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diff --git a/old/60086-0.txt b/old/60086-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 13299f8..0000000 --- a/old/60086-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,15234 +0,0 @@ -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 60086 *** - -[Illustration: Book Cover] - - - - -[Illustration: MAP TO ACCOMPANY "THE BOY TRAVELLERS IN THE RUSSIAN -EMPIRE."] - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - -THE BOY TRAVELLERS IN - -THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE - -ADVENTURES OF TWO YOUTHS IN A JOURNEY IN - -EUROPEAN AND ASIATIC RUSSIA, WITH ACCOUNTS OF A TOUR ACROSS SIBERIA - -VOYAGES ON THE AMOOR, VOLGA, AND OTHER RIVERS, A VISIT TO - -CENTRAL ASIA, TRAVELS AMONG THE EXILES, AND A HISTORICAL - -SKETCH OF THE EMPIRE FROM ITS FOUNDATION - -TO THE PRESENT TIME - -By THOMAS W. KNOX - -AUTHOR OF "THE BOY TRAVELLERS IN THE FAR EAST" "THE YOUNG NIMRODS" ETC. - -Illustrated - -NEW YORK - -HARPER & BROTHERS, FRANKLIN SQUARE - -1887 - - - - -By THOMAS W. KNOX. - - * * * * * - -THE BOY TRAVELLERS IN THE FAR EAST. Five Volumes. Copiously Illustrated. -8vo, Cloth, $3.00 each. The volumes sold separately. Each volume -complete in itself. - - I. ADVENTURES OF TWO YOUTHS IN A JOURNEY TO JAPAN AND CHINA. - II. ADVENTURES OF TWO YOUTHS IN A JOURNEY TO SIAM AND JAVA. With - Descriptions or Cochin-China, Cambodia, Sumatra, and the Malay - Archipelago. - III. ADVENTURES OF TWO YOUTHS IN A JOURNEY TO CEYLON AND INDIA. With - Descriptions of Borneo, the Philippine Islands, and Burmah. - IV. ADVENTURES OF TWO YOUTHS IN A JOURNEY TO EGYPT AND PALESTINE. - V. ADVENTURES OF TWO YOUTHS IN A JOURNEY THROUGH AFRICA. - -THE BOY TRAVELLERS IN SOUTH AMERICA. Adventures of Two Youths in a -Journey through Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, Argentine -Republic, and Chili; with Descriptions of Patagonia and Tierra del -Fuego, and Voyages upon the Amazon and La Plata Rivers. Copiously -Illustrated. 8vo, Cloth, $3.00. - -THE BOY TRAVELLERS IN THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE. Adventures of Two Youths in a -Journey in European and Asiatic Russia, with Accounts of a Tour across -Siberia, Voyages on the Amoor, Volga, and other Rivers, a Visit to -Central Asia, Travels Among the Exiles, and a Historical Sketch of the -Empire from its Foundation to the Present Time. Copiously Illustrated. -8vo, Cloth, $3.00. - -THE VOYAGE OF THE "VIVIAN" TO THE NORTH POLE AND BEYOND. Adventures of -Two Youths in the Open Polar Sea. Copiously Illustrated. 8vo, Cloth, -$2.50. - -HUNTING ADVENTURES ON LAND AND SEA. Two Volumes. Copiously Illustrated. -8vo, Cloth, $2.50 each. The volumes sold separately. Each volume -complete in itself. - - I. THE YOUNG NIMRODS IN NORTH AMERICA. - II. THE YOUNG NIMRODS AROUND THE WORLD. - - * * * * * - -PUBLISHED BY HARPER & BROTHERS, NEW YORK. - -_Any of the above volumes sent by mail, postage prepaid, to any part of -the United States or Canada, on receipt of the price._ - - * * * * * - -Copyright, 1886, by HARPER & BROTHERS.--_All rights reserved._ - - - - -PREFACE. - - -In preparing this volume for the press, the author has followed very -closely the plan adopted for "The Boy Travellers in the Far East," and -also for his more recent work, "The Boy Travellers in South America." -Accompanied by their versatile and accomplished mentor, Dr. Bronson, our -young friends, Frank Bassett and Fred Bronson, journeyed from Vienna to -Warsaw and St. Petersburg, and after an interesting sojourn in the -latter city, proceeded to Moscow, the ancient capital of the Czars. From -Moscow they went to Nijni Novgorod, to attend the great fair for which -that city is famous, and thence descended the Volga to the Caspian Sea. -On their way down the great river they visited the principal towns and -cities along its banks, saw many strange people, and listened to -numerous tales and legends concerning the races which make up the -population of the great Muscovite Empire. - -They visited the recently developed petroleum fields of the Caspian, -and, after crossing that inland sea, made a journey in Central Asia to -study certain phases of the "Eastern Question," and learn something -about the difficulties that have arisen between England and Russia. -Afterwards they travelled in the Caucasus, visited the Crimea, and bade -farewell to the Empire as they steamed away from Odessa. Concerning the -parts of Russia that they were unable to visit they gathered much -information, and altogether their notes, letters, and memoranda would -make a portly volume. - -The author has been three times in the Russian Empire, and much of the -country described by "The Boy Travellers" was seen and traversed by him. -In his first journey he entered the Czar's dominions at Petropavlovsk in -Kamtchatka, ascended the Amoor River through its entire navigable -length, traversed Siberia from the Pacific Ocean to the Ural Mountains, -and continuing thence to Kazan, Moscow, St. Petersburg, and Warsaw, left -the protection of the Russian flag eleven thousand miles from where he -first went beneath it. His second visit included the Crimea and other -regions bordering the Black Sea, and his third was confined to Finland -and other Baltic provinces. - -In addition to his personal observations in Russia, the author has drawn -upon the works of others. Many books of Russian travel and history have -been examined; some of them have been mentioned in the text of the -narrative, but it has not been practicable to refer to all. Indebtedness -is hereby acknowledged to the following books: "Free Russia," by -Hepworth Dixon; "Turkestan" and "Life of Peter the Great," by Hon. -Eugene Schuyler; "A Ride to Khiva," by Col. Fred Burnaby; "Campaigning -on the Oxus, and the Fall of Khiva," by J. A. Macgahan; "Life of Peter -the Great" and "Life of Genghis Khan," by Jacob Abbott; "The Siberian -Overland Route," by Alexander Michie; "Tent-life in Siberia," by George -Kennan; "Reindeer, Dogs, and Snow-shoes," by Richard J. Bush; "The -Invasion of the Crimea," by A. W. Kinglake; "Fred Markham in Russia," by -W. H. G. Kingston; "The Knout and the Russians," by G. De Lagny; "The -Russians at the Gates of Herat" and "The Region of the Eternal Fire," by -Charles Marvin; "Travels in the Regions of the Upper and Lower Amoor" -and "Oriental and Western Siberia," by Thomas W. Atkinson; and "The -Russians at Home," by Sutherland Edwards. The author has also drawn upon -several articles in _Harper's Magazine_, including his own series -describing his journey through Siberia. - -The publishers have kindly permitted the use of illustrations from their -previous publications on the Russian Empire, in addition to those -specially prepared for this book. As a result of their courtesy, the -author has been able to present a "copiously illustrated" book, which is -always a delight to the youthful eye. - - T.W.K. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - CHAPTER I. PAGE - - DEPARTURE FROM VIENNA.--FRANK'S LETTER.--A FAREWELL - PROMENADE.--FROM VIENNA TO CRACOW.--THE GREAT SALT-MINE OF - WIELICZKA, AND WHAT WAS SEEN THERE.--CHURCHES AND PALACES - UNDERGROUND.--VOYAGE ON A SUBTERRANEAN LAKE. 15 - - CHAPTER II. - - LEAVING CRACOW.--THE RUSSIAN FRONTIER.--THE POLICE AND THE - CUSTOM-HOUSE.--RUSSIAN CENSORSHIP OF BOOKS AND - PAPERS.--CATCHING A SMUGGLER.--FROM THE FRONTIER TO - WARSAW.--SIGHTS AND INCIDENTS IN THE CAPITAL OF POLAND.--FROM - WARSAW TO ST. PETERSBURG. 40 - - CHAPTER III. - - IN THE STREETS OF ST. PETERSBURG.--ISVOSHCHIKS AND - DROSKIES.--COUNTING IN RUSSIAN.--PASSPORTS AND THEIR - USES.--ON THE NEVSKI PROSPECT.--VISITING THE CHURCH OF - KAZAN.--THE RUSSO-GREEK RELIGION.--UNFAVORABLE POSITION OF ST. - PETERSBURG.--DANGER OF DESTRUCTION.--GREAT INUNDATION OF - 1824.--STATUE OF PETER THE GREAT.--ADMIRALTY SQUARE.--THE - SAILORS AND THE STATUE. 58 - - CHAPTER IV. - - DINNER IN A RUSSIAN RESTAURANT.--CABBAGE SOUP, FISH PIES, AND - OTHER ODD DISHES.--THE "SAMOVAR" AND ITS USES.--RUSSIAN - TEA-DRINKERS.--"JOLTAI CHAI."--ALEXANDER'S COLUMN.--FORTRESS OF - STS. PETER AND PAUL.--IMPERIAL ASSASSINATIONS.--SKETCHES OF THE - PEOPLE.--RUSSIAN POLICE AND THEIR WAYS. 76 - - CHAPTER V. - - NUMBER AND CHARACTER OF THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE.--PAN-SLAVIC UNION.--ST. - ISAAC'S CHURCH: ITS HISTORY AND DESCRIPTION.--THE WINTER PALACE AND - THE HERMITAGE.--SIGHTS IN THE PALACE.--CATHERINE'S RULES FOR HER - RECEPTIONS.--JOHN PAUL JONES IN RUSSIA.--THE CROWN JEWELS AND THE - ORLOFF DIAMOND.--ANECDOTES OF THE EMPEROR NICHOLAS.--RELICS OF PETER - THE GREAT.--FROM PALACE TO PRISON.--TOMBS OF RUSSIA'S EMPERORS.--A - MONUMENT AND AN ANECDOTE. 93 - - CHAPTER VI. - - THE GOSTINNA DVOR: ITS EXTENT AND CHARACTER.--PECULIARITY OF - RUSSIAN SHOPPING.--CURIOUS CUSTOMS.--OLD-CLOTHES - MARKET.--HAY-MARKET.--PIGEONS IN RUSSIAN CITIES.--FROZEN - ANIMALS.--CHURCH AND MONASTERY OF ST. ALEXANDER NEVSKI.--A - PERSIAN TRAIN.--A COFFIN OF SOLID SILVER.--THE SUMMER - GARDEN.--SPEAKING TO THE EMPEROR.--KRILOFF AND HIS - FABLES.--VISIT TO A RUSSIAN THEATRE.--"A LIFE FOR THE CZAR."--A - RUSSIAN COMEDY. 110 - - CHAPTER VII. - - NEWSPAPERS IN RUSSIA: THEIR NUMBER, CHARACTER, AND - INFLUENCE.--DIFFICULTIES OF EDITORIAL LIFE.--THE CENSORSHIP.--AN - EXCURSION TO PETERHOF, ORANIENBAUM, AND CRONSTADT.--SIGHTS IN - THE SUMMER PALACE.--CRONSTADT AND THE NAVAL STATION.--THE - RUSSIAN NAVY.--THE RUSSIAN ARMY: ITS COMPOSITION AND - NUMBERS.--THE COSSACKS.--ANECDOTES OF RUSSIAN MILITARY LIFE. 130 - - CHAPTER VIII. - - VISITING THE UNIVERSITY OF ST. PETERSBURG.--EDUCATION IN - RUSSIA.--PRIMARY AND OTHER SCHOOLS.--THE SYSTEM OF - INSTRUCTION.--RECENT PROGRESS IN EDUCATIONAL MATTERS.--UNIVERSITIES - IN THE EMPIRE: THEIR NUMBER AND LOCATION.--RELIGIOUS - LIBERTY.--TREATMENT OF THE JEWS.--THE ISLANDS OF THE NEVA, AND - WHAT WAS SEEN THERE.--IN A "TRAKTIR."--BRIBERY AMONG RUSSIAN - OFFICIALS. 150 - - CHAPTER IX. - - STUDIES OF ST. PETERSBURG.--MUJIKS.--"THE IMPERIAL NOSEGAY."--A - SHORT HISTORY OF RUSSIAN SERFDOM: ITS ORIGIN, GROWTH, AND - ABUSES.--EMANCIPATION OF THE SERFS.--PRESENT CONDITION OF THE - PEASANT CLASS.--SEEING THE EMPEROR.--HOW THE CZAR APPEARS IN - PUBLIC.--PUBLIC AND SECRET POLICE: THEIR EXTRAORDINARY - POWERS.--ANECDOTES OF POLICE SEVERITY.--RUSSIAN COURTS OF LAW. 172 - - CHAPTER X. - - WINTER IN RUSSIA.--FASHIONABLE AND OTHER FURS.--SLEIGHS AND - SLEDGES.--NO SLEIGH-BELLS IN RUSSIAN CITIES.--OFFICIAL OPENING - OF THE NEVA.--RUSSIAN ICE-HILLS.--"BUTTER-WEEK."--KISSING AT - EASTER.--AN ACTIVE KISSING-TIME.--RUSSIAN STOVES AND - BATHS.--EFFECTS OF SEVERE COLD.--THE STORY OF THE FROZEN - NOSE.--HOW MEN ARE FROZEN TO DEATH. 193 - - CHAPTER XI. - - LEAVING ST. PETERSBURG.--NOVGOROD THE GREAT: ITS HISTORY AND - TRADITIONS.--RURIK AND HIS SUCCESSORS.--BARBARITIES OF JOHN THE - TERRIBLE.--EARLY HISTORY OF RUSSIA.--AN IMPERIAL - BEAR-HUNT.--ORIGIN OF THE HOUSE OF ROMANOFF.--"A LIFE FOR THE - CZAR."--RAILWAYS IN RUSSIA FROM NOVGOROD TO MOSCOW. 211 - - CHAPTER XII - - FIRST IMPRESSIONS OF MOSCOW.--UNDULATIONS OF THE - GROUND.--IRREGULARITY OF THE BUILDINGS, AND THE CAUSE - THEREOF.--NAPOLEON'S CAMPAIGN IN RUSSIA.--DISASTER AND - RETREAT.--THE BURNING OF MOSCOW.--THE KREMLIN: ITS CHURCHES, - TREASURES, AND HISTORICAL ASSOCIATIONS.--ANECDOTES OF RUSSIAN - LIFE.--THE CHURCH OF ST. BASIL. 230 - - CHAPTER XIII. - - THE GREAT THEATRE OF MOSCOW.--OPERATIC PERFORMANCES.--THE KITAI - GOROD AND GOSTINNA DVOR.--ROMANOFF HOUSE AND THE ROMANOFF - FAMILY.--SKETCH OF THE RULERS OF RUSSIA.--ANECDOTES OF PETER THE - GREAT AND OTHERS.--CHURCH OF THE SAVIOUR.--MOSQUES AND - PAGODAS.--THE MUSEUM.--RIDING-SCHOOL.--SUHAREFF - TOWER.--TRAKTIRS.--OLD BELIEVERS.--THE SPARROW HILLS AND THE - SIMONOFF MONASTERY. 252 - - CHAPTER XIV. - - A VISIT TO THE TROITSKA MONASTERY, AND WHAT WAS SEEN - THERE.--CURIOUS LEGENDS.--MONKS AT DINNER.--EUROPEAN - FAIRS.--THE GREAT FAIR AT NIJNI NOVGOROD.--SIGHTS AND - SCENES.--MININ'S TOMB AND TOWER.--DOWN THE VOLGA BY - STEAMBOAT.--STEAM NAVIGATION ON THE GREAT RIVER.--KAZAN, AND - WHAT WAS SEEN THERE.--THE ROUTE TO SIBERIA. 271 - - CHAPTER XV. - - AVATCHA BAY, IN KAMTCHATKA.--ATTACK UPON PETROPAVLOVSK BY THE - ALLIED FLEET.--DOGS AND DOG-DRIVING.--RAPID TRAVELLING WITH A - DOG-TEAM.--POPULATION AND RESOURCES OF KAMTCHATKA.--REINDEER - AND THEIR USES.--THE AMOOR RIVER.--NATIVE TRIBES AND CURIOUS - CUSTOMS.--TIGERS IN SIBERIA.--NAVIGATION OF THE AMOOR.--OVERLAND - TRAVELLING IN SIBERIA.--RIDING IN A TARANTASSE.--A ROUGH - ROAD.--AN AMUSING MISTAKE.--FROM STRATENSK TO - NERTCHINSK.--GOLD-MINING IN SIBERIA. 289 - - CHAPTER XVI. - - THE EXILES OF SIBERIA.--THE DECEMBRISTS AND THEIR - EXPERIENCE.--SOCIAL POSITION OF EXILES.--DIFFERENT CLASSES OF - EXILES AND THEIR SENTENCES.--CRIMINALS AND POLITICALS.--DEGREES - OF PUNISHMENT.--PERPETUAL COLONISTS.--HOW EXILES - TRAVEL.--LODGING-HOUSES AND PRISONS.--CONVOYS.--THRILLING STORY - OF AN ESCAPE FROM SIBERIA.--SECRET ROADS.--HOW PEASANTS TREAT - THE EXILES.--PRISONERS IN CHAINS. 313 - - CHAPTER XVII. - - CHARACTER OF THE SIBERIAN POPULATION.--ABSENCE OF SERFDOM, AND - ITS EFFECT.--A RUSSIAN FÊTE.--AMUSEMENTS OF THE - PEASANTRY.--COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE.--CURIOUS CUSTOMS.--WHIPPING - A WIFE.--OVERLAND THROUGH SIBERIA AGAIN.--CHETAH AND THE - BOURIATS.--IN A BOURIAT VILLAGE.--VERCKNE UDINSK.--SIBERIAN - ROBBERS.--TEA-TRAINS AND TEA-TRADE.--KIACHTA.--LODGED BY THE - POLICE.--TRADE BETWEEN RUSSIA AND CHINA. 334 - - CHAPTER XVIII. - - GENERAL ASPECTS OF MAI-MAI-CHIN.--DINNER WITH A CHINESE - GOVERNOR.--A THEATRICAL PERFORMANCE.--LAKE BAIKAL: ITS - REMARKABLE FEATURES.--A WONDERFUL RIDE.--IRKUTSK: ITS - POPULATION, SIZE, AND PECULIARITIES.--SOCIAL - GAYETIES.--PREPARATIONS FOR A LONG SLEIGH-RIDE.--LIST OF - GARMENTS.--VARIETIES OF SLEIGHS.--FAREWELL TO - IRKUTSK.--SLEIGHING INCIDENTS.--FOOD ON THE ROAD.--SIBERIAN - MAILS.--ADVANTAGES OF WINTER TRAVELLING.--SLEIGHING ON BARE - GROUND.--A SNOWLESS REGION.--KRASNOYARSK. 354 - - CHAPTER XIX. - - POSITION AND CHARACTER OF KRASNOYARSK.--A LESSON IN RUSSIAN - PRONUNCIATION.--MARKET SCENE.--SIBERIAN TREES.--THE - "OUKHABA."--A NEW SENSATION.--ROAD-FEVER AND ITS CAUSE.--AN - EXCITING ADVENTURE WITH WOLVES.--HOW WOLVES ARE HUNTED.--FROM - KRASNOYARSK TO TOMSK.--STEAM NAVIGATION IN - SIBERIA.--BARNAOOL.--MINES OF THE ALTAI.--TIGERS AND TIGER - STORIES.--THE "BOURAN."--ACROSS THE BARABA STEPPE.--TUMEN AND - EKATERINEBURG.--FROM EUROPE TO ASIA.--PERM, KAZAN, AND NIJNI - NOVGOROD.--END OF THE SLEIGH-RIDE. 377 - - CHAPTER XX. - - DOWN THE VOLGA AGAIN.--RUSSIAN RECEPTION CEREMONY.--SIMBIRSK, - SAMARA, AND SARATOV.--GERMAN SETTLERS ON THE VOLGA.--DON - COSSACKS.--ASTRACHAN.--CURIOUS POPULATION.--VOYAGE ON THE CASPIAN - SEA.--THE CASPIAN PETROLEUM REGION.--TANK-STEAMERS.--INTERESTING - FACTS AND FIGURES OF THE NEW PETROLIA.--PRESENT PRODUCT OF THE - BAKU OIL-FIELDS.--EXCURSION TO BALAKHANI, AND VISIT TO THE - OIL-WELLS.--TEMPLES OF THE FIRE-WORSHIPPERS.--ANTIQUITY OF THE - CASPIAN PETROLEUM REGION.--MARCO POLO AND OTHER AUTHORITIES. 403 - - CHAPTER XXI. - - A GLANCE AT CENTRAL ASIA.--RUSSIAN CONQUEST IN TURKESTAN.--WAR - AND DIPLOMACY AMONG THE KIRGHESE TRIBES.--RUSSIAN TAXES AND - THEIR COLLECTION.--TURCOMAN AND KIRGHESE RAIDS.--PRISONERS - SOLD INTO SLAVERY.--FORTIFIED VILLAGES AND TOWERS OF - REFUGE.--COMMERCE IN TURKESTAN.--JEALOUSY OF - FOREIGNERS.--TRAVELS OF VÁMBÉRY AND OTHERS.--VÁMBÉRY'S NARROW - ESCAPE.--TURCOMAN CHARACTER.--PAYMENTS FOR HUMAN HEADS.--MARRIAGE - CUSTOMS AMONG THE TURCOMANS.--EXTENT AND POPULATION OF CENTRAL - ASIA. 428 - - CHAPTER XXII. - - FRANK AND FRED IN THE TURCOMAN COUNTRY.--THE TRANS-CASPIAN - RAILWAY.--SKOBELEFF'S CAMPAIGN, AND THE CAPTURE OF GEOK - TEPÉ.--ENGLISH JEALOUSY OF RUSSIAN ADVANCES.--RIVERS OF - CENTRAL ASIA.--THE OXUS AND JAXARTES.--AGRICULTURE BY - IRRIGATION.--KHIVA, SAMARCAND, AND BOKHARA.--A RIDE ON THE - TRANS-CASPIAN RAILWAY.--STATISTICS OF THE LINE.--KIZIL ARVAT, - ASKABAD, AND SARAKHS.--ROUTE TO HERAT AND INDIA.--TURCOMAN - DEVASTATION.--THE AFGHAN BOUNDARY QUESTION.--HOW MERV WAS - CAPTURED.--O'DONOVAN AND MACGAHAN: THEIR REMARKABLE - JOURNEYS.--RAILWAY ROUTE FROM ENGLAND TO INDIA.--RETURN TO BAKU. 451 - - CHAPTER XXIII. - - BAKU TO TIFLIS.--THE CAPITAL OF THE CAUCASUS.--MOUNTAIN - TRAVELLING.--CROSSING THE RANGE.--PETROLEUM LOCOMOTIVES.--BATOUM - AND ITS IMPORTANCE.--TREBIZOND AND ERZEROOM.--SEBASTOPOL AND - THE CRIMEA.--SHORT HISTORY OF THE CRIMEAN WAR.--RUSSO-TURKISH - WAR OF 1877-78.--BATTLES IN THE CRIMEA AND SIEGE OF - SEBASTOPOL.--VISITING THE MALAKOFF AND REDAN FORTS.--VIEW OF - THE BATTLE-FIELDS.--CHARGE OF THE LIGHT BRIGADE AT - BALAKLAVA.--PRESENT CONDITION OF SEBASTOPOL.--ODESSA.--ARRIVAL - AT CONSTANTINOPLE.--FRANK'S DREAM.--THE END. 480 - - - - -ILLUSTRATIONS. - - - Winter Scene in Russia _Frontispiece._ - Fred's Reminder 15 - St. Stephen's Cathedral, Vienna 16 - View of the Palace of Cracow 17 - Kosciusko, 1777 18 - Kosciusko, 1817 19 - Church of St Mary, Cracow 20 - Polish Jew of high Rank 21 - Polish Jews of the Middle Class 22 - Our Guide in Costume 23 - The Inspector-general 24 - The Shaft 26 - Descending the Shaft 27 - Lamp-bearers 28 - A Foot-path 29 - An Underground Chapel 31 - Men Cutting Salt in the Mine 32 - Finishing the Columns 33 - Subterranean Stables 34 - A Mining Singer 35 - "Glück-auf!" 36 - Fête in the Grand Saloon of Entertainment 37 - A Retired Director 38 - Outer Wall of Cracow 40 - Custom-house Formalities 41 - Passport not Correct 42 - In the Passport Bureau 43 - Way Station on the Railway 45 - Before Examination 46 - After Examination 47 - Scene on the Railway 48 - Shutes for loading Coal on the Railway 49 - Polish National Costumes 50 - Peasant's Farm-house 51 - Royal Palace at Warsaw 52 - Shrine at a Gate-way 53 - Lake in the Park 54 - A Business Man of Warsaw 55 - In St. Petersburg 56 - Isvoshchiks in Winter 59 - Drosky Drivers 60 - Sledge of a high Official 63 - Russian Workmen on their way Home 65 - Russian Officer with Decorations 66 - A Russian Priest 68 - Convent of Solovetsk in the Frozen Sea 71 - The Inundation of 1824 72 - Statue of Peter the Great 73 - Improvising a Statue 75 - Tea-sellers in the Streets 77 - Russian Restaurant at the Paris Exposition 78 - An Out-door Tea-party 79 - Russian Mujiks drinking Tea 81 - Plant from which Yellow Tea is made 82 - Column in Memory of Alexander I. 83 - Peter the Great 85 - Assassination of Peter III. 87 - Paul I. 88 - Russian and Finn 89 - Dvornik and Postman 90 - Lodgings at the Frontier 91 - Ordered to leave Russia 92 - Finland Peasants in Holiday Costume 94 - Inhabitants of Southern Russia 95 - St. Isaac's Church and Admiralty Square 96 - Priest of the Church of St. Isaac 98 - Catherine II. of Russia 99 - Reception of John Paul Jones by the Empress Catherine 101 - Russian Attack on the Turkish Galley 103 - The Orloff Diamond 104 - Nicholas I. 105 - Peter III. 106 - Circassian Arms as Trophies of Battle 107 - Statue of Nicholas I. 108 - Politeness in the Market-place 111 - Importuning a Visitor 113 - Frozen Animals in the Market 114 - Market for old Clothes 116 - Pigeons in a Russian City 118 - Persian Horses presented by the Shah 119 - Russian Peasant Girl 120 - Russian Nurse-maid and Children 121 - Some of Kriloff's Friends 122 - Kriloff's Characters in Convention 123 - The Fox as a Law-giver 126 - One of Kriloff's Characters 127 - Closing Scene in a Russian Play 128 - Kriloff's Statue in the Summer Garden, St. Petersburg 129 - Press-room of a Daily Newspaper 131 - Interviewing an Editor 132 - Prince Gortchakoff 133 - Cabinet and Chair in the Palace 135 - Illumination in a Russian Park 136 - Tapestry and Fire Utensils at Peterhof 137 - Door-way of Peter's House at Zaandam, Holland 138 - A Student of Navigation 139 - Steam Frigate near Cronstadt 140 - Frigate under Sail and Steam 141 - The _Dreadnought_--type of the _Peter the Great_ 142 - The Russian Army--Regular Troops 143 - Cossack Lancers and Russian Guard-house 144 - The Russian Army--Irregular Troops 146 - Grand-duke Michael 148 - Iron-clad Steamer of the Baltic Fleet 149 - Little Folks at School 151 - Learning to Weave 152 - Mineral Cabinet in the University 153 - Parlor in a High-school for Women 155 - Private Room of a wealthy Student 156 - Lower Recitation-room 157 - One of the Professors 158 - Descending a Shaft 159 - Galleries in a Mine 160 - In the Library 161 - A College Dormitory 162 - Jewish Burial-ground 163 - Clothes-dealer of Moscow 164 - A Russian Troika 165 - A Villa on the Island 166 - A Russian Family 167 - Culprit Street-sweepers 169 - A Business Transaction 170 - Peter the Great dressed for Battle 171 - An Imperial Nosegay 173 - Mujiks playing Cards 174 - Peasant's House in Southern Russia 176 - Peasants' Huts 178 - Esthonian Peasants 179 - Alexander II., the Liberator of the Serfs 181 - Alexander III., Emperor of Russia 182 - Battle between Russians and Circassians 184 - Schamyl's Village in the Caucasus 185 - The Empress Marie Féodorovna, Wife of Alexander III. 186 - Russian Peasants at their Recreation 187 - "Who is the Spy?" 189 - Officers sitting in Judgment 191 - Russian Grand-duke and Grand-duchess 192 - Fur-bearing Seals 194 - Sea-otter 195 - The Beaver 195 - The Ermine 196 - The Raccoon 196 - Russian Ice-hills 198 - Soldiers off Duty--Butter-week 199 - The Easter Kiss--agreeable 200 - The Easter Kiss--in the Family 200 - The Easter Kiss--difficult 201 - The Easter Kiss--disagreeable 201 - The Emperor's Easter Kiss 203 - Peasant Girl in Winter Dress 204 - A Bath in the East 206 - Russian Street Scene in Winter 208 - Lost in a Snow-storm 210 - Workmen of Novgorod--Glazier, Painter, and Carpenters 212 - An Old Norse Chief 213 - View on the Steppe 216 - Ivan the Terrible 217 - Alexis Michailovitch, Father of Peter the Great 219 - Michael Feodorovitch, First Czar of the Romanoff Family 220 - Too near to be pleasant 221 - Wolf attacking its Hunters 222 - Old Picture in the Church 224 - A Bishop of the Greek Church 225 - Millennial Monument at Novgorod 227 - Russian Boats 228 - Portrait of Catherine II. in the Kremlin Collection 229 - Street Scene in Moscow 231 - Bivouacking in the Snow 232 - Battle between French and Russians 233 - Napoleon Retreating from Moscow 235 - Alexander I. 236 - View in the Kremlin 237 - A Prisoner ordered to Execution 238 - The Kremlin of Moscow 239 - The Great Bell underground 240 - Visiting the Great Bell 241 - Empress Anne 242 - The Empress Elizabeth 243 - Coronation of Alexander III. 245 - Peter II. 246 - Bishop in his Robes 247 - Great Gun at Moscow 249 - The Cathedral at Moscow 250 - Napoleon's Retreat from Moscow 251 - Dress of Peasants--Scene from a Russian Opera 253 - A Dressing-room of the Opera-house 254 - Working the Ship in "L'Africaine" 255 - Minin-Pojarsky Monument 257 - Peter's Escape from Assassination 258 - Peter the Great as Executioner 260 - Catherine I. 261 - Catherine II. 263 - Grand-duke Nicholas Alexandrovitch 264 - Skinned and Stuffed Man 266 - Russian Beggars 267 - Tartar Coffee-house in Southern Russia 269 - Gallery in the Palace 270 - Copy of Picture in the Monastery 272 - Window in Church of the Trinity 273 - Pity the Poor 274 - Curious Agate at Troitska 275 - Paper-knife from Troitska--St. Sergius and the Bear 276 - Specimens of Ecclesiastical Painting on Glass 277 - Russian Cooper's Shop and Dwelling 278 - Nijni Novgorod during the Fair 280 - Nijni Novgorod after the Fair 281 - Tartar Merchant 282 - Returning from the Fair 283 - Launching a Russian Barge 285 - Tartar Village near the Volga 286 - Tartar Baker's Shop 287 - A Siberian Village 289 - Petropavlovsk, Kamtchatka.--Mount Avatcha in Background 290 - A Herd of Reindeer 291 - Dog teams and Reindeer 293 - Light-house at Ghijigha 294 - Ermine-trap 295 - Interior of a Native House 295 - The Reindeer 296 - Fish-market at Nicolayevsk 297 - Scenery on the Amoor 298 - Gilyak Woman 299 - Gilyak Man 299 - Native Boat--Amoor River 300 - Goldee Children 300 - A Goldee Man and Woman 301 - Inauguration of Genghis Khan 302 - Junction of the Argoon and Shilka to form the Amoor 303 - Scene in a Posting Station 304 - A Tarantasse 306 - Changing Horses at a Siberian Station 307 - The Right of Way in Russia 309 - Getting out of Difficulty 310 - Valley of the Amoor above Ouk-se-me 312 - Interior of an Exile's Hut 314 - Exiles passing through a Village 315 - A Town built by Exiles 317 - Banished for Five Years 318 - Banished for Three Years 318 - Colonist's Village in Winter 319 - Exiles leaving Moscow 321 - Tagilsk, centre of Iron-mines of Siberia 322 - A Siberian Valley 323 - Two Exiled Friends Meeting 325 - Escaping Exiles crossing a Stream 326 - Ivanoff's Cave 327 - Exiles among the Mountains 329 - Siberian Peasants 331 - Siberian Milk-women 332 - Siberia in Summer 333 - An Exile Peasant and his Friends 335 - A Siberian Landscape 336 - Girls Playing at Skakiet 337 - A Village Festival 338 - Russian Peasant Women 340 - Making Calls after a Wedding 342 - Ceremony after a Peasant's Wedding 343 - The Mountains near Chetah 345 - A Bouriat Village 346 - A Wandering Priest 347 - Crossing the Selenga 349 - Finding Lodgings at Kiachta 351 - Chinese Cash from Mai-mai-chin 352 - Articles of Russian Manufacture 353 - Scene in a Chinese Temple 354 - Theatre at Mai-mai-chin 355 - The Tiger 356 - A Natural Arch on Lake Baikal 357 - Caverns on Lake Baikal 358 - Part of Irkutsk 359 - View of the Principal Square in Irkutsk 360 - Dressed for the Road 362 - A Vashok 363 - My Kibitka 364 - Farewell to Irkutsk 365 - Work of the Frost-king 367 - Interior of a Russian Inn 369 - Mail-driver and Guard 370 - Distant View of a Siberian Village 371 - Soldiers in Siberian Ferry-boats 373 - View of Krasnoyarsk from the opposite Bank of the Yenisei 374 - A Dangerous Ride 376 - Beggar at a Siberian Station 378 - Policeman at Krasnoyarsk 380 - Hills near a Siberian River 381 - Jumping an "Oukhaba" 382 - Wolves Attacking a Buffalo 384 - A Siberian Wolf 385 - Summer and Winter in Russia 386 - Village on a Russian Estate 388 - A Slight Mishap 389 - Summer View near Barnaool 391 - Attacked by a Tiger 393 - Bearcoots and Wolves 394 - The Steppe in Summer 395 - Specimen of Rock-crystal 397 - Monument at the Boundary 397 - Western Slope of the Ural Mountains 398 - Descending a Hill-side Road 400 - Baptizing through the Ice 401 - End of the Sleigh-ride 402 - Offering of the Villagers 404 - Shoeing an Ox 406 - Knife-whip 407 - Armenian Bishop of Astrachan 408 - A Tartar Khan 409 - Tartar Postilions 410 - Tartar Palaces in Southern Russia 411 - Gypsy Family at Astrachan 412 - An Oil-steamer on the Caspian Sea 413 - Tanks at a Storage Depot 413 - View in an Oil Region 414 - Bits for Drilling Wells 415 - A Spouting Well 416 - Derrick and Tanks in the American Oil Region 417 - An Oil Refinery with Tank Cars 419 - Tartar Camel-cart at Baku 420 - Ancient Mound near the Caspian Sea 421 - Curious Rock Formations 422 - Modern Fire-worshippers--Parsee Lady and Daughter 423 - A Burning Tank 425 - A Fall in Oil 426 - A Rise in Oil 426 - Camp Scene near the Altai Mountains 429 - A Kalmuck Priest 430 - Scene on the Edge of the Kirghese Steppe 431 - Kirghese Group 432 - Kirghese Chief and Family 433 - Caravan in Russian Territory 434 - Kirghese Raid on a Hostile Tribe 436 - Lasgird--A Fortified Village in Northern Persia 438 - Tower of Refuge 439 - Framework of Turcoman Tent 440 - The Tent Covered 440 - Interior of Tent 441 - Vámbéry's Reception by Turcoman Chief on the Caspian Shore 442 - Receiving Payment for Human Heads--Khiva 443 - Turcoman Trophy--A Russian Head 445 - Kökbüri--A Race for a Bride 447 - View of the Citadel of Khiva 448 - An Ozbek Head 449 - Map showing the Relations of Russia and England in the East 451 - Sand-storm in the Desert 452 - Turcoman Court of Justice 453 - Kirghese Tomb 454 - Charge of Russian Cavalry against Turcomans 455 - Russian Army on the Turcoman Steppes 457 - Winter Camp in Turcomania 459 - Turcoman Irrigating Wheel 460 - Scene at a Ferry on the Oxus 461 - Map of the Russo-Afghan Region 462 - Turcoman Woman Spinning 464 - Village of Turcoman Tents 465 - The New Russo-Afghan Frontier 466 - Old Sarakhs 468 - Sarik Turcoman Woman 469 - Pul-i-Khisti and Ak Tapa 470 - Penjdeh 471 - Colonel Alikhanoff 472 - The Great Highway of Central Asia 473 - Turcoman Farm-yard 475 - Map of Turkestan, showing Route of Trans-Caspian Railway 476 - Crossing a River in Central Asia 478 - A Native Traveller 479 - Looking down on the Steppe 481 - View of Tiflis 483 - The Pass of Dariel, Caucasus 485 - Governor-general of the Caucasus 486 - Ruined Fortress in the Caucasus 487 - Ruined Church near Batoum 488 - Quarantine Harbor, Trebizond 489 - View of Erzeroom 490 - Turkish Authority 492 - View of Sebastopol 495 - Ruins of the Malakoff, Sebastopol 496 - Russian Carpenters at Work 498 - Cossacks and Chasseurs 499 - British Soldiers in Camp 501 - Alfred Tennyson 502 - A Broken Tarantasse 503 - The Bosporus 504 - Map to accompany the Boy Travellers in the - Russian Empire _Front Cover._ - Map showing the Russian Empire Routes as - Described by the Boy Travellers _Back Cover._ - - - - -THE BOY TRAVELLERS - -IN THE - -RUSSIAN EMPIRE. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -DEPARTURE FROM VIENNA.--FRANK'S LETTER.--A FAREWELL PROMENADE.--FROM -VIENNA TO CRACOW.--THE GREAT SALT-MINE OF WIELICZKA, AND WHAT WAS SEEN -THERE.--CHURCHES AND PALACES UNDERGROUND.--VOYAGE ON A SUBTERRANEAN -LAKE. - - -"Here are the passports at last." - -"Are you sure they are quite in order for our journey?" - -"Yes, entirely so," was the reply; "the Secretary of Legation examined -them carefully, and said we should have no trouble at the frontier." - -"Well, then," a cheery voice responded, "we have nothing more to do -until the departure of the train. Five minutes will complete the packing -of our baggage, and the hotel bill is all settled. I am going for a walk -through the Graben, and will be back in an hour." - -So saying, our old acquaintance, Doctor Bronson, left his room in the -Grand Hotel in Vienna and disappeared down the stairway. He was -followed, a few minutes later, by his nephew, Fred Bronson, who had just -returned from a promenade, during which he had visited the American -Legation to obtain the passports which were the subject of the dialogue -just recorded. - -At the door of the hotel he was joined by his cousin, Frank Bassett. The -latter proposed a farewell visit to the Church of St. Stephen, and also -a short stroll in the Graben, where he wished to make a trifling -purchase. Fred assented, and they started at once. - -[Illustration: FRED'S REMINDER.] - -They had not gone far before Fred perceived at a window the face of a -girl busily engaged in writing. He paused a moment, and then suggested -to Frank that he wished to return to the hotel in time to write a letter -to his sister before the closing of the mail. "I really believe," said -he, "that I should have neglected Mary this week if I had not been -reminded by that girl in the window and her occupation." - -Frank laughed as he rejoined that he had never yet known his cousin to -forget his duty, and it would have been pretty sure to occur to him -that he owed his sister a letter before it was too late for writing it. - -[Illustration: ST. STEPHEN'S CATHEDRAL, VIENNA.] - -They made a hasty visit to the church, which is by far the finest -religious edifice in Vienna, and may be said to stand in the very heart -of the city. Fred had previously made a note of the fact that the church -is more than seven hundred years old, and has been rebuilt, altered, and -enlarged so many times that not much of the original structure remains. -On the first day of their stay in Vienna the youths had climbed to the -top of the building and ascended the spire, from which they had a -magnificent view of the city and the country which surrounds it. The -windings of the Danube are visible for many miles, and there are guides -ready at hand to point out the battle-fields of Wagram, Lobau, and -Essling. Our young friends had a good-natured discussion about the -height of the spire of St. Stephen's; Frank claimed that his guide-book -gave the distance from the ground to the top of the cross four hundred -and fifty-three feet, while Fred contended, on the authority of another -guide-book, that it was four hundred and sixty-five feet. Authorities -differ considerably as to the exact height of this famous spire, which -does not appear to have received a careful measurement for a good many -years. - -From the church the youths went to the Graben, the famous street where -idlers love to congregate on pleasant afternoons, and then they returned -to the hotel. Fred devoted himself to the promised letter to his sister. -With his permission we will look over his shoulder as he writes, and -from the closing paragraph learn the present destination of our old -friends with whom we have travelled in other lands.[1] - -[1] "The Boy Travellers in the Far East" (five volumes) and "The Boy -Travellers in South America" (one volume). Adventures of Two Youths in a -Journey to and through Japan, China, Siam, Java, Ceylon, India, Egypt, -Palestine, Central Africa, Peru, Bolivia, Chili, Brazil, and the -Argentine Republic. New York. Harper & Brothers. - -"We have been here a week, and like Vienna very much, but are quite -willing to leave the city for the interesting tour we have planned. We -start this evening by the Northern Railway for a journey to and through -Russia; our first stopping-place will be at the nearest point on the -railway for reaching the famous salt-mines of Wieliczka. You must -pronounce it We-_litch_-ka, with the accent on the second syllable. I'll -write you from there; or, if I don't have time to do so at the mines, -will send you a letter from the first city where we stop for more than a -single day. We have just had our passports indorsed by the Russian -minister for Austria--a very necessary proceeding, as it is impossible -to get into Russia without these documents. Until I next write you, -good-by." - -The travellers arrived at the great Northern Railway station of Vienna -in ample season to take their tickets and attend to the registration of -their baggage. The train carried them swiftly to Cracow--a city which -has had a prominent place in Polish annals. It was the scene of several -battles, and was for a long time the capital of the ancient kingdom of -Poland. Frank made the following memoranda in his note-book: - -[Illustration: VIEW OF THE PALACE OF CRACOW.] - -"Cracow is a city of about fifty thousand inhabitants, of whom nearly -one-third are Israelites. It stands on the left bank of the Vistula, on -a beautiful plain surrounded by hills which rise in the form of an -amphitheatre. In the old part of the city the streets are narrow and -dark, and cannot be praised for their cleanliness; but the new part, -which lies outside the ancient defences, is quite attractive. The palace -is on the bank of the river, and was once very pretty. The Austrians -have converted it into a military barrack, after stripping it of all its -ornaments, so that it is now hardly worth seeing. There are many fine -churches in Cracow, but we have only had time to visit one of them--the -cathedral. - -"In the cathedral we saw the tombs of many of the men whose names are -famous in Polish history. Polish kings and queens almost by the dozen -are buried here, and there is a fine monument to the memory of St. -Stanislaus. His remains are preserved in a silver coffin, and are the -object of reverence on the part of those who still dream of the ultimate -liberation of Poland, and its restoration to its old place among the -kingdoms of the world. - -[Illustration: KOSCIUSKO, 1777.] - -"We drove around the principal streets of Cracow, and then out to the -tumulus erected to the memory of the Polish patriot, Kosciusko. You -remember the lines in our school reader, - - "'Hope for a season bade the world farewell, - And freedom shrieked as Kosciusko fell.' - -"We were particularly desirous to see this mound. It was made of earth -brought from all the patriotic battle-fields of Poland at an enormous -expense, which was largely borne by the people of Cracow. The monument -is altogether one hundred and fifty feet high, and is just inside the -line of fortifications which have been erected around the city. The -Austrians say these fortifications are intended to keep out the -Russians; but it is just as likely that they are intended to keep the -Poles from making one of the insurrections for which they have shown so -great an inclination during the past two or three centuries. - -[Illustration: KOSCIUSKO, 1817.] - -"As we contemplated the monument to the famous soldier of Poland, we -remembered his services during our Revolutionary war. Kosciusko entered -the American army in 1776 as an officer of engineers, and remained with -General Washington until the close of the war. He planned the fortified -camp near Saratoga, and also the works at West Point. When our -independence was achieved he returned to Poland, and after fighting for -several years in the cause of his country, he made a brief visit to -America, where he received much distinction. Then he returned again to -Europe, lived for a time in France, and afterwards in Switzerland, where -he died in 1817. The monument we have just visited does not cover his -grave, as he was buried with much ceremony in the Cathedral of Cracow." - -"Why don't you say something about the Jewish quarter of Cracow," said -Fred, when Frank read what he had written, and which we have given -above. - -"I'll leave that for you," was the reply. "You may write the description -while I make some sketches." - -"I'm agreed," responded Fred. "Let's go over the ground together and -pick out what is the most interesting." - -Away they went, leaving Doctor Bronson with a gentleman with whom he had -formed an acquaintance during their ride from the railway to the hotel. -The Doctor was not partial to a walk in the Jews' quarter, and said he -was willing to take his knowledge of it at second-hand. - -[Illustration: CHURCH OF ST. MARY, CRACOW.] - -On their way thither the youths stopped a few minutes to look at the -Church of St. Mary, which was built in 1276, and is regarded as a fine -specimen of Gothic architecture. It is at one side of the market-place, -and presents a picturesque appearance as the beholder stands in front of -it. - -The Jews' quarter is on the opposite side of the river from the -principal part of the city, and is reached by a bridge over the Vistula. -At every step the youths were beset by beggars. They had taken a guide -from the hotel, under the stipulation that he should not permit the -beggars to annoy them, but they soon found it would be impossible to -secure immunity from attack without a cordon of at least a dozen guides. -Frank pronounced the beggars of Cracow the most forlorn he had ever -seen, and Fred thought they were more numerous in proportion to the -population than in any other city, with the possible exception of -Naples. Their ragged and starved condition indicated that their distress -was real, and more than once our young friends regretted having brought -themselves face to face with so much misery that they were powerless to -relieve. - -[Illustration: POLISH JEW OF HIGH RANK.] - -Frank remarked that there was a similarity of dress among the Jews of -Cracow, as they all wore long caftans, or robes, reaching nearly to the -heels. The wealthy Jews wear robes of silk, with fur caps or turbans, -while the poorer ones must content themselves with cheaper material, -according to their ability. The guide told the youths that the men of -rank would not surround their waists with girdles as did the humbler -Jews, and that sometimes the robes of the rich were lined with sable, at -a cost of many hundreds of dollars. - -[Illustration: POLISH JEWS OF THE MIDDLE CLASS.] - -Fred carefully noted the information obtained while Frank made the -sketches he had promised to produce. They are by no means unlike the -sketches that were made by another American traveller (Mr. J. Ross -Browne), who visited Cracow several years before the journey of our -friends. - -"But there's one thing we can't sketch, and can't describe in writing," -said Fred, "and that's the dirt in the streets of this Jews' quarter of -Cracow. If Doctor Bronson knew of it I don't wonder he declined to come -with us. No attempt is made to keep the place clean, and it seems a pity -that the authorities do not force the people into better ways. It's as -bad as any part of Canton or Peking, and that's saying a great deal. I -wonder they don't die of cholera, and leave the place without -inhabitants." - -In spite of all sorts of oppression, the Jews of Cracow preserve their -distinctiveness, and there are no more devout religionists in the world -than this people. The greater part of the commerce of the city is in -their hands, and they are said to have a vast amount of wealth in their -possession. That they have a large share of business was noticed by -Fred, who said that from the moment they alighted from the train at the -railway-station they were pestered by peddlers, guides, money-changers, -runners for shops, beggars, and all sorts of importunate people from the -quarter of the city over the Vistula. An hour in the Jews' quarter -gratified their curiosity, and they returned to the hotel. - -There is a line of railway to the salt-mines, but our friends preferred -to go in a carriage, as it would afford a better view of the country, -and enable them to arrange the time to suit themselves. The distance is -about nine miles, and the road is well kept, so that they reached the -mines in little more than an hour from the time of leaving the hotel. -The road is through an undulating country, which is prettily dotted with -farms, together with the summer residences of some of the wealthier -inhabitants of Cracow. - -[Illustration: OUR GUIDE IN COSTUME.] - -On reaching the mines they went immediately to the offices, where it was -necessary to obtain permission to descend into the earth. These offices -are in an old castle formerly belonging to one of the native princes, -but long ago turned into its present practical uses. Our friends were -accompanied by a commissioner from the hotel where they were lodged in -Cracow; he was a dignified individual, who claimed descent from one of -the noble families of Poland, and the solemnity of his visage was -increased by a huge pair of spectacles that spanned his nose. Frank -remarked that spectacles were in fashion at Wieliczka, as at least half -the officials connected with the management of the salt-mines were -ornamented with these aids to vision. - -[Illustration: THE INSPECTOR-GENERAL.] - -A spectacled clerk entered the names of the visitors in a register kept -for the purpose, and issued the tickets permitting them to enter the -mines. Armed with their tickets, they were conducted to a building close -to the entrance of one of the mines, and ushered into the presence of -the inspector-general of the works. He was also a wearer of spectacles, -and the rotundity of his figure indicated that the air and food of the -place had not injured him. - -"The inspector-general received us politely--in fact everybody about the -place was polite enough for the most fastidious taste," said Frank in -his note-book--"and after a short conversation he called our attention -to the robes which had been worn by imperial and royal visitors to the -mines. The robes are richly embroidered, and every one bears a label -telling when and by whom it was worn. The inspector-general treated the -garments with almost as much reverence as he would have shown to the -personages named on the labels. We realized that it was proper to regard -them with respect, if we wished to have the good-will of this important -official, and therefore we appeared to be dumb with amazement as he went -through the list. When the examination was ended we were provided with -garments for the descent. Evidently we were not regarded with the same -awe as were the kings and emperors that had preceded us, as our robes -were of a very common sort. They were like dressing-gowns, and reached -nearly to our heels, and our heads were covered with small woollen caps. -I do not believe they were labelled with our names and kept in glass -cases after our departure. - -"I made a sketch of our guide after he was arrayed in his underground -costume and ready to start. Fred sketched the inspector-general while -the latter was talking to the Doctor. The portrait isn't a bad one, but -I think he has exaggerated somewhat the rotund figure of the affable -official. - -"From the office we went to the entrance of one of the shafts. It is in -a large building, which contains the hoisting apparatus, and is also -used as a storehouse. Sacks and barrels of salt were piled there -awaiting transportation to market, and in front of the building there -were half a dozen wagons receiving the loads which they were to take to -the railway-station. The hoisting apparatus is an enormous wheel turned -by horse-power; the horses walk around in a circle, as in the -old-fashioned cider-mill of the Northern States, or the primitive -cotton-gin of the South. Our guide said there were more than twenty of -these shafts, and there was also a stairway, cut in the solid earth and -salt, extending to the bottom of the mine. We had proposed to descend by -the stairway, but the commissioner strenuously advised against our doing -so. He said the way was dark and the steps were slippery, as they were -wet in many places from the water trickling through the earth. His -arguments appeared reasonable, and so we went by the shaft. - -"The rope winds around a drum on the shaft supporting the wheel, and -then passes through a pulley directly over the place where we were to -descend. The rope is fully two inches in diameter, and was said to be -capable of bearing ten times the weight that can ever be placed upon it -in ordinary use. It is examined every morning, and at least once a week -it is tested with a load of at least four times that which it ordinarily -carries. When it shows any sign of wear it is renewed; and judging from -all we could see, the managers take every precaution against accidents. - -"Smaller ropes attached to the main one have seats at the ends. There -are two clusters of these ropes, about twenty feet apart, the lower one -being intended for the guides and lamp-bearers, and the upper for -visitors and officials. Six of us were seated in the upper group. It -included our party of four and two subordinate officials, who -accompanied us on our journey and received fees on our return; but I -suppose they would scorn to be called guides. - -"There is a heavy trap-door over the mouth of the shaft, and the rope -plays freely through it. The guides and lamp-bearers took their places -at the end of the rope; then the door was opened and they were lowered -down, and the door closed above them. This brought the upper cluster of -ropes in position for us to take our places, which we did under the -direction of the officials who accompanied us. When all was ready the -signal was given, the trap-door was opened once more, and we began our -downward journey into the earth. - -[Illustration: THE SHAFT.] - -"As the trap-door closed above us, I confess to a rather uncanny -feeling. Below us gleamed the lights in the hands of the lamp-bearers, -but above there was a darkness that seemed as though it might be felt, -or sliced off with a knife. Nobody spoke, and the attention of all -seemed to be directed to hanging on to the rope. Of course the uppermost -question in everybody's mind was, 'What if the rope should break?' It -doesn't take long to answer it; the individuals hanging in that cluster -below the gloomy trap-door would be of very little consequence in a -terrestrial way after the snapping of the rope. - -[Illustration: DESCENDING THE SHAFT.] - -"We compared notes afterwards, and found that our sensations were pretty -much alike. The general feeling was one of uncertainty, and each one -asked himself several times whether he was asleep or awake. Fred said a -part of the journey was like a nightmare, and the Doctor said he had the -same idea, especially after the noise of the machinery was lost in the -distance and everything was in utter silence. For the first few moments -we could hear the whirring of the wheel and the jar of the machinery; -but very soon these sounds disappeared, and we glided gently downward, -without the least sensation of being in motion. It seemed to me not that -we were descending, but that the walls of the shaft were rising around -us, while our position was stationary. - -"Contrary to expectation, we found the air quite agreeable. The official -who accompanied us said it was peculiarly conducive to health; and many -of the employés of the mines had been at work there forty or fifty -years, and had never lost a day from illness. We had supposed it would -be damp and cold, but, on the contrary, found it dry and of an agreeable -temperature, which remains nearly the same all through the year. No -doubt the salt has much to do with this healthy condition. Occasionally -hydrogen gas collects in some of the shafts which are not properly -ventilated, and there have been explosions of fire-damp which destroyed -a good many lives. These accidents were the result of carelessness -either of the miners or their superintendents, and since their -occurrence a more rigid system of inspection has been established. - -[Illustration: LAMP-BEARERS.] - -"We stopped at the bottom of the shaft, which is about three hundred -feet deep; there we were released from our fastenings and allowed to use -our feet again. Then we were guided through a perfect labyrinth of -passages, up and down ladders, along narrow paths, into halls spacious -enough for the reception of an emperor, and again into little nooks -where men were occupied in excavating the salt. For several hours we -wandered there, losing all knowledge of the points of compass, and if we -had been left to ourselves our chances of emerging again into daylight -would have been utterly hopeless. - -[Illustration: A FOOT-PATH.] - -"And here let me give you a few figures about the salt-mines of -Wieliczka. I cannot promise that they are entirely accurate, but they -are drawn from the best sources within our reach. Some were obtained -from the under-officials of the mines who accompanied us, and others are -taken from the work of previous writers on this subject. - -"The salt-mine may be fairly regarded as a city under the surface of the -earth, as it shelters about a thousand workmen, and contains chapels, -churches, railways, stables, and other appurtenances of a place where -men dwell. In fact it is a series of cities, one above the other, as -there are four tiers of excavations, the first being about two hundred -feet below the surface, and the lowest nearly two thousand. The -subterranean passages and halls are named after various kings and -emperors who have visited them, or who were famous at the time the -passages were opened, and altogether they cover an area of several -square miles. In a general way the salt-mines of Wieliczka may be said -to be nearly two miles square; but the ends of some of the passages are -more than two miles from the entrance of the nearest shaft. The entire -town of Wieliczka lies above the mines which give occupation to its -inhabitants. - -[Illustration: AN UNDERGROUND CHAPEL.] - -"There is probably more timber beneath the surface at Wieliczka than -above it, as the roofs of the numerous passages are supported by heavy -beams; and the same is the case with the smaller halls. In the larger -halls such support would be insufficient, and immense columns of salt -are left in position. In several instances these pillars of salt have -been replaced by columns of brick or stone, as they would be liable to -be melted away during any accidental flooding of the mine, and allow the -entire upper strata to tumble in. This has actually happened on one -occasion, when a part of the mine was flooded and serious damage -resulted. - -"Our guide said the length of the passages, galleries, and halls was -nearly four hundred English miles, and the greatest depth reached was -two thousand four hundred feet. If we should visit all the galleries and -passages, and examine every object of interest in the mines, we should -be detained there at least three weeks. Not a single one of all the -workmen had been in every part of all the galleries of the mine, and he -doubted if there was any officer attached to the concern who would not -be liable to be lost if left to himself. - -"Nobody knows when these mines were discovered; they were worked in the -eleventh century, when they belonged to the kingdom of Poland, and an -important revenue was derived from them. In the fourteenth century -Casimir the Great established elaborate regulations for working the -mines, and his regulations are the basis of those which are still in -force, in spite of numerous changes. In 1656 they were pledged to -Austria, but were redeemed by John Sobieski in 1683. When the first -partition of Poland took place, in 1772, they were handed over to -Austria, which has had possession of them ever since, with the exception -of the short period from 1809 to 1815. - -"While the mines belonged to Poland the kings of that country obtained a -large revenue from them. For two or three centuries this revenue was -sufficiently large to serve for the endowment of convents and the -dowries of the members of the royal family. The Austrian Government has -obtained a considerable revenue from these mines, but owing to the -modern competition with salt from other sources, it does not equal the -profit of the Polish kings. - -"Except when reduced by accidents or other causes, the annual production -of salt in these mines is about two hundred millions of pounds, or one -hundred thousand tons. The deposit is known to extend a long distance, -and the Government might, if it wished, increase the production to any -desired amount. But it does not consider it judicious to do so, and is -content to keep the figures about where they have been since the -beginning of the century. The salt supplies a considerable area of -country; a large amount, usually of the lower grades, is sent into -Russia, and the finer qualities are shipped to various parts of the -Austrian Empire. - -"We asked if the workmen lived in the mines, as was currently reported, -and were told they did not. 'They would not be allowed to do so, even -if they wished it,' said our guide. 'By the rules of the direction the -men are divided into gangs, working eight hours each, and all are -required to go to the surface when not on duty. In ancient times it was -doubtless the case that men lived here with their families. At one time -the mines were worked by prisoners, who did not see daylight for months -together, but nothing of the kind has occurred for more than a century -at least.' - -[Illustration: MEN CUTTING SALT IN THE MINE.] - -"Several times in our walk we came upon little groups of men working in -the galleries; and certainly they were not to be envied. Sometimes they -were cutting with picks against perpendicular walls, and at others they -were lying flat on their backs, digging away at the roof not more than -a foot or two above their heads. The shaggy lamp-bearers--generally old -men unable to perform heavy work--stood close at hand, and the glare of -the light falling upon the flashing crystals of salt that flew in the -air, and covered the half-naked bodies of the perspiring workmen, made a -picture which I cannot adequately describe. I do not know that I ever -looked upon a spectacle more weird than this. - -[Illustration: FINISHING THE COLUMNS.] - -"We had expected to see the men in large gangs, but found that they were -nearly always divided into little groups. One would think they would -prefer any other kind of occupation than this, but our guide told us -that the laborers were perfectly free to leave at any time, just as -though they were in the employ of a private establishment. There were -plenty of men who would gladly fill their places, and frequently they -had applications for years in advance. As prices go in Austria, the pay -is very good, the men averaging from twenty to fifty cents a day. As far -as possible they are paid by the piece, and not by time--the same as in -the great majority of mines all over the world. - -[Illustration: SUBTERRANEAN STABLES.] - -"But the horses which draw the cars on the subterranean railways are -not regarded with the same care as the men. They never return to the -light of day after once being lowered into the mine. In a few weeks -after arriving there a cataract covers their eyes and the sight -disappears. By some this result is attributed to the perpetual darkness, -and by others to the effect of the salt. It is probably due to the -former, as the workmen do not appear to suffer in the same way. Whether -they would become blind if continually kept there is not known, and it -is to be hoped that no cruel overseer will endeavor to ascertain by a -practical trial. - -"Every time we came upon a group of workmen they paused in their labors -and begged for money. We had provided ourselves with an abundance of -copper coins before descending into the mine, and it was well we did so, -as they generally became clamorous until obtaining what they wanted. -Fortunately they were satisfied with a small coin, and did not annoy us -after once being paid. - -"I cannot begin to give the names of all the halls, galleries, and -passages we went through, and if I did, it would be tedious. We wandered -up and down, down and up, forward and backward, until it seemed as if -there was no end to the journey. And to think we might have been there -three weeks without once repeating our steps! I will mention at random -some of the most interesting of the things we saw. To tell the whole -story and give a full description of this most wonderful salt-mine in -the world would require a volume. - -"The chamber of Michelwic was the first of the large halls that we -entered, and was reached after a long journey through winding passages -and along foot-paths that sometimes overhung places where it was -impossible for the eye, aided only by the light of the lamps, to -ascertain the depth of the openings below. In some of the dangerous -places there was a rail to prevent one from falling over; but this was -not always the case, and you may be sure we kept on the safe side and -close to the wall. - -[Illustration: A MINING SINGER.] - -"In the hall we were treated to a song by one of the mining over-seers, -an old soldier who had lost an arm in some way that was not explained to -us. He had an excellent voice that ought to have secured him a good -place in the chorus of an opera troupe. He sang a mining song in quite a -melodramatic style; and as he did so the notes echoed and re-echoed -through the hall till it seemed they would never cease. In the centre of -the hall is a chandelier cut from the solid salt, and on grand occasions -this chandelier is lighted and a band of music is stationed at one end -of the vast space. Its effect is said to be something beyond -description, and, judging from the effect of the overseer's voice, I can -well believe it. - -"From this hall we went through a series of chambers and galleries named -after the royal and imperial families of Poland and Austria, passing -chapels, shrines, altars, and other things indicating the religious -character of the people employed in the mines or controlling them, -together with many niches containing statues of kings, saints, and -martyrs, all hewn from the solid salt. Some of the statues are rudely -made, but the most of them are well designed and executed. In some of -the chapels worshippers were kneeling before the altars, and it was -difficult to realize that we were hundreds of feet below the surface of -the earth. - -"By-and-by our guide said we were coming to the Infernal Lake. The -lamp-bearers held their lights high in the air, and we could see the -reflection from a sheet of water, but how great might be its extent was -impossible to guess. As we approached the edge of the water a boat -emerged from the gloom and came towards us. It was a sort of rope ferry, -and we immediately thought of the ferry-boat which the ancients believed -was employed to carry departed spirits across the river Styx. Certainly -the darkness all around was Stygian, and the men on the boat might have -been Charon's attendants. - -"We passed down a few steps, entered the boat, and were pulled away from -shore. In less than a minute nothing but the little circle of water -around us was visible; the sides of the cavern echoed our voices and -every other sound that came from our boat. In the middle of the lake we -paused to observe the effect of the sound caused by the waves created by -the rocking of the boat. It reverberated through the cavern and away -into the galleries, and seemed as though it would last forever. When -this sensation was exhausted we moved on again. Doctor Bronson asked the -guide how far it was to the other end of the lake, but before the answer -was spoken we had a fresh surprise. - -[Illustration: "GLÜCK-AUF!"] - -"There was a flash of light from a point high above us, and almost at -the same instant another, a little distance ahead. The latter assumed -the form of an arch in red fire, displaying the greeting 'GLÜCK-AUF!' or -'GOOD-LUCK!' though this is not the literal translation. We passed under -this arch of red fire, and as we did so the words 'Glück-auf! -Glück-auf!' were shouted from all around, and at the same time flashes -of fire burst from a dozen places above the lake. We shouted -'Glück-auf!' in reply, and then the voices from the mysterious recesses -seemed to be quadrupled in number and volume. The air was filled with -flashes of light, and was everywhere resonant with the words of the -miners' welcome. - -"At the other end of the lake there was a considerable party waiting to -receive us, and of course there was a liberal distribution of coin to -everybody. I ought to have said at the outset that we arranged to pay -for the illumination of the lake and also of certain specified halls, -in addition to the compensation of the guides. The illuminations are -entirely proportioned to the amount that the visitors are willing to -give for them. It is a good plan to unite with other visitors, and then -the individual cost will not be heavy. Twenty dollars will pay for a -very good illumination, and fifty dollars will secure something worthy -of a prince, though not a first-class one. - -[Illustration: FÊTE IN THE GRAND SALOON OF ENTERTAINMENT.] - -"They showed us next through more winding passages, and came at length -to the Grand Saloon of Entertainment; which is of immense extent, and -has no less than six large chandeliers hanging from the roof. It is -lighted on the occasion of the visit of a king or emperor (of course he -has to pay the bill), and the effect is said to be wonderful. There is -an alcove at one end, with a throne of green and ruby-colored salt, -whereon the emperor is seated. A blaze of light all through the hall is -reflected from the myriad crystals of salt which form the roof and -sides; the floor is strewn with sparkling salt; the columns are -decorated with evergreens; festoons of flags abound through the place; -and a band of music plays the airs appropriate to the hall and the -guest. - -[Illustration: A RETIRED DIRECTOR.] - -"The workmen and their families assemble in their holiday dress, and -when the music begins the whole party indulges in the Polish national -dance. It is a strange spectacle, this scene of revelry five hundred -feet below the surface of the earth, and probably among the sights that -do not come often before the Imperial eyes. These spectacles must be -arranged to order, and for weeks before an Imperial or Royal visit a -great many hands are engaged in making the necessary preparations. From -all I heard of these festivals, I would willingly travel many hundred -miles to see one of them. - -"By means of the illuminating materials that we brought with us, we were -able to get an approximate idea of the character of one of these gala -spectacles. After our last Bengal-light had been burned, we continued -our journey, descending to the third story by many devious ways, and -finally halting in a chamber whose roof was not less than a hundred feet -above us. - -"'Do you know where you are?' said our guide. - -"Of course we answered that we did not. - -"'Well,' said he, 'you are directly beneath the lake which we sailed -over in a boat a little while ago. If it should break through we should -all be drowned, dead.' - -"We shuddered to think what might be our fate if the lake should spring -a leak. It did break out at one time and flooded many of the galleries, -and for a long while work in all the lower part of the mine was -suspended. There have been several fires, some of them causing the loss -of many lives; but, on the whole, considering the long time the mine has -been opened and the extent of the works, the accidents have been few. - -"The deepest excavation in the mine is nearly seven hundred feet below -the level of the sea. We did not go there, in fact we did not go below -the third story, as we had seen quite enough for our purposes, and -besides we had only a limited time to stay in the mine. As we came up -again to daylight, hoisted in the same sort of chairs as those by which -we descended, we made a final inspection of the salt which comes from -the mine. - -"'There are three kinds of salt,' said the guide. 