, and free higher education in state universities, have -gradually rendered the state systems more consistent and complete. - -[Sidenote: Michigan early provided for schools, and soon developed high -and normal schools.] - -In Michigan, on the other hand, where there was not such a mixture -of population, and a complete sympathy with the common school idea -appeared, there was almost unhampered progress from the beginning of -statehood. Under the first constitution (1837), there was provision -made for a permanent school fund and for a local tax in every district, -although the schools were partly maintained until 1869 by ‘rate -bills’ collected from the pupils. In accordance with the grant of two -townships of land by Congress in 1826 for a university, the first -legislature of the new state established the University of Michigan -(Fig. 42), and its doors were open to students in 1841. It soon became -the most prominent of the state universities. There was also provided -a system of ‘branches’ of the university, whereby a liberal grant was -made for an academy in any county that would furnish suitable buildings -and a sum equal to the appropriation from the state. As this proved -a dissipation of the university funds, it was gradually stopped, and -between 1852 and 1860 ‘union’ and high schools were rapidly developed -to supply the means of fitting for the university. In 1850 a state -normal school was founded, and four others have since been added. - -[Sidenote: Rapidity of development and triumph of common school idea in -the West.] - -In all the other territory acquired or purchased by the United States -in its westward expansion, the educational history has been very -similar to that in the first states of the Northwest. Progress in -common school sentiment has been made _pari passu_ with the settlement -of the country. Each state, upon admission, has received its sixteenth -section of school land and two townships for a university, and in -the states admitted since 1848 the endowment of schools has been -increased to two sections, while Texas, which had been an independent -republic (1836-1845), stipulated before becoming a state that it should -retain sole possession of its public lands, and has set aside for -education nearly two and one-half millions of acres. Hence in the first -constitution of each state, permanent school and university funds, -together with a regular organization of the schools of the state, have -generally been provided. In few cases have sectarian interests been -able to delay or injure the growth of common schools in any of the -later commonwealths, and the interpretation of public education as -schools for the children of paupers has never seriously influenced the -West. - -[Sidenote: Awakening felt, but with approach of Civil War,] - -[Sidenote: progress stopped, and facilities wrecked at close of the -war.] - -=Organization of State Systems in the South.=--Thus through the -awakening of common schools that occurred throughout the union from -1835 to 1860 was the old-time country and city district school of -the North gradually lifted up to the present system of graded free -elementary, secondary, and normal schools, together with city and state -universities. But these results were not at first as fully realized in -the South, because of the approach and precipitation of the dreadful -internecine conflict that weighed down and finally prostrated the -resources of that section. However, except for this impending calamity, -the conditions in the South were not essentially different from those -in any other section. During the earlier years of the awakening, and in -some states up to the very verge of the Civil War, great progress in -public education was noticeable. The attendance in the common schools, -established in several states by ‘permissive’ legislation, had been -rapidly growing for a score of years, and there was an increasing body -of prominent men desirous of enlarging popular education. During the -early forties there were many efforts and suggestions for a system -of public schools, and several conventions were held in the interest -of such institutions. North Carolina actually established a state -system in 1839. Tennessee (1838-1843) and Kentucky (1838) made less -enduring efforts toward a similar organization, and as late as 1858 -Georgia took a distinct step forward in this direction. Moreover, even -in their secession conventions some states, like Georgia, adopted -resolutions or constitutional amendments looking to the education of -the people, and North Carolina in 1863, with the union army actually -at its doors, undertook to grade the schools and provide for the -training of teachers. But, in general, as the impending conflict drew -near, attention to educational progress was forced to give way to the -preservation of state and home, and after the war, which crushed and -ravaged nearly every portion of the South, educational facilities had -for the most part been totally wrecked. - -[Sidenote: Need of universal education realized and struggles to attain -it.] - -Nevertheless, in the end the war served as a stimulus to common -schools. It brought about a complete overturn of the old social and -industrial order, and the South realized more fully than ever that -it could arise from its desperate material and educational plight -only through the institution of universal education. As early as -1865, school systems were organized in the border states,--Maryland, -Kentucky, Missouri, and West Virginia, and even during the harsh and -unhappy days of ‘reconstruction’ (1867-1876), efforts were made -in other states to build up systems of free public education. The -organization of education became more thorough and mandatory than -before the war. All children, white and colored, were to attend school -between six and twenty-one, and the term was to last from four to six -months each year. Property and poll taxation were established for -the support of the schools. A state superintendent and state board -of education, county commissioners and a county board, and trustees -in each district, were provided for. Text-book commissions were -often established, and free books were granted to poor children. The -foundation for a real system was thus laid. - -[Sidenote: Obstacles that had to be overcome.] - -[Sidenote: Peabody Educational Fund and other encouragement.] - -This was a tremendous undertaking, and shows the greatest courage -and executive ability upon the part of the South. Property had been -diminished in valuation to the extent of nearly two billion dollars, -and there were two million children to be educated. Moreover, under the -reconstruction régime, the tax on property was often not collected, and -the appropriations for education remained on paper. Indifference and -inexperience were aggravated by the fear that ‘mixed’ schools would be -forced upon the white population by a reconstruction legislature or a -Congress with millennial zeal in behalf of universal brotherhood. These -obstacles, together with misdirected effort upon the part of Northern -missionaries, and other serious interferences, for fully a decade -constituted an enormous stumbling-block. Several factors, however, -aided and encouraged the South in its efforts. Of these the most -important was the foundation in 1867 of the Peabody Educational Fund -of $2,000,000, well characterized as “a gift to the suffering South -for the good of the Union.” This fund was placed in the management of -the wisest and most sympathetic agents, who appealed to the higher -sentiment of the communities and the states, and granted the assistance -necessary to stimulate local effort in education. When the fund proved -insufficient for the great task, the trustees pleaded with Congress for -an additional subsidy, and made the whole country aware of the crying -needs of education in the South. Through these appeals, more than ten -million dollars from various sources have since been granted to the -different grades of public education. - -[Sidenote: Struggle won by 1890 and constant progress since.] - -Despite the tremendous rally during the seventies, however, the -struggle for public education in the South was not won for twenty -years, but complete systems of common schools have now at length -been generally established. With the cessation of the reconstruction -influence and the subsidence of the dread of mixed schools, attendance -and appropriations have greatly increased, schools for the education -of colored children have been furnished, and provision has been made -for training and stimulating teachers of both races. Separate state -institutions for higher education, cultural and vocational, have been -established to furnish a broad education for both whites and negroes. -Since 1890 there has been an ever increasing interest in improving the -public school in all respects, and the expenditures and facilities for -education have been constantly increasing. - -[Sidenote: Universal education, state support and control, high schools -replaced academies, colleges non-sectarian, and state universities -established.] - -=Development of the American System of Education.=--With its final -development in the South during the last decade of the nineteenth -century, the distinctly American public school system may be said to -have been fully elaborated. The educational ideals and institutions -imported from Europe in the colonial period have gradually been -modified and adapted to the needs of America. Schools have become -public and free in the modern sense. The control of education has -passed from private parties and even quasi-public societies to the -state. The schools have likewise come to be supported by the state, and -are open to all children alike without the imposition of any financial -obligation. In secondary education, the academies, which supplanted the -‘grammar’ schools, first became ‘free academies’ and made no charge -for tuition from local patrons, though remaining close corporations, -and then were in time replaced by the true American secondary -institution,--the high school (Fig. 41). Colleges became largely -non-sectarian, even when not nominally so, and state universities were -organized in all except a few of the oldest commonwealths (Fig. 42). -Thus has the idea of common schools and the right to use the public -wealth to educate the entire body of children into sound American -citizenship been made complete. Although the system is still capable of -much improvement, it is expressive of American genius and development. -It is simply the American idea of government and society applied to -education. It is the educational will of the people expressed through -the majority, and the resultant of the highest thinking and aspirations -of a great nation made up of the most powerful and progressive elements -from all civilized peoples. - - -SUPPLEMENTARY READING - -Graves, _In Modern Times_ (Macmillan, 1913), chaps. VI and VIII, and -_Great Educators_ (Macmillan, 1912), chap. XIII; Parker, _Modern -Elementary Education_ (Ginn, 1912), chap. XII. For the details of the -life and work of Mann in brief form, read Hinsdale, B. A., _Horace -Mann and the Common School Revival_ (Scribner, 1899), or the readable -little work on _Horace Mann the Educator_ (New England Publishing -Co., 1896) by Winship, A. E. Monroe, W. S., has briefly recounted -_The Educational Labors of Henry Barnard_ (Bardeen, Syracuse, 1893), -and a longer account of _Henry Barnard_ is that of Mayo, A. D., in -_Report of U. S. Commissioner of Education_, 1896-1897, vol. I, chap. -XVI. For the development of public education in the various parts of -the country during this third period, see Martin, G. H., _Evolution -of the Massachusetts Public School System_ (Appleton, 1894), lects. -IV-VI; Steiner, B. C., _History of Education in Connecticut_ (_U. S. -Bureau of Education, Circular of Information_, No. 2, 1893), chaps. -III-V; Stockwell, T. B., _History of Public Education in Rhode Island_ -(Providence Press Co., Providence, 1876), chaps. VI-X; Randall, S. -S., _History of the Common School System of the State of New York_ -(Ivison, Blakeman, Taylor, New York, 1871), third and fourth periods; -Wickersham, J. P., _History of Education in Pennsylvania_ (Lancaster, -Pennsylvania, 1886), chaps. XVII-XVIII; Mayo, A. D., _The Development -of the Common Schools in the Western States_ (_Report of the U. S. -Commissioner of Education_, 1898-99, vol. I, pp. 357-450); Boone, R. -G., _History of Education in Indiana_ (Appleton, 1892), chaps. IV -and VIII-XXXIII; Smith, W. L., _Historical Sketch of Education in -Michigan_ (Lansing, 1881), pp. 17-38, 49-57, and 78-109; Knight, E. W., -_The Influence of Reconstruction on Education in the South_ (Columbia -University, _Teachers College Contributions_, No. 60, 1913) and _The -Peabody Fund and Its Early Operation in North Carolina_ (_South -Atlantic Quarterly_, vol. xiv, no. 2). Mayo, A. D., _Education in the -Several States_, _Education of the Colored Race_, and _The Slater Fund_ -(_Report of the U. S. Commissioner of Education_ 1894-95, XXX, XXXI, -and XXXII). - -[Illustration: - -Fig. 41.--The first high school. (This institution was established at -Boston in 1821 as the ‘English Classical School,’ and three years later -the name was changed to ‘English High School.’)] - -[Illustration: - -Fig. 42.--The University of Michigan in 1855. (The oldest picture of -the first prominent state university; established by the legislature in -1837, and opened in 1841.)] - - - - -CHAPTER XXIV - -DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATIONAL PRACTICE - - -OUTLINE - - Of the two aspects to Pestalozzi’s educational positions, Froebel - stressed development from within, and Herbart development from - without. - - Through an early tutorial experience Herbart developed his - pedagogy, but afterward invented an ingenious psychology upon - which to base it. He undertook to show how the mind of the pupil - is largely built up by the teacher, and he held to the moral - aim of education. To accomplish this, he advocated ‘many-sided - interest,’ and, while recognizing the value of both ‘historical’ - and ‘scientific’ subjects, emphasized the former. But he also held - that all subjects should be unified through ‘correlation,’ and - formulated the ‘formal steps of instruction.’ The value of his work - has been obscured by the formal interpretations of disciples, but - he contributed greatly to the science of education. Herbartianism, - developed by Ziller and others, spread throughout Germany; through - the Herbart Society, it has greatly influenced educational content - and methods in the United States. - - Through his university environment, Froebel developed a mystic - philosophy, but made it the basis of remarkable educational - practices. He held to organic ‘unity’ in the universe, and to - the general method of ‘self-activity.’ Besides this (1) ‘motor - expression,’ he also stressed (2) ‘social participation,’ and - attempted to realize both principles in (3) a school without books - and set tasks,--the ‘kindergarten.’ The training here has consisted - chiefly in ‘play-songs,’ ‘gifts,’ and ‘occupations.’ The chief - weakness of Froebelianism is its mystic and symbolic theory, but - it has comprehended the most essential laws of education at all - stages. The kindergarten was spread through Europe largely by - Baroness von Bülow, and through the United States by Elizabeth P. - Peabody and others. - - Few tendencies in educational practices to-day cannot be traced - back for their rudimentary form to Herbart and Froebel, or their - master, Pestalozzi. - -[Sidenote: Each saw in the master the principle that appealed to him.] - -=Froebel and Herbart as Disciples of Pestalozzi.=--In the discussion -of observation and industrial training, we have noted the suggestions -for improvement in educational practice that arose through Pestalozzi. -While somewhat vague and based upon sympathetic insight rather than -scientific principles, the positions of Pestalozzi not only left -their direct influence upon the teaching of certain subjects in the -elementary curriculum, but became the basis of the elaborate systems of -Herbart and Froebel. These educators may be regarded as contemporary -disciples of the Swiss reformer, who was born a generation before, but -they continued his work along rather different lines. Each went to -visit Pestalozzi, and it would seem from their comments upon what they -saw that each found in the master the main principle which appealed -to him and which he afterward developed more or less consistently -throughout his work. - -[Sidenote: Development from within and the child were emphasized by -Froebel;] - -[Sidenote: development from without and methods, by Herbart.] - -For there were two very definite aspects to Pestalozzi’s positions, -which may at first seem opposed to each other, but are not necessarily -contradictory. On the one hand, Pestalozzi seems to have held that -education should be a natural development from within; on the other, -that it must consist in the derivation of ideas from experience with -the outside world. The former point of view, which is apparent in -his educational aim and definition of education (see p. 285), would -logically argue that every characteristic is implicit in the child -at birth in the exact form to which it is afterward to be developed, -and that the teacher can at best only assist the child’s nature in the -efforts for its own unfolding. This attitude Pestalozzi apparently -borrowed from the psychology implied in Rousseau’s naturalism. The -other conception, that of education as sense perception, which is -evident in Pestalozzi’s observational methods (see p. 286), depends -upon the theory that immediate and direct impressions from the outside -are the absolute basis of all knowledge, and holds that the contents -of the mind must be entirely built up by the teacher. Some such naïve -interpretation has been common since speculation began, especially -among teachers, and had been formulated before Pestalozzi’s day by -Locke, Hume, and others. In the main, Froebel took the first of these -Pestalozzian viewpoints and rarely admitted the other, but the latter -phase was developed by Herbart to the almost total disregard of the -former. Hence we find that the one educator lays emphasis upon the -child’s development and activities, and the other concerns himself -with method and the work of the teacher. The original contributions of -both reformers to educational practice, however, were large, and are -deserving of extended description. - -[Sidenote: Interest in philosophy, Greek, and mathematics.] - -[Sidenote: Development of his pedagogy through tutorial experience.] - -=The Early Career and Writings of Herbart.=--Johann Friedrich Herbart -(1776-1841) both by birth and by education possessed a remarkable mind, -and was well calculated to become a profound educational philosopher. -He came of intellectual and educated stock, and at the gymnasium -and university displayed a keen interest in philosophy, Greek, and -mathematics. Each of these subjects, too, was destined to play a part -in his educational theories. Just before graduation (1797), however, -Herbart left the university to become private tutor to the three sons -of the governor of Interlaken, Switzerland, and during the next three -years he obtained in this way a most valuable experience. The five -extant reports that he made on the methods he used and on his pupils’ -progress reveal thus early the germs of his elaborate system. The -youthful pedagogue seems to have recognized the individual variations -in children, and to have shown a due regard for the respective -ages of his pupils. He also sought, by means of his favorite work, -the _Odyssey_, to develop in them the elements of morality and a -‘many-sided interest.’ This early experience, rather than his ingenious -system of psychology and metaphysics, which he afterward developed in -explanation, was the real foundation of his pedagogy, and furnished him -with the concrete examples of the characteristics and individualities -of children that appear in all his later works. He ever afterward -maintained that a careful study of the development of a few children -was the best preparation for a pedagogical career, and eventually made -an experience of this kind the main element in his training of teachers. - -[Sidenote: Interpreted and supplemented Pestalozzi’s principles.] - -[Sidenote: _The Science of Education._] - -While still in Switzerland, Herbart met Pestalozzi and was greatly -attracted by the underlying principles of that reformer. He paid a -visit to the institute at Burgdorf in 1799, and during the next two -years, while at Bremen completing his interrupted university course, -he undertook to advocate and render more scientific the thought of the -Swiss educator. Here he wrote a sympathetic essay _On Pestalozzi’s -Latest Writing, ‘How Gertrude Teaches Her Children_,’ and made his -interpretation of _Pestalozzi’s Idea of an A B C of Observation_ -(see p. 286). Next Herbart lectured on pedagogy at the University -of Göttingen. The treatises he wrote there seem to have become more -critical toward the Pestalozzian methods, and he no longer strives -to conceal their vagueness and want of system. Sense perception, he -holds with Pestalozzi, does supply the first elements of knowledge, -but the material of the school course should be definitely arranged -with reference to the general purpose of instruction, which is moral -self-realization. This position on the moral aim of education he -made especially explicit and complete in his work on _The Science of -Education_ (1806). - -[Sidenote: Seminary and practice school.] - -[Sidenote: _Outlines of Educational Doctrine._] - -=His Work at Königsberg and Göttingen.=--In 1809 Herbart was called to -the chair of philosophy at Königsberg, and there established his now -historic pedagogical seminary and the small practice school connected -with it. The students, who taught in the practice school under the -supervision and criticism of the professor, were intending to become -school principals and inspectors, and, through the widespread work and -influence of these young Herbartians the educational system of Prussia -and of every other state in Germany was greatly advanced. In his -numerous publications at Königsberg, Herbart devoted himself chiefly -to works on a system of psychology as a basis for his pedagogy. After -serving nearly a quarter of a century here, he returned to Göttingen -as professor of philosophy, and the last eight years of his life were -spent in expanding his pedagogical positions. Here he issued the -first edition of his _Outlines of Educational Doctrine_ (1835), which -gives an exposition of his educational system when fully matured. -It contains brief references to his mechanical metaphysics and -psychology, but is a most practical and well-organized discussion of -the educational process. - -[Sidenote: An after-thought.] - -[Sidenote: Mind built up by outside world.] - -[Sidenote: Genesis and combination of ideas.] - -[Sidenote: ‘Apperception.’] - -=Herbart’s Psychology.=--Herbart’s metaphysical psychology seems to -have been an after-thought developed to afford a basis for the method -of pedagogical procedure that he had worked out of his tutorial -experience and his acquaintance with the Pestalozzian practice. But -some explanation of this elaborate psychology may serve to make clearer -his educational principles. For the most part he holds that the mind -is built up by the outside world, and he is generally supposed to have -left no place for instincts or innate characteristics and tendencies. -With him the simplest elements of consciousness are ‘ideas,’ which -are atoms of mind stuff thrown off from the soul in endeavoring to -maintain itself against external stimuli. Once produced by this -contact of the soul with its environment, the ideas become existences -with their own dynamic force, and constantly strive to preserve -themselves. They struggle to attain as nearly as possible to the summit -of consciousness, and each idea tends to draw into consciousness or -heighten those allied to it, and to depress or force out those which -are unlike. Each new idea or group of ideas is heightened, modified, -or rejected, according to its degree of harmony or conflict with -the previously existing ideas. In other words, all new ideas are -interpreted through those already in consciousness. In accordance -with this principle, which Herbart called ‘apperception,’ the teacher -can secure interest and the attention of the pupil to any new idea or -set of ideas and have him retain it, only through making use of his -previous body of related knowledge. Hence the educational problem -becomes how to present new material in such a way that it can be -‘apperceived’ or incorporated with the old, and the mind of the pupil -is largely in the hands of the teacher, since he can make or modify his -‘apperception masses,’ or systems of ideas. - -[Sidenote: Attainment of character as aim.] - -[Sidenote: ‘Many-sided interest.’] - -=The Aim, Content, and Method of Education.=--Accordingly, Herbart -holds that the purpose of education should be to establish moral and -religious character. He believes that this final aim can be attained -through instruction, and that, to determine how this shall furnish -a ‘moral revelation of the world,’ a careful study must be made of -each pupil’s thought masses, temperament, and mental capacity. There -is not much likelihood of the pupil’s receiving ideas of virtue that -will develop into glowing ideals of conduct when his studies do not -appeal to his thought systems and are consequently regarded with -indifference and aversion. They must coalesce with the ideas he already -has, and thus touch his life. But Herbart does not limit ‘interest’ to -a temporary stimulus for the performance of certain school tasks; he -advocates the building up by education of certain broad interests that -may become permanent sources of appeal in life. Instruction must be -so selected and arranged as not only to relate itself to the previous -experience of the pupil, but as also to reveal and establish all the -relations of life and conduct in their fullness. - -[Sidenote: ‘Knowledge’ and ‘participation’ interests.] - -[Sidenote: ‘Historical’ and ‘scientific’ subjects.] - -In analyzing this ‘many-sided interest,’ Herbart holds that ideas and -interests spring from two main sources,--‘experience,’ which furnishes -us with a knowledge of nature, and ‘social intercourse,’ from which -come the sentiments toward our fellowmen. Interests may, therefore, be -classed as belonging to (1) ‘knowledge’ or to (2) ‘participation.’ -These two sets of interests, in turn, Herbart divides into three -groups each. He classed the ‘knowledge’ interests as (a) ‘empirical,’ -appealing directly to the senses; (b) ‘speculative,’ seeking to -perceive the relations of cause and effect; and (c) ‘æsthetic,’ resting -upon the enjoyment of contemplation. The ‘participation’ interests -are divided into (a) ‘sympathetic,’ dealing with relations to other -individuals; (b) ‘social,’ including the community as a whole; and (c) -‘religious,’ treating one’s relations to the Divine. Instruction must, -therefore, develop all these interests, and, to correspond with the two -main groups, Herbart divides all studies into two branches,--the (1) -‘historical,’ including history, literature, and languages; and the (2) -‘scientific,’ embracing mathematics, as well as the natural sciences. -Although recognizing the value of both groups, Herbart especially -stressed the ‘historical,’ on the ground that history and literature -are of greater importance as the sources of moral ideas and sentiments. - -[Sidenote: ‘Correlation’ and ‘concentration.’] - -[Sidenote: ‘Culture epochs.’] - -But, while all the subjects, ‘historical’ and ‘scientific,’ are -needed for a ‘many-sided interest,’ and the various studies have for -convenience been separated and classified by themselves, Herbart holds -that they must be so arranged in the curriculum as to become unified -and an organic whole, if the unity of the pupil’s consciousness is to -be maintained. This position forecasts the emphasis upon ‘correlation,’ -or the unification of studies, so common among his followers. The -principle was further developed by later Herbartians under the name -of ‘concentration,’ or the unifying of all subjects around one or -two common central studies, such as literature or history. But the -selection and articulation of the subject-matter in such a way as to -arouse many-sidedness and harmony is not more than hinted at by Herbart -himself. He specifically holds, however, that the _Odyssey_ should be -the first work read, since this represents the interests and activities -of the race while in its youth, and would appeal to the individual -during the same stage. He would follow this with other Greek classics -in the order of the growing complexity of racial interests depicted in -them. This tentative endeavor of Herbart, in the selection of material -for the course of study, to parallel the development of the individual -with that of the race, was continued and enlarged by his disciples. It -became especially definite and fixed in the ‘culture epochs’ theory -formulated by Ziller and others. - -[Sidenote: Four steps in Herbart’s method of instruction.] - -[Sidenote: ‘Five formal steps.’] - -But to secure this broad range of material and to unify and systematize -it, Herbart realized that it was necessary to formulate a definite -method of instructing the child. This plan of instruction he wished to -conform to the development and working of the human mind, and on the -basis of what he conceived this activity to be, he mapped out a method -with four logical steps: (1) ‘clearness,’ the presentation of facts -or elements to be learned; (2) ‘association,’ the uniting of these -with related facts previously acquired; (3) ‘system,’ the coherent and -logical arrangement of what has been associated; and (4) ‘method,’ -the practical application of the system by the pupil to new data. The -formulation of this method was made only in principle by Herbart, but -it has since been largely modified and developed by his followers. -It was soon felt that, on the principle of ‘apperception,’ the pupil -must first be made conscious of the existing stock of ideas so far as -they are similar to the material to be presented, and that this can -be accomplished by a review of preceding lessons or by an outline of -what is to be undertaken, or by both procedures. Hence Herbart’s noted -disciple, Ziller, divided the step of ‘clearness’ into ‘preparation’ -and ‘presentation,’ and the more recent Herbartian, Rein, added ‘aim’ -as a substep to ‘preparation.’ The names of the other three processes -have been changed for the sake of greater lucidity and significance by -still later Herbartians, and the ‘five formal steps of instruction’ are -now given as (1) ‘preparation,’ (2) ‘presentation,’ (3) ‘comparison and -abstraction,’ (4) ‘generalization,’ and (5) ‘application.’ - -[Sidenote: Clarified Pestalozzi’s vague principle of ‘observation’ -through an ingenious psychology,] - -[Sidenote: and made Pestalozzi’s emphasis on the physical world a -stepping-stone to history and literature.] - -=The Value and Influence of Herbart’s Principles.=--On all sides, -then, as compared with Pestalozzi, Herbart was most logical and -comprehensive. Where Pestalozzi obtained his methods solely from a -sympathetic insight into the child mind, Herbart sought to found -his also upon scientific principles. The former was primarily -a philanthropist and reformer; the latter, a psychologist and -educationalist. Pestalozzi succeeded in arousing Europe to the need of -universal education and of vitalizing the prevailing formalism in the -schools, but he was unable with his vague and unsystematic utterances -to give guidance and efficiency to the reform forces he had initiated. -While he felt the need of beginning with sense perception for the sake -of clear ideas, he had neither the time nor the training to construct -a psychology beyond the traditional one of the times, nor to analyze -the way in which the material gained by observation is assimilated. -Herbart, on the other hand, did create a system of psychology that, -while fanciful and mechanical, worked well as a basis for educational -theory and practice. In keeping with this psychology, he undertook -to show how the ideas, which were the product of the Pestalozzian -‘observation,’ were assimilated through ‘apperception,’ and maintained -the possibility of making all material tend toward moral development. -This, he held, could be accomplished by use of proper courses and -methods. In determining the subjects to be selected and articulated, -he considered Pestalozzi’s emphasis upon the study of the physical -world to be merely a stepping-stone to his own ‘moral revelation of -the world.’ While the former educator made arithmetic, geography, -natural science, reading, form study, drawing, writing, and music the -object of his consideration, and is indirectly responsible for the -modern reforms in teaching these subjects, Herbart preferred to stress -history, languages, and literature, and, through his followers, brought -about improved methods in their presentation. He also first undertook a -careful analysis of the successive steps in all instruction, and by his -methodical principles did much to introduce order and system into the -work of the classroom, although it is now known that his conception of -the way in which the human mind works is hardly tenable. - -[Sidenote: Formalization of followers,] - -[Sidenote: but Herbart more sane and flexible.] - -A great drawback to the Herbartian doctrines is found in their -formalization and exaggeration. For these tendencies his enthusiastic -and literal-minded followers, rather than Herbart himself, have -probably been to blame. He was himself too keen an observer to allow -his doctrines to go upon all fours. He is ordinarily credited by -Herbartians with a psychology that takes no account of the innate -characteristics of each mind, and holds that the mind is entirely -built up by impressions from the outside, but, while this is his main -position, he occasionally recognizes that there must be certain native -predispositions in the body which influence the soul in one direction -or another. This limitation of complete plasticity by the pupil’s -individuality, and of the consequent influence of the teacher, causes -him to perceive that “in order to gain an adequate knowledge of each -pupil’s capacity for education, observation is necessary--observation -both of his thought masses and of his physical nature.” Again, while -Herbart holds that every subject should, if possible, be presented -in an attractive, interesting, and ‘almost playlike’ way, he does -not justify that ‘sugar-coated interest’ which has so often put -Herbartianism in bad odor. “A view that regards the end as a necessary -evil to be rendered endurable by means of sweetmeats,” says he, -“implies an utter confusion of ideas; and if pupils are not given -serious tasks to perform, they will not find out what they are able -to do.” Often, he realizes, “even the best method cannot secure an -adequate degree of apperceiving attention from every pupil, and -recourse must accordingly be had to the voluntary attention, i. e., -to the pupil’s resolution.” Moreover, ‘correlation’ between different -subjects, as well as between principles within the same subject, -was advocated by Herbart, but he felt that the attempt to make such -ramifications should not be unlimited. Further, while Herbart made -some effort in shaping the course of study to parallel the development -of the individual with that of the race, it was Ziller that erected -this procedure into a hard and fast theory of ‘culture epochs.’ But -most common of all has been the tendency of his disciples to pervert -his attempt to bring about due sequence and arrangement into an -inflexible _schema_ in the recitation, and to make the formal steps -an end rather than a means. Whereas, there is reason to believe that -Herbart never intended that all these steps should be carried out in -every recitation, but felt that they applied to the organization of -any subject as a whole, and that years might even elapse between the -various steps. - -[Sidenote: Ziller greatly developed and popularized.] - -=The Extension of His Doctrines in Germany.=--At first the doctrines of -Herbart were little known, but a quarter of a century after his death -there sprang up two flourishing contemporary schools of Herbartianism. -In its application of Herbart’s theory, the school of Stoy for the -most part held closely to the original form; but that headed by Ziller -departed further and gave it a more extreme interpretation. Tuiskon -Ziller (1817-1882), both as teacher in a gymnasium and as professor at -Leipzig, did much to popularize and develop Herbart’s system. Through -him was formed the Herbartian society known as the ‘Association for -the Scientific Study of Education,’ which has since spread throughout -Germany. He it was that elaborated the doctrines of ‘correlation’ and -‘concentration,’ and first definitely formulated the ‘culture epochs’ -theory. “Every pupil should,” he writes, “pass successively through -each of the chief epochs of the general mental development of mankind -suitable to his stage of development. The material of instruction, -therefore, should be drawn from the thought material of that stage of -historical development in culture, which runs parallel with the present -mental stage of the pupil.” All these principles Ziller worked out in -a curriculum for the eight years of the elementary school, which he -centered around fairy tales, _Robinson Crusoe_, and selections from -the _Old_ and _New Testaments_. He, moreover, developed Herbart’s -‘formal stages of instruction’ by dividing the first step and changing -the name of the last. - -[Sidenote: Stoy’s practice school at Jena,] - -[Sidenote: continued by Rein.] - -[Sidenote: Lange and Frick.] - -Karl Volkmar Stoy (1815-1885), the founder of the other school, gave -himself simply to a forceful restatement of the master’s positions, -but also established a most influential pedagogical seminary and -practice school upon the original Herbartian basis at Jena. And eleven -years later, Wilhelm Rein (1847- ), who had been a pupil of both Stoy -and Ziller, succeeded the former in the direction of the practice -school, and introduced there the elaborate development that had taken -place since Herbart’s time. He adopted Ziller’s ‘concentration,’ -‘culture epochs,’ and other features, but made them a little more -elastic by coördinating other material with the ‘historical’ center -in the curriculum. Through him Jena became known as the great seat of -Herbartianism. Other Germans to develop the principles of Herbart have -been Lange and Frick. The _Apperception_ of Karl Lange is an excellent -combination of scientific insight and popular presentation. Otto Frick, -director of the ‘Francke Institutions’ at Halle (see p. 176), inclining -more to the close interpretation of Stoy, devoted himself to applying -Herbartianism to the secondary schools, and outlined a course for the -gymnasium. - -[Sidenote: In Germany content and methods of education were greatly -modified.] - -[Sidenote: Prominence given to history and literature.] - -A throng of other German schoolmasters and professors have further -adapted the doctrines of Herbart to school practice, and while their -theories differ very largely from one another, from their common basis -they are all properly designated ‘Herbartian.’ As a result of this -continuous propaganda, the content and methods of the school curricula -in Germany have been largely modified. Herbart’s emphasis upon the -importance to the secondary schools of literary and historical studies -as a moral training has been adapted to the elementary schools by the -later Herbartians in the form of story and biographical material. -History has consequently attained a more prominent place in the -curriculum, and is no longer auxiliary to reading and geography. It is -regarded as a means of moral development, and the cultural features in -the history of the German people are stressed more than the political. -Ziller’s plan for concentrating all studies about a core of history -and literature, on the ground of thus producing ‘a moral revelation -of the world’ for the pupil, is in evidence everywhere. A twofold -course,--Jewish history through Bible stories, and German history in -the form of legends and tales, appears in every grade of the elementary -school after the first two, and even in these lower classes there is -some attempt to utilize literature as a moral training through the -medium of fairy stories, fables, moral tales, _Robinson Crusoe_, and -the various stories of the philanthropinists (see p. 225). - -[Sidenote: American teachers who studied at Jena introduced -Herbartianism into the United States.] - -[Sidenote: Northern Illinois the center.] - -[Sidenote: The Herbart Society and its _Year Book_.] - -=Herbartianism in the United States.=--Next to the land of its birth, -the United States has been more influenced by Herbartianism than any -other country. Before 1880 there were but few notices of Herbartianism -in American educational literature, and not many appeared during -the following decade. The movement was fostered largely by American -teachers that were studying with Rein at Jena during the last two -decades of the century. Before 1890 nine Americans had taken their -degree there, and by the twentieth century more than fifty. These -young men came back filled with the enthusiastic belief that Herbartian -principles could supply a solution in systematic form for the many -complicated problems with which American education was then grappling, -and began at once to propagate their faith. The movement centered -chiefly in northern Illinois and was especially strong in the normal -schools. The staff of the State Normal University at this time included -Charles DeGarmo, afterward professor of Education at Cornell, Frank -M. McMurry, now of the Teachers College, Columbia University, and his -brother, Charles A. McMurry, now of the faculty of the George Peabody -College for Teachers; and the practice school at the Normal University -was the first to be established upon Herbartian principles. The -Schoolmasters’ Club of Illinois gave much of its time to a discussion -of Herbartian principles, and the first Herbartian literature in -the United States was rapidly produced. During the last decade of -the century there appeared large numbers of articles, textbooks, -treatises, and translations, including _The Method of the Recitation_ -and a variety of other works upon general and special methods by the -McMurrys. In 1892 The Herbart Club was founded to promote a study of -Herbartian principles and adapt them to American conditions, and during -the first three years it spent its efforts in translating the words of -Herbart and in discussing Herbartian topics only. In 1895 the name of -the club was changed to the Herbart Society for the Scientific Study -of Education, many non-Herbartians were admitted, the scope of the -discussions was enlarged, and the publication of a _Year Book_ was -begun. - -[Sidenote: Opposition,] - -[Sidenote: but growth of the movement.] - -[Sidenote: Herbartian features adopted by others.] - -Then began the period of criticism and the formulation of American -Herbartianism. The movement was vigorously opposed by many on the -ground that it was a foreign importation, was based upon absurd -metaphysical presuppositions, or contained nothing new, but the -disciples of Herbart stood valiantly by their guns. Although not -always certain in their own minds, they endeavored to clear up -all misunderstanding and confusion in the doctrines and to keep -them practical through developing them in connection with actual -experiments in teaching. They showed that the fanciful psychology of -Herbart did not hold a determining place in his educational thought, -and that it might be rejected, without affecting the merit of his -pedagogy. One by one the doctrines were introduced in the order of -their concreteness,--five formal steps, apperception, concentration, -interest--and little attempt was made to weave them into a single -system. The critical season did not long endure, and the movement soon -spread widely. By the close of the first year the Herbart Society -had a membership of seven hundred, and the Herbartian principles -were everywhere studied by local clubs and taught in schools and -universities. In the report of the United States Commissioner of -Education for 1894-1895, Dr. Harris stated: “There are at present -more adherents of Herbart in the United States than in Germany.” -This, he believed, was due to the greater freedom of discussion that -was allowed. The movement not only became an educational awakening, -but it attained almost to the proportions of a cult. Moreover, many -who hardly considered themselves Herbartians undertook to modify -and adapt the Herbartian principles, especially ‘correlation’ and -‘concentration.’ Francis W. Parker of Chicago, for example, among the -phases of his educational practice (cf. pp. 293 and 364), approached -concentration so closely as to center the entire course of study around -a hierarchy of natural and social sciences. And the Committees of Ten -and Fifteen, appointed by the National Education Association to report -upon secondary and elementary education respectively, showed a strong -Herbartian influence in their recommendations of correlation. - -[Sidenote: Amount of history increased in American schools,] - -[Sidenote: and wide survey of literature encouraged.] - -Largely in consequence of the development of Herbartianism, an -increased amount and larger utilization of historical material became -general also in American elementary schools. A wide appreciation of the -growth of morality, culture, and social life, rather than merely the -development of patriotism, became the object in studying this subject. -English and German history, as well as American, which alone was -formerly taught, and sometimes Greek, Roman, and Norse, appear in the -curricula of many elementary schools, and, instead of being confined -to the two upper classes, historical material is often presented from -the third grade up. Biographical and historical stories are largely -employed in the lower classes, while in the upper some attempt is -made to use European history as a setting for American. A similar -development in the amount and use of literature also has appeared -in the course of the elementary schools, partly as a result of the -Herbartian influence. Instead of brief selections from the English and -American writers, or the poorer material that formerly appeared in the -school readers, complete works of literature have begun to be studied -in the elementary curriculum, and a wide and rapid survey of the great -English classics has been encouraged in the place of merely reading -for the sake of oral expression. Even in the lowest grades some attempt -to introduce the classics of childhood has been made. - -While in these ways all elementary, and to some extent secondary, -schools have been affected, Herbartianism pure and simple has largely -been abandoned for less dogmatic methods. Even the Herbart Society -has ceased to foster a propaganda, and has since 1901 dropped the -first part of its name and been known as ‘The National Society for the -Scientific Study of Education.’ The later works of DeGarmo and Frank M. -McMurry claim to be quite emancipated from Herbartianism. But, although -professed Herbartians are now almost unknown in the United States, no -other system of pedagogy, except that of Pestalozzi, has ever had so -wide an influence upon American education and upon the thought and -practice of teachers generally. - -[Sidenote: Search for ‘unity’ developed through idealism, romanticism, -and ‘nature philosophy’ at Jena.] - -=Froebel’s Early Life.=--Let us now turn to Froebel, the other great -successor of Pestalozzi, and to his development and extension of the -master’s principle of ‘natural development.’ Friedrich Wilhelm August -Froebel (1782-1852) was born in a village of the Thüringian forest. -He tells us that this environment started within him a search for the -mystic unity that he believed to exist amid the various phenomena of -nature, but it is more likely that this attitude was developed through -a brief residence (1799-1800) at the University of Jena. The atmosphere -about this institution was charged with the idealistic philosophy, the -romantic movement, and the evolutionary attitude in science. Froebel -could not have escaped the constant discussions upon the philosophy of -Fichte and Schelling. He must likewise have fallen under the spell -of the Jena romanticists,--the Schlegels, Tieck, and Novalis. The -advanced attitude in science at Jena may also have impressed the youth. -While much of the science instruction failed to make clear that inner -relation and mystic unity for which he sought, he must occasionally -have caught glimpses of it in the lectures of professors belonging to -the school of _Natur-philosophie_. - -[Sidenote: Adoption of teaching.] - -[Sidenote: Study with Pestalozzi.] - -[Sidenote: Crystallization of law of ‘unity.’] - -=His Experiences at Frankfort, Yverdon, and Berlin.=--After leaving the -university, Froebel was for four years groping for a niche in life. But -he eventually (1805) met Anton Grüner, head of a Pestalozzian model -school at Frankfort, who persuaded him of his fitness for teaching and -gave him a position in the institution. Here he undertook a systematic -study of Pestalozzianism, and, through the use of modeling in paper, -pasteboard, and wood with his pupils, he came to see the value of -motor expression as a means of education. He then withdrew to Yverdon -and worked with Pestalozzi himself for two years (1808-1810). There -he greatly increased his knowledge of the play and development of -children, music, and nature study, which were to play so important a -part in his methods. Next, he went to the University of Berlin to study -mineralogy with Professor Weiss, and through the work there he finally -crystallized his mystic law of ‘unity.’ He became fully “convinced of -the demonstrable connection in all cosmic development,” and declared -that “thereafter my rocks and crystals served me as a mirror wherein I -might discern mankind, and man’s development and history.” - -[Sidenote: Self-expression through play and practical work.] - -[Sidenote: _Education of Man._] - -=The School at Keilhau.=--While at Berlin, he met his lifelong -assistants, Langethal and Middendorf, and took them with him when he -undertook the education of his five young nephews at Keilhau. Here -he founded (1816) ‘The Universal German Institute of Education,’ in -which self-expression, free development, and social participation were -ruling principles. Much of the training was obtained through play, -and, except that the pupils were older, the germ of the kindergarten -was already present. There was much practical work in the open air, -in the garden about the schoolhouse, and in the building itself. The -children built dams and mills, fortresses and castles, and searched -the woods for animals, birds, insects, and flowers. To popularize the -institute, Froebel published a complete account of the theory practiced -at Keilhau in his famous _Education of Man_ (1826). While this work is -compressed, repetitious, and vague, and its doctrines had afterward to -be corrected by experience, it contains the most systematic statement -of his educational philosophy that Froebel ever made. - -[Sidenote: In Switzerland he began to devise playthings, games, and -songs.] - -[Sidenote: First kindergarten at Blankenburg.] - -[Sidenote: Later works.] - -=Development of the Kindergarten.=--But the school at Keilhau was -too radical for the times, and soon found itself in serious straits. -Froebel then went to Switzerland, and for five years (1832-1837) -continued his educational experiments in various locations there. -While conducting a model school at Burgdorf, it became obvious to -him that “all school education was yet without a proper initial -foundation, and that, until the education of the nursery was reformed, -nothing solid and worthy could be attained.” The _School of Infancy_ -of Comenius (see p. 171) had been called to his attention, and the -educational importance of play had come to appeal to him more strongly -than ever. He began to study and devise playthings, games, songs, and -bodily movements that would be of value in the development of small -children, although at first he did not organize his materials into a -system. Then, two years later, he returned to Germany, and established -a school for children between the ages of three and seven. This -institution was located at Blankenburg, two miles from Keilhau, one -of the most romantic spots in the Thüringian Forest, and was, before -long, appropriately christened ‘Kindergarten’ (i. e., garden in which -children are the unfolding plants). Here he put into use the material -he had invented in Switzerland, added new devices, and developed his -system. The main features of this were the ‘play songs’ for mother -and child and the series of ‘gifts’ and ‘occupations’ (see pp. 358 -f.). During his seven years in Blankenburg, he constantly expanded -his material, and the accounts of these additions have been collected -in the works known generally as _Pedagogics of the Kindergarten_, -_Education by Development_, and _Mother Play and Nursery Songs_. - -[Sidenote: Final work at Liebenstein, and the Baroness von Bülow.] - -While the kindergarten attracted considerable attention, Froebel’s want -of financial ability eventually compelled him to close the institution. -After lecturing with much success for five years upon his system, he -settled for the rest of his life near the famous mineral springs at -Liebenstein in Saxe-Meiningen. During this period he obtained the -friendship and support of the Baroness von Marenholtz-Bülow, who -brought a large number of people of distinction in the political -and educational world to see his work in operation, and wrote most -interesting _Reminiscences_ of Froebel’s activities during the last -thirteen years of his life. But owing to a confusion of his principles -with the socialistic doctrines of his nephew, Karl, a decree was -promulgated in Prussia by the minister of education, closing all -kindergartens there. Froebel never recovered from this unjust -humiliation, and died within a year. - -[Sidenote: Developed from Pestalozzi and even Rousseau,] - -[Sidenote: but largely a resultant of his university environment.] - -[Sidenote: Reiterations and subsidiary concepts.] - -=Froebel’s Fundamental Concept of ‘Unity.’=--While Froebel’s underlying -principles go back to the developmental aspect of Pestalozzi’s -doctrines and even to Rousseau’s naturalism, his conception of them, -his imagery, and statement, seem to be a product of the idealistic -philosophy, romantic movement, and scientific attitude of the day. -These tendencies seem to have been assimilated by Froebel largely -through his residence in Jena and Berlin. His conclusions as to -educational theory and practice would have been possible as inferences -from a very different point of view, but as he developed them logically -and consistently with his metaphysical position, it may be of value -to consider briefly the groundwork of the Froebelian philosophy. He -regarded the ‘Absolute,’ or God, as the self-conscious spirit from -which originated both man and nature, and he consequently held to -the unity of nature with the soul of man. His fundamental view of -this organic unity appears in his general conception of the universe: -“In all things,” says he, “there lives and reigns an eternal law. -This all-controlling law is necessarily based on an all-pervading, -energetic, living, self-conscious, and hence eternal Unity. This Unity -is God. All things have come from the Divine Unity, from God, and -have their origin in the Divine Unity, in God alone. All things live -and have their being in and through the Divine Unity, in and through -God. The divine effluence that lives in each thing is the essence of -each thing.” This fundamental mystic principle Froebel constantly -reiterates in various forms, and from it derives a number of subsidiary -conceptions. These, however, play but a small part in his actual -practice, and scarcely require consideration here. - -[Sidenote: Education should be ‘following.’] - -[Sidenote: ‘Self-activity.’] - -[Sidenote: ‘Creativeness.’] - -=Motor Expression as His Method.=--But Froebel also holds that, “while -in every human being there lives humanity as a whole, in each one it -is realized and expressed in a wholly particular, peculiar, personal, -and unique manner.” Thus he maintains that there is in every person at -birth a coördinated, unified plan of his mature character, and that, -if it is not marred or interfered with, it will develop naturally of -itself. While he is not entirely consistent, and at times implies -that this natural development must be guided and even shaped, in -the main he reiterates Rousseau’s doctrine that ‘nature is right,’ -and clearly stands for a full and free expression of the instincts -and impulses. Hence he insists that “education in instruction and -training should necessarily be _passive, following; not prescriptive, -categorical, interfering_.” But in his conclusion as to the proper -method for accomplishing this ‘development,’ Froebel naturally holds -that it “should be brought about not in the way of dead imitation or -mere copying, but in the way of living, spontaneous self-activity.” By -this principle of ‘self-activity’ as the method of education Froebel -seeks not simply activity in response to suggestion or instruction -from parents or teachers, but activity of the child in carrying out -his own impulses and decisions. Individuality must be developed by -such activity, and self-hood given its rightful place as the guide to -the child’s powers when exercised in learning. Hence with this idea -of development through ‘self-activity’ is connected his principle -of ‘creativeness,’ by which new forms and combinations are made -and expression is given to new images and ideas. “Plastic material -representation in life and through doing, united with thought and -speech,” he declares, “is by far more developing and cultivating than -the merely verbal representation of ideas.” - -[Sidenote: Self-realization through social participation.] - -[Sidenote: Coöperative in text] - -activities in play.] - -=The Social Aspect of Education.=--His emphasis upon this psychological -principle of motor expression under the head of ‘self-activity’ and -‘creativeness’ is the chief characteristic of Froebel’s method. -Rousseau had also recommended motor activity as a means of learning, -but he had insisted upon an isolated and unsocial education for -Emile, whereas Froebel stresses the social aspects of education quite -as clearly as he does the principle of self-expression. In fact, he -holds that increasing self-realization, or individualization through -‘self-activity,’ must come through a process of socialization. The -social instinct is primal, and the individual can be truly educated -only in the company of other human beings. The life of the individual -is necessarily bound up with participation in institutional life. Each -one of the various institutions of society in which the mentality of -the race has manifested itself--the home, the school, the church, -the vocation, the state--becomes a medium for the activity of the -individual, and at the same time a means of social control. As far -as the child enters into the surrounding life, he is to receive the -development needed for the present, and thereby also to be prepared for -the future. Through imitation of coöperative activities in play, he -obtains not only physical, but intellectual and moral training. Such -a moral and intellectual atmosphere Froebel sought to cultivate at -Keilhau by coöperation in domestic labor,--‘lifting, pulling, carrying, -digging, splitting,’ and through coöperative construction out of blocks -of a chapel, castle, and other features of a village. Similarly, -the kindergarten was intended to “represent a _miniature state_ for -children, in which the young citizen can learn to move freely, but with -consideration for his little fellows.” - -[Sidenote: A school without books or set tasks as his third -contribution.] - -=The Kindergarten.=--Beside his basal principles of motor expression -and social participation, Froebel made a third contribution to -educational practice in advocating as a means of realizing these -principles a school without books or set intellectual tasks, -and permeated with play, freedom, and joy. In the kindergarten, -‘self-activity’ and ‘creativeness,’ together with social coöperation, -found complete application and concrete expression. The training there -has always consisted of three coördinate forms of expression: (1) song, -(2) movement and gesture, and (3) construction; and mingled with these -and growing out of each is the use of language by the child. But these -means, while separate, often coöperate with and interpret one another, -and the process is connected as an organic whole. For example, when the -story is told or read, it is expressed in song, dramatized in movement -and gesture, and illustrated by a construction from blocks, paper, -clay, or other material. - -[Sidenote: _Mother Play._] - -The _Mother Play and Nursery Songs_ were intended to exercise the -infant’s senses, limbs, and muscles, and, through the loving union -between mother and child, draw both into intelligent and agreeable -relations with the common objects of life about them. The fifty -‘play songs’ are each connected with some simple nursery game, like -‘pat-a-cake,’ ‘hide-and-seek,’ or the imitation of some trade (Fig. -43), and are intended to correspond to a special physical, mental, or -moral need of the child. The selection and order of the songs were -determined with reference to the child’s development, which ranges from -almost reflex and instinctive movements up to an ability to represent -his perceptions with drawings, accompanied by considerable growth of -the moral sense. Each song contains three parts: (1) a motto for the -guidance of the mother; (2) a verse with the accompanying music, to -sing to the child; and (3) a picture illustrating the verse. - -[Sidenote: ‘Gifts,’--] - -[Sidenote: first,] - -[Sidenote: second,] - -[Sidenote: third,] - -[Sidenote: and the other three,] - -[Sidenote: and ‘occupations.’] - -The ‘gifts’ and ‘occupations’ were both intended to stimulate -motor expression, but the ‘gifts’ combine and rearrange certain -definite material without changing the form, while the ‘occupations’ -reshape, modify, and transform their material. The emphasis in -kindergarten practice has come to be transferred from the ‘gifts’ to -the ‘occupations,’ which have been largely increased in range and -number. Of the ‘gifts,’ the first consists of a box of six woolen -balls of different colors. They are to be rolled about in play, and -thus develop ideas of color, material, form, motion, direction, and -muscular sensibility. A sphere, cube, and cylinder of hard wood compose -the second ‘gift.’ Here, therefore, are found a known factor in the -sphere and an unknown one in the cube. A comparison is made of the -stability of the cube with the movability of the sphere, and the two -are harmonized in the cylinder, which possesses the characteristics -of each. The third ‘gift’ is a large wooden cube divided into eight -equal cubes, thus teaching the relations of the parts to the whole and -to one another, and making possible original constructions, such as -armchairs, benches, thrones, doorways, monuments, or steps. The three -following ‘gifts’ divide the cube in various ways so as to produce -solid bodies of different types and sizes, and excite an interest in -number, relation, and form. From them the children are encouraged -to construct geometrical figures and ‘forms of beauty’ or artistic -designs. Beside the six regular ‘gifts,’ he also added ‘tablets,’ -‘sticks,’ and ‘rings,’ sometimes known as ‘gifts seven to nine.’ This -material introduces surfaces, lines, and points in contrast with the -preceding solids, and brings out the relations of area, outline, -and circumference to volume. The ‘occupations’ comprise a long list -of constructions with paper, sand, clay, wood, and other materials. -Corresponding with the ‘gifts’ that deal with solids, may be grouped -‘occupations’ in clay modeling, cardboard cutting, paper folding, and -wood carving; and with those of surfaces may be associated mat and -paper weaving, stick shaping, sewing, bead threading, paper pricking, -and drawing. - -[Sidenote: Superficial faults,] - -[Sidenote: bondage to local ideals,] - -[Sidenote: and formal discipline.] - -=The Value and Influence of Froebel’s Principles.=--For one pursuing -destructive criticism only, it would not be difficult to find flaws -in both the theory and practice of Froebel. In the _Mother Play_ the -pictures are rough and poorly drawn, the music is crude, and the verses -are lacking in rhythm, poetic spirit, and diction (Fig. 43). But the -illustrations and songs served well the interests and needs of those -for whom they were produced, and Froebel himself was not insistent -that they should be used after more satisfactory compositions were -found. Other criticism of his material has been made on the ground -that it was especially adapted to German ideals, German children, -and the relatively simple village life of Froebel’s experience, and -that it needs considerable modification to suit other countries and -the industrial organization of society to-day. Also the argument of -‘formal discipline’ for care and accuracy in the use of the gifts, -and the insistence upon the employment of every part of each gift -upon all occasions in the exact order mentioned by Froebel, have been -shown to violate the principles of modern psychology. His more liberal -disciples, however, realize that it is the spirit of his underlying -principles, and not the letter of his practice, that should be -followed, and have constantly struggled to keep the kindergarten matter -and methods in harmony with the times and the environment. - - -Der Zimmermann. - - Seht mir nur den Zimmermann, - Welch’ seltne Kunst er üben kann: - Was steht, bringt er zum Sturz; - Was lang ist, macht er kurz; - Das Runde macht er grad; - Das Rauhe macht er glatt; - Was krumm ist, macht er gleich; - So ist an Kunst er reich. - Das Einzle nicht ihm g’nügt, - Zum Ganzen schnell er ’s fügt; - Doch, was kommt da heraus?-- - Aus Balken wird ein Haus! - Ein Haus für ‘s gute Kind, - Daß es d’rin Eltern find’, - Die sorgsam es bewahren - Vor Seel’- und Leib’sgefahren. - Den Zimmermann das Kind d’rum liebt, - Der ihm den Schutz des Hauses giebt. - -[Illustration: Fig. 43.--_Der Zimmermann_ (The Carpenter). - -(Reproduced by permission of D. Appleton and Company from the Eliot and -Blow edition of Froebel’s _Mother Play_.)] - -[Sidenote: Greatest weakness in symbolism and mysticism.] - -[Sidenote: Fantastic and vague doctrines.] - -[Sidenote: Notion that nature may illumine mental and social laws.] - -A more serious hindrance to the acceptance of Froebelianism has arisen -from his peculiar mysticism and symbolism. Since all things live and -have their being in and through God and the divine principle in each -is the essence of its life, everything is liable to be considered -by Froebel as symbolic in its very nature, and he often resorts to -fantastic and strained interpretations. Thus with Froebel the cube -becomes the symbol of diversity in unity, the faces and edges of -crystals all have mystic meanings, and the numbers three and five -reveal an inner significance. At times this symbolism descends into -a literal and verbal pun, where it seems to a modern that Froebel -can hardly be in earnest. Further, he holds that general conceptions -are implicit in the child, and each of these can be awakened by -‘adumbration,’ that is, by presenting something that will symbolically -represent that particular ‘innate idea.’ Thus, in treating the gifts -and games, he maintains that from a ball the pupils gather an abstract -notion of ‘unity.’ Moreover, because God is the self-conscious spirit -that originated both man and nature, and everything is interconnected, -he believes that each part of the universe may throw light on every -other part, and constantly holds that a knowledge of external -nature,--such as the formation of crystals, will enable one to -comprehend the laws of the mind and of society. - -[Sidenote: Most essential to conservatives.] - -[Sidenote: Effect upon pupils.] - -Unfortunately, this mystic symbolism, vague and extreme as it is, -is regarded by the strict constructionists among the kindergartners -as the most essential feature in Froebelianism, and they expect the -innocents in their charge to reveal the symbolic effect of the material -upon their minds. There is no real evidence for supposing that such -associations between common objects and abstract conceptions exist for -children. But such an imaginary symbolic meaning may be forced upon an -object by the teacher, and pupils in conservative kindergartens soon -learn to adopt certain phrases and attitudes that imply such mystic -meaning. This often tends to foster insincerity and sentimentalism -rather than to inculcate abstract truth through symbols. Had Froebel -possessed the enlarged knowledge of biology, physiology, and psychology -that is available for one living in the twentieth century, it is -unlikely that he would have insisted upon the symbolic foundations for -his pedagogy. His excellent practice is heavily handicapped by these -interpretations, and might as easily have been inferred from very -different positions in modern psychology. - -[Sidenote: Borrowed from others,] - -[Sidenote: but unique in motor expression, social participation and -informal school.] - -But Froebel has had a most happy effect upon education as a whole. -In some respects he utilized features from other reformers. We can -see that he adopted many of Pestalozzi’s objective methods in -geography, natural history, arithmetic, language, drawing, writing -and reading, and constructive geometry; reiterated Rousseau’s views -upon the infallibility of nature; and advocated the physical training -and excursions as a means of study that are stressed by both these -reformers. In his use of stories, legends, fables, and fairy-tales, -he paralleled his contemporary, Herbart, in his influence upon the -curriculum. But in his emphasis upon motor expression and social -participation, together with his advocacy of a school without books or -set tasks, Froebel was unique, and made a most distinctive contribution -to educational practice. And whenever the real significance of his -principles has been comprehended, they have been recognized as the most -essential laws in the educational process, and are valued as the means -of all effective teaching. - -[Sidenote: Contribution to all stages of education.] - -[Sidenote: Manual training through Cygnæus] - -[Sidenote: and Salomon.] - -[Sidenote: Parker and Dewey.] - -Froebel himself never fully worked out his theories in connection -with schooling beyond the kindergarten, but all stages of education -have now come to realize the value of discovering and developing -individuality by means of initiative, execution, and coöperation; and -spontaneous activities, like play, construction, and occupational -work, have become more and more the means to this end. For example, -the ‘busy work,’ ‘whittling,’ ‘clay-modeling,’ ‘sloyd,’ and other -types of ‘manual training’ have to a large degree sprung from the -influence of Froebel. Uno Cygnæus (1810-1888), who started the manual -training movement, owed his inspiration to Froebel and his own desire -to extend the kindergarten occupations through the grades. As a result -of his efforts, Finland in 1866 became the first country in the world -to adopt manual training as an integral part of the course in the -elementary and teacher training schools. In 1874, through the visit -of Otto Salomon (1849-1907) to Cygnæus, Sweden transformed its sloyd -from a system of teaching the elements of trades to the more educative -method of manual training. This use of constructive and occupational -work for educational purposes rather than for industrial efficiency -soon spread throughout Europe, and was first suggested to the United -States by the Centennial Exposition of 1876 at Philadelphia. Various -types of modern educational theory and practice, especially those -associated with experiments made in the United States, also reveal -large elements of Froebelian influence. Among these might be included -the work of Colonel Parker (Fig. 40) and of Professor John Dewey. -The Froebelian emphasis upon motor expression, the social aspect of -education, and informal schooling are evident throughout Parker’s -work in his elementary school, and are even extended so as to include -speech and the language-arts. Similarly, Dewey’s occupational work and -industrial activities, which were used through the entire course of his -‘experimental school’ in Chicago, although not copied directly from -Froebel, closely approached the modified practice of the kindergarten -(see pp. 430 f.). - -[Sidenote: Baroness von Bülow visited all countries.] - -[Sidenote: Foundation of Froebel Union.] - -[Sidenote: Results in Western Europe.] - -=The Spread of Froebelianism through Europe.=--Directly after the -death of Froebel, the kindergarten began to be spread through his -devoted followers, especially Baroness von Bülow. By means of her -social position and knowledge of modern languages, she was enabled to -become his great apostle throughout Europe. Having failed to obtain -a revocation of the edict against the kindergarten (see p. 355) in -Prussia, the baroness turned to foreign lands. She visited France, -Belgium, Holland, Italy, Russia, and nearly every other section of -Europe, and in 1867 was invited to speak before the ‘Congress of -Philosophers’ at Frankfort. This distinguished gathering had been -called to inquire into contemporary educational movements, and after -her elucidation of Froebelianism, a standing committee of the Congress, -known as the ‘Froebel Union,’ was formed to study the system. The -propaganda was soon everywhere eagerly embraced. Kindergartens, -training schools, and journals devoted to the movement rapidly -sprang up. While the kindergarten was not generally adopted by the -governments, it was widely established by voluntary means throughout -Western Europe, and has since met with a noteworthy growth. Instruction -in Froebelian principles is now generally required in most normal -and teacher training institutions there. Sometimes, as in France and -England, it has been combined with the infant school movement, and -has lost some of its most vital characteristics, but even in these -cases the cross-fertilization has afforded abundant educational -fruitage. Only in Germany, the native land of the kindergarten, has -serious hostility to the idea remained. Kindergartens have, with few -exceptions, never been recognized there as genuine schools or part -of the regular state system. Even to-day the German kindergarten is -regarded as little more than a day nursery or convenient place to -deposit small children and have them amused. - -[Sidenote: Voluntary basis through Elizabeth P. Peabody,] - -[Sidenote: Maria Bölte,] - -[Sidenote: Susan E. Blow,] - -[Sidenote: Emma Marwedel, and others.] - -=The Kindergarten in the United States.=--The development and influence -of the kindergarten have been more marked in the United States than -in any other country. First attempts at a kindergarten in America -were made shortly after the middle of the nineteenth century by -educated Germans, who had emigrated to America because of the unsettled -conditions at home. A more fruitful attempt was that of Elizabeth P. -Peabody at Boston in the early sixties. Notwithstanding the immediate -success of this institution and the evident enjoyment of the children, -Miss Peabody felt that she had not succeeded in getting the real spirit -of Froebel, and in 1867 she went to study with his widow, who had been -settled in Hamburg for several years. Upon her return the following -year Miss Peabody corrected the errors in her work and established a -periodical to explain and spread Froebelianism. The remainder of her -life was spent in interesting parents, philanthropists, and school -boards in the movement, and a service was done for the kindergarten -in America almost equal to that of Baroness von Bülow in Europe. In -1868 through Miss Peabody the first training school for kindergartners -in the United States was established at Boston. A similar institution -was opened in New York by 1872 in charge of Maria Bölte, who had -also studied with Frau Froebel. The same year saw the beginning of -Susan E. Blow’s work in St. Louis, where her free training school -for kindergartners was opened. Another missionary effort began in -1876 through Emma Marwedel, who was employed to organize voluntary -kindergartens and training classes throughout the chief centers of -California. The kindergarten movement grew rapidly. Between 1870 -and 1890 in all the leading cities of the country subscriptions for -kindergartens were raised by various philanthropic agencies, and by -the close of the century there were about five hundred such voluntary -associations. - -[Sidenote: Part of the public school system in all progressive cities.] - -But private foundations are restrictive, and it was not until the -kindergarten began to be adopted by school systems that the movement -became truly national in the United States. Boston in the early -seventies added a few kindergartens to her public schools, but after -several years of trial gave them up on account of the expense. The -first permanent establishment under a city board was made in 1873 at -St. Louis through the efforts of Miss Blow. Twelve kindergartens were -organized at first, but others were opened as rapidly as competent -directors could be prepared at Miss Blow’s training school. Within a -decade there were more than fifty public kindergartens and nearly eight -thousand pupils in St. Louis. San Francisco authorized the addition -of kindergartens to the public schools in 1880; and between that date -and the end of the century New York, Boston, Philadelphia, Buffalo, -Pittsburgh, Rochester, Providence, Milwaukee, Minneapolis, and nearly -two hundred other progressive cities made the work an integral part of -their system. About twenty of the cities employed a special supervisor -to inspect the work. Excellent training schools for kindergartners -are now maintained by half a hundred public and quasi-public normal -institutions. - -[Sidenote: Studies improved by Pestalozzi] - -[Sidenote: and Herbart,] - -[Sidenote: and training contributed by Froebel.] - -[Sidenote: Period of reforms of Pestalozzi,] - -[Sidenote: Froebel,] - -[Sidenote: and Herbart.] - -=The Relative Influence of Pestalozzi, Herbart, and Froebel.=--It is -now obvious how large a part in the development of modern educational -practice has been played by Herbart and Froebel. There are few -tendencies in the curricula and methods of the schools to-day that -cannot in their beginnings be traced back to them, or to Pestalozzi, -their master. But the reforms of all three find their roots in -Rousseau (Fig. 44). His ‘naturalism’ was continued by Pestalozzi (Fig. -45) in his ‘development’ and ‘observation,’ which were, in turn, -further elaborated by Froebel and Herbart respectively (Figs. 47 and -46). Through his ‘observation’ methods, Pestalozzi greatly improved -the teaching of arithmetic, language work, geography, elementary -science, drawing, writing, reading, and music, and, by means of -Fellenberg’s work, developed industrial and philanthropic training. -As a result of Herbart’s moral and religious aim, marked advances in -the teaching of history and literature have taken place, and, largely -through his carefully wrought educational doctrines, order and system -have everywhere been introduced into instruction. From Froebel’s -mystic interpretation of ‘natural development’ we have obtained the -kindergarten training for a period of life hitherto largely neglected, -the informal occupations, manual training, and other studies of motor -expression, together with psychological and social principles that -underlie every stage of education. Pestalozzi’s reforms were felt -in Europe throughout the first half of the nineteenth century, but -did not have any wide effect upon the United States until after the -‘Oswego movement’ in the sixties. The influence of Froebel appeared in -Europe shortly after the middle of the century, and began to rise to -its height in America about 1880. The Herbartian theory and practice -became popular in Germany between 1865 and 1885, while the growth of -Herbartianism in the United States began about five years after the -latter date. Hence the development of modern educational practice, due -to these three great reformers, falls distinctly within the period -of the nineteenth century. - -[Illustration: Fig. 44.--Jean Jacques Rousseau - -(1712-1778).] - -[Illustration: Fig. 45.--Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi - -(1746-1827).] - -[Illustration: Fig. 46.--Johann Friedrich Herbart - -(1776-1841).] - -[Illustration: Fig. 47.--Friedrich Wilhelm August Froebel - -(1782-1852).] - -GREAT EDUCATIONAL REFORMERS - - -SUPPLEMENTARY READING - -Graves, _In Modern Times_ (Macmillan, 1913), chap. VII; _Great -Educators_ (Macmillan, 1912), chaps. X and XI; Monroe, _Textbook_ -(Macmillan, 1905), pp. 622-673; Parker, _Modern Elementary Education_ -(Ginn, 1912), chaps. XVII and XVIII. Herbart’s _Science of Education_ -(translated by Felkin), and _Outlines of Educational Doctrine_ -(translated by Lange and De Garmo, Macmillan, 1909); and Froebel’s -_Education of Man_ (translated by Hailmann; Appleton, 1894), -_Pedagogics of the Kindergarten_ and _Education by Development_ -(translated by Jarvis; Appleton, 1897 and 1899), and _Mother Play_ -(translated by Eliot and Blow, Appleton, 1896), should be read at least -cursorily. The best brief treatise on _Herbart and Herbartianism_ -(Scribner, 1896) is that by De Garmo, C., a graphic description of _The -Herbartian Psychology_ (Heath, 1898) is given by Adams, J., in chap. -III, and a history of _The Doctrines of Herbart in the United States_ -as a doctoral dissertation (University of Pennsylvania) by Randels, -G. B. A good account of _Froebel and Education by Self-Activity_ -(Scribner, 1897) has been furnished by Bowen, H. C.; a conservative -treatment of _Kindergarten Education_ (_Education in the United -States_, edited by N. M. Butler, Monograph No. 1), by Blow, Susan -E.; an interesting treatise on _Kindergarten in American Education_ -(Macmillan, 1908), by Vandewalker, Nina C.; and a critical account of -_The Psychology of the Kindergarten_ (_Teachers College Record_, vol. -IV, pp. 377-408), by Thorndike, E. L. - - - - -CHAPTER XXV - -THE DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION - - -OUTLINE - - The leading states of Western Europe and of Canada have, during the - past century and a half, organized systems of education, which may - prove suggestive. - - In Prussia, owing to a strong line of monarchs, state control has - taken the place of ecclesiastical through a series of decrees - and enactments. The people’s schools are quite separate from - the secondary schools. Three types of secondary institutions - have developed,--the ‘gymnasium,’ with the classics as staples; - the ‘real-school,’ with modern languages and sciences; and the - ‘real-gymnasium,’ with its compromise between the other two. The - universities have likewise been emancipated from ecclesiastical - control. - - In France, a highly centralized system has been developed. Napoleon - united secondary and higher education in a single corporation; - under Louis Philippe, an organization of elementary schools was - made; and, during the third republic, elementary education has - been made free, compulsory, and secular. The present secondary - system--_lycées_ and communal colleges--began with Napoleon, and - has now been differentiated into several courses. One-half of the - universities established by Napoleon were suppressed during the - Restoration, but since 1896 there has been a university in each of - the sixteen ‘academies,’ save one. - - In England national education has grown out of the conflict of a - number of social elements. The sentiment for universal training - appeared toward the close of the eighteenth century, but not until - 1870 were ‘board schools’ established. In 1899 a central Board - of Education was created; and the Act of 1902, while permitting - voluntary schools to share in the local rates, unified the system - and established secondary education at public expense. During the - nineteenth century also the classical and ecclesiastical monopoly - in secondary and higher education was largely broken. - - In Canada there have developed two types of educational - control,--(1) the closely centralized system of public schools in - Ontario, and (2) the public supervision of ecclesiastical schools - in Quebec. - -[Sidenote: Elementary education free, but few cases of gratuitous -secondary schools, and France alone secularized.] - -[Sidenote: Suggestive, when understood historically.] - -=National Systems of Education in Europe and Canada.=--In previous -chapters (XVII, XXI, XXIII) we have witnessed the gradual evolution in -America of state systems of universal education out of the unorganized -and rather aristocratic arrangement of schools that had first been -transplanted from Europe in the seventeenth century. But development -of a centralized organization of public schools has not been confined -to the United States. During the past century and a half, the leading -powers of Western Europe and Canada have likewise organized state -systems of education, similar in some respects to those of the American -union. All of these states have now established universal elementary -education free to all, although as yet in few instances are secondary -schools also gratuitous, and only Canada has welded her elementary and -secondary systems. France alone has completely secularized its system, -but the public schools of the other nations, while still including -religious instruction, have been emancipated from ecclesiastical -control, and are responsible to the civil authorities. In all of them -school attendance is compulsory. Yet the educational system in none of -these countries is identical with that in the United States, but has -been adapted in each case to the genius and social organization of the -people concerned. Its characteristics must, therefore, be considerably -modified, in order to be utilized or to prove suggestive to the United -States or other nations, and can be understood only in the light of -the educational history of the particular country to which it belongs. -For an intelligent appreciation of these modern school systems, we -must, therefore, trace the gradual development to their present form in -response to the changing ideals of successive periods. - -[Sidenote: Rise of Prussian education due to enlightened despots:] - -[Sidenote: (1) Decree for compulsory attendance by Frederick William I -in 1717;] - -=The Beginning of State Control in Prussia.=--We may look first at -Germany. Up to the later years of the eighteenth century all stages -of education in the various German states remained almost entirely -under ecclesiastical control, but during this period the schools and -universities were taken over by the state from the church, although the -clergy still exercised a few prerogatives, and centralized national -systems were gradually organized. Among these states of Germany -the first and most influential in the organization of universal -education was Prussia. While each of the others is characterized by an -educational history and peculiarities of its own, this state may be -taken as an illustration of the evolution of German school systems. -The rise of Prussia, educationally as well as politically, seems to -have been due to the strong Hohenzollern monarchs,--despotic, but -thoroughly awake to the interests of their people. Although for nearly -two centuries state control of education was carried on more or less -through the medium of the church, its development was well under -way by the seventeenth century. While the ‘consistory,’ or board of -supervision, was still composed largely of the clergy, the schools -were soon (1687) declared not to be simply church organizations, but -to belong to the state, and some attempt was made to extend schools to -the villages as well as cities. But the first noteworthy attempt to -establish compulsory attendance occurred during the reign of Frederick -William I. In 1717 that monarch decreed that, wherever schools existed, -children should be required to attend during the winter, and in the -summer whenever they could be spared by their parents, which must be -at least once a week. He also founded the first teachers’ seminary at -Stettin from his own private means (1735), and the next year had a -definite law passed, making education compulsory for children from six -to twelve years of age. - -[Sidenote: (2) _General School Regulations_ decreed by Frederick in -1763,] - -[Sidenote: supplemented by _Regulations for Catholic Schools_;] - -=Educational Achievements of Frederick the Great.=--His most -important contribution, however, consisted in preparing the way for -an educational movement that was to be greatly developed through his -more able son, Frederick the Great. Frederick began by improving the -administration of secondary education, and requiring that all vacancies -on crown lands be filled by graduates from Hecker’s normal school -at Berlin. But the great step toward a national system was taken in -1763, when Frederick issued his _General School Regulations for the -Country_. This decree required children to attend school from five -until thirteen or fourteen, and until they “know not only what is -necessary of Christianity, fluent reading, and writing, but can give -answer in everything which they learn from the school books prescribed -and approved by our consistory.” If any pupils should arrive at this -state of proficiency before thirteen or fourteen, they could even then -leave school only through the official certification of the teacher, -minister, and inspector. Provision was also made for the attendance -of children who had to herd cattle or were too poor to pay the school -fees. Sunday continuation schools were to be established for young -people beyond the school age. Teachers must have attended Hecker’s -seminary and had to be examined and licensed by the inspector. This -decree was two years later supplemented with similar _Regulations for -the Catholic Schools in Silesia_, drawn up by Abbot Felbiger. The -carrying out of the decree was, however, stubbornly opposed by many -teachers, who could not meet the new requirements; by farmers, who -objected to the loss of their children’s time; and by the nobles, who -feared the discontent and uprising of the peasants, in case they were -educated. The execution of the regulation was still in the power of -the clergy, and for some time it proved but little more than a pious -wish. But Frederick strove hard to have it enforced, and it became the -foundation for the more effective laws that have since become embodied -in the Prussian school system. - -[Sidenote: (3) Establishment of Central Board of Administration under -Frederick William II in 1787;] - -=Educational Influence of Zedlitz.