'One that is called -green salt contains five or six per cent. of clay, and has no -transparency; it is cut into blocks and sent to Russia exactly as it -comes from the mine. The second quality is called _spiza_, and is -crystalline and mixed with sand; and the third is in large masses, -perfectly transparent, having no earthy matter mingled with it. The salt -is found in compact tertiary clays that contain a good many fossils; the -finest salt is at the lowest levels, and the poorest at the higher -ones.' - -"Well, here we are at the top of the shaft, tired and hungry, and -excited with the wonderful things we have seen. The visit to the -salt-mines of Wieliczka is something to be long remembered." - - * * * * * - -Since the visit herein described, the manner of working the salt-mines -of Wieliczka has undergone a decided change. Owing to the influx of a -stream the lower levels of the mines were flooded, and for some time -remained full of water. In order to free them it was necessary to -introduce powerful pumping machinery of the latest designs, and also to -replace the old hoisting apparatus with new. Horse-power was abandoned -in favor of steam, both for hoisting and pumping; new precautions were -taken against fire; all improved systems of mine-working were tested, -and those which proved useful were adopted; and to-day the mines of -Wieliczka may be considered, in every respect, the foremost salt-mines -in the world. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -LEAVING CRACOW.--THE RUSSIAN FRONTIER.--THE POLICE AND THE -CUSTOM-HOUSE.--RUSSIAN CENSORSHIP OF BOOKS AND PAPERS.--CATCHING A -SMUGGLER.--FROM THE FRONTIER TO WARSAW.--SIGHTS AND INCIDENTS IN THE -CAPITAL OF POLAND.--FROM WARSAW TO ST. PETERSBURG. - - -[Illustration: OUTER WALL OF CRACOW.] - -The sun was setting as our friends reached Cracow, on their return from -Wieliczka. The walls of the city were gilded by the rays of light that -streamed over the hills which formed the western horizon. In all its -features the scene was well calculated to impress the youthful -travellers. Frank wished to make a sketch of the gate-way through which -they passed on their entrance within the walls, but the hour was late -and delay inadvisable. The commissioner said he would bring them a -photograph of the spot, and with this consolation the young man -dismissed from his mind the idea of the sketch. - -All retired early, as they intended taking the morning train for the -Russian frontier, and thence to Warsaw. They were up in good season, and -at the appointed time the train carried them out of the ancient capital -of Poland. - -[Illustration: CUSTOM HOUSE FORMALITIES.] - -At Granitsa, the frontier station, they had a halt of nearly two hours. -Their passports were carefully examined by the Russian officials, while -their trunks underwent a vigorous overhauling. The passports proved to -be entirely in order, and there was no trouble with them. The officials -were particularly polite to the American trio, and said they were always -pleased to welcome Americans to the Empire. They were less courteous to -an Englishman who arrived by the same train, and the Doctor said it was -evident that the Crimean war had not been entirely forgotten. Several -passengers had neglected the precautions which our friends observed at -Vienna, in securing the proper indorsement to their passports, and were -told that they could not pass the frontier. They were compelled to wait -until the passports could be sent to Cracow for approval by the Russian -consul at that point, or else to Vienna. A commissioner attached to the -railway-station offered to attend to the matter for all who required his -aid; formerly it was necessary for the careless traveller to return in -person to the point designated, but of late years this has not been -required. - -"This passport business is an outrageous humbug," said the Englishman -with whom our friends had fallen into conversation while they were -waiting in the anteroom of the passport office. "Its object is to keep -improper persons out of Russia; but it does nothing of the kind. Any -Nihilist, Revolutionist, or other objectionable individual can always -obtain a passport under a fictitious name, and secure the necessary -approval of consuls or ambassadors. Ivan Carlovitch, for whom the police -are on the watch, comes here with a passport in the name of Joseph -Cassini, a native of Malta, and subject of Great Britain. His English -passport is obtained easily enough by a little false swearing; it is -approved by the Russian minister at Vienna, and the fellow enters Russia -with perfect ease. The honest traveller who has neglected the formality -through ignorance is detained, while the Revolutionist goes on his way -contented. The Revolutionist always knows the technicalities of the law, -and is careful to observe them; and it is safe to say that the passport -system never prevented any political offender from getting into Russia -when he wanted to go there. - -[Illustration: PASSPORT NOT CORRECT.] - -"I have been in Russia before," he continued, "and know what I am -saying. The first time I went there was from Berlin, and on reaching the -frontier I was stopped because my passport was not properly indorsed. I -supposed I would have to go back to Berlin, but the station-master said -I need not take that trouble; I could stop at the hotel, and he would -arrange the whole matter, so that I might proceed exactly twenty-four -hours later. I did as he told me, and it was all right." - -"How was it accomplished?" - -"Why, he took my passport and a dozen others whose owners were in the -same fix as myself, and sent them by the conductor of the train to -Koenigsburg, where there is a Russian consul. For a fee of two English -shillings (fifty cents of your money) the consul approved each passport; -another fee of fifty cents paid the conductor for his trouble, and he -brought back the passports on his return run to the frontier. Then the -station-master wanted four shillings (one dollar) for his share of the -work, and we were all _en regle_ to enter the Russian Empire. We got our -baggage ready, and were at the station when the train arrived; the -station-master delivered our passports, and collected his fee along with -the fees of the conductor and consul, and that ended the whole business. -The consul knew nothing about any of the persons named in the passports, -and we might have been conspirators or anything else that was -objectionable, and nobody would have been the wiser. Russia is the only -country in Europe that keeps up the passport system with any severity, -and it only results in putting honest people to trouble and expense, and -never stops those whom it is intended to reach. There, they've opened -the door, and we can now go before the representatives of the autocrat -of all the Russias." - -[Illustration: IN THE PASSPORT BUREAU.] - -One by one they approached the desk, with the result already stated. At -the examination of the baggage in the custom-house the clothing and -personal effects of our friends were passed without question, but there -was some difficulty over a few books which the boys had bought before -leaving Vienna. One volume, pronounced objectionable, was seized as -contraband, but the others were not taken. Every book written by a -foreigner about Russia is carefully examined by the official censor as -soon as it is published, and upon his decision depends the question of -its circulation being allowed in the Empire. Anything calculated to -throw disrespect upon the Imperial family, or upon the Government in -general, is prohibited, as well as everything which can be considered to -have a revolutionary tendency. - -"They are not so rigid as they used to be," growled the Englishman, as -he closed and locked his trunk after the examination was completed. "In -the time of the Emperor Nicholas they would not allow anything that -indicated there was any other government in the world which amounted to -anything, and they were particularly severe upon all kinds of -school-books. Now they rarely object to school-books, unless they -contain too many teachings of liberty; and they are getting over their -squeamishness about criticisms, even if they are abusive and untruthful. -The worst case I ever heard of was of an inspector at one of the -frontier stations, who seized a book on astronomy because it contained a -chapter on 'The Revolutions of the Earth.' He said nothing revolutionary -could be allowed to enter the Empire, and confiscated the volume in -spite of its owner's explanations. - -"Under Nicholas," continued the Englishman, "Macaulay's 'History of -England' was prohibited, though it could be bought without much trouble. -After Alexander II. ascended the throne the rigors of the censorship -were greatly reduced, and papers and books were freely admitted into -Russia which were prohibited in France under Louis Napoleon. All the -Tauchnitz editions of English works were permitted, even including -Carlyle's 'French Revolution.' It is possible that the last-named book -had escaped notice, as you would hardly expect it to be allowed free -circulation in Russia. Books and newspapers addressed to the professors -of the universities, to officers above the rank of colonel, and to the -legations of foreign countries are not subjected to the censorship, or -at least they were not so examined a few years ago. Since the rise of -Nihilism the authorities have become more rigid again, and books and -papers are stopped which would not have been suppressed at all before -the death of Alexander II. - -"If you want to know the exact functions of the censor," said the -gentleman, turning to Frank and Fred, "here is an extract from his -instructions." - -With these words he gave to one of the youths a printed slip which -stated that it was the censor's duty to prohibit and suppress "all works -written in a spirit hostile to the orthodox Greek Church, or containing -anything that is contrary to the truths of the Christian religion, or -subversive of good manners or morality; all publications tending to -assail the inviolability of autocratical monarchical power and the -fundamental laws of the Empire, or to diminish the respect due to the -Imperial family; all productions containing attacks on the honor or -reputation of any one, by improper expressions, by the publication of -circumstances relating to domestic life, or by calumny of any kind -whatever." - -The boys thanked the gentleman for the information he had given them on -a subject about which they were curious; and as the examination of the -custom-house was completed, they proceeded to the restaurant, which was -in a large hall at the end of the station. - -[Illustration: WAY STATION ON THE RAILWAY.] - -Near the door of the restaurant was the office of a money-changer, its -character being indicated by signs in at least half a dozen languages. -Passengers were exchanging their Austrian money for Russian, and the -office seemed to be doing an active business. - -"That fellow has about as good a trade as one could wish," said the -Englishman, as he nodded in the direction of the man at the little -window. "Two trains arrive here daily each way; for people going north -he changes Austrian into Russian money, and for those going south he -changes Russian into Austrian. He receives one per cent. commission on -each transaction, which amounts to four per cent. daily, as he handles -the money four times. I have often envied these frontier bankers, who -run no risk whatever, provided they are not swindled with counterfeits, -and can make twelve hundred per cent. annually on their capital. But -perhaps they have to pay so dearly for the privilege that they are -unable to get rich by their business. By-the-way," said he, changing the -subject abruptly, "did you observe the stout lady that stood near us in -the anteroom of the passport office?" - -[Illustration: BEFORE EXAMINATION.] - -"Yes," answered the Doctor, "and she seemed quite uneasy, as though she -feared trouble." - -"Doubtless she did," was the reply, "but it was not on account of her -passport. She was probably laden with goods which she intended smuggling -into Russia, and feared detection. I noticed that she was called aside -by the custom-house officials, and ushered into the room devoted to -suspected persons. She isn't here yet, and perhaps they'll keep her till -the train has gone. Ah! here she comes." - -[Illustration: AFTER EXAMINATION.] - -Frank and Fred looked in the direction indicated, but could not see any -stout lady; neither could the Doctor, but he thought he recognized a -face he had seen before. It belonged to a woman who was comparatively -slight in figure, and who took her seat very demurely at one of the -tables near the door. - -"That is the stout lady of the anteroom," said the Englishman, "and her -form has been reduced more rapidly than any advocate of the Banting or -any other anti-fat system ever dreamed of. She was probably detected by -her uneasy manner, and consequently was subjected to an examination at -the hands of the female searchers. They've removed dry goods enough from -her to set up a small shop, and she won't undertake smuggling again in a -hurry. Import duties are high in Russia, and the temptation to smuggle -is great. She was an inexperienced smuggler, or she would not have been -caught so easily. Probably she is of some other nationality than -Russian, or they would not have liberated her after confiscating her -contraband goods." - -The incident led to a conversation upon the Russian tariff system, which -is based upon the most emphatic ideas in favor of protection to home -industries. As it is no part of our intention to discuss the tariff in -this volume, we will omit what was said upon the subject, particularly -as no notes were taken by either Frank or Fred. - -In due time the train on the Russian side of the station was ready to -receive the travellers, and they took their places in one of the -carriages. It needed only a glance to show they had crossed the -frontier. The Austrian uniform disappeared, and the Russian took its -place; the Russian language was spoken instead of German; the carriages -were lettered in Russian; posts painted in alternate stripes of white -and black (the invention of the Emperor Paul about the beginning of the -present century), denoted the sovereignty of the Czar; and the dress of -many of the passengers indicated a change of nationality. - -[Illustration: SCENE ON THE RAILWAY.] - -The train rolled away from Granitsa in the direction of Warsaw, which -was the next point of destination of our friends. The country through -which they travelled was not particularly interesting; it was fairly -though not thickly settled, and contained no important towns on the line -of the railway, or any other object of especial interest. Their English -acquaintance said there were mines of coal, iron, and zinc in the -neighborhood of Zombkowitse, where the railway from Austria unites with -that from eastern Germany. It is about one hundred and eighty miles from -Warsaw; about forty miles farther on there was a town with an -unpronounceable name, with about ten thousand inhabitants, and a -convent, which is an object of pilgrimage to many pious Catholics of -Poland and Silesia. A hundred miles from Warsaw they passed Petrikau, -which was the seat of the ancient tribunals of Poland; and then, if the -truth must be told, they slept for the greater part of the way till the -train stopped at the station in the Praga suburb of Warsaw, on the -opposite bank of the Vistula. - -[Illustration: SHUTES FOR LOADING COAL ON THE RAILWAY.] - -As they neared the station they had a good view of Warsaw, on the -heights above the river, and commanded by a fortress which occupies the -centre of the city itself. Alighting from the train, they surrendered -their passports to an official, who said the documents would be returned -to them at the Hôtel de l'Europe, where they proposed to stop during -their sojourn within the gates of Warsaw. Tickets permitting them to go -into the city were given in exchange for the passports, and then they -entered a rickety omnibus and were driven to the hotel. - -It was late in the afternoon when they climbed the sloping road leading -into Warsaw, and looked down upon the Vistula and the stretch of low -land on the Praga side. Fred repeated the lines of the old verse from -which we have already quoted, and observed how well the scene is -described in a single couplet: - - "Warsaw's last champion from her heights surveyed, - Wide o'er the fields a waste of ruin laid." - -Laid desolate by many wars and subjected to despotic rule, the country -around Warsaw bears little evidence of prosperity. Many houses are -without tenants, and many farms are either half tilled or wholly without -cultivation. The spirit of revolution springs eternal in the Polish -breast, and the spirit of suppression must be equally enduring in the -breast of the Russian. It is only by the severest measures that the -Russians can maintain their control of Poland. A Polish writer has well -described the situation when he says, "Under a cruel government, it is -Poland's duty to rebel against oppression; under a liberal government, -it is her duty to rebel because she has the opportunity." - -After dinner at the hotel our friends started for a walk through the -principal streets; but they did not go very far. The streets were poorly -lighted, few people were about, and altogether the stroll was not -particularly interesting. They returned to the hotel, and devoted an -hour or so to a chat about Poland and her sad history. - -"Walls are said to have ears," the Doctor remarked, "but we have little -cause to be disturbed about them, as we are only discussing among -ourselves the known facts of history. Poland and Russia were at war for -centuries, and at one time Poland had the best of the fight. How many of -those who sympathize so deeply with the wrongs of Poland are aware of -the fact that in 1610 the Poles held Moscow as the Russians now hold -Warsaw, and that the Russian Czar was taken prisoner, and died the next -year in a Polish prison? Moscow was burned by the Poles in 1611, and -thousands of its inhabitants were slaughtered; in 1612 the Poles were -driven out, and from that time to the present their wars with Russia -have not been successful." - -"I didn't know that," said Frank, "until I read it to-day in one of our -books." - -"Nor did I," echoed Fred; "and probably not one person in a hundred is -aware of it." - -[Illustration: POLISH NATIONAL COSTUMES.] - -"Understand," said the Doctor, with emphasis--"understand that I do not -say this to justify in any way the wrongs that Russia may have visited -on Poland, but simply to show that all the wrong has not been on one -side. Russia and Poland have been hostile to each other for centuries; -they are antagonistic in everything--language, religion, customs, and -national ambitions--and there could be no permanent peace between them -until one had completely absorbed the other. Twice in this century (in -1830 and 1863) the Poles have rebelled against Russia, because they had -the opportunity in consequence of the leniency of the Government. From -present appearances they are not likely to have the opportunity again -for a long time, if ever." - -One of the youths asked how the revolution of 1830 was brought about. - -[Illustration: PEASANT'S FARM-HOUSE.] - -"Poland had been, as you know, divided at three different times, by -Russia, Austria, and Prussia," said the Doctor, "the third partition -taking place in 1795. At the great settlement among the Powers of -Europe, in 1815, after the end of the Napoleonic wars, the Emperor of -Russia proposed to form ancient Poland into a constitutional monarchy -under the Russian crown. His plan was adopted, with some modifications, -and from 1815 to 1830 the country had its national Diet or Parliament, -its national administration, and its national army of thirty thousand -men. The Russian Emperor was the King of Poland, and this the Poles -resented; they rebelled, and were defeated. After the defeat the -constitution was withdrawn and the national army abolished; the Polish -universities were closed, the Polish language was proscribed in the -public offices, and every attempt was made to Russianize the country. It -was harshly punished for its rebellion until Alexander II. ascended the -throne. - -"Alexander tried to conciliate the people by granting concessions. The -schools and universities were reopened; the language was restored; Poles -were appointed to nearly all official positions; elective district and -municipal councils were formed, and also a Polish Council of State. But -nothing short of independence would satisfy the inhabitants, and then -came the revolution of 1863. It was suppressed, like its predecessor, -and from that time the Russians have maintained such an iron rule in -Poland that a revolt of any importance is next to impossible. All the -oppression of which Russia is capable cannot destroy the spirit of -independence among the Poles. They are as patriotic as the Irish, and -will continue to hope for liberty as long as their blood flows in human -veins." - -A knock on the door brought the Doctor's discourse to an abrupt end. It -was made by the commissioner, who came to arrange for their excursion on -the following day. - -We will see in due course where they went and what they saw. It is now -their bedtime, and they are retiring for the night. - -[Illustration: ROYAL PALACE AT WARSAW.] - -The next morning they secured a carriage, and drove through the -principal streets and squares, visiting the Royal Palace and other -buildings of importance, and also the parks and gardens outside the city -limits. Concerning their excursion in Warsaw the youths made the -following notes: - -"We went first to the Royal Castle, which we were not permitted to -enter, as it is occupied by the Viceroy of Poland, or 'the Emperor's -Lieutenant,' as he is more commonly called. It is a very old building, -which has been several times altered and restored. There were many -pictures and other objects of art in the castle until 1831, when they -were removed to St. Petersburg. In the square in front of the castle is -a statue of one of the kings of Poland, and we were told that the square -was the scene of some of the uprisings of the Poles against their -Russian masters. - -[Illustration: SHRINE AT A GATEWAY.] - -"From the castle we went to the cathedral, which was built in the -thirteenth century, and contains monuments to the memory of several of -the kings and other great men of the country. It is proper to say here -that the Catholic is the prevailing religion of Poland, and no doubt -much of the hatred of Russians and Poles for each other is in -consequence of their religious differences. By the latest figures of the -population that we have at hand, Russian Poland contains about 3,800,000 -Catholics, 300,000 Protestants, 700,000 Jews, and 250,000 members of the -Greek Church and adherents of other religions, or a little more than -5,000,000 of inhabitants in all. Like all people who have been -oppressed, the Catholics and Jews are exceedingly devout, and adhere -unflinchingly to their religious faith. Churches and synagogues are -numerous in Warsaw, as in the other Polish cities. In our ride through -Warsaw we passed many shrines, and at nearly all of them the faithful -were kneeling to repeat the prayers prescribed by their religious -teachers. - -"From the cathedral we went to the citadel, which is on a hill in the -centre of the city, and was built after the revolution of 1830. The -expense of its construction was placed upon the people as a punishment -for the revolution, and for the purpose of bombarding the city in case -of another rebellion. From the walls of the citadel there is a fine view -of considerable extent; but there is nothing in the place of special -interest. The fort is constantly occupied by a garrison of Russian -soldiers. It contains a prison for political offenders and a military -court-house, where they are tried for their alleged offences. - -[Illustration: LAKE IN THE PARK.] - -"There are ten or twelve squares, or open places, in Warsaw, of which -the finest is said to be the Saxon Square. It contains a handsome -monument to the Poles who adhered to the Russian cause in the revolution -of 1830. Some writers say it was all a mistake, and that the Poles whose -memory is here preserved were really on their way to join the regiments -which had declared in favor of the insurrection. - -"There are several handsome streets and avenues; and as for the public -palaces and fine residences which once belonged to noble families of -Poland, but are now mostly in Government hands, the list alone would be -long and tedious. One of the finest palaces is in the Lazienki Park, and -was built by King Stanislaus Poniatowski. It is the residence of the -Emperor of Russia when he comes to Warsaw; but as his visits are rare, -it is almost always accessible to travellers. We stopped a few minutes -in front of the statue of King John Sobieski. There is an anecdote about -this statue which the students of Russian and Polish history will -appreciate. During a visit in 1850 the Emperor Nicholas paused in front -of the statue, and remarked to those around him, 'The two kings of -Poland who committed the greatest errors were John Sobieski and myself, -for we both saved the Austrian monarchy.' - -"Inside the palace there are many fine paintings and other works of art. -There are portraits of Polish kings and queens, and other rare pictures, -but not as many as in the Castle of Villanov, which we afterwards -visited. In the latter, which was the residence of John Sobieski, and -now belongs to Count Potocki, there are paintings by Rubens and other -celebrated masters, and there is a fine collection of armor, including -the suit which was presented to Sobieski by the Pope, after the former -had driven the Turks away from Vienna. It is beautifully inlaid with -ivory and mother-of-pearl, and covered with arabesques of astonishing -delicacy. We could have spent hours in studying it, and you may be sure -we left it with great reluctance. - -[Illustration: A BUSINESS MAN OF WARSAW.] - -"Warsaw has a population of nearly three hundred thousand, and there are -a good many factories for the manufacture of carriages, pianos, cloth, -carpets, and machines of various kinds. The city is the centre of a -large trade in grain, cattle, horses, and wool, and altogether it may be -considered prosperous. Much of the business is in the hands of the Jews, -who have managed to have and hold a great deal of wealth in spite of the -oppression they have undergone by both Poles and Russians. - -"The women of Warsaw are famous for their beauty, and we are all agreed -that we have seen more pretty faces here than in any other city of -Europe in the same time. The Jews of Warsaw are nearly all blonds; the -men have red beards, and the hair of the women is of the shade that used -to be the fashion among American and English actresses, and is not yet -entirely forgotten. We bought some photographs in one of the shops, and -are sure they will be excellent adornments for our albums at home. - -"In the evening we went to the opera in the hope of seeing the national -costumes of the Poles, but in this we were disappointed. The operas are -sung in Italian; the principal singers are French, Italian, English, or -any other nationality, like those of opera companies elsewhere, and only -the members of the chorus and ballet are Poles. Russian uniforms are in -the boxes and elsewhere in the house, and every officer is required to -wear his sword, and be ready at any moment to be summoned to fight. The -men not in uniform are in evening dress, and the ladies are like those -of an audience in Vienna or Naples, so far as their dress is concerned. -The opera closed at half-past eleven; our guide met us outside the door, -and when we proposed a stroll he said we must be at the hotel by -midnight, under penalty of being arrested. Any one out-of-doors between -midnight and daylight will be taken in by the police and locked up, -unless he has a pass from the authorities. In troubled times the city is -declared in a state of siege, and then everybody on the streets after -dusk must carry a lantern. - -"As we had no fancy for passing the night in a Russian station-house, we -returned straight to the hotel. Probably we would have been there by -midnight in any event, as we were tired enough to make a long walk -objectionable." - -The next day our friends visited some of the battle-fields near Warsaw, -and on the third took the train for St. Petersburg, six hundred and -twenty-five miles away. There was little of interest along the line of -railway, as the country is almost entirely a plain, and one mile is so -much like another that the difference is scarcely perceptible. The -principal towns or cities through which they passed were Bialystok and -Grodno, the latter famous for having been the residence of several -Polish kings, and containing the royal castle where they lived. At -Wilna, four hundred and forty-one miles from St. Petersburg, the railway -unites with that from Berlin. The change of train and transfer of -baggage detained the party half an hour or more, but not long enough to -allow them to inspect this ancient capital of the independent duchy of -Lithuania. At Pskof they had another halt, but only sufficient for -patronizing the restaurant. The town is two miles from the station, and -contains an old castle and several other buildings of note; it has a -prominent place in Poland's war history, but is not often visited by -travellers. - -[Illustration: IN ST. PETERSBURG.] - -At Gatchina, famous for its trout and containing an Imperial palace, an -official collected the passports of the travellers, which were -afterwards returned to them on arriving at the St. Petersburg station. -As they approached the Imperial city the first object to catch the eye -was a great ball of gold outlined against the sky. Frank said it must be -the dome of St. Isaac's Church, and the Doctor nodded assent to the -suggestion. The dome of St. Isaac's is to the capital of Russia what the -dome of St. Peter's is to Rome--the first object on which the gaze of -the approaching traveller is fixed. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -IN THE STREETS OF ST. PETERSBURG.--ISVOSHCHIKS AND DROSKIES.--COUNTING -IN RUSSIAN.--PASSPORTS AND THEIR USES.--ON THE NEVSKI -PROSPECT.--VISITING THE CHURCH OF KAZAN.--THE RUSSO-GREEK -RELIGION.--UNFAVORABLE POSITION OF ST. PETERSBURG.--DANGER OF -DESTRUCTION.--GREAT INUNDATION OF 1824.--STATUE OF PETER THE -GREAT.--ADMIRALTY SQUARE.--THE SAILORS AND THE STATUE. - - -A commissioner from the Hôtel de l'Europe was at the station. Doctor -Bronson gave him the receipts for their trunks, and after securing their -passports, which had been examined on the train during the ride from -Gatchina, the party entered a carriage and rode to the hotel. Frank and -Fred were impatient to try a drosky, and wondered why the Doctor had not -secured one of the vehicles characteristic of the country. - -"You'll have abundant opportunities for drosky-riding," said Doctor -Bronson, in reply to Fred's query on the subject. "For the present the -vehicle is not suited to our purposes, as we have our hand-baggage and -other trifles; besides, we are three individuals, while the drosky is -only large enough for two." - -The youths confirmed with their eyes the correctness of the Doctor's -assertion as the little vehicles were whizzing around them in every -direction. The drosky is a stout carriage on low wheels, somewhat -resembling the victoria of Western Europe, and is drawn by a single -horse. The isvoshchik, or driver, is seated on a high box in front, and -somehow he manages to get an astonishing speed out of the shaggy animal -that forms his team. Frank afterwards wrote as follows concerning -droskies and isvoshchiks: - -"It is astonishing to contemplate the swarm of droskies with which St. -Petersburg and every other Russian city abounds. They are to be found -everywhere and at all hours. No matter where you may be, or at what hour -of the day or night, you have only to call out 'Isvoshchik!' or -'Drosky!' and one of the little carriages appears as if by magic. Not -only one, but half a dozen will be pretty sure to come forward. The -drivers contend, and not always very politely, for the honor of your -patronage; but as soon as you have made your selection the rejected -ones drop away and leave you undisturbed. - -[Illustration: ISVOSHCHIKS IN WINTER.] - -"There is something interesting in the manner of the isvoshchik, -especially in the marked contrast before and after he has made a bargain -with you. Until the transaction is closed, he is as independent as the -hackman of New York or the cabby of London. The moment the bargain is -settled and he has accepted your offer, he is your willing slave. Offer -him forty copecks an hour, and he refuses, while demanding fifty or -sixty; you walk on, and he pretends to go away, and if your offer is -unreasonably low he will not trouble you again. Suddenly he reins up his -horse close to the sidewalk, springs from his seat, and with the word -'_Poshowltz_' ('If you please') he motions you to enter the carriage. He -is now at your service, and will drive just as you desire; your -slightest wish will be his law. - -[Illustration: DROSKY DRIVERS.] - -"Doctor Bronson told us we must learn how to count in Russian, and also -acquire a few phrases in common use; the more of them we could learn the -better. While on the train from Warsaw to St. Petersburg we learned to -count. I think we did it in about two hours, as it was really very -simple after we had gone through the numerals up to ten and fixed them -in mind. Perhaps you would like to know how it is done; well, here it -is: - -"The numerals from one to twelve are o-_deen_, dva, tree, che-_tee_-ri, -pyat, shayst, sem, vocem, _de_-vee-at, _de_-ci-at, odeen-nat-zat, -dva-nat-zat. For thirteen, fourteen, and so on, you add 'nat-zat' to the -single numerals till you get to twenty, which is 'dva-deciat,' or two -tens. Twenty-one is 'dva-deciat-odeen,' or two tens and one, and so on. -You go up to thirty, which is 'tree-deciat,' or three tens, but -generally shortened in pronunciation to 'treetsat' or 'tritsat.' All the -other tens up to ninety are formed in the same way, with the exception -of forty, which is 'sorok.' Ninety is 'deviat-na-sto' ('ten taken from -hundred'), and one hundred is 'sto;' two hundred is 'dva-sto.' The -other hundreds are formed in the same way to five hundred, which is -'pyat sot;' six hundred is 'shayst sot,' and the other hundreds go on -the same way; one thousand is 'tis-syat-_sha_.' You can now go ahead -with tens and hundreds of thousands up to a million, which is -'meel-yon'--very much like our own word for the same number. - -"It helps us greatly in getting around among the people without a guide. -We can bargain with the drivers, make purchases in the shops, and do -lots and lots of things which we could not if we didn't know how to -count. Any boy or man who comes to Russia should learn to count while he -is riding from the frontier to St. Petersburg, and if he takes our -advice he will do so. He can find it all in Murray's or any other good -guide-book, and he will also find there the most useful phrases for -travelling purposes. - -"In driving with the isvoshchiks, we have found them very obliging, and -both Fred and I have been many times surprised at their intelligence -when we remembered that very few of them were able to read or write -their own language. When they find we are foreigners, and do not speak -Russian, they do not jabber away like French or German drivers, or -London cabbies, but confine themselves to a very few words. Take one we -had to-day, for example: as he drove along he called our attention to -the churches and other public buildings that we passed by, pronouncing -the name of the building and nothing more. In this way we understood -him; but if he had involved the name with a dozen or twenty other words -we should have been in a perfect fog about it. - -[Illustration: SLEDGE OF A HIGH OFFICIAL.] - -"In winter the drosky makes way for the sledge, which is the tiniest -vehicle of the kind you can imagine. Two persons can crowd into a -sledge, though there is really room for only one. Whether you are one or -two, you sit with your face within ten or twelve inches of the driver's -back, which forms almost the entire feature of your landscape. The -sledges in winter are even more numerous than are the droskies in -summer, as many persons ride then who do not do so when the weather is -warm. - -"Everybody rides in a Russian city in winter--at least everybody who -claims to have much respect for himself; and in fact riding is so cheap -that it must be a very shallow purse that cannot afford it. For a drive -of a mile or less you pay eight or ten copecks (ten copecks equal eight -cents), and you can ride a couple of miles for fifteen copecks, and -sometimes for ten. By the hour you pay forty or fifty copecks; and if -you make a bargain you can have the vehicle all to yourself a whole day -for a dollar and a half, and sometimes less. They go very fast; and if -your time is limited, and you want to see a good deal in a little -while, it is the best kind of economy to hire an isvoshchik to take you -about." - -We left our friends on the way to the hotel when we wandered off to hear -what Frank had to say about the droskies and their drivers. The ride -along the streets was full of interest to the youths, to whom it was all -new; but it was less so to Doctor Bronson, who had been in St. -Petersburg before. They drove up the Vosnesenski Prospect, a broad -avenue which carried them past the Church of the Holy Trinity, one of -the interesting churches out of the many in the city, and then by a -cross street passed into the Nevski Prospect, which may be called the -Broadway of the Russian capital. We shall hear more of the Nevski -Prospect later on. - -At the hotel they surrendered their passports to the clerk as soon as -they had selected their rooms; the Doctor told the youths they would not -again see those important documents until they had settled their bill -and prepared to leave. Frank and Fred were surprised at this -announcement, and the Doctor explained: - -"The passports must go at once to the Central Bureau of the Police, and -we shall be registered as stopping in this hotel. When the register has -been made the passports will be returned to the hotel and locked up in -the manager's safe, according to the custom of the country." - -"Why doesn't he give them back to us instead of locking them in the -safe?" one of the youths inquired. - -"It has long been the custom for the house-owner to keep the passport of -any one lodging with him, as he is in a certain sense responsible for -his conduct. Besides, it enables him to be sure that nobody leaves -without paying his bill, for the simple reason that he can't get away. -When we are ready to go we must give a few hours' notice; the passports -will be sent to the police-office again, with a statement as to our -destination; after we have paid our bills and are ready to go, the -passports will be handed to us along with the receipt for our money." - -"That makes hotel-keeping a great deal more certain than it is in -American cities, does it not?" said Fred. - -"And you never hear in Russia of a man running away from a hotel where -he has contracted a large bill, and leaving nothing but a trunk filled -with straw and stove-wood as security, do you?" Frank inquired. - -"Such a thing is unknown," the Doctor answered. "I once told some -Russian acquaintances about the way hotel-keepers were defrauded in -America by unprincipled persons. One of them exclaimed, 'What a happy -country! and how cheaply a man could live there, with no police officers -to stop his enterprise!'" - -"When you go from one city to another," said the Doctor, "the formality -to be observed is slight, and the hotel people will attend to it for you -without charge. When you are going to leave Russia, a few days' notice -must be given at the police-office; and if any creditors have filed -their claims against you with the police, you must settle them before -you can have your passport. If any one owes you money, and you have -reason to believe he intends leaving the country, you can stop him or -get your money by leaving your account with the police for collection. -Absconding debtors are nearly as rare in Russia as absconding -hotel-patrons, for the simple reason that the law restricts their -movements. In spite of what our English friend said of the passport -system, there are some excellent features about it. Another thing is--" - -They were interrupted by a servant, who came to ask if there were any -friends in St. Petersburg whom they wished to find. The commissioner was -going to the Police Bureau with the passports, and would make any -inquiries they desired. - -The Doctor answered in the negative, and the servant went away. - -"That is what I was about to mention," said Doctor Bronson, as soon as -the door was closed. "The first time I came to St. Petersburg I was -riding along the Nevski Prospect, and saw an old acquaintance going in -the other direction. He did not see me, and before I could turn to -follow him he was lost in the crowd of vehicles. But in two hours I -found him, and we had a delightful afternoon together. How do you -suppose I did it? - -"Why, I sent to the Police Bureau, paid two cents, and obtained a -memorandum of his address. For a fee of two cents you can get the -address of any one you name, and for two cents each any number of -addresses. In numerous instances I found it a great convenience, and so -have other travellers. If you wanted to find a friend in New York or -London, and didn't know his address, you would have a nice time about -it; but in Moscow or St. Petersburg there would be no trouble whatever." - -As soon as they had removed the dust of the journey our friends went out -for a stroll before dinner. The Hôtel de l'Europe is on the corner of -the Nevski Prospect and one of the smaller streets, and only a short -distance from the _Kazanski Sobor_, or Church of Kazan. But before they -enter this celebrated edifice we will look with them at the grand -avenue, the Nevski Prospect. - -"It is straight as a sunbeam for three miles," said Fred in his -note-book, "with the Admiralty Buildings at one end, and the Church of -St. Alexander Nevski at the other, though the latter is a little way -from the line. It is perfectly level from end to end, like a street of -New Orleans or Sacramento. St. Petersburg is built on a marsh, and -through its whole extent there isn't a hill other than an artificial -one. It is a broad avenue (one hundred and thirty feet in width), -reminding us of the boulevards of Paris, and the crowd of vehicles -coming and going at all hours of the day and far into the night makes -the scene a picturesque one. - -[Illustration: RUSSIAN WORKMEN ON THEIR WAY HOME.] - -"All classes and kinds of Russians are to be seen here, from the mujik, -with his rough coat of sheepskin, up to the officer of the army, whose -breast is covered with decorations by the dozen or even more. The -vehicles are of many kinds, the drosky being the most frequent, and -there is hardly one of them without the _duga_, or yoke, over the horse -between the shafts. The horses are driven furiously, but they are -completely under the control of their drivers, and accidents are said -to be very rare. Perhaps this is owing to the fact that a driver is -liable to severe punishment if he causes any injury to a pedestrian. - -[Illustration: RUSSIAN OFFICER WITH DECORATIONS.] - -"Somebody has remarked that the Nevski Prospect ought to be called -Toleration Avenue, for the reason that it contains churches of so many -different faiths. There are of course the Russo-Greek churches, -representing the religion of the country, and there are Catholic, -Lutheran, Dutch, and Armenian churches, standing peacefully in the same -line. It is a pity that the adherents of these diverse religions do not -always agree as well as do the inanimate edifices that represent them. - -"The buildings are very substantial in appearance, and many of them are -literally palaces. The military headquarters are on the Nevski, and so -is the palace of one of the grand-dukes; then there are several palaces -belonging to noble families. There is the Institution of St. Catherine, -and the Gostinna Dvor, or Great Market-place, with ten thousand -merchants, more or less, transacting business there. We'll go there to -make some purchases and tell you about it; at present we will cross the -Nevski to the Church of Kazan. - -"It reminds us of the Church of St. Peter at Rome, as it has a colonnade -in imitation of the one which attracts the eye of every visitor to the -Eternal City, and takes its name from "Our Lady of Kazan," to whom it is -dedicated. Kazan was once a Tartar city, and the capital of the Tartar -kingdom of the same name. It was fortified, and stoutly defended, and -gave the Russians a great deal of trouble. In the sixteenth century John -the Terrible conquered the kingdom and annexed it to Russia. The last -act in the war was the capture of the city of Kazan. The Russians were -several times repulsed, but finally the Kremlin was carried, and the -Tartar power came to an end. A picture of the Virgin was carried in -front of the attacking column, and this picture, all devout Russians -believe, gave the victory over the Moslem. The church was built in -memory of the event, and the sacred picture from Kazan is preserved and -worshipped here. - -"It is a beautiful church, in the form of a cross, two hundred and -thirty-eight feet long and one hundred and eighty-two feet wide. From -the ground to the top of the cross above the cupola is more than two -hundred and thirty feet, and the cupola is so large that it is visible -from a long distance. As we entered the church we were struck by the -absence of seats. We were told by the Doctor that Russian churches -contain no seats, and all worshippers must stand or kneel while at their -devotions. To this there are no exceptions; the same requirement being -made of the Emperor as of the most obscure peasant. - -"There is no instrumental music in the Greek Church, and church choirs -composed of male and female voices are unknown here. All the singers in -the churches are men; the prayers are mostly intoned, and all the -congregation joins in the responses. There are no pews, or reserved -places of any kind, except a standing-place for the Emperor, all -worshippers being considered equal; neither are there any fees to be -paid by those who come to worship. - -"The picture of Our Lady of Kazan, which has such a miraculous legend -connected with it, is richly covered with precious stones, said to be -worth nearly a hundred thousand dollars. There are other costly pictures -in the church, but none to equal this one. There are a good many flags, -and other trophies of war, along the walls and around the pillars; and, -to tell the truth, it has almost as much the appearance of a military -museum as of a cathedral. There are the keys of Hamburg, Leipsic, and -other cities which at various times have been captured by Russia, and -the church contains the tombs of several Russian generals who were -killed in the war with France in 1812. - -[Illustration: A RUSSIAN PRIEST.] - -"We observed a curious effect in the pictures in this church which we -found afterwards in a great many holy pictures in Russia. The hands and -face, and any other flesh, are painted on a flat surface, but the dress -and ornaments are often raised in gold, silver, or other metal, and -studded with precious stones, according to the will or financial ability -of the owner. The Church rejects all massive images of the Saviour or -saints as idolatrous, and says they violate the commandment "Thou shalt -not make unto thyself any graven image." It does not exclude mosaics, -and anything produced in low relief, but the rule that flesh shall be -represented by a flat surface is imperative. - -"We afterwards attended service in the Kazan church, and were impressed -with its solemnity and simplicity. The vocal music had an admirable -effect as it resounded through the vast building, and we have never -anywhere seen a congregation more devout than this. Nearly every one -held a candle, and carefully guarded the flame from the draughts that -occasionally swept over the congregation. Illuminations have a very -important place in all church ceremonies, and there are no weddings, -betrothals, funerals, or any other sacred services, without candles or -tapers. - -"Lights are kept burning in front of the principal pictures in the -churches. Throughout the Empire there is an _Eikon_, or sacred picture, -in the principal room of every house whose owner is an adherent of the -Church of the country, and often in every room of consequence. On -entering a room where there is such a picture, every devout Russian -crosses himself; and so great is the respect shown to it, that when -Russian thieves enter a room for the purpose of stealing, they spread a -handkerchief over the picture so that the saint who is represented upon -it cannot see them. - -"Religion has a more important part in the practical life of the -Russians than in that of any other people of Europe. The blessing of the -Church is invoked upon every undertaking. Steamboats, ships, and all -other craft are blessed by the priest at their launching or before being -put into service; the locomotives and carriages of a railway are -similarly treated; and the same may be said of every vehicle, machine, -or other thing of consequence. So with cattle, horses, sheep, and other -live-stock; and so, also, with the furniture and adornments of the -house. - -"In the theatres the Government does not allow the representation of any -kind of religious ceremonial as part of a performance, lest it might -bring religion into ridicule, and under no circumstances can an actor be -dressed to personate a priest. The Czar, or Emperor, is the recognized -head of the Church, and among the common people he is regarded as only a -little less than a divinity. - -"Those who have lived long among the Russians, and ought to know them, -say the venerative feeling among the common people is very great, and -more so among the higher classes than in the Latin countries of Europe. -They are devout church-goers, and the feasts and fasts of the Church are -carefully observed. They form a serious drawback to business matters, as -there are certain days when no man or woman can be induced to work at -any price. The owners of establishments which require to be kept -constantly in operation manage to get around this custom by keeping -their employés constantly in debt, as the Russian law and custom compel -a man to work steadily to discharge such indebtedness. - -"Pilgrimages to monasteries and shrines are more common among the -Russians than any other Christian people, and the poorer classes often -go on long and painful journeys through their religious zeal. A large -number of Russian pilgrims can be found in Jerusalem every year at -Easter, as well as at other times. So important is this pilgrimage that -the Russian Government maintains a convent at Jerusalem for lodging its -subjects; and the Crimean war practically grew out of a quarrel which -was brought about with reference to the holy places of the famous city. - -[Illustration: CONVENT OF SOLOVETSK IN THE FROZEN SEA.] - -"Great numbers of pilgrims go every year from all parts of Russia to the -Convent of Solovetsk in the Frozen Sea, seven or eight hundred miles to -the north-east of the capital. - -"We may have more to say on religious matters before leaving Russia, but -for the present we will drop the subject and continue our walk on the -Nevski." - -As they strolled in the direction of the Neva, the river that gives its -name to the long avenue, Fred asked how it happened that St. Petersburg -was built on a marsh instead of upon elevated ground. - -"It was because Peter the Great wanted a capital city that could be a -seaport, and this was the best site that could be found. Moscow was -inland (it is four hundred miles from here to that city), and Peter -realized that no country could be great and important without -communication over the sea to other lands. So he came here and founded -the city which bears his name. It was a forbidding place, but his will -was law, and the city grew and lived though a hundred thousand men -perished in the first year of its construction. The first house was -built in 1703. In 1712 Peter declared it his capital, and the Imperial -court was moved here from Moscow. For a long time the place was very -unhealthy, and even down to the present day it is not by any means the -best location in the world for a city. The drainage is defective, the -drinking-water is not good, especially in the summer season, and the -city has several times suffered from inundations. - -"For many years every vessel coming to the port, and every cart entering -the city, was required to bring a certain number of stones for filling -the marsh and paving the streets. Where the large buildings stand, -fabulous amounts have been expended in making foundations, and many of -them have cost more than the buildings that stand upon them. The -foundations of the Church of St. Isaac are said to have cost four -millions of dollars, and twenty-five years were spent in their -construction." - -Frank asked about the inundations mentioned by the Doctor. - -"There have been some eight or ten of them," the Doctor answered. "The -most serious inundation of this century was in 1824, when the water of -the Neva rose thirteen feet and four inches above its ordinary level. -Observe that line," said he, as he pointed to a mark upon a building: -"that is the point to which the waters rose in the inundation of 1824." - -[Illustration: THE INUNDATION OF 1824.] - -The mark was nearly four feet above the level of the sidewalk where they -stood. Frank and Fred regarded it with astonishment, while the Doctor -continued: - -"In a single night (November 17th) property to the value of twenty -millions of dollars was destroyed, and it was estimated that not less -than eight thousand people lost their lives. The flood was caused by a -strong westerly wind which combined with the tide and forced the waters -in from the Gulf of Finland, which is here formed like a funnel. Now -suppose the flood had occurred in April, at the time when Lake Ladoga -breaks up and pours its accumulated ice and water through the Neva, what -would have been the result?" - -"Would the city have been destroyed?" queried one of the youths. - -"So it is said, by many who have studied its position. They aver that -when a high tide, a westerly wind, and the breaking up of the ice in -Lake Ladoga shall all come together, the streets of St. Petersburg will -be not less than twenty feet under water, and Russia will be obliged to -select another site for her capital. But as it is not likely that all -these things will happen during our visit, we won't borrow any trouble -about the matter." - -"I have read," said Fred, "that in that inundation the prisoners in the -fort were drowned in their cells. The lower part of the fort was -flooded, was it not?" - -"Yes," the Doctor answered; "but so many romances have been written on -the subject that it is difficult to get at the exact truth. It is very -likely that the prisoners in the lower cells of the fort were drowned, -and I believe the authorities admit that such was the case. In the Paris -Exhibition of 1867 there was a startling picture representing the death -of a Russian princess who was imprisoned there at the time. She is -represented standing on her little bed surrounded by rats that have been -driven from their holes by the flood. The water is nearly up to the -level of the bed, and is pouring in at the grated window. The picture -haunted me for years after I saw it, and even now it occasionally comes -up in my dreams. I haven't thought of it for some time, but this -question of yours has revived it." - -[Illustration: STATUE OF PETER THE GREAT.] - -They continued their walk towards the Neva, with an occasional glance at -the needle-like spire that rises above the Admiralty buildings. They -came out into Admiralty Square, a large open space, which gave them a -view of the Admiralty buildings, the Church of St. Isaac, the equestrian -statue of Peter the Great, and the Winter Palace, together with one of -the bridges spanning the Neva to the islands opposite. - -"Which shall we see first?" queried the Doctor of his young companions. - -"Whichever you think best," answered Frank, to which Fred nodded -approval. - -"Our time just now is limited," said the Doctor, "and perhaps we will -satisfy ourselves with the statue of Peter the Great. But as we walk -about we must not fail to take in the general view, which is of unusual -interest." - -The statue is well known through its frequent representation in -engravings, and is one of the most remarkable monuments of the Imperial -city. It was ordered by the Empress Catherine, and was cast by Falconet, -a Frenchman. The inscription upon it reads-- - -"PETRU PERVOMU.--EKATERINA VTORYA." - -(_To Peter I.--By Catherine II._, MDCCLXXXII.) - -Evidently Catherine had a sufficient idea of her consequence, as the -letters which make her name are considerably larger than those of her -illustrious sire's. - -"The horse," said Fred, in his note-book, "is on the brink of a -precipice, where he is being reined in by his rider. Peter's face is -towards the Neva, while his right hand is directed to the city which he -built. Under the horse's feet is a serpent, which typifies the -difficulties the Czar has overcome. The horse is balanced on his hind -legs and tail, his forefeet being clear from the rock. It is said that -the weight of the statue is about ten thousand pounds. - -"The statue stands on a block of granite that originally weighed fifteen -hundred tons, and was brought from Finland. The block is fourteen feet -high, twenty feet broad, and forty-three feet long. It consists of two -pieces that have been carefully joined together, and the operation of -moving it was a triumph of engineering skill. - -"I have read a good story apropos of this monument--about two boys who -belonged to an English ship that was lying at the quay beyond the -statue. They had wandered off into the city and lost their way, and in -order to get back they engaged a carriage. But after engaging it they -were in trouble, as they could not tell the driver where to go. - -"Two sailors from the same ship happened along, and to them the boys -told the story of their perplexity. The sailors were in the same -predicament, as they wanted to get back to the ship, and didn't know -which way to go. - -[Illustration: IMPROVISING A STATUE.] - -"'If we only knew what the Russian is for that statue,' said one of the -boys, 'we could make him understand.' - -"They tried all the words they knew, but to no purpose. Suddenly an idea -occurred to one of the sailors. He asked the other to get down on -all-fours, which he did, wondering what was the matter with his comrade. -Jack mounted his friend's back as though he were a steed, and took the -attitude of Peter the Great as nearly as he could remember it. The other -sailor caught at the idea, and reared slightly on his feet in the -position of Peter's horse. The isvoshchiks comprehended what was wanted, -and roared with delight; the two sailors jumped into a drosky, which -followed the carriage containing the boys, and in due time the party -arrived safely at its destination." - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -DINNER IN A RUSSIAN RESTAURANT.--CABBAGE SOUP, FISH PIES, AND OTHER ODD -DISHES.--THE _SAMOVAR_ AND ITS USES.--RUSSIAN TEA-DRINKERS.--_JOLTAI -CHAI_.--ALEXANDER'S COLUMN.--FORTRESS OF STS. PETER AND PAUL.--IMPERIAL -ASSASSINATIONS.--SKETCHES OF THE PEOPLE.