=--After 1771 the educational -work of Frederick was substantially aided by the appointment of -Baron von Zedlitz as head of the Department of the Lutheran Church -and School Affairs. This great minister had been much impressed by -Basedow’s principles and experiments and by Rochow’s application of -the ‘naturalistic’ training, and through him village schools were -greatly strengthened and enriched, a regular normal school was opened -at Halberstadt, and the humanistic ideal of secondary education -revived. A year after Frederick’s death Zedlitz succeeded, even under -the reactionary monarch, Frederick William II, in further developing -the nationalization of education. In 1787 an _Oberschulcollegium_, -or central board of school administration, was appointed instead of -the former church consistories. However, while the organization was -supposed to be made up of educational experts, and Zedlitz was actually -made chairman, the membership was mostly filled from the clergy, and -the king refused to extend its jurisdiction to the higher schools. - -[Sidenote: (4) Publication of _General Code_ in 1794;] - -Despite the reactionary policy of the sovereign, the culmination of -the attempts to establish a national nonsectarian system of education -occurred during this reign. In 1794 there was published the _General -Code_, in which the chapter upon education declared unequivocally -that “all schools and universities are under the supervision of the -state, and are at all times subject to its examination and inspection.” -Teachers were, therefore, not to be chosen without the consent of -the state, and where their appointment was not vested in particular -persons, it was to belong to the state. Teachers of all secondary -schools were to be regarded as state officials. No child was to be -excluded from the schools because of his religion, nor compelled to -stay for religious instruction when it differed from the belief in -which he had been brought up. - -[Sidenote: (5) Creation of a Bureau of Education in 1807, which later -became a separate Ministry and then was further organized.] - -=Foundation of the Ministry of Education and Further Progress.=--While -this comprehensive code met with much opposition from the clergy and -the ignorant masses, and the next king, Frederick William III, weakly -yielded at first, the humiliation of Prussia by Napoleon (1803) brought -the country to a realization of the need of a centralized organization -of the school system. The _Oberschulcollegium_ was abolished, to get -rid of the clerical domination that had crept in, and a Bureau of -Education was created as a section of the Department of the Interior -in 1807. The Bureau was within a decade erected into a separate -Department or Ministry of Education. Eight years later (1825) the -state was divided into educational provinces; and a _Schulcollegium_, -or administrative board, with considerable independence, but subject -to the minister, was established over each province. Since then there -have been many further developments, and provinces themselves are now -divided into ‘governments,’ each of which has a ‘school commission’ -over it, and every government is divided into ‘districts,’ whose chief -officer is a ‘school inspector.’ Under the district inspector are local -inspectors, and each separate school also has a local board, to take -charge of repairs, supplies, and other external matters. - -Thus the supreme management of the schools has been gradually coming -into the hands of the state for nearly two centuries. The decrees of -1717 and 1763, the establishment of the _Oberschulcollegium_ in 1787, -the General Code promulgated in 1794, the foundation of a distinct -civic administration of education in 1807, are the mile-stones that -mark the way to state control. But, while the influence of the -church has been constantly diminishing, many of the board members -are ministers or priests and the inspectors come mostly from the -clergy. Moreover, religious instruction forms part of the course in -every school, although it is given at such an hour that any pupil may -withdraw if the teaching is contrary to the faith in which he has been -reared. The secondary schools are largely interdenominational, but in -elementary education there are separate schools for Catholics and -Protestants, alike supported by the state. - -[Sidenote: _Volksschulen_,] - -[Sidenote: ‘Continuation schools,’] - -[Sidenote: and _Mittelschulen_.] - -=The Elementary System.=--Prussia, like most of the principal states of -Europe, as a result of their educational history, has its elementary -and secondary systems quite separate and distinct from each other -(Fig. 48). The universities continue the work of the gymnasiums and -real-schools, but these two latter institutions parallel the work of -the _Volksschulen_ (people’s schools), rather than supplement it. The -course of the secondary school ordinarily occupies the pupil from -nine to eighteen years of age, while that of the elementary school -carries him from six to fourteen, and after the first three years -it is practically impossible to transfer from the elementary to the -secondary system. A pupil cannot enter a gymnasium or real-school -after completing the people’s school, and the only further training -he can obtain is that of the _Fortbildungschulen_, or ‘continuation -schools,’ which supplement the system (see p. 420). The people’s -schools are gratuitous and are attended mostly by the children of -the lower classes, while the gymnasiums charge a tuition fee and are -patronized by the professional classes and aristocracy. Hence the line -between elementary and secondary education in Prussia is longitudinal -and not latitudinal, as it is in the United States; the distinction is -one of wealth and social status rather than of educational grade and -advancement. There are also some _Mittelschulen_ (middle schools) for -the middle classes of people, who cannot send their children to the -secondary schools, and yet can afford some exclusiveness. They have -one more class than the people’s schools, include a foreign language -during the last three years, and require teachers with a better -training. - -[Sidenote: _Gymnasien_ and _Realschulen_;] - -[Sidenote: _Realgymnasien_ and _Oberrealschulen_;] - -[Sidenote: six-year courses;] - -=The Secondary System.=--The main types of secondary schools in Prussia -are the _Gymnasien_ (see p. 114), with the classic languages as the -main feature of their course, and the _Realschulen_, or real-schools -(see p. 176), characterized by larger amounts of the modern languages, -mathematics, and the natural sciences. For more than a century after -the first real-school was opened in Berlin by Hecker (1747), this type -of institution had only six years in its course, and was considered -inferior to the gymnasium. By the ministerial decree of 1859, however, -two classes of real-schools were recognized, and those of the first -class had a course of nine years, and included Latin, but not Greek. -They were given full standing as secondary schools, and graduates -were granted admission to the universities, except for the study of -theology, medicine, or law. The course of the second class of these -institutions contained no Latin, and was but six years in length. In -1882 the compromise character of the course of the first class of -institutions led to their being designated as _Realgymnasien_, while -the second class in some instances had their work extended to nine -years and became known as _Oberrealschulen_. The graduates were then -allowed the privilege of studying at the universities in mathematics -and the natural sciences. Since 1901 the university courses have -been thrown open to graduates of any of the three types of secondary -schools, except that, to be eligible for theology, one must have -completed the course of a gymnasium, and for medicine, the course -of a real-gymnasium at least. Besides these schools that have been -mentioned, in rural districts where a complete course cannot be -maintained, there are often secondary institutions that do not carry -the student more than six years. These are known, according to the -curriculum, as _Progymnasien_, _Realprogymnasien_, and _Realschulen_. -The first two classes are far less common than institutions with the -longer course of the same character, but the _Realschulen_ are nearly -twice as numerous as the _Oberrealschulen_. - -[Sidenote: _Reformschulen_;] - -[Sidenote: the _Vorschule_.] - -Since these three types of secondary institutions are so distinct -from each other (Fig. 48), it is evident that a parent is forced to -decide the future career of his boy at nine years, long before his -special ability can be known. If he once enters a real-school, he can -never transfer to a gymnasium, because the Latin begins in the lowest -class of the latter course, nor can he enter the gymnasium from the -real-gymnasium, after twelve, since he has had no Greek. To overcome -this objection, during the past quarter of a century efforts have been -made to delay the irrevocable decision by grouping all three courses -as one institution and making them identical as long as possible. In -secondary schools of this new sort, French is usually the only foreign -language taught for the first three years. Then the course divides, and -one section takes up Latin and the other English. After two years more -a further bifurcation takes place in the Latin section, and one group -begins with Greek, while the other studies English. These institutions -are known as _Reformschulen_ (Fig. 48), and the plan was first -introduced at Frankfort in 1892. The ‘reform schools’ are now growing -rapidly, and there is evident an increasing tendency to postpone the -choice of courses as long as possible. The three years of training -preliminary to admission to a secondary school of any type may be -obtained through the people’s or the middle schools. But there has also -grown up, as an attachment of the secondary schools, a _Vorschule_ -(preparatory school), to perform this function for pupils of the more -exclusive classes. - -[Sidenote: Universities, state institutions, but controlled by charters -and decrees.] - -=Higher Education.=--Like the other stages of education, the -universities are now emancipated from ecclesiastical control, and may -be regarded as part of the national system of education. The university -is now coördinate and under the same authority with the church, for -both are legally state institutions. Universities can, therefore, be -established only by the state or with the approval of the state. In -general, however, they are not controlled by legislation, but through -charters and special decrees of the minister of education. As their -income from endowments and fees is very small, they are for the most -part supported by the state. They are managed internally by the rector -and senate. The rector is annually chosen from their number by the -full professors, with the approval of the minister, and the senate is -a committee from the various faculties. The professors are regarded as -civil servants with definite privileges, and they are appointed by the -minister, although the suggestions of the faculty concerned are usually -respected. - -[Sidenote: _Technische Hochschulen._] - -During the nineteenth century new institutions for the cultivation of -science in application to practical and technological purposes have -developed from technical schools of a more elementary character. While -known as ‘technical high schools’ (_Technische Hochschulen_), they -are institutions of higher learning, and exist side by side with the -universities. They include schools of engineering, mining, forestry, -agriculture, veterinary medicine, and commerce. - -[Illustration: DIAGRAM OF GERMAN EDUCATION - -Fig. 48.] - -[Sidenote: First agitation for elementary education during the -Revolution.] - -=Educational Development in France.=--The development of a centralized -system of education in France began almost a century later than in -Germany. During the eighteenth and the early nineteenth century the -different monarchic powers were not at all favorable to training -the masses, and popular education was badly neglected. It required -several revolutions in government and the establishment of a permanent -republic, to break the old traditions completely, and to make it -evident that universal suffrage should be accompanied by universal -education. Just after the middle of the eighteenth century the -revolutionary spirit began to manifest itself with the appearance of -Rousseau’s _Emile_ (see p. 222), and, except for the training started -by the Christian Brothers (see p. 140), the first serious attention -was given to elementary education. Rolland, to whom a general plan for -reorganization had been committed, recommended universal education -and an adequate number of training schools for teachers. While his -proposals were not adopted, they were the basis of much of the -short-lived legislation that arose during the Revolution, and of the -great principles of educational administration that have since been -established. - -[Sidenote: Napoleon and the University of France.] - -Napoleon, from the beginning, endeavored to reorganize education upon a -better basis, and when he had become emperor, ordered all the lycées, -secondary colleges, and faculties of higher education to be united -in a single corporation, dependent upon the state and known as the -‘University of France’ (1808). This decree of centralization divided -the country into twenty-seven administrative ‘academies,’ each of -which was to establish university faculties of letters and science near -the principal lycées. - -[Sidenote: Through Guizot primary schools began.] - -This organization, however, did not include elementary education, and -little attempt was made to provide for schools of this grade before -the reign of Louis Philippe. Upon the advice of his great minister of -education, Guizot, that monarch organized primary education, requiring -a school for each commune, or at least for a group of two or three -communes, and starting higher primary schools in the department -capitals and in communes of over six thousand inhabitants (1833). -He also instituted inspectors of primary schools, and established -department normal schools under the more effective control of the -state authorities. The plan for higher primary schools was never fully -realized, and the institutions of this sort that had been established -disappeared during the second empire. The reactionary law of Falloux -(1850) did not even mention these schools, but encouraged the -development of denominational schools. - -[Sidenote: Under third republic primary system was completed.] - -[Sidenote: Normal schools.] - -[Sidenote: Higher primary and continuation schools.] - -[Sidenote: Maternal schools.] - -=The Primary School System.=--Guizot, however, had given a permanent -impulse to popular education, and during the third republic foundations -for a national system of education have rapidly been laid. Schools -have been brought into the smallest villages, and elementary education -has been made free to all (1881) and compulsory between the ages of -six and thirteen (1882). To provide trained teachers, every department -has been required to provide a normal school for teachers of each sex; -and two higher normal schools, one for men and one for women, to train -teachers for the departmental normal schools, have been opened by the -state (1882). The higher primary schools have been reëstablished -and extended (1898), and ‘supplementary courses’ offered for pupils -remaining at the lower primary schools after graduation. The studies -in the supplementary courses are technical, as well as general, and -some of the higher primary schools have been established for vocational -training rather than literary. In addition, there are continuation -‘schools of manual apprenticeship’ in the various communes, subsidized -by the state for industrial and agricultural education, and five large -schools for training in special crafts have been organized in Paris. -Institutions for children between two and six years of age became part -of the primary system in the days of Guizot (1833), and half a century -later the present name, _écoles maternelles_ (see p. 244), was adopted -(1881), although there have since been marked reforms made in the -curriculum. - -[Sidenote: Secularization.] - -Secularization of the school system has also gradually taken place. -First, the courses of study were secularized by the substitution -of civic and moral instruction for religious (1881); next, the -instructional force was secularized by providing that members of the -clergy should no longer be employed in the public schools (1886), -and by recognizing public school teachers as state officers (1889); -and finally, the schools themselves were completely secularized by -compelling the teaching orders to report to the state authorities -(1902), and afterwards by closing the free schools directed by them -(1904). Thus within a generation universal elementary education has -been established in France and brought completely under state control. - -[Sidenote: Development of lycées and communal collèges.] - -=The Secondary System.=--As in Prussia, the secondary school system -of France does not connect with the primary, but is quite separate -and distinct (Fig. 49). The training has, since the time of Napoleon, -been furnished chiefly by the lycées and communal collèges. During the -Restoration (1814-1830) and the reign of Louis Philippe (1830-1848) the -lycées came to be called ‘royal colleges,’ but, with the advent of the -second republic (1848-1851), the Napoleonic name was restored and the -curricula were completely reorganized. By this revision some elasticity -was introduced into the last three years of the lycée by a bifurcation -into a literary and a scientific course, and during the third republic -further elections were introduced, until finally (1902) four distinct -courses were established. In the leading lycées and collèges special -preparation is also afforded for schools like the military institution -of St. Cyr or the Polytechnic of Paris; and in some there is a short -course of three or four years in modern languages and sciences that in -function closely approaches that of the German real-school. - -[Sidenote: Organization of lycées] - -[Sidenote: and collèges.] - -[Sidenote: Secondary institutions for girls.] - -The boys ordinarily begin the first ‘cycle’ of the lycée or collège -at ten years of age, and while they may transfer from the primary -system at this stage, in most lycées and collèges there are preparatory -classes to train the pupil from six to ten. The second ‘cycle,’ -during which the differentiation in courses largely occurs, takes the -pupil from fourteen to seventeen, and leads upon completion to the -bachelor’s degree. Education in a lycée or collège is not gratuitous, -but the income from tuition fees is so small as to cover but a small -fraction of the cost, and the rest is contributed by the state. The -communal collèges differ from the lycées in being local, and they are -maintained by the communes, as well as by the state. They have not -the same standing, and the same attainments are not required of their -professors. Until 1880 there were no lycées and communal collèges for -girls, and convents and private schools furnished the only means of -female education. Even now the usual course in the public secondary -institutions for girls is two years shorter than in those for boys. - -[Sidenote: Suppression and restoration of the universities.] - -[Sidenote: Degrees.] - -[Sidenote: Other higher institutions.] - -=The Institutions of Higher Education.=--More than one-half of the -universities established in the various ‘academies’ by Napoleon were -suppressed as soon as the monarchy was restored. But about half a -dozen were reopened in the reign of Louis Philippe, and were gradually -improved by the addition of new chairs. Beginning in 1885, a number -of decrees established a general council of faculties in each academy -to coördinate the different courses and studies, and in 1896 a law -was passed, which established a university in each of the sixteen -‘academies,’ except one. These universities differ greatly in size, but -all grant the _license_, or master’s degree, and the doctorate. The -university degrees are ordinarily conferred in the name of the state -and carry certain definite rights with them, but of late years a new -type of degree, ‘doctorate of the university,’ is granted upon easier -terms to foreigners more desirous of the degree than of its state -privileges. In Paris, besides the university, there is the College of -France, which still endeavors to foster freedom of thought (see p. -110), and a dozen other institutions of university grade, connected -with some special line, have been established. - -[Sidenote: Duties of minister,] - -[Sidenote: rectors,] - -[Sidenote: prefects,] - -[Sidenote: and inspectors.] - -=Centralized Administration of the French Education.=--The -centralization of education is even more complete in France than in -Germany. The supreme head of the system is the minister of education. -He is immediately assisted by three directors, one each for primary, -secondary, and higher education. A rector is in charge of each of the -‘academies,’ except Paris, where the minister nominally holds the -office and a vice rector performs the duties. The rector has authority -over all three fields of education in his academy, but does not appoint -the teachers. That office is performed by the prefect, or head of each -civil department, upon the recommendation of the academy inspector. -There is also a departmental council, presided over by the prefect, -that appoints delegates in each canton, to take charge of the school -premises and equipment. Further organization is effected through the -maintenance of a complete corps of general, academy, and primary -inspectors. - -[Sidenote: Slow evolution.] - -[Sidenote: Church monopoly.] - -[Sidenote: Philanthropic institutions.] - -=Early Development of English Education.=--In England the -nationalization of education was delayed even longer than in France. -This country was never controlled by enlightened despots, who could, -as in Germany, force the growth of public educational sentiment, nor -was it overwhelmed by the sweep of a great revolution, destroying, as -in France, all opposition to popular progress. National education in -England has gradually grown out of the conflict of a number of elements -represented in its society. It has been the product of a series of -compromises among many different factors,--the church, state, economic -conditions, private enterprise, and philanthropy. For several centuries -education was regarded as a function of the church and family, and the -sentiment for universal training was retarded by the attitude of the -upper classes, who strove to keep the poor in ignorance and to maintain -the educational control of the church. This domination was first -seriously challenged in the eighteenth century, and while the training -then furnished through the Society for the Promotion of Christian -Knowledge, the Sunday schools, and other philanthropic institutions -(see pp. 232 ff.), was rather meager, these organizations, together -with the ‘monitorial’ instruction of the British and Foreign, and the -National Societies (see pp. 240 f.), greatly advanced the cause of -universal education. And toward the close of the century there began -to appear a new point of view, especially with men like Bentham, -Blackstone, Robert Owen, and Adam Smith, who advocated universal -education, compulsory attendance, and a national system of schools. - -[Sidenote: First signs of progress.] - -[Sidenote: First parliamentary grant in 1833.] - -[Sidenote: Committee of Privy Council in 1839.] - -[Sidenote: ‘Payment by results’ in 1861.] - -=Educational Movements in the Nineteenth Century.=--The theory of these -great thinkers was somewhat in advance of the times, but, early in the -nineteenth century, social changes began to favor better educational -opportunities. The Factory Act (1802) provided for the obligatory -training of apprentices; Mr. Whitbread introduced (1807) a bill to -permit the civic officials of any township or parish to establish -schools for the poor wherever none existed; and Brougham, while -losing his bill for popular education (1820), previously secured two -commissions of inquiry on school facilities. In 1832, the passage of a -reform bill, which largely increased the suffrage, aroused Parliament -to the need of educating the masses, and the next year the first grant, -£20,000, was made for elementary education. This sum was to be used -solely to aid in building schoolhouses for which subscriptions had -been privately obtained, and so could be passed as a vote of ‘supply,’ -without referring it to the House of Lords. For lack of a government -organization of education, it was apportioned through the National and -the British and Foreign Societies (see p. 240). Governmental activities -constantly increased. In 1839 the annual grant was increased to £30,000 -and allowed to be used for elementary education without restriction. In -the same year, a separate committee of the Privy Council was designated -to administer the educational grants; and in 1856 a Vice President was -appointed to act as chairman of this educational committee. Then, in -1861, through another commission on popular education, it was arranged -to base the grant to any school upon the results shown by the pupils in -the governmental examinations. This ‘payment by results’ was intended -to increase efficiency, but, used as a sole means of testing, it soon -proved narrowing and unfair, and had to be supplemented by the general -opinion formed of each school by the inspectors. Yet it somewhat -increased the efficiency of the work. - -[Sidenote: In 1870 establishment of ‘board schools’, supported by local -‘rates,’ as well as grants.] - -Agitation in behalf of universal education continued, and organizations -like the ‘Lancashire Public School Association’ of Manchester (1847) -and ‘The League’ of Birmingham (1869) spread rapidly through the -manufacturing centers. And when the franchise was further extended in -1868, the necessity for preparing millions of the common people for -new responsibilities in public affairs led in 1870 to the passage of -the epoch-making bill of William E. Forster. Under this act ‘board -schools,’ or institutions in charge of a board chosen by the people -of the community, were to be established wherever a deficiency in the -existing accommodations required it. The ‘voluntary,’ or denominational -schools, most of which belonged to the Church of England, were to -continue to share in the government grants upon equal terms with the -new institutions, but the latter had also the benefit of local ‘rates.’ -Elementary instruction in all schools had to be open to government -inspection, and the amount of the grant was partly determined by the -report of the inspectors. The board schools were forbidden to allow -“any religious catechism or religious formulary, which is distinctive -of any particular denomination;” and religious instruction in either -type of school had to be placed at the beginning or end of the school -session, so that, under the ‘conscience clause’ of the act, any scholar -might conveniently withdraw at that time. - -[Sidenote: Compulsory attendance,] - -[Sidenote: minimum age,] - -[Sidenote: free tuition,] - -[Sidenote: and Board of Education.] - -This act of 1870 was, of course, the _magna charta_ of national -education, and has become the basis of much school legislation. The -compromise in the bill that allowed the voluntary schools, with their -sectarian instruction, to continue receiving government support, -however, prevented a logical and consistent system from being -established. The dual system of elementary schools continued to be -developed in a variety of enactments. Compulsory attendance laws were -passed (1876, 1880), the minimum age of exemption was set first at -eleven years of age, and then raised to twelve (1893, 1899), and an -extra grant, to take the place of tuition fees (1891), made it possible -for most schools to become absolutely free. Finally (1899), there was -created a central Board of Education, which assumed the functions of -the Committee of Privy Council on Education and similar agencies for -managing educational interests. - -[Sidenote: In 1902 ‘voluntary’ schools also allowed local rates,] - -[Sidenote: but dual system swept away,] - -[Sidenote: and secondary instruction supported at public expense.] - -=Subsequent Educational Movements.=--Within a generation of existence -the board schools met with a phenomenal growth, and came to include -about seventy per cent of the pupils. They were spending about half -as much again upon each pupil as were the voluntary schools, and were -able to engage a much better staff of teachers. This extension of civil -influence in education was bitterly opposed by the Established Church, -and when the conservatives came into power through the assistance of -the clergy, they passed the act of 1902, whereby the denominational -schools were permitted to share also in the local rates. While under -this act the administration of both board and voluntary schools was now -centralized in the county and city councils, the immediate supervision -of instruction in the individual schools was placed in the hands of -a board of managers; and, despite their receipt of local taxes, the -voluntary schools were required to have but two of their managers -appointed by the council, and the other four were still selected by -the denomination. Serious opposition to the enforcement of the new law -arose among nonconformists and others, and coercive measures were taken -by the government. The new act, however, while unfair to those outside -the Church of England, tended to sweep away the dual system of public -and church schools, since both were coming to rest upon a basis of -public control and support. Since 1902 all elementary schools have been -considered as part of one comprehensive system, and the board schools -have been distinguished as ‘provided schools’ and the voluntary as -‘nonprovided.’ Moreover, under the legislation of 1902 steps were also -taken to coördinate secondary with elementary education, and bring it -somewhat within the public system. The board schools had early in their -existence begun to develop upward into secondary education and before -long had come to compete with the older grammar and public schools, -but in 1900 the ‘Cockerton judgment’ forbade the use of local rates -for other instruction than elementary, and it remained for the new act -to impose upon councils the duty to support instruction in subjects -beyond the elementary work. The Board of Education was also empowered -to inspect the work of the great public schools and other endowed -secondary institutions, and to allow grants to all schools meeting the -conditions of the Board. - -[Sidenote: Bill of 1906 defeated,] - -[Sidenote: but new plan, placing all schools under public control.] - -After the liberals returned to power, they continued the conservatives’ -policy of granting local rates to all elementary schools, and of -bringing secondary education under public support and control. While -the education bill of 1906, which was kept from passage by the House -of Lords, did not recognize church schools as such, and insisted upon -bringing them under the complete control of the public authorities, -it made no attempt to return to the former dual system of schools -and the isolation of secondary from elementary education. It still -held also to religious, and, under safeguards, even to sectarian -instruction in the elementary schools, and may yet be passed in a -revised form. A voluntary committee for a ‘resettlement in English -elementary education,’ through the mediation of the President of the -Board of Education and the Archbishop of Canterbury, has formulated -a plan, which concedes the principle of public control and support -for all elementary schools and religious freedom for teachers and -pupils, but provides local option for the continuance of denominational -schools. Thus, while England is not prepared to adopt a secular -system, like that of France and the United States, and has not yet -fully articulated its secondary education with elementary, (Fig. -50), it is upon the high road to a complete centralization of school -administration in the national government. - -[Sidenote: Classical and ecclesiastical monopoly broken in secondary -and higher education.] - -During the nineteenth century also the classical and ecclesiastical -monopoly in secondary and higher education was largely broken. All the -older public and grammar schools (see pp. 412 f.) developed ‘modern -sides,’ and during the Victorian era a number of new schools were -founded, which gave considerable attention to the modern languages and -the sciences from the start. A recognition of the scientific ideals -began also to appear in the curriculum of Cambridge (1851) and Oxford -(1853), and the theological requirements for a degree were dropped -(1856). By the last quarter of the century actual laboratories had -been introduced, and students were freed from all doctrinal tests at -both universities. Moreover, new universities, better adjusted to -modern demands and more closely related to the school systems and the -civil government, began to arise in manufacturing centers. Since 1889 -such municipal or ‘provincial’ institutions as the Universities of -Birmingham, Manchester, Leeds, Liverpool, and Bristol have sprung up, -and the University of London, started as an examining body in 1836, has -become a teaching institution. - -[Sidenote: Two types,] - -[Sidenote: (1) Ontario and (2) Quebec.] - -=Development of Education in the Dominion of Canada.=--Canada developed -schools in very early days. In the beginning education was cared for -in the four provinces separately, and when the Dominion of Canada was -finally formed (1867), the federal government left to each province -the administration of public education within its borders. The same -autonomy was extended to the provinces that have since been -admitted to the federation. Two types of educational control,--state -and ecclesiastical, have been developing from the first. The former -method is best illustrated by the system of Ontario; and the latter by -that of Quebec. Ontario was settled mostly by emigrants from England, -Scotland, and the United States, and practically all brought with -them the concept of public control of education. The French Catholics -of Quebec, on the other hand, naturally followed their traditions of -parish schools. - -[Illustration: DIAGRAM OF FRENCH EDUCATION. - -Fig. 49.] - -[Illustration: DIAGRAM OF ENGLISH EDUCATION. - -Fig. 50.] - -[Sidenote: Universal education, and since 1870 great centralization -through minister] - -[Sidenote: and subordinate authorities.] - -=The Public School System of Ontario.=--The system of schools in -Ontario began with the passage of its Common Schools Act in 1846. This -was formulated after a careful study of the systems of Massachusetts, -New York, and the European states, and included excellent elements -from various systems and many original features of value. By 1871 -this fundamental law had come to include free tuition, compulsory -attendance, county inspection, and uniform examinations. In 1876 an -even greater centralization of the provincial system was effected -through substituting for the chief superintendent a ‘minister of -education’ with much larger powers, and bringing all stages of public -education,--elementary, secondary, and higher schools, into much closer -relationship. The minister now has many assistants, including an -Advisory Council of Education; and he initiates and directs all school -legislation, decides complaints and disputes, sets examinations for the -high, elementary, model, and normal schools, prescribes the courses -of study, chooses the text-books, and appoints the inspectors. The -system is further administered by subordinate authorities elected in -the localities, whose duties are clearly defined by law. The province -is for educational purposes divided into counties, which are in turn -divided into townships, and subdivided into sections and incorporated -cities, towns, and villages. The central and local administrations are -wisely balanced, and while the one determines scholastic standards -through its professional requirements, the other establishes schools -and appoints teachers. - -[Sidenote: Unification of the several stages of education.] - -[Sidenote: Inspectors.] - -[Sidenote: ‘Separate schools.’] - -The system of elementary schools, high schools, and universities, is -fully unified, and the work of each stage fits into the others even -more exactly than in the ‘ladder’ system of the United States. The -training of teachers is cared for through the departments of Education -in the universities, the eight provincial normal schools, and a -model school in each county. The teachers for secondary institutions -are prepared at the universities, the normal schools grant a life -certificate to teach in the elementary schools, while the model schools -afford fourteen weeks of training for country teachers. The buildings, -equipment, courses, and instruction of the high, elementary, and model -schools are each reported upon by inspectors of assured scholarship -and experience. Since 1863 permission has been granted to establish -‘separate schools’ for any peculiar creed or race, wherever there are -five families requesting it. This opportunity to have schools of their -own faith has not been embraced by any save the Roman Catholics. Any -one paying toward the support of a ‘separate school’ is exempt from -taxation for the regular public schools. Special provincial inspectors -report upon these schools, but in the same way as for the public -schools. - -[Sidenote: Other provinces similar to Ontario.] - -[Sidenote: In Quebec parish as unit,] - -[Sidenote: but since 1859 Council of Public Instruction] - -[Sidenote: and superintendent of schools.] - -[Sidenote: School support.] - -=The System of Ecclesiastical Schools in Quebec.=--The Ontario system -may be considered typical of the educational administration in the -various provinces of Canada, except Quebec. Every other province has -sought uniformity of school provision and educational standards through -government control, although none of them grant their central official -quite as much power as Ontario. Alberta and Saskatchewan likewise -permit ‘separate schools,’ and they existed in Manitoba until 1890. -But the type of control in Quebec is very different from that of the -other provinces. There in 1845 the parish was by law made the unit of -school administration. But seven years later government inspectors -were established, and in 1859 a central organization was completed -with a Council of Public Instruction. This authority is composed of -two divisions, a Roman Catholic and a Protestant, which sit separately -and administer the schools of their respective creeds. The provincial -superintendent of schools, appointed by the lieutenant governor, is -_ex officio_ chairman of both divisions, but he can vote only with -the division to which he belongs by religion. Each division makes -regulations for the instruction and tests of its own schools, and -appoints inspectors of its own faith. The proceeds from the general -public school fund or from any educational legacies are divided in -proportion to the Catholic and Protestant inhabitants, but the regular -school rate may be assigned to whichever of the two school systems the -taxpayer wishes. - - -SUPPLEMENTARY READING - -Graves, _In Modern Times_ (Macmillan, 1913), chap. IX; Parker, _Modern -Elementary Education_ (Ginn, 1912), chaps. X and XI. The following -works throw light upon various phases of the respective countries: -Nohle, E., _History of the German School System_ (_Report of the -U. S. Commissioner of Education_, 1897-1898; vol. I, pp. 26-44); -Paulsen, F., _German Education_ (Scribner, 1908); Russell, J. E., -_German Higher Schools_ (Longmans, Green, 1896); Paulsen, F., _The -German Universities_ (Macmillan, 1895; Scribner, 1906); Kandel, I. -L., _The Training of Elementary School Teachers in Germany_ (Columbia -University, _Teachers College Contributions_, No. 31, 1910); Brown, -J. F., _The Training of Teachers for Secondary Schools in Germany_ -(Macmillan, 1911); Beard, Mary S., _Écoles maternelles of Paris_ -(_Great Britain_, _Board of Education_, _Special Reports on Educational -Subjects_, vol. VIII, no. 8); Farrington, F. E., _French Secondary -Schools_ (Longmans, Green, 1910) and _The Public Primary System of -France_ (Columbia University, _Teachers College Contributions to -Education_, no. 7, 1906); Smith, Anna T., _Education in France_ -(_Reports of the United States Commissioner of Education_, 1890 to -1914, see tables of contents); Greenough, J. C., _The Evolution of the -Elementary Schools of Great Britain_ (Appleton, 1903); Montmorency, J. -E. G. de, _State Intervention in English Education_ (Macmillan, 1903); -Sharpless, I., _English Education in Elementary and Secondary Schools_ -(Appleton, 1892); Smith, Anna T., _Education in England_ (_Monroe -Cyclopædia of Education_, vol. II); Sandiford, P., _The Training of -Teachers in England and Wales_ (Columbia University, _Teachers College -Contributions_, no. 32, 1910); Coleman, H. T. J., _Public Education in -Upper Canada_ (Columbia University, _Teachers College Contributions_, -no. 15, 1909); Ross, G. W., _The School System of Ontario_ (Appleton, -1896); Smith, Anna T., _Education in Canada_ (_Monroe Cyclopædia of -Education_, vol. I). - - - - -CHAPTER XXVI - -THE SCIENTIFIC MOVEMENT AND THE CURRICULUM - - -OUTLINE - - During the past two centuries a great growth has taken place in - the natural sciences. For a long time this development affected - practical life very little, but during the nineteenth century the - application of science to industrial problems has resulted in a - host of inventions. - - Because of the importance of the sciences to life, Spencer and - others have urged the inclusion of them in the curricula of schools - and colleges. While the content of the sciences has furnished the - chief argument for this, many scientists have urged their value as - formal discipline. - - Instruction in the sciences has gradually been included in the - higher, secondary, and elementary institutions of Germany, France, - England, and the United States. - - This marked scientific movement is allied with the psychological - tendency in its improvement of method, and with the sociological in - its emphasis upon human welfare. - -[Sidenote: Remarkable achievements during past two centuries.] - -[Sidenote: Hutton, Agassiz, Darwin, and others.] - -=The Development of the Natural Sciences in Modern Times.=--We have -already (chapter XV) witnessed the growth of the natural sciences -and the beginning of their introduction into the curriculum toward -the close of the seventeenth century. This tendency was also greatly -stimulated by Rousseau, who, we have seen (pp. 218-222), may be held to -advocate the scientific, as well as the sociological and psychological -movements. And during the past two centuries this development -has become most rapid and extensive. The desire for scientific -investigation steadily grew throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth -centuries until its ideals, methods, and results became patent in -every department of human knowledge. The strongholds of ignorance, -superstition, and prejudice were rapidly stormed and taken through -new discoveries or new marshallings of facts already discovered. But -evident as this movement has been, it is scarcely possible here even -to mention the more important scientific achievements, or to outline -the broad sweep of progress in astronomy, geology, biology, physiology, -chemistry, physics, and other sciences within a century. The Newtonian -theory has been confirmed by the investigations of Lagrange and Laplace -and by the discovery of Neptune by mathematical reasoning from the -effects of its gravitation. Hutton’s ‘Plutonic’ theory of continents -and Agassiz’s hypothesis of a universal ice-age have been formulated; -the doctrine of evolution of Darwin (Fig. 51) and Mendel’s law of -inheritance have been established; Liebig and others have thrown light -upon the process of digestion and the functioning of the lungs and -liver; atoms, molecules, and ions have been defined; Joule and Mayer -have demonstrated the conservation of energy; and the periodic law of -chemical elements has been discovered by Newlands. - -[Sidenote: During nineteenth century science applied] - -[Sidenote: to problems of labor, transportation, communication, -comfort, and hygiene.] - -=The Growth of Inventions and Discoveries in the Nineteenth -Century.=--It should be noted, however, that the majority of -these investigations were for a long time carried on outside the -universities, and, owing to the almost proverbial conservatism of -educational institutions, the natural sciences scarcely entered the -course of study anywhere. In fact, these great discoveries at first -seem not to have affected practical life in any direction. Huxley tells -us that in the eighteenth century “weaving and spinning were carried -on with the old appliances; nobody could travel faster by sea or by -land than at any previous time in the world’s history, and King George -could send a message from London to York no faster than King John might -have done.” But a little later, as he adds, “that growth of knowledge -beyond imaginable utilitarian ends, which is the condition precedent -of its practical utility, began to produce some effect upon practical -life.” The nineteenth century will, on this account, always be known -for its development of inventions and the arts, as well as of pure -science. During this period science rapidly grew and took the form of -applications to the problems of labor, production, transportation, -communication, hygiene, and sanitation. The reaper, the sewing machine, -the printing press, and the typewriter greatly reduced the cost of -labor; the steamboat, locomotive, electric railway, telegraph, and -telephone linked all parts of the world together; anthracite, friction -matches, petroleum, and electric lighting and heating greatly enlarged -the comforts of life; and stethoscopes, anæsthetics, antiseptics, and -antitoxines added wonderfully to the span of human life. - -[Sidenote: Contest between advocates of classics and sciences.] - -=Herbert Spencer and _What Knowledge is of Most Worth_.=--Because -of these practical results, the vital importance of a knowledge of -natural phenomena to human welfare and social progress was more and -more felt throughout the century. It gradually became evident that the -natural sciences were demanded by modern life and constituted elements -of the greatest value in modern culture and education. Many English -and American writers began to maintain that an exclusive study of the -classics did not provide a suitable preparation for life, and that the -sciences should be included in the curriculum. This step was bitterly -opposed by conservative institutions and educators. During a greater -part of the century a contest was waged between the advocates of the -classical monopoly and the progressives, who urged that the sciences -should be introduced. - -[Sidenote: Preparation for complete living as the purpose of education.] - -[Sidenote: Leading kinds of activity;] - -A representative argument for sciences in the course of study is that -made by Herbert Spencer (Fig. 52) in his essay on _What Knowledge Is -of Most Worth_. He ventured to raise the whole question of the purpose -of education. He held that “to prepare us for complete living is the -function which education has to discharge; and the only rational mode -of judging of any educational course is, to judge in what degree it -discharges such function. Our first step must obviously be to classify, -in the order of their importance, the leading kinds of activity which -constitute human life. They may be arranged into: 1. Those activities -which directly minister to self-preservation; 2. Those activities -which, by securing the necessaries of life, indirectly minister to -self-preservation; 3. Those activities which have for their end the -rearing and discipline of offspring; 4. Those activities which are -involved in the maintenance of proper social and political relations; -5. Those miscellaneous activities which make up the leisure part of -life, devoted to the gratification of the tastes and feelings. The -ideal of education is complete preparation in all these divisions. But -failing this ideal, the aim should be to maintain a due proportion -between the degrees of preparation in each, greatest where the value -is greatest, less where the value is less, least where the value is -least.” - -[Sidenote: for all of these, sciences are most useful;] - -[Sidenote: and a change of educational content is advocated.] - -Applying this test, Spencer finds that a knowledge of the sciences is -always most useful in life, and therefore of most worth. He considers -each one of the five groups of activities and demonstrates the need -of the knowledge of some science or sciences to guide it rightly. -An acquaintance with physiology is necessary to the maintenance of -health, and so for self-preservation. Any form of industry or other -means of indirect self-preservation will require some understanding -of mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, and sociology. To care -for the physical, intellectual, and moral training of their children, -parents should know the general principles of physiology, psychology, -and ethics. A man is best fitted for citizenship through a knowledge of -the science of history in its political, economic, and social aspects. -And even the æsthetic or leisure side of life depends upon physiology, -mechanics, and psychology as a basis for art, music, and poetry. Hence -Spencer advocates a complete change from the type of training that had -dominated education since the Renaissance and calls for a release from -the traditional bondage to the classics. Instead of Greek and Latin -for ‘culture’ and ‘discipline,’ and an order of society where the few -are educated for a life of elegant leisure, he recommends the sciences -and a new scheme of life where every one shall enjoy all advantages in -the order of their relative value. But Spencer uses the term ‘science’ -rather loosely, and seeks to denote the social, political, and moral -sciences, as well as the physical and biological, as being ‘of most -worth.’ Hence he does not deserve to be severely arraigned for his -‘utilitarianism,’ as he has been so frequently. His ‘preparation for -complete living’ includes more than ‘how to live in the material sense -only,’ and with him education should contain such material as will -elevate conduct and make life pleasanter, nobler, and more effective. - -[Sidenote: Huxley’s ridicule of the education in vogue.] - -=Advocacy of the Sciences by Huxley and Others.=--Another great -popularizer of the scientific elements in education, who also stressed -the value of the sciences for ‘complete living’ and social progress, -was Thomas H. Huxley (Fig. 53). His use of English was vigorous and -epigrammatic, and he showed great skill in bringing his conclusions -into such simple language that the most unscientific persons could -understand them. Especially in an address on _A Liberal Education_ -before a ‘workingmen’s college,’ he has most forcefully depicted -the value of the sciences and other modern subjects in training for -concrete living, and ridiculed the ineffectiveness of the current -classical education. He maintains that “the life, the fortune, and the -happiness of every one of us depend upon our knowing something of the -phenomena of the universe and the laws of Nature. And yet this is what -people tell to their sons: ‘At the cost of from one to two thousand -pounds of our hard-earned money, we devote twelve of the most precious -years of your life to school. There you shall not learn one single -thing of all those you will most want to know directly you leave school -and enter upon the practical business of life.’” Instead of this, “the -middle class school substitutes what is usually comprised under the -compendious title of the ‘classics’--that is to say, the languages, -the literature, and the history of the ancient Greeks and Romans, and -the geography of so much of the world as was known to these two great -nations of antiquity.” Thus “the British father denies his children all -the knowledge they might turn to account in life, not merely for the -achievement of vulgar success, but for guidance in the great crises of -human existence.” - -[Sidenote: Combe.] - -[Sidenote: Youmans.] - -[Sidenote: Eliot.] - -Many other vigorous lecturers and writers entered into this reform -of the curriculum. Opposition to the over-emphasis of languages, -especially the classics, in the content of education was undertaken -even earlier in the century by the distinguished phrenologist, George -Combe. In his ‘secular’ schools and in his work on _Education_, he -emphasized instruction in the sciences relating to moral, religious, -social, and political life, as well as those bearing upon man’s -physical and mental constitution. After the middle of the century a -number of men undertook to popularize the sciences in America by tongue -and pen. One of the most effective of these was Edward L. Youmans, who -collected and edited a set of lectures urging the claims of the various -sciences under the title of _Culture Demanded by Modern Life_ (1867). -He also founded the _International Science Series_ (1871) and the -_Popular Science Monthly_ (1872). A service for the sciences, bearing -more directly upon the educational world, was that performed by Charles -W. Eliot (Fig. 54), President of Harvard. This he accomplished largely -by an extension of the elective system and an emphasis upon science in -the curriculum of school and college. In his description of ‘a liberal -education,’ he argues that “the arts built upon chemistry, physics, -botany, zoölogy, and geology are chief factors in the civilization -of our time, and are growing in material and moral influence at a -marvelous rate. They are not simply mechanical or material forces; they -are also moral forces of great intensity.” - -[Sidenote: Huxley parodies the argument of formal discipline.] - -=The Disciplinary Argument for the Sciences.=--Thus, in general, the -writers and lecturers interested in the scientific movement held -that a knowledge of nature was indispensable for human welfare and -that the content of studies rather than the method was of importance -in education. Many of them also expressed their dissent from the -disciplinary conception of education urged by the classicists. Huxley, -for example, parodies the usual linguistic drill by stating: “I could -get up an osteological primer so arid, so pedantic in its terminology, -so altogether distasteful to the youthful mind, as to beat the recent -famous production of the head-master out of the field in all these -excellences. Next, I could exercise my boys upon easy fossils, and -bring out all their powers of memory and all their ingenuity in the -application of my osteogrammatical rules to the interpretation, or -construing, of those fragments.” - -[Sidenote: But Spencer and others borrow the disciplinary argument of -the classicists.] - -Yet the tradition of ‘formal discipline’ and the belief in faculties -or general powers of the mind that might be trained by certain favored -studies and afterward applied in any direction (see pp. 182f.) were -too firmly rooted to be entirely upset. Even the greatest of the -scientists seem to have been influenced by this notion and to have -attempted occasionally a defense of their subjects on the basis of -superiority in this direction. After Spencer has made his effective -argument for the sciences on the ground that their ‘content’ is so much -more valuable for the activities of life, he shifts his whole point -of view, and attempts to anticipate the classicists by occupying -their own ground. He admits that “besides its use for guidance in -conduct, the acquisition of each order of facts has also its use as -mental exercise.” As evidence of this, he undertakes to show that -science, like language, trains the memory, and, in addition, exercises -the understanding; that it is superior to language in cultivating -judgment; that, by fostering independence, perseverance, and sincerity, -it furnishes a moral discipline. A similar argument is made by Combe, -when he maintains that “it is not so much the mere knowledge of the -details of Chemistry, of Natural Philosophy, or of any other science -that I value, as the strengthening of the intellect, which follows from -these studies.” So Youmans declares that “by far the most priceless -of all things is mental power. Science made the basis of culture will -accomplish this result.” In fact, nearly every apologist for the -natural sciences at some time or other has advocated these subjects -from the standpoint of formal discipline, although the implied attitude -toward the transfer of a generalized ideal is often in harmony with -modern psychology (see p. 184). - -[Illustration: Fig. 51.--Charles Darwin - -(1809-1882).] - -[Illustration: Fig. 52.--Herbert Spencer - -(1820-1903).] - -[Illustration: Fig. 53.--Thomas H. Huxley - -(1825-1895).] - -[Illustration: Fig. 54.--Charles W. Eliot - -(1835- ).] - -A GROUP OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERS IN THE SCIENTIFIC MOVEMENT - -[Sidenote: German universities] - -[Sidenote: and _Hochschulen_.] - -=Introduction of the Sciences into Educational Institutions; -Germany.=--Contemporaneously with the growth of inventions and the -cogent arguments and vigorous campaigns of advanced thinkers during -the nineteenth century, training in the sciences was gradually -creeping into educational practice. While the sciences began to work -their way into institutions of all grades early in the eighteenth -century, it was not until about the middle of the nineteenth that the -movement was seriously felt in education. Even in Germany the first -attempts at studying nature were made outside the universities in -the ‘academies of science.’ We have seen (pp. 177 f.) that during the -eighteenth century most of the Protestant universities had started -professorships in the sciences. But it was not until the beginning -of the second quarter of the nineteenth century that, in Liebig’s -laboratory at the University of Giessen, students first began to be -taught through experiments, and it was after the middle of the century -before this investigation work had generally replaced the formal -science instruction in German universities. Since then the development -of science in the higher education of Germany has been phenomenal. -The _Technische Hochschulen_ (see p. 380) have also come to furnish -instruction in all fields of applied science. - -[Sidenote: Real schools, gymnasiums,] - -[Sidenote: and technical schools.] - -In German secondary instruction the realistic instruction of the -pietists was brought by Hecker (see p. 176) to Berlin, where he started -his famous _Realschule_ in 1747, and before the beginning of the -nineteenth century similar institutions had spread throughout Prussia. -Early in the nineteenth century the course of study in the gymnasiums -of Prussia was considerably modified, and, as part of the compromise, -some science was introduced. The movement later spread into the -secondary education of states in South Germany, and, while the total -amount of science was not large, it managed to hold its place in the -gymnasial curriculum even during the reaction to absolutism between -1815 and 1848. But, as we have seen (p. 378), two types of real-schools -were eventually recognized,--_Realgymnasium_ and _Oberrealschule_, and -they at present devote approximately twice as much time to the physical -and biological sciences as do the gymnasia. Technical and trade -schools, with scientific and mathematical subjects as a foundation -for the vocational work, have also appeared as a species of secondary -education in Germany (see p. 420). The first of these were opened in -Nuremberg in 1823, but their rapid increase in numbers, variety, and -importance has taken place since the middle of the century, and their -development in organization and method has occurred within the past -twenty-five years. - -[Sidenote: _Volksschulen._] - -The scientific movement was also felt in the elementary schools of -Germany during the early part of the nineteenth century. Science was -considerably popularized by the schools of the philanthropinists -(pp. 227 f.), and was widely introduced into elementary education by -the spread of Pestalozzianism in Prussia and the other German states -(see p. 289 f.). Before the close of the first quarter of the century -the study of elementary science,--natural history, physiology, and -physics, appeared in various grades; geography and drawing were taught -throughout the course; and geometry was included in the upper classes -of the _Volksschulen_. - -[Sidenote: French collèges and universities.] - -[Sidenote: Lycées.] - -=France.=--Before the Revolution in France the higher and secondary -institutions found little place for instruction in science. There -was a chair of experimental physics at the College of Navarre of the -University of Paris and at the Universities of Toulouse and Montpelier, -and natural history was also taught at the more independent College of -France, but, as a whole, education was dominated largely by humanism. -However, with the establishment of the republic a new régime began in -education, as in other matters, and science entered more largely into -higher and secondary instruction. Most of the revolutionary proposals -subordinated letters to science, and in 1794 the republic founded a -great central normal school, where the famous Laplace and Lagrange -for a short time gave instruction in science. In 1802 Napoleon had -included in the scientific course for the lycées natural history, -physics, astronomy, chemistry, and mineralogy, and a definite advance -in quantity and method of the scientific instruction in the secondary -schools was made in 1814. On the ground that they were injuring -classical studies, Cousin in 1840 had the sciences curtailed, but he -was shortly forced to restore them upon an optional basis. A contest -between the two types of studies was carried on in the lycées until -1852, when a bifurcation in the course put the two theoretically -upon the same basis. The scientific course, however, has never been -considered equal in prestige to the classical, although it has -constantly increased in length and difficulty. - -[Sidenote: Lower and higher primary,] - -[Sidenote: and normal schools.] - -Some instruction in science has come to be given during the past -forty years even in the elementary schools of France. In the lower -primary schools the work is informal, and consists mostly of object -lessons and first scientific notions. These are developed in -connection with drawing, manual training, agriculture, and geography -of the neighborhood and of France in general. Instruction becomes -more formal in the ‘higher primary’ schools, and includes regular -courses in the natural and physical sciences and hygiene, as well -as geography, drawing, and manual training. In the normal schools -for primary teachers instruction in all the physical and biological -sciences is even more thorough, and includes not only the facts and -theories of general scientific importance, but it also emphasizes their -applications to everyday life. For example, the flora and fauna of the -neighborhood are studied in their special relation to agriculture. - -[Sidenote: Cambridge and Oxford,] - -[Sidenote: municipal universities,] - -[Sidenote: and Imperial College of Science.] - -[Sidenote: Science and Art Department.] - -=England.=--In England, several chairs in the natural sciences were -established at Cambridge during the eighteenth century. But it was -almost the middle of the nineteenth century before the biological -sciences and the laboratory method of instruction were introduced, -and not until toward the close of the century did science become -prominent at Cambridge and Oxford. And the most marked promotion of -the scientific movement in England has occurred within the past fifty -years through the foundation of efficient municipal universities in -such centers as Birmingham, Manchester, London, and Liverpool (see -p. 392). For many years the laboratory instruction was given only in -institutions outside the universities. Higher courses in science by the -new methods were afforded through the foundation of the Royal School -of Mines (1851), the Royal School of Naval Architecture and Marine -Engineering (1864), and the Normal School of Science (1868), which -were all combined in 1890 into a single institution known as the Royal -College of Science, and in 1907, when the Technical College (founded -1881) of the City and Guilds of London Institute was also merged, the -entire corporation became known as the Imperial College of Science and -Technology. An agency that was instrumental in encouraging the advanced -study of science, although it accomplished even more for elementary and -secondary schools, was the national Science and Art Department. This -organization was founded in 1858 to bring under a single management -the science, trade, and navigation schools already existing, and to -facilitate higher instruction in science, and a few years later began -to offer examinations and to grant certificates to teach science in -the elementary schools. It was taken over by the national Board of -Education, when that body was organized in 1899 (see p. 389). - -[Sidenote: Academies,] - -[Sidenote: ‘secular’ schools,] - -[Sidenote: ‘modern side’ in public schools,] - -[Sidenote: and Department of Science and Art.] - -In English secondary instruction the ‘academies,’ in which science -first appeared (pp. 157 f.), had before the close of the eighteenth -century greatly declined, and the humanistic ‘public’ schools and -secondary institutions of a private character had as yet paid almost -no attention to the sciences. In the first half of the nineteenth -century an anti-classical campaign began, and, continuing with ever -increasing force until the middle of the century, it brought about -the foundation of numerous schools to embody the new ideals. Toward -the close of 1848 the first ‘secular’ school was opened by Combe -(see p. 403) at Edinburgh, and included in its curriculum a study of -geography, drawing, mathematics, natural history, chemistry, natural -philosophy, physiology, phrenology, and materials used in the arts and -manufactures. Similar institutions were organized at Glasgow, Leith, -London, Manchester, Birmingham, Newcastle, Belfast, and many other -cities of the United Kingdom. While short-lived, these schools did -much to promote the introduction of sciences into secondary education -that soon followed. Shortly after the middle of the century Rugby, -and then Winchester, introduced science into the regular curriculum, -and by 1868, as a result of the governmental investigation of the -endowed schools, which showed an almost complete absence of science in -the curricula, all the leading secondary schools began to establish -a ‘modern side.’ This course generally included physics and natural -history, as well as modern languages and history, but it was most -reluctantly organized by the institutions, and, while it has attained -to great efficiency, it has never, except in a few schools, been -accorded the same standing as the classical course. The Department -of Science and Art also afforded much encouragement to secondary -instruction in the sciences by subsidizing schools and classes in -physics, chemistry, zoölogy, botany, geology, mineralogy, and subjects -involving the applications of science. Before its absorption into -the Board of Education some ten thousand classes and seventy-five -independent schools of secondary grade received assistance from this -source. - -[Sidenote: Grants for science work in elementary schools.] - -The Department also gave aid to the study of science in elementary -education. As early as the fifties, grants were made to establish work -in elementary science, art, and design, but the educational value was -for more than forty years subordinated to practical applications. And -while, after the report by a Committee of the British Association in -1889, much aid was furnished for the equipment of laboratories, lecture -rooms, and workshops, and an increase in the staff of instructors, -for a decade no subjects except the rudiments were required in the -elementary course, and such ‘supplementary’ subjects as elementary -science and geography, if taught, were given a special subsidy. But -since 1900 this scientific work has been made compulsory in the -elementary curriculum. - -[Sidenote: Beginning in the colleges during the eighteenth century.] - -=The United States.=--In the colleges of the United States the courses -show considerable evidence of science teaching by the eighteenth -century. Harvard, Yale, Princeton, King’s (afterward Columbia), -Dartmouth, Union, and Pennsylvania had all come to offer work in -‘natural philosophy’ or ‘natural history,’ which terms might then be -used to cover physics, chemistry, geology, astronomy, botany, and -zoölogy. However, before the Revolution physics seems to have been a -subordinate branch of mathematical instruction, even less importance -was attached to biology, and chemistry was only occasionally taught -as an obscure and unimportant phase of physics. Laboratories and -instruments of precision did not yet exist. - -[Sidenote: Development of sciences,--] - -[Sidenote: chemistry,] - -[Sidenote: physics,] - -[Sidenote: geology,] - -[Sidenote: astronomy,] - -[Sidenote: and biology.] - -Since then whole fields of science have been discovered and defined, -and others, like geology and astronomy, have been reclaimed from -dogmatism, and science studies have slowly come into favor. Instruction -in chemistry has grown up through a study of materia medica at the -medical schools of Pennsylvania (1768), Harvard (1782), and Dartmouth -(1798). A separate chair of chemistry was soon established at Princeton -(1795), Columbia (1800), Yale (1802), Bowdoin (1805), South Carolina -(1811), Dickinson (1811), and Williams (1812), and the movement -continued until practically all the colleges had recognized it as an -important branch of study. But while experiments were from the first -performed as demonstrations by the instructors, it was generally not -until almost the middle of the century that students were admitted at -all to the laboratories. About the same time laboratories in physics -began to be equipped with apparatus. Geology was included in the early -professorship of chemistry at Yale, and was given a distinct chair upon -the advent of James D. Dana about the middle of the century, while Amos -Eaton taught it as a separate subject at Williams as early as 1825. -Some attention was given to astronomy early in the century, although -the instruments remained very ordinary and the methods authoritative -and prescriptive until the opening of the observatories at Cincinnati -(1844), Cambridge (1846), and Ann Arbor (1854). The biological -sciences were even longer studied through mere observation rather than -investigation and experiment. Until Louis Agassiz opened his laboratory -at Harvard to students just after the middle of the century, the -courses were meager, mostly theoretical and classificatory, and were -given entirely by lecture, without field or laboratory work. Since then -the development has been rapid. - -[Sidenote: Impulse through evolutionary doctrine.] - -[Sidenote: Rise of new institutions.] - -But the greatest impulse was given to instruction in science through -the publication of Darwin’s _Origin of Species_ (1859), and the -dissemination of evolutionary doctrine through Asa Gray, professor of -natural history at Harvard, and William B. Rogers, president of the -Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The intellectual development -ensuing also brought about the foundation of such new institutions as -Cornell and Johns Hopkins, which emphasized the teaching of science -as an unconscious protest against the exclusively classical training. -Special scientific and technological schools likewise began to -arise. The Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (1825) and the Lawrence -Scientific School at Harvard (1847) had already been opened, but now -similar schools of science, like Sheffield at Yale (1860), and the -Massachusetts Institute of Technology (1862), sprang up in all parts -of the country. In 1862 the Morrill Act of Congress appropriated lands -in every state to promote education in agriculture, mechanic arts, and -the natural sciences. These grants, which amounted at first to thirteen -million acres, were subsequently extended to new states as they were -admitted, and the endowment was increased by the annual grants of -money that were made under later acts. From these funds and private -benefactions, further schools of science were started or old schools -were strengthened in every state. - -[Sidenote: Academies] - -[Sidenote: and high schools.] - -Through the academy movement (pp. 158 ff.) sciences were introduced -into American secondary education. Sometimes these subjects were -extended downward from the colleges, but often they had as yet been -barely touched by the colleges. As the early high schools grew up, -they continued the attention paid to the sciences by the academies. -The first high school to appear, that at Boston in 1821 (pp. 268 f.), -scheduled geography in the first year; navigation and surveying in the -second; and natural philosophy and astronomy in the third. A similar -emphasis upon science appeared during the first half of the century -in all the secondary institutions, whether known as academies, high -schools, union schools, or city colleges. In all cases, however, -instruction was given mainly through text-books, and, while experiments -were frequently used for demonstration by the teacher, there was no -laboratory work for the students. Moreover, a tendency to overload -the curriculum with sciences was much increased during the seventies -by the demand of the legislatures in several states that candidates -for teachers’ certificates pass an examination in several sciences. -The high schools and academies endeavored to furnish the necessary -training to prepare for these examinations, and until toward the end -of the century the courses in the sciences were numerous and of rather -superficial character. Within the last twenty years, however, the -schools have come to limit each student to a relatively few courses -taught by thorough laboratory methods. - -[Sidenote: Influence of Mann] - -[Sidenote: and Pestalozzi.] - -Except for geography, which appeared in the curriculum early in the -century, the rudiments practically constituted the entire course of the -elementary school until the time of Horace Mann. Largely through his -efforts, physiology was widely introduced by the middle of the century. -About a dozen years later the Pestalozzian object teaching began to -come in through the Oswego methods, although it tended to become -formalized. Thus materials in several of the sciences came to be used, -and the pupils were required to describe them in scientific terms. -Toward the close of the century the sciences came to be presented -more informally by the method generally known as ‘nature study.’ This -movement quickly spread through the country, and has most recently -appeared in the guise of agricultural instruction (see p. 424). -Many states now require agriculture as a requisite for a teacher’s -certificate, and most normal schools have come to furnish a training in -the subject. - -[Sidenote: Attitude upon formal discipline and method.] - -=Interrelation of the Scientific with the Psychological and -Sociological Movements.=--It is evident that there has been a marked -scientific movement in the educational systems of all countries during -the past two hundred years. The sciences began to appear in the -curricula of educational institutions in the seventeenth and eighteenth -centuries, but their rapid increase, and the use of laboratories and -the scientific method in instruction, dated from the middle of the -nineteenth. In some respects this scientific movement has been closely -related to the other modern tendencies in education,--the psychological -and the sociological. The coincidence of the scientific movement with -the psychological on the question of formal discipline has been evident -(pp. 183 f.). The influence of the development of the sciences upon -educational method also constitutes part of the psychological movement. -The sciences demanded entirely different methods of teaching from -the traditional procedure. These innovations were worked out slowly -by experimentation, and when they proved to be more in keeping with -psychology, they reacted upon the teaching of the older subjects and -came to be utilized in history, politics, philology, and other studies. -A corresponding improvement in the presentation of the form, content, -and arrangement of various subjects has taken place in text-books, -and a radically different set of books and authors has been rendered -necessary. - -[Sidenote: Means of human welfare.] - -The scientific movement has even more points in common with the -sociological. In its opposition to the disciplinarians and its stress -upon content rather than form, the scientific tendency coincides with -the sociological, although the former looks rather to the natural -sciences as a means of individual welfare, and the latter to the -social and political sciences to equip the individual for life in -social institutions and to secure the progress of society. But while -the scientist usually states his argument in individual terms, because -of his connection in time and sympathy with the individualism of the -eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the same writer usually, as in the -case of Rousseau, Combe, Spencer, and Huxley, advocates the social, -moral, and political sciences as a means of complete living. Similarly, -the sociological movement has especial kinship with the economic and -utilitarian aspects of the study of the sciences, for professional, -technical, and commercial institutions have been evolved because of -sociological as well as scientific demands. Again, the use of the -sciences in education as a means of preparing for life and the needs -of society overlaps the modern sociological principle of furthering -democracy. Both tendencies lead to the best development of all classes -and to the abandonment of artificial strata in society. - - -SUPPLEMENTARY READING - -Graves, _In Modern Times_ (Macmillan, 1913), chap. X; and _Great -Educators_ (Macmillan, 1912), chap. XIV; Monroe, _Textbook_ (Macmillan, -1905), chap. XII; Parker, _Modern Elementary Education_ (Ginn, 1912), -pp. 331-340. Popular accounts of the growth of science can be found in -Buckley, Arabella B., _A Short History of Natural Science_ (Appleton), -and Williams, H. S., _Story of Nineteenth Century Science_ (Harper). -Spencer’s _Education_ and Huxley’s _Science and Education_ should -be read. Further arguments for the study of science can be found in -Coulter, J. M., _The Mission of Science in Education_ (_Science_, -II, 12, pp. 281-293); Dryer, C. R., _Science in Secondary Schools_ -(Prize Essay in _The Academy_, May, 1888, pp. 197-221); Galloway, R., -_Education, Scientific and Technical_ (Trübner, London, 1881); Norton, -W. H., _The Social Service of Science_ (_Science_, II, 13, pp. 644ff.); -Pearson, K., _Grammar of Science_ (Macmillan, 1911), chap. I; Roberts, -R. D., _Science in the Nineteenth Century_ (Cambridge University Press, -1901), chap. VII; Sedgwick, W. T., _Educational Value of the Method of -Science_ (_Educational Review_, vol. V, pp. 243ff.), and especially -Youmans, E. L., _Culture Demanded by Modern Life_ (Appleton, 1867). - - - - -CHAPTER XXVII - -PRESENT DAY TENDENCIES IN EDUCATION - - -OUTLINE - - At the present time there is great progress in industrial, - commercial, and agricultural training in the schools of Europe and - America. - - For a quarter of a century the educational systems of Europe have - been giving attention to moral training, and of late there has been - some discussion of the subject in the United States. - - All the great nations now provide for the training of mental - defectives, and for some time training has been afforded those - defective in some sense organ. - - The attempts at improved methods of teaching are witnessed by the - study of industries in the experimental school of Dewey, by the - formulation of a curriculum in terms of normal activities of other - elementary schools, and by the ‘didactic apparatus’ and the devices - for learning the ‘three r’s’ of Montessori. - - Methods of mental measurement are being devised for the elementary - school subjects by Thorndike and others, and systems of measurement - are being utilized in administration. - - Darwin’s theory of evolution has revolutionized our attitude, - imagery, and vocabulary in education. - - There is also a great variety of other educational movements in all - grades of education. - -[Sidenote: Constant efforts at a reconstruction of education.] - -=Recent Educational Progress.=--Because of the notable development -of science and invention, which has been noted in the last chapter, -the nineteenth century has often been referred to as the ‘wonderful’ -century. Such a term affords no better description of material -achievement than of the remarkable progress that has taken place -in education. Previous chapters have indicated the extent to which, -through various movements, education has advanced and broadened in -conception, but the near future of education will probably witness -a much greater development. At the present time there are constant -efforts at a modification and a reconstruction of education in the -interest of a better adjustment of the individual to his social -environment and of greatly improved conditions in society itself. It -would, of course, be impossible to describe all of these movements even -in the briefest manner, but some of the present day tendencies that -appear most significant should now engage our attention. - -[Sidenote: Social reasons for industrial education.] - -=The Growth of Industrial Training.=--The movement that is perhaps most -widely discussed to-day is the introduction of vocational training -into the systems of education. There is now an especial need for this -type of training. Since the industrial revolution and the development -of the factory system, the master no longer works by the side of his -apprentice and instructs him, and the ambition of the youth can no -longer be spurred by the hope that he may himself some day become a -master. His experience is generally confined to some single process, -and only a few of the operatives require anything more than low-grade -skill. Nor, as a rule, will the employer undertake any systematic -education of his workmen, when the mobility of labor permits of no -guarantee that he will reap the benefit of such efforts, and the -modern industrial plant is poorly adapted to supplying the necessary -theoretical training for experts. Hence an outside agency--the -school--has been called upon to assist in the solution of these -new problems. To meet the demand for industrial education, all the -principal states of Europe have maintained training of this sort for -at least half a century, and the United States has in the twentieth -century been making rapid strides in the same direction. - -[Sidenote: Industrial training of the continuation schools in Germany.] - -[Sidenote: Work of Kerschensteiner.] - -=Industrial Schools in Europe.=--In Germany, where this training is -most effective, the work has for fifty years been rapidly developing -through the _Fortbildungsschulen_ (see Fig. 55). The course in these -schools at first consisted largely of review work, but the rapid -spread of elementary schools soon enabled them to devote all the -time to technical education. Training is now afforded not only for -the rank and file of workmen in the different trades, but for higher -grades of workers, such as foremen and superintendents. Girls are -likewise trained in a wide variety of vocations. During the last -twenty-five years there have also been developed continuation schools -to furnish theoretical courses in physical sciences, mathematics, -bookkeeping, drawing, history, and law. In North Germany there is a -tendency to confine the courses to theoretical training, and leave -the practical side to the care of the employers, but the South German -states generally combine theoretical and practical work, and develop -schools adapted to the industries of the various localities. Through -the work of Kerschensteiner, Munich has even included an extra class -in the elementary schools, to bridge the gap between school life and -employment. - -[Sidenote: No apprenticeship in France, but all training in -continuation schools.] - -[Sidenote: Early facilities in England.] - -France goes still further, and, because of unsatisfactory conditions in -apprenticeship, attempts to eliminate it altogether, and to furnish the -entire industrial training through continuation schools articulating -with the elementary system. The pupils are admitted at thirteen to the -continuation schools (see p. 383) and obtain practice in the school -workshops for three years. Woodwork is generally taught to the boys, -but the other courses vary with local needs. Girls learn to make -dresses, corsets, millinery, artificial flowers, and other industrial -products. In England, grants were first made to evening industrial -schools and classes in 1851, but twenty years later regular schools of -science were organized, which had both day and evening sessions. In -addition to these continuation schools, there have now been established -higher elementary schools, which afford a four-year course in practical -and theoretical science arranged according to local needs. - -[Sidenote: Evening continuation schools in United States.] - -[Sidenote: Day schools, private] - -[Sidenote: and public.] - -[Sidenote: Secondary schools.] - -[Sidenote: ‘Part-time’ schools.] - -=Industrial Training in the United States.=--Industrial training first -began to be offered in the United States during the latter half of -the nineteenth century by means of a number of evening continuation -schools. These were established through philanthropy in the larger -cities, and included the Cooper Union and the Mechanics’ Institute -in New York; the Franklin Union and the Spring Garden Institute in -Philadelphia; the Ohio Mechanics’ Institute in Cincinnati; and the -Virginia Mechanics’ Institute in Richmond. The public schools at -length followed this example, and of late years have organized evening -classes in drawing, mathematics, science, and technical subjects. Day -instruction was long delayed. It began in 1881 with the foundation of -the New York Trade School, but at the end of twenty years there were -only two others,--the Williamson Free School of Mechanical Trades near -Philadelphia and the Baron de Hirsch Trade School in New York. Later -the development was more rapid, and since 1906 several hundred day -trade schools have been organized, mostly through public support, in -the larger cities of the country. These schools are mostly for youths -between sixteen and twenty-five, but ‘preparatory trade schools’ for -younger boys have also been started in New York, Massachusetts, and -other states. Higher training to equip leaders for the industries -has also come to be furnished through endowed secondary schools and -technical high schools in a number of cities. A recent variety of -vocational training is the ‘part-time’ plan, by which students are -given some theoretical and formal training in a regular high school -or college, while they are obtaining their practical experience. This -alternation of practical and theoretical training is sometimes carried -on in a single institution, or even within a commercial establishment -itself. - -[Sidenote: Conditions requiring commercial education.] - -=Commercial Education in Europe and America.=--But the modern -development of vocational training throughout the leading countries -has not been confined to industrial lines. With the extension of the -sphere of commerce and the development of its organization that have -taken place in the nineteenth century, it has come to be recognized -that preparation is essential for a business career. Only recently, -however, has this training been felt to be a proper function of the -schools, since for many years it was opposed by educators as sordid and -commercializing, and by business men as unpractical and ineffective. -Both classes have now been brought to realize the need of mutual -support, and the rapid growth of commercial education indicates an -appreciation of its usefulness. - -[Sidenote: In Germany many private continuation schools,] - -[Sidenote: and secondary and university courses,] - -[Sidenote: but England and France indifferent.] - -[Sidenote: In the United States ‘business colleges,’] - -[Sidenote: and secondary and higher courses.] - -Germany is generally admitted to lead in commercial education. The -growth of this training has taken place since 1887, but there is now -offered under state control a unified and thorough preparation for -any line of business. Besides private continuation schools, in which -a course of three years in modern languages and elementary commercial -studies can be obtained, there have grown up both public secondary -schools and university courses in which a thorough general education -and theoretical work in commerce, as well as a practical and technical -training, are provided (Fig. 55). England and France have been rather -indifferent to commercial education. In both countries until very -recently schools have been few, and the number of pupils in each has -been small. But now continuation schools, free evening courses, and -private classes have sprung up, and in a few large cities commercial -schools of secondary and even higher grade have been established. -In the United States commercial training began by the middle of -the nineteenth century through private enterprise with classes in -bookkeeping, and later with ‘business colleges.’ Despite the name of -the latter, the course is narrow and is generally shaped by pecuniary -aims. During the last two decades of the nineteenth century high and -normal schools began to offer commercial instruction, but until the -twentieth century the courses were only tolerated as a necessary evil, -and largely imitated those of the business colleges. Since then many -cities have opened high schools of commerce, and university schools and -colleges of commerce have arisen, and even a score of years before this -development the Wharton School of Finance and Commerce was started at -the University of Pennsylvania. - -[Sidenote: Agricultural instruction in the schools of France and -Germany.] - -[Sidenote: United States offers courses in all grades of education.] - -=Recent Emphasis upon Agricultural Training.=--A similar development -has of late been taking place in agricultural education. France and -Germany offer elementary instruction in agriculture, while the former -has also introduced the subject into the normal schools, and the -latter has established a secondary agricultural institution open to -students at the close of their sixth year in the _Realschule_. Through -the feeling that the United States must become the great agricultural -nation, and that the traditional methods of agriculture have been -exceedingly wasteful, this country especially has been emphasizing that -type of vocational education. The land grant colleges, first endowed -by act of Congress in 1862, have greatly stimulated interest in the -subject, and later Congress added other sources of revenue, and has -recently furnished appropriations for instruction in the teaching of -agriculture and for extension work in agriculture. Thus the way has -been prepared for the introduction of the subject into the high school -and grades. There are now at least one hundred agricultural high -schools in the United States, and agriculture is taught as a branch of -study in several thousand high and elementary school systems. - -[Sidenote: Social conditions demanding moral training.] - -=Moral Training in the Schools To-day.=--But present day tendencies in -education have to do with more than the material side of civilization. -There is a growing sentiment in favor of moral instruction in the -schools. There are many reasons why this need should be especially felt -in the complex business life of to-day. When men work for impersonal -corporations, sell products to people they never see, or intrust their -welfare to officials whose names are scarcely known, one strong factor -making for honesty and virtue, that of personal relations, is lost. -Moreover, as a result of the weakening of old religious sanctions, the -new conditions in large cities, and other causes, moral traditions are -in need of being buttressed. - -[Illustration: - -Fig. 55.--Vocational education for boys in Germany (Commercial, -Industrial, and Professional) in Relation to Public School Organization. - -(Reproduced by permission from Farrington’s _Commercial Education in -Germany_.)] - -[Sidenote: In France secular training, but in England and Germany -religious.] - -[Sidenote: Sadler’s commission.] - -[Sidenote: Work of the N. E. A. in the United States.] - -[Sidenote: Summary of the R. E. A.] - -The educational systems of Europe have for a quarter of a century given -more or less attention to moral training. In France this training -has been purely secular and excluded all religious elements. But the -education of England and Germany has always associated the teaching of -morality with religion. In England, the ‘board’ schools have furnished -religious instruction of a nonsectarian character, but the religious -training of the ‘voluntary’ schools has occupied more time and has -stressed the creed and denominational teaching of some church, usually -the Church of England (see pp. 380 f.). The contest over religious -teaching since the Act of 1902 (see p. 390) caused a self-constituted -commission, with Michael E. Sadler as chairman, to investigate the -subject of moral instruction, and in 1908-1909 it presented a large and -illuminating report. In Germany the moral and religious instruction -in all elementary schools is sectarian, and Catholic and Protestant -schools are alike supported, wherever needed, at public expense. -During the past decade there has been considerable discussion in the -United States concerning moral education. In response to the demand -for an investigation of the subject, a committee of the National -Education Association in 1908-1909 made a report upon various phases -of moral training, and recommended special instruction in ethics, -not in the form of precepts, but through consideration of existing -moral questions. In 1911 the Religious Education Association, whose -convention in that year was devoted to moral training, gave in its -_Journal_ a broad summary of the progress of moral education in the -United States. The report reveals a wide difference of opinion and -practice, but an evident tendency to trust other agencies than direct -moral instruction. As a rule, state legislation seems as yet to have -failed to provide a general system of training, but has confined itself -to specific subjects, such as instruction in citizenship, the effects -of alcohol and narcotics, and the humane treatment of animals. - -[Sidenote: Impulse given by Seguin’s ‘physiological’ methods.] - -[Sidenote: Attempts to introduce intellectual elements.] - -=The Development of Training for Mental Defectives.=--One of the most -patent evidences of the growth of the humane spirit in modern times -is found in the universal attention now given to the education of -mental defectives. This movement was given its greatest impulse through -Édouard Seguin, who came to the United States in 1850 and developed -his methods here. His general plan was to appeal to the mind through -the senses by means of a training of the hand, taste and smell, and -eye and ear. He used pictures, photographs, cards, patterns, figures, -wax, clay, scissors, compasses, and pencils as his chief instruments of -education. The stimulus he gave to the training of defectives has been -epoch-making, and his ‘physiological’ methods have remained the chief -means of education. Although there has grown up a tendency to introduce -intellectual elements into the training of the feeble-minded, the -advantages of such a procedure are doubtful. - -[Sidenote: Schools in Germany,] - -[Sidenote: France, and England.] - -All the great nations now provide schools for the training of -defectives. Germany has over one hundred institutions, with some -twenty thousand pupils in them, although nine-tenths of them are not -supported by the state, but are under church or private auspices. These -schools generally stress manual education, but give some attention to -intellectual lines, especially to speech training. There are but few -schools for defectives in France, aside from the two near Paris and -the juvenile department of the insane hospital at Bicêtre, but these -institutions largely follow the physical work formulated by Seguin. In -London there is one excellent institution with two thousand pupils, -where manual training constitutes almost the entire course. But there -are five other schools so located as to serve the various parts of -England, in which the training is rather bookish and emphasis is -especially laid upon number work. - -[Sidenote: Training in the United States.] - -Thanks to the start given by Seguin, America has taken up the education -of defectives more fully than any other country. Schools for the -feeble-minded now exist in almost all the states, and there are some -thirty-five or forty private institutions of considerable merit. Not -far from twenty thousand defectives are being trained, although this -is probably only about one-tenth of the total number of such cases in -the country. The type of education differs greatly according to the -institution, ranging from almost purely manual training to a large -proportion of the intellectual rudiments, but in all the work is -adapted to the various grades in such a way as to raise them a little -in the scale of efficiency and to keep them as far as possible from -being a burden to themselves and to society. Likewise, special clinics -and investigations, like those of Lightner Witmer of the University of -Pennsylvania and of H. H. Goddard of the Training School at Vineland -(New Jersey), are greatly adding to our knowledge of the best methods -for training defectives. - -[Sidenote: Manual] - -[Sidenote: and oral methods for the deaf.] - -=Education of the Deaf and Blind.=--Persons defective in some sense -organ, but otherwise up to the standard, have likewise for some time -been receiving an education that will minimize the difficulty. There -have been two chief methods for teaching the deaf. The manual or -‘silent’ method of communication was invented by the Abbé de l’Épée in -Paris during the latter part of the eighteenth century, and his school -was adopted by the nation in 1791. The other method, the ‘oral,’ by -which the pupil learns to communicate through reading the movements -of the lips, was started in Germany early in the eighteenth century, -but was not employed to any great extent until the middle of the next -century. Most countries now use the oral method exclusively, or in -connection with the manual system. In the United States practically -every commonwealth now has one or more schools for the deaf, and since -1864 even higher education has been furnished by Gallaudet College at -Washington. - -[Sidenote: Schools for the blind in Europe and the United States.] - -The first instruction of the blind through raised letters was given -toward the end of the eighteenth century by Abbé Haüy at Paris. While -his schools, owing to his lack of judgment, were failures, the idea -spread rapidly. Early in the nineteenth century there were one or more -schools in each of the leading countries of Europe, and a generation -later institutions of this sort were started in the United States. -In schools for the blind or deaf, industrial training has in most -instances been added to the intellectual (see p. 300), in order to -fit every individual to be an independent workman in some line. Even -pupils, both deaf and blind, like Laura Bridgeman and Helen Keller, -have had their minds awakened through the sense of touch. - -[Sidenote: Colonel Parker’s contributions.] - -=Recent Development of Educational Method; Dewey’s Experimental -School.=--Nor has the past century witnessed any cessation of the -attempts at improved methods of teaching. Various suggestions and -systems have been put forward and many have had an important effect -upon school procedure. It is impossible, however, to discuss any -except a few of the more influential and prominent, and these can be -considered but briefly. The occupational work of Professor Dewey and -Colonel Parker’s scheme of concentration have marked the growth of a -body of educational theory and practice that places the methods of -to-day far in advance of anything previously known. The combination and -modification of Ritter, Herbart, and Froebel worked out by Parker have -perhaps received sufficient attention (see pp. 293, 350, and 364), but -we may at this point outline a little more fully the contributions made -by John Dewey, who has probably been the leader in the reconstruction -that has taken place in education almost since the twentieth century -began. - -[Sidenote: Purpose] - -[Sidenote: and course of Dewey’s school.] - -The methods of Dewey were developed in an experimental elementary -school connected with the University of Chicago and under his -supervision from 1896 to 1903. The school did not start with ready-made -principles, but sought to solve three fundamental educational problems. -It undertook to find out (1) how to bring the school into closer -relation with the home and neighborhood life; (2) how to introduce -subject-matter in history, science, and art that has a positive -value and real significance in the child’s own life; and (3) how to -carry on instruction in reading, writing, and figuring with everyday -experience and occupation as their background “in such a way that the -child shall feel their necessity through their connection with subjects -which appeal to him on their own account.” The plan for meeting these -needs was found largely in the study of industries. Since industries -are most fundamental in the thought, ideals, and social organization -of a people, these activities must have the most prominent place -in the course of a school. “The school cannot be a preparation for -social life except as it reproduces the typical conditions of life.” -The means used in furnishing this industrial activity were evolved -mainly along the lines of shopwork, cooking, sewing, and weaving, -although many subsidiary industries were also used. These occupations -were, of course, intended for a liberalizing, rather than a technical -purpose, and considerable time was given to an historical study of -them (Fig. 56). Dewey declares: “The industrial history of man is -not a materialistic or merely utilitarian affair. It is a matter of -intelligence. Its record is the record of how man learned to think, to -think to some effect, to transform the conditions of life so that life -itself became a different thing. It is an ethical record as well; the -account of the conditions which men have patiently wrought out to serve -their ends.” - -[Sidenote: In harmony with Froebel,] - -[Sidenote: but not as stereotyped,] - -[Sidenote: and work--not amusement--the spirit of the school.] - -It can be seen how fully this plan is in accord with the real -principles of social coöperation and expression of individual -activities underlying the work of Froebel; and “so far as these -statements correctly represented Froebel’s educational philosophy,” -Dewey generously grants that “the school should be regarded as its -exponent.” But these industrial activities of the Chicago experimental -school were not in the least suggested by Froebel’s work, and were far -more expressive of real life. They never became as stereotyped and -external as the gifts or even as the occupations of the kindergarten -have generally been. Dewey is insistent that this training shall be -carried on not for the purpose of furnishing facts or principles to -be learned, but for enabling the child to engage in the industrial -occupations in miniature. “The school is not preparation for life: -it is life.” Hence this training is superior to the occupations of -Froebel in that “it maintains a balance between the intellectual and -the practical phases of experience.” Where Froebel has held to the -construction of beautiful things in mechanical ways, Dewey emphasizes -the ordinary activities and experiences of life, even though the -expression of these be crude. The child should be “given, wherever -possible, intellectual responsibility for selecting the materials and -instruments that are most fit, and given an opportunity to think out -his own model and plan of work, led to perceive his own errors, and -find how to correct them.” Thus the work was never “reduced to a mere -routine or custom and its educational value lost.” As a result, too, it -was the consensus of opinion that “while the children like, or love, to -come to school, yet work, and not amusement, has been the spirit and -teaching of the school; and that this freedom has been granted under -such conditions of intelligent and sympathetic oversight as to be a -means of upbuilding and strengthening character.” - -[Sidenote: Schools on a similar basis.] - -=Other Experiments in Method.=--Hence, while the Chicago school is -now at an end, the experiment in education developed there is still -yielding abundant fruitage. It has stimulated similar undertakings -elsewhere, and has been the largest factor in determining the theory -and practice of the present day. Either as a result of Dewey’s work or -through independent thought, there has sprung up an important group of -schools in which there is clearly an effort to bring boys and girls of -elementary school age into more intimate relation to community life -about them. Such are the Gary (Indiana) Public Schools, the Francis -W. Parker School of Chicago, the Elementary School at the University -of Missouri, the Pestalozzi-Froebel School of Berlin, the Abbotsholme -School in Derbyshire (England), and a number of others. - -[Sidenote: University of Missouri Elementary School:] - -[Sidenote: its purpose and curriculum.] - -A good illustration is afforded in the school developed by Junius L. -Meriam at Columbia, Missouri, although it has not been given much -publicity. Its function is to help children do better in all those -wholesome activities in which they normally engage. The school does -not attend to the ‘three r’s’ as such, but specifically to particular -activities of children, including (1) play, (2) observation, (3) -handwork, and (4) stories, music, and art. These four ‘studies,’ -representing real life, irrespective of the school, constitute the -curriculum, and the ‘three r’s’ are studied only as they are needed. -Their content, therefore, being used, as in life, in meeting real -needs, is studied most effectively. - -[Sidenote: Gary school system:] - -[Sidenote: its plant and methods.] - -An experiment that has attracted widespread interest is that worked out -in the Gary school system by William A. Wirt. While the achievement is -mostly in the way of a remarkable organization and administration that -have undertaken to make available “all of the educational opportunities -of the city all of the time for all of the people,” the teaching has to -some extent been carried on so as to reveal to the pupils “that what -they are doing is worth while.” The school plant includes a playground, -garden, workshop, social center, library, and traditional school, and -it has been shown that these agencies, when properly organized, “secure -the same attitude of mind toward the reading, writing, and arithmetic -that the child normally has for play.” All the other schools that have -been mentioned above make similar attempts to enable the children -to get into closer touch with their environment. While each of them -approaches the problems of elementary training from a different angle, -they are all in harmony with the spirit of Dewey and present day theory. - -[Sidenote: ‘Liberty of the pupil;’] - -[Sidenote: Seguin’s apparatus.] - -=The Montessori Method.=--But probably the most spectacular development -in educational procedure is that originating with Maria Montessori -at Rome. Yet the Montessori method, except for some elements adapted -from Seguin (see p. 426), is largely a combination of several of the -concepts found in Rousseau, Pestalozzi, and Froebel, and fails to grasp -the larger vision of education that appears in present-day theory, such -as Dewey’s. Like Rousseau and Froebel, Montessori holds fundamentally -to the rightness of child nature and consequently to the liberty of -the pupil, but she does not, like Dewey, realize that education is -itself life and that the activities of real life should be utilized -in training. Moreover, the sense training, which Montessori herself -considers the most distinctive feature of her system, is neither -original nor psychologically sound. Montessori began as a teacher -of defectives, and her ‘didactic apparatus’ and methods are largely -borrowed from Seguin. Exercises of this sort are of great value in -training defectives, but the assumption of their usefulness in the -education of normal children is more doubtful. They are intended to -train the senses to general powers and discriminations, and seem to be -defended simply upon the basis of faculty psychology and the outworn -theory of ‘formal discipline’ (see p. 182 f.). - -[Sidenote: Writing,] - -[Sidenote: reading, and arithmetic.] - -The feature of the Montessori method, however, that has attracted most -attention is its apparent success with the formal elementary studies, -especially the facility, enthusiasm, and speed with which it has -enabled the pupils to learn to write. Montessori has carefully analyzed -the process of writing and devised three exercises by which this art is -unconsciously learned by three or four year old children in Italy. If -this training can be applied to unphonetic languages, like the English, -it may possibly be regarded as a contribution. It is evident, however, -that Montessori lays too much stress upon the acquisition of the -formal studies and starts them at too early an age. In this she fails -to appreciate Froebel’s great contribution of a school without books, -and certainly does not realize, with Dewey, that the main purpose of -education is to give a child some control of his social environment and -that for this there are activities of more importance to child life -than the school arts. Within a few years it will probably be difficult -to understand the _furore_ that has been created by the Montessori -methods. - -[Sidenote: Technique of the physical sciences applied to education.] - -=The Statistical Method and Mental Measurements in Education.=--One of -the most significant of the present day movements is the application, -especially in the United States, of scientific, statistical methods to -problems of education. Statistics have long been used, though often -without clearness or accuracy, in reports of school administration, -but it remained for this century to apply to the various phases of -education the same general technique and approximately the same -precision as that long demanded by the physical and biological -sciences. Quantitative, unambiguous statements are now sought and -secured not only for the phenomena of attendance, retardation, -expenditures, and the like, but also for the relative and absolute -amounts of knowledge. As a consequence, emphasis has been placed upon -the results of education rather than upon the declaration of intentions. - -[Sidenote: Thorndike’s advocacy of a quantitative description and of -scales, and the application to achievement in school subjects.] - -Probably the first scholar to apply the scientific principles of -statistics to education was Edward L. Thorndike of Columbia University. -In his _Educational Psychology_ he illustrates how a quantitative -description of individual differences and of the factors that condition -them is necessary to throw real light upon educational theory and -practice, and in his _Mental and Social Measurements_ he presents the -details of the method. Subsequently he maintained, in the face of much -opposition, that scales, as objective and as impersonal as possible, -should and could be devised for measuring variations in ability and -changes that take place as a result of natural growth and instruction. -Such scales, beginning at an ascertained zero and progressing by -regular steps to a point near perfection, are, because of the -complexity of their elements, difficult to construct, but they have -been set forth more or less tentatively by various investigators for -the measurement of achievement in handwriting (Fig. 57), arithmetic, -English composition, spelling, drawing, freehand lettering, and -reading respectively. Other scales to measure ability in the several -high school subjects may be expected soon. - -[Sidenote: Measurement of the quantitative significance of factors in -method.] - -Studies are also being made in several universities to determine the -relative importance of the numerous factors in methods of teaching. -This is done by conducting experiments with hundreds or thousands of -children to find out by the most accurate measurement yet devised the -amount of progress in learning that is wholly due to the presence of -some one factor of method in the technique of class-room exercises. -Educational psychology has revealed the qualitative significance of -many of the single elements in the very complex procedure that we have -called a ‘method of teaching,’ and this new type of research aims -to determine the quantitative significance of each of these several -elements of method as factors in the production of abilities. A. Duncan -Yocum of the University of Pennsylvania has formulated a considerable -number of tests, and, by preliminary experimentation, has determined -the conditions under which they may with a high degree of accuracy -be given to groups of students engaged in actual school work under -ordinary class-room conditions. His students have made a number of -tentative, but suggestive studies, which have not yet been published. -Milo B. Hillegas of Columbia University and others are engaged on -certain aspects of this general type of research. There is reason, -therefore, to believe that we may sometime be able to measure with as -much accuracy the efficiency of well-defined educational processes -as we are now able to measure educational products. If this can be -attained, the technique of class-room teaching and of educational -supervision will begin to rest on a really scientific basis. - -[Illustration: - -Fig. 56.--Indian house constructed in Dewey’s experimental school by -children between seven and eight years of age, while studying the -development of primitive life. - -(Reproduced from the _Elementary School Record_ by permission of the -University of Chicago Press.)] - -[Illustration: - -Fig. 57.--Specimen No. 13 taken from the ‘Thorndike Writing Scale.’ -This specimen constitutes the approximate quality of handwriting that -may reasonably be expected of pupils in the seventh or eighth grade. In -the complete scale the specimens are numbered from 4 to 18.] - -[Sidenote: Other mental and social measurements,] - -[Sidenote: and ‘educational surveys.’] - -Moreover, by the use of the improved statistical method and of -scales, studies of greatly increased value have been made of fatigue, -retardation, elimination, and of other social and mental phenomena of -individual children. And in 1911, with the reports of Paul H. Hanus -of Harvard University and Ernest C. Moore of Yale University upon the -school systems of Montclair and East Orange, New Jersey, there began -to be instituted those measurements and consequent criticisms of whole -school systems, known as ‘educational surveys.’ These scientific -reports have been extended to the educational work of a large number -of cities and states throughout the Union. They are intended to enable -school officers and patrons to comprehend with more definiteness the -absolute, as well as the relative, achievements of their children. - -[Sidenote: New attitude toward intelligence.] - -[Sidenote: Studies of mental development in the race and individual.] - -[Sidenote: Change in imagery and vocabulary.] - -=Education and the Theory of Evolution.=--A most characteristic -influence in education to-day has come through the theory of evolution -of Darwin (Fig. 51). This fruitful hypothesis came to be generally -accepted during the last quarter of the nineteenth century as the -guiding principle of education, and has constantly increased the -illumination it has shed upon the educational process. It has given -an entirely new meaning to education, and has greatly modified -the course of study and revolutionized the method of approaching -educational problems. It has wrought very much the same changes in -the treatment of intelligence that it did in the biological sciences. -Consciousness is no longer regarded as a fixed set of entities, but -as a developmental process. Instead of classifying and cataloging -mental processes in fixed groups, efforts are made to study their -growth from the standpoint both of the race and of the individual. -Studies of mental development in the race, begun by Darwin’s _Descent -of Man_, which recognized ‘sexual’ and ‘social selection,’ as well as -‘natural selection,’ have been continued by numerous investigators, -and equally extensive researches have also been latterly made in -genetic psychology, child study, mental development, and adolescence. -Both observation and experimentation have been introduced into the -study of mental processes. Even more revolutionary than this actual -increase in knowledge, however, is the change that has taken place in -the conception, imagery, and terminology of education. Writers upon -education constantly employ the language of evolution. Educational -discussions are now filled with such terms as ‘variation,’ ‘selection,’ -‘adjustment,’ and ‘adaptation,’ and such concepts dominate all -educational thinking. If educational leaders of half a century ago -could be present to-day at a gathering of educational thinkers, they -would find themselves listening to what would seem to them almost a -foreign language. - -[Sidenote: Centralization;] - -[Sidenote: school hygiene;] - -[Sidenote: school architecture;] - -[Sidenote: professionalization of teaching.] - -[Sidenote: Reorganization of secondary and higher education.] - -=Enlarging Conceptions of the Function of Education.