--RUSSIAN POLICE AND THEIR WAYS. - - -Instead of returning to the hotel for dinner, our friends went to a -_traktir_, or Russian restaurant, in a little street running out of -Admiralty Square. The youths were anxious to try the national dishes of -the country, and consequently they accepted with pleasure Doctor -Bronson's suggestion relative to their dining-place. - -"The finest and most characteristic restaurants of Russia are in Moscow -rather than in St. Petersburg," said the Doctor, as he led the way to -the establishment they had decided to patronize. "St. Petersburg has a -great many French and German features that you do not find in Moscow, -and when we get to the latter city we must not fail to go to the -'Moskovski Traktir,' which is one of the most celebrated feeding-places -of the old capital. There the waiters are clad in silk shirts, or -frocks, extending nearly to the knee, over loose trousers of the same -material. At the establishment where we are now going the dress is that -of the ordinary French restaurant, and we shall have no difficulty in -finding some one who speaks either French or German." - -They found the lower room of the restaurant filled with men solacing -themselves with tea, which they drank from glasses filled and refilled -from pots standing before them. On each table was a steaming _samovar_ -to supply boiling water to the teapots as fast as they were emptied. The -boys had seen the _samovar_ at railway-stations and other places since -their entrance into the Empire, but had not thus far enjoyed the -opportunity of examining it. - -[Illustration: TEA-SELLERS IN THE STREETS.] - -"We will have a _samovar_ to ourselves," said the Doctor, as they -mounted the stairs to an upper room, "and then you can study it as -closely as you like." - -The Russian bill of fare was too much for the reading abilities of any -one of the trio. The Doctor could spell out some of the words, but -found they would get along better by appealing to one of the waiters. -Under his guidance they succeeded very well, as we learn from Frank's -account of the dinner. - -"Doctor Bronson told us that cabbage soup was the national dish of the -country, and so we ordered it, under the mysterious name of _tschee e -karsha_. The cabbage is chopped, and then boiled till it falls into -shreds; a piece of meat is cooked with it; the soup is seasoned with -pepper and salt; and altogether the _tschee_ (soup) is decidedly -palatable. _Karsha_, is barley thoroughly boiled, and then dried over -the fire until the grains fall apart. A saucerful of this cooked barley -is supplied to you along with the soup, and you eat them together. You -may mingle the _karsha_ with the _tschee_ as you would mix rice with -milk, but the orthodox way of eating is to take a small quantity of the -_karsha_ into your spoon each time before dipping it into the soup. A -substantial meal can be made of these articles alone, and there are -millions of the subjects of his Imperial Majesty the Czar who dine -to-day and many other days in the year on nothing else. The Emperor eats -_tschee_, and so does the peasant--probably the Emperor has it less -often in the year than does his poor subject; but the soup is of the -same kind, except that very often the peasant cannot afford the -important addition of meat." - -[Illustration: RUSSIAN RESTAURANT AT THE PARIS EXPOSITION.] - -"Don't forget," Fred interposed, when the foregoing description was read -to him--"don't forget to say that they served us a little cup or mug of -sour cream along with the _tschee_." - -"Yes, that's so," responded Frank; "but I didn't like it particularly, -and therefore came near forgetting it. We remember best the things that -please us." - -"Then perhaps you didn't like the _zakushka_, or appetizer, before -dinner," said the Doctor, "as I see you haven't mentioned it." - -"I hadn't forgotten it," said the youth, "but was going to say something -about it at the end. You know the preface of a book is always written -after the rest of the volume has been completed, but as you've called -attention to it, I'll dispose of it now. Here it is: - -"There was a side-table, on which were several plates containing -relishes of different kinds, such as caviare, raw herring, dried beef, -smoked salmon cut in little strips or squares, radishes, cheese, -butter, and tiny sandwiches about the size of a half-dollar. A glass of -cordial, of which several kinds were offered, goes with the _zakushka_ -for those who like it; the cordial and a few morsels of the solid things -are supposed to sharpen the appetite and prepare it for the dinner which -is to be eaten at the table. - -[Illustration: AN OUT-DOOR TEA-PARTY.] - -"The _zakushka_ is inseparable from a dinner in Russia, and belongs to -it just as much as do any of the dishes that are served after the seats -are taken. While we were standing around the side-table where it was -served at our first dinner in St. Petersburg, Doctor Bronson told us a -story that is too good to be lost. I'll try to give it in his words: - -"There was once a Russian soldier who had a phenomenal appetite; he -could eat an incredible quantity of food at a sitting, and the officers -of his regiment used to make wagers with strangers about his feeding -abilities. They generally won; and as the soldier always received a -present when he had gained a bet, he exerted himself to the best of his -ability. - -"One day the colonel made a wager for a large amount that his man could -eat an entire sheep at a sitting. The sheep was selected, slaughtered, -and sent to a restaurant, and at the appointed time the colonel appeared -with the soldier. In order to help the man along, the keeper of the -restaurant had cooked the different parts of the sheep in various ways; -there were broiled and fried cutlets, roasted and boiled quarters, and -some stews and hashes made from the rest. Dish after dish disappeared. -When almost the entire sheep had been devoured, the soldier turned to -the colonel and said, - -"'If you give me so much _zakushka_ I'm afraid I sha'n't be able to eat -all of the sheep when they bring it.'" - -"But to return to soups. In addition to _tschee_, the Russians have -_ukha_, or fish soup, made of any kind of fish that is in season. The -most expensive is made from sterlet, a fish that is found only in the -Volga, and sometimes sells for its weight in silver. We tried it one -day, and liked it very much, but it costs too much for frequent eating -except by the wealthy. A very good fish soup is made from trout, and -another from perch. - -"After the soup we had a _pirog_, or pie made of the spinal cord of the -sturgeon cut into little pieces about half as large as a pea. It -resembles isinglass in appearance and is very toothsome. The pie is -baked in a deep dish, with two crusts, an upper and an under one. Doctor -Bronson says the Russians make all kinds of fish into pies and patties, -very much as we make meat pies at home. They sometimes put raisins in -these pies--a practice which seems very incongruous to Americans and -English. They also make _solianka_, a dish composed of fish and cabbage, -and not at all bad when one is hungry; red or black pepper liberally -applied is an improvement. - -"What do you think of _okroshka_--a soup made of cold beer, with pieces -of meat, cucumber, and red herrings floating in it along with bits of -ice to keep it cool? Don't want any. Neither do we; but the Russians of -the lower classes like it, and I have heard Russian gentlemen praise it. -Many of them are fond of _batvenia_, which is a cold soup made in much -the same way as _okroshka_, and about as unpalatable to us. We ordered a -portion of _okroshka_ just to see how it looked and tasted. One -teaspoonful was enough for each of us, and _batvenia_ we didn't try. - -"After the _pirog_ we had cutlets of chicken, and then roast mutton -stuffed with buckwheat, both of them very good. They offered us some -boiled pig served cold, with horseradish sauce, but we didn't try it; -and then they brought roast grouse, with salted cucumbers for salad. We -wound up with Nesselrode pudding, made of plum-pudding and ices, and not -unknown in other countries. Then we had the _samovar_, which had been -made ready for us, and drank some delicious tea which we prepared -ourselves. Now for the _samovar_. - -[Illustration: RUSSIAN MUJIKS DRINKING TEA.] - -"Its name comes from two words which mean 'self-boiling;' and the -_samovar_ is nothing but an urn of brass or copper, with a cylinder in -the centre, where a fire is made with charcoal. The water surrounds the -cylinder, and is thus kept at the boiling-point, which the Russians -claim is indispensable to the making of good tea. The beverage is drank -not from cups, but from glasses, and the number of glasses it will -contain is the measure of a _samovar_. The Russians rarely put milk with -their tea; the common people never do so, and the upper classes only -when they have acquired the habit while abroad. They rarely dissolve -sugar in their tea, but nibble from a lump after taking a swallow of the -liquid. A peasant will make a single lump serve for four or five glasses -of tea, and it is said to be an odd sensation for a stranger to hear the -nibbling and grating of lumps of sugar when a party of Russians is -engaged in tea-drinking. - -"We sat late over the _samovar_, and then paid our bill and returned to -the Square. Doctor Bronson told us that an enormous quantity of tea is -consumed in Russia, but very little coffee. Formerly all the tea used in -the Empire was brought overland from China by way of Siberia, and the -business enabled the importers of tea to accumulate great fortunes. Down -to 1860 only one cargo of tea annually was brought into Russia by sea, -all the rest of the importation being through the town of Kiachta, on -the frontier of Mongolia. Since 1860 the ports of the Empire have been -opened to tea brought from China by water, and the trade of Kiachta has -greatly diminished. But it is still very large, and long trains of -sledges come every winter through Siberia laden with the tea which has -been brought to Kiachta on the backs of camels from the districts where -it is grown. - -[Illustration: PLANT FROM WHICH YELLOW TEA IS MADE.] - -"There is one kind of the Chinese herb, called _joltai chai_ (yellow -tea), which is worth at retail about fifteen dollars a pound. It is said -to be made from the blossom of the tea-plant, and is very difficult to -find out of Russia, as all that is produced comes here for a market. We -each had a cup of this tea to finish our dinner with, and nothing more -delicious was ever served from a teapot. The infusion is a pale yellow, -or straw-color, and to look at appears weak enough, but it is unsafe to -take more than one cup if you do not wish to be kept awake all night. -Its aroma fills the room when it is poured out. All the pens in the -world cannot describe the song of the birds or the perfume of the -flowers, and so my pen is unable to tell you about the aroma and taste -of _joltai chai_. We'll get a small box of the best and send it home for -you to try." - -It was so late in the day when our friends had finished their dinner and -returned to the Square, that there was not much time left for -sight-seeing. They were in front of the Winter Palace and St. Isaac's -Church, but decided to leave them until another day. Fred's attention -was drawn to a tall column between the Winter Palace and a crescent of -lofty buildings called the _État-major_, or staff headquarters, and he -asked the Doctor what it was. - -[Illustration: COLUMN IN MEMORY OF ALEXANDER I.] - -"That is the Alexander Column," was the reply to the question. "It is -one of the largest monoliths or single shafts of modern times, and was -erected in 1832 in memory of Alexander I." - -"What a splendid column!" said Frank. "I wonder how high it is." - -Thereupon the youths fell to guessing at the height of the column. After -they had made their estimates--neither of them near the mark but -considerably below it--Doctor Bronson gave them its dimensions. - -"The shaft, without pedestal or capital, is fourteen feet in diameter -and eighty-four feet high; it was originally one hundred and two feet -high, but was reduced through fear that its length was out of proportion -to its diameter. The base and pedestal are one single block of red -granite about twenty-five feet high, and the capital is sixteen feet -high. The angel above the capital is fourteen feet tall, and the cross -in the hands of the angel is seven feet above it. With the platform on -which it rests, the whole structure rises one hundred and fifty-four -feet from the level of the ground." - -"They must have had a hard time to make the foundations in this marshy -ground," one of the boys remarked. - -"They drove six rows of piling there, one after the other, before -getting a foundation to suit them," said the Doctor. "The shaft alone, -which was put up in the rough and finished afterwards, is thought to -weigh about four hundred tons, and the pedestal and base nearly as much -more. Unfortunately the shaft has suffered from the effects of the -severe climate, and may be destroyed at no distant day. Several cracks -have been made by the frost, and though they have been carefully -cemented, they continue to increase in size. Pieces have fallen from the -surface of the stone in the same way that they have fallen from the -Egyptian obelisk in New York, and it is very evident that the climate of -St. Petersburg is unfriendly to monuments of granite." - -The bronze on the pedestal and capital is from Turkish cannon which were -melted down for the purpose. The only inscription is in the few words, - -"TO ALEXANDER THE FIRST, GRATEFUL RUSSIA." - -Frank made a sketch of the monument together with the buildings of the -_État-major_ and a company of soldiers that marched past the foot of the -column. Doctor Bronson said the soldiers belonged to the guard of the -palace, where they had been on duty through the day, and had just been -relieved. - -From the column and the buildings surrounding it the trio of strangers -walked to the bank of the river and watched the boats on the water, -where the setting sun slanted in long rays and filled the air with the -mellow light peculiar to high latitudes near the close of day. It was -early in September, and already the evening air had a touch of coolness -about it. St. Petersburg is in latitude 60° North, and consequently is -quite near the Arctic Circle. Doctor Bronson told the youths that if -they had come there in July they would have found very little night, the -sun setting not far from ten o'clock and rising about two. In the four -hours of night there is almost continuous twilight; and by mounting to -the top of a high building at midnight one can see the position of the -sun below the northern horizon. Any one who goes to bed after sunset and -rises before sunrise would have very little sleep in St. Petersburg in -summer. - -"On the other hand," said the Doctor, "the nights of winter are very -long. Winter is the gay season here, as the city is deserted by -fashionable people in summer, and one is not expected to make visits. -The Imperial court goes away; the Emperor has a palace at Yalta in the -Crimea, and there he passes the autumn months, unless kept in St. -Petersburg or Moscow by the affairs of the nation. They have some public -festivities here in summer, but not generally, most of the matters of -this kind being reserved for the winter." - -[Illustration: PETER THE GREAT.] - -Boats were moving in all directions on the placid waters of the river, -darting beneath the magnificent bridge that stretches across the stream, -and carrying little parties, who sought recreation or were on errands of -business. On the opposite side of the Neva, and beyond the Winter -Palace, was the grim fortress of Sts. Peter and Paul, with whose history -many tales of horror are connected, and where numerous prisoners of -greater or less note have been confined. "It was there," said Doctor -Bronson, "that Peter the Great caused his son Alexis to be put to -death." - -"Caused his son to be put to death!" exclaimed the youths together. - -"Yes, it is generally believed that such was the case," the Doctor -answered, "though the fact is not actually known. Alexis, the son of -Peter the Great, was opposed to his father's reforms, and devotedly -attached to the old superstitions and customs of Russia. Peter decided -to exclude him from the throne; the son consented, and announced his -desire to enter a monastery, from which he managed to escape to Austria, -where he sought the protection of the Emperor of that country. Peter -sent one of his generals in pursuit of Alexis; by a combination of -threats and promises he was induced to return to St. Petersburg, where -he was thrown into prison, and afterwards tried for high-treason and -condemned to death. Peter pardoned but did not release him. On the 7th -of July, 1718, he died suddenly, and it was and is now generally -believed that he was poisoned or beheaded by his father's order." - -"And was he really guilty of high-treason?" Fred asked. - -"According to Russian law and custom, and particularly according to the -law and custom of Peter the Great, he certainly was," Doctor Bronson -replied. "Remember, the Emperor is autocratic in his power, at least in -theory, and in Peter's time he was so actually. The will of the founder -of the Russian Empire was law; Alexis was opposed to that will, and -consequently opposed to the Imperial law. The progress of Russia was -more in the eyes of Peter than the life of any human being, not even -excepting his own son, and the legitimate heir to the throne. The -proceedings of the trial were published by Peter as a justification of -his act. - -[Illustration: ASSASSINATION OF PETER III.] - -"Peter II., the son of Alexis and grandson of the great Peter, died -suddenly, at the age of fifteen; Peter III., grandchild of Peter the -Great through his daughter Anna, was the husband of the Empress -Catherine II.; but his reign was very short. His life with Catherine was -not the happiest in the world, and in less than eight months after he -became Emperor she usurped the throne, deposed her husband, and caused -him to be strangled. Catherine was a German princess, but declared -herself thoroughly Russian when she came to reside in the Empire. If -history is correct, she made a better ruler than the man she put aside, -but this can be no justification of her means of attaining power. - -[Illustration: PAUL I.] - -"Her son, Paul I., followed the fate of his father in being -assassinated, but it was not by her orders. She brought him up in -complete ignorance of public affairs, and compelled him to live away -from the Imperial court. Until her death, in 1796, she kept him in -retirement, although she had his sons taken to court and educated under -her immediate supervision. Treatment like this was calculated to make -him whimsical and revengeful, and when he became emperor he tried to -undo every act of his mother and those about her. He disbanded her -armies, made peace with the countries with which she was at war, -reversed her policy in everything, and became a most bitter tyrant -towards his own people. He issued absurd orders, and at length his acts -bordered on insanity. - -"A conspiracy was formed among some of the noblemen, who represented to -his son Alexander that it was necessary to secure the abdication of his -father on the ground of incapacity. Late at night, March 23d, 1801, they -went to his bedroom and presented a paper for him to sign. He refused, -and was then strangled by the conspirators. Alexander I. was proclaimed -emperor, and the announcement of Paul's death was hailed with delight by -his oppressed subjects. Among the foolish edicts he issued was one which -forbade the wearing of round hats. Within an hour after his death became -known, great numbers of round hats were to be seen on the streets. - -"You've had enough of the history of the Imperial family of Russia for -the present," said the Doctor, after a pause, "and now we'll look at the -people on the streets. It is getting late, and we'll go to the hotel, -making our observations on the way. - -[Illustration: RUSSIAN AND FINN.] - -"Here are distinct types of the inhabitants of the Empire," the Doctor -remarked, as they passed two men who seemed to be in animated -conversation. "The man with the round cap and long coat is a Russian -peasant, while the one with the hood over his head and falling down to -his shoulders is a Finn, or native of Finland." - -"How far is it from here to Finland?" Frank asked. - -"Only over the river," the Doctor replied. "You cross the Neva to its -opposite bank, and you are in what was once the independent duchy of -Finland, but has long been incorporated with Russia. When Peter the -Great came here he did not like to be so near a foreign country, and so -made up his mind to convert Finland into Russian territory. The -independence of the duchy was maintained for some time, but in the early -part of the present century Russia defeated the armies of Finland, and -the country was permanently occupied. Finland has its constitution, -which is based on that of Sweden, and when it was united with Russia the -constitutional rights of the people were guaranteed. The country is -ruled by a governor-general, who is appointed by Russia; it has a -parliament for presenting the grievances and wishes of the people, but -all acts must receive the approval of the Imperial Government before -they can become the law of the land." - -[Illustration: DVORNIK AND POSTMAN.] - -"What are those men standing in front of a building?" said Fred, as he -pointed to a fellow with a broom talking with another in uniform. - -"The one in uniform is a postman," was the reply, "and the other is a -_dvornik_, or house guardian. The _dvornik_ sweeps the sidewalk in front -of a house and looks after the entrance; he corresponds to the porter, -or _portier_, of other countries, and is supposed to know the names of -all the tenants of the building. The postman is reading an address on a -letter, and the _dvornik_ is probably pointing in the direction of the -room occupied by the person to whom the missive belongs." - -"I have read that letters in Russia are examined by the police before -they are delivered," said one of the boys. "Is that really the case?" - -"Formerly it was, or at least they were liable to examination, and it -probably happens often enough at the present time. If a man is suspected -of treasonable practices his correspondence is liable to be seized; -unless there is a serious charge against him, it is not detained after -examination, provided it contains nothing objectionable. The -Post-office, like everything else in Russia, is a part of the military -system, and if the Government wishes to do anything with the letters of -its subjects it generally does it. The correspondence of foreigners is -rarely meddled with. Writers for the foreign newspapers sometimes -complain that their letters are lost in the mails, or show signs of -having been opened, but I fancy that these cases are rare. For one, I -haven't the least fear that our letters will be troubled, as we have no -designs upon Russia other than to see it. If we were plotting treason, -or had communications with Russian and Polish revolutionists in France -or Switzerland, it is probable that the Government would not be long in -finding it out." - -"What would happen to us, supposing that to be the case?" Frank -inquired. - -"Supposing it to be so for the sake of argument," the Doctor answered, -"our treatment would depend much upon the circumstances. If we were -Russians, we should probably be arrested and imprisoned; but as we are -foreigners, we should be asked to leave the country. Unless the matter -is very serious, the authorities do not like to meddle with foreigners -in any way that will lead to a dispute with another government, and -their quickest way out of the difficulty is to expel the obnoxious -visitor." - -"How would they go to work to expel us?" - -[Illustration: LODGINGS AT THE FRONTIER.] - -"An officer would call at our lodgings and tell us our passports were -ready for our departure. He would probably say that the train for the -frontier leaves at 11 A.M. to-morrow, and he would expect us to go by -that train. If the case was urgent, he would probably tell us we must go -by that train, and he would be at the hotel at ten o'clock to escort us -to it. He would take us to the train and accompany us to the frontier, -where he would gracefully say good-by, and wish us a pleasant journey to -our homes. If matters were less serious, he would allow us two or three -days, perhaps a week, to close our affairs; all would depend upon his -orders, and whatever they were they would be carried out. - -[Illustration: ORDERED TO LEAVE RUSSIA.] - -"Before the days of the railways objectionable parties were taken to the -frontier in carriages or sleighs, the Government paying the expense of -the posting; and no matter what the hour of arrival at the boundary, -they were set down and left to take care of themselves. An Englishman -who had got himself into trouble with the Government in the time of the -Emperor Nicholas, tells how he was dropped just over the boundary in -Prussia in the middle of a dark and rainy night, and left standing in -the road with his baggage, fully a mile from any house. The officer who -accompanied him was ordered to escort him over the frontier, and did it -exactly. Probably his passenger was a trifle obstinate, or he would not -have been left in such a plight. A little politeness, and possibly a few -shillings in money, would have induced the officer to bring him to the -boundary in the daytime, and in the neighborhood of a habitation. - -"Expelled foreigners have rarely any cause to complain of the incivility -of their escorts. I know a Frenchman who was thus taken to the frontier -after a notice of two days, and he told me that he could not have -received greater civility if he had been the guest of the Emperor, and -going to St. Petersburg instead of from it. He added that he tried to -outdo his guardians in politeness, and further admitted that he richly -deserved expulsion, as he had gone to the Empire on a revolutionary -mission. On the whole, he considered himself fortunate to have escaped -so easily." - -The conversation led to anecdotes about the police system of Russia, and -at their termination our friends found themselves at the door of the -hotel. Naturally, they shifted to other topics as soon as they were in -the presence of others. It was an invariable rule of our friends not to -discuss in the hearing of any one else the politics of the countries -they were visiting. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -NUMBER AND CHARACTER OF THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE.--PAN-SLAVIC UNION.--ST. -ISAAC'S CHURCH.--ITS HISTORY AND DESCRIPTION.--THE WINTER PALACE AND THE -HERMITAGE.--SIGHTS IN THE PALACE.--CATHERINE'S RULES FOR HER -RECEPTIONS.--JOHN PAUL JONES IN RUSSIA.--THE CROWN JEWELS AND THE ORLOFF -DIAMOND.--ANECDOTES OF THE EMPEROR NICHOLAS.--RELICS OF PETER THE -GREAT.--FROM PALACE TO PRISON.--TOMBS OF RUSSIA'S EMPERORS.--A MONUMENT -AND AN ANECDOTE. - - -When the subject of the police was dropped by our friends, Frank asked a -question about the Russian people and their origin. The Doctor answered -that the topic was a broad one, as the Empire contained more than a -hundred different nations and tribes of people, and that they spoke -forty distinct languages. Many of the smaller tribes were assimilating -with the Russians and losing their distinctiveness, even though they -preserved their language; but this was by no means the case throughout -the Empire. - -"Not in Poland, I think," said Frank, "judging by what we saw and heard, -and probably not in Finland." - -"Quite right," added Doctor Bronson; "and the same is the case with the -German population in the Baltic provinces. Though they have long been an -integral part of the Empire, there are thousands of the inhabitants who -cannot speak Russian, and refuse to teach it to their children. They are -less revolutionary in their ways than the Poles, but none the less -desirous of preserving their national characteristics. - -"The population of Russia is about one hundred millions," he continued, -"and it is spread over an area of nearly if not quite seven million -square miles of land. Russia occupies about one-eighth of the land -surface of the globe, but is very thinly inhabited. European Russia, -including Poland, Finland, and other provinces, covers two millions of -square miles, while Siberia, or European Asia, extends over at least -five millions. This does not include the disputed territory of the last -few years in Central Asia. It is pretty certain to come under the rule -of the Emperor, and will add another half-million, if not more, to his -dominions. - -[Illustration: FINLAND PEASANTS IN HOLIDAY COSTUME.] - -"The inhabitants are very unevenly distributed, as they average one -hundred and twenty-seven to the square mile in Poland, and less than two -to the mile in Asiatic Russia. About sixty millions belong to the Slavic -race, which includes the Russians and Poles, and also a few colonies of -Servians and Bulgarians, which amount in all to less than one hundred -thousand. The identity of the Servians and Bulgarians with the Slavic -race has been the excuse, if not the reason, for the repeated attempts -of Russia to unite Servia, Bulgaria, and the other Danubian -principalities with the grand Empire. The union of the Slavic people -under one government has been the dream of the emperors of Russia for a -long time, and what could be a better union, they argue, than their -absorption into our own nation?" - -Fred asked who the Slavs were, and whence they came. - -[Illustration: INHABITANTS OF SOUTHERN RUSSIA.] - -"According to those who have studied the subject," Doctor Bronson -answered, "they were anciently known as Scythians or Sarmatians. Their -early history is much obscured, but they seem to have had their centre -around the Carpathian Mountains, whence they spread to the four points -of the compass. On the north they reached to the Baltic; westward, they -went to the banks of the Elbe; southward, beyond the Danube; and -eastward, their progress was impeded by the Tartar hordes of Asia, and -they did not penetrate far into Siberia until comparatively recent -times. With their extension they split up into numerous tribes and -independent organizations; thus their unity was lost, and they took the -form in which we find them to-day. Poles and Russians are both of the -same race, and their languages have a common origin; but nowhere in the -world can be found two people who hate each other more heartily. However -much the Russians have favored a Pan-Slavist union, you may be sure the -Poles look on it with disfavor. - -"The ancient Slavonic language has given way to the modern forms in the -same way that Latin has made way for French, Italian, Spanish, and other -tongues and dialects with a Latin origin. In fact those languages hold -the same relation to Latin that Polish, Russian, Servian, and Bulgarian -hold towards ancient Slavonic. The Romish Church uses Latin in its -service, and the Russo-Greek Church uses the old Slavonic; the Poles, -Bohemians, and others have adopted the Roman alphabet, but the Russians -use the Slavonic characters in a modified form. The Russian alphabet has -thirty-six letters, some being Roman, others Greek, and others Slavonic. -After you have learned the alphabet and can spell out the signs on the -shops and street corners, I'll tell you more about the language." - -It was getting late, and the party broke up a few minutes after the -foregoing conversation. Before they separated, Doctor Bronson suggested -to the youths that he should expect them to read up the history of -Russia, and not forget the Romanoff family. "The Romanoffs," said he, -"are the reigning family of Russia, just as the Guelphs are of England -and the Hapsburgs of Austria." - -It was speedily arranged that Frank would devote special attention to -the first-named subject, while Fred would assume the responsibilities of -the latter. "And while you are on the subject," the Doctor added, -turning to Fred, "see if you can find about the origin of the Orloff -family, which is one of the most interesting traditions that has been -handed down." - -Fred promised, and the party separated for the night. - -They were all up in good season the next morning, and after a -substantial breakfast, in which the _samovar_ had a prominent place, -they set out for a round of sight-seeing in the modern capital of -Russia. - -[Illustration: ST. ISAAC'S CHURCH AND ADMIRALTY SQUARE.] - -Returning to Admiralty Square, they visited the Church of St. Isaac, -accompanied by the guide they had engaged at the hotel. The man was of -Russian birth, and spoke English with considerable fluency. Evidently he -understood his business, as he told the history of the sacred edifice -with a careful adherence to dates. - -"Peter the Great built a wooden church on this very spot," said the -guide, "in 1710, but it was destroyed by fire. Afterwards the great -Catherine erected another, which was finished in 1801; but it only -remained eighteen years. The present building was begun in 1819, and its -completion took nearly forty years. It was consecrated in 1858, and is -considered the finest church in the Empire." - -"The last statement might be disputed by some of the citizens of -Moscow," said the Doctor to the youths, "but there is no question about -the church being the finest in St. Petersburg. Observe its admirable -proportions," he continued. "It is in the form of a Greek cross, with -its four sides of equal length, and the architect who planned it -certainly had a correct eye for his work." - -"You observe," said the guide, "that each of the four entrances is -approached by three flights of stone steps, leading up from the level of -the square. Each of these flights of steps is cut from a single block of -Finland granite." - -The youths made note of this fact as they wondered how the huge masses -of stone were brought from their quarries; and they also noted that the -four entrances of the church were between pillars of granite sixty feet -high and seven feet in diameter, polished to the smoothness of a mirror. -An immense dome forms the centre of the edifice. It is of iron, covered -on the outside with copper, and this copper is heavily plated with pure -gold. It is the dome which first caught the eyes of the travellers as -they approached the city, and forms an important landmark from every -direction. The cupola rests on thirty granite pillars, which look small -enough when seen from below, but are really of great size. - -[Illustration: PRIEST OF THE CHURCH OF ST. ISAAC.] - -In the inside of the church are paintings by Russian artists, and there -are two columns of malachite fifty feet high, and of proportionate -diameter--the largest columns of this costly mineral anywhere in the -world. Immense quantities of malachite, lapis-lazuli, and other valuable -stones are used in the decoration of the church, and our friends thought -that if there was anything to criticise it was the great amount of -ornamentation and gilding in the interior. "But I have no doubt," wrote -Fred in his note-book, "that this display has its effect upon the -worshippers in the church, and particularly among the poor peasants and -all others of the humbler classes. In all the countries we have visited, -whether of the Christian, Moslem, Buddhist, or other faith, we have -found the religious edifices adorned in the most costly manner, and -there is no reason why Russia should form an exception to the general -rule. Many of the paintings, columns, and other decorations of this -church were the gift of wealthy Russians, while others were paid for by -the contributions of the people, or from the funds in Government hands." - -From the Church of St. Isaac our friends went to the Hermitage and the -Winter Palace, the latter being named in contradistinction to the Summer -Palace, which is at Tsarskoe-Selo, a few miles from the capital. We will -see what the youths had to say of their visit to these edifices. Fred -will tell the story. - -[Illustration: CATHERINE II. OF RUSSIA.] - -"To describe all we saw there would take a fair-sized volume," said -Fred, "and we will only tell what impressed us most. The palace was -built in a great hurry, to take the place of the one that was burned in -1837. It was ready for occupation in 1839; and when you know that it is -four hundred and fifty feet long by three hundred and fifty wide, and -rises to a height of eighty feet, you will agree with us that the -Russians are to be praised for their energy. Our guide had procured the -necessary ticket for admittance, and we passed in through an enormous -gate-way opposite the Column of Alexander. Two servants in livery showed -us through the halls and galleries, and for hours we wandered among -pictures which represent the victories of Russia over its enemies, and -amid costly furniture and adornments, till our feet and eyes were weary. -The Throne-room of Peter the Great is one of the finest of the -apartments, and the Hall of St. George is the largest. It measures one -hundred and forty feet by sixty, and is the scene of the grand balls and -receptions which the Emperor gives on state occasions. There is a -beautiful apartment, known as the drawing-room of the Empress. Its walls -and ceiling are gilded, and the whole work about it seems to have been -done without regard to expense. - -"One of the halls contains portraits of the rulers of Russia from Peter -the Great down to the present time; another, the portraits of the -generals who fought against the French in 1812; another, the portraits -of all the field-marshals of the armies by which Napoleon was conquered; -and others, the battle-scenes before mentioned. I observed that Russia -was not unlike France, Germany, and other countries in representing very -prominently the battles where she triumphed, and ignoring those where -she was defeated. The guide told us that at the state balls in the -palace sit-down suppers are provided for all the guests, even if there -are two or three thousand of them. Sometimes the supper-hall is -converted into a garden by means of trees brought from greenhouses. The -guests sit at table beneath the foliage, and can easily forget that they -are in the middle of a Russian winter. - -"Doctor Bronson says the Russians are very fond of plants in their -dwellings, the wealthy expending large sums on greenhouses and -conservatories, and the poorer people indulging in flower-pots, which -they place in all available spots. The wealthy frequently pay enormous -prices for rare exotics. We have seen a good many flower-stores along -the Nevski Prospect and in other streets, and are ready to believe that -the Russians are great admirers of floral products. Their long, cold, -and cheerless winters lead them to prize anything that can remind them -of the summer season. - -"At the entrance of one of the halls there is a tablet on which are the -rules which Catherine II. established for the informal parties she used -to have at the Hermitage. Catherine had literary aspirations, and her -parties were in imitation of the _salons_ of Paris, which have a wide -celebrity. Here is a translation of the rules, which I take from -Murray's 'Hand-book:' - - "'1. Leave your rank outside, as well as your hat, and especially - your sword. - - "'2. Leave your right of precedence, your pride, and any similar - feeling, outside the door. - - "'3. Be gay, but do not spoil anything; do not break or gnaw - anything. - - "'4. Sit, stand, walk as you will, without reference to anybody. - - "'5. Talk moderately and not very loud, so as not to make the ears - and heads of others ache. - - "'6. Argue without anger and without excitement. - - "'7. Neither sigh nor yawn, nor make anybody dull or heavy. - - "'8. In all innocent games, whatever one proposes, let all join. - - "'9. Eat whatever is sweet and savory, but drink with moderation, - so that each may find his legs on leaving the room. - - "'10. Tell no tales out of school; whatever goes in at one ear must - go out at the other before leaving the room. - - "'A transgressor against these rules shall, on the testimony of two - witnesses, for every offence drink a glass of cold water, not - excepting the ladies, and further read a page of the "Telemachiade" - aloud. - - "'Whoever breaks any three of these rules during the same evening - shall commit six lines of the "Telemachiade" to memory. - - "'And whoever offends against the tenth rule shall not again be - admitted.' - -"The 'Telemachiade' which is prescribed as a penance was the work of a -Russian poet of Catherine's time, who does not seem to have enjoyed the -Imperial favor. It is said that invitations to these parties were much -sought; but, in spite of all her efforts, the Empress could not induce -her guests to forget entirely that she was their sovereign. However, she -managed to make her parties much less formal than anything ever known -before at the Imperial Palace, and this was a great deal to accomplish -in such a time and in such a country. - -[Illustration: RECEPTION OF JOHN PAUL JONES BY THE EMPRESS CATHERINE.] - -"I may remark, by-the-way, that the Empress Catherine was the first -sovereign of Russia to invite an American officer into the Imperial -service. That officer was the celebrated John Paul Jones, a Scotchman by -birth but an American citizen at the time of the Revolutionary war. The -havoc he wrought upon the British fleets attracted the attention of the -Russian Government, and after our war was over he received an intimation -that he could find employment with the armies of the Empress. He went to -St. Petersburg, was received by Catherine at a special audience, and -accorded the rank of admiral in the Imperial Navy. Russia was then at -war with Turkey. Admiral Jones was sent to command the Russian fleet in -the Black Sea, and operate against the Turkish fleet, which he did in -his old way. - -[Illustration: RUSSIAN ATTACK ON THE TURKISH GALLEY.] - -"The Russians were besieging a town which was held by the Turks, who had -a fleet of ships supporting their land-forces. Jones dashed in among the -Turkish vessels with a boarding-party in small boats, backed by the guns -of his ships and those of the besieging army. He captured two of the -Turkish galleys, one of them belonging to the commander of the fleet, -and made such havoc among the enemy that the latter was thoroughly -frightened. Unfortunately, Jones incurred the displeasure of Potemkin, -the Prime-minister, and favorite of the Empress, and shortly after the -defeat of the fleet he was removed from command and sent to the Baltic, -where there was no enemy to operate against. - -"But I am neglecting the palace in following the career of an American -in the service of Russia. - -[Illustration: THE ORLOFF DIAMOND.] - -"We asked to see the crown jewels of Russia, and the guide took us to -the room where they are kept. One of the most famous diamonds of the -world, the Orloff, is among them, and its history is mixed up with a -good deal of fable. The most authentic story about this diamond seems to -be that it formed the eye of an idol in a temple in India, whence it was -stolen by a French soldier, who sold it for two thousand guineas. It -then came to Europe, and after changing hands several times was bought -by Prince Orloff, who presented it to the Empress Catherine. The Prince -is said to have given for the diamond four hundred and fifty thousand -rubles (about four hundred thousand dollars), a life annuity of two -thousand rubles, and a patent of nobility. It weighs more than the -famous Koh-i-noor of England, but is not as fine a stone. There is a -faint tinge of yellow that depreciates it considerably, and there is -also a flaw in the interior of the stone, though only perceptible on a -careful examination. - -"The Imperial crown of Russia is the most interesting crown we have -anywhere seen. The guide told us how much it was worth in money, but -I've forgotten, the figures being so large that my head wouldn't contain -them. There are rubies, diamonds, and pearls in great profusion, the -diamonds alone being among the most beautiful in the world. There are -nearly, if not quite, a hundred large diamonds in the crown, not to -mention the smaller ones that fill the spaces where large ones could not -go. The coronet of the Empress is another mass of precious stones worth -a long journey to see. There are other jewels here of great value, among -them a plume or aigrette, which was presented to General Suwarroff by -the Sultan of Turkey. It is covered with diamonds mounted on wires that -bend with each movement of the wearer. What a sensation Suwarroff must -have made when he walked or rode with this plume in his hat! - -"From the crown jewels we went to a room whose history is connected with -a scene of sadness--the death of the Emperor Nicholas. It is the -smallest and plainest room of the palace, without any adornment, and -containing an iron bedstead such as we find in a military barrack. His -cloak, sword, and helmet are where he left them, and on the table is the -report of the quartermaster of the household troops, which had been -delivered to the Emperor on the morning of March 2, 1855, the date of -his death. Everything is just as he left it, and a soldier of the -Grenadier Guards is constantly on duty over the relics of the Iron Czar. - -[Illustration: NICHOLAS I.] - -"If what we read of him is true, he possessed one characteristic of -Peter the Great--that of having his own way, more than any other Emperor -of modern times. He ascended the throne in the midst of a revolution -which resulted in the defeat of the insurgents. They assembled in -Admiralty Square, and after a brief resistance were fired upon by the -loyal soldiers of the Empire. Five of the principal conspirators were -hanged after a long and searching trial, during which Nicholas was -concealed behind a screen in the court-room, and listened to all that -was said. Two hundred of the others were sent to Siberia for life, and -the soldiers who had simply obeyed the orders of their leaders were -distributed among other regiments than those in which they had served. - -"Through his whole reign Nicholas was an enemy to free speech or free -writing, and his rule was severe to the last degree. What he ordered it -was necessary to perform, no matter what the difficulties were in the -way, and a failure was, in his eyes, little short of a crime. He decided -questions very rapidly, and often with a lack of common-sense. When the -engineers showed him the plans of the Moscow and St. Petersburg Railway, -and asked where the line should run, he took a ruler, drew on the map a -line from one city to the other, and said that should be the route. As a -consequence, the railway is very nearly straight for the whole four -hundred miles of its course, and does not pass any large towns like the -railways in other countries. - -"A more sensible anecdote about him relates an incident of the Crimean -war, when the Governor of Moscow ordered the pastor of the English -Church in that city to omit the portion of the service which prays for -the success of British arms. The pastor appealed the case to the -Emperor, who asked if those words were in the regular service of the -English Church. On being answered in the affirmative, he told the pastor -to continue to read the service just as it was, and ordered the governor -to make no further interference. - -"His disappointment at the defeat of his armies in the Crimean war was -the cause of his death, quite as much as the influenza to which it is -attributed. On the morning of his last day he received news of the -repulse of the Russians at Eupatoria, and he is said to have died while -in a fit of anger over this reverse. Though opposed to the freedom of -the Press and people, he advised the liberation of the serfs; and before -he died he urged his son and successor to begin immediately the work of -emancipation. - -"The Hermitage is close to the palace, and is large enough of itself for -the residence of an emperor of medium importance, and certainly for a -good-sized king. The present building is the successor of one which was -built for the Empress Catherine as a refuge from the cares of State, and -hence was called the Hermitage. It is virtually a picture-gallery and -museum, as the walls of the interior are covered with pictures, and -there are collections of coins, gems, Egyptian antiquities, and other -things distributed through the rooms. - -[Illustration: PETER III.] - -"The room of greatest interest to us in the Hermitage was that -containing the relics of Peter the Great. There were the turning-lathes -whereon he worked, the knives and chisels with which he carved wood into -various forms, together with specimens of his wood-carving. His -telescopes, drawing-instruments, walking-stick, saddle, and other things -are all here, and in the centre of the room is an effigy which shows him -to have been a man of giant stature, as does also a wooden rod which is -said to be the one with which he was actually measured. There is a -carriage in which he drove about the city, the horse he rode at the -battle of Pultowa, and several of his favorite dogs, all stuffed and -preserved, but not in the highest style of the taxidermist. There are -casts taken after Peter's death, several portraits in oil and one in -mosaic, and a cast taken during life, and presented by Peter to his -friend Cardinal Valenti at Rome. It was missing for a long time, but was -finally discovered about the middle of this century by a patriotic -Russian, who bought it and presented it to the gallery. - -"There is a clock in the same room which is said to have contained at -one time the draft of a constitution which Catherine the Great intended -giving to her people. Immediately after her death her son and successor, -Paul, rushed to the clock in her bedroom, drew out the paper, and -destroyed it. At least this is the tradition; and whether true or not, -it is worth knowing, as it illustrates the character of Paul I." - -Our friends imitated the course of many an Imperial favorite, not only -in Russia, but in other countries, by going from a palace to a prison, -but with the difference in their case that the step was voluntary. - -As they crossed the bridge leading from the Winter Palace in the -direction of the grim fortress of Sts. Peter and Paul, Doctor Bronson -told the youths that Peter the Great shut up his sister in a convent and -exiled her minister, Prince Galitzin. "Since his time," the Doctor -continued, "his example has been followed by nearly every sovereign of -Russia, and a great many persons, men and women, have ended their lives -in prison or in exile who once stood high in favor at the Imperial -court. Catherine was accustomed to dispose of the friends of whom she -had wearied by sending them to live amid Siberian snows, and the Emperor -Paul used to condemn people to prison or to exile on the merest caprice. -Even at the present day the old custom is not unknown." - -[Illustration: CIRCASSIAN ARMS AS TROPHIES OF BATTLE.] - -"We were not admitted to the cells of the fortress," said Frank, in his -account of the visit to the place, "as it was 'contrary to orders,' -according to the guide's explanation. But we were shown through the -cathedral where the rulers of Russia from the time of Peter the Great -have been buried, with the exception of Peter II., who was buried at -Moscow, where he died. The tombs are less elaborate than we expected to -find them, and the walls of the church are hung profusely with flags, -weapons of war, and other trophies of battle. The tombs mark the -positions of the graves, which are beneath the floor of the cathedral. -Naturally the tombs that most attracted our attention were those of the -rulers who have been most famous in the history of Russia. - -"We looked first at the burial-place of the great Peter, then at that of -Catherine II., and afterwards at the tomb of Nicholas I.; then we sought -the tomb of Alexander II., who fell at the hands of Nihilist assassins, -and after a brief stay in the church returned to the open air. The -building is more interesting for its associations than for the artistic -merit of its interior. Its spire is the tallest in the Empire, with the -exception of the tower of the church at Revel, on the Baltic coast. From -the level of the ground to the top of the cross is three hundred and -eighty-seven feet, which is twenty-six feet higher than St. Paul's in -London. - -"The spire alone is one hundred and twenty-eight feet high, and very -slender in shape. It was erected more than a hundred years ago, and the -church itself dates almost from the time of the foundation of the city. -Fifty or more years ago the angel and cross on the top of the spire -threatened to fall, and a Russian peasant offered to repair them for two -hundred rubles. By means of a rope and a few nails, he climbed to the -top of the spire and performed the work, and nobody will say he did not -earn his money. A single misstep, or the slightest accident, would have -dashed him to certain death. - -"When we left the church and fortress," continued Frank, "we felt that -we had had enough for the day of that kind of sight-seeing, so we drove -through some of the principal streets and went to the Gostinna Dvor, -where we wished to see the curiosities of the place and make a few -purchases. - -[Illustration: STATUE OF NICHOLAS I.] - -"Near St. Isaac's Church we passed the famous equestrian statue of the -Emperor Nicholas, in which the sculptor succeeded in balancing the horse -on his hind feet without utilizing the tail, as was done in the case of -the statue of Peter the Great. The Emperor is in the uniform of the -Horse Guards. The pedestal is formed of blocks of granite of different -colors, and there are bronze reliefs on the four sides representing -incidents in the Emperor's life and career. On the upper part of the -pedestal at each of the corners are emblematical figures, and just -beneath the forefeet of the horse is a fine representation of the -Imperial eagle. The whole work is surrounded with an iron fence to -preserve it from injury, and altogether the statue is one of which the -city may well be proud." - -While the party were looking at the Imperial arms just mentioned, Fred -asked why the eagle of Russia is represented with two heads. - -"It indicates the union of the Eastern and Western empires," the Doctor -answered, "the same as does the double-headed eagle of Austria. The -device was adopted about four centuries ago by Ivan III., after his -marriage with Sophia, a princess of the Imperial blood of -Constantinople. - -"By-the-way," the Doctor continued, "there's a story of an Imperial -grand-duke who went one day on a hunting excursion, the first of his -life, and fired at a large bird which rose before him. The bird fell, -and was brought by a courtier to the noble hunter. - -"'Your Imperial Highness has killed an eagle,' said the courtier, bowing -low and depositing the prey on the ground. - -"The grand-duke looked the bird over carefully, and then turned away -with disdain. 'That's no eagle,' said he, 'it has only one head.'" - -What our young friends saw in the Gostinna Dvor will be told in the next -chapter. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -THE GOSTINNA DVOR.--ITS EXTENT AND CHARACTER.--PECULIARITY OF RUSSIAN -SHOPPING.--CURIOUS CUSTOMS.--OLD-CLOTHES MARKET.--HAY-MARKET.--PIGEONS -IN RUSSIAN CITIES.--FROZEN ANIMALS.--CHURCH AND MONASTERY OF ST. -ALEXANDER NEVSKI.--A PERSIAN TRAIN.--A COFFIN OF SOLID SILVER.--THE -SUMMER GARDEN.--SPEAKING TO THE EMPEROR.--KRILOFF AND HIS FABLES.--VISIT -TO A RUSSIAN THEATRE.--"A LIFE FOR THE CZAR."--A RUSSIAN COMEDY. - - -"Before I describe the Gostinna Dvor of St. Petersburg," said Fred in -his note-book, "let me premise by saying that every Russian city or town -has an establishment of the same kind. It is a good deal more than the -market-place with us, and seems to combine the bazaars of the East with -the shops of the West. In an ordinary town the Gostinna Dvor occupies a -single large building at or near the centre of population; the larger -the town or city the greater will be the commercial needs of the people, -and consequently a city like Moscow or St. Petersburg will have a -Gostinna Dvor that dwarfs all ordinary markets into insignificance. - -"The one at St. Petersburg occupies an enormous building, which might -almost be called a series of buildings, fronting on the Nevski Prospect, -but entered also from other streets. There are said to be ten thousand -merchants and their employés in the building, and certainly the number -is little if any exaggerated. We walked among the rows of shops till our -feet ached with weariness, and still there were many other rows of shops -to be visited. Sometimes the shopmen were importunate, but usually they -did not disturb us unless we stopped to look at something. The building -is two stories high, the lower floor being used for retail purposes and -the upper for the storage of goods. Owing to the danger of a -conflagration and the great destruction that would ensue, we were told -that no fire is allowed here in winter. Then the merchants and their -clerks wear furs and thick clothing when at their business, and shoppers -are not expected to lay aside their wraps while making purchases. - -"'What do you buy in the Gostinna Dvor?' I hear some one asking. - -"'Everything that one could wear or use in Russia,' I should reply, -'together with a great many things whose use it would be impossible to -imagine.' Some one writing on this subject says you may come naked into -the Gostinna Dvor, bringing only a pocket-book stuffed with money, and -leave it in an hour dressed in whatever garments you choose, wear all -the jewellery your tastes may dictate, and ride away in a coach drawn by -four horses, with driver and footmen in livery, all obtained in the -building we are now visiting, or in one of its annexes. Nay, more; you -can engage a residence of palatial character from accommodating house -agents stationed here, and furnish it completely from the stock on hand -in the Gostinna Dvor. Pictures, chairs, sofas, curtains, tapestry, -kitchen utensils, library, anything and everything you want, are all -ready for sale, and only await purchasers. Your wife and children, -'sisters, cousins, and aunts,' can here be provided with wardrobes, -elaborate or economical, as your purse will justify, and so with all the -servants of the household, regardless of their number. - -[Illustration: POLITENESS IN THE MARKET-PLACE.] - -"Officers of every grade, rank, and arm of the service can be uniformed -here, and their garments may be brand-new, second-hand, or so old that -they will subject the wearer to punishment on account of his shabbiness. -Decorations are to be bought, at least the insignia thereof, and the -seller will ask no questions. The purchaser wears them at his peril if -he does not possess the proper diplomas, since the unauthorized wearing -of decorations is as serious a matter in Russia as in other Continental -countries. The Emperor Nicholas was fond of visiting the Gostinna Dvor -accompanied by a single orderly. One day he saw a young officer -wistfully eying a decoration in one of the windows, and told the orderly -to ascertain his name. Inquiry showed that the officer stood well with -his superiors, was faithful in the performance of his duties, and the -result was he received the coveted bauble directly from the hand of the -Emperor. - -"Perhaps you wonder why the Russian market is so extensive, and what -must be the habits of the people to sustain such a commerce. This is the -way it is explained: - -"A Russian rarely buys anything till just as he wants it, and then he -cannot wait to have it made. In England or America a man desiring to -furnish a fine house would be weeks or months collecting his furniture, -ordering some to be made, and buying the rest from time to time when he -found what suited him. Under similar circumstances, a Russian drives to -the Gostinna Dvor, and makes his selections from what he finds there. - -"The Russians are said to be more capricious than people of other -nationalities in the matter of their movements from place to place. A -wealthy Russian will fit up a house at great expense, buying his -furniture in the manner described. In a few months he decides to travel -for his health, or go to the country, and the whole equipment is sent to -the Gostinna Dvor and sold for what it will bring. It may be so little -used that it can be sold again by the dealer as new, and of course the -dealer makes a large profit on the transaction. When the man comes back -to the city he furnishes anew, and thus the business of the bazaar is -maintained. Fortunes come and go very quickly in Russia, and so the work -of fitting and dismantling is continuous. - -"The best goods are in the Gostinna Dvor proper, while the inferior ones -are in the annexes. Some of the shops have fixed prices, but in most of -them there is a system of bargaining which is not agreeable to the -traveller from the Occident. He is never certain that he has paid the -proper price, even when he has brought the merchant down to what appears -to be his lowest figure. - -[Illustration: IMPORTUNING A VISITOR.] - -"We bought a few articles of Russian manufacture to send home to our -friends. Among them were _samovars_, inlaid goods from Tula, embroidered -slippers and sashes from the Tartar provinces, malachite and -lapis-lazuli jewellery, and some Circassian ornaments of silver. Many of -the articles sold in the Gostinna Dvor are of English, German, and -French manufacture, which are largely increased in price owing to the -duties placed upon them by the custom-house. - -"Our guide directed us from the rear of the building along the _Bolshoia -Sadovaia_, or Great Garden Street, which is a line of shops and bazaars, -to the _Sennaia Ploshad_, or Hay-market. This is a large open place or -square, which is less interesting now than in winter. In summer it is -devoted to the sale of hay and live-stock, but in winter it is filled -not only with the hay, grain, and live-stock of summer, but with frozen -animals, which form the principal food of the inhabitants of the city. -Here is what one traveller has written about the frozen market: - -[Illustration: FROZEN ANIMALS IN THE MARKET.] - -"'On one side you see a collection of frozen sheep--stiff, ghastly -objects--some poised on their hoofs like the wooden animals in a -child's "Noah's Ark;" others on their sides, with their legs projecting -at right angles to their bodies; others, again, on their backs, with -their feet in the air like inverted tables. The oxen are only less -grotesque from having been cleft down their backs--an operation which -seems to take them out of the category of oxen and place them in that of -beef. The pigs are drawn up in line against the wall, standing on their -hind legs, with their forefeet extended above their heads, like -trick-dogs going through their performances. - -"'The partridges, quails, grouse, wood-hens, and other birds are lying -together in a frozen mass, and by their side are ducks and geese with -outstretched necks so straight and stiff that you might take one of -these harmless creatures by the bill and, using it as a bludgeon, knock -down your enemy with its body. The fowls have been plucked, plunged into -water, and left to freeze; thus they are completely encased in ice, and -in that condition will keep for any length of time as long as the -weather continues cold.' - -"Frozen fish are piled in heaps like stove-wood, and frozen cabbages are -rolled around like cannon-shot. A calf stands in front of a butcher's -stall in the attitude of walking away, but an examination shows that he -is hard as a stone, and may have been standing there for weeks. Milk is -sold in bricks, with a stick or string frozen into one corner; the -purchaser may carry it home by means of this improvised handle, or he -may wrap it in paper or his handkerchief. In fact everything that can be -frozen yields to the frost, and the Russians find it a most convenient -form of preservation. One of the odd sights of the frozen market is the -itinerant vender of sucking-pigs, who carries these articles of trade -hung around his neck or waist, as though they were ornaments rather than -merchandise. - -[Illustration: MARKET FOR OLD CLOTHES.] - -"There is a market for old clothes which reminded us of Chatham Street, -in New York. The dealers had little stalls where the garments were -exposed for sale, and there were a good many peddlers who walked about -with the goods they desired to dispose of. The old-clothes market of St. -Petersburg is said to be inferior to that of Moscow in the number and -character of the Israelitish merchants in whose hands the business is -concentrated. The one at Moscow is also called the Elbow-market, on -account of the continued elbowing of those who go there. Though people -were crowded closely together when we were in the market, we saw no -indications of anything but good-nature. The Russians are polite to each -other as well as to strangers, and it was amusing to see how the rough -fellows, when meeting face to face, bowed as though they were great -personages. - -"And such flocks of pigeons as were flying all about! They tell us there -are many more of them in winter than in summer, as the birds are then -driven to the towns and cities to find their food. The Hay-market is -their favorite resort, since grain as well as hay is sold there, and the -pigeons manage to get off with all that is scattered on the ground. - -[Illustration: PIGEONS IN A RUSSIAN CITY.] - -"The pigeon or dove in Russia is a sacred bird. The Russians say that as -the dove brought the olive-branch to the Ark, he should not be harmed, -and it would be a great offence to kill one of these birds in the -presence of an orthodox member of the Church. But all the grain that is -scattered from the feed of the horses and in the market-place is not -sufficient for the sustenance of the pigeons; many kind-hearted persons -throw quantities of grain to them every morning, and not unfrequently it -happens that a pious Russian will spend a considerable part of his -income in this way. Kriloff, the Russian fable writer, is said to have -supported all the pigeons of the Gostinna Dvor for some time at his own -expense, or, more properly speaking, at that of his creditors. - -"There are a great many magpies and crows mingling with the pigeons, and -evidently considering themselves just as respectable. Pigeons, crows, -and magpies fill the belfries of many of the churches, but not of all, -and nobody seems able to say why they make the distinction. Some of the -churches are fairly thronged with them, and they keep up a perpetual -flutter around the roof from sunrise to sunset. - -"There is a story that the magpies