=--Such are a -few of the chief tendencies and advances that are being made in -education to-day. There is also a great variety of other educational -movements, almost too numerous to be mentioned. In the organization -and administration of the public schools there is a decided tendency -toward centralization in educational activities, corresponding to the -centralization in industrial and political affairs. The United States -Bureau of Education and the various State Departments of Public -Instruction have had their functions much enlarged and their activities -greatly increased. There are also such matters as the new procedure -in school hygiene, arising from the modern attitude toward the -prevention of disease; new health regulations, as a result of having -so many children housed in the same buildings; medical inspection, -open-air schools, and better nourishment; and new tendencies in school -architecture. Likewise we find progressive legislation on compulsory -school attendance; more extensive training of teachers; a rapid -recognition of education as a profession; the organization of various -types of teachers’ associations; and the development of educational -journalism. Secondary education is also being greatly extended and -largely reorganized. ‘Junior high schools,’ combining the upper grades -of the elementary school with the lower grades of the secondary -school, and thus bridging the gap, are being widely introduced into -American cities, and a variety of propositions for a six-year course -are being seriously entertained. In connection with higher education -there are such new tendencies as university extension, correspondence -courses, summer sessions, university interest in the practical problems -of the people, the correlation of the first two years of college -with the secondary school, more flexible entrance requirements, an -increasing number of fields of professional work, and, above all, the -professional training of teachers through Departments of Education, -Teachers Colleges, and Schools of Education. With this is connected the -scientific study of Education, both in graduate courses and independent -investigations. - -[Sidenote: Other progressive tendencies.] - -Similar efforts to secure economy, guard health, improve method, and -cause education to serve democratic ideals are everywhere apparent. -Educational theory and practice are in a constant flux, and have -entered upon a most distinctive epoch of experimentation, change, and -improvement. While such a situation is not without its perils, and each -proposal should be carefully scrutinized before acceptance, the present -tendencies are in the main a sign of progress and life. - - -SUPPLEMENTARY READING - -Graves, _In Modern Times_ (Macmillan, 1913), chap. XI; Monroe, -_Textbook_ (Macmillan, 1905), chaps. XIII-XIV. For the special -tendencies mentioned, the following works may be consulted: Cooley, E. -G., _Vocational Education in Europe_ (Chicago Commercial Club, 1912); -Hanus, P. H., _Beginnings in Industrial Education_ (Houghton, Mifflin, -1908); Haskins, C. W., _Business Education and Accounting_ (Harper, -1904); Adler, F., _Moral Instruction of Children_ (Appleton, 1895); -Palmer, G. H., _Ethical and Moral Instruction in Schools_ (Houghton, -Mifflin, 1909); Goddard, H. H., _Education of Defectives_ (_Monroe’s -Cyclopædia of Education_); Bell, A. G., _Deaf Mute Instruction in -Relation to the Work of the Public Schools_; Armitage, T., _Education -and Employment of the Blind_ (Harrison & Sons, London, 1886); Dewey, -J., _The School and Society_ (University of Chicago Press, 1899), -and _Elementary School Record_ (University of Chicago Press, 1900); -Montessori, Maria, _The Montessori Method_ (Translated by Anne E. -George, Stokes Co., New York, 1912); Kilpatrick, W. H., _The Montessori -Method Examined_ (Houghton, Mifflin, 1914); Ayres, L. P., _Measuring -Educational Processes through Educational Results_ (_School Review_, -May, 1912); Strayer, G. D., _Standards and Tests for Measuring the -Efficiency of Schools_ (Report of the Committee of the National Council -of Education in the _United States Bureau of Education Bulletin_, 1913, -No. 13); Thorndike, E. L., _The Measurement of Educational Products_ -(_School Review_, May, 1912). - - - - -CHAPTER XXVIII - -RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT - - -OUTLINE - - Evolution in education may be interpreted from the standpoint of - the development of individualism. Individualism was first fully - recognized in the teachings of Christ, but was repressed during - the Middle Ages. While it reappeared during the Renaissance, - Reformation, and other movements, it soon lapsed, but a complete - break from tradition occurred with Rousseau in the eighteenth - century. - - For a time individualism dominated, but education since then has - endeavored to afford latitude to the individual without losing - sight of the welfare of society. - -[Sidenote: Progress of individualistic tendencies during the days of -primitive man,] - -[Sidenote: Oriental nations,] - -[Sidenote: Jewish, Athenian, and Roman civilizations,] - -[Sidenote: Christian development,] - -[Sidenote: and the Middle Ages;] - -=The Development of Individualism.=--The discussion of present day -tendencies that has just been given, together with the account of -educational evolution in the preceding chapters, serves to show how far -modern times have progressed in the ideals and practice of education. -This may perhaps be best appreciated from the standpoint of the -development of individualism. To follow such an interpretation back to -the beginning of the history of education, it may be stated that during -the day of primitive man no real distinction was made between society -and the individual, and practically all advancement was impossible, -for no one looked much beyond the present. With the appearance of the -transitional period in the Oriental countries, the individual had -begun to emerge, but was kept in constant subjection to the social -whole, for man was quite enslaved to the past. As the Jewish, Athenian, -and Roman civilizations developed, the beginnings of individualism -were for the first time clearly revealed, and some regard was had -for the future. Then, through the teachings of Christ, there came to -be a larger recognition of the principle of individualism and the -brotherhood of man. Owing to a necessity for spreading these enlarged -ideals among a barbarous horde of peoples, individualism was repressed, -and throughout the Middle Ages the keynote was submission to authority -and preparation for the life to come. The cultural products of Greece -and Rome largely disappeared, and all civilization became restricted, -fixed, and formal. - -[Sidenote: the Renaissance,] - -[Sidenote: the Reformation,] - -[Sidenote: and realism;] - -[Sidenote: Puritanism and Pietism;] - -But the human spirit could not be forever held in bondage, and, after -almost a millennium of repression and uniformity, various factors -that had accumulated within the Middle Ages produced an intellectual -awakening that we know as the ‘Renaissance.’ Its vitality lasted during -the fifteenth century in Italy and to the close of the sixteenth in the -Northern countries, but by the dawn of the seventeenth century it had -everywhere degenerated into a dry and mechanical study of the classics. -This constituted a formalism almost as dense as that it had superseded, -except that linguistic and literary studies had replaced dialectic and -theology. A little later than the spread of the Renaissance, though -overlapping it somewhat, came the allied movement of the ‘Reformation.’ -This grew in part out of the disposition of the Northern Renaissance -to turn to social and moral account the revived intelligence and -learning. Yet here also the revival failed in its mission, and -the tendency to rely upon reason rather than dogma hardened into -formalism and a distrust of individualism. Again, in the seventeenth -century, apparently as an outgrowth of the same forces, intellectual -activity took the form of a search for ‘real things.’ The movement -that culminated in ‘sense realism’ appeared, but this small and crude -beginning of the modern scientific tendency was for some decades yet -held within limits. Associated with this realistic tendency, on the -religious and political sides also appeared a quickening in such forms -as ‘Puritanism’ and ‘Pietism,’ which likewise degenerated eventually -into a fanaticism and hypocrisy. - -[Sidenote: and Rousseau and the destructive tendency.] - -[Sidenote: The present tendencies in education seem to harmonize the -individual interest with those of society.] - -=The Harmonization of the Individual and Society.=--Thus the way -was opened for the complete break with tradition and authority that -occurred in the eighteenth century. This tendency, while in France -at least most destructive and costly, was the inevitable result of -the unwillingness to reshape society and education in accordance with -changing ideals and conditions. Hence Rousseau undertook to shatter all -educational traditions. But his recommendation of isolated education, -so palpable in its fallacies, prepared the ground for the numerous -social, scientific, and psychological tendencies (see pp. 218-222) that -were destined to spring up in modern education and for the consequent -improvement in the aim, organization, content, and method of education. -Of course modern education has advanced infinitely beyond anything -implied by Rousseau or even the later reformers of the past century, -but it is out of his attempts at destruction that has grown this nobler -structure. For a time individualism triumphed and ground authority -under its heel, but when this extremity had been passed, the problem -became how to harmonize the individual with society, and to develop -personality progressively in keeping with its environment. Thus the -nineteenth and twentieth centuries have put forth conscious efforts -to justify the eighteenth and to bring out and develop the positions -barely hinted at in its negations. It is not alone the individual as -such that has been of interest in the modern period, but more and more -the individual in relation to the social whole to which he belongs, as -only in this way can the value of his activities be estimated. - -[Sidenote: Recent definitions of education show this.] - -[Sidenote: The educational problem of the future.] - -This is revealed in the works of those who followed Rousseau, and -especially in the attempts of recent educational philosophers to -frame a definition of education that shall recognize the importance -of affording latitude to the individual without losing sight of the -welfare of the social environment in connection with which his efforts -are to function. Thus Butler, though recognizing the individual -factor, especially stresses the social by declaring education to be -“the gradual adjustment of the individual to the spiritual possessions -of the race.” Then he further declares: “When we hear it sometimes -said, ‘All education must start from the child,’ we must add, ‘Yes, -and lead into human civilization;’ and when it is said on the other -hand that ‘all education must start from a traditional past,’ we must -add, ‘Yes, and be adapted to the child.’” And the balance between the -two factors of the individual and society is even more explicitly -preserved in Dewey’s statement “that the psychological and social -sides are organically related, and that education cannot be regarded -as a compromise between the two, or a superimposition of one upon -the other.” In the same way Bagley has made ‘social efficiency’ the -main aim in educating the individual to-day, and both elements are -carefully considered by all modern writers in discussing educational -values. Thus the central problem in education of the twentieth and -succeeding centuries is to be a constant reorganization of the -curriculum and methods of teaching, and this reconstruction must be -such as to harmonize a due regard for the progressive variations of -the individual with the welfare of the conservative institutions of -society. It must include a continual effort to hand on the intellectual -possessions of the race, but also to stimulate all individuals to add -some modification or new element to the product. In this way there may -develop unending possibilities for both the individual and society. - - -SUPPLEMENTARY READING - -Graves, F. P., _History of Education before the Middle Ages_ -(Macmillan, 1909), chap. XII; _History of Education during the -Transition_ (Macmillan, 1910), chap. XXIII; _History of Education in -Modern Times_ (Macmillan, 1913), chap. XII; Monroe, P., _Textbook in -the History of Education_ (Macmillan, 1905), chap. X. - - - - -INDEX - - - Abelard, 70, 76. - - Academy, in Germany, 158; - in England, 159, 177, 410; - of Franklin, 196; - Lancasterian, 242; - in South, 258; - in New York, 260; - in Massachusetts, 268; - in United States, 274, 331, 414. - - Adventure schools, 93. - - Agassiz, 398, 413. - - Agricola, 112. - - Agricultural training, 295 ff., 424. - - Alcotts, The, 293. - - Alcuin, 61 ff. - - Alexandria, 29, 30, 46. - - Alsted, 171. - - _American Annals of Education_, 305. - - _American Journal of Education_ (Russell) 304, (Barnard) 316 ff. - - American Sunday School Union, 238. - - Andover Theological Seminary, 299. - - Anselm, 70. - - Antioch, 46. - - Apologists, 45. - - _Apostles’ Creed_, 48. - - Apperception, 338, 341. - - Aquinas, 71 f. - - Archimedes, 30. - - Aristophanes, 19. - - Aristotle, 19, 24 ff., 27, 45, 58, 70 f., 165, 182. - - Ascham, 117. - - Assyria, 5. - - Athens, 14 ff. - - _Atrium_, 170. - - Averroës, 67. - - Avicenna, 66, 79. - - - Babylonia, 5. - - Bacon, Francis, 23, 164 f., 166, 171, 174, 206. - - Bacon, Roger, 163. - - Bagley, W. C., 445. - - Barnard, 309, 312 ff. - - Basedow, 220, 223 ff., 231. - - Bateus, 169. - - Bell, Andrew, 239 f. - - Benedict, St., 55. - - Bentham, 387. - - Berkeley, 192. - - Blackstone, 387. - - Blankenburg, 354. - - Blow, Susan E., 366 f. - - Board schools, 241, 388 ff., 425. - - Boccaccio, 104. - - Bölte, 366. - - Boëthius, 57 f. - - Bonnal, 279. - - Boyle, 163. - - Brathwaite, 156. - - Bray, Thomas, 232. - - Brinsley, 119. - - British and Foreign Society, 239 f. - - Brooks, Charles, 293. - - Brothers of Sincerity, 66. - - Brothers of the Christian Schools, 140. - - Brougham, 387. - - Bruni, 105. - - Buchanan, James, 245. - - Budæus, 110. - - Bugenhagen, 128, 145. - - Bülow, Baroness von, 354. - - Burgdorf, 281 f. - - Burgher schools, 93 f. - - Burrowes, T. H., 323. - - Butler, N. M., 444. - - - Cæsarea, 46. - - Calvin, 130, 193, 197. - - Cambridge, 117, 149, 177, 392. - - Campe, 225, 228. - - Capella, Martianus, 57. - - Carlisle, 299. - - Carpenter, Mary, 299. - - Carter, J. G., 305, 309. - - Cassiodorus, 57. - - Castes, 5 ff. - - Castiglione, 156. - - Catechetical schools, 46. - - Catechumenal schools, 43 f. - - Cathedral schools, 46 f., 54, 131. - - Catholepistemiad, 273. - - Chantry schools, 94 f., 132. - - Charity schools, 231 ff. - - Charlemagne, 61 ff. - - Charles VIII, 110. - - Chavannes, 291, 292. - - Cheke, 117. - - China, 5. - - Chivalry, 83 ff. - - Christianity, 29, 42 f. - - Chrysoloras, 104. - - Cicero, 58, 108, 116, 151. - - Circulating schools, 234. - - Clement of Alexandria, 46. - - Clinton, De Witt, 260. - - Cockerton Judgment, 391. - - Colburn, Warren, 293. - - Colet, 93, 117 f. - - College of Clermont, 137. - - College of France, 111, 385. - - College of Guyenne, 111. - - College of William and Mary, 192. - - Combe, 403, 405, 410, 416. - - Comenius, 167, 168 ff., 224, 353. - - Commercial education, 422 f. - - Communal collèges, 384. - - Concentration, 340, 345 f., 350, 429. - - Condillac, 205. - - _Conduct of the Understanding_, 180. - - _Connecticut Common School Journal_, 313. - - Continuation school, 298, 374, 377, 383, 420. - - Copernicus, 163. - - Corderius, 111, 130. - - Cordova, 66. - - _Corpus Juris Civilis_, 76, 79. - - Correlation, 341, 344, 350. - - Council of Whitby, 56. - - Court schools, 105 ff. - - Cousin, 291 f., 408. - - Creativeness, 356 ff. - - Culture epochs, 341, 344, 346. - - Cygnæus, 363. - - - D’Alembert, 205. - - Dame schools, 266. - - Dana, James D., 412. - - Darwin, 398, 413, 437 f. - - _Decree of Gratian_, 76, 79. - - Defectives, 300, 426 ff. - - De Garmo, Charles, 348, 351. - - Delayed maturing, 221. - - Delinquents, 142, 300. - - Descartes, 138. - - Dewey, John, 364, 429 ff., 444. - - Dialectic, 20, 58, 71, 76, 127. - - Didascaleum, 14, 18, 21. - - Diderot, 205. - - Diophantus, 30. - - Discipline, Locke’s, 180 ff. - - Districts, 266 f. - - Divided schools, 267. - - Dock, Christopher, 195. - - Donatus, 58. - - Double translation, 117. - - Duns Scotus, 71. - - - Eaton, Amos, 412. - - Écoles maternelles, 383. - - Edessa, 46. - - Edward VI, 132. - - Edwards, Ninian W., 325. - - Egypt, 5. - - Eisleben, 128, 145. - - _Elementarwerk_, 224. - - Elementary education, with Hindus, 7; - with Jews, 9; - in Sparta, 13; - in Athens, 14; - in Rome, 33, 36 f.; - monastic, 56; - with Charlemagne, 62; - humanistic, 105 ff., 113 f.; - Sturm, 115; - Zwingli, 129; - Jesuit, 134; - Port Royal, 139 f.; - Reformation, 144 ff.; - Innovators, 156; - Comenius, 171; - German realists, 175; - colonial Virginia, 191; - colonial New York, 194; - colonial Pennsylvania, 195; - colonial Massachusetts, 197; - England, 231, 244 ff., 387 ff., 409; - S. P. G., 234; - monitorial, 240; - France, 243, 381, 408; - United States, 246, 415; - New York, 258 f.; - Herbartian, 347; - Prussia, 377; - Canada, 392 ff.; - Germany, 407. - - Eliot, Charles W., 403. - - Elyot, 156. - - _Emile_, 208 ff. - - Encyclopedists, 204 ff. - - Épée, Abbé de l’, 428. - - Epicureans, 28, 46. - - Episcopal schools, 46 f. - - Erasmus, 113, 117, 125. - - Eratosthenes, 30. - - Erigena, 64. - - _Essay concerning the Human Understanding_, 180. - - Euclid, 30, 58. - - _Evening Hour of a Hermit_, 279. - - - Faculty psychology, 27, 182 ff., 222, 434. - - Falloux, 382. - - _Father’s Journal_, 278. - - Felbiger, 374. - - Fellenberg, 219, 295 ff. - - Feudalism, 83 f., 90. - - Fichte, 290, 351. - - Field school, 253. - - Formal discipline, 23, 182 ff., 404, 434. - - Forster, W. E., 388. - - Fortbildungsschulen, 298, 377, 420. - - Francis I, 110. - - Francke, 175 f. - - Francke Institutions, 346. - - Frankland, 158. - - Franklin, Benjamin, 159, 261. - - Frederick Barbarossa, 76. - - Frederick the Great, 373. - - Frederick William I, 373. - - Frederick William III, 290, 375. - - Frederick II, 67, 75. - - Free School Society, 260. - - French Revolution, 204. - - Frick, 346. - - Froebel, 168, 175, 219, 243, 334, 351 ff., 368, 430 f. - - Froebel Union, 365. - - Fulda, 63. - - - Galen, 79, 164. - - Galileo, 163. - - Galloway, S., 325. - - Gild schools, 92 f., 132. - - Gifts, 354, 359 f. - - Gnosticism, 30, 45. - - Goddard, H. H., 427. - - Grammar schools, Rome, 36 f.; - cathedral, 47; - monastic, 57; - Charlemagne, 61; - chantry, 94; - England, 118 f.; - America, 120; - New Amsterdam, 194; - Massachusetts, 197; - Virginia, 253; - South, 258; - United States, 274, 331. - - Granada, 66. - - Gratian, 76, 79. - - Gravel Lane School, 234. - - Gray, Asa, 413. - - _Great Didactic_, 169, 170 ff., 175. - - Griscom, 242, 292, 305. - - Grocyn, 117. - - Grüner, 352. - - Guericke, 163. - - Guizot, 382. - - Guyot, 293. - - Gymnasium, Athens, 15, 17, 21; - Melanchthon, 114; - Sturm, 115 f., 128, 157, 176; - Prussian, 378, 406. - - - Hall, Samuel R., 304. - - Hampton, 299. - - Hanus, P. H., 437. - - Harvard, 149, 177, 198. - - Harvey, 164 f., 206. - - Haüy, Abbé, 428. - - Hawley, Gideon, 259. - - Hecker, 176, 373, 378. - - Hellenistic philosophy, 29. - - Henry VIII, 131. - - Herbart, 168, 175, 219, 243, 334 ff., 363, 368. - - Herbart Society, 348, 351. - - Hieronymians, 112 ff. - - High school, 242, 269, 306, 311, 331, 414. - - Hillegas, M. B., 436. - - Hippocrates, 79. - - Hofwyl, 295 ff. - - Home and Colonial School Society, 246. - - Hopkins, Edward, 120. - - _How Gertrude Teaches Her Children_, 282, 286. - - Humanistic education, 102 ff., 164. - - Hume, 335. - - Hutton, 398. - - Huxley, 220, 399, 402, 404, 416. - - - India, 5 ff. - - Induction, 165, 173 f. - - Industrial education, of gilds, 91 f.; - La Salle, 141; - Virginia, 191, 193; - Massachusetts, 197; - Philanthropinum, 229; - monitorial, 240; - charity, 249; - Pestalozzi, 278 ff.; - Fellenberg, 295 ff.; - Europe, 298 ff.; - present status, 419 ff. - - Infant School Society, 246 f. - - Infant schools, 243 ff. - - Initiatory ceremonies, 5. - - Innovators, 156. - - Irnerius, 76. - - Isocrates, 28. - - - Jansenists, 138 ff. - - _Janua Linguarum_, 169, 174. - - Jarrow, 56. - - Jefferson, 253, 270. - - Jesuits, 133 ff. - - Jews, 9 f. - - Joule, 398. - - Judaism, 29. - - Jullien, General, 291 f. - - Justinian, 54, 76. - - - Kant, 227. - - Keilhau, 353. - - Kepler, 163, 165. - - Kerschensteiner, 420. - - Kindergarten, 354, 358 ff., 364 ff. - - Kitchen school, 267. - - Krüsi, 289. - - - Lancaster, Joseph, 239 ff. - - Lagrange, 398, 408. - - Lange, Karl, 346. - - Langethal, 352. - - Laplace, 398, 408. - - La Salle, 140. - - Latin schools. See Grammar schools. - - _Laws, The_, 23. - - _Leonard and Gertrude_, 278 f. - - Leopold of Dessau, 225. - - Lewis, S., 325. - - Liberal studies, 23, 56 f., 122. - - Libraries, 307. - - Liebig, 398, 406. - - Liebenstein, 354. - - Lily, 113, 118. - - Linacre, 117. - - Locke, 154 ff., 158, 179, 206, 213, 335. - - Louis XII, 110. - - Louis XIV, 140. - - Louis XV, 207. - - Louis Philippe, 382. - - Loyola, 132 f. - - Ludus, 36 f. - - Luther, 114, 125 ff. - - Lycées, 384, 408. - - - McClure, William, 292. - - McMurry, C. A., 348. - - McMurry, F. M., 348, 351. - - Malpighi, 164. - - Mann, 293, 304, 306 ff., 415. - - Manual training, in United States, 298 f.; - Cygnæus, 363; - in France, 383. - - Many-sided interest, 336 ff. - - Marwedel, Emma, 366. - - Mason, 293. - - _Massachusetts Common School Journal_, 307. - - Maternal schools, 244. - - Maurus, Rabanus, 63 f. - - Mayer, 398. - - Mayo, Charles, 246, 291. - - Medici, 105. - - Melanchthon, 114, 128, 131, 145. - - Mendel, 398. - - Merchant Taylors’, 92, 120. - - Meriam, J. L., 432. - - _Methodenbuch_, 224. - - Middendorf, 352. - - Mills, Caleb, 325. - - Milton, 152, 155, 157. - - Mittelschule, 377. - - Mohammed, 65. - - Mohammedanism, 27, 65 ff. - - Monastic schools, 49, 54 ff., 132. - - Monitorial system, 239 ff. - - Montaigne, 153 f., 155. - - Montessori, 433. - - Moore, E. C., 437. - - Moors, 66. - - More, 23, 117. - - _Morrill Act_, 413. - - Morton, Charles, 158. - - _Mother Play and Nursery Songs_, 358 f., 360. - - Motor expression, 356. - - Moving school, 267. - - Mulcaster, 155 f. - - Murphy, Judge A. D., 257. - - - Nägeli, 285, 293. - - Napoleon, 381, 408. - - National Education Association, 350. - - National Society, 233, 239 f. - - Naturalism, 180, 277. - - Nature study, 415. - - Neander, 129. - - Neef, 292. - - Neomazdeism, 29. - - Neoplatonism, 30. - - Neopythagoreanism, 29. - - Neshaminy, 196. - - Nestorius, 46. - - Neuhof, 278. - - _New Atlantis_, 23, 166. - - Newlands, 398. - - _New Testament_, 48. - - Newton, 164 f., 177, 206, 398. - - Niccoli, Niccolo de’, 105. - - _Nicene Creed_, 48. - - Nicolovius, 290. - - Nisibis, 46. - - Normal schools, Carter, 305; - Mann, 307 f.; - Massachusetts, 320; - Middle states, 322, 324; - Zedlitz, 374; - France, 382, 408. - - Notre Dame, 76. - - Novalis, 321. - - _Novum Organum_, 165. - - - Oberlin, 244. - - Oberrealschule, 378 f., 406. - - Observation, 276 ff., 280, 286 ff., 337, 343. - - Occam, William of, 71. - - Occupational work, Froebel, 363; - Europe and United States, 364; - Dewey, 429 f. - - Occupations, 354, 359 f. - - _Orbis Pictus_, 170, 174, 224. - - Ordinance of 1787, 271. - - Origen of Alexandria, 46. - - Oswego methods, 293 f., 415. - - Otherworldliness, 43 ff., 75, 101, 121. - - _Outlines of Educational Doctrine_, 337. - - Owen, 244 f., 387. - - Oxford, 117, 149, 177, 392, 409. - - - Pädagogium, 176. - - Palace school, 61. - - Palæstra, 14, 17, 21. - - Pancratium, 13. - - Pansophia, 167, 169, 171 ff. - - Parishads, 7. - - Parker, Colonel F. W., 293, 350, 364, 429. - - Parochial schools, 193 f. - - Peabody, Elizabeth P., 366. - - Peabody Educational Fund, 329. - - Peacham, 156. - - Penn, 120. - - Penn Charter School, 195. - - Pentathlum, 13 f. - - Permissive laws, 256 f., 263 f., 269, 273, 320, 322, 324 f., 328. - - Persia, 5. - - Pestalozzi, 156, 168, 175, 219, 243, 277 ff., 363, 368, 415. - - Peter the Lombard, 71 f., 76, 79. - - Petrarch, 103 f. - - Philanthropic movement, 229 ff. - - Philanthropinum, 223 ff. - - Philip Augustus, 76. - - Philonism, 29. - - Philosophical schools, Athens, 27 f. - - Pickering, Timothy, 261 f. - - Pietists, 176 f. - - Plamann, 289. - - Plato, 19 ff., 45, 56 f. - - _Politics_, 24. - - Poor schools, 261. - - Port Royal, 138 ff. - - Prelection, 135. - - Primitive peoples, 4 f. - - Princes’ schools, 116. - - Priscian, 58. - - Progymnasien, 379. - - Protagoras, 18 f. - - Prussian-Pestalozzianism, 289, 293, 308. - - Psychological movement, 220 f., 415 f. - - Ptolemy, 58. - - Public schools, England, 120, 410. - - Public School Society, 247, 261, 322. - - Pythagoras, 18 f., 23, 45. - - - Quadrivium, 23, 57, 62. - - _Quarterly Register_, 305. - - Quintilian, 58. - - - Rabelais, 155. - - Raikes, 237. - - Ramus, 111. - - Ratich, 167, 175. - - Raymund of Toledo, 67. - - Realgymnasien, 378, 406. - - Realism, 151 ff., 162, 179. - - Realprogymnasien, 379. - - Realschulen, 176, 378 f., 406. - - Rechahn, 228. - - Reformation, 125 ff. - - Reformschulen, 379. - - Rein, W., 342, 346. - - Renaissance, 70, 95, 101 ff. - - _Republic, The_, 21 ff. - - Reuchlin, 112, 114. - - Reyher, Andreas, 175. - - Rhetorical schools, Athens, 28, 30; - Rome, 36, 38 f. - - _Rhode Island School Journal_, 314. - - Ritter, 220, 285 f., 293. - - Ritterakademien, 157, 176. - - _Robinson Crusoe_, 216, 225, 345. - - Rochow, 228. - - Rogers, W. B., 413. - - Rolland, 381. - - Rollin, 140. - - Rome, 29 f., 32 ff. - - Rousseau, 156, 175, 179, 206 ff., 231, 277, 285 ff., 363, 368, 416, 443. - - Rush, B., 261. - - Russell, W., 304. - - - St. Paul’s school, 93, 118, 132. - - St. Yon, 141. - - Salomon, 364. - - Salzmann, 220, 225, 228, 231, 284. - - Saxony, 145. - - Schelling, 352. - - Schlegels, The, 352. - - Scholasticism, 69 ff., 76. - - _Scholemaster, The_, 117. - - _Science of Education_, 337. - - Scientific movement, 152, 163, 166 f., 219 f., 397 ff. - - Secondary education, Athens, 15, 17; - Plato, 21; - Aristotle, 25; - Rome, 36; - gild schools, 92; - humanistic, 105 ff.; - French, 111; - German, 114 ff.; - England, 118 f., 132, 158, 390 f., 409; - Jesuit, 134; - Port Royal, 138 ff.; - La Salle, 141; - Reformation, 147 f.; - America, 158 ff., 274, 414; - Comenius, 171; - realists, 176; - colonial, 191 f., 193 f., 195 f., 196 f.; - charity schools, 235; - monitorial, 242; - Virginia, 253 f.; - other Southern states, 256 f.; - New York, 258 f.; - Massachusetts, 268; - Carter, 306; - Mann, 319, 331; - Herbart, 347; - Prussia, 373, 378 ff.; - France, 384, 408; - Canada, 394; - Germany, 406. - - Seguin, 426 f., 433. - - Self-activity, 356 ff. - - Semler, 176. - - Sense realism, 152, 162 ff., 169, 173, 175 f., 179. - - _Seventh Annual Report_, Mann’s, 293, 308. - - Sheldon, E. A., 293. - - Simultaneous method, 143. - - Skeptics, 28. - - Smith, Adam, 387. - - Social realism, 153 ff. - - Sociological movement, 218, 357, 415 ff. - - Socrates, 19 f. - - Sophie, 217. - - Sophists, 17 ff. - - Sparta, 12 ff. - - Spencer, 220, 400 ff., 416. - - S. P. C. K., 232. - - S. P. G., 234 ff. - - S. P. K. G., 236. - - Stanz, 279 ff. - - Stevens, Thaddeus, 263. - - Stoics, 28, 45. - - Stowe, David, 305. - - Stoy, 345 f. - - Strassburg, 115, 128. - - Sturm, 115 f., 128, 131. - - Süvern, 290. - - Sunday schools, 237 f. - - _Swiss Family Robinson_, 225. - - Syllabaries, 281, 283. - - - Table of fractions, 283. - - Table of units, 281, 283, 293. - - Technische Hochschulen, 380, 406. - - Theodore of Gaza, 113. - - Thorndike, E. L., 435. - - _Thoughts concerning Education_, 179 f. - - Tieck, 352. - - Toledo, 66. - - Torricelli, 163. - - Trinity Church School, 235. - - Trivium, 57. - - Trotzendorf, 129. - - Türck, 290. - - Tuskegee, 299. - - - University, Athens, 29, 39; - Alexandria, 28, 39; - Rhodes, 29, 39; - Rome, 29, 39; - Pergamon, 29; - mediæval, 74 ff.; - Paris, 75 ff., 110; - Bologna, 75 ff.; - Salerno, 75; - Erfurt, 111; - Leipzig, 111; - Heidelberg, 111; - Tübingen, 111; - Ingoldstadt, 111; - Vienna, 111; - Wittenberg, 111; - Marburg, 111; - Königsberg, 111; - Jena, 111; - after Reformation, 148 f.; - Halle, 177; - Göttingen, 177; - Yale, 177; - Princeton, 177, 196; - Columbia, 177; - Pennsylvania, 177; - Virginia, 254; - Georgia, 256; - Michigan, 326; - France, 381; - Cornell, 413; - Johns Hopkins, 413. - - University of the State of New York, 259. - - Vaux, Robert, 247. - - Vergerio, 105. - - Verona, 105. - - Vestibulum, 169 f. - - Visconti, 105. - - Vittorino da Feltre, 105 ff. - - Vives, 117. - - Vocational education, 219, 240, 249. - - Volksschulen, 145, 377, 407. - - Voltaire, 204 ff., 287. - - Voluntary schools, 388 ff., 425. - - Vorschulen, 380. - - - Wandering students, 78. - - Wehrli, 295. - - Weiss, Professor, 352. - - Wessel, 112. - - _What Knowledge Is of Most Worth_, 400. - - Whitebread, 387. - - Wilderspin, 245. - - William of Champeaux, 76. - - Williams, Roger, 120. - - Wimpfeling, 112, 125. - - Wirt, W. A., 432. - - Witmer, L., 427. - - Woman’s education, Hindu, 7; - Sparta, 14; - Athens, 15; - Aristotle, 25; - Rome, 34; - Convent, 56; - Luther, 127; - realists, 156; - academies, 160; - Comenius, 171; - charity schools, 278; - Pestalozzi, 278; - Fellenberg, 297; - Mann, 309; - France, 385. - - Woodbridge, W. C., 305. - - Woodhouse, John, 158. - - Würtemberg, 145. - - Wyss, 255. - - - Yocum, A. D., 436. - - York, 56, 61. - - Youmans, E. L., 403, 405. - - Yverdon, 283. - - - Zedlitz, von, 374. - - Ziller, 289, 295, 341 f., 345 f., 347. - - Zoroastrianism, 29. - - Zwingli, 129. - - - Printed in the United States of America - - -[Transcriber’s Note: - -Page 218 line 8, Emile changed to read _Emile_ for consistency. - -Obvious printer errors corrected silently. - -Inconsistent spelling and hyphenation are as in the original.] - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A student's history of education, by -Frank Pierrepont Graves - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A STUDENT'S HISTORY OF EDUCATION *** - -***** This file should be named 60113-0.txt or 60113-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/0/1/1/60113/ - -Produced by Turgut Dincer, Wayne Hammond and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -book was produced from images made available by the -HathiTrust Digital Library.) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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