were driven out of Moscow by one of -the priests under the following circumstances: The high-priest, or -metropolitan, was about to lay the foundation of a new church, and when -he reached the part of the ceremony where the mortar was to be placed on -the stone, the golden trowel which had been brought for the occasion -could not be found. A workman standing near was accused of the theft, -and as nobody else could have stolen the trowel, the man was sent to -Siberia. Some weeks later the precious tool was found by the -bell-ringers in the great tower in the Kremlin, where it had been -carried by a thieving magpie. The man was pardoned, and compensated for -his suffering; the metropolitan placed the curse of the Church on the -magpie, and thereupon all the magpies in Moscow flew away, and have not -since been near the city. The story is told by the author of 'The -Russians at Home,' and he adds that the magpies really do keep at a -respectful distance from the ancient capital of Russia, and thus vouch -for the truth of the story." - -From the Gostinna Dvor our friends drove to the church and monastery of -St. Alexander Nevski, at the extreme end of the Nevski Prospect. It -occupies a large area enclosed by high walls, and is said to be on the -exact spot where the Grand-duke Alexander defeated the Swedes, about -A.D. 1241. In due time he was canonized, and became St. Alexander. He -was buried at Vladimir, where his remains rested until after the -founding of St. Petersburg. - -Peter the Great caused the bones of the saint to be transported to the -new city on the banks of the Neva. St. Alexander became St. Alexander -Nevski ("of the Neva"), and the church and monastery were established. -One night the monks in charge of the church took the bones of the saint -and started for Vladimir, declaring they had been told in a vision that -the saint was not resting peacefully in the marshy soil of the new -capital. Peter was not a man to be thwarted in his designs. He sent word -to the monks that unless they returned immediately, bringing the bones -with them, they would lose their heads. Knowing the man they had to deal -with, they straightway had a new vision, which accorded with the wishes -of the imperious Czar. They took the road back to St. Petersburg without -delay, and sought and obtained the pardon of their august master. - -Hear what Fred has to say about the church and its surroundings: - -"The original church was of wood," writes Fred, "and was built about -1712; it was torn down a few years later, and replaced with a church of -stone. The sovereigns of Russia each added something to the building and -its surroundings, and the present cathedral was built by Catherine the -Great. The work was done at great expense. Marble was brought from Italy -for the interior decorations, and the malachite, lapis-lazuli, and other -costly minerals were brought from Siberia and Persia. Some of the -paintings are by Russian artists, and the rest by celebrated masters of -Italy and other countries. - -"An object of great interest is the shrine of St. Alexander Nevski. The -coffin is of solid silver, and, with the surrounding ornaments of the -same pure metal, is estimated to weigh more than a ton and a half. The -crown of the saint is preserved here, and also the bed on which Peter -the Great died, and there are many interesting objects associated with -the memory of nearly all the rulers of Russia. - -"There is a library of ten or twelve thousand volumes, together with a -large number of manuscripts relating to the history of the Empire. In -the monastery are the cells of some fifty or sixty monks who reside here -and have charge of a religious school which is open to students -preparing to enter the service of the Church. The chapel contains the -tombs of Suwaroff and other generals, and also of many members of the -Imperial family. There are tombs of several noble families of Russia; -that of the Narishkins bears the inscription, - -"'FROM THEIR RACE CAME PETER THE GREAT.' - -"An occurrence of comparatively recent times is associated with this -church. Alexander Griboyedoff, born at Moscow about 1795, was a -celebrated poet and dramatist, whose merits were acknowledged by his -appointment as Minister to Persia in 1828. In February of the following -year he and all the Russians who accompanied him were murdered in -Teheran, in consequence of a riotous outbreak of the populace. The -Russian Government demanded satisfaction, which was given in the shape -of a long train of beasts of burden loaded with presents, and -accompanied by a prince of the Shah's household. There were also many -fine horses for saddle purposes, and a collection of wild animals -peculiar to Asia. The train was months on its way, and reached St. -Petersburg in the winter. A procession was made to this church, and -certainly it was the most remarkable that this northern city had ever -seen. - -[Illustration: PERSIAN HORSES PRESENTED BY THE SHAH.] - -"Pearls, embroideries in gold and silver, shawls, and other costly -fabrics, were carried on silver dishes in the hands of gorgeously -dressed Persians; elephants bearing towers filled with Persian warriors, -or laden with the gifts of the Persian court, were protected from the -cold by boots and wrappings of leather; and the cages of the lions, -tigers, and leopards were shielded by double coverings of the skins of -Arctic bears. The Persian prince rode in an Imperial carriage drawn by -six horses, and was escorted by a regiment of Russian grenadiers. A -portion of the presents was bestowed upon this church, and the remainder -went to the families of Griboyedoff and his companions. - -"The Emperor comes in person to attend the service of mass in this -church at least once a year. The choir is one of the best in the city, -and the church is largely attended by the fashionable inhabitants of the -capital. A service was going on as we entered the building, and we -remained near the door until it ended. It was an impressive ceremonial, -made doubly so by the historic interest of the surroundings." - -[Illustration: RUSSIAN PEASANT GIRL.] - -A drive to the Summer Gardens followed the visit to the Church of Saint -Alexander Nevski. Several theatres and other public buildings were -passed on the way, but they concluded not to stop to examine them. "One -building is very much like another in St. Petersburg," said the Doctor; -"and unless there is some special interest connected with it, or a -peculiar feature of architecture, it is not worth while mixing it up -with your recollections of the Winter Palace and the Hermitage." - -[Illustration: RUSSIAN NURSE-MAID AND CHILDREN.] - -It was a pleasant afternoon, and the Summer Gardens were filled with -people enjoying the open air. There were nurse-maids with children, -peasants alone or in couples, or groups, well-to-do persons of the -middle classes, officers and soldiers--in fact a fair representation of -the whole population. The Emperor sometimes comes here for a walk, but -of late years his visits have been less frequent than formerly, on -account of the fear of assassination. It is forbidden to speak to the -Emperor while he is on the promenade, and any one violating the rule -will be arrested immediately. - -It is said that one day while the Emperor was walking in the Summer -Gardens he met and recognized a French actor with whose performance he -was greatly pleased. He spoke pleasantly to the actor, and the latter -replied, expressing his satisfaction at this mark of the Imperial favor. -The Emperor then went on his way. The police immediately pounced upon -the performer, and carried him away to prison for violating the rule! - -"But the Emperor spoke to me first," the man protested over and over -again to no purpose. - -"You spoke to the Emperor, which is contrary to the law," was all the -explanation he could obtain. - -Nicholas went that night to the theatre to hear his favorite, but the -latter did not appear. No one could tell where he was, and his Majesty -returned disappointed to the palace. - -In the morning the unfortunate actor was released, and the story somehow -reached the Imperial ears. Nicholas sent for the victim of the arrest, -apologized for the action of the police, and asked what reparation he -could make for the actor's night in prison. - -"Never speak to me again in the public garden," was the reply. The -Emperor laughed, and made the required promise. Next day he sent the -equivalent of a month's salary to the actor, together with a diamond -ring of no small value. - -In one corner of the garden is a monument to the memory of Kriloff, the -Russian fabulist. The youths asked the Doctor to tell them about -Kriloff, which he did as follows: - -"Kriloff was the most famous writer in Russia in the first half of the -present century," said the Doctor, "and he is probably better known -to-day among all classes of the population than any other man of -letters. Forty thousand copies of his works were sold between 1830 and -1840, in editions of various kinds, and went to all parts of the Empire. -There was hardly a child of the educated classes who was not familiar -with his stories, and they were circulated 'by word of mouth' among the -peasantry, to whom reading was an unknown accomplishment; and before -they were issued in books, his fables were published in newspapers and -magazines, so that the aggregate circulation was very large." - -Fred asked what was the nature of the stories told by the famous man -whose statue they were regarding. - -[Illustration: SOME OF KRILOFF'S FRIENDS.] - -"They were fables," the Doctor answered, "after the manner of Æsop's and -La Fontaine's. He had written editorials and literary essays for various -publications, but never made a 'hit' until about his fortieth year, when -he took some fables from La Fontaine and adapted them to the conditions -of life in Russia. He showed them to a friend, who printed them in _The -Moscow Spectator_, where they attracted much attention. Kriloff was -encouraged to continue this style of writing. For the rest of his life -his literary labors were almost wholly devoted to fables. He died in -November, 1844, at the good old age of seventy-six. - -[Illustration: KRILOFF'S CHARACTERS IN CONVENTION.] - -"At his funeral the streets were crowded, and the Church of St. Isaac -could not hold all who came to take part in the services. Soon after his -death a popular subscription was started, and the children of all -classes contributed to it. The money was expended for the erection of -the statue before us. You observe that the space around it is the -favorite play-ground of the children, and no more appropriate spot could -have been chosen." - -The statue represents Kriloff in a dressing-gown, seated in an -arm-chair, with his head slightly inclined forward, and looking -pleasantly downward. The pedestal of the monument is adorned with -reliefs of the animals that figured in his fables--oxen, horses, cows, -sheep, donkeys, foxes, wolves, hens, lions, etc., and thereby hangs a -story: - -The Emperor Nicholas was fond of choosing as his ministers and advisers -men who were not likely to oppose any of his measures. The incompetency -of his ministry was notorious both in Russia and other countries. When -his successor, Alexander II., ascended the throne, he was asked why he -did not retain the ministry of Nicholas instead of choosing a new one. -He replied, "My father was a man of such transcendent ability that he -could afford to surround himself with incompetent men; I feel my -weakness, and must have the best talent in the Empire to assist me." - -When the equestrian monument to the memory of Nicholas was under -consideration, it was proposed to adorn its pedestal with the portraits -of his ministers, but the proposal was vetoed, when some one suggested -that if the monument were so adorned it might be mistaken for that of -Kriloff. - -"Kriloff's fables," the Doctor continued, "were aimed at official and -social abuses and absurdities. Many that he wrote were never produced, -as all had to receive the approval of the censor before they could be -issued. I told you that in ten years forty thousand copies of his works -were sold, and it is probable that the present sale amounts to several -thousand annually. Kriloff is read not only by Russian children but by -people of all ages, and the fables have been translated into all the -languages of Europe." - -On the way back to the hotel our friends stopped at a book-store and -bought a copy, in English, of the book in which their interest had been -aroused. Some of the fables were incomprehensible to them, on account of -their ignorance of Russian manners and customs, and of the system of -government; but this was not the case with the greater number. They had -a hearty laugh over several of the anecdotes, and voted the book to be -well worth preserving. - -Here are some of the fables with which they were amused. We will -condense them, as they are sometimes rather long drawn out in the -original. - -A donkey meets a nightingale in the woods, and asks her to favor him -with a song. She complies, and sings her sweetest. The other birds come -and listen, but the donkey shakes his head and says, "Your voice is very -fair, but you should take lessons of the village cock." The moral may be -thus rendered in English: - - "What most the poet fears, - Is the critic with long ears." - -Another fable tells how the swan, the crab, and the pike agreed to draw -a load; but when the time came for the effort the pike dived into the -water, the swan flew into the air, while the crab went backward after -the manner of his kind. At the end Kriloff says, - - "Which was right and which was wrong, - I really can't pretend to say; - But this I know, they labored long, - And the load stands still to the present day." - -The fable of "The Two Boys" tells how two youths are trying to get at -some nuts in a tree, but the limbs are beyond their reach. One suggests -that he will climb up on the back of the other, and then can gather nuts -for both; but as soon as he is seated among the limbs he falls to eating -the nuts at his leisure, and throws only the shells to his companion. -The moral is obvious, and Kriloff adds that he has known men thus raised -to profitable positions who had not the grace to throw even the shells -to those who had assisted them. - -[Illustration: THE FOX AS A LAW GIVER.] - -In the fable of "The Pike," that voracious fish has been killing his -inoffensive neighbors in the pond. He is taken in a tub of water and -carried before the court for judgment. The court is composed of two -donkeys and two goats, who grazed on the banks of the pond; and in order -to make their decision an intelligent one, a skilful lawyer, the fox, is -added to the court. People said that the fox was always plentifully -supplied with fish, the pike giving him all he wanted. - -The proof was overwhelming, and the judges decided that the pike must be -hanged. "Oh, hanging's too good for him," said the fox, "give him -something more severe; let the wretch be drowned." - -"Certainly," exclaimed the judges; and thereupon the pike was thrown -into the pond again. - -[Illustration: ONE OF KRILOFF'S CHARACTERS.] - -In "The Fox and the Marmot," the fox complains to the marmot that he has -been driven out of a poultry-yard which he had undertaken to protect. -"It was a wretched place," says the fox; "I was awake all night; and -even in the daytime I had hardly time to eat a mouthful. My health was -suffering from my constant occupation, and, after all my trouble and -fidelity, I am accused of stealing. What an infamous outrage! You know -what I had to do there, and I ask if you could suspect me of the -slightest act of dishonesty." - -"Of course not," the marmot answers; "but I'm sorry to say that I've -frequently seen feathers sticking in your mouth." - -"Many an official," says Kriloff, "complains that his place is a hard -one, and he is barely able to live upon his pay. Nevertheless in time he -buys an estate and builds a house. You might have difficulty in proving -that he accepted bribes or robbed the Government, but every one must -admit that the feathers are quite visible around the gentleman's mouth." - -Frank read this fable aloud, and then asked the Doctor if the moral -would be understood by any office-holders in the United States. Doctor -Bronson smiled as he answered that the fable was designed for Russia -alone, but its circulation in New York and Washington could do no harm. - -In the evening our friends went to one of the theatres to hear an opera -that is a great favorite with the Russians. It is by Glinka, a Russian -composer, and is entitled "_Jizn za Tsarya_" ("A Life for the Czar"). -From "The Russians at Home" Fred learned that the opera was first -produced in Moscow in 1843. The subject is the devotion of a Russian -peasant to the Czar Michael, the first ruler of the Romanoff family. A -band of Polish invaders are seeking the Czar with the intention of -killing him; they meet a peasant, whom they question as to the Czar's -place of concealment. Suspecting their design, he offers to lead them -to the spot; they follow, and he leads them to the centre of a forest -from which they cannot find a way of escape. After getting them there, -he announces that he has saved the life of the Czar at the sacrifice of -his own. The invaders kill him on the spot, but the life of the Czar is -saved. The story is a true one, and to this day the people of the -village where the loyal peasant, Ivan Soussanin, lived, are exempt from -taxes, and a monument has been erected to the memory of the man. The -opera which chronicles his devotion is given in three acts, and its -melodies are all strictly national. Our friends were delighted with the -performance, and both Frank and Fred declared that for days afterwards -several of the airs in "_Jizn za Tsarya_" were literally "running -through their heads." - -Another evening they went to one of the cheaper theatres, where Russian -comedies and farces were given. Of course they could not understand the -dialogue, but were quite interested in the action of the piece, which -was decidedly vigorous. Fred said he was reminded of certain local -dramas in New York, where the actors receive a great deal of pounding -and rough handling, and Frank thought a good actor in Russia ought to -have the flexibility and agility of a circus performer. - -As a type of the plays that amuse the lower order of Russians, the -following is a fair representation: - -A mujik makes love to his master's maid-servant, much against the old -gentleman's will. One day the master enters the kitchen and finds the -mujik there. The whole family is called, the bull-dog is let loose upon -the lover and seizes him by the coat, while all the members of the -household proceed to pound him with saucepans, broomsticks, tongs, and -other utensils that can be used for hostile purposes. - -[Illustration: CLOSING SCENE IN A RUSSIAN PLAY.] - -Round and round goes the frightened mujik. The dog clings to the mujik's -coat, the master seizes the dog by the tail, the mistress clutches the -master by the coat, and so the whole trio is dragged by the victim. The -rest of the party continue their pounding, which they alternate by -throwing missiles in the shape of plates, potatoes, and anything else -the kitchen affords. - -The audience is wild with delight, especially as the blows fall quite as -often on the other characters as on the mujik. Finally the maid-servant -comes to her lover's relief by throwing a bunch of fire-crackers among -his enemies and blowing them up; thereupon the lover dashes through the -door, carrying with him the adhering bull-dog, and the curtain falls -amid rounds of applause. - -[Illustration: KRILOFF'S STATUE IN THE SUMMER GARDEN, ST. PETERSBURG.] - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -NEWSPAPERS IN RUSSIA.--THEIR NUMBER, CHARACTER, AND -INFLUENCE.--DIFFICULTIES OF EDITORIAL LIFE.--THE CENSORSHIP.--AN -EXCURSION TO PETERHOF, ORANIENBAUM, AND CRONSTADT.--SIGHTS IN THE SUMMER -PALACE.--CRONSTADT AND THE NAVAL STATION.--THE RUSSIAN NAVY.--THE -RUSSIAN ARMY: ITS COMPOSITION AND NUMBERS.--THE COSSACKS.--ANECDOTES OF -RUSSIAN MILITARY LIFE. - - -The conversation about Kriloff and the visit to the opera naturally -turned the thoughts of the youths in the direction of Russian -literature, journalism, and dramatic productions. Frank was curious to -know about the newspapers of the country, while Fred's first inquiry -referred to the works of its poets, historians, and dramatists. - -"We will begin with the newspapers," said Doctor Bronson, "and first I -will speak of those published in St. Petersburg. They are all printed in -Russian, with the exception of a little sheet in German, for the -exclusive use of the German residents, and _Le Journal de St. -Petersbourg_, the organ of the ministry of foreign affairs, and chiefly -filled with official notices interesting to foreigners. It is printed in -French, as most of the foreigners visiting Russia understand that -language. It contains very little local news, and not much from the -outside world. In fact journalism, as we understand it in America, is -practically unknown in Russia. The best of the Russian dailies could not -stand a comparison with the leading journals of a dozen American cities, -and a single copy of the _Herald_, _Tribune_, _Times_, or _World_, of -New York, contains more 'news,' as we call it, than all the papers of -Moscow and St. Petersburg together." - -"I suppose the censorship is largely responsible for this state of -affairs," Frank remarked. - -"You are quite right," the Doctor replied; "if the censorship did not -exist there is no doubt that the papers would be much more enterprising -than they are. They must not offend the Government, or they are liable -to suppression. Editorials are generally submitted to the censor before -going into type, and if approved they may be printed. If printed without -approval, the publishers run the risk of censure. For a first offence -they are 'cautioned;' for a second they are cautioned and fined; and -for a third offence the publication is suspended for a month, three -months, or perhaps entirely. Consequently the papers cannot discuss -public matters with any freedom, and they are entirely prohibited from -publishing personal scandals, which form such an important part of the -'news' of several American papers I could name. In addition to cautions -and fines, the editors are liable to imprisonment; and, taking all -things into consideration, the way of the journalist is hard in Russia." - -Fred asked the Doctor what were the principal papers of the capital. - -[Illustration: PRESS-ROOM OF A DAILY NEWSPAPER.] - -"They change so often," was the reply, "that an answer made this year -will hardly answer for next. Each member of the ministry has his organ; -that of the foreign ministry, as before stated, is _Le Journal de St. -Petersbourg_; while that of the War Department is the _Russki Invalid_; -known to the outer world as the _Invalide Russe_. The organ of the Naval -Bureau is published at Cronstadt, the great naval port of the Empire, -and not at the capital; but as Cronstadt is only a few miles away, the -locality is of little consequence. The _Golos_ is generally understood -to be the organ of the Ministry of the Interior; and as this department -has the supervision of the press, this paper is said to have more -freedom than its rivals. But even the _Golos_ does not escape the hand -of the censor, and its freedom of speech has several times brought it -into trouble. - -"What would be called a small circulation in America is a large one in -Russia. There is not a daily paper in the Empire that averages a -circulation of twenty-five thousand copies, and the leading papers of -the two great cities have to content themselves with ten or fifteen -thousand. I have been told that the daily papers of St. Petersburg do -not circulate altogether more than eighty thousand copies daily outside -the capital, and about fifty thousand in it. Remember, the mass of the -population does not know how to read and write as in America, and -consequently the circulation of the newspapers is confined to a small -portion of the community. - -[Illustration: INTERVIEWING AN EDITOR.] - -"A paper of great influence, probably the greatest in the Empire, is the -_Moscow Gazette_. It is supposed to be the organ of the Emperor, with -whom its editor, Mr. Katkoff, is on terms of intimacy. Important edicts -of the Government are frequently foreshadowed in the _Gazette_, and the -national and international pulses are often felt through its columns. -But, with all its influence, the _Gazette_ does not circulate more than -twenty thousand copies--at least according to the figures at my command. -The _Moscow Gazette_ is more frequently quoted by foreign writers than -any other journal in Russia; and if it were published in French rather -than in Russian, we should probably hear of it even more frequently than -we do." - -"It's a pity they don't give us a French edition of it," said Frank. "I -would like very much to read the paper and know what it has to say, but -of course I can't as long as it is in Russian. French is the diplomatic -language, and I wonder they don't make an edition for foreign -circulation." - -"Did you ever hear," remarked the Doctor, with a smile, "of the attempt -of Prince Bismarck to have German take the place of French as the -language of diplomacy?" - -Neither of the boys had heard the anecdote, which the Doctor gave as -follows: - -[Illustration: PRINCE GORTCHAKOFF.] - -"Shortly after the close of the Franco-German War, in 1870, Bismarck -thought he would establish German as the diplomatic language, and with -this object in view he made use of German instead of French in an -official communication to Prince Gortchakoff, the foreign minister of -Russia. Gortchakoff promptly replied to the communication, and wrote in -Russian. Bismarck saw the joke, and desisted from further attempts to -carry out his design." - -"Returning to our subject," said the Doctor, "there are daily papers in -the large towns of Russia, and weekly or semi-monthly papers in the -smaller ones; but with its population of one hundred millions, the -Empire has less than one-tenth as many newspapers as we have in the -United States, and probably not more than one-fiftieth, or even -one-hundredth, of the circulation. - -"The first printing-press in Russia was set up in 1564. The first -newspaper was printed at Moscow in 1704, and the second at St. -Petersburg, a year later. Peter the Great abolished the use of the old -Slavic characters for printing purposes, and personally supervised the -casting at Amsterdam of the types in the Russian common language as we -now find it. - -"In addition to the newspapers there are many magazines and reviews in -Russia, and some of them have a very large circulation. They contain -articles on the condition of the country, biographical sketches of -distinguished Russians, historical notices of cities and towns, -scientific reports, travels, anecdotes, and stories by Russian writers, -together with translations of European or American works. 'Uncle Tom's -Cabin' was published in one of the Russian magazines, and so were the -stories of Dickens and other English authors. The magazines go to all -parts of the Empire, and have a larger circulation, proportioned to that -of the newspapers, than do periodicals elsewhere." - -The conversation was brought to an end by the entrance of the guide, who -said it was time to start for their proposed excursion to Peterhof. In a -few minutes they were on the way to the station, and in due time were -seated in the train which carried them to their destination. - -Peterhof is on the shore of the Gulf of Finland, not far from Cronstadt; -in fact the excursion included a visit to Cronstadt before the party -returned to the city. The palace was begun in 1720, under the direction -of Peter the Great. Nearly every sovereign of Russia has made additions -and alterations, but the original palace remains, and its general -characteristics are preserved. Even the yellow paint which Peter adopted -is still in use, and the palace contains several relics of the great -Czar, which are regarded with reverence by Russian visitors, and with -interest by others. - -"It was here that Peter the Great died," wrote Fred in his journal. -"They showed us the bed whereon he breathed his last, and it was in the -same condition as when he left it. It is not in the palace, but in a -small building in the grounds, and it is said that in the same building -the Empress Elizabeth sometimes amused her courtiers by cooking her own -dinner. From another building, called Marly, Peter used to watch his -fleet of ships at anchor near Cronstadt; and in another, The Hermitage, -there is a curious arrangement, devised by Catherine II., so that a -party at dinner did not need the aid of servants. You wonder how it was -done? - -"In front of each person at table there was a circular opening, through -which a plate could be lowered to the kitchen or carving-room below, and -replaced by another. Imagine, if you please, a miniature 'lift,' or -elevator, for each place at table, and you will understand the -arrangement. Thus a dinner of any number of courses could be served, and -the party would be entirely by itself. Catherine used this dining-room -when she wished to discuss State secrets with foreign ambassadors, and -be sure that no listening servant could betray them. - -[Illustration: CABINET AND CHAIR IN THE PALACE.] - -"The palace contains many tapestries, articles of porcelain, malachite, -and other costly things, and there are many pictures representing -battles fought in the latter part of the last century. One room contains -nearly four hundred portraits of girls in all parts of European Russia, -which were painted by a French count who travelled through the Empire in -Catherine's time. The wonderful thing about them is, that the artist who -executed the pictures was able to represent the subjects in different -attitudes, so that no two are alike. - -"They showed us the tables and benches where several of the emperors -played when they were children, and also the playthings that amused -them. - -[Illustration: ILLUMINATION IN A RUSSIAN PARK.] - -"The grounds are quite as interesting as the palace. They are -beautifully laid out in gardens, dotted with lakes, cascades, fountains, -and little parks. No description in words could do justice to the spot, -which must be seen in an elaborate picture to be appreciated. The -water-works are nearly as fine as the celebrated one at Versailles, or -St. Cloud in France, and of course the Russians claim that they are -superior. Occasionally in summer there is a festival given by the -Emperor to some of his foreign guests; the grounds and the lake are -lighted up with Chinese lanterns, and the display closes with an -exhibition of fireworks of no small importance. Sometimes the Emperor -goes around the lake in a boat propelled by oars-men, but usually -contents himself by looking on from a pavilion near the edge of the -water. - -[Illustration: TAPESTRY AND FIRE UTENSILS AT PETERHOF.] - -"From Peterhof we drove to Oranienbaum, about six miles away, where we -took the boat to Cronstadt. I can't begin to name all the palaces and -chateaux on the road, as I was too busy with looking at them to remember -what they were called; and besides, if I made a list it might be too -long to be interesting. We visited two or three of them, but had not -time for all; some were not open to strangers, as they were then -occupied by their owners, and these Russian grand-dukes and duchesses -are very exclusive in their ways. - -"At Oranienbaum we found the little steamer which was to convey us to -Cronstadt, five miles away; she puffed, as though conscious of her -importance, but did not make very good speed, and we had plenty of time -to study Cronstadt as we approached it. The city is not very large, nor -is it particularly interesting. The chief objects of attraction are the -tremendous fortifications, which are among the strongest in the world, -and very extensive. They were begun by Peter the Great, in 1703, and -there has hardly been a year since that time when labor on them has -entirely ceased. The harbor was filled with ships belonging to the war -fleet of Russia, and certainly they have a fleet to be proud of. There -is a smaller port, called the 'Merchants' Harbor,' where the commerce of -the city is centred. It is an active place from May to November, when -navigation is open, but when the Baltic is sealed with ice in the winter -months, it must be the perfection of dreariness. - -"Until quite recently ships drawing more than ten feet of water could -not pass the bar of the Neva and ascend to St. Petersburg, but were -compelled to anchor at Cronstadt. Recently a canal has been made, with -a depth of twenty feet, so that a great many vessels which were -formerly excluded on account of their size can ascend to the capital. -During the Crimean war Cronstadt was blockaded by a French and English -fleet; an attack was made on the forts of Cronstadt, but it was easily -repulsed; and after that time the allies did nothing more than regard -the forts from a safe distance. At Oranienbaum is a palace, from whose -top the Emperor Nicholas used to watch the movements of the hostile -fleet; the telescope he employed is still in the position where he left -it on his last trip to St. Petersburg." - -While our friends were looking at the naval harbor of Cronstadt and the -splendid fleet at anchor there, Doctor Bronson reminded the youths that -when Peter the Great ascended the throne Russia had no navy, and none of -her people knew anything about building ships. - -[Illustration: DOOR-WAY OF PETER'S HOUSE AT ZAANDAM, HOLLAND.] - -"I have read about it," said Frank, "and it was to learn the art of -ship-building that he went to England and Holland." - -"That is what history tells us," the Doctor answered. "He realized the -inferior condition of a country without a navy, and sent intelligent -young Russians to study the art of building and navigating ships. Not -satisfied with what they learned, he left Russia for about a year and a -half, which he spent in acquiring useful knowledge. He worked in a -ship-yard in Holland disguised as a common workman, though it is -generally believed that the officers in charge of the yard knew who he -was. Afterwards he spent three months in an English ship-yard; and when -he returned to his country he was accompanied by some five hundred -shipwrights, riggers, sail-makers, and other laborers required in an -establishment such as he wished to create. From this beginning came the -navy of Russia. The foundation of the great fleet before us was laid by -Peter the Great. - -"The English and Dutch origin of Russian ship-building is shown in the -English and Dutch names for the different parts of a ship. The deck, -keel, mast, and many other nautical things are the same in Russian as in -English; the Russians had no equivalent words, and naturally adopted the -names from the country that supplied the things named. - -[Illustration: A STUDENT OF NAVIGATION.] - -"And I can tell you something still more curious," the Doctor continued, -"as it was told to me by a Russian captain. While the ship-builders of -Peter the Great were from England and Holland combined, the men to -navigate the ships after they were built came almost wholly from the -latter country. The result is that nearly all the evolutions of a ship, -and the movements of the sailors to accomplish them, are in Dutch, or -rather they have been adopted from Dutch into Russian. The Russian -captain I have mentioned stated it to me in this way: - -"'A Dutch pilot or captain could come on my ship, and his orders in his -own language would be understood by my crew: I mean simply the words of -command, without explanations. On the other hand, a Dutch crew could -understand my orders without suspecting they were in Russian.'" - -"It is no wonder," said Fred, "that the Russians honor the memory of the -great Peter, and that their largest ship of war bears his name. Am I -right in regard to the ship?" - -"It is the largest at present," replied the Doctor, "but there are three -ships--the _Tchesme_, _Sinope_, and _Catherine II._--to be completed in -1887, which will be larger than the _Peter the Great_. The latter is an -iron-clad turret-ship of 8285 horse-power and 10,000 tons displacement. -She carries eight guns, has two turrets, and her iron plating at the -water-line is fourteen inches thick. She is three hundred and thirty -feet long and sixty feet wide in her broadest part, and resembles the -great mastless ships of the British navy, particularly those of the -_Dreadnought_ class. She was built at Cronstadt, in 1874; the other and -larger ships I have named are on the ways at Sevastopol and Nicolaieff, -on the Black Sea. - -[Illustration: STEAM FRIGATE NEAR CRONSTADT.] - -"Without going into details, I will say that the Russian navy consists -of two great divisions: the fleet of the Baltic and the fleet of the -Black Sea. Each of these great divisions is subdivided into sections: -the Baltic fleet into three, and the Black Sea fleet into two. The -sections carry flags of different colors, white, blue, and red; this -arrangement was taken from the Dutch, like the system of ship-building -in Peter's time. - -"At the beginning of 1885 the Baltic fleet consisted of two hundred and -nine vessels, including thirty-three armor-clad and belted ships, -forty-nine unarmored frigates, corvettes, clippers, and cruisers, and -ninety-five torpedo-boats. Gun-boats, transports, and various other -craft completed the list. The Black Sea fleet included ninety-eight -vessels, of which seven were armor-clad; then there are the vessels of -the Caspian Sea and the Siberian flotillas; and altogether the Russian -navy comprised at that time 358 vessels, armed with 671 guns, with a -measurement of 196,575 tons, and engines of 191,976 horse-power. - -"Before we drop the subject of Russia's navy," the Doctor continued, -"perhaps you would like to hear about the _Popovkas_." - -Neither of the youths had heard of these things, and wondered what they -could be. Doctor Bronson relieved their perplexity by explaining that -the _Popovkas_ were a new style of iron-clad ship intended for the -defence of harbors, rather than for rapid cruising at sea. - -[Illustration: FRIGATE UNDER SAIL AND STEAM.] - -"They were the invention of Admiral Popoff, of the Russian navy," he -remarked, "and hence comes their name. The first of them was built in -1873, at Nicolaieff, on the Black Sea, and was called the _Novgorod_. -She is circular, with a diameter of one hundred feet, and carries two -eleven-inch guns in a revolving turret like that of the _Monitor_. She -measures two thousand tons, and has engines which propel her about six -miles an hour. The other ship of this class is the _Admiral Popoff_, one -hundred and twenty feet in diameter, carrying two twelve-inch guns in a -revolving turret, and capable of steaming eight miles an hour. There is -a gentle slope of the sides from the water's edge to the base of the -turret, so that any other shot than a plunging one would be glanced off. -As the ships have not yet been tried in battle, their advantages are -only theoretical." - -[Illustration: THE "DREADNOUGHT"--TYPE OF THE "PETER THE GREAT."] - -Frank asked how many officers and men were employed in the navy of the -Czar. - -"From the latest reports at hand," the Doctor answered, "there are -twenty-nine admirals, vice-admirals, and rear-admirals, four hundred and -four captains, and nine hundred and thirty-four lieutenants and -midshipmen. Seventy-six admirals, one hundred and forty captains, and -fifty lieutenants are employed on shore duty, and there are thirty-five -captains and thirty-nine lieutenants and midshipmen serving in lines of -commercial steamers subsidized by the Government; one thousand and -ninety-four pilots, engineers, artillerists, and others complete the -official list, and the men before the mast number twenty-four thousand -five hundred and twelve. The sailors are obtained by conscription or by -voluntary enlistment--generally the former--and required to serve nine -years. Seven years of this period are in active service, and two years -in the reserve, whence the men may be called out in case of war." - -"Please tell us something about the Russian army," said Fred, "as the -army and navy are very closely related." - -"I think you have had enough of statistics for one day," Doctor Bronson -replied, "and if they are all in your journals your readers may be -inclined to skip them. But at the risk of being tedious you cannot omit -saying something about the military and naval forces of a nation which -is the most thoroughly military and naval power of modern times. There -is no throne in Europe more dependent upon the weapons of war than is -that of Russia. Take away the army and navy, and Russia would follow the -fate of Poland, and be speedily dismembered by her neighbors. England, -France, Germany, and Austria would have made an end of Russia long ago -but for the resisting power of which she is capable." - -Frank and Fred declared that they would like to hear then and there -about the army, and so the Doctor continued: - -"The army of Russia previous to 1874 was drawn entirely from the classes -of artisans and peasants by means of a conscription and the enrolment of -the sons of soldiers. In that year a new law was approved by the Emperor -making all men who had completed their twenty-first year, and were not -physically exempt, liable to service. The purchase of substitutes is not -permitted by the new law; each man drawn by the conscription is required -to pass six years in active service and nine years in the reserve, -making a total of fifteen years in all. While in the reserve the men are -liable to be called out only in case of war, and if so called out, the -younger are put into active service in the field, while the older ones -are employed for garrisoning forts and other light work." - -"Don't they have any exemption for the sons of rich men?" one of the -youths inquired. - -[Illustration: Grenadier. Chasseur of the Guard. Fifer of the Guard. -Dragoon. Cuirassier. Hussar. - -THE RUSSIAN ARMY--REGULAR TROOPS.] - -"Theoretically there is none," the Doctor answered; "but in order to -cover such cases, and particularly to provide officers for the army, it -is arranged that young men with a fair education may be enrolled as -volunteers for short terms during and from their seventeenth year of -age. When their volunteer service is completed they may pass into the -reserve, or be subjected to an examination for commissions as officers -either in the active army or the reserve. In the reserve, whether as -officers or privates, they are liable to be called for duty any time -before their thirty-sixth year." - -Fred asked what proportion of the male population was taken for the army -every year by means of the conscription. - -"As before stated, every able-bodied man is liable," was the reply; "but -it is generally found that a conscription of four in a thousand will -produce from ninety thousand to one hundred thousand men. On a peace -footing the active army contains about twenty thousand officers and five -hundred and thirty thousand men; the reserve adds eight thousand and one -hundred thousand to these figures respectively, so that the total peace -footing is twenty-eight thousand officers and six hundred and thirty -thousand men." - -"And how much is the war footing?" - -"The war footing, according to the latest figures, to give it exactly, -is 41,551 officers and 1,176,353 men. Add to this the whole able-bodied -militia liable to be called into service in case of necessity, and the -available war forces of Russia amount to about 3,200,000. On the peace -footing, the army has 129,736 horses and 1844 guns, which are increased -in time of war to 366,354 horses and 3778 guns. In 1883 a census of the -horses in fifty-eight provinces of European Russia showed that there -were nearly fifteen millions of these animals fit for service in case of -need." - -[Illustration: COSSACK LANCERS AND RUSSIAN GUARD-HOUSE.] - -One of the youths wished to know something about the Cossacks, and -whether they formed a part of the army or not. - -"The Cossack is an irregular soldier," the Doctor replied, "though in -some cases he is not a soldier at all. The origin of the Cossacks is -unknown, some claiming that they belong to the Tartar, and others to the -Russian race. The probability is that they are a combination of the two. -They were first heard of in the tenth century, in the valley of the Don -River; in the wars of Russia with the Turks and Tartars, about the -fifteenth century, they showed a great deal of bravery and an excellent -organization of a semi-military character. - -"They are more Russian than Tartar in their language, religion, and -customs. The rulers of Russia have not always found affairs running -smoothly between themselves and the Cossacks, and when the latter felt -they had not been properly treated they were not slow to rebel. A revolt -was generally followed by an emigration of the Cossacks into the Tartar -country to the east, and in nearly every instance this emigration -resulted in the addition of new territory to Russia." - -"I believe I have read that the conquest of Siberia was accomplished in -this way," said one of the youths. - -"You are right," was the reply, "and the whole conquest hardly cost -anything to the Government. About three hundred years ago a tribe of Don -Cossacks rebelled, and under the guidance of Yermak, their hetman, or -leader, crossed the Ural Mountains into Asia. They began a career of -conquest, which was pushed so rapidly that in less than seventy years -they and their descendants had carried their banner to the shores of the -Okhotsk Sea. In the early part of their career they offered the -conquered territory to the Czar, and received in return a pardon for -their misdeeds on the Don. History furnishes no parallel to this -conquest, which was made by a few hundred outlaws, and carried to a -successful end with little assistance from others and no support from -the Government. But to return to the Cossacks of to-day: - -[Illustration: Leaguin. Cossack of the Don. Circassian. Tartar Cossack -of the Crimea. Cossack of the Caucasus. Cossack of the Ural. - -THE RUSSIAN ARMY--IRREGULAR TROOPS.] - -"The Cossacks are a race of freemen. With only a few exceptions, none of -them have ever been serfs. The whole land where they live belongs to -them in common, and they have equal rights in hunting and fishing. They -pay no taxes to Government, but in place of taxes are required to give -a certain number of days' service in each year. Every Cossack feeds and -equips himself at his own expense, and provides and feeds his horse. If -called to serve outside the boundaries of his own country, he receives -rations for himself and horse and a small amount of pay; but this ceases -when he returns to his own land. The Cossacks have their own officers, -which were formerly chosen by themselves, but are now appointed by the -Government, the latter usually being careful to send officers such as -the Cossacks approve. - -"The military organization of the Cossacks is in ten great divisions -called '_woisskos_,' that of the Don being the largest. Each _woissko_ -furnishes, according to its population, a certain number of regiments -fully armed and equipped, and constantly under military discipline. -These regiments must be prepared to march for active service ten days -after being notified. Altogether in time of war the Cossacks of the -various parts of the Empire, available for war service, are about one -hundred and fifty thousand men. - -"They are splendid horsemen, and their best service is as cavalry. They -can endure hunger, cold, and fatigue beyond ordinary soldiers, and are -very troublesome to an enemy. In the retreat of Napoleon's army from -Moscow they made great havoc, and many thousands of French soldiers fell -beneath the Cossack lance and sabre. They have an undeserved reputation -for cruelty, as they are probably no worse, and certainly no better, -than other kinds of soldiers. War at its best is a cruel business, and -in no age of the world has it been the custom for armies to refrain from -hurting their enemies when it was in their power to do so." - -This conversation occupied most of the time while the boat was steaming -from Cronstadt to St. Petersburg. Seated near our friends was an officer -whose coat did not show any buttons. It was fastened with hooks like -those on a lady's dress, and Frank called attention to its peculiarity. - -Doctor Bronson explained that the officer was of the Cossack branch of -the service, this being the distinguishing feature of the Cossack -uniform. The Cossack soldier wears a sheepskin coat, fastened with a -girdle at the waist. He abhors buttons, and the uniform of the officers -is made to conform to their tastes. - -On the lower deck of the boat was a squad of soldiers, under command of -a sergeant, who had probably been to Cronstadt on some official duty, -and were now returning. Fred called attention to the singular hats worn -by the soldiers, each hat having a high plate of brass in front, and -reminding the youths of the hats worn by the soldiers in the comic opera -of the "Grand-duchess of Gerolstein." - -"It is not unlike a coal-scuttle in shape," said Fred, "and must be an -uncomfortable piece of head-gear." - -"That is a regiment which was organized in the time of the Emperor -Paul," said the Doctor, "and the design of the hat was made by him--at -least that is what a Russian officer told me. Observe that there is a -perforation in the brass of each hat, as though made by a bullet, and -some of the hats have two or three holes. - -"The tradition is," continued the Doctor, "that the regiment once showed -cowardice when brought face to face with the French invaders during the -war of 1812. In the next battle they were put in the front, and kept -there; half their number were killed, and nearly every hat was -perforated by a bullet. Since that time the helmets are preserved just -as they were when the battle ended. When a new helmet is ordered to -replace an old one, it is perforated just as was its predecessor. Hence -the curious appearance of the soldiers of the grenadier regiment -organized by Paul. - -"The discipline of the Russian army is severe, and there are no better -regiments, either for parade or fighting purposes, than those stationed -in the neighborhood of the great cities. Reviews of the army are held -frequently. When the Emperor goes in person to the grand review every -year the sight is a magnificent one. - -[Illustration: GRAND-DUKE MICHAEL.] - -"The Russian Imperial family is full of soldierly qualities, which is -not at all strange when we remember their training. Sometimes it is -pushed to an extreme degree. The Grand-duke Michael, brother of the -Emperor Nicholas, is said to have been one of the most rigid -disciplinarians ever known; and whenever he inspected a division, not a -button, or even the point of a mustache, escaped his notice. Parades -were his delight, and he could ride at full gallop along the front of a -line and detect the least irregularity. He used to say, - -"'I detest war; it interferes with parades, and soils the uniforms.' - -"He disliked the Cossacks because they did not appear well at reviews; -in his eyes their excellent fighting qualities were of minor importance. - -"The Cossacks carry their cartridges in a row of pockets on the breasts -of their coats, and not in cartridge-boxes, as do other soldiers. The -Grand-duke thought a soldier's uniform was incomplete without a -cartridge-box, probably for the reason that it gave him a certain amount -of work to keep it clean and bright. This was another reason for his -dislike of the irregular troops, which form such an effective arm of the -service in time of war." - -The steamer deposited its passengers at the quay near Admiralty Square, -and our friends again trod the soil of St. Petersburg, after an -interesting and instructive day in the environs of the city. Frank and -Fred devoted the evening to writing out what they had learned during the -trip to Peterhof and Cronstadt, and especially to making notes upon the -army and navy of Russia. To refresh their memories, they referred to a -copy of "The Statesman's Year-book," which happened to be in the room, -and said they would cordially recommend it to others who might seek -similar information. - -[Illustration: IRON-CLAD STEAMER OF THE BALTIC FLEET.] - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -VISITING THE UNIVERSITY OF ST. PETERSBURG.--EDUCATION IN -RUSSIA.--PRIMARY AND OTHER SCHOOLS.--THE SYSTEM OF INSTRUCTION.--RECENT -PROGRESS IN EDUCATIONAL MATTERS.--UNIVERSITIES IN THE EMPIRE; THEIR -NUMBER AND LOCATION.--RELIGIOUS LIBERTY.--TREATMENT OF THE JEWS.--THE -ISLANDS OF THE NEVA, AND WHAT WAS SEEN THERE.--IN A _TRAKTIR_.--BRIBERY -AMONG RUSSIAN OFFICIALS. - - -Next morning the party was out in good season. It had an appointment -with a professor attached to the University of St. Petersburg for a -visit to that institution. He was to take breakfast with them, and -afterwards would escort them through the library and other rooms of the -establishment. While they were at breakfast the professor entertained -the youths with an account of the educational condition of Russia, which -we will endeavor to repeat as nearly as it was remembered by Frank and -Fred. - -"On behalf of my country," said the professor, "I am sorry to say that -we are behind England, Germany, Austria, and most other nations of -Europe in the matter of general education, but not nearly as backward as -we were in past years. We have no system of common-schools such as you -have in the United States, and the mass of the population is practically -without instruction beyond what they receive from the village priests. -Down to the time of Alexander II. the village schools were controlled by -the priests, and no one else could be a teacher in them. That -progressive monarch issued an order requiring the schools to be given to -the most capable applicants, whether priests or not. This was a great -step in advance, as the priests were not unfrequently nearly as -illiterate as the people they were set to instruct. - -"To show how we are progressing, let me say that in 1860 only two out of -every hundred recruits levied for the army were able to read and write; -in 1870 the proportion had increased to eleven in a hundred, and in 1882 -to nineteen in a hundred. In 1880 there were 22,770 primary-schools in -the villages, with 1,140,915 pupils: 904,918 boys and 235,997 girls. The -teachers were 19,511 men and 4878 women. Some of the primary-schools -are entirely supported by the Government, and others partly by the -Government and partly by a small tax upon the parents of each pupil. The -latter plan is not satisfactory, as it discourages poor people with many -children from sending them to school, and it is probable that in a few -years all the schools will be free." - -[Illustration: LITTLE FOLKS AT SCHOOL.] - -One of the youths asked what was taught in the village schools of -Russia. - -"Reading and writing," the professor answered, "are the first things, as -a matter of course; and then come arithmetic, grammar, and geography, in -the order I have named them. Church and State are so closely connected -in Russia that the primary education includes the form of prayer; it is -a part of the daily exercise of the schools, except for those who -profess other than the orthodox faith, and in former times children of -dissenters were not allowed to attend the schools. Catholics, Lutherans, -and others were instructed by their own teachers, and, failing this, -they had no instruction whatever. At present children of any faith can -attend the village schools, and where there is a mixed population the -schools are divided. - -"In 1850," the professor continued, "there were less than three -thousand village schools in the Empire; the increase to more than -twenty-two thousand in thirty years shows how rapid has been our -progress. We have great hopes for the future, and at the end of another -thirty years I trust you will find us not much behind the other -countries of Europe." - -[Illustration: LEARNING TO WEAVE.] - -Doctor Bronson asked about the higher instruction in Russia, and how it -compared with that of other lands. - -"One of the drawbacks to higher education in its broad sense," said the -professor, "was the custom that prevailed, and still prevails to a great -extent, for rich people to educate their children at home. Every -nobleman who could afford it had a tutor for his boys and a governess -for his girls. There is no country where tutors and governesses were -more certain of employment than in Russia, and I have the assurances -from them, a hundred times repeated, that they were better treated here -than anywhere else. A tutor or governess is almost invariably made a -member of the family, sits with them at table, is presented to visitors, -forms a part of their social circle, and is made to feel thoroughly at -home. Governesses are usually English or French, while tutors are -generally French or Germans. The education of these home taught children -begins at a very early age, and they naturally speak with fluency the -language of their instructors; hence it follows that the Russians of the -higher classes have, justly, the reputation of being the best linguists -of Europe." - -As the professor paused, Frank remarked that he had observed how almost -every Russian officer spoke French or German, and many of them spoke -French, German, and English. "French seems to be almost universal among -them," he added, "at least as far as I have been able to learn." - -"That is true," said the professor, "and there are many Russians who -speak French better than they do their own language. With French nurses -in their infancy, French governesses or tutors as their years advance, -and with their parents speaking French, it is not to be wondered at. - -"The system of home education discouraged the education of the schools -among the nobility, and it was only during the reign of Nicholas that a -change was made. Count Ouvaroff, Minister of Public Instruction under -the Iron Czar, set the example by sending his own son to the University -of St. Petersburg. The example was followed, and the attendance at the -universities and normal schools increased rapidly. Nicholas gave the -system a military character by decreeing that the students should wear -cocked hats and swords, but this was abandoned by Alexander II. The -policy of Nicholas was shown in the words of his instruction to Count -Ouvaroff, 'Orthodoxy, Autocracy, Nationality.'" - -Fred asked how many universities and high-schools there were in the -Empire. - -[Illustration: MINERAL CABINET IN THE UNIVERSITY.] - -"There are nine universities," the professor answered, "situated at St. -Petersburg, Moscow, Kief, Kazan, Wilna, Dorpat, Kharkov, Odessa, and -Warsaw.[2] The professors are paid by the Government, and the poor -students have an allowance for their support. To be admitted to the -universities, they must pass an examination in the course of instruction -in the gymnasia or high-schools, which are in the provincial towns, -about four hundred in all, or must have received equivalent instruction -at home. The high-schools or gymnasia correspond to your academies or -high-schools in America, and hold the same relation to the universities. - -[2] Recently the Government decided to establish a Siberian university. -It was to be opened at Tomsk in 1886, but there was great opposition to -it by a large and influential party, who claim that a Siberian -university would be a great peril to autocracy in Russia. They look upon -Siberia as the source of many liberal, and therefore dangerous, ideas, -and say the new university will greatly facilitate their development. - -"Besides the universities, which confer degrees in law, medicine, -mathematics, natural history, philology, and the Oriental languages, -there are distinct schools of medicine and law, like the medical and law -schools of other countries. There are four free high-schools for the -education of women, and the applicants for admission are constantly in -excess of the facilities for their instruction. There was a medical -school for women, but it was closed in 1884 on account of its use as a -means of disseminating revolutionary ideas." - -Frank and Fred wished to obtain further information about the reason for -closing this medical school, but they remembered that the professor -would probably dislike to discuss the subject, as it had a political -bearing, and so no question about it was asked. - -Breakfast was over, and the party entered the carriage, which was -waiting at the door, and were driven to the university. - -"One thing I forgot to say," said the professor, as soon as they were -seated in the vehicle, "and that was about education in Finland. The -grand-duchy has a system of public instruction distinct from that of the -rest of the Empire. It has a university at Helsingfors, high-schools in -all principal towns, and elementary schools in the villages. Almost the -entire population can read, and nearly every youth can write during his -school-days, though he often forgets this accomplishment in later years. - -[Illustration: PARLOR IN A HIGH-SCHOOL FOR WOMEN.] - -"To return to Russia, all through the Empire there are agricultural, -mining, engineering, and other industrial schools, and there are also -numerous military schools, which have a separate system of instruction. -The cadets are transferred from the military gymnasia to the 'military -schools,' in which they are educated to qualify them for commissions as -officers. There are three academies--for the staff, engineers, and -artillery--and in these academies the higher branches of military -science are taught. The religious schools are attached to the Church, -and the instruction is managed by the clergy. Here we are at the -university just as my impromptu lecture upon education in Russia has -reached its end." - -Our friends were introduced by their companion to several others of the -faculty, and passed an hour at the university very pleasantly. They -learned that the usual attendance was about four hundred, and the -professors and lecturers numbered nearly thirty. In addition to what is -usually taught in universities there were lecturers upon the Oriental -languages. A goodly number of students give their attention to the -Asiatic tongues, with a view to qualifying themselves for future -usefulness in that direction. The Professor of Chinese was among those -to whom our friends were introduced. - -"He is an accomplished gentleman," said Frank in his note-book; "he -speaks French and Russian as fluently as he does his native language, -and his questions about America showed that he was well acquainted with -the history of our country. The rest of the Oriental professors were in -European dress, but the Chinese one was not. He was in the same garments -he would wear at Shanghai or Peking, and his hair was plaited into an -irreproachable pigtail. - -[Illustration: PRIVATE ROOM OF A WEALTHY STUDENT.] - -"The halls were pleasant and spacious," continued Frank, "and the -students that we saw had intelligent faces; they appeared much like the -students at an English university, but we thought there was an -expression of more earnestness in their faces. The professor told us -that the young men who attended the university gave very little trouble -in the matter of discipline, and the disgraceful pranks of students at -Oxford and Cambridge were practically unknown in Russia. It is so -recently that education has been in the reach of everybody in this -country that its value is more appreciated than elsewhere. - -[Illustration: LOWER RECITATION-ROOM.] - -"The library contains more than sixty thousand volumes, and there is a -good scientific collection in the museum. The students have the -privilege of visiting the Academy of Sciences, under certain -restrictions, where they have access to a library of one hundred and -fifty thousand volumes and an extensive museum. The latter has an -Asiatic department, which contains many objects of great interest to -students of matters pertaining to Asia. We went to the museum after -seeing the university and looked at the remains of the Siberian -mammoths, which were found embedded in the ice where they had lain for -thousands of years. - -[Illustration: ONE OF THE PROFESSORS.] - -"Another educational institution of St. Petersburg is the School of -Mines, which is supported by the Government and has about three hundred -students. Its collection of minerals is said to be the finest in the -world. There are single nuggets of gold worth thousands of dollars, -great masses of solid silver, platinum, copper, and other metals, -together with topaz, beryl, aquamarine, quartz, and other crystals in -great variety and of unusual size and beauty. One crystal of beryl -weighs five pounds and is valued at twenty-five thousand dollars. - -[Illustration: DESCENDING A SHAFT.] - -"In the halls devoted to instruction there are models of mines, with the -veins of ore, and the machinery for working them; the workmen are -represented by little figures like dolls, and the whole is admirably -executed. After looking at these models we were taken to the garden, -where there is a section of a mine, through which we were guided by -means of candles and torches. It required very little imagination for us -to believe we were actually in a mine far below the surface of the -earth, and that the veins of ore were real rather than fictitious. It -must be of great advantage for the education of the students, and -certainly we found it very instructive in the little time we were in it. - -[Illustration: GALLERIES IN A MINE.] - -"What would you say if I told you that the richest public library of -Europe is in St. Petersburg? Well, the Imperial Library may not be -superior to all others, but those who ought to know say it is not -inferior in any respect. It occupies a very large building on the Nevsky -Prospect, and is open to the public like the great libraries of London, -Paris, Vienna, and other cities. The custodian who accompanied us -through the building said it contained nearly a million printed volumes, -in all the languages of the world, and about thirty thousand -manuscripts, some of them very old. - -[Illustration: IN THE LIBRARY.] - -The foundation of this immense library was one of the spoils of war -between Russia and Poland. It belonged to Count Zalewski, a Polish -bishop, and contained three hundred thousand volumes. After the capture -of Warsaw, in 1796, the library was removed to St. Petersburg, and since -that time yearly additions have been made, until it has reached its -present condition. Among other things there is a collection of books -relating to Russia in other languages than Russian. They number forty -thousand, and cover all dates from the invention of the art of printing -down to the present time. Then there are nearly one hundred thousand -books in the Russian language, beginning with a volume of the 'Acts of -the Apostles,' printed at Moscow in 1538. - -"There is a prayer-book which belonged to Mary Queen of Scots, and which -contains many notes in her handwriting. There are autographs of kings, -queens, emperors, princes, and other persons of blue blood--so many that -I can't begin to enumerate them. In fact there are so many things here -that one might spend weeks in the library, and find something new and -interesting every few minutes. The reading-room is well arranged, and -has all the leading papers of Europe. To show its growth in popularity, -let me say that it was visited by twenty thousand persons in 1854, and -by seventy-three thousand in 1864. In more recent times as many as one -hundred and fifty thousand persons have visited the reading-room in a -single year. - -[Illustration: A COLLEGE DORMITORY.] - -"Well, we have had enough for one day of schools, libraries, museums, -and the like--so many of them that our heads are fairly swimming. Let us -go home and think over what we have seen; if we remember a tenth part of -it we shall be fortunate." - -Naturally the conversation, after their return, related to what they had -seen; and in this connection the Doctor gave the youths some interesting -information. - -"The university we have seen to-day," said he, "is not by any means the -oldest in Russia, nor is it the largest. The honor of age and extent -belongs to the University of Moscow, which was founded in 1755, while -that of St. Petersburg was founded in 1818. The Moscow University has -one thousand eight hundred students, and seventy-two professors and -lecturers, and there are one hundred and fifty thousand volumes in its -library. The Government gives about three hundred thousand dollars -annually in aid of the Moscow University, and many of Russia's most -celebrated men have been educated there. - -"The oldest university in the Empire was at Abo, in Finland, but the -buildings were destroyed in a great fire in 1827, and afterwards the -university was established at Helsingfors. It was originally founded in -1630, eleven years before printing was introduced into Finland. -Anciently there were some curious customs connected with the reception -of a student at the University of Abo. He was required to prostrate -himself on the floor in front of one of the professors, who gave him a -certain number of blows with a stick. The blows were more imaginary than -real, and after they were given the student was ordered to rise, and to -so conduct himself in future that he would never need a repetition of -the indignity. - -"The other universities of Russia are about like that of St. Petersburg, -and do not need a special description. In all of them there is a -department of study for those who wish to enter the service of the -Church. At Dorpat there is a course of study for those of the Lutheran -faith, and at Kazan, which has a considerable population of Tartars, -Moslem students are admitted, and no interference is made with their -religious belief. Some of the professors of the Oriental languages are -Tartars, and I have been told that one of the rooms of the university is -fitted up as a mosque. - -"This is a good place to say," continued the Doctor, "that while the -Russian Government makes an earnest effort to convert all its subjects -to the faith of the Orthodox Greek Church, it rarely allows that effort -to take the form of oppression. Sometimes it happens that an -over-zealous priest goes beyond the limit; but as soon as his conduct is -known to the proper authorities he is reprimanded, and replaced by one -who is more cautious. The Polish exiles in Siberia are nearly all -Catholics; the Government builds churches for them, and allows their -priests (generally exiles like their co-religionists) to travel from -place to place in the performance of their religious duties; and as long -as they do not join in any political plots, or make other trouble for -the authorities, they are allowed the greatest freedom. Among the -peasant inhabitants of Siberia a Catholic church is called 'Polish,' -while a Lutheran one is known as 'German.' - -"The Moslem and Pagan inhabitants of Asiatic Russia have the most -complete religious freedom; but sometimes, in their zeal to be on good -terms with their rulers, they adopt the new religion without laying -aside the old. I have heard of the chief of a tribe of Yakouts, a savage -and idolatrous people in Northern Siberia, who joined the Russian Church -and was baptized. He attended faithfully to all its observances, and at -the same time did not neglect anything pertaining to his old belief. -When about to make a journey, or to undertake any other enterprise, he -offered prayers in the church, and then summoned the _shaman_, or Pagan -priest of his tribe, to perform incantations and bribe the evil spirits -not to molest him. On being questioned as to his action, he said he was -not certain which belief was the right one, and he wanted to make sure -by professing both." - -One of the youths asked the Doctor about the treatment of the Jews in -Russia. He had read that they were greatly oppressed in some parts of -the Empire, and that many of them had been killed for no other reason -than that they were Jews. - -"That is quite true," the Doctor answered; "but the outrages were the -work of excited mobs, rather than acts authorized by the Government. -There is much fanaticism among the lower orders of Russians, and they -were roused to what they did by stories which the priests had -circulated. In some of the riots the police and soldiers are accused of -making no effort to restrain the mob; and as they and the rioters are of -the same religion, there is doubtless good ground for the accusation. - -[Illustration: JEWISH BURIAL-GROUND.] - -"The Jews were first admitted to Russia by Peter the Great, but they -were expelled by his daughter, the Empress Elizabeth. They were -readmitted by Catherine II., and the privileges she had given them were -increased by Alexander I., who, in 1808 and 1809, issued decrees giving -them full liberty of trade and commerce. The grant was revoked by -Nicholas I., and during his time the Jews were subjected to much -oppression. Alexander II. came to their relief, and restored some of -their privileges. During and since his reign they have been fairly -treated in matters of trade, but have been kept down in other ways. Only -a certain number are allowed to practise medicine or keep drug-stores, -and only a specified proportion of Jewish students is allowed at the -schools and colleges. - -[Illustration: CLOTHES-DEALER OF MOSCOW.] - -"A great deal of the trade of the country is in their hands, and they -are noted, as everywhere else in the world, for their industry and -frugality. They do not meddle with the politics of Russia, and the -instances are exceedingly rare of a Jew being convicted of offences of -a political character. In the army they make the best of soldiers, both -for discipline and on the battle-field, where they are noted for their -bravery. They are more numerous in Poland than in any other part of the -Empire, but there is not a province of the whole country ruled by the -Czar where they cannot be found. In their financial transactions they -are not behind their brethren in other parts of the world; and wherever -they are permitted to engage in mechanical pursuits they distance all -their competitors." - -[Illustration: A RUSSIAN TROIKA.] - -Just as the sun was setting, our friends took a carriage and drove to -the Islands of the Neva, a favorite resort of the people in the warm -months of the year. Great numbers of fashionable carriages were on the -road, _troikas_ being more numerous than any other variety. A _troika_ -is so called from the number of its horses, rather than from the form of -the vehicle. Three horses are harnessed abreast, the central one having -above his head the inevitable _duga_, or yoke. In a well-trained -_troika_ the central horse trots, while the two others gallop, with -their heads turned outward. It is a dashing and attractive team, and has -already made its way into other countries than Russia. - -The first part of the drive carried Doctor Bronson and his young -companions through streets occupied by the poorer classes, but farther -on they passed great numbers of pretty villas, which are the summer -homes of the well-to-do inhabitants of the city. - -[Illustration: A VILLA ON THE ISLAND.] - -There is an Imperial villa on one of the islands, and occasionally the -Emperor gives a fête in honor of some event, or for the entertainment of -a foreign guest. At such times the trees are filled with Chinese -lanterns, and the entire building is a blaze of light. The people on the -line of the road follow the Imperial example, and illuminate their -houses, and the traveller who drives there might easily imagine that he -had dropped into a section of fairy-land. Doctor Bronson told the -youths that he was in St. Petersburg at the time of the marriage of the -Emperor's son, the Grand-duke Vladimir, and one of the sights of the -occasion was the illumination of the islands. - -"We rode through three or four miles of illuminations," said the Doctor, -"and it seemed as though they would never come to an end. At the very -entrance of the islands we passed the summer residence of Count Gromoff, -one of the millionaires of St. Petersburg, and found it transformed into -a palace of fire. Not a tree or bush in the large garden in front of the -house was without its cluster of lanterns, and one of our party remarked -that it seemed as though half the stars in the sky had fallen and found -a lodgement there. In the centre of the scene were the monograms of the -Emperor and Empress, and of the newly-wedded pair, outlined in gas-jets; -above and behind them was an Imperial mantle surmounted with a crown, -and all made with the burning gas. Then the whole cottage was delineated -with thousands of lights, and we agreed that never in our lives had we -seen such a beautiful picture. Nothing ever produced on the stage of a -theatre could equal it. - -"Occasionally we came near the water, and wherever we did so it was -covered with boats which were as freely illuminated as the trees and -houses on shore. Boat-houses and bath-houses were similarly lighted up, -and as they are numerous in this part of the Neva, they formed an almost -continuous line along the river's bank. We were compelled to go at a -walk, as the streets and roads were crowded with vehicles, and -consequently our drive through this city of lanterns occupied more than -an hour." - -Doctor Bronson gave other details of the celebration which we have not -time to repeat, or, rather, they did not find a place in the note-books -of the youths. The time was passed pleasantly in a contemplation of the -scenes by the way-side--the pretty villas among the trees, the carriages -and their occupants, the people on foot, or gathered in front of the -houses or on the verandas, the crowds in the cafés and restaurants, -which are scattered here and there over the islands, together with other -sights that met their eyes. There was enough to make the fortune of an -artist if he could have placed all the pretty pictures of the evening -upon canvas, and preserved the glow of the northern sky and the twinkle -of the lights. A few houses were illuminated, probably in honor of a -patron saint, or to commemorate an event in the history of the owner of -the establishment. While looking at these illuminations Frank and Fred -tried to imagine the whole place lighted up as Doctor Bronson had -described it on the occasion of the Imperial fête. - -[Illustration: A RUSSIAN FAMILY.] - -After a ride of two hours or more, the party returned to the hotel, -stopping a few minutes on their way to drink some tea at a _traktir_. -Frank ventured to air the few Russian words he had acquired, and -acquitted himself in fine style. - -"_Dai te chai, poshowltz_" ("Give us tea, please"), he said, as they -took their seats at the table. - -"_Si chass_," replied the waiter, and in a few moments three glasses of -steaming tea were before them. - -The traveller in Russia will hear "_Si chass_" pronounced a good many -times daily while he is in the Empire. It is like the French waiter's -"_Tout de suite_" or the English one's "Coming, sir." Practically they -mean the same thing. The literal translation of "_Si chass_" is "This -hour;" and perhaps this will account for the fact that it is often an -hour before a simple demand can be met. The waiter in Russia is no more -reliable than in other countries, and not generally as intelligent as -the man of the same occupation in a French café. Many of the servants in -the hotels of St. Petersburg are French or German, instead of Russian; -in the best hotels the Russian waiters almost invariably speak French or -German, in addition to their own language. - -When the tea-drinking was ended, Frank beckoned the waiter, and -addressed him with the inquiry, "_Skolka stoit_" ("How much does it -cost?"). The waiter comprehended at once, and, somewhat to Frank's -disappointment, placed on the table a written check on which was noted -in figures the indebtedness of the party. The disappointment was not -caused by the price of the tea (only five copecks the glass), but by the -removal of the opportunity for the young man to make further airing of -his Russian by displaying his knowledge of the spoken numerals. The -printed or written figures of the Russian language are the same as those -of other European nations, and a stranger can get along with them -without the least trouble, even though he does not know a word of -Russian. - -Near the hotel they met a party consisting of two policemen and as many -prisoners. The latter appeared to be under the influence of strong -drink, and the policemen did not find it easy to make them move along. -They were not quarrelsome or obstinate; in fact, their limbs were too -weak to allow them to make any resistance. - -"They'll have a job of street-sweeping to-morrow," said the Doctor, -"unless the customs have changed since the first time I was here." - -"Do they make prisoners sweep the streets?" one of the youths asked. - -[Illustration: CULPRIT STREET-SWEEPERS.] - -"They did at that time, and quite likely they do so now," the Doctor -answered. "Every person arrested for intoxication was required to sweep -the streets the next day for a given number of hours, and it is a -strange sight when, as sometimes happens, the sweepers are in the -garments in which they have been wending their devious ways homeward -from a ball, or perhaps from a party where fancy costumes have been -worn. Generally speaking, you see few besides the mujiks, or lower -classes, as the well-dressed people, with money enough in their pockets, -can secure immunity by means of a bribe. A small donation to the proper -officer will set them free; but if they have no money they must do their -share of work with the rest." - -"I have read that Russia is the land of bribes," said Fred--"bribes both -great and small." - -"It certainly has that reputation," was the reply, "and doubtless not -without justice. The pay of the officials is very small, quite out of -proportion to the expense of living, and the temptation is certainly -great. A Russian once said to me that an official must steal in order -to make an honest living; he did not mean it as a joke, but in sober -earnest, though his language did not exactly express his meaning. He -wanted to say that a man must accept pay for showing zeal in the -interest of any one whose affairs passed through his hands, and unless -he did so he could not properly support himself and family. - -[Illustration: A BUSINESS TRANSACTION.] - -"There is a story, of a German savant who was intimate with the Emperor -Nicholas. The latter once asked him to point out any defects in the -system of government, and the savant immediately suggested the universal -system of bribery, which ought to be stopped. The Emperor shook his -head, and said it was impossible to put an end to an evil which was so -widely spread. - -"'But your Majesty could issue an Imperial decree against bribery,' the -savant replied, 'and that would prevent it.' - -"'But I would have to begin,' said the Emperor, 'by bribing my -Prime-minister to publish the decree, and then I would have to bribe -everybody else to stop taking bribes.' - -"I will tell you," the Doctor continued, "what I have been told by -Russians; I do not vouch for the correctness of what they say, but have -no doubt of their veracity. While I have had no business transactions -that involved the payment of money to officials, I have some friends -whose negotiations were altogether stopped, as they believe, by the fact -that they would not give money to persons of influence. - -"'If you have dealings with the Government,' so the Russians have told -me, 'you must pay something to each and every man who has power to -expedite or hinder your business. If you do not pay you will not -prosper, and may be certain that your proposals will be rejected. But -you should not offer the money directly to the official, as that would -give great offence.' - -"The question arises, 'What is the polite and proper way of doing such -nefarious work?' - -"The usual way is to make up your mind what you can afford to pay, and -then put the money in a cigar-case along with two or three cigars. -Having stated the business, you invite the man to smoke (everybody -smokes in Russia), and then you hand him the cigar-case and turn your -back to the window, or look intently at something on the table. He helps -himself to a cigar, and also to the money, and then the affair goes on -easily.'" - -"What a rascally business!" exclaimed both the youths in a breath. -Doctor Bronson fully echoed their sentiment, and said he earnestly hoped -the condition of things was not as bad as it is portrayed. "Alexander -II. made a considerable improvement in many things during his reign," -the Doctor continued, "and it is to be hoped that he reformed the -official system of the Empire in this particular feature." - -[Illustration: PETER THE GREAT DRESSED FOR BATTLE.] - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -STUDIES OF ST. PETERSBURG.--MUJIKS.--"THE IMPERIAL NOSEGAY."--A SHORT -HISTORY OF RUSSIAN SERFDOM.--ITS ORIGIN, GROWTH, AND -ABUSES.--EMANCIPATION OF THE SERFS.--PRESENT CONDITION OF THE PEASANT -CLASS.--SEEING THE EMPEROR.--HOW THE CZAR APPEARS IN PUBLIC.--PUBLIC AND -SECRET POLICE.--THEIR EXTRAORDINARY POWERS.--ANECDOTES OF POLICE -SEVERITY.--RUSSIAN COURTS OF LAW. - - -For the remainder of their stay in the capital Doctor Bronson and the -youths were more leisurely in their movements than during the first few -days. They dismissed the guide, as they felt that they could go around -without his aid, though they occasionally re-engaged him for special -trips when they thought their inexperience would be a bar to their -progress. - -In thus acting they followed out a plan adopted long before. On arriving -in a strange city where time was limited, they engaged a guide, in order -that they might "do" the stock sights of the place as quickly as -possible. If they were to remain for some time they employed him during -the first two or three days, and afterwards shifted for themselves. This -is an excellent system, and is recommended to all readers of this volume -who may have occasion to travel in foreign lands. - -Having familiarized themselves with St. Petersburg, our friends usually -spent the forenoon of each day at the hotel, and the afternoon and part -of the evening in going about the streets, making calls, and otherwise -improving their opportunities. The forenoon was by no means an idle -time. Doctor Bronson was busy with his letters and other matters, while -the youths were engaged in writing up their journals, preparing the -histories which have been mentioned elsewhere, and making various notes -and observations concerning what they saw or learned. In this way they -accumulated much valuable material, and we are specially fortunate in -being permitted to copy at will from what they wrote. - -"We have found a great deal to interest us," said Frank in his journal, -when he sat down to make a general commentary on what they had seen, -"and I hardly know where to begin. Of course we have been much -impressed with the great number and variety of the uniforms of the -officers and soldiers of the army; and though we have tried hard to -recognize the different arms of the service at sight, we have not always -succeeded. We wonder how the Emperor himself can know them all, but of -course he must. - -[Illustration: AN IMPERIAL NOSEGAY.] - -"We have looked for 'The Imperial Nosegay' which one traveller -describes, but have failed thus far to find it. The story goes that one -of the Emperors had a regiment composed of men whose noses were turned -up at an angle of forty-five degrees; whenever a man was found anywhere -in the Empire with that particular kind of nose he was at once drafted -into the regiment. A good many of the peasants have the nose inclined -very much in the air, but facial ornaments of the kind described for the -famous regiment are not strictly the fashion. - -"Fred thinks a regiment composed in this way ought to be good soldiers, -as they would be able to smell the smoke of battle a long way off, and -before other regiments would be aware of it. Certainly they ought to -breathe easily, and this ability was considered of great importance by -the first Napoleon. 'Other things being equal,' he used to say, 'always -choose an officer with a large nose. His respiration is more free than -that of the small-nosed man; and with good breathing powers, his mind is -clearer and his physical endurance greater.' Perhaps he realized on his -retreat from Moscow that many of his pursuers were of the kind he -describes. - -[Illustration: MUJIKS PLAYING CARDS.] - -"We have been much interested in the mujiks, or peasants--the lowest -class of the population, and also the largest. Their condition has -improved greatly in the last twenty or thirty years, if what we read -and hear is correct. We had read of the system of serfdom in Russia -before we came here, but did not exactly understand it. Since our -arrival in St. Petersburg we have tried to find out about the serfs, and -here is what we have learned: - -"To begin at the end, rather than at the beginning, there are no longer -any serfs in Russia, and consequently we are talking about something -that belongs to the past. Serfdom, or slavery, formerly existed -throughout all Europe--in England, France, Germany, Spain, and other -countries. It has been gradually extinguished, Russia being the last -Christian country to maintain it. Slavery still exists in certain forms -in Turkey; but as the Turks are Moslems, and not Christians, I don't see -why we should expect anything better in that country. - -"Serfdom began later in Russia than in any other European country, and -perhaps that fact excuses the Russians for being the last to give it up. -Down to the eleventh century the peasant could move about pretty much as -he liked. The land was the property of all, and he could cultivate any -part of it as long as he did not trespass upon any one else. In many of -the villages the land is still held on this communistic principle, and -is allotted every year, or every two or three years, by the elders. In -some communities the land must be surrendered to the commune every nine -years, while in others the peasant has a life tenancy, or what is called -in law a fee-simple. - -"I hear some one ask how it came about that serfdom was established. - -"According to our authorities, it came from the state of the country, -which was just a little better than a collection of independent -principalities. The princes were cruel and despotic, and the people -turbulent; murders of princes were very common; the princes could only -protect themselves by organizing large body-guards, which gave each -prince a small army of men around him. In course of time the officers of -these body-guards became noblemen, and received grants of land. At first -the peasants could move about on these estates with perfect freedom, but -during the sixteenth century they were attached to the soil. In other -words, they were to remain where they were when the decree was issued, -and whenever the land was sold they were sold with it. - -"It is said that the object of this decree was not so much in the -interest of the land-owners as in that of the Government, which was -unable to collect its taxes from men who were constantly moving about. -Where the land belonged to the Government and not to individuals, the -peasants living upon it became serfs of the Crown, or Crown peasants. -Thus the Russian serf might belong to a prince, nobleman, or other -person, or he might belong to the Government. Private estates were often -mortgaged to the Government; if the mortgage was unpaid and the property -forfeited, the serfs became Crown peasants instead of private ones. - -[Illustration: PEASANT'S HOUSE IN SOUTHERN RUSSIA.] - -"There was a curious condition about serfdom in Russia, that while the -man and his family belonged to the master, the land which he cultivated -was his own, or at any rate could not be taken from him. The serf owed a -certain amount of labor to his master (ordinarily three days out of -every seven), and could not leave the place without permission. A serf -might hire his time from his master, in the same way that slaves used to -hire their time in America; but he was required to return to the estate -whenever the master told him to do so. Many of the mechanics, -isvoshchiks, and others in the large cities before the emancipation were -serfs, who came to find employment, and regularly sent a part of their -wages to their masters. - -"Sometimes the masters were very severe upon the serfs, and treated them -outrageously. A master could send a serf into exile in Siberia without -giving any reason. The record said he was banished 'by the will of his -master,' and that was all. A woman, a serf on an estate, who had a fine -voice, came to Moscow, and found a place in the chorus at the -opera-house. She gradually rose to a high position, and was earning a -large salary, half of which she sent to her master. Out of caprice he -ordered her back to the estate, where she resumed the drudgery of a -peasant life. He refused all offers of compensation, and said his serf -should do what he wished. - -"Another serf had established a successful business in Moscow, where he -was employing two or three hundred workmen. The master allowed him to -remain there for years, taking for his compensation a large part of the -serf's earnings, and finally, in a fit of anger, ordered the man home -again. The man offered to pay a hundred times as much as he could earn -on the estate, but the master would not listen to it, and the business -was broken up and ruined. - -"Things went on in this way for two or three centuries. Various changes -were made in the laws, and the condition of the serfs, especially of -those belonging to the Crown, was improved from time to time. At last, -in 1861, came the decree of emancipation from the hands of Alexander -II., and the system of serfdom came to an end. - -"It was not, as many people suppose, a system of sudden and universal -freedom. The emancipation was gradual, as it covered a period of several -years, and required a great deal of negotiation. The land-owners were -compensated by the Government for their loss; the serfs received grants -of land, varying from five to twenty-five acres, with a house and a -small orchard, and the result was that every agricultural serf became a -small land-owner. Private or Government serfs were treated alike in this -respect, and the condition of the peasant class was greatly improved. - -"Since they have been free to go where they like, the serfs have crowded -to the cities in search of employment, and the owners of factories and -shops say they can now obtain laborers much easier than before. -Manufacturing interests have been materially advanced along with -agriculture, and though many persons feared the results of the -emancipation, it is now difficult to find one who would like to have the -old state of things restored. - -"Russian emancipation of the serfs and American abolition of slavery -came within a short time of each other. Both the nations have been -greatly benefited by the result, and to-day an advocate of serfdom is as -rare in Russia as an advocate of slavery in the United States." - -Frank read to his cousin the little essay we have just quoted; then he -read it to the Doctor, and asked whether it would be well to insert it -in his journal. - -"By all means do so," the Doctor replied. "There are not many people in -America who understand exactly what serfdom was, and your essay will do -much to enlighten them." - -Accordingly Frank carefully copied what he had written. Impressed with -Doctor Bronson's suggestion, we have reproduced it here, in the -confidence that our youthful readers will find it interesting and -instructive. - -[Illustration: PEASANTS' HUTS.] - -"You can add to your account of serfdom," said Doctor Bronson, "that -when it was established by Boris Godounoff, in 1601, it was regarded by -both peasant and noble as a great popular reform, and welcomed with -delight. His decree went into force on Saint George's Day, in the year -named, and its principal provision was that every peasant in the Empire -should in future till and own forever the land which he then tilled and -held. It was an act of great liberality on the part of the Czar, for by -it he gave up millions of acres belonging to the Crown and made them the -property of the peasants. - -"The serf of the Crown was to till the land, build his house, pay his -taxes, and serve as a soldier whenever wanted; the private serf existed -under very nearly the same conditions, with the difference that his -life might be more oppressed under a cruel master, and more free under -a kind one, than that of the serf of the Crown. This was what happened -in many instances; and as the masters were more likely to be cruel than -kind, and their tendency was to make as much as possible out of their -possessions, the Crown serf was generally better off than the private -one. - -[Illustration: ESTHONIAN PEASANTS.] - -"In the beginning the system was really the reform which was intended, -but very soon it was subject to many abuses. Year by year things grew -worse: owners violated the law by selling serfs away from their estates; -the masters exacted from their serfs every copeck they could earn, -flogged them if they lagged in their labor, and often caused them to be -severely punished or exiled on the merest caprice. Peter the Great -introduced some changes with the best intentions, but they only made -matters worse. He stopped the sale of serfs from the estates, which was -an excellent step; at the same time he ordered that all taxes should be -collected in a lump from the master, who should have the power in turn -to collect from the serfs. The evil of this enactment was very soon -apparent; Peter's successors struggled with the problem, but none made -much headway until Alexander II. came with his act of emancipation, -which you have just mentioned. - -"There were several conditions attached to the freedom of the serf under -Alexander's decree," the Doctor continued, "which are not generally -understood. To prevent the peasant resuming again the nomadic life which -serfdom was intended to suppress, it was ordered that no peasant could -leave his village without surrendering forever all right to the lands, -and he was also required to be clear of all claims for rent, taxes, -conscription, private debts, and the like. He was to provide for the -support of any members of his family dependent upon him whom he left -behind, and also present a certificate of membership in another commune, -or exhibit the title-deeds to a plot of land of not less than a given -area. - -"These requirements were found an excellent restriction, as under them -only the thrifty and enterprising serfs were able to clear off all -demands upon them and pay the amount required for entering another -community. Men of this class found their way to the cities and larger -towns, where many of them have risen in wealth and influence, while the -quiet, plodding peasants who remained on the estates and tilled their -lands have generally prospered. A gentleman who has studied this -question wrote recently as follows: - -"'Opposite and extreme opinions prevail as to the results of -emancipation; yet, on massing and balancing his observations on the -whole, a stranger must perceive that under emancipation the peasant is -better dressed, better lodged, and better fed; that his wife is -healthier, his children cleaner, and his homestead tidier; that he and -his belongings are improved by the gift which changed him from a chattel -to a man. He builds his cabin of better wood, and in the eastern -provinces, if not in all, you find improvements in the walls and roof. -He paints the logs, and fills up the cracks with plaster, where he -formerly left them bare and stuffed with moss. He sends his boys to -school, and goes himself more frequently to church.... The burgher -class and the merchant class have been equally benefited by the change. -A good many peasants have become burghers, and a good many burghers -merchants. All the domestic and useful trades have been quickened into -life. More shoes are worn, more carts are wanted, more cabins are built. -Hats, coats, and cloaks are in higher demand; the bakeries and breweries -find more to do; the teacher gets more pupils, and the banker has more -customers on his books.'"[3] - -[3] "Free Russia," by Hepworth Dixon, p. 275. - -[Illustration: ALEXANDER II., THE LIBERATOR OF THE SERFS.] - -With a few more words upon serfdom and its relation to other forms of -slavery, the subject was dropped, and our friends went out for a walk. -As they passed along the Nevski they were suddenly involved in a crowd, -and half forced into the door of a shop which they had visited the day -before. They were recognized by the proprietor, who invited them to -enter and make themselves comfortable. "The Emperor is coming in a few -minutes," he explained, "and the police are clearing the way for him." - -One of the youths asked if it was always necessary to clear the streets -in this way when the Emperor rode out. - -[Illustration: ALEXANDER III., EMPEROR OF RUSSIA.] - -"Not by any means," the shopkeeper replied, "as he often rides out in a -drosky, with only a single attendant following him. He goes at full -speed along the street, and his progress is so rapid that not one person -in twenty can recognize him before he gets out of sight. If he goes less -rapidly he is followed by several officers; and when he rides in a -carriage with two or more horses, he is accompanied by his body-guard of -Circassians, or by a company or section of Cossacks. - -"Nicholas and Alexander II. used to drive about quite frequently in a -drosky, which was much like the ordinary ones on the streets, except -that it was neater and more costly, and drawn by the finest horse the -Empire could produce. Since the assassination of Alexander II., and the -plots of the Nihilists against the Imperial life, we rarely see the -Emperor driving in this way, as it would afford too much opportunity for -assassins. Alexander III. generally rides in a carriage, accompanied by -some of his officers and surrounded by his body-guard. Ah! here they -come." - -As he spoke a squadron of cavalry came in sight, and soon passed the -shop. Behind the cavalry was a carriage, drawn by two spirited horses. -The Emperor occupied the rear seat, while two officers faced him on the -front seat, and another officer, or possibly an orderly, was on the box -with the driver. The crowd applauded as their ruler rode slowly by them, -and to hear the plaudits one could readily believe that the Emperor is -thoroughly beloved by his subjects. He acknowledged the cheering by -occasionally raising his hand in a military salute. Frank thought he -saluted in rather a mechanical way, from force of long habit. The youths -said they would have recognized him by his portraits, though they were -hardly prepared for the care-worn look which was depicted on his -features. - -"After all," whispered Frank to Fred, "one can't be surprised at it, and -I don't know who would want to change places with him. He must live in -constant thought of assassination, and every step he takes must be -carefully watched by those about him. So many plots have been made -against his life, and so many persons of importance have been implicated -in them, that he cannot know how soon a new one will be formed, and can -never tell who about him is faithful. 'Uneasy lies the head that wears a -crown.'" - -Behind the carriage was a company of body-guards in Circassian -chain-armor, and with weapons that belonged apparently to a past age. -Fred eagerly asked who and what these men were. - -"They are _Cherkass_, or Circassians," replied the shopkeeper, "and were -formerly at war with Russia. You have read of Schamyl, the Circassian -general, who gave Russia a great deal of trouble for a long time, have -you not?" - -[Illustration: BATTLE BETWEEN RUSSIANS AND CIRCASSIANS.] - -"Certainly," Fred answered, "I was reading about him only this morning. -He was born about 1797, and from 1828 till 1859 he carried on a -defensive war against the Russians, but was finally overpowered by -greatly superior numbers. He used to avoid regular battles, and caused a -great deal of damage to the Russians by ambuscades, surprises, and -similar warfare." - -[Illustration: SCHAMYL'S VILLAGE IN THE CAUCASUS.] - -"That was exactly the case," said their informant, "and the Russians -always acknowledged that he was an accomplished leader both in a -military and political sense. When he surrendered, in 1859, the Emperor -invited him to St. Petersburg, and gave him a residence at Kalooga, with -a handsome pension. He was made a regular guest at court, was treated -with great distinction, and soon became as ardent in the support of -Russia as he had formerly been in opposing her. He was placed in command -of the Emperor's body-guard, which he organized from the warriors that -had formerly served under him. Schamyl died in 1871, but the -organization of the guard was continued. It is whispered that the -Circassians have been replaced by Russians who wear the old uniform; but -certainly, to all outward appearances, the guard remains the same. At -any rate it is picturesque, and that is an important consideration." - -The crowd that lined the sidewalk was kept well in hand by the police. -The shopkeeper said that any man who tried to break through the line -would be arrested at once; and no doubt the knowledge of this rule -served materially to preserve order. Russian policemen are not to be -trifled with. - -The route that the Emperor is to take when riding out is never known in -these latter days, through fear of plots against his life. The -precaution is a very proper one, but it requires a large police force to -guard all the avenues and streets by which he may pass. Orders are sent -for the police to prepare three or four routes, one only being -traversed, and the direction is not given to the leader of the escort -until the Emperor is seated in the carriage. Sometimes none of the -routes which have been guarded are taken, and the Emperor enjoys a ride -with nothing but his escort for his protection. It is said the Czar is -averse to all this precaution, but is guided by the wishes of the -Imperial Council and the members of his household. - -Our friends thanked the shopkeeper for his politeness and information, -and, as the crowd had melted away, continued their walk. Frank observed -that the police did not move away, and this fact led him to surmise that -the Emperor intended returning by the same route. - -"Of course that is quite possible," said the Doctor, in response to -Frank's suggestion, "but it is not worth our while to remain on the -chance of his doing so. It is more than likely he will return to the -palace by another road; and even if he comes through the Nevski we could -see no more than we have seen already. Besides, we might arouse -suspicion in the minds of the police by remaining long on this spot, and -suspicion, however groundless, is not desirable. When the Emperor goes -out the police have orders to arrest every one whose conduct is in the -least degree questionable, and so we had better continue our walk." - -They suited their actions to the Doctor's word, and did not tarry on the -Nevski. Very soon they met another cortege, which they ascertained to be -the escort of the Chief of Police. - -[Illustration: THE EMPRESS MARIE FÉODOROVNA, WIFE OF ALEXANDER III.] - -They had a curiosity to see his face, but were disappointed, as he was -closely surrounded by his officers and men. Doctor Bronson remarked that -the Chief of Police was the most powerful man in Russia, next to the -Emperor. - -"How is that?" Fred asked. "I thought the most powerful man next to the -Emperor was the commander-in-chief of the armies." - -"There is this difference," the Doctor answered, "that the Chief of -Police is the only man in Russia who has the right to go into the -Emperor's presence at any hour of the day or night. Not even the -Field-marshal-in-chief of the Army or the Grand Admiral of the Navy can -do that. - -"The Ministers of War, Navy, and Foreign Affairs have a right to an -audience with the Emperor every day, while the Ministers of Education, -Railways and Telegraphs, Finance, and other home matters, can only see -him once or twice a week. But at any hour of the day the Minister of -Police can send his name, and immediately follows the messenger into the -Emperor's office; at any hour of the night he may have the Emperor waked -and told that the Minister of Police has an important communication to -make." - -"Do you suppose that is often done?" one of the youths inquired. - -"Probably not very often," replied Doctor Bronson, "but how frequently -the outside public cannot possibly know. In ordinary times it is not -likely the minister would ever exercise his right, as it is not wise to -wake an emperor from a sound sleep, especially when you have bad news -for him. But when assassins are making plots all around the capital and -palace, the Emperor's safety may easily require that he should have a -personal warning. In such case the Minister of Police would not hesitate -to perform his duty." - -[Illustration: RUSSIAN PEASANTS AT THEIR RECREATION.] - -Their walk took them to the Summer Gardens, where they sat down on one -of the benches and watched the groups of children and nurse-maids, -together with other groups of old and young that comprised the visitors -to the place. As they sat there the conversation recurred to their -recent topic, the police. - -"The public police is organized very much like the same service in other -countries. There are some points of difference, but they are not great -enough to be mentioned at length. One objection to the Russian public -police is that in the cities and large towns the policemen are nearly -all soldiers who have served their time in the army, and receive police -appointments as rewards. Their long service in the army imbues them with -the greatest deference to the uniform of an officer, no matter what its -wearer may be. The result is the policemen salute every officer that -passes, and thus their attention is drawn from their duties; -furthermore, an officer can misbehave himself as much as he pleases, and -run very little risk of being arrested like an ordinary offender." - -"What can you tell us about the secret police?" one of the youths asked. - -[Illustration: "WHO IS THE SPY?"] - -"I can't tell you much about it," was the reply; "and if I could it -would not be a secret police. It used to be a saying that where three -men were together one was sure to be a spy, and one or both the others -might be. The spies were in all classes of society, and paid by the -police. They did not know each other, and it quite often happened that -two of them would report against each other, doubtless to the amusement -of the officials who compared their documents. If common gossip is true, -the evil was greater in the time of Nicholas than under any other -emperor, but many people say it is about as bad at one time as another. - -"The clerk in the hotel, the waiter in the restaurant, the shopkeeper who -was so polite to us, the tailor, hatter, boot-maker, milliner, or any -other tradesman, any or all of them--women as well as men--may be in the -employ of the Government, and report your movements and conversation. -Nobody knows who is a spy, and nobody knows who is not. Consequently it -is an excellent rule in Russia never to say anything in the hearing of -any one else than ourselves that can be called in question. Mind, I -don't know of my own knowledge that there is such a thing as a secret -police, nor that such a person as a police spy exists in Russia. Having -never said or done anything to which the Emperor or his most zealous -officer could object, I have no fear of being interfered with. - -"Here are some of the stories which were current in the time of -Nicholas: - -"A retired officer of the English army lived for several years in St. -Petersburg. His manners were genial, and he made many friends both among -the foreigners living here and those who visited Russia. He died -suddenly one day, and one of his countrymen who was present at the time -took charge of his effects. His papers revealed the fact that he was a -spy of the Government, and was specially employed to watch foreigners. - -"Soon after the Revolution of 1848 a party of French gentlemen in St. -Petersburg met at the house of one of their friends. They had songs and -speeches, and a pleasant evening generally; and as all were intimate, -and of the same nationality, they were not at all cautious about their -conversation. The only servants present were Russians, and none of them -was known to understand French. Next morning the host was summoned to -the Police Bureau, where he was politely received. The official read off -the list of persons present, and a very accurate report of the songs, -toasts, and speeches of the evening. Then he asked the host if the -account was correct. The latter tremblingly answered that it was, and -was then told he had been very imprudent--an assertion he could not well -deny. He was dismissed with a caution not to repeat the imprudence, and -you may be sure he did not. He never gave another party, and never could -he guess whether the spy was one of his guests and compatriots, or one -of the servants who understood French while pretending to be ignorant of -it. - -"A great reform has taken place, and matters which were formerly in the -control of the police are now managed by courts of law. Trial by jury -has been established, and though there are many hinderances on account -of the scarcity of lawyers and judges and the ignorance of jurors, the -system is working well. The law-schools are filled with students, and in -a few years the machinery of the courts will not be unlike that of other -lands. - -[Illustration: OFFICERS SITTING IN JUDGMENT.] - -"But the police power is still too great for the safety of the people, -and probably no persons are more aware of it than are the Emperor and -his advisers. The police can imprison or exile a man for 'administrative -purposes' without any trial whatever, and without even letting him know -the nature of his offence. The police may, in certain cases, revise a -sentence which has been decreed by a court, and punish a man who has -been acquitted after trial, but they do not often exercise the right. - -"The author of 'Free Russia' says that while he was staying at Archangel -an actor and actress were brought there one day and set down in the -public square, with orders to take care of themselves, but on no account -to leave town without the governor's permission. They had been sent from -the capital on a mere order of the police, without trial, without even -having been heard in defence, and with no knowledge of the offence -alleged against them. They had no means of support, but managed to eke -out an existence by converting a barn into a theatre, and giving -performances that hardly rose to the dignity of the name of plays. - -"An agent of the police had driven up to their doors and told them to -get ready to start for Archangel in three hours. That was all; in three -hours they were on their way to exile. - -"The same writer said there was also at Archangel a lady of middle age -who had been banished from St. Petersburg on the mere suspicion that she -had been concerned in advising some of the students at the university to -send an appeal to the Emperor for certain reforms which they desired. -There was no other charge against her, and those who made her -acquaintance at Archangel were impressed with her entire innocence, as -she did not possess in any way the qualities necessary for intrigue. -Like the actor and actress just mentioned, she had had no trial, and no -opportunity to be heard in defence. - -"A young novelist named Gierst published some stories which evidently -gave offence. He was called upon at midnight, and told to get ready to -depart immediately. Away he went, not knowing whither, until the horses -stopped at the town of Totma, six hundred miles from St. Petersburg. -There he was told to stay until fresh orders came from the Ministry of -Police. None of his friends knew where he had gone; his lodgings were -empty, and all the information that could be obtained was from a servant -who had seen him start. His letters were seized, the newspapers were -forbidden to say anything about him, and it was only by a ruse that he -was able to let his friends know where he was. - -"Any number of these incidents are narrated," the Doctor continued, "and -they all show the dangerous power that is in the hands of the police. It -is said that it would have been curtailed years ago but for the rise and -spread of Nihilism, which has rendered it necessary to continue the -privilege of the police to revise sentences, or imprison and exile -without trial, 'for administrative purposes.' Let us hope that the -better day will come very soon." - -"I join heartily in that hope," said Frank. Fred echoed the words of his -cousin, and they rose and continued their promenade. - -[Illustration: RUSSIAN GRAND-DUKE AND GRAND-DUCHESS.] - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -WINTER IN RUSSIA.--FASHIONABLE AND OTHER FURS.--SLEIGHS AND SLEDGES.--NO -SLEIGH-BELLS IN RUSSIAN CITIES.--OFFICIAL OPENING OF THE NEVA.--RUSSIAN -ICE-HILLS.--"BUTTER-WEEK."--KISSING AT EASTER.--AN ACTIVE -KISSING-TIME.--RUSSIAN STOVES AND BATHS.--EFFECTS OF SEVERE COLD.--THE -STORY OF THE FROZEN NOSE.--HOW MEN ARE FROZEN TO DEATH. - - -While greatly enjoying their summer visit to St. Petersburg, Frank and -Fred regretted that they did not have the opportunity of seeing the -capital in winter. They heard much about the gayety of the winter -season, and wondered if their journeyings would ever bring them there at -the time when the snow covered the ground and the Neva was sealed with -ice. - -For their consolation Doctor Bronson told them of his winter experience -of the city. His story was about as follows: - -"I arrived here in the latter part of January, when the temperature was -running very low. The ordinary mercury thermometer, which freezes at 39° -below zero, was of no use, as the mercury would be frozen solid almost -every day. Spirit thermometers are the only practicable ones for -northern Russia, and during my stay here they marked -53° Fahrenheit. -This is an unusual and extreme figure, the mean winter temperature being -about 18° above zero. The average summer temperature is 62°, and the -extreme summer figure 99°. - -"Everybody wears furs or sheepskins in winter; they are donned when the -frosts come, and not laid aside till the trees are budding. Furs are for -the rich, or those who pretend to be so, and sheepskins for the lower -classes. Both kinds of garments are worn with the fur or wool inside; -the fur coat or cloak has a backing of cloth, while the sheepskin coat -has only the skin of the animal without any cloth addition." - -One of the boys asked what kinds of furs were most in use. - -"Nearly everything that bears the name of fur," was the reply; "but -fashion rules here as everywhere else, and it often happens that a fur -will be in great demand at one time and quite neglected a few years -later. Sable is the most expensive fur, and a coat or cloak lined with -it is worth all the way from five hundred to five thousand dollars, -depending upon the excellence of the skins. Another fur, that of the -black fox, is still more costly; but as it is worn only by the Imperial -family and the highest nobility, it does not come into our category. - -[Illustration: FUR-BEARING SEALS.] - -"Coats lined with astrachan (the soft wool of very young lambs) are -fashionable, and bring high prices. I have known of coats of this kind -selling for six or eight hundred dollars each. I took to America a cap -of astrachan wool; it cost me about three dollars, and with my -inexperienced eye I could not distinguish it from one that sold for ten -times as much. My Russian friends could readily detect the difference; -but as I was buying the cap for American and not for Russian use, I was -quite content with my purchase." - -"Why is this fur or wool called 'astrachan?'" one of the youths asked. - -[Illustration: SEA-OTTER.] - -"It comes here from Astrachan, at the mouth of the Volga," said the -Doctor. "Its preparation is one of the industries of Central Asia, for -which Astrachan is the great market. This fur is black, and remarkably -soft and silky. The lamb is killed immediately after he sees the light, -and the younger he is at the time of his death the finer and more -valuable is the skin. Persia supplies large quantities of this fur, and -it varies from black to gray or white. - -[Illustration: THE BEAVER.] - -"I mentioned the black fox as a very costly fur. The Emperor has a cloak -which is valued at ten thousand dollars; only an emperor or some one -else with plenty of money at his command could afford such a garment. -The fur of the black fox is rarely seen outside of Russia, as only a -small quantity of it comes to market. Plenty of counterfeit fur of this -kind can be found in England; it is made by dyeing the skin of the -common fox, and the work is done so skilfully as to defy detection by -any one not an expert in the fur trade. - -[Illustration: THE ERMINE.] - -"Sea-otter, mink, marten, beaver, fur-seal, lynx, and raccoon are the -furs in general use for lining garments in Russia. Otter, seal, and mink -furs are expensive, and so is that of another animal I had almost -omitted from the list, the ermine. Ermine fur was formerly the badge of -royalty, and in some countries it could be worn only by the members of -the Royal or Imperial family, or by the judges in the high courts. In -England you often hear the judges spoken of as 'wearers of the ermine;' -the fur has been used for lining the robes of the judges, its snowy -whiteness being considered an emblem of purity. The tip of the tail of -the ermine is black, and in making robes the white surface is dotted at -regular intervals with the black tips. Where they are not sufficient for -the purpose, the paws of the Astrachan lamb are used instead. - -[Illustration: THE RACCOON.] - -"The fur you see most frequently in Russia in the winter season is that -of the raccoon. I bought a coat lined with this fur when I arrived in -St. Petersburg, and paid the equivalent of eighty dollars for it. I did -not recognize the skin as that of a compatriot, and was only aware of -its origin when informed by a Russian friend. A fur-dealer in New York -afterwards told me that half a million raccoon-skins are sent annually -to London, and nearly all of them find their way to Russia. - -"Another animal whose fur comes from America to Russia is that -odoriferous creature, the skunk. A friend of mine bought a coat of this -kind under the impression that the fur grew on the back of a young bear. -In cold weather, and out-of-doors, it was all right, and no one could -have known the difference; but when the weather grew warm, and a thaw -made the atmosphere moist, my friend's coat was not a pleasant article -of wear. I believe he sold it to the manager of a glue factory, whose -nose had lost its sensitiveness through his peculiar occupation. - -"So much for the materials, and now for the garment. A Russian _shooba_, -or cloak, extends from the head to the heels of the wearer; the sleeves -cover the finger-tips, or very nearly so, and the collar, when turned -up, will completely encircle and conceal the head. The head-covering is -a cap of the pattern you see often in pictures, and once called in -America the 'pork-pie.' The coat is excellent for riding purposes. One -can walk a short distance in such a garment, but it is really -inconvenient for a promenade. - -"But as everybody who can afford to ride does so, the awkwardness of the -_shooba_ is of little consequence. The streets abound in sledges, and -you may be whisked here, there, and everywhere at a very rapid rate for -a reasonable price. The streets are far gayer in winter than in summer, -for the reason that there are so many more vehicles in motion, and I -know of no more active spectacle than the Nevski on a clear day in -January." - -"The bells on the sleighs must make a merry tinkling," said one of the -boys, with a smile. - -"Quite wrong," said the Doctor, returning the smile, "as there are no -bells at all." - -"No bells on the sleighs!" was the surprised reply. "Then the law is not -like ours in America?" - -"Exactly the reverse," answered the Doctor. "In the United States we -require them, and in Russia they forbid them. We argue that unless bells -are worn on the horses the approach of a sleigh could not be perceived; -the Russians argue that in the confusion caused by the sound of bells -one could not hear the warning shout of the driver, and would be liable -to be run over. Both are right; sleighs are not sufficiently numerous -with us to cause confusion, while in Russia their great numbers would -certainly bring about the result the Russians dread. - -"But it is in the cities and towns only," the Doctor continued, "that -the bell is forbidden. On the country roads any one travelling in a -post-carriage carries bells on the _duga_--the yoke above the neck of -the shaft-horse--but he must remove them before entering a town. Most of -these bells are made at Valdai, a town on the road from St. Petersburg -to Moscow, and the place of their origin is preserved in some of the -sleighing songs of the country. - -"Balls, parties, receptions, dances, dinners, theatricals, operas, -anything and everything belonging to fashionable life, can be found in -St. Petersburg in winter. Any one with introductions can be as gay as he -wishes, and it is a wonder to a quiet and ease-loving man that the -Russians can survive this sort of thing year after year. A fashionable -Russian rarely gets to bed before two or three o'clock in the morning; -it is true he may sleep late, but if he has any official engagements his -hours of slumber will be few. A winter in St. Petersburg is a heavy -drain on one's vital forces, and also upon the pocket. Living is dear, -and it is well said that this city is the most costly capital of Europe, -with the possible exception of Madrid. - -"The Neva freezes near the end of October or early in November, and -remains frozen until May. Nobody is allowed to venture on the ice until -it has been officially declared that the river is frozen over; and in -the spring, when the ice melts, the official declaration is necessary -before a single boat can put out from shore, or even be launched. When -the river is opened there is an elaborate ceremony, and a part of the -performance includes taking a glass of water from the river and -presenting it to the Emperor. His Majesty drinks the water and fills the -glass with gold coin. It was observed that the size of the glass -increased annually, until it assumed the proportions of a respectable -flower-vase. The Imperial stomach could not hold so much water at once, -and the Imperial purse objected to the price. A compromise was effected -by fixing a certain sum to be paid, instead of filling the glass with -gold. - -"Skating and riding on the ice have a prominent place in the amusements -of Russia in winter. Coasting on artificial ice-hills is also a standard -sport, in which all classes of people take part. It is especially in -order during 'Butter-week' and the Easter festivities, and is one of the -winter sights of all cities in the Empire." - -"How do they make these ice-hills?" Fred asked. - -[Illustration: RUSSIAN ICE-HILLS.] - -"A scaffold is raised to the height of thirty or forty feet, the posts -being set in holes drilled in the frozen earth or pavement, and fixed in -their places by pouring water around them. In a few minutes the water is -converted into ice and the post is immovable. On one side of the -scaffold there are steps for ascending it, and generally there is a -track at the side for drawing up the sleds. The other side slopes off -very steeply at the start; then it becomes more gentle, and finally -extends a considerable distance on a level. - -"Blocks of ice are laid on the slope; water is poured over them to be -converted into ice and make a smooth surface; and when the slide is -completed and opened it is thronged by patrons. It takes away one's -breath at first when he is pitched over the edge of the slope and finds -himself rushing with a speed surpassing that of a railway-train. The -impetus gained in the first part of the descent is sufficient to carry -the sled a long distance on the level. I tried the slide two or three -times, and think if I had been ten or twenty years younger I should have -enjoyed it very much." - -"Where do they put up these ice-hills?" Frank inquired. - -"Several are erected in Admiralty Square," said the Doctor, "and others -in various other squares and along the bank of the river. They are -frequently arranged so that the level part of the slide is over the ice -of the Neva, and care is taken that the track shall be smooth as glass. -There are usually two of these hills side by side, the slides being in -opposite directions. - -"Those I speak of are for the general public. Smaller slides are in the -court-yards of private houses, and there are imitations of them in many -summer-houses, where polished wood takes the place of ice. One of the -slides in the Imperial palace is of mahogany, which has been polished -till it shines like a finely finished bureau or wardrobe. - -[Illustration: SOLDIERS OFF DUTY--BUTTER-WEEK.] - -"The time to see St. Petersburg in all its winter glory is during -'_Maslinitza_,' or 'Butter-week,' which ushers in the 'Great Fast' -preceding Easter. The whole population is engaged in enjoying itself. -_Blinni_, or pancakes, are the favorite articles of food, and thousands -of digestions are upset by the enormous quantities of these things that -are devoured. They are made of flour and butter, fried in butter, and -eaten with butter-sauce. Butter and other fatty foods are in order -through the week; and from a sanitary point of view this great -consumption of grease, followed by seven weeks of fasting, leads to -frightful results. Statistics show that the mortality rate is largely -increased at this time of the year, and certainly it is not to be -wondered at. Rich and poor alike give themselves up to butter, and the -only difference is that the rich have the best qualities of the article, -and sometimes a greater quantity. - -"The rich people sometimes have _blinni_ parties during the festive -season. I once attended one of these affairs at the invitation of a -Russian friend. When we met in the parlors I was surprised that so few -were present, as I had dined there before and knew he could accommodate -twice the number. But I saw the reason when the word was given that the -pancakes were ready and our host led the way. - -"We were not taken to the dining-room but to the kitchen, and then it -was explained that _blinni_ parties are given in the kitchen, and no -more people are invited than the place can accommodate. The _blinni_ are -eaten on the spot, as fast as they are cooked, and it is a prime object -to have them hot from the griddle. We had a very jolly time there, but -for several days my stomach was like an embryo Vesuvius in consequence -of making a whole meal of this rich food. Think of an entire dinner of -buckwheat-cakes or fried 'turnovers,' the stuff that dreams are made -of." - -[Illustration: THE EASTER KISS--AGREEABLE.] - -One of the boys wished to know about the Easter kissing for which Russia -is famous. - -[Illustration: THE EASTER KISS--IN THE FAMILY.] - -"Well, it is one of the sights of Russia, with agreeable and -disagreeable features. It is not literally the case that everybody -kisses everybody else, but that statement is not so very far out of the -way after all. I passed through one Easter, and it was quite enough for -a lifetime. I was kissed by men and women almost innumerable. If the -kissing could have been confined to the young and pretty women, or even -to the comely ones of middle or advanced life, I should have borne the -infliction patiently; but when I was obliged to receive the salutation -from men, of all ages and all conditions of cleanliness, or its reverse, -it was too much for comfort. All Russia kisses all the rest of Russia at -Easter, and any foreigner who may be here at the time is treated like a -subject of the Czar. The old adage that 'Kissing goes by favor' is -entirely set aside; custom makes it well-nigh universal." - -[Illustration: THE EASTER KISS--DIFFICULT.] - -"When does the ceremony begin, and how long is it kept up?" said one of -the youths. - -[Illustration: THE EASTER KISS--DISAGREEABLE.] - -"It begins at midnight, as the clock sounds the hour of twelve and -ushers in the Easter day. A little before midnight the whole of Russia -goes to church. The Emperor and all his family assemble in the Imperial -chapel, and every church and chapel in the Empire is filled. As the -clock begins striking the hour the whole congregation is wrapped in -silence; at the last stroke of the bell the doors of the sanctuary of -the church are thrown open and the waiting priests come forth. - -"'_Christus voskress_' ('Christ is risen') is intoned by the priests, -and the song is taken up by the choir, to be followed by the response, -'_Christus voskress ihs mortvui_' ('Christ is risen from the dead'). The -priests walk through the congregation repeating the words and swinging -their censers. - -"The beginning of the chant is the signal for the kissing. Friends and -acquaintances are generally standing together, and each kisses every -other one of the group. Those who have the slightest possible -acquaintance kiss each other, and at each and every kiss the two phrases -I have given are repeated. At the same instant that the signal is given -by the opening of the doors of the sanctuary, the churches are -illuminated both inside and out, every bell is rung, and the pealing of -cannon and the flashing of rockets show how much the festival is a -national one. - -"The kissing is continued through the night and all the next day, and -even for several days all relatives, friends, and acquaintances salute -each other with _Chritus voskress_ and a kiss; every isvoshchik, porter, -dustman--in fact every peasant of every name and kind kisses every other -peasant he has ever known, and a great many whom he never saw before. -Clerks in the public offices kiss each other, officers and soldiers of -the army salute in the same way, the general kissing all his subordinate -officers, the colonel of a regiment kissing all the officers beneath -him, and also a deputation of the soldiers, while the captain and -lieutenants kiss all the soldiers of their companies. The same order is -observed in the navy and in all the official ranks, and the number of -osculations in the Empire in that one day of the year is quite beyond -the power of calculation." - -"Are the Emperor and Empress subject to the same rule as other people?" -was the very natural inquiry which followed. - -[Illustration: THE EMPEROR'S EASTER KISS.] - -"Certainly," was the reply; "the ceremony is closely connected with the -religion of the country, and as the Emperor is the head of the Church, -he could not possibly secure exemption from this ancient custom. The -Emperor and Empress must salute all the members of the Imperial family -as a matter of course, and also all the court officials and attendants; -and after this ceremony is over the Empress must give her hand to be -kissed by every officer above the rank of colonel who has the right of -attendance at court. The Emperor kisses all his officers on parade, and -also a delegation of soldiers selected as representatives of the army. -The military parades for the Imperial kiss last several days, as it -would be impossible to go through the ceremonial with all the regiments -around St. Petersburg in a single revolution of the earth. - -"Easter makes an end of the long fast of seven weeks, which has been -kept by all faithful members of the Church with great rigor. The lower -classes refrain even from fish during the first and last weeks of the -fast, and also on Wednesdays and Fridays of the other five. It is no -wonder that they precede it with the festivities of 'Butter-week,' so -that the recollection of the good time they have had will be a -consolation during the fast. With the kissing of Easter begins a period -of feasting, both in eating and drinking, which is by no means famous -for its moderation. Many of the mujiks are sadly intoxicated before the -setting of the sun at Easter, and they are by no means the only persons -who exhibit the effects of too liberal potations." - -From Easter and its kisses the conversation wandered to other subjects. -Fred asked how the houses were kept warm in the intense cold of a -Russian winter. - -[Illustration: PEASANT GIRL IN WINTER DRESS.] - -"Some of the more modern buildings of St. Petersburg and Moscow," said -the Doctor, "are warmed by furnaces not unlike those used in America. -But the true _peitchka_, or Russian stove, is of brick, and is generally -built so as to form the common centre of three or four rooms and warm -them all at once. In the huts of the peasants the top of the stove is -utilized as a bed, and it is usually large enough for three or four -persons to lie there with comparative comfort." - -"Do they keep the fire going there all the time during the winter?" - -"Not exactly," was the reply, "though in a certain sense they do. Every -morning the fire is kindled in the stove, which resembles an enormous -oven, and is kept burning for several hours. When it has burned down to -a bed of coals, so that no more carbonic gas can be evolved, the chimney -is closed, and port-holes near the top of the stove are opened into the -room or rooms. The hot air comes out and warms the apartments, and there -is enough of it to keep a good heat for twelve or fifteen hours. - -"The port-holes must be carefully closed during the combustion of the -wood, in order to prevent the escape of poisonous gas. Sometimes they -are opened when there is still some flame burning. A Russian will -instantly detect the presence of this gas, and open a window or rush -into the open air, but strangers, in their ignorance, are occasionally -overpowered by it. - -"Several instances are on record of strangers losing their lives by -_ougar_, as the Russians call this poisonous gas from the stove. Among -them, some twenty years ago, was the son of a Persian ambassador, who -was smothered in one of the principal hotels of Moscow. When a person is -overpowered by _ougar_, and found insensible, he is carried out-of-doors -and rolled in the snow--a severe but efficacious remedy. - -"Then, too, the cold is excluded by means of double or triple windows, -little cones of paper filled with salt being placed between the windows -to absorb whatever moisture collects there. Russian houses are very -poorly ventilated, and frequently, on entering from the open air, you -are almost stifled by the foul atmosphere that seems to strike you in -the face like a pugilist. - -"It is probably the condition of the air in which they live, combined -with late hours and the exactions of fashionable life, that gives such -an aspect of paleness to nearly all the Russian women above the peasant -class. A fresh, ruddy complexion, such as one sees almost universally -throughout England, and quite generally in America, is almost unknown -among Russian ladies. If the Emperor would issue a decree requiring the -houses of the Empire to be properly ventilated, he would confer a -blessing on his faithful subjects, and save or prolong thousands of -lives. - -"The peasants sometimes use their stoves for baths," said the Doctor, to -the great surprise of his youthful auditors. - -"How is that possible?" one of them asked. "Do they fill the stove with -water the same as they would a bath-tub?" - -"Not exactly," the Doctor answered, smilingly. "You know the character -of the Russian bath as we find it in New York and other American -cities?" - -"Certainly," was the reply. "It is a room filled with steam, and with a -series of benches on which you lie and are heated, the highest bench -being hottest of all." - -[Illustration: A BATH IN THE EAST.] - -"The Russian bath of the best class here," said Doctor Bronson, "is -arranged in the same way. The more primitive bath is simply a room with -benches, and a fire on a pile of hot stones. Water is thrown over the -stones and converted into steam, and the finishing touch is to mount to -the topmost bench while an attendant deluges the stones with water and -raises a cloud that threatens to scald you. The most profuse -perspiration is the result, and the bath is no doubt a great sanitary -institution. The Turkish bath is much like the Russian, hot, dry air -taking the place of steam. - -"Taken properly, the Russian bath has no bad effects, and is beneficial -in rheumatism, gout, certain forms of neuralgia, and several other -diseases. It is a wonderful restorative when you have been shaken up in -carriages on Russian roads, and an excellent thing after a journey of -any kind. Every good Russian considers it his duty to bathe once a week, -but he does not always adhere to the rule. - -"In every village there is a bath-house which is the general property of -the villagers, and maintained by popular contribution. When a peasant -has no bath-house he creeps into his stove, bakes himself on the hot -ashes, and after perspiring freely crawls out and is drenched with -water. Nearly every private house has its bath, which is generally in a -small building in the yard, rather than in the dwelling-house. In all -the large cities there are numerous bathing establishments, some of them -fitted up in gorgeous style, while others are of the plainest and -cheapest sort. The Russians are quite gregarious in their bathing -habits, and think no more of taking a bath in the presence of each other -than of dining in a restaurant." - -"Is it true that the Russians finish a bath by having iced water poured -over them, or by taking a plunge into it?" - -"It is the custom to close the pores of the skin by means of cold, but -not ice-cold water. The attendant begins the work of the bath by -throwing water over you, first warm, then hot, then hotter, and then -hottest. This drenching is followed by the steaming process and a gentle -flogging with birchen rods or switches to stimulate perspiration. Then -you are soaped and scrubbed, the scrubbing being performed usually with -birchen shavings, which are thoroughly and vigorously applied. - -"After this you are again drenched with buckets of water, beginning with -warm and going on a descending scale to cold, so that there shall be no -shock to the system. Men have rushed from the bath into a snow-bank, but -this is not the custom; the peasants frequently leave the bath to take a -swim in the river, but only in mild weather. No doubt there have been -cases of bathing voluntarily through the ice or in iced water, but you -must search far and wide to find them." - -Frank remarked that he thought one should exercise great care in going -into the open air in winter after taking a bath. Doctor Bronson -explained that this was the reason of the drenching with cold water, so -that the pores of the skin would be closed and the chances of taking -cold greatly reduced. - -"It is quite a shock to the system," said the Doctor, "to pass from in -doors to out, or from out doors to in, during the Russian winter. The -houses are generally heated to about 70° Fahrenheit; with the -thermometer at zero, or possibly ten, twenty, or more degrees below, it -is like stepping from a furnace to a refrigerator, or _vice versa_. But -the natives do not seem to mind it. I have often seen a mujik rise from -his couch on the top of the stove, and after tightening his belt and -putting on his boots and cap, mount the box of a sleigh and drive for -two or three hours in a temperature far below zero." - -"I have read somewhere," said Fred, "about the danger of losing one's -ears and nose by frost, and that it is the custom in St. Petersburg and -Moscow to warn any one that he is being frozen. Did you ever see a case -of the kind?" - -[Illustration: RUSSIAN STREET SCENE IN WINTER.] - -"It is a strange circumstance," replied the Doctor, "that nearly every -tourist who has been in Russia, even for only a week or so, claims to -have seen a crowd running after a man or woman, calling out '_Noss! -noss!_' and when the victim did not understand, seizing him or her and -rubbing the nose violently with snow. - -"One writer tells it as occurring to a French actress; another, to an -English ambassador; another, to an American politician; and in each case -the story is varied to give it a semblance of truth. I was in Moscow and -St. Petersburg during January and February; and though constantly -watching to see somebody's nose pulled, was doomed to disappointment. I -asked my Russian friends about it, and none of them was wiser than I. -One said it might happen once in a great while, but it was safe to -conclude that everybody knew enough to take care of his own nose." - -Frank asked how one could tell when his nose was freezing, or how -observe the freezing of another's. - -"The nose and ears become numb and turn white," was the reply, "and that -indicates the beginning of the freezing. When this is the condition -nothing but a vigorous rubbing to restore the circulation will prevent -the loss of those organs. It is for protection from the frost that the -Russians keep their faces wrapped in furs; and if a man has any doubt -about the condition of his facial attachments he will touch them -occasionally to make sure. When you pinch your nose and do not feel the -pinch, it is time to rub with snow, promptly and with energy. - -"Severe cold is very inconvenient for the wearer of a mustache, as he -speedily gathers a great quantity of ice there by the congelation of the -moisture of his breath. A man's beard becomes a frozen mass in a little -while. Beard and furs frequently freeze together, and render a sudden -turn of the head a matter of great annoyance. Ladies find their veils -stiffening into something like wire gauze when the thermometer runs low. -They disdain the bonnet of London or Paris, and sensibly enclose their -head in hoods lined with fur, and having capes descending well into the -neck. - -"Horses become white in a short time, no matter what may be their real -color, from the formation of frost all over their bodies. Their breath -suggests steam more than anything else, and the long hairs around their -noses are turned into icy spikes. In the severest weather pigeons have -been seen to fall to the ground paralyzed with the cold, but it is quite -likely that their flights were forced, and the birds were half frozen -before taking wing." - -Frank asked if it often happened that people were frozen to death in -these Russian winters. - -"Occurrences of this kind probably take place every year," was the -reply, "but from all I have been able to learn I believe the number is -exaggerated. In many cases it is the fault of the frozen ones -themselves; they have been rendered insensible or careless by -stimulants, and gone to sleep in the open air. The tendency to sleep -when one is exposed to severe cold should be resisted, as it is very -likely to be the sleep of death. - -[Illustration: LOST IN A SNOW-STORM.] - -"There is a story of two travellers who saw a third in trouble; one of -them proposed to go to the relief of the man in distress, but the other -refused, saying he would not stir out of their sleigh. The first went -and relieved the sufferer; his exertions set the blood rushing through -his veins and saved him from injury by the cold, while the one who -refused to render aid was frozen to death. - -"It is a curious fact," said the Doctor, in closing his remarks upon the -Russian winter, "that foreigners coming here do not feel the cold at -first. They walk the streets in the same clothing they would wear in -London or Paris, and laugh at the Russians wrapping themselves in furs. -At the same time the Russians laugh at them and predict that if they -stay in the country for another season they will change their ways. A -stranger does not feel the cold the first winter as sensibly as do the -Russians, but in every succeeding season of frost he is fully sensitive -to it, and vies with the natives in constant use of his furs." - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - -LEAVING ST. PETERSBURG.--NOVGOROD THE GREAT: ITS HISTORY AND -TRADITIONS.--RURIK AND HIS SUCCESSORS.--BARBARITIES OF JOHN THE -TERRIBLE.--EARLY HISTORY OF RUSSIA.--AN IMPERIAL BEAR-HUNT.--ORIGIN OF -THE HOUSE OF ROMANOFF.--"A LIFE FOR THE CZAR."--RAILWAYS IN RUSSIA FROM -NOVGOROD TO MOSCOW. - - -A day was appointed for leaving St. Petersburg. Notice was given at the -office of the hotel, and the passports of the three travellers received -the necessary indorsements at the Police Bureau. Trunks were packed and -bills settled, and at the proper time a carriage conveyed the party to -the commodious station of the Imperial Railway from the new capital of -Russia to the old. But they did not take their tickets direct for -Moscow. - -As before stated, the railway between the two great cities of the Czar's -dominions is very nearly a straight line, and was laid out by the -Emperor Nicholas with a ruler placed on the map and a pencil drawn along -its edge. There is consequently no city of importance along the route, -with the exception of Tver, where the line crosses the Volga. Novgorod, -the oldest city of Russia, is about forty miles from the railway as -originally laid out. Until within a few years it was reached by steamers -in summer from Volkhova Station, seventy-five miles from St. Petersburg. -In winter travellers were carried in sledges from Chudova Station (near -Volkhova), and to novices in this kind of travel the ride was -interesting. - -Latterly a branch line has been completed to Novgorod, and one may leave -St. Petersburg at 9 A.M. and reach Novgorod at 6 P.M. The pace of the -trains is not dangerously fast, and accidents are of rare occurrence. -Between Moscow and St. Petersburg (four hundred and three miles) the -running time for express trains is twenty hours, and for way trains -twenty-three to twenty-five hours. Nine hours from St. Petersburg to -Novgorod (one hundred and twenty miles) should not startle the most -timorous tourist. - -Doctor Bronson had told the youths some days before their departure that -they would visit Novgorod on their way to Moscow. He suggested that he -desired them to be informed about its history, and soon after the train -started he referred to the subject. - -[Illustration: WORKMEN OF NOVGOROD--GLAZIER, PAINTER, AND CARPENTERS.] - -"It is rather an odd circumstance," said Frank, "that the oldest city in -Russia is called Novgorod, or 'New City.' _Novo_ means 'new,' and -_Gorod_ is Russian for 'city.' It received its name when it was really -the newest town in Russia, and has kept it ever since." - -"It is also called Novgorod Veliki," said Fred, "which means Novgorod -the Great. In the fifteenth century it had a population of four hundred -thousand, and was really entitled to be called the great. At present it -has less than twenty thousand inhabitants, and its industries are of -little importance compared to what they used to be. - -"It has a trade in flax, corn, and hemp," the youth continued, "and its -manufactures are principally in tobacco, leather, sail-cloth, vinegar, -and candles. In former times an important fair was held here, and -merchants came to Novgorod from all parts of Europe and many countries -of Asia. Afterwards the fair was removed to Nijni Novgorod, on the -Volga, and the ancient city became of little consequence except for its -historical interest." - -"The Slavs founded a town there in the fourth century," said Frank. -"About the year 862 the Russian monarchy had its beginning at Novgorod; -in 1862 there was a millennial celebration there, and a magnificent -monument was erected to commemorate it." - -"This is a good place for you to tell us about the early history of -Russia," said the Doctor. - -[Illustration: AN OLD NORSE CHIEF.] - -"I have been studying it," Frank replied, "and find that previous to the -ninth century the country was occupied by the Slavs, who founded the -towns of Novgorod and Kief. Each of these places was the capital of an -independent Slavic principality. Very little is known of the history of -the Slavs in those times. The Varangians, a northern people, made war -upon them. The Slavs resisted, but finally invited Rurik, the Prince of -the Varangians, to come and rule over them. The Northmen, or Varangians, -were called 'Russ' by the Slavs, and from them the new monarchy was -called Russia. Rurik came with his two brothers, Sineus and Truvor, and -at Novgorod laid the foundation of this empire that now covers -one-eighth of the land surface of the globe. - -"The story is admirably told in verse by Bayard Taylor. I have copied -the lines from his poetical volume, and will read them to you." - -In a full, clear voice the youth then read as follows, having previously -explained that Mr. Taylor was present at the millennial celebration -already mentioned: - -A THOUSAND YEARS. - -_Novgorod, Russia, Sept_. 20, 1862. - - "'A thousand years! Through storm and fire, - With varying fate, the work has grown, - Till Alexander crowns the spire, - Where Rurik laid the corner-stone. - - "'The chieftain's sword, that could not rust, - But bright in constant battle grew, - Raised to the world a throne august-- - A nation grander than he knew. - - "'Nor he, alone; but those who have, - Through faith or deed, an equal part: - The subtle brain of Yaroslav, - Vladimir's arm and Nikon's heart; - - "'The later hands, that built so well - The work sublime which these began, - And up from base to pinnacle - Wrought out the Empire's mighty plan. - - "'All these, to-day, are crowned anew, - And rule in splendor where they trod, - While Russia's children throng to view - Her holy cradle, Novgorod. - - "'From Volga's banks; from Dwina's side; - From pine-clad Ural, dark and long; - Or where the foaming Terek's tide - Leaps down from Kasbek, bright with song; - - "'From Altai's chain of mountain-cones; - Mongolian deserts, far and free; - And lands that bind, through changing zones, - The Eastern and the Western sea! - - "'To every race she gives a home, - And creeds and laws enjoy her shade, - Till, far beyond the dreams of Rome, - Her Cæsar's mandate is obeyed. - - "'She blends the virtues they impart, - And holds, within her life combined, - The patient faith of Asia's heart-- - The force of Europe's restless mind. - - "'She bids the nomad's wanderings cease; - She binds the wild marauder fast; - Her ploughshares turn to homes of peace - The battle-fields of ages past. - - "'And, nobler yet, she dares to know - Her future's task, nor knows in vain, - But strikes at once the generous blow - That makes her millions men again! - - "'So, firmer based, her power expands, - Nor yet has seen its crowning hour-- - Still teaching to the struggling lands - That Peace the offspring is of Power. - - "'Build, then, the storied bronze, to tell - The steps whereby this height she trod-- - The thousand years that chronicle - The toil of Man, the help of God! - - "'And may the thousand years to come-- - The future ages, wise and free-- - Still see her flag and hear her drum - Across the world, from sea to sea!-- - - "'Still find, a symbol stern and grand, - Her ancient eagle's wings unshorn; - One head to watch the Western land, - And one to guard the land of morn.' - -"Bear in mind," said Frank, after pausing at the end of the lines, "that -the millennial celebration took place not long after the edict of -emancipation was issued by Alexander II. This is what Mr. Taylor refers -to in the third line of his poem. - -"To go on with the story, let me say that Rurik and his descendants -ruled the country for more than two centuries. They made war upon their -neighbors, and were generally victorious, and in their time the -boundaries of Russia were very much enlarged. Rurik and his sons were -pagans. In the tenth century Christianity was introduced, and Olga, the -widow of Igor, son of Rurik, was baptized at Constantinople. Her son -remained a pagan. He was slain in battle, and left the monarchy to his -three sons, who soon began to quarrel. One was killed in battle, and -another was put to death by the third brother, Vladimir, who assumed -entire control, and was surnamed 'The Great' on account of the benefits -he conferred upon Russia." - -Fred asked if Vladimir was a Christian. - -"He was not," said Frank, "at least not in the beginning, but he -subsequently became a convert to the principles of the Greek Church, -married the sister of the Emperor of Constantinople, and was baptized on -the day of his wedding, in the year 988. He ordered the introduction of -Christianity into Russia, and established a great many churches and -schools. - -[Illustration: VIEW ON THE STEPPE.] - -"Vladimir left the throne to his twelve sons, who quarrelled about it -till several of them were murdered or slain in battle. The successful -son was Yaroslav, who followed the example of his father by extending -the boundaries of the country and introducing reforms. He caused many -Greek books to be translated into Slavic, and ordered the compilation of -the '_Russkaya Pravda_,' which was the first law code of the country. -Nikon, whom Mr. Taylor mentions in the same line with Vladimir, was a -Russian scholar and theologian of a later time, to whom the religion of -Russia is much indebted. - -"After Yaroslav's death there were many internal and external wars, -during which Russia lost a great deal of territory, and the history of -the country for a long period is a history of calamities. The Tartars -under Genghis Khan invaded Russia, plundering towns and cities, -murdering the inhabitants, and ravaging the whole country from the -frontiers of Asia to the banks of the Vistula. Famine and pestilence -accompanied war; in the year 1230 thirty thousand people died of the -plague at Smolensk and forty-two thousand at Novgorod. Alexander Nevski -defeated the Swedes and Livonians on the banks of the Neva. He was a -prince of Novgorod, and one of the most enlightened of his time. - -[Illustration: IVAN THE TERRIBLE.] - -"Moscow was founded about 1147, and grew rapidly, although it was -repeatedly sacked by the Mongol invaders, who slew on one occasion -twenty-four thousand of its inhabitants. The capital was established -there, and under various rulers the war with the Mongols was continued -to a successful end. Ivan III., surnamed 'The Great,' drove them out, -and successfully repelled their attempts to return. His son and -successor, Ivan IV., was surnamed 'The Terrible,' and certainly he -deserved the appellation. We have mentioned him already in our account -of what we saw in St. Petersburg. - -"He was an energetic warrior, encouraged commerce, made treaties with -other nations, introduced the art of printing, and invited many -foreigners to reside in Russia and give instruction to the people. On -the other hand, he was one of the most cruel rulers that ever governed -a people, and seems to have rivalled the brutalities of the Mongols. -Here are some of his cruelties that are recorded in history: - -"He hated Novgorod on account of the independent spirit of its people, -and for this reason he put more than sixty thousand of its inhabitants -to death, many of them with torture. Novgorod had maintained an -independent government, quite distinct from that of the Grand-duchy of -Moscow. Ivan III. and his son, Vassili, made war upon Novgorod and the -other independent principality of Pskov, and Ivan IV. ('The Terrible') -brought them to complete submission. The slaughter of the people of -Novgorod was the closing act of the conquest. - -"We will change Ivan to its English equivalent, John, and henceforth -speak of this monster as John the Terrible. He was only four years old -when he became Czar. During his infancy the government was conducted by -his mother, under the direction of the House of Boyards (noblemen). When -he was thirteen years of age a political party which was opposed to the -Boyards suggested that he could rule without any assistance, and he at -once took the control of affairs. Very soon he terrified those who had -placed him on the throne, and they would have been gladly rid of him if -they could. - -"An English ambassador came to Moscow bringing the answer to a letter in -which John had proposed marriage to Queen Elizabeth. The Queen rejected -his offer, but in such a diplomatic manner as not to offend the -sanguinary Czar. Her ambassador incurred the monarch's ill-will by -neglecting to uncover before him, and it was accordingly ordered that -the envoy's hat should be nailed to his head. Foreigners were better -treated than were the subjects of John, and the ambassador was not -harmed, though he was afterwards imprisoned. - -"For his amusement John the Terrible used to order a number of people to -be sewed up in bear-skins, and then torn to death by bear-hounds. For -tearing prisoners to pieces he ordered the tops of several trees to be -bent down so that they came together; the limbs of the unfortunate -victim were fastened to these tops, each limb to a different tree. When -they were thus tied up, the release of the trees performed the work -intended by the cruel Czar." - -"Isn't John's name connected with the Church of St. Basil at Moscow?" -Fred asked. - -"Yes," answered Frank; "it was built in his reign, and is considered one -of the finest in the city. When it was finished John sent for the -architect and asked if he could build another like it. - -"'Certainly I could,' the architect replied, with delight. - -"Thereupon the monarch ordered the architect's eyes to be put out, to -make sure that the Church of St. Basil should have no rival. - -"Whether he was a kind husband or not we have no information, but he -certainly was very much a husband. He had one Mohammedan and two Russian -wives; and at the very time he sought the hand of Elizabeth, Queen of -England, he proposed to marry the daughter of King Sigismund of Poland. -What he intended doing if both offers were accepted we are not told, but -it is not likely that bigamy would have had any terrors for a man of -such ungovernable temper as he seems to have been. - -[Illustration: ALEXIS MICHAILOVITCH, FATHER OF PETER THE GREAT.] - -"At his death his son and successor, Feodor, fell under the influence of -Boris Godounoff, his brother-in-law, who assumed full power after a -time, and renewed the relations with England which had been suspended -for a while. Godounoff obtained the throne by poisoning or exiling -several of his relatives who stood in his way or opposed his projects. -Feodor is believed to have died of poison; he was the Czar from 1584 to -1598, but for the last ten years of this period he had practically no -voice in State affairs. With his death the House of Rurik became -extinct." - -"Does the House of Romanoff, the present rulers of Russia, begin where -that of Rurik ended?" the Doctor asked. - -"Not exactly," was the reply, "as there was an interval of nineteen -years, and a very important period in the history of the Empire. Several -pretenders to the throne had appeared, among them Demetrius, who is -known in history as the 'Impostor.' He married a Polish lady, and it was -partly through her intrigues that Moscow fell into the hands of the -Poles." - -"And how were they driven out?" - -"A butcher or cattle-dealer of Nijni Novgorod, named Minin, gathered a -small army under the belief that he was ordered by Heaven to free his -country from the invaders. He persuaded Prince Pojarsky to lead these -soldiers to Moscow, and together they started. Their force increased as -they advanced, and finally they expelled the Poles and redeemed the -capital. The names of Minin and Pojarsky are very prominent in Russian -history. Monuments at Moscow and Nijni Novgorod commemorate the action -of these patriotic men, and tell the story of their work in behalf of -their country. - -[Illustration: MICHAEL FEODOROVITCH, FIRST CZAR OF THE ROMANOFF FAMILY.] - -"The incident on which Glinka's opera, 'A Life for the Czar,' is based -belongs to this period, when the Poles overran Russia. The Czar who was -saved was Michael Feodorovitch, the first of the Romanoffs, and he was -elected to the throne by an assembly of nobles. The autocrat of all the -Russias is descended from a man who was chosen to office by the form of -government which is now much more in vogue in America than in the land -of the Czar. Michael, the first of the Romanoffs, was the son of Feodor -Romanoff, Archbishop of Rostov, and afterwards Patriarch of Moscow. - -"There was nothing remarkable about the reign of Feodor, nor of that of -his son Alexis. The latter was distinguished for being the father of -Peter the Great, and for nothing else that I can find in history. Now we -step from ancient to modern times. Peter the Great belongs to our day, -and the Russia that we are visiting is the one that he developed. Under -him the country became an Empire, where it was before nothing more than -a kingdom. During his reign--" - -They were interrupted by the stoppage of the train at a station, and the -announcement that they must wait there an hour or more to receive some -of the Imperial foresters, who were arranging for a bear-hunt. - -Russian history was dropped at once for a more practical and modern -subject, the Emperor of Russia, and his pursuit of the bear. - -The Doctor explained to the youths that the Czar is supposed to be fond -of the chase, and whenever a bear is seen anywhere near the line of the -Moscow and St. Petersburg Railway he is made the object of an Imperial -hunt. The animal is driven into a forest and allowed to remain there -undisturbed. In fact he is kept in the forest by a cordon of peasants -hastily assembled from all the surrounding country. As soon as the party -can be organized, the hunt takes place in grand style. - -The Imperial train is prepared, and an extra train sent out in advance, -with the necessary beaters, soldiers, and others, and also a plentiful -supply of provisions. The Imperial train contains the Emperor's private -carriage and several other fine vehicles. There are carriages for the -Emperor's horses, unless they have gone in the advance train, and there -are guns and ammunition sufficient to slaughter half the bears in the -Empire. - -When the ground is reached the locality of the bear is pointed out, and -the Emperor rides fearlessly to the spot. He is accompanied by his staff -and guests, if he happens to have any Royal or Imperial visitors at the -time; but unless the guests are invited to do the shooting, the honor of -killing the beast is reserved for the Emperor. Exceptions are made in -case the bear should endanger the life of his Majesty, which sometimes -happens. Bears have little sense of Imperial dignity, and a Czar is of -no more consequence to an untamed bruin than is the most ordinary -peasant. - -"A gentleman who was stopping on an estate in the interior of Russia," -said Doctor Bronson, "happened to be a witness of an Imperial bear-hunt -several years ago, and told me about it. He said not less than five -hundred Cossacks and peasants were employed in watching the bear, to -keep him from straying, and the brute had become so accustomed to their -presence that he stood quite still when approached by the Emperor, so -that the latter delivered his shot at a distance of not more than a -dozen yards. The animal was killed instantly, the ball penetrating his -forehead and crashing through his brain. - -"After the hunt the party rode to the house of the owner of the estate -where the bear had been found, and enjoyed a hearty supper, and after -the supper they returned to the capital. The body of the slain animal -was dressed for transportation to St. Petersburg, where it was to be -served up at the Imperial table. - -[Illustration: TOO NEAR TO BE PLEASANT.] - -"I have heard of bears that did not run at the sight of man, but -sometimes came altogether too near to be agreeable. One day a man who -lay asleep on the ground was awakened by a bear licking his face. He sat -up and was much terrified at the situation; the bear finally walked off, -and left the man unharmed. - -[Illustration: WOLF ATTACKING ITS HUNTERS.] - -"When the Emperor treats his Royal or Imperial guests to a wolf or bear -hunt, the masters of ceremonies take good care that there shall be game -in the forest. On one occasion, when the Crown-prince of Germany was a -guest at the Winter Palace, the Emperor ordered a wolf-hunt for his -amusement. The chase was successful, and two of the animals were driven -so that they were shot by the guest. - -"During their return to St. Petersburg, so the story goes, the Prince -commented on the wonderful race of wolves in Russia. 'One of those I -killed to-day,' said he, 'had the hair rubbed from his neck as if by a -chain, and the other wore a collar.'" - -"Are there many bears in Russia?" one of the youths inquired. - -"The bear is found all over Russia," the Doctor answered. "The most -common varieties are the black and brown bears, which are in Asiatic as -well as European Russia; in northern Asia is the Arctic bear, which -belongs to the sea rather than to the land. He is the largest of the -family, but not the most formidable. The champion bear of the world for -fighting qualities is the grisly, found only in North America. - -"In some parts of Russia," the Doctor continued, "bears are so numerous -as to do a great deal of damage. They destroy cattle and sheep, and not -unfrequently attack individuals. They cause much havoc among fruit-trees -and in grain-fields, and in localities where inhabitants are few they -have things pretty much their own way. They are hunted with dogs and -guns; traps are set for them, and poison is scattered where they can -find and eat it. But in spite of the efforts of man against them they do -not diminish in numbers from year to year, and the Emperor is able to -have a bear-hunt about as often as he wants one. - -"I have heard that in some parts of Siberia bears are caught and tamed, -and then driven to market as one drives oxen or sheep. In a book of -travels written by a Frenchman there is a picture of a dozen or more -bears being driven to market, and the story is told in all soberness. -French travellers are famous for a tendency to make their narratives -interesting, even if veracity should suffer. There are exceptions, of -course, as in everything else, but you may set it down as a good general -rule, not to accept without question any extraordinary statement you -find in a French book of travel." - -In due time the journey was resumed, and the train reached Novgorod, -where our travellers alighted. Novgorod stands on both sides of the -Volkhov River, and is one hundred and three miles from St. Petersburg by -the old post-road. It is not remarkable for its architecture, and is -chiefly interesting for its historical associations and souvenirs. - -[Illustration: OLD PICTURE IN THE CHURCH.] - -"We visited several of the churches and monasteries which make up the -attractions of Novgorod," said Frank, in his journal. "The principal -church is the Cathedral of St. Sophia, which was called in ancient times -'The Heart and Soul of the Great Novgorod.' The first cathedral was -built here in 989; the present one dates from about 1045, when it was -erected by order of the grandson of St. Vladimir. It has been altered -and repaired repeatedly, but the alterations have not materially changed -it from its ancient form. It is one of the oldest churches in Russia, -and is held in great reverence by the people. - -"The church has suffered by repeated plunderings. It was robbed by John -the Terrible, and afterwards by the Swedes; the latter, in 1611, killed -two of the priests and destroyed the charter which had been granted to -the cathedral more than fifty years before. In spite of these -depredations, the church contains many relics and images, some of them -of great antiquity. There are shrines in memory of Yaroslav, Vladimir, -and other of the ancient rulers of Russia; the shrine and tomb of St. -Anne, daughter of King Olaf of Sweden, and wife of Prince Yaroslav I.; -and the shrines or tombs of many other saints, princes, archbishops, -patriarchs, and other dignitaries whose names have been connected with -the history of the church and the city. So many tombs are here that -there is little room for more. - -[Illustration: A BISHOP OF THE GREEK CHURCH.] - -"You would hardly expect one of the curious relics of a church to be the -result of piracy, yet such appears to be the case in this sacred -building. The doors leading into the Chapel of the Nativity are said to -have been stolen from a church in Sweden by pirates. Several men from -Novgorod belonged to the freebooting band, and brought these doors home -to enrich the cathedral of their native place. The doors are of oak, -covered with metal plates half an inch thick; the plates bear several -devices and scrolls which we could not understand, but our guide said -they were the armorial bearings of Swedish noblemen. There is another -door, which is also said to have been stolen from a church, but its -exact origin is unknown. - -"In the sacristy they showed us an ancient copy of the four gospels on -vellum, and a printed copy which is said to have come from the first -printing-press ever set up in Russia. There were several flags and -standards which once belonged to the princes of Novgorod, one of them a -present from Peter the Great in 1693. There was once an extensive -library connected with the cathedral, but it was taken to St. Petersburg -in 1859. They showed us a collection of letters from Peter the Great to -Catherine I. and his son Alexis, but of course we could not read them. - -"There is a kremlin, or fortress, in the centre of the city, but it is -not of great consequence. Near it is a tower which bears the name of -Yaroslav; in this tower hung the _Vechie_ bell, which summoned the -_vechie_, or assemblage of citizens, when any public circumstance -required their attention. We tried to picture the gathering of the -people on such occasions. In the day of its greatness Novgorod had four -hundred thousand inhabitants, and its assemblages must have been well -worth seeing. The vechie bell was carried off to Moscow by Ivan III., -and many thousands of the inhabitants were compelled to move to other -places. For a long time it hung in a tower of the Kremlin of Moscow, but -its present whereabouts is unknown. - -"I fear that a further account of our sight-seeing in Novgorod, so far -as the churches and monasteries are concerned, might be wearisome, as it -would be in some degree a repetition of the description of the -cathedral; so we will drop these venerable buildings and come down to -modern times and things. The most interesting of modern things in this -old city is the Millennial Monument, which has been mentioned before. - -[Illustration: MILLENNIAL MONUMENT AT NOVGOROD. - -(From Appleton's American Cyclopædia.)] - -"The monument is one of the finest in the Empire, and some of the -Russians say it surpasses anything else of the kind in their country. We -could not measure it, but judged it to be not less than fifty feet from -the ground to the top of the cross which surmounts the dome, forming the -upper part of the monument. There are a great many figures, statues, and -high-reliefs, which represent periods of Russian history. The great -events from the days of Rurik to Alexander II. are shown on the -monument, and there can be no doubt that the work is highly instructive -to those who study it carefully. - -"The monument was designed by a member of the Russian Academy of -Sciences, and was chosen from a great number of sketches that were -submitted for competition. The casting of the bronze was done by an -English firm at St. Petersburg, and the expense was borne by the -Government and a few wealthy citizens of Novgorod. As is usual in such -cases, the Government contributed by far the greater part of the money." - -After a day in Novgorod our friends continued their journey to Moscow. -They returned to the main line of railway by the branch, and waited -nearly two hours at the junction for the through train to the ancient -capital. - -At Valdai the youths bought some specimens of the famous Valdai bells; -but it is safe to say that they were not equal to what could have been -found at St. Petersburg or Moscow. Fred recalled their purchases of -specimens of local manufactures in other parts of the world, and said -the same rule would apply everywhere. The tourist who buys Toledo blades -at the railway-station in Toledo, eau-de-cologne at the famous city of -the Rhine, bog-oak jewellery at Dublin, and _pâté de foie gras_ at -Strasburg, may generally count on being victimized. - -At Tver the railway crosses the Volga. Frank proposed that as Tver is -the head of navigation on that great river they should leave the train -and float with the current to Astrachan, two thousand one hundred and -fifty miles away. Doctor Bronson said a steamer would be preferable to -floating; besides, they would have quite enough of the Volga if they -started from Nijni Novgorod and avoided the navigation of the upper part -of the stream. - -[Illustration: RUSSIAN BOATS.] - -"And while we are on the subject of navigation," the Doctor added, -"please bear in mind that by means of a system of canals connecting the -lakes and rivers between this point and St. Petersburg, there is -unbroken water transit between the Volga and the Neva. Merchandise can -be carried in boats from St. Petersburg to the Caspian Sea without -breaking bulk, and there are canals connecting the Volga with the Don -and the Dneiper rivers in the same way. Russia has an excellent system -of internal communication by water, and it was doubtless due to this -that the railways in the Empire are a matter of very recent date. - -"The first railway line in the Empire was from St. Petersburg to -Tsarskoe-Selo, and was built in 1838. The St. Petersburg and Moscow -Railway was begun in 1848, and down to the end of the reign of Nicholas -less than three thousand miles of railway were completed in the whole -Empire. Now there are nearly twenty thousand miles in operation, and the -figures are increasing every year. Nearly fourteen thousand miles belong -to private companies, and the remainder is the property of the -Government. Some of the companies have a Government guarantee for the -interest on their capital, while others are managed just like private -railways in other countries." - -At the last station before reaching Moscow passports were surrendered to -the inspectors, and tickets were collected. The youths put their -hand-bags and shawl-straps in readiness, and were ready to leave the -carriage when the train rolled into the huge building which is the -terminal station of the line. Our friends were in the ancient capital of -Russia, and the home of many Czars. - -[Illustration: PORTRAIT OF CATHERINE II. IN THE KREMLIN COLLECTION.] - - - - -CHAPTER XII. - -FIRST IMPRESSIONS OF MOSCOW.--UNDULATIONS OF THE GROUND.--IRREGULARITY -OF THE BUILDINGS, AND THE CAUSE THEREOF.--NAPOLEON'S CAMPAIGN IN -RUSSIA.--DISASTER AND RETREAT.--THE BURNING OF MOSCOW.--THE KREMLIN: ITS -CHURCHES, TREASURES, AND HISTORICAL ASSOCIATIONS.--ANECDOTES OF RUSSIAN -LIFE.--THE CHURCH OF ST. BASIL. - - -From the railway-station the party went to a hotel which had been -recommended as centrally situated and fairly well kept, but Frank and -Fred said they should be cautious about praising it for fear that those -who came after them might be disappointed. The hotels of Moscow are -hardly equal to those of St. Petersburg. As the latter is the capital of -the Empire, it naturally has a greater demand for hostelries of the -highest class than does the more venerable but less fashionable city. - -The first thing that impressed the youths was the undulating character -of the ground on which Moscow is built, in pleasing contrast to the dead -level of St. Petersburg. The streets are rarely straight for any great -distance, and were it not for the inequalities one would not be able to -see very far ahead of him at any time. But every few minutes a pretty -view is afforded from the crest of one ridge to another; the depressions -between the ridges are filled with buildings scattered somewhat -irregularly, and there is a goodly number of shade-trees in the yards -and gardens or lining the streets. - -[Illustration: STREET SCENE IN MOSCOW.] - -St. Petersburg has an air of great regularity both in the arrangement of -its streets and the uniformity of the buildings. Moscow forms a marked -contrast to the younger capital, as there is little attempt at -uniformity and regularity. You see the hut of a peasant side by side -with the palace of a nobleman; a stable rises close against a church, -and there is a carpenter's shop, with its half-dozen workmen, abutting -close against an immense factory where hundreds of hands are employed. -Moscow is a city of contrasts; princes and beggars almost jostle each -other in the streets; the houses of rich and poor are in juxtaposition, -and it is only a few short steps from the palace of the Kremlin, with -its treasures of gold and jewels, to the abodes of most abject poverty. - -Frank and Fred were quick to observe this peculiarity of the ancient -capital of the Czars, and at the first opportunity they questioned the -Doctor concerning it. - -"What is the cause of so many contrasts here which we did not see in St. -Petersburg?" one of them inquired. - -"That is the question I asked on my first visit," Doctor Bronson -replied. "I was told that it was due to the burning of Moscow in 1812, -at the time of its capture by Napoleon." - -"How much of the city was burned?" Fred asked. - -"The greater part of it was destroyed," was the reply, "but there were -many buildings of stone and brick that escaped. Most of the churches -were saved, as the Russians were reluctant to commit the sacrilege of -burning edifices which had been consecrated to religious worship. Such -of the churches as were consumed in the conflagration were set on fire -by neighboring buildings rather than by the hands of the Russians." - -"Then it was the Russians that burned Moscow, and not the French," said -Fred. "I have read somewhere that it is all a falsehood that the -Russians consigned their city to the flames." - -"From all I can learn, both by reading and conversation," answered the -Doctor, "I do not think there is any doubt of the truth of the -generally accepted story. Napoleon arrived here on the 15th of -September, and intended to spend the winter in Moscow to prepare for a -spring campaign against St. Petersburg. His advance under Murat came in -one day earlier. As soon as Napoleon arrived he took up his quarters in -the Kremlin, while his troops were mostly encamped on the hills which -overlook the city on the west. - -[Illustration: BIVOUACKING IN THE SNOW.] - -"On the night of the 16th the governor, Count Rostoptchin, ordered the -city to be set on fire--at least such is the general belief, though the -official order has never been produced. The fire broke out in many -places at the same time; the French soldiers tried to suppress it, but -found it impossible to do so. Nearly twelve thousand houses were burned, -besides palaces and churches. The inhabitants fled to the country in all -directions, and there was no stock of provisions for the support of the -French army. - -"Napoleon found that he must evacuate the city and return to France. On -the 19th of October he looked his last on Moscow from the Sparrow Hills -on the west, and began his long and disastrous retreat. The winter came -early, and was unusually severe. Hardly had he left the city before the -ground was deep with snow, and from that time onward he was harassed by -Cossacks, while his men perished of hunger and cold. Do you know how -many men were lost in the Russian campaign of 1812?" - -[Illustration: BATTLE BETWEEN FRENCH AND RUSSIANS.] - -"Yes," said Fred; "I have just been reading the history of the -campaign. - -"According to the narrative of the Count de Segur," the youth continued, -"the army with which Napoleon invaded Russia comprised four hundred and -twenty thousand men. Very nearly half of these were French; the other -half consisted of Poles, Italians, Austrians, Bavarians, Saxons, and -other troops allied with the French. One hundred and eighty-seven -thousand horses were employed for the cavalry, artillery, and baggage. -There were eighty thousand cavalry and the artillery numbered one -thousand three hundred and sixty-two pieces. There were great numbers of -carts and wagons drawn by oxen, and immense herds of cattle driven along -for supplying beef. - -"Three hundred thousand Russians gathered on the banks of the Niemen -River to oppose the French advance, but the river was crossed without -opposition. There was a battle at Smolensk, and another at Borodino, -both of them being won by the French. At the battle of Borodino the loss -on both sides amounted to eighty thousand killed and wounded. After that -the Russians made no serious resistance. Napoleon entered Moscow without -difficulty, and established his headquarters in the Kremlin, as you have -said. On the battle-field of Borodino is a monument with this -inscription: - -"'NAPOLEON ENTERED MOSCOW 1812; ALEXANDER ENTERED PARIS 1814.'" - -"So much for the advance," the Doctor remarked; "now tell us about the -retreat." - -[Illustration: NAPOLEON RETREATING FROM MOSCOW.] - -"It was one of the most terrible retreats ever known in history. Out of -all the Grand Army of nearly half a million men that crossed the Niemen -in June, 1812, a little more than twelve thousand recrossed it in the -following winter! It was estimated that one hundred and twenty thousand -were killed in the various battles with the Russians, one hundred and -thirty thousand died of disease, cold, and hunger, and not far from two -hundred thousand were captured, or voluntarily left the army and -remained with the Russians. Many of the latter died within the next few -years, and others settled in the country and never reached their homes -again. On the line of the march of the Grand Army their descendants may -be found to-day living in the villages where their fathers died, and -thoroughly Russian in their language and habits. The Russians are said -to have treated their prisoners kindly, and doubtless they had orders -from the Government to do so." - -Frank asked if the French army made any attempt to reach St. Petersburg. - -[Illustration: ALEXANDER I.] - -"As before stated, it was Napoleon's intention," the Doctor answered, -"to spend the winter in Moscow, and move upon St. Petersburg in the -spring. But the burning of Moscow made it impossible for him to remain, -and thus his plans were spoiled. Russia refused to make terms of peace -with him, and some of his messages to the Emperor Alexander I. were not -even answered. The Russians doubtless knew that cold and hunger would -compel a retreat, and they could rely upon the winter and the Cossacks -to make it disastrous. - -"Russia had concluded a treaty of peace with Turkey, which would release -a large army to fight against the French. She had also made a treaty -with the King of Sweden, by which the troops of the latter would join -the Russian army early in the spring, as soon as the weather and the -roads would permit them to march. It was certain that Napoleon would be -overwhelmed if he remained, and the only alternative was the retreat. - -"The army that came to Moscow was about one hundred thousand strong; all -the rest of the available forces of the Grand Army were left to garrison -places on the road to the Niemen and to collect provisions. One hundred -and sixty thousand men crossed the bridge at Smolensk in the march to -Moscow; twenty thousand were killed on the road, and forty thousand were -left to guard the magazines, hospitals, and stores at some four or five -places. The terrible waste of war can be no better illustrated than in -the story of Napoleon's campaign to Moscow. At Kovno, in Lithuania, is a -monument with the inscription: - -"'NAPOLEON MARCHED THROUGH HERE WITH 700,000 MEN; HE MARCHED BACK WITH -70,000. - -"And now," he continued, "I think you understand why Moscow presents so -many irregularities in its architecture. In the spring of 1813 the -people began to build again, and everything was done in a hurry. Those -who could afford the time and money necessary to build good houses were -the few rather than the many. Most of the Russians had been impoverished -in the war, and could only afford the cheapest of dwellings, while those -who had not lost everything were desirous of obtaining shelter as soon -as possible. The custom of that day has continued in a certain measure -to the present, as you can see by looking around you." - -For a knowledge of what our friends saw in Moscow we will refer as -heretofore to the journals kept by the youths, together with extracts -from their letters to friends at home. - -"The first thing we wanted to see," said Fred, in his journal, "was the -Kremlin, or ancient fortress of Moscow, on the bank of the river Moskva, -from which the city is named. We saw many other things on the way there, -but had no interest in them, and will leave their description to a -later page. We were all eyes, ears, and thoughts for the Kremlin, and -nothing else. - -[Illustration: VIEW IN THE KREMLIN.] - -"Nobody can tell positively what the word 'kremlin' comes from, but it -certainly means fortress or space enclosed with strong walls. The walls -of the Kremlin of Moscow are about one mile and a half in circuit, and -from fifty to sixty feet high; they are entered by five gates, of which -the principal is the _spaski_, or 'Redeemer.' This gate was built in -1491, and over it there is a picture of the Redeemer of Smolensk. Our -guide told us we must remove our hats as we passed through this -gate-way, out of respect for the ways of the people. Formerly a failure -to do so was severely punished, but now there is no compulsion about it. -Not even the Emperor is exempt from the custom, and you may be sure we -did not attract attention by our neglect. - -[Illustration: A PRISONER ORDERED TO EXECUTION.] - -"It was in front of this gate that executions formerly took place, and -the victims offered their last prayers to the Redeemer of Smolensk. -Happily there are now no signs of these executions, and everything has -an air of peace and happiness. The gate of next importance is the -_Nikolsky_, or Nicholas Gate, which is ornamented and made sacred in the -eyes of orthodox Russians by the picture of St. Nicholas of Mojaisk. The -gate was partly destroyed by order of Napoleon; a large quantity of -gunpowder was placed under it and fired, but the explosion only split -the tower in the middle and up to the frame of the picture. The glass -over the picture and the lamp burning in front of it were not harmed. As -the occurrence was considered in the light of a miracle, an inscription -describing it was placed there by Alexander I. - -"Another gate, called the _Troitska_, or Trinity, is memorable as the -one by which the French entered and left the Kremlin in 1812. Several -times it has been the passage-way of conquering armies. Besides the -French in the nineteenth century, it admitted the Poles in the -seventeenth, the Tartars in the sixteenth (1551), and the Lithuanians in -the fourteenth centuries. Only a small part of the Kremlin was destroyed -in the great fire of 1812; it was held by Napoleon's troops when the -fire broke out, and when the invaders retired their attempts to blow up -the walls and ignite the buildings did not succeed. - -"After looking at the exterior of the walk and admiring the picturesque -situation of the Kremlin, we passed through the gate, and went at once -to the tower of Ivan Veliki (John the Great). We had been advised to see -this tower first of all, as it was the best point from which to obtain a -general view of the city. - -[Illustration: THE KREMLIN OF MOSCOW.] - -"There is some doubt as to the antiquity of the tower, but it is -generally believed to date from the year 1600, and to have been built by -Boris Godounoff. It is in five stories, of which the upper is in the -form of a cylinder, while the others are octagonal in shape. The top is -two hundred and seventy feet from the ground, and is reached by a -winding stairway. - -"The guide called our attention to the bells in the tower; there are no -less than thirty-four of them, and some are very large. In the second -story hangs a bell known as the 'Assumption,' which weighs sixty-four -tons; it is therefore four times as heavy as the great bell of Rouen, -five times that of Erfurt, and eight times as heavy as the Great Tom of -Oxford, the largest bell in England! The oldest of the other bells bears -the date 1550; the vechie bell of Novgorod the Great once hung in this -tower, but nobody knows where it is at present. The effect of the -ringing of these bells at Easter is said to be very fine, as they are of -different tones, and so arranged that they make no discord. In the -upper story are two silver bells, whose tones are said to be very sweet. - -"We stopped a while at each of the stories to look at the bells and -enjoy the view, and thus reached the top without much fatigue. But if we -had been so weary as to be unable to stand, we should have been amply -repaid for our fatigue. The view is certainly one of the finest we ever -had from a height overlooking any city in Europe, with the possible -exceptions of Paris and Constantinople. - -"Moscow, with its undulating and irregular streets, with the Moskva -winding through it in the shape of the letter S, with its four hundred -churches and an immense variety of towers and domes and minarets, with -the variations of palace and hovel already mentioned, and with the great -buildings of the Kremlin forming the foreground of the scene, lay before -and below us. It was Moscow (the Holy), the city of the Czars and -beloved of every patriotic Russian; the city which has existed through -Tartar, Polish, and French invasions; has risen from the ashes again and -again; has been ravaged by famine, the plague, and the sword of the -invader, but surviving all her calamities, welcomes the stranger within -her walls, whose circuit is more than twenty miles. From the top of this -tower we looked down upon seven centuries of historical associations. - -"Listen to a fragment of the history of Moscow: It was plundered by the -Tartars under Tamerlane, and many of its inhabitants were killed; again -it fell into Tartar hands, and again was pillaged, and its inhabitants -murdered. Twice under the Tartars (1536 and 1572) it was set on fire, -and on both occasions many thousands of people perished by fire or -sword. The Poles burned a large part of the city in 1611, and in 1771 -the plague carried off half the population. Is it any wonder that the -Russians love their ancient capital, after all that it has suffered and -survived? - -[Illustration: THE GREAT BELL UNDERGROUND.] - -"We lingered for an hour or more in the tower, and then descended. Our -next object of interest was the '_Czar Kolokol_,' or Great Bell, which -stands at the foot of the Ivan Veliki Tower, and near the place where -for a long time it lay buried in the earth. It is literally the great -bell not only of Moscow but of the world. - -"It has a strange history. It is said to have been cast originally in -the time of Boris Godounoff, and a traveller in 1611 mentions a bell in -Russia which required twenty-four men to swing the clapper. During a -fire it fell to the ground and was broken; in 1654 it was recast, and -weighed at that time 288,000 pounds. Twenty years later it was suspended -from a wooden beam at the foot of the tower; the beam gave way during a -fire in 1706, and the bell was again broken. The Empress Anne ordered it -recast in 1733, but it only lasted four years. The falling of some -rafters in 1737 broke the bell as we now see it, and it lay on the -ground just ninety-nine years, or until 1836, when it was raised and -placed in its present position by the Emperor Nicholas. - -"And how large do you think it is? - -"It is thought to weigh 444,000 pounds, or 220 tons; it is nineteen feet -three inches in height, and sixty feet nine inches in circumference, or -twenty feet three inches in diameter. Just stop and measure these -figures with your eye in a barn or a large room of a house, and then -realize what this great bell is. - -[Illustration: VISITING THE GREAT BELL.] - -"Look at the picture of the bell, and see the piece that is broken out -of it. This piece is six feet high, and both of us walked through the -place left by its removal without any difficulty. There is an -inscription on the bell which gives its history, and it presents also -several sacred figures and the portraits of the Czar Alexis and the -Empress Anne. - -[Illustration: EMPRESS ANNE.] - -"From the Great Bell we went to the Nicholas Palace, which occupies the -site of the one destroyed by the French at the time of their retreat, -and then to the _Bolshoi Dvorets_, or Great Palace. - -"The state apartments are numerous and gorgeous; their number is -absolutely bewildering, and so is the array of furniture, paintings, -statuary, and other valuables that are gathered there. In the Emperor's -cabinet there are pictures representing the battles of Borodino and -Smolensk, and also of the French entering and leaving Moscow. There are -halls dedicated to St. George, St. Alexander Nevski, and St. Andrew, -all of them hung with battle-flags, and the last--the Hall of St. -Andrew--containing the Emperor's throne. In some of the halls are -paintings representing scenes in the history of Poland. They were -brought from Warsaw, where they once hung in the Royal castle. - -"They showed us the 'Red Staircase,' which is used by the Emperor on -state occasions, and was the spot where in former times the Czar allowed -the people to see him. Napoleon and his marshals ascended these steps -when they took possession of the Kremlin, and it was from the top of the -staircase that John the Terrible saw the comet which caused him to -tremble with fear. - -"Then they took us to the banqueting-room, where the Emperor dines with -his nobles immediately after the ceremony of coronation, and beyond it -to the _Terem_, which was formerly occupied by the wife and children of -the Czar. It is now filled with articles of historic interest: the seals -of Russian sovereigns, the certificate of the election of Michael, first -of the Romanoffs, to the Russian throne, and several copies of the -Evangelists, on parchment, and said to be five hundred years old. - -"Near the Great Palace is the Treasury, which reminded us of The -Hermitage of St. Petersburg, or the more famous Tower of London. It is -filled with all sorts of curious things, many of them of enormous value. -It has been said that the national debt of Russia could be paid from the -sale of the pearls, diamonds, and other precious things in the Treasury -of Moscow. Perhaps this is not strictly true, but certainly they would -go a long way towards doing so. - -"What we saw in the Treasury would take too long to tell; and besides, -it would be a catalogue filling many pages of our note-books. Armor and -weapons of all times and forms can be seen here. There are faded and -tattered flags that tell of the glory of Russia; here is the flag -carried by the soldiers of John the Terrible at the capture of Kazan; -the flag under which Yermak conquered Siberia and added it to the -Russian Empire; the flag which a little band of Cossacks carried to the -shores of the Pacific Ocean more than two hundred years ago; and here -are the flags which belonged to the Regiment of _Streltsi_, which -rebelled against Peter the Great. - -[Illustration: THE EMPRESS ELIZABETH.] - -"Here are thrones and coronation chairs in goodly number. The first is -that of the Empress Elizabeth, and near it are the coronation chairs of -Paul I. and Alexander II. In the centre of the room where these chairs -are standing is the =baldachino=, under which the Emperor and Empress walk -at their coronation, and at the farther end is a stand of colors given -by Alexander I. to his Polish regiment, and afterwards captured at the -storming of Warsaw, in 1831. The royal throne of Poland is in another -room, along with the throne of Kazan, which is studded with pearls, -diamonds, rubies, and turquoises, as are several other thrones. One -throne contains over eight hundred diamonds and twice as many rubies, -and it is by no means the most costly one in the collection. Near the -thrones are the coronation robes worn by several of the emperors and -empresses, and there is also a masquerade dress which belonged to -Catherine the Great. - -"We lingered over a glass case containing the decoration of the Order of -the Garter and its diploma, which Queen Elizabeth sent to John the -Terrible. - -"Another gift from the good Queen to the cruel Czar was the state -carriage which stands in one of the rooms of the Treasury, along with -several other vehicles, all of the olden time. One is on runners, and -large enough for a whole family; it has a table and benches covered with -green cloth, and was used by the Empress Elizabeth in her journeys -between St. Petersburg and Moscow. - -"Enough of curiosities. We grew weary with seeing the relics of the -rulers of Russia, though all were full of interest, and willingly -followed our guide to the churches that stand within the walls of the -Kremlin. The first is the Church of the Assumption, in which the -emperors are crowned, and where the patriarchs formerly officiated. The -church dates from 1475, and occupies the site of another which was -erected one hundred and fifty years earlier. It has been altered and -restored several times, but remains very much in shape and general -appearance as it was four hundred years ago. - -"In the church is a shrine of silver in memory of St. Philip, a -patriarch of the Church, who had the temerity to rebuke John the -Terrible for his misdeeds, and was imprisoned and put to death in -consequence. The hand of St. Philip is exposed, and whenever the Emperor -comes here he never fails to kiss the sacred relic. - -"There are tombs and shrines in great number, and a large part of the -religious history of Russia belongs to this building. Every Czar of the -Empire, from John the Terrible to Alexander III., has been crowned here, -and the most sacred pictures in the whole country are deposited along -the altar screen. - -[Illustration: CORONATION OF ALEXANDER III.] - -"Dean Stanley says of the Imperial coronation in the Church of the -Assumption: - -"'The coronation, even at the present time, is not a mere ceremony, but -an historical event and solemn consecration. It is preceded by fasting -and seclusion, and takes place in the most sacred church in Russia, the -Emperor, not as in the corresponding forms of European investiture, a -passive recipient, but himself the principal figure in the whole scene; -himself reciting aloud the confession of the orthodox faith; himself -alone on his knees, amid the assembled multitude, offering up the -prayer of intercession for the Empire; himself placing his crown on his -own head; himself entering through the sacred door of the innermost -sanctuary, and taking from the altar the elements of the bread and the -wine.' - -"There are two other cathedrals in the Kremlin, that of the Archangel -Michael and the Cathedral of the Annunciation. The three cathedrals, -with the tower of Ivan Veliki, which has a chapel in its lower story, -form a square, which is frequently called the Grand Square of the -Kremlin. We visited the cathedrals in the order named, and it was quite -appropriate that when we had finished with that of the Assumption, where -the Czars are crowned, we should go to the Michael Cathedral, where, -down to the time of Peter the Great, they were buried. The tombs are -quite plain in appearance, a marked contrast to the elaborate -decorations of the building, whose interior is covered with frescos -which represent scenes in the lives of the Czars, together with their -portraits. - -"One of the tombs was covered with a black cloth, and we asked the guide -what it meant. - -"'That is the tomb of John the Terrible,' said he, 'and the black cloth -is to show that he assumed the cowl of a monk an hour or so before he -died. He wanted to atone for his many cruelties, and this is the way he -did it.' - -"The guide further told us that in ancient times when any one wished to -present a petition to the Czar he came to this church and placed the -paper on one of the tombs. By a long-established custom which had the -force of law, no one but a Czar could remove it. In this way the ruler -could be reached when all other means of approaching him were -unavailable. What a pity the custom does not continue to the present -time! - -[Illustration: PETER II.] - -"The only emperor buried here is Peter II., son of Alexis and grandson -of Peter the Great. As before stated, the Imperial burial-place has been -at St. Petersburg since that city was founded. - -"While the Czars were crowned in the Cathedral of the Assumption and -buried in that of St. Michael, they were baptized and married in that of -the Annunciation, which was the next we visited. Its floor is of jasper -and agate, and it has nine cupolas, heavily covered with gilding. The -cross on the centre cupola is said to be of solid gold--a statement open -to a good deal of doubt, though by no means entirely improbable when we -remember what treasures are stored in the Kremlin. The interior of this -church is covered with frescos, and like the others is adorned with -pictures set in precious stones. - -"Mentioning the cupolas of this church reminds us that the cupolas of -the Russian churches vary all the way from one up to thirteen, the -number being nearly always odd. Usually they have five cupolas; the -building is in the form of a Greek cross, and there is a cupola at each -corner and another in the centre, the latter being the largest. The idea -of the five cupolas came from Constantinople, whence the Russian Church -derived its religion. The earliest church at Novgorod had five cupolas, -and was copied from the Church of St. Sophia at Constantinople, which -was converted into a mosque at the time of the Moslem conquest. The -largest number on any of the churches of Moscow is on that of St. Basil, -which has thirteen in all. - -[Illustration: BISHOP IN HIS ROBES.] - -"There are other small churches and chapels in the Kremlin, but we had -not sufficient time to examine them all. In the sacristy of the Holy -Synod, which stands behind the Cathedral of the Assumption, we saw in -glass cases the robes of the patriarchs of the Church, some of them -dating back more than five hundred years. They are covered with pearls -and all kinds of precious stones; one, which was presented by John the -Terrible to the metropolitan Denys, is said to weigh fifty-four pounds -in consequence of the great number of diamonds, pearls, emeralds, -garnets, and other jewels which are fastened to it. - -"The attendant left us quite alone in the room with all these valuables; -the guide said this was the custom, but that we were by no means out of -sight. Through holes in the ceiling watchful eyes were said to be -peering, and any attempt to open the cases and remove the valuables -would result in serious consequences. How much truth there was in his -statement we do not know. We looked at the ceiling, but could not see -any peep-holes, but for all that they may have been there. - -"You wonder how it happened that the French did not carry away the -treasures of the Kremlin when they retreated from Moscow. The fact is, -most of the treasures were removed to Nijni Novgorod as the French -advanced, and when they arrived there was not a great deal to plunder. -They carried off many things, which were afterwards recaptured by the -Russians during the retreat and restored to their places, but it was not -until the French were completely out of the country that the valuables -and relics which had been carried to Nijni Novgorod were returned. - -"The invaders hacked at some of the frames of the holy pictures in the -Church of the Assumption, and the marks of their knives are still -visible. In the Cathedral of the Annunciation the French stabled their -horses, and the other churches were used as barracks by the troops. The -Kremlin was mined in several places, but the explosions did very little -damage. Probably the French officers who had charge of the mining were -in a great hurry and did not attend properly to their work. - -"Our guide was a Russian; and after he had told us about the use of the -cathedral as a stable, he led the way to the spot where the cannon -captured from the French in the retreat are exhibited. 'There,' said he, -'are eight hundred and seventy-five cannon which were captured in the -retreat of the Grand Army; three hundred and sixty-five of them--one for -every day in the year--are French, one hundred and eighty-nine are -Austrian, and the rest are from the various troops allied with the -French at that time. Altogether they weigh about three hundred and fifty -tons. A Frenchman proposed that they should be melted down and cast into -a memorial column, but the Russians think they are better just as they -are.' - -"We agreed with him that it was very natural a Frenchman should make -such a proposal and the Russians reject it. An amusing thing is that -some of the guns bear the names 'Invincible,' 'Eagle,' 'Conqueror,' -'Triumph,' and the like, quite in mockery of their captive condition. - -"Doctor Bronson said he was reminded of an incident that is said to -have happened in an American navy-yard fifteen or twenty years after the -war of 1812, between the United States and Great Britain. - -"An Englishman was visiting the navy-yard, and while wandering among the -cannon which lay peacefully in one of the parks, he found one which bore -the British crown, with the stamp 'G. R.' beneath it. The stamp and -crown told very plainly the history of the gun, but the Briton was -doubtful. Turning to a sailor who was standing near, he remarked, - -"'It's easy enough to put that stamp on a gun of Yankee make.' - -"'How long do you think it would take?' - -"'About half an hour.' - -"'Well,' replied the sailor, 'we took forty-four of those guns, with the -stamps already on, in just seventeen minutes."[4] - -[4] Referring to the battle between the _Constitution_ and _Guerriere_, -August 19, 1812. - -"The stranger had no more conundrums to propose. - -[Illustration: GREAT GUN AT MOSCOW.] - -"There are seven monster cannon in front of one of the arsenals in the -Kremlin that have probably never enjoyed the honor of being fired; -certainly some of them would be likely to burst if filled with an -ordinary charge of powder. The smallest weighs four tons and the largest -forty tons. Some of them are unusually long in proportion to their -diameter, and others are exactly the reverse. The largest was cast in -1586, if we may believe an inscription upon it, at the orders of the -Czar Feodor; but whether it was intended for ornament or use is -difficult to say. It is remarkable as a piece of casting; and the -carriage is nearly as interesting as the gun. We enclose a photograph; -and by comparing the cannon with the figures of the soldiers seated -below the muzzle, you can get an idea of the colossal size of this -piece. - -[Illustration: THE CATHEDRAL AT MOSCOW.] - -"As we came out through the 'Holy Gate' of the Kremlin we were in front -of the Church of St. Basil, the one whose architect is said to have been -blinded by order of John the Terrible, to make sure that the structure -should not be duplicated. It stands on the site of an ancient church -where St. Basil was buried, in 1552. It was begun in 1555, and is said -to have occupied twenty years in building. - -"There is not anywhere in the world a more fantastic church than this; -none of its towers and domes resemble each other, and they present all -the colors of the rainbow. One of the cupolas is striped like a melon, -while another suggests a pineapple; another is like an onion in shape -and general appearance; another suggests a turban covered with folds; -and still another might readily have been copied from an artichoke. The -stripes are as strange as the forms, and the irreverent could be -forgiven for calling this the Harlequin Church in consequence of its -peculiar architecture. - -"Napoleon ordered his engineers to destroy 'The Mosque,' as he called -the Church of St. Basil, but for some unexplained reason the order was -not carried out. In the chapel below the church is the shrine of the -saint, but it presents nothing remarkable; and altogether the building -is more interesting from an external than from an internal view." - -[Illustration: NAPOLEON'S RETREAT FROM MOSCOW.] - - - - -CHAPTER XIII. - -THE GREAT THEATRE OF MOSCOW.--OPERATIC PERFORMANCES.--THE KITAI GOROD -AND GOSTINNA DVOR.--ROMANOFF HOUSE AND THE ROMANOFF FAMILY.--SKETCH OF -THE RULERS OF RUSSIA.--ANECDOTES OF PETER THE GREAT AND OTHERS.--CHURCH -OF THE SAVIOUR.--MOSQUES AND PAGODAS.--THE -MUSEUM.--RIDING-SCHOOL.--SUHAREFF TOWER.--TRAKTIRS.--OLD BELIEVERS.--THE -SPARROW HILLS AND THE SIMONOFF MONASTERY. - - -The best part of a day was consumed in the Kremlin and in the Church of -St. Basil. Further investigation of old Moscow was postponed to the -morrow. - -In the evening our friends went to the Opera-house to listen to some -national music, but more particularly to see the house, which is one of -the curiosities of the city. The "_Bolshoi Teatre_" or "Great Theatre," -is one of the finest opera-houses in the world. It was built in 1855-56, -to replace the smaller opera-house which had been destroyed by fire -about two years before. A few months after it was opened there was a -performance in the theatre, entitled "1756 and 1856," to celebrate the -hundredth anniversary of the establishment of government theatres in -Russia. - -From the material in the possession of the youths, and by a careful use -of eyes and note-books, Fred wrote the following account of the Moscow -Opera-house, and added to the information about theatrical matters which -appears in a previous chapter. - -"The first recorded representation of a theatrical character in Russia -is assigned to the reign of Alexis Michailovitch, father of Peter the -Great. It was given in the house of the father-in-law of Alexis, but -very little is known of its character. Russian writers say their first -regular dramas were in the time of Feodor Alexeivitch (half-brother and -predecessor of Peter the Great), and were written by the Czar's tutor. -They were produced in one of the suburban palaces, and had a religious -character, as we infer from the titles 'Prodigal Son,' 'King -Nebuchadnezzar,' 'Three Men in the Fiery Furnace,' and 'The Golden -Calf.' The Czar's tutor was a monk, and the plays were performed by the -students attached to the monastery. - -[Illustration: DRESS OF PEASANTS--SCENE FROM A RUSSIAN OPERA.] - -"Peter the Great determined to develop the drama, and engaged a -Hungarian actor, who happened to be at Moscow, to look after the matter. -This actor went to Germany and engaged a troupe, and among them was a -man who divided his time between theatrical affairs and ship-building. -When he was not ship-building he was writing plays and managing Peter's -theatre at Moscow, and he seems to have engaged in the two occupations -with equal facility. Peter attended the performances accompanied by his -officers. In order to encourage the drama there was no admission fee, -the company being supported by the Government. - -"At first the performances took place in a large hall of the Suhareff -Tower. After a time a wooden theatre was built near the Kremlin, and -performances were given regularly. The City of Yaroslav established a -theatre of its own under the direction of Feodor Volkhoff, an actor who -afterwards became famous in Russia. In 1752 he was summoned to St. -Petersburg by the Empress Elizabeth, to direct performances at the court -theatre, and in 1756 the Empress issued an Imperial order establishing -a government theatre in the capital. The centennial of this event was -the celebration referred to. - -[Illustration: A DRESSING-ROOM OF THE OPERA-HOUSE.] - -"The Moscow Opera-house stands in a square by itself not far from the -Kremlin. Carriages can be driven all around it, and there are three -entrances for spectators besides the one reserved to the actors. The -theatre is never crowded, as only as many tickets are sold as there are -seats, and no money is taken at the doors. There are five rows of boxes -besides the parquette, or ground-floor, and the gallery, which occupies -the whole of the upper tier. We had our places in the parquette, and -found them very comfortable. Each seat is a separate arm-chair, with -plenty of space around it, so that one may walk about between the acts -without disturbing his neighbors. - -[Illustration: WORKING THE SHIP IN "L'AFRICAINE."] - -"The waits between the acts were very long, according to our American -ideas, but there was a reason for this. We found an attendant who spoke -French, and through his assistance and his expectation of a fee we -visited an unoccupied box on one of the principal tiers. The box had -plenty of seating-room for half a dozen persons; the attendant said ten -or twelve were frequently packed into it, but it was only unfashionable -people who ever thought of thus crowding a box. Each box has a little -cabinet or parlor back of it, where one may receive friends, and a great -deal of visiting goes on between the acts. The arrangement is an Italian -one, and the same feature exists in opera-houses in other parts of -Europe. - -"To give you an idea of the size of the house, let me quote a few -figures comparing it with the principal theatres of Milan, Naples, and -London. The measurements are in English feet: - - Diameter of ceiling, La Scala, Milan 70 - Diameter of ceiling, San Carlo, Naples 73 - Diameter of ceiling, Covent Garden, London 65 - Diameter of ceiling, Moscow Opera-house =98= - Opening of proscenium, La Scala, Milan 51 - Opening of proscenium, San Carlo, Naples 58 - Opening of proscenium, Covent Garden, London 50 - Opening of proscenium, Moscow Opera-house =70= - -"The stage of the Moscow Opera-house is 126 feet wide and 112 feet deep. -At Covent Garden Theatre the respective figures are 88 and 90 feet. - -"We had a great deal of curiosity to see the famous drop-scene, which -represents the triumphal entry of Minin and Pojarsky into the Kremlin, -after the expulsion of the Poles from Moscow in 1612. It is a -magnificent picture, painted by Duzi, a Venetian artist, and represents -the two liberators on horseback near the Holy Gate of the Kremlin, -surrounded by citizens of all classes and conditions. Prince Pojarsky -looks like an Oriental, as he is dressed in the costume which was worn -by the boyards or noblemen down to the time of Peter the Great. The -peasant class are in their holiday dress; the women wear _sarafans_ and -_kokoshniks_ which are quite like those worn by many of them at the -present time, while the men are mostly in girdled _caftans_, just as we -see thousands of them daily. French fashions have taken a hold among the -nobility and wealthy people of Russia generally, but have no effect on -the peasantry. The common people will probably adhere to their present -costume until ordered by Imperial decree to adopt a new one. - -[Illustration: MININ-POJARSKY MONUMENT.] - -"We spent nearly the whole time of the wait between the first and second -acts in contemplating this picture, and found plenty to occupy us. We -have already mentioned the Minin-Pojarsky Monument, which stands near -the gate of the Kremlin, and reminds the people of an important event in -their national history. Between the monument and the painting, the -Russians are not likely to forget the patriotism of the cattle-dealer -and the Prince." - -From the theatre our friends went straight to the hotel and to bed, -tired enough with their day's exertions, but amply repaid for all their -fatigue. - -Next morning they were off in good season, or rather Frank and Fred -were, as the Doctor decided to remain at the hotel, while the youths -devoted the forenoon to sights that he did not especially care for. -Having been in Moscow before, he was willing to leave some of the stock -sights out of his programme. - -Their first visit was to the bazaar, which bears the name of "_Kitai -Gorod_" or "Chinese Town." The bazaar is often said to be so called -because of the great number of Tartars doing business there--the -descendants of the Mongols, who so long held Moscow in their hands. - -According to some writers this belief is erroneous. They assert that, -originally, all of Moscow was inside the Kremlin; but as the necessity -came for extending the city, an order was given by Helena (mother of -John the Terrible, and Regent during his minority) for enclosing a large -space outside the Kremlin, which was to be named after her birthplace, -Kitaigrod, in Podolia. Its walls were begun in 1535 by an Italian -architect. - -"We went," said Frank, "through the Gostinna Dvor of Moscow, which fills -an enormous building in the Kitai Gorod, and is in some respects more -interesting than that of St. Petersburg, though practically of the same -character. The display of Russian goods is about like that in the -capital city, though there is possibly a greater quantity of silver -work, Circassian goods, and similar curiosities peculiar to the country. -Much of the money-changing is in the hands of Tartars; where the -changers are not of the Tartar race, they are generally Jews. Russian -Tartars and Jews use the _abacus_ in counting, and they work it with -wonderful rapidity. We saw it in St. Petersburg, but it was not so much -employed there as in Moscow. The abacus has undergone very little change -in two or three thousand years. It was introduced by the Tartar -conquerors of Russia, and promises to remain permanently in the Empire. - -"What a quantity of silks, embroideries, silverware, and the like are -piled in the bazaar! and what an array of clothing, household goods, -furniture, and other practical and unpractical things of every name and -kind! It was the Bazaar of St. Petersburg over again, with the absence -of certain features, that suggested Western Europe and the addition of -others belonging to the Orient. The second-hand market was encumbered -with old clothes, pots, pans, boots, furniture, and odds and ends of -everything, and we were so pestered by the peddlers that we went through -the place pretty quickly. - -"The guide took us to Romanoff House, which was built near the end of -the sixteenth century, and was the birthplace of Michael, the first Czar -of the present reigning family. Of the original house only the walls -remain; the interior was destroyed by the French, who plundered the -building and then set it on fire, and only the great thickness and -solidity of the walls preserved them. - -"Romanoff House, as we saw it to-day, is an excellent example of the -Russian house of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and in this -respect it is very interesting. The last restoration was made in -1858-59, and the Government has spent quite an amount of money in -putting it in order. - -"It is four stories high, and built around a court-yard from which the -rooms on the ground-floor are entered. In the basement are cellars for -storing provisions, and on the floor above it are the kitchens, -temporary store-rooms, and the like. In the next story are the rooms -where the prince lived; they include a reception-room, rooms for -servants, several smaller rooms, and also some secret recesses in the -walls where silver plate and other valuables were kept. The rooms are -adorned with utensils of former periods, together with many articles of -silver and other metals that belonged to the Romanoff family long ago. - -"The upper story is called the _terem_, a word which is equivalent to -the Turkish _harem_. The terem was reserved to the women and children, -but not so rigidly as is the harem among the Moslems. Beds, bedsteads, -playthings, and articles of clothing are among the curiosities in the -terem of Romanoff House. Among them are the slippers of the Czar and the -night-gown of the Czarina, which are kept in a box at the foot of the -bed according to the old custom. - -"Romanoff House is in the Kitai Gorod, and from it we went to the place -where Peter the Great witnessed the execution of many of his rebellious -_streltzi_, or guards. Perhaps you would like to hear the story? - -[Illustration: PETER'S ESCAPE FROM ASSASSINATION.] - -"I believe we have already mentioned something about the strained -relations between Peter and his sister Sophia, and how she plotted his -assassination, from which he escaped by riding away in the night. Peter -shut Sophia in a convent before going on his tour to Holland and England -to learn the art of ship-building and obtain other information to aid -him in the development of the Russian Empire. He distributed his troops -in the best way he could think of, and confided the administration of -affairs to his most trusted officers. - -"But even then he was constantly fearful of trouble. He knew the -ambition of his sister, and the opposition that many of the old nobility -had to his reforms, and he was well aware that many officers of the army -did not favor his plans. Consequently, when news of the rebellion -reached him at Vienna he was not entirely unprepared, and hastened -homeward as fast as horses could carry him. - -"The conspiracy included many nobles, officers, and others, together -with the immediate advisers of his sister. The clergy were on the side -of the conspiracy; they opposed the reforms, and preferred keeping -things as they had been, rather than adopt the ways of Western Europe. -It is said at present that the Russian Government would change the -calendar from old style to new style, and make it conform to the rest of -the civilized world, but for the opposition of the Church. The priests -assert that it would cause a great deal of confusion with the saints' -days, and therefore they refuse their approval of the measure. - -"The streltzi had been distributed at points far removed from Moscow. -Under pretence of coming to get their pay, they marched to the city, -where they were met by General Gordon, an English officer who commanded -the Government troops at the time. Gordon defeated the streltzi, and -then by torturing some of the prisoners learned the history of the -conspiracy. It was to place Sophia on the throne in place of Peter, and -a great many persons were implicated in the scheme. News of the -occurrence was sent to Peter at Vienna, and hastened his return as -described. - -[Illustration: PETER THE GREAT AS EXECUTIONER.] - -"On arriving in Moscow, he made the most searching inquiry, and by -torturing some of those who had fallen into his hands he obtained the -names of many others. There is no doubt that innocent persons were -implicated, as the victims of torture are apt to tell anything, whether -true or false, in order to escape from their pain. Those implicated were -immediately arrested and put to death, many of them with torture. -Nobles, ladies of rank, officers and soldiers, comprised the list. On -the spot where we stood to-day hundreds of the streltzi were beheaded, -and altogether several thousands of people were killed. Peter himself -took part in the executions, if report is true. Once, at a banquet, he -ordered twenty of the prisoners to be brought in, and a block arranged -for the fearful ceremony. Then he called for a glass of wine. After -drinking it, he beheaded the victim, who had been placed on the block, -and then he called for another victim and another glass of wine. It is -said that he was just one hour in performing the twenty executions; and -after he had finished he went in person to the great square in front of -the Kremlin, where other executions were going on. - -"While he was witnessing one of these executions, one of the prisoners -who was about to lose his head came forward as coolly as though he were -entering a dining-hall. 'Make way for us,' he said, as he kicked the -fallen heads from his path--'make way here, make way.' - -"Just as the man lay down upon the block and the executioner raised his -axe, Peter ordered the prisoner to be liberated. He pardoned him on the -spot, remarking that there was good stuff in a man who could walk so -gallantly to his own execution. Peter's prediction was correct; and who -do you suppose the man was? - -"His name was Orloff. He was a faithful adherent of Peter for the rest -of his life, and rose to the command of his armies. He was the founder -of the Orloff family, which has ever since been prominent in Russian -matters, and continues so down to the present day. Various members of -the family have been distinguished in land and naval warfare, and in -diplomacy and home affairs. One of them was the intimate friend and -adviser of Catherine II. He was a man of gigantic stature and great -personal courage, and is said to have strangled with his own hands the -unfortunate emperor Peter III., in order to place the disconsolate widow -Catherine on the throne. - -[Illustration: CATHERINE I.] - -"Catherine II. should not be confounded with Catherine I. It was -Catherine II., surnamed 'The Great,' to whom I have just referred, as -the conspirator who gained the throne by the murder of her husband. -Catherine I. was the widow of Peter the Great, and mother of the Empress -Elizabeth. She had great influence over the founder of the Empire, and -though not always controlling his violent temper, she did much towards -suppressing it on many occasions. - -[Illustration: CATHERINE II.] - -"While we are in sight of Romanoff House let us run over the list of -those who have held the throne since the first of this family ascended -it. Here they are: - - "1. Michael Feodorovitch (first of the Romanoffs). - "2. Alexis Mikailovitch (son of Michael). - "3. Feodor Alexeivitch (son of Alexis). - "4. Ivan Alexeivitch (brother of No. 3). - "5. Peter Alexeivitch (Peter I., or, "The Great"). - "6. Catherine I. (widow of Peter I.). - "7. Peter II. (grandson of Peter I.). - "8. Anna (niece of Peter I.). - "9. Ivan III. (imprisoned in his infancy, and afterwards assassinated). - "10. Elizabeth (daughter of Peter I.). - "11. Peter III. (great-grandson of Peter I.). - "12. Catherine II. - "13. Paul I. (son of Catherine II.). - "14. Alexander I. (son of Paul I.). - "15. Nicholas I. (brother of Alexander I.). - "16. Alexander II. (son of Nicholas I). - "17. Alexander III. (son of Alexander II.). - -"It is a circumstance worthy of note that in the thirty-seven years -between the death of Peter the Great and the accession of Catherine the -Great, Russia had three emperors and three empresses; the emperors -reigned, but cannot be said to have ruled, only three and a half years -altogether, while the empresses held the throne for the rest of the -time. Catherine was Empress from 1762 till 1796; so that during the -eighteenth century the Russian crown was worn by women for nearly -seventy years. - -[Illustration: GRAND-DUKE NICHOLAS ALEXANDROVITCH.] - -"The heir to the throne at present is too young to have made his mark in -any way; and besides, he has had no opportunity, even if he were of age. -His name is Nicholas; he is the eldest son of Alexander III., and when -he ascends the throne he will be known as Nicholas II. He was born in -1868, and is said to be a young man of great promise. - -"Four at least of the seventeen rulers named above were murdered, and -there were suspicions of poisoning in the cases of two others. -Consequently the description of the Government of Russia as 'despotism -tempered by assassination' is not so very far from the truth. - -"It is sometimes said that the Romanoff family is more German than -Russian, in consequence of the marriages of the emperors with German -princesses. Peter the Great was pure Russian; his son Alexis, father of -Peter II., married a German princess, and their daughter Anne married a -German duke. Anne and the German duke were the parents of Peter III., -the husband of Catherine II.; Peter III. and Catherine were the parents -of Paul, who married a German princess, and the example has been -followed by all the emperors. The Russian poet Pushkin used to represent -in an amusing way the Germanizing of the Imperial family, which was as -follows: - -"He placed in a goblet a spoonful of wine for the Czarevitch Alexis and -a spoonful of water for his German wife. Then he added a spoonful of -water for Anne's German husband, a third for Catherine II., and a -fourth, fifth, and sixth for the German wives of Paul, Nicholas, and -Alexander II. Were the poet alive to-day, he would add a seventh for -the Danish wife of Alexander III., and an eighth for the wife of the -young Nicholas, whoever she may be. - -"However little Russian blood may be running at present in the veins of -the Romanoff family, there is no question about the thoroughly Russian -character of the persons most concerned. Born and bred in Russia, it -would be strange if the men were otherwise than national in their -feelings; and as for the women who have been married into the Imperial -family, they seem to have left everything behind them when they came to -make their homes in Muscovy. There was never a more thorough Russian -than Catherine II. When she came to the Imperial court at the age of -fifteen she immediately went to work to learn the language, and in -after-life she used to say that if she knew of a drop of blood in her -veins that had not become Russian she would have it drawn out. - -"Before becoming the wives of the men of the Imperial family, all -foreign princesses must be baptized and taken into the Russian Church. -The ceremony is a very elaborate one, and is made a state affair. The -members of the Imperial family are present, together with many high -officials, who appear as witnesses, and there can be no exceptions to -the rule that requires the Emperor's bride to be of his religion. -Family, home, religion, everything must be given up by the woman who is -to become an Empress of Russia. - -"Well, we will leave Romanoff House and the Kitai Gorod, and go to see -something else. Our guide suggests the Church of the Saviour, which has -only recently been completed. It was built to commemorate the retreat of -the French from Moscow. Our guide, whose arithmetic is a good deal at -fault, says they have been working at it for more than a hundred years. - -"Though not so quaint as the churches we have seen, it is certainly the -finest in the city. It is in the form of a Greek cross, and the central -cupola, eighty-four feet in diameter, rises three hundred and -forty-three feet above the ground. In front of the church there are -statues of the Russian generals of the early part of the century; the -outside is adorned with bronze reliefs, which are strangely divided -between Scriptural subjects and the war of 1812. The interior of the -building is finished with highly polished porphyry, lapis-lazuli, and -other costly stones, and there is a profusion of paintings ornamenting -the walls. We spent half an hour or more at the church, and were loath -to leave it. - -"In addition to its many churches of the Greek faith, Moscow is like St. -Petersburg in containing churches representing all the religions of a -Christian city, together with synagogues for the Jews and mosques for -the Tartars. Some Chinese who once lived in Moscow had a pagoda, where -they worshipped idols as in their own country, but our guide says there -are no Chinese here at present. Of course we had not sufficient time for -visiting all the churches of Moscow, and told the guide to take us only -to those which were really remarkable. We saw perhaps a dozen in -addition to those I have named. They were interesting to us who saw -them, but I omit a description lest it might prove tedious. - -"We went to the Museum, which has a library of one hundred and fifty -thousand volumes, a collection of minerals, and a great number of -paintings, engravings, and similar things. It did not impress us as much -as did the Museum of St. Petersburg, but perhaps this is due to the fact -that we were a good deal wearied after our long hours of sight-seeing, -and were more desirous of a rest than anything else. - -[Illustration: SKINNED AND STUFFED MAN.] - -"One of the curiosities of the place was a skinned and stuffed man in a -glass case. It reminded us of the cases in which the dress-makers -exhibit the latest styles of feminine apparel; and the figure, though -dead, was more 'life-like' than the wax models to which we are -accustomed. It is the real skin of a man who once lived and moved and -was of goodly stature. - -"From the Museum we went to the _Manège_, or riding-school, which is -claimed to be the largest building in the world without any supporting -pillars. Look at the figures of its measurement: length, 560 feet; -width, 158 feet; height, 42 feet. - -"Perhaps some of the great railway-stations of Europe or America can -surpass these measurements, but we certainly don't know of one that can. -The space is large enough for two regiments of cavalry to perform their -evolutions; and in the winter season, when the weather is too severe -for out-door exercise, this riding-school is in constant use. It is -heated by stoves ranged around the sides of the room, and is ornamented -with numerous trophies of war, and representations of men in armor. The -roof is low and rather flat, and even when the sun is shining the light -is poor. - -"The Suhareff Tower, to which we next went, was chiefly interesting as a -reminder of Peter the Great. At present it is utilized as a reservoir -for supplying the city with water, and it performs its duty very well. -It was formerly the north-western gate of the city, and a regiment of -streltzi was kept here under command of Colonel Suhareff. When the -streltzi revolted, in 1682, Suhareff's regiment remained faithful, and -escorted Peter and his mother and brother to the Troitsa Monastery. - -"In grateful remembrance for their devotion, Peter caused this tower to -be built and named after the colonel who commanded at the time. The -architect tried to make something resembling a ship, but did not succeed -very well. Peter used to have secret councils of state in this tower, -and it was here that comedies were performed in 1771 by the first troupe -of foreign actors that ever came to Russia. It is also said--" - -Here the journal stopped rather abruptly. Frank and Fred were summoned -to go to the "_Troitska Traktir_" for dinner, and as they were both -hungry and curious the journal was laid aside. - -We have had the description of a Russian dinner in the account of what -they saw in St. Petersburg. The dinner in Moscow was much like the one -already described, but the surroundings were different. The waiters -were in snowy frocks and trousers, and the establishment was so large -that it was said to employ one hundred and fifty waiters in the dining -and tea rooms alone. - -[Illustration: RUSSIAN BEGGARS.] - -Many of the patrons of the place were taking nothing but tea, and the -_samovar_ was everywhere. Frank and Fred thought they had never seen -waiters more attentive than at this traktir. They seemed to understand -beforehand what was wanted, and a single glance was sure to bring one of -them to the table. They did a great deal more than the waiters do in -Western Europe. They offered to cut up the food so that it could be -eaten with a fork, and they poured out the tea, instead of leaving the -patron to pour for himself. Frank observed that nearly every one who -entered the place said his prayers in front of the holy picture. There -is a picture in every room of the establishment, so that the devout -worshipper is never at a loss. - -Another day they went to the "_Moskovski Traktir_" a large restaurant -similar to the Troitska, and containing an enormous organ which is said -to have cost more than fifty thousand dollars. The Russians are very -fond of music of the mechanical sort, and their country is one of the -best markets of the Swiss makers of organs and music-boxes. In the best -houses all through Russia expensive instruments of this kind can be -found, and sometimes the barrel-organs are large enough to fill a -respectably-sized room with machinery and fittings, and an entire house -with sound. Probably the most costly mechanical musical instruments are -made for Russians, and some of them give the effect of a whole -orchestra. While the instrument in the traktir was in operation, both -the youths said they could have easily believed the music to have been -produced by a dozen skilled performers. - -As they left the Moskovski Traktir the guide suggested that they would -go to the restaurant of the Old Believers. Fred thus describes the -visit: - -"I must begin by saying that the Old Believers are a Russian sect who -prefer the version of the Bible as it was up to the time of Nikon, -rather than the one he introduced. The Government persecuted them -greatly in past times, and even at present they are subjected to many -restrictions. They are scattered through the Empire, and are said to -number several millions, but the exact statistics concerning them are -unattainable. - -"In addition to their adhesion to the old form of the Scriptures they -abhor smoking, refuse to shave their beards, attach particular sanctity -to old ecclesiastical pictures, and are inveterate haters of everything -not thoroughly Russian. They despise the manners and customs of Western -Europe, which they consider the synonyme of vices, and associate as -little as possible with those who do not share their belief. In the -country they form communities and villages by themselves, and in the -cities they live in the same quarter as much as possible. They are an -honest, industrious people, and thoroughly loyal subjects of the -Emperor. - -"In the traktir of the Old Believers we found the waiters wearing dark -caftans instead of white ones, and the room was filled with Russians of -noticeably long beards. Smoking is not allowed here under any -circumstances; and as nearly all Russians who are not Old Believers are -confirmed smokers, this curious sect has the place all to itself. We -were politely treated by the waiters, and, at the advice of the guide, -ventured to eat a _blinni_, for which the place is famous. It was so -good that we repeated the order. Of course we had the inevitable -_samovar_, and found the tea the best that any restaurant has thus far -supplied. This traktir has an excellent reputation for its tea and -cookery; the bill of fare is not large, but everything is of the best -kind. - -"There is a Tartar restaurant where horse-flesh is said to be served -regularly; but whether this is true or not we did not try to find out. -The place is kept by a Russian, so that the assertion is open to some -doubt. Any one can go to the Tartar restaurant, but it is not frequented -by Russians. The Tartars do not associate freely with the Russians, -though there is no hostility between them. They seclude their wives -after the Moslem fashion, and a Russian gentleman tells me that he has -rarely had a glimpse of a Tartar woman, though he has lived near these -people ever since he was born." - -[Illustration: TARTAR COFFEE-HOUSE IN SOUTHERN RUSSIA.] - -For a general view of Moscow our friends took a drive to the Sparrow -Hills, the spot whence Napoleon took his first and also his last look -upon the city he came so far to conquer. - -On the way thither they stopped at the Gardens, which are the property -of the Galitsin family, and also at a small palace or villa which is the -property of the Empress. These interruptions delayed them, so that it -was near sunset when they reached the Sparrow Hills and had the city in -full view. As they looked at the sunlight reflected from the hundreds of -gilded domes, and the great city spread over the undulating ground, they -realized what must have been the feelings of the French soldiers as they -gazed upon Moscow after their long and perilous journey to the heart of -Russia. - -There is still higher ground from which to look upon the city at the -Simonoff Monastery, which has a belfry more than three hundred feet -high. The monastery dates from 1390. It was once the most important -church establishment in Russia, and possessed immense areas of land and -as many as twelve thousand serfs. It was earnestly defended against the -Poles in 1612, but was captured and plundered by them. It was a -quarantine hospital in the plague of 1771, and a military one from 1788 -to 1795. - -The French burned several of its buildings, but they were soon restored. -The extent of the place will be understood when it is known that there -are six churches inside the walls. Our friends passed some time there -looking at the antique silver, gold, and other ornaments, and the costly -vestments which have been handed down from ancient times. They climbed -to the top of the belfry, and had a view of the city which they are not -likely to forget immediately. - -The visit to the Simonoff Monastery was a preliminary to an excursion to -the Troitska Monastery, which will be described in the next chapter. - -[Illustration: GALLERY IN THE PALACE.] - - - - -CHAPTER XIV. - -A VISIT TO THE TROITSKA MONASTERY, AND WHAT WAS SEEN THERE.--CURIOUS -LEGENDS.--MONKS AT DINNER.--EUROPEAN FAIRS.--THE GREAT FAIR AT NIJNI -NOVGOROD.--SIGHTS AND SCENES.--MININ'S TOMB AND TOWER.--DOWN THE VOLGA -BY STEAMBOAT.--STEAM NAVIGATION ON THE GREAT RIVER.--KAZAN, AND WHAT WAS -SEEN THERE.--THE ROUTE TO SIBERIA. - - -The Troitska (Trinity) Monastery is about forty miles from Moscow, and -reached by railway in little more than two hours. Our friends took an -early start, intending to see the monastery and return the same day -which is by no means difficult, as there are three trains each way every -twenty-four hours. Fred had spent the previous evening in reading up the -history of the place they were to visit. As soon as they were seated in -the train he gave the following summary to his companions: - -"The monastery was founded in 1342 by St. Sergius, a son of a Russian -nobleman of Rostof, who was famed for his intelligence and piety. The -Princes of Muscovy used to ask his advice in their contests with the -Tartars, as well as in other matters. Dmitry of the Don sought his -blessing before going to the battle of Kulikova, where he defeated the -Tartars; he was accompanied by two monks, disciples of Sergius, who -fought by Dmitry's side during the memorable battle. In consideration of -the great services thus rendered, the monastery received grants of land -and became very rich. St. Sergius died in 1392, and it is said that he -remained a simple monk to the last. - -"In 1408 the Tartars laid the monastery waste, and scattered the monks. -They reassembled about fifteen years later, and the monastery was -re-established. It has never since been recaptured, though it was -besieged by thirty thousand Poles in 1608. The monks made a vigorous -defence, and the siege was finally raised by a Russian force which came -to their assistance. The French started from Moscow for the monastery in -1812, but only went about half way. The tradition is that the saint -appeared miraculously, and covered the road leading to the monastery -with such an array of soldiers in black that the French did not dare to -attack them. - -"While the Poles were in possession of Moscow in 1612, the monastery -aided the inhabitants with food and money. The Poles again sent an army -to conquer the place, but it was repulsed by the monks without any -assistance from the Russian soldiers. The plague and the cholera, which -have both visited Moscow, have not entered Troitska, and consequently -the place is much venerated for its sanctity. - -[Illustration: COPY OF PICTURE IN THE MONASTERY.] - -"There is a legend that when the saint first came to the spot he met a -huge bear in the forest; the bear rushed forward to destroy him, but -suddenly paused, and from that moment the saint and the bear were -friends. For the rest of their days they lived together, and when the -saint died the bear remained on the spot, and gave evidences of the most -earnest grief. This story is implicitly believed by the orthodox -Russians, and the gentleman from whose writings I have taken it says he -heard it from the lips of a Russian lady, and narrated so artlessly that -it would have been painful to have expressed any doubt of its truth." - -Other legends of the monastery, and incidents showing its prominence in -Russian history, whiled away the time till the station at Troitska was -reached. After a substantial breakfast at the railway-station, the party -proceeded to the famous edifice, which is more like a fortress than a -religious establishment. Its walls have a linear extent of nearly a -mile; they are twenty feet thick, and vary in height from thirty to -fifty feet. They would offer little obstruction to modern artillery, but -it is easy to see that they could make a stout resistance to such cannon -as the Poles possessed three centuries ago. There are towers at the -angles, eight in all, and one of them is surmounted by an obelisk which -bears a duck carved in stone, in remembrance of the fact that Peter the -Great used to shoot ducks on a pond near the monastery. - -For what they saw at Troitska we will refer to Frank's journal: - -"There were crowds of beggars along the road from the railway-station to -the gate of the monastery. It seems that the place is an object of -pilgrimage from all parts of Russia, and the beggars reap a goodly -harvest from those who come to pray at the shrine of the saint. Before -the railway was opened, the high-road from Moscow seemed to pass through -a double hedge of beggars, and the traveller was never out of hearing of -their plaintive appeals for charity. - -[Illustration: WINDOW IN CHURCH OF THE TRINITY.] - -"We were cordially welcomed to the monastery, and one of the monks, who -spoke French, accompanied us through the place. There are ten churches -within the walls, the oldest being the Church of the Trinity, and the -largest that of the Assumption. The shrine of St. Sergius is in the -former. It is an elaborate piece of workmanship, of pure silver, -weighing nine hundred and thirty-six pounds, and is so constructed that -the relics of the saint are exposed. Near the shrine is a painting of -the saint, that was carried in battle by Peter the Great and the Czar -Alexis, and there is a record on a silver plate of other battles in -which it was used. - -[Illustration: PITY THE POOR.] - -"There are other pictures of the saint displayed on the walls of the -church. The whole interior of the building is covered with ornaments in -massive silver and gold, and it is no wonder the French made an effort -to plunder the monastery when they learned of the treasures it -contained. There is a representation of the Last Supper, in which the -figures are of solid gold, with the exception of the Judas, which is of -brass. The images are covered with pearls and precious stones in great -profusion. In some cases they are so thickly spread that the metal can -hardly be seen. - -"In the Church of the Assumption is a two-headed eagle, which -commemorates the concealment of Peter the Great under the altar during -the insurrection of the streltzi. They showed us a well that was dug by -St. Sergius, and discovered after its locality had been unknown for -nearly three hundred years. Near the church is a tower two hundred and -ninety feet high, and containing several bells, one of them weighing -sixty-five tons. Russia is certainly the country of gigantic bells. - -"A description of all the churches at Troitska would be tedious, -especially as we have spoken of the two of greatest interest. The -sacristy is in a detached building, and contains more curiosities than I -could describe in a dozen pages. There are mitres, crowns, crosses, and -other ornaments that have been given to the monastery by the various -rulers of Russia or by wealthy individuals, many of them set with jewels -of remarkable size and beauty. A copy of the Gospels, given by the Czar -Michael in 1632, is in heavy covers, ornamented with designs in enamel; -in the centre of the design on the front cover is a cross made with -rubies, emeralds, and sapphires, and there is a similar though smaller -cross on the back. - -"The robes worn by the priesthood are as numerous and costly as those we -saw at Moscow, and so are the ornaments that accompany them. The pearl -head-dress which Catherine II. wore at her coronation is preserved here, -and serves as an ornament on a priestly robe. There is a crown presented -by Elizabeth, and an altar-cloth from John the Terrible. And so we could -go on through a long list of magnificent gifts from kings and emperors, -and an equally long array of vestments worn by high dignitaries of the -Church on state occasions. - -"The piety of the pilgrims is shown by their adoration, not of these -jewelled crowns and diadems, but of the wooden utensils and coarse -garments which belonged to the founder of the monastery. These relics -are distributed among the glass cases which contain the costly mementos -we have mentioned, with the evident intention of setting forth as -clearly as possible the simple ways of his life. - -[Illustration: CURIOUS AGATE AT TROITSKA.] - -"One of the curiosities they showed us was a natural agate, in which -there is the figure of a monk bowing before a cross. The cross is very -clearly defined, and so is the cowled figure kneeling before it, though -the latter would hardly be taken as representing anything in particular -if regarded by itself. We examined it carefully to see if there was any -deception about it, but could not detect it if there was. The monk, the -cross, and the rock on which the cross stands appear to be wholly formed -by the natural lines of the agate. The stone is about four inches high, -and oval in shape; on one side it is rather dull and opaque, but it is -bright on the other, and distinctly shows the eyes of the monk. - -[Illustration: PAPER-KNIFE FROM TROITSKA. ST. SERGIUS AND THE BEAR.] - -"The monks of Troitska wear black caftans topped with high black hats -without brims; black veils hang down over their shoulders, and nearly -every monk wears his hair as long as it will grow. We saw them at dinner -in their refectory, where one of the number read the service while the -rest went on with their eating and drinking; they were talking freely -among themselves, and did not seem to listen at all to the reader. In -general they appear to be well fed and cared for, and, so far as we -could observe, their life is not a rigorous one. They offered carvings -in wood, ivory, and mother-of-pearl, and we bought several of these -things to bring away as curiosities. Among them was a paper-knife, with -the handle representing St. Sergius and the bear in the forest. The work -was well done, and the knife will make a pretty ornament for somebody's -desk in America. - -"When we entered the refectory the monks invited us to dine with them, -and we regretted that we had already breakfasted at the railway-station. -There is a lodging-house for travellers attached to the monastery, and -comparing favorably with a Russian hotel of the rural sort. Nothing is -charged for the rooms, but the lodger who can afford it must pay for his -food, and in addition he is expected to drop something into the -contribution-box which the monks will show him before his departure. The -cooking is said to be excellent, and the table as well supplied as any -in Moscow. They have a pilgrim's table, where one may dine free of -charge, but the food is simple and limited in quantity. - -"There is a studio of painting in the monastery, where the monks and -their pupils, forty or fifty in all, were busily at work copying from -religious subjects of both Greek and Latin origin. They are not confined -to church paintings, as we saw portraits of the Emperor and other -members of the Imperial family, and several battle-scenes in which -Russian arms have figured. There is a very good painting representing -the attack of the Poles upon the monastery, and another illustrating the -defence of Sebastopol during the Crimean War. - -[Illustration: SPECIMENS OF ECCLESIASTICAL PAINTING ON GLASS.] - -"The monastery was enormously rich at one time, not only in the -treasures it possessed, but in grants of land and serfs which had been -given by the Government. In 1764 it had one hundred and six thousand -male serfs, and its lands covered many thousands of acres. Though losing -its serfs, it has not been without compensation, and the monastery is -handsomely supported, partly by an annual donation from the Government, -and partly by the gifts of pious Russians." - -Doctor Bronson and the youths returned to Moscow in the evening, as -they had planned, and on the next day made their preparations for -continuing their journey. - -Their next place of destination was Nijni Novgorod, where they wished to -attend the great fair, which was then in progress. They decided to go by -the express train, which leaves Moscow in the evening and reaches Nijni -Novgorod in the morning. The distance is about two hundred and seventy -miles, and there is very little to see on the way. - -[Illustration: RUSSIAN COOPER'S SHOP AND DWELLING.] - -The only place of consequence between Moscow and Nijni is Vladimir, -named after Vladimir the Great. It has about fifteen thousand -inhabitants, and is the centre of a considerable trade. Anciently it was -of much political importance, and witnessed the coronations of the Czars -of Muscovy down to 1432. Its Kremlin is in a decayed state, and little -remains of its former glory, except a venerable and beautiful cathedral. -Our friends thought they could get along with the churches they had -already seen, and declined to stop to look at the Cathedral of -Vladimir. - -On arriving at Nijni they were met at the station by a commissioner from -the Hotel de la Poste, to which they had telegraphed for rooms. In the -time of the fair it is necessary to secure accommodations in advance if -one is intending to remain more than a single day. Tourists who are in a -hurry generally come from Moscow by the night train, spend the day at -Nijni, and return to Moscow the same evening. Thus they have no use for -a hotel, as they can take their meals at the railway-station or in the -restaurants on the fair grounds. - -"This is practically the last of the great fairs of Europe," said the -Doctor to his young companions as the train rolled out of Moscow. -"Leipsic still maintains its three fairs every year, but they have -greatly changed their character since the establishment of railways. -They are more local than general, and one does not see people from all -parts of Europe, as was the case forty or fifty years ago. The fairs of -France and Germany have dwindled to insignificance, and now the only -really great fair where Europe and Asia meet is the one we are about to -visit." - -Frank asked how long these fairs had been in existence. - -"Fairs are of very ancient origin," the Doctor replied; "that of Leipsic -can be distinctly traced for more than six hundred years. The word -'fair' comes from the Latin _feria_, meaning day of rest, or holiday, -and the fairs for the sale of goods were and still are generally -connected with religious festivals. The Greeks and Romans had fairs -before the Christian era; fairs were established in France in the fifth -century and in England in the ninth, and they were common in Germany -about the beginning of the eleventh century, when they were principally -devoted to the sale of slaves. - -"Coming down with a single bound to the great fair of Russia, we find -that there was an annual gathering of merchants at Nijni more than five -hundred years ago. Long before that time there was a fair in Kazan, then -under Tartar rule, but Russian merchants were prohibited from going -there by order of John the Terrible. The fair of Nijni was removed to -Makarieff, seventy miles down the river, in 1641, where it remained a -long time. The monks of Makarieff controlled the fair until 1751, when -it passed into the hands of the Government, and has remained there ever -since. - -"The fair at Makarieff was held on low ground near the town. Owing to an -inundation in 1816, the Government restored the fair to Nijni, and -decreed that it should be held annually between the 27th of July and the -22d of September. The ordinary population of Nijni is about forty -thousand; two hundred and fifty thousand merchants, laborers, and -others come to the fair, so that for two months of the year nearly -three hundred thousand people are assembled here." - -"How are they all accommodated with lodgings and food?" one of the -youths asked. - -[Illustration: NIJNI NOVGOROD DURING THE FAIR.] - -"The permanent town of Nijni Novgorod," said the Doctor, "is separated -from Fair-town, if we may so call it, by the River Oka, which here joins -the Volga. The fair is held on a tongue of land between the Volga and -the Oka, and Fair-town and Nijni proper are connected by bridges of -boats. It is a regular town or city, built for the purposes of trade. It -has its governor, police force, fire brigade, and all the paraphernalia -of a city, and the Government collects by means of a tax about fifty -thousand dollars for the support of the organization." - -"Then it is a city with a busy population for two months of the year, -and a deserted town for the other ten?" - -[Illustration: NIJNI NOVGOROD AFTER THE FAIR.] - -"Exactly so," was the reply; "Fair-town at Nijni in season and out of -season will remind you of the difference between Coney Island or Long -Branch in July and in January. - -"We'll drop the subject till to-morrow," said the Doctor, and with this -suggestion the conversation was suspended. - -On their arrival at Nijni, where they expected to remain two or three -days, the party went to the hotel as already stated, and then made a -hasty survey of the stock sights of the place. They saw the Kremlin, -which is a place of considerable strength, and contains the Governor's -residence, the military barracks, law-courts, telegraph station, and -other public buildings. There is a fine monument to Minin and Pojarsky, -and in a church not far off is the tomb of the patriotic cattle-dealer. - -Our friends climbed to the top of Minin's Tower (_Bashnia Minina_), -where they had a magnificent view of the surrounding country, including -the valleys of the Volga and Oka for a long distance, the permanent town -and its Kremlin, the site of the fair, with its miles of streets, and -its thousands of boats and barges tied to the river-bank. Frank recalled -the view from the hill near Hankow, at the junction of the Han and -Yang-tse in China, and pointed out many features of similarity. Fred -said he was reminded of the junction of the Ganges and Jumna at -Allahabad, and an appeal to the Doctor brought out a reference to the -union of the Alleghany and Monongahela at Pittsburg. - -The permanent town was quickly disposed of, as the youths were impatient -to inspect the great fair. For an account of what they saw we will again -refer to their journals. - -"What a cloud of dust there is here," said Frank, "and they say the dust -turns to mud, and deep mud, too, after a heavy rain. They make a -pretence of watering the streets when the weather is dry, but the work -is not very well done; and besides, the vast number of people walking -about keeps the ground in very active occupation. - -"Nearly all the houses are of brick or iron, and great care is taken to -prevent fires. The lower stories of the houses are used for shops, and -the upper for storage, or for the residence of those who have hired the -buildings. The sewerage system is said to be excellent, the sewers being -flushed several times daily by water pumped from the river. - -"The Governor's house is in the centre of this fair-town. Under it is a -bazaar for the sale of goods from all parts of Europe and Asia, and we -naturally took this house for the centre of trade. Along the streets and -avenues there are shops of all kinds, and we seemed to be in the bazaars -of all the Oriental countries we have ever visited, together with the -shops and stores of all the Western ones. The list of the goods we saw -would almost be a list of all the articles of trade throughout the -civilized and uncivilized world, and we hesitate to begin. Name anything -that you want to buy and the guide will take you to where it is sold. - -"The mode of dealing is more Oriental than Occidental, as the merchants -in any particular kind of goods are clustered together as in the bazaars -of the East. For a mile or more there are warehouses filled only with -iron, and very judiciously they are on the bank of the river, to save -labor in handling and transportation. The tea-merchants are together, -and so are the dealers in Bokharian cotton, Tartar sheepskins, Siberian -furs, and other things on the long list we do not intend to write out in -full. - -"Restaurants of every name and kind are here, good, bad, and -indifferent. The best is under the Governor's house, and we recommend it -to any of our friends who follow in our footsteps and visit Nijni. There -are Russian, Armenian, and Catholic churches, and there are mosques and -pagodas, so that every visitor may suit himself in religious matters. - -"As for the people we confess to some disappointment. The great majority -are Russians, as a matter of course, but it is rather greater than we -had looked for. We had thought we would see all the countries of Asia -represented by their national dress, together with English, French, -Germans, and other people of Western Europe. All were there, it is true, -but not in the numbers we had expected. - -[Illustration: TARTAR MERCHANT.] - -"Kirghese, Bokhariots, Turcomans, and other people of Central Asia, were -to be seen here and there, and so were Kalmuck Tartars, Armenians, -Persians, and an occasional Chinese. But sometimes we could walk around -for an hour or so without seeing anybody but Russians, or hearing any -language except the one to which we have become accustomed since our -arrival at St. Petersburg. - -[Illustration: RETURNING FROM THE FAIR.] - -"We bought a few souvenirs of the place; but, so far as we could -observe, the prices were quite as high as in the Gostinna Dvor of St. -Petersburg or Moscow. It requires a great deal of bargaining, and a -knowledge of prices beforehand, to avoid being cheated, and even then -you can never be sure that you are fairly treated. The mode of dealing -is emphatically Oriental, and a great deal of time is spent in -dickering. Nobody seems to understand the advantages of fixed prices. - -"It is said that the annual business at the fair of Nijni Novgorod -amounts to three hundred millions of dollars, though it has somewhat -diminished of late years. Much of the dealing is on credit, the goods -being delivered at one fair and paid for at the next. Over a pot of tea -transactions will be made that cover many thousands of dollars, and -neither party has a scrap of paper to show for them. Collections through -the courts would be next to an impossibility, and therefore personal -honor is at a high premium. The merchant who fails to meet his -engagements would be excluded from the fair, and thus deprived of the -means of making new negotiations. - -"The Government requires the bakers to report each day the amount of -bread they have sold, and thus a rough estimate of the number of people -present is obtained. - -"There are two other fairs held at Nijni, but they are of comparatively -little consequence. One, early in July, is devoted to horses; the other, -in January, is for the sale of timber, wooden-ware, and boxes. The -latter is held on the ice of the Oka. In January, 1864, the ice gave way -and a great number of people and horses were drowned." - -Two or three days were spent at the fair, and then our friends engaged -passage on a steamboat to descend the Volga. The youths were surprised -at the number and size of the steamers navigating this river, and still -more surprised to find that many of them were of American pattern. The -first passenger steamers on the Volga were built by Americans, and were -found so well adapted to the work required of them that the system has -been continued. Some of the boats are of the Mississippi model, while -others resemble those of the Hudson River. At first they had only -side-wheel steamers, but in the last few years several light-draft -stern-wheelers have been built (also by Americans) and found especially -useful in threading among the numerous sand-bars at the period of low -water. - -Many boats of great power are used for towing barges up and down the -river, and find plenty of employment during all the time the Volga is -free from ice. Altogether, about five hundred steamboats of all classes -are engaged in the navigation of the Volga. - -It is sixteen hundred miles from Nijni to Astrachan, and the voyage -usually takes five or six days. The boats do not run at night, on -account of the difficulty of navigation, which is worse than that of the -Lower Mississippi, and more like the Missouri than any other American -stream. The fare (first class) on the best steamers is about twenty-five -dollars, exclusive of meals, which will cost from twelve to twenty -dollars more. Competition occasionally reduces the figures considerably, -but, as a general thing, the Russians are too shrewd to conduct their -business at a loss in order to injure that of a rival. - -"We are on a fine boat, which reminds me of the very one that carried us -from St. Louis to Memphis," writes Fred in his journal. "She is called -the _Nadeshda_ ("Hope"); and that reminds me it was the _Hope_ on which -I went from Memphis to Natchez, when Frank and I travelled down the -Mississippi. Her captain speaks English, the steward speaks French, and -we have learned enough Russian to get along very well with the servants -without the aid of an interpreter. The cabins are large, clean, and -comfortable, and altogether we expect to make a comfortable voyage. - -"We left Nijni about noon, and the captain says we shall be twenty-four -hours getting to Kazan, where he will stop long enough for us to see the -place. As I write, we are passing Makarieff, formerly the seat of the -great fair, but now of little importance. - -"There are many boats and barges floating with the current in addition -to the huge tows which are managed by the steamboats. The captain says -that before steam navigation was introduced there was a great deal of -towing by horse-power; and how do you suppose it was done? - -[Illustration: LAUNCHING A RUSSIAN BARGE.] - -"There was an immense barge, with powerful windlasses or capstans, which -were operated by horses walking in a circle as in the old-fashioned -cider-mills. A huge cable, all the way from a quarter of a mile to two -miles in length, would be sent up stream, and either anchored in the -channel or fastened to a tree on shore. When all was ready the horses -were set in motion, and the towing-barge, with all the boats and barges -attached to it, slowly ascended against the current. Progress was very -slow, but it was safe, as there was no danger from exploding boilers or -overheated furnaces. As many as two hundred horses were sometimes -employed by single barges. - -[Illustration: TARTAR VILLAGE NEAR THE VOLGA.] - -"Our captain says that back from the river are many villages of -Cheramess, a people of Tartar origin, who preserve many of their ancient -customs. They are loyal subjects of the Government, and in nearly all -their cottages one will find the portraits of the Emperor and Empress. -In accordance with their custom of veiling women, they hang a piece of -thin gauze over the portrait of the Empress. - -"The summer road between Kazan and Nijni is on the south bank of the -river; the winter road is on the ice, and is marked with green boughs -placed in a double row, so that the road cannot be missed. These boughs -are placed by the Administration of Roads, and no one can travel on the -ice of the river until it has been officially declared safe. The south -bank is quite abrupt, while on the north the country frequently -stretches off in a level for a long distance. Most of the towns along -the banks are said to have been founded by John the Terrible in his -expedition for the capture of Kazan. - -"We reached Kazan as promised soon after noon, and had the rest of the -day for seeing the place. We were all ready when the boat touched the -shore, and were off as soon as we secured a carriage. The city is about -five miles from the river, but we found the drive to it not at all -uninteresting. We passed through a suburb where a mosque and a church -standing close together symbolized the friendly relations between the -Russian and Tartar inhabitants. - -"Kazan is a handsome city with about sixty thousand inhabitants, of whom -one-third are Tartars. We drove through the Tartar quarter, and found it -very much like the Russian, with the exception of the people in the -streets and the signs on the shops. The buildings have the same general -appearance, and were probably built by Russian architects. John the -Terrible destroyed a large part of the city soon after its capture. He -levelled everything in the Kremlin, including the tombs of the Tartar -kings, and since his day the city has been swept by fire no less than -three times. Consequently there is very little of the ancient -architecture; a portion of the Tartar wall of the Kremlin remains, and -that is about all. - -"Kazan is famous for its manufactures of leather, soap, candles, and -other things, and there are said to be nearly two hundred factories in -and around the city. It is specially celebrated for its tanneries, and -annually turns out large quantities of 'Russia leather.' - -[Illustration: TARTAR BAKER'S SHOP.] - -"We hadn't time to visit the University of Kazan, which has about five -hundred students, and ranks first in the Empire for instruction in -Oriental languages and literature. It has Persian, Arabic, Chinese, and -other Oriental professors, and we were told that a student might study -any one of twenty-six languages within its walls. - -"Of course we could not neglect the cathedral, where is preserved a -miraculous picture, which was found unscathed in the midst of the ashes -after a great conflagration. On its head is a diamond crown, presented -by Catherine II. Near the town is a pyramidal monument in memory of -those who fell during the siege and capture of the city. - -"Just at dusk we returned to the _Nadeshda_, where we found a -substantial supper waiting for us, and made the acquaintance of a -fellow-countryman, Mr. Hegeman, who was to be our companion for the -remainder of the voyage. He was familiar with Russia, having lived in -the country nearly twenty years, and travelled in all parts of it. He -was well informed on every subject, and gave us a great amount of -valuable statistics and descriptions. We talked until quite late in the -evening; and when he joined us at breakfast the next morning the boat -was steaming down the Volga and nearing the mouth of the Kama, where -several passengers were to leave us. - -"'They are going to Perm,' said the captain of the _Nadeshda_, 'and some -of them are on the way to Siberia.' - -"We asked if this was the way to Siberia, and the captain explained that -it was one of the routes. 'Steamers ascend the Kama to Perm,' said he, -'and from Perm there is a railway to Ekaterineburg, which is on the -Siberian side of the Ural Mountains. The line has been extended to -Tumen, three hundred miles farther, and ultimately it will be pushed on -till it reaches Irkutsk, on the shores of Lake Baikal, and close to the -frontier of China.' - -"How we wished we could make the journey through Siberia! Over the Ural -Mountains, across the Steppes, down the Amoor, and out into the waters -of the Pacific Ocean! What a magnificent tour, and what strange things -to see on the way! - -"Mr. Hegeman heard our wish, and said he would tell us all about the -trip across Siberia as soon as we were under way again. As the -_Nadeshda_ steamed down the Volga he gave us an account, which we have -tried to preserve as nearly as possible in his own words." - - - - -CHAPTER XV. - -AVATCHA BAY, IN KAMTCHATKA.--ATTACK UPON PETROPAVLOVSK BY THE ALLIED -FLEET.--DOGS AND DOG-DRIVING.--RAPID TRAVELLING WITH A -DOG-TEAM.--POPULATION AND RESOURCES OF KAMTCHATKA.--REINDEER AND THEIR -USES.--THE AMOOR RIVER.--NATIVE TRIBES AND CURIOUS CUSTOMS.--TIGERS IN -SIBERIA.--NAVIGATION OF THE AMOOR.--OVERLAND TRAVELLING IN -SIBERIA.--RIDING IN A TARANTASSE.--A ROUGH ROAD.--AN AMUSING -MISTAKE.--FROM STRATENSK TO NERTCHINSK.--GOLD-MINING IN SIBERIA. - - -"My first visit to the Russian Empire," said Mr. Hegeman, "was made from -San Francisco across the Pacific Ocean. I sailed out of the Golden Gate -in the direction of Kamtchatka, and after a voyage of thirty days we -sighted the summit of Avatcha Mountain, a magnificent volcano that -serves as a landmark to vessels approaching Avatcha Bay. This bay is one -of the finest I have ever seen. I do not think it surpassed by the -famous bays of Naples or Rio Janeiro." - -[Illustration: A SIBERIAN VILLAGE.] - -Doctor Bronson nodded assent to Mr. Hegeman's opinion. He had been in -Avatcha Bay, which he briefly described to the youths while Mr. Hegeman -was lighting a cigar. - -[Illustration: PETROPAVLOVSK, KAMTCHATKA.--MOUNT AVATCHA IN BACKGROUND.] - -"It is about ten miles across, and nearly circular," said the Doctor, -"and its entrance from the ocean is nearly a mile in width. Avatcha -Mountain is directly in front of the entrance, so that a navigator -entering the bay has little more to do than steer straight towards the -volcano and keep his vessel midway between the two sides of the -entrance. Around the bay there are six or eight little harbors, -completely landlocked. On one of these harbors is Petropavlovsk (Port -of St. Peter and St. Paul), the principal place of trade in Kamtchatka. -Once it had a population of two or three thousand. It was attacked by -the allied fleets in the Crimean War, and suffered severely. After the -war the naval headquarters were removed to Nicolayevsk, at the mouth of -the Amoor." - -[Illustration: A HERD OF REINDEER.] - -"There is an interesting bit of history connected with the attack upon -Petropavlovsk," Mr. Hegeman remarked, as the Doctor paused. - -"In the autumn of 1854 a combined fleet of six English and French ships -attacked Petropavlovsk, and were twice beaten off by some land batteries -and a Russian frigate moored in the harbor. Their commanders determined -to make an assault by land with a strong force of sailors and marines. -They attempted to take the town in the rear, but the Russian -sharp-shooters created a panic among them, and drove the assailants over -a steep bank about two hundred feet high. - -"The English admiral committed suicide in consequence of his -disappointment, and the fleet sailed away. Next year seventeen ships -came there together, as the allies had determined to conquer the town at -all hazards. The Russians abandoned the place and retired over the -hills, but they left five or six hundred dogs behind them. The allied -fleet remained at anchor for an entire day without venturing to land, -as it was supposed that there must be a very large garrison to keep so -many dogs." - -"The baying of the dogs kept them at bay," whispered Frank to Fred. - -"Yes," replied the latter, "kept them anchored in the bay." - -"There was only one man, an American merchant, in the place when the -allies landed. He remained to protect his own property, and had the -American flag above his establishment. The allies burned all of the -Government buildings and stores, but did not injure anything else." - -Frank asked how they happened to have so many dogs in a small place like -this. - -"Dogs are the beasts of burden of the country," was the reply, "and -without them the people would have much difficulty in getting about. The -dogs of Kamtchatka are much like the Eskimo dogs in appearance, -character, and qualities, and are employed for the same purposes. They -draw sledges over the snow and ice in winter, and are capable of great -speed and endurance. With a light load they can travel fifty miles a day -for a week or more, and on some occasions they have been known to make a -single trip of one hundred miles and more without resting. They are -harnessed in pairs with a leader, and a team consists of anywhere from -three to twenty-one dogs. A great deal depends on the leader, and he is -always chosen from among the most intelligent of the dogs. An ordinary -dog is worth from five to ten dollars, while a leader readily brings -from forty to fifty dollars. - -[Illustration: DOG TEAMS AND REINDEER.] - -"The best travelling I ever heard of with a dog-team," continued Mr. -Hegeman, "was when a courier was sent to carry to Petropavlovsk the -announcement of the Crimean War. Without changing teams he went from -Boltcheresk to Petropavlovsk (one hundred and twenty-five miles) in -twenty-three hours!" - -One of the youths asked what the dogs lived upon. - -"They live almost entirely upon fish," was the reply, "and they eat it -in any condition--fresh, dried, or half decayed. Salmon are very -abundant in Kamtchatka, and the cheapest thing for feeding the dogs. One -fish a day is the ordinary allowance for a dog; but while he is on a -journey he receives only half his usual ration. The natives all say that -these animals travel better half fed than when fully nourished, and many -persons do not give them anything whatever for an entire day before they -are to start on a journey." - -Many anecdotes about the dogs of Kamtchatka were given, and Frank and -Fred were so interested in the subject that they forgot to note down -what was said. When questioned about it afterwards, Frank said he -learned that it requires much experience to drive a dog-team; that the -man who is to drive must feed his own dogs and make them know he is -their master; that they will run away whenever they have the -opportunity; and they have a treacherous, thieving disposition. They are -brave in large numbers, but always cowardly when alone. Epidemics among -them are frequent, and sometimes whole tribes of natives are thus -deprived of their dogs and unable to move about. - -"For further canine particulars," said Frank, "we refer you to 'The -Voyage of the _Vivian_ to the North Pole and Beyond.' The youths who -made that remarkable journey had considerable practical experience with -dogs, and they personally visited Kamtchatka on their way to the Pole." - -"Kamtchatka has about seven thousand inhabitants altogether," said Mr. -Hegeman. "Twelve or fifteen hundred are Russians, and the rest belong to -aboriginal tribes. They are chiefly engaged in hunting and fishing; -there is very little agriculture in the country, as the climate is too -cold to permit the cultivation of grain or garden vegetables. Kamtchatka -is chiefly useful for its fur products. Five or six thousand sables are -killed there every year, and considerable numbers of ermine, foxes, and -other fur-bearing animals. Bears are numerous and dangerous, and so are -wolves, which are very fierce in winter, though not at all troublesome -in the summer-time. Earthquakes are not unfrequent in Kamtchatka, but -they do little damage, and are looked upon more as amusements than -anything else. - -[Illustration: LIGHT-HOUSE AT GHIJIGHA.] - -"From Kamtchatka I went in a ship to Ghijigha, on the Okhotsk Sea," -continued Mr. Hegeman. "Ghijigha is very much like Petropavlovsk, and -has the same sort of population--a mixture of Cossacks, peasants, and -natives. It is at the head of a narrow bay, and its light-house is -nothing more than an octagonal hut with a fire on the roof. Many of the -inhabitants are the descendants of exiles who were sent to the country -down to about the middle of this century. - -[Illustration: ERMINE-TRAP.] - -"In the time of Catherine the Great, many Poles were sent to Kamtchatka, -and it is a curious circumstance that the first voyage from that country -to a foreign port was made under the Polish flag. Several Poles seized a -small ship in the harbor and put to sea. They had no nautical knowledge, -and no instruments for navigation, but managed to reach Loo Choo, and -afterwards the port of Macao, in safety. - -"At Ghijigha there were more dogs and more fish. I had my choice to go -by land to the mouth of the Amoor River, or by sea. I chose the latter -course; if I had gone by land I should have divided my time between -riding on reindeer, riding after dogs, or going on foot." - -Fred thought it would be very nice to ride on a reindeer, and earnestly -wished he could try it. - -[Illustration: INTERIOR OF A NATIVE HOUSE.] - -"I think a very short trial would satisfy you," replied Mr. Hegeman; "at -any rate it was enough for me. You have a saddle which is simply a pad -without stirrups, and must maintain your balance by means of a stick -that you rest on the ground as the animal walks. An inexperienced man -falls off a dozen times an hour for the first few days, and even old -travellers get a good many tumbles in the course of twenty-four hours. -The saddle is directly over the shoulders of the beast, as it would -break his back if placed where we ordinarily put the saddle on a horse. -Consequently you are shaken at every footstep--an excellent thing for a -dyspeptic, but not agreeable to a man in good health. - -[Illustration: THE REINDEER.] - -"Between the Okhotsk Sea and the Arctic Ocean the wealth of the country -is in reindeer. Some natives own as many as forty thousand of these -animals, and herds of a thousand or more are not at all rare. The -natives wander from place to place in search of pasturage. In summer the -deer eat the mosses and shrubbery that spring up all over the country, -and in winter they scrape away the snow to feed on the moss beneath it. -The native uses the reindeer to ride upon or to draw his sledge; he eats -the flesh of the animal, and makes clothing and tent-covering of his -skin. In fact he cannot get along without the reindeer any more than -could the native of Newfoundland exist without the codfish. - -"But I was willing to let the natives have a monopoly of the reindeer -for riding purposes, and took passage in a ship for the Amoor River. - -"The Amoor is the greatest river of Siberia, and flows into the Pacific -Ocean. It is navigable twenty-three hundred miles from its mouth, and -receives several important streams from the south. In one part of its -course it makes a great bend to the south, where it flows through -magnificent forests containing several trees peculiar to the tropics. -The tiger roams up to the south bank of the river at this point, and the -reindeer comes down to it on the north; occasionally the tiger crosses -the river and feeds upon the reindeer--the only place in the world where -these two animals come together naturally." - -"What a funny idea!" exclaimed Frank. "To think of tigers in Siberia!" - -"Tigers are found elsewhere in Siberia," continued their informant. "In -the museum at Barnaool, in the Altai Mountains, I saw the skins of two -large tigers that were killed in a Siberian farm-yard not far from that -place, where they had come to kill one of the farmer's oxen. -Tiger-hunting is a regular sport with the Russian officers in that part -of Manjouria belonging to Siberia, and over a considerable part of the -region bordering upon China and Persia. But to return to the Amoor. - -[Illustration: FISH-MARKET AT NICOLAYEVSK.] - -"I remained several days at Nicolayevsk, the capital of the Maritime -Province of Siberia, and a place of considerable importance. From there -I ascended the river on a Russian steamboat, passing through the country -of several tribes of people. There were Goldees, Gilyaks, and Manyargs, -and others whose names would be like Greek to you, and therefore I will -not bother you to remember them. They live by hunting and fishing, and -have permanent villages on the banks of the river, in places where the -fishing is best. In the fishing season they always have large quantities -of fish hung out to dry, and consequently you can generally smell a -native village before you see it. - -[Illustration: SCENERY ON THE AMOOR.] - -"The boat landed near a Gilyak village, and I went to see how the -natives lived. They were not particularly civil; in fact they hardly -recognized our presence, but kept at work in the preparation of the -morning's catch of fish as though nobody was looking on. There were a -dozen or more wolfish-looking dogs, and we came near being bitten by the -brutes. The natives made a pretence of driving the dogs off, but were -not half as earnest as we were on the subject. - -[Illustration: GILYAK WOMAN.] - -[Illustration: GILYAK MAN.] - -"They have some interesting customs and superstitions. They are pagans -in religious matters, and worship idols and animals, and they have a -reverence for the tiger, eagle, bear, and cat. They keep eagles in -cages, and when they can catch a bear or tiger they use him for a -religious ceremony, which ends with the animal being slaughtered. His -flesh is eaten under the impression that it gives strength and courage -to the eaters. They will not allow fire to be carried out of their -houses, through fear of evil consequences, and they formerly had the -custom of killing those who came to visit them. The more amiable he was, -the greater was the chance of his being murdered." - -Fred asked how it could be explained. - -"Very easily, when you know the reason," was the reply. "They believe -that the spirits of the dead remain where they left the body, and guard -and protect the spot. When a man whom they liked was about to leave, -they did not hesitate to kill him for the sake of retaining his spirit -among them. A Russian priest was killed in this way, and the Government -made the Gilyaks understand that they must put an end to the practice. - -[Illustration: NATIVE BOAT--AMOOR RIVER.] - -"The Gilyaks have small fields and gardens, and do a little agriculture, -but their great reliance is upon the river, which supplies them with -fish for food and clothing." - -"How can fish supply clothing?" Frank asked, with a look of surprise. - -"Easily enough," was the reply. "The Gilyaks and other people of the -Amoor take the skins of fishes, beat them till the scales fall off, -dress them with oil till they are pliable, and then fashion them into -garments. I have seen some very good coats and jackets made of -fish-skins. The prettiest Gilyak girl I saw (and she had no great beauty -to boast of) wore a coat of fish-skin that was gathered closely in at -the neck and held around the waist by a girdle. A few yards away you -couldn't distinguish it from cloth. - -[Illustration: GOLDEE CHILDREN.] - -"The Gilyaks row their boats by pulling alternately on the oars, while -the Goldees, who are higher up the river, pull the oars simultaneously. -The houses of the Goldees are superior in every way to those of the -Gilyaks. They are warmed by means of wooden pipes passing beneath -benches on three sides of the room, and serving as seats by day and beds -at night. Like the Gilyaks, the Goldees live chiefly by fishing, but -they give more attention to agriculture, and many of them have cows and -horses. One day we passed a village where a large fleet of boats was -engaged in fishing for salmon and sturgeon. Two men tried a race with -the steamboat, and fairly beat us for a short distance, though we were -making nine or ten miles against the current. - -"The Russians have established villages along the Amoor at intervals of -twenty or thirty miles, where the steamboats are supplied with wood. -Some of these villages are close to the native ones, and the people live -in perfect harmony. At one of our stopping-places I suggested that I -would like to see the inside of a Goldee house, and the captain kindly -accompanied me to the native village. - -[Illustration: A GOLDEE MAN AND WOMAN.] - -"Guided by a Russian peasant, we picked our way among the drying fish, -and reached the door. It was quite late in the evening, and all the -people had gone to sleep. With some difficulty we roused the owner of -the place, and persuaded him to admit us. Our guide carried a torch of -birch bark, and as he held it aloft the sight revealed to us was a -strange one. - -"Twenty or thirty persons were asleep on the benches, or huddled -together to stare at the intruders. The captain explained that the -Goldees keep their houses very warm, and sleep with little clothing; and -certainly it did not seem as if the whole party had bedding enough for -one-quarter their number. There was a smouldering fire in the middle of -the room, a large kettle, set in brickwork, was at one side, and the -rafters were hung with nets and fishing implements. A vicious-looking -dog stood growling in front of us, and needed only a word from his -master to turn his growls into bites. I had no inclination to stay long, -particularly as the atmosphere was by no means pure, and it did not seem -exactly polite to rouse a gentleman in the night and compel him to open -his house simply to gratify a stranger's curiosity. - -"For a thousand miles or more the Amoor forms the dividing line between -Russia and China, the former country being on the northern bank, and the -latter on the southern. There is a Chinese town of some twenty thousand -inhabitants at one point, and smaller towns and villages both above and -below it. - -"The whole valley of the Amoor was in the possession of the Chinese -until 1853, when it was conquered by the Russians in a campaign that -lasted less than two months, and was unaccompanied with loss of life. -General Mouravieff, then Governor-general of Eastern Siberia, organized -an expedition and sent it down the river in boats. The Chinese were -wholly unprepared for it, and the Russians had everything their own -way. Then colonists were sent to form the villages I have mentioned, -and Russia was so firmly established that she could not be disturbed. - -"And now, as you have doubtless studied the geography of Asia, will you -tell me how the Amoor is formed?" - -[Illustration: INAUGURATION OF GENGHIS KHAN.] - -"Certainly," answered Fred. "It is formed by the rivers Argoon and -Shilka, just as the Ohio is formed by the Alleghany and Monongahela. The -Argoon comes in from the south, and the Shilka from the north. Genghis -Khan was born in the valley of the Argoon, and the armies that went to -the Tartar conquest of Europe were originally mustered on the banks of -that stream." - -[Illustration: JUNCTION OF THE ARGOON AND SHILKA TO FORM THE AMOOR.] - -"The answer is correct," was the reply. "The spot where the rivers unite -is called '_Oust-strelka_' ("Arrow-mouth"), owing to the shape of the -tongue of land between the streams. The scenery is interesting, as the -banks of the Argoon are steep, and the hills as far as one can see them -are covered to their summits with dense forests. - -"Our steamboat turned into the Shilka, and, after making a few -unimportant landings, finished its voyage at Stratensk, twenty-three -hundred miles above Nicolayevsk. The river voyage was at an end, and -from this point to St. Petersburg was a land journey of five thousand -miles. Horse-power was to be my mode of conveyance for more than four -thousand miles--a prospect by no means pleasant. - -"It was about the middle of October when I arrived at Stratensk, and -bade farewell to river navigation in Siberia. By the advice of Russian -friends I planned to go to Irkutsk, the capital of Eastern Siberia, -before the snows fell, and there wait for the winter roads to become -good enough for sledging. - -"Irkutsk is about fourteen hundred miles from Stratensk, and there is a -good wagon-road--at least it is called good in Siberia--connecting the -two points. The road makes a detour around the southern end of Lake -Baikal, and quite a distance is saved by crossing the lake on a steamer. -I was told that I might have to wait a day or two to connect with the -steamer, as it is not very regular in its movements. - -"I had made the acquaintance of a Russian officer while ascending the -Amoor, and long before reaching Stratensk it was arranged that we would -travel together to the first provincial capital, where I intended -stopping a few days. There I hoped to find some one else who was going -in my direction, and thus would have the advantages of the companionship -of some one who knew the language, and also to share the expense. It -costs no more for two persons than for one, as the hire of horses and -carriages is just the same, exactly as when you hire a cab in London or -New York. - -[Illustration: SCENE IN A POSTING STATION.] - -"From one end of Siberia to the other there is a post-road, with -stations from ten to twenty miles apart, and there are similar roads -leading from the great route to the towns north and south. A traveller -must have a _paderojnia_, or road-pass, which he obtains from the Chief -of Police at his starting-point. He pays at the rate of half a cent a -mile for this road-pass, and it entitles him to the number of horses -named in the document. For these horses he pays a rate fixed by law, -usually two cents a mile for each horse. Ordinarily a traveller can get -along comfortably with two horses, but if the roads are bad, three, and -sometimes more, are necessary." - -Frank asked if the horses must be paid for at the time the paderojnia is -taken. - -"Not at all," was the reply. "The money is paid at each station to the -_smotretal_, or station-master. It is paid in advance, or may be given -to the driver at the end of the ride." - -"A stranger must run a great risk of being cheated," said Fred; "the -station-master could make the distance out much greater than it really -is, and thus turn a dishonest penny very often." - -"By no means can he do so," Mr. Hegeman answered, "if the stranger is on -his guard. At every station there is an official certificate framed and -hung up, showing the distance to the next station in both directions; -the most enterprising efforts of the smotretal to cheat the traveller -can be frustrated by a study of this document. - -"And now for the means of conveyance," continued Mr. Hegeman. "Every -station is required to keep a certain number of horses and drivers, and -it must also have a stipulated number of wheeled carriages for summer, -and sledges for winter use. The wheeled carriage is called a _telega_; -it is a rough sort of a wagon on wooden springs, and gives a great deal -of jolting to the mile. A ride of a thousand miles in a telega may be -guaranteed to cure a very bad case of dyspepsia or kill the patient, and -in some cases it might do both. The horses are driven at a breakneck -speed, and the traveller finds himself tossed from side to side till he -is bruised like a rolled orange. The telega is changed, along with the -horses, at every station; the traveller and his baggage must be -transferred, as the carriage and horses return to the station whence -they came." - -"It must be very disagreeable to make these changes," remarked one of -the youths, "especially at night or in a storm." - -[Illustration: A TARANTASSE.] - -"It is, indeed," was the reply; "and to obviate this the Russians have a -vehicle called a _tarantasse_, which is larger, better made, and in -every way more comfortable than the telega. A traveller going on a long -journey, and able to afford the expense, buys a tarantasse at starting, -and sells it at the end of his ride. He thus avoids the necessity of -changing at every station; and if he has a servant to attend to the -payments and other matters, he can sleep through the night with -comparative comfort. - -"We started from Stratensk in a telega, as we could not find a -tarantasse for sale or hire, and changed at the next station. Luckily -for us, the smotretal had a tarantasse, which we hired as far as -Stratensk, about sixty miles from our starting-point. It was old, and -somewhat rickety, but it was better than nothing at all, and we gladly -engaged it. - -"There are three classes of paderojnia for the Russian post-roads. The -highest is for Government couriers and great officials; the second for -officials not on Government business; and the third for civilian -travellers. My companion had a courier's pass, while I had a paderojnia -of the second class; consequently his was the best to use. - -"A traveller with a courier's pass is never detained for want of -horses, while others must take their chances. The second-class passport -takes precedence over the third, and in a very summary way at times. - -"Suppose Smith has a second-class paderojnia, and Jones one of the third -class. Smith reaches a station and finds Jones with a team ready to -start. If there are no more horses, the station-master detaches Jones's -horses and gives them to Smith; Jones must wait until he can be -supplied; it may be an hour, a day, or a week. - -[Illustration: CHANGING HORSES AT A SIBERIAN STATION.] - -"Three horses must always be kept ready for couriers, and the changes -made very quickly. If all the horses belonging to a station are out when -a lower-class traveller arrives, he must wait till a team returns and -has rested. If he is willing to pay something extra rather than wait, he -can be accommodated; the smotretal will obtain horses from the villagers -at whatever advance on the regular price that he thinks the traveller -will stand. Here is where the station-master has a chance to make -something, and he usually makes it. - -"The horses are small and shaggy, but they are capable of great speed -and endurance. They are never blanketed, even in the coldest weather, -and their hair is thick and soft like the fur of a fox. Sometimes they -kept up a steady gallop from one station to another, and did not seem to -suffer by the speed. Frequently they travelled ten miles an hour, and -when we were going down hill they did better than that. The way to go -from one hill to another is to dash down the slope and across the level -at full gallop, and thus obtain an impetus for mounting the next. Many -of the hollows have corduroy bridges over the little streams that flow -through them, and when we crossed these bridges at full gallop the -tarantasse or telega received a very lively shaking." - -Turning to Doctor Bronson, Mr. Hegeman suggested that the former should -tell the youths about the search in Siberia for Sir John Franklin and -his crew. - -The Doctor smiled as he recalled the story, which he gave with a -preliminary explanation: - -"The Russians apply the term 'equipage' to any kind of vehicle, whether -on wheels or runners. The same word is used in Russian as in French to -denote the crew of a ship. - -"A few years after the disappearance of Sir John Franklin, the English -Admiralty requested the Russian Government to ascertain if any traces of -that officer and his party had been found on the coast of Siberia. A -general order was sent to all officials in Siberia to make inquiries -about the 'English Captain John Franklin and his equipage.' In due time -came reports that nothing could be found, except in a single instance, -where a petty official wrote as follows: - -"'I have made the proper inquiries. I can learn nothing about the -English captain, John Franklin, but in one of my villages there is an -old sleigh that no one claims, and perhaps it is his equipage.'" - -[Illustration: THE RIGHT OF WAY IN RUSSIA.] - -"To return to the road," said Mr. Hegeman, when the laugh created by the -story had subsided. "We carried one, and sometimes two bells on the yoke -of our shaft-horse, to indicate that we were travelling by post; every -humbler vehicle was required to give us not only half but the whole of -the road--at any rate, it was expected to do so. Sometimes we had it, -and sometimes we did not; if the drivers of the approaching vehicles -were awake they usually turned out, but very often they were asleep, and -their horses had their own way. When this happened, our driver brought -his whip-lash heavily across the sleeper as he passed him. The driver of -a post-carriage has the right to thrash a common driver who does not get -out of his way, and rarely lets the opportunity pass." - -Fred suggested that in this way he probably obtained some revenge for -the kicks and cuffs he received from his superiors. The rest of the -party assented to the idea of the youth. Doctor Bronson remarked that -the most cruel of the slave-drivers of the Southern States of America in -former times were the negro slaves who were placed in authority over -their fellows, and he thought the same rule held good throughout the -world in general. - -[Illustration: GETTING OUT OF DIFFICULTY.] - -"It had been raining before we arrived at Stratensk, and consequently we -found a great deal of mud on the roads. Several times we were mired, and -had to send to neighboring farm-houses for additional horses, and twice -we removed all our baggage and put our own shoulders to the wheel to get -out of trouble. One of these performances was during a shower, and did -not improve our condition or temper. I was ready to vote Siberian -travelling a first-class nuisance, and felt downhearted at the immense -distance that lay between me and the railway-station at Nijni Novgorod. - -"To make things worse, our Cossack servant had placed our pillows and -blankets on the wet ground, and piled heavy baggage on top. For this -stupidity my companion, the captain, remonstrated in very strong -language, but all that he said could not dry our property. At the next -station we stopped for dinner; while we were eating our meal the -dampened articles were somewhat improved by being placed in front of the -kitchen fire. - -"Once while descending a hill at full speed a wheel of the tarantasse -came off, but no damage was done beyond bringing us to a very sudden -stop. The two axles of the vehicle were about twelve feet apart, and -connected by a pair of stout poles which had a great deal of 'spring' in -them. Properly made, a tarantasse is by no means an uncomfortable -vehicle to ride in, provided, of course, you are travelling over good -roads." - -"What did you get for dinner at the station?" Frank asked. - -"We had the _samovar_, with some tea and sugar, from our own stock, and -then we had boiled eggs and bread. They had some cold mutton, of which I -ate liberally, as I had an appetite like a tiger, but my friend would -hardly touch it. He told me that mutton was rarely eaten by the -Russians, and during my journey through Siberia I do not remember seeing -it on the table, except in a few of the way-side stations. This was all -the more singular when there were great flocks of sheep in the country -where we were travelling. The sheep belong principally to the Bouriats, -a Mongol people who were the occupants of the country before the -Russians went there. - -"Eggs and bread are the only articles of food you can rely upon getting -at the stations, and sometimes even the eggs are wanting. Bread is made -from rye flour rather than from wheat, and its complexion is darker than -that of the Boston brown bread of America. It is the bread of the -peasant from one end of the Empire to the other, and a good many of the -nobility prefer it to white bread. For my own part I never liked the -black bread of Russia, but often ate it for lack of anything else. - -"Up hill and down dale we went, and on the second morning of our journey -the broad and beautiful valley of the Nertcha River lay before us. Two -or three miles above the point where the Nertcha joins the Shilka lies -the town of Nertchinsk, a well-built place with five or six thousand -inhabitants. It has an air of wealth and solidity, and large fortunes -have been made there by men interested in gold-mining. We entered the -town through an arched gate-way, and drove to the house of a rich -gold-miner with whom my friend was well acquainted. Hardly had we thrown -off our wrappings before the _samovar_ was steaming on the table. We -were urged to stay to dinner, and, much to my satisfaction, the -invitation was accepted by my companion." - -"Haven't I read about Nertchinsk as a place of exile?" said one of the -youths. - -"Quite likely you have," was the answer. "Nertchinsk and its gold-mines -have a prominent place in the history of Siberian exile. Would you like -to hear about it?" - -"Of course we would," the youths eagerly responded. It was agreed that -the journey through Siberia should be suspended until the new subject -was disposed of. - -[Illustration: VALLEY OF THE AMOOR ABOVE OUK-SE-ME.] - - - - -CHAPTER XVI. - -THE EXILES OF SIBERIA.--THE DECEMBRISTS AND THEIR EXPERIENCE.--SOCIAL -POSITION OF EXILES.--DIFFERENT CLASSES OF EXILES AND THEIR -SENTENCES.--CRIMINALS AND POLITICALS.--DEGREES OF PUNISHMENT.--PERPETUAL -COLONISTS.--HOW EXILES TRAVEL.--LODGING-HOUSES AND -PRISONS.--CONVOYS.--THRILLING STORY OF AN ESCAPE FROM SIBERIA.--SECRET -ROADS.--HOW PEASANTS TREAT THE EXILES.--PRISONERS IN CHAINS. - - -"There are many errors in the popular mind of England and America -concerning the system of exile to Siberia," said Mr. Hegeman, as he -settled into a chair to begin his discourse on this interesting subject. - -"One error is that exiles are treated with such cruelty that they do not -live long; that they are starved, beaten, tortured, and otherwise forced -into an early death. - -"No doubt there have been many cases of cruelty just as there have been -in prisons and other places of involuntary residence all over the globe -and among all nations. Exiles are prisoners, and the lot of a prisoner -depends greatly upon the character of his keeper, without regard to the -country or nation where he is imprisoned. Siberia is no exception to the -rule. With humane officials in power, the life of the exiles is no -worse, generally speaking, than is that of the inmates of a prison in -other lands; and with brutal men in authority the lot of the exile is -doubtless severe. - -"In the time of the Emperor Nicholas there was probably more cruelty in -the treatment of exiles than since his death; but that he invented -systems of torture, or allowed those under him to do so, as has been -alleged, is an absurdity. - -"Let me cite a fact in support of my assertion. After the revolution of -1825, just as Nicholas ascended the throne, two hundred of the -conspirators were exiled to hard labor for life. They were nearly all -young men, of good families, and not one of them had ever devoted a day -to manual occupation. Reared in luxury, they were totally unfitted for -the toil to which they were sentenced; and if treated with the cruelty -that is said to be a part of exile, they could not have lived many -months. - -"The most of them were sent to the mines of Nertchinsk, where they were -kept at labor for two years. Afterwards they were employed in a -polishing-mill at Chetah and on the public roads for four or five years, -and at the end of that time were allowed to settle in the villages and -towns, making their living in any way that was practicable. Some of them -were joined by their wives, who had property in their own right (the -estates of the exiles were confiscated at the time of their banishment), -and those thus favored by matrimonial fortune were able to set up fine -establishments. - -[Illustration: INTERIOR OF AN EXILE'S HUT.] - -"Some of the Decembrists, as these particular exiles were called, from -the revolution having occurred in December, died within a few years, but -the most of them lived to an advanced age. When Alexander II. ascended -the throne, in 1856, all the Decembrists were pardoned. Some of them -returned to European Russia after thirty-one years of exile, but they -found things so changed, and so many of their youthful companions dead, -that they wrote back and advised those who were still in Siberia to stay -there. My first visit to Siberia was in 1866, forty-one years after the -December revolution. At that time there were ten or twelve of the -Decembrists still living, all of them venerable old men. One was a -prosperous wine-merchant at Irkutsk; another had made a fortune as a -timber-merchant; others were comfortable, though not wealthy; and two or -three were in humble, though not destitute circumstances. Now, if they -had been treated with the cruelty that is alleged to be the lot of all -Siberian exiles, do you think any of them would have reached such an -advanced age?" - -Silence gave assent to the query. After a short pause, Frank asked what -was the social standing of these exiles, the Decembrists. - -[Illustration: EXILES PASSING THROUGH A VILLAGE.] - -"It was nearly, though not quite, what it was in European Russia before -their exile," was the reply. "They were received in the best Siberian -families, whether official or civilian, and were on terms of friendship -with the officials in a private way. They were not invited to strictly -official ceremonies, and this was about the only difference between -their treatment and that of those who were not exiles. Of course I refer -to the time when they were settled in the towns, after their term of -forced labor was ended. Before that they were just like any other -prisoners condemned to the same kind of servitude. - -"There were two of the Decembrists (Prince Troubetskoi and Prince -Volbonskoi) whose wives were wealthy, and followed their husbands into -exile. When relieved from labor and allowed their personal liberty, -these princes came to Irkutsk and built fine houses. They entertained -handsomely, were visited by the officials, went very much into society, -and in every way were as free as any one else, except that they were -forbidden to leave Siberia. Nicholas was not of a forgiving disposition, -and not till he died were the Decembrists free to return to St. -Petersburg. - -[Illustration: A TOWN BUILT BY EXILES.] - -"A bit of social gossip adds to the interest of the Siberian life of -Prince Volbonskoi. There was some incompatibility of temper between the -prince and his wife, and for a long time they were not particularly -friendly. She and the children and servants occupied the large and -elegantly furnished house, while the Prince lived in a small building in -the court-yard. He had a farm near the town, and sold to his wife such -of the produce as she needed for household use." - -Fred wished to know how many kinds of people are sent to Siberia. - -"There are three classes of exiles," was the reply: "political, -religious, and criminal offenders. The political ones include Nihilists -and other revolutionists, and of course there is a great majority of -Poles among this class; the religious exiles are certain sects of -fanatics that the Government wishes to suppress; and the criminal ones -are those who offend against society in all sorts of ways. None of them -are ever called 'prisoners' or 'criminals' while in Siberia, and it is -not often you hear them termed 'exiles.' In ordinary conversation they -are called 'unfortunates,' and in official documents they are classed as -'involuntary emigrants.' - -"There are about ten thousand 'involuntary emigrants' going every year -from European Russia to Siberia. These include criminals of all kinds, a -few religious offenders of the fanatical sort, and some Nihilists and -other revolutionists. At every revolution in Poland the number of exiles -for the next few years is greatly increased. After the revolution of -1863 twenty-four thousand Poles were sent to Siberia, and other -revolutions have contributed a proportionate number." - -"Do they all have the same kind of sentence, without regard to their -offences?" one of the youths asked. - -[Illustration: BANISHED FOR FIVE YEARS.] - -"Not at all," was the reply. "The lowest sentence is to three years' -banishment, and the highest is to hard labor for life. Sentences vary -all the way between these two categories--for five, ten, fifteen, or -twenty years' banishment, without labor, or for the same number of years -with labor. A man may be sentenced to a given number of years' -banishment, of which a certain designated portion shall be to hard -labor, or he may be sentenced for life, with no hard labor at all. The -punishment is varied greatly, and, from all I hear, the sentence is -rarely carried out to its fullest degree. The time of exile is not -lessened until a general pardon liberates entire classes, but the -severity of the labor imposed is almost always lightened. - -[Illustration: BANISHED FOR THREE YEARS.] - -"Then, too, the exiles are distributed throughout the country, and not -allowed to gather in large numbers. The object of the exile system is to -give a population to Siberia, and not to cause the death of the banished -individual. Every effort is made to induce the exile to forget the -causes that brought him to Siberia, and to make him a good citizen in -his new home. His wife and children may follow or accompany him into -exile at government expense, but they cannot return to European Russia -until he is personally free to do so. This permission is denied in the -cases of the worst criminals who are sentenced to hard labor and must -leave their families behind. - -"Figures I was glancing at this morning show that in one year 16,889 -persons were sent to Siberia, accompanied by 1080 women and children -over fifteen years old, and by 1269 under that age. Of the whole number -of exiles mentioned, 1700 were sentenced to hard labor, and 1624 were -drunkards and tramps. The status of the rest is not given, but they were -probably sentenced to various terms of deportation without labor. - -"I should say further, in regard to this family matter, that an exile is -regarded as a dead man in the place from which he is sent, and his wife, -if she remains in Europe, is legally a widow, and may marry again if she -chooses. The wifeless man in Siberia is urged to marry and become the -head of a family, and whenever he marries, the Government gives him a -grant of land and aids him in establishing a home. As long as an exile -conducts himself properly, and does not try to escape, he does not find -existence in Siberia particularly dreadful, provided, of course, he has -not been sent to hard labor, and the officers in charge of him are not -of a cruel disposition." - -Frank asked what work was done by those sentenced to hard labor, and how -the men lived who were simply exiles and had not a labor sentence -attached. - -[Illustration: COLONIST'S VILLAGE IN WINTER.] - -"Those sentenced to _katorga_, or hard labor, are employed in mines or -on roads, and in mills and factories of various kinds. Several years ago -an order was issued that exiles should no longer be kept at work in -mines, but I am told on pretty good authority that this humane decree -has been revoked since the rise of Nihilism. In the mines of Nertchinsk, -in the latter part of the last century and the early part of the present -one, the labor was fearful. The prisoners were in pairs, chained -together; they were often kept working in mud and water for fourteen or -sixteen hours daily; their lodgings were of the poorest character, and -their food was nothing but black bread and occasionally a little cabbage -soup. The great mortality in the mines attracted the attention of the -Government, and the evils were remedied. - -"Down to the end of the last century, criminals condemned to the mines -were marked by having their nostrils slit open, but this barbarity has -not been practised for a long time. - -"Those sentenced to lighter labor are engaged in trades, such as making -shoes, clothing, or other articles. Those who are simply exiled without -labor can work at their trades, if they have any, precisely as they -would do at home. If they are educated men they may practise their -professions, give instruction to young people, or find employment with -merchants as book-keepers or other assistants in business. Some years -ago the permission for exiles to engage in teaching anything else than -music, drawing, and painting was revoked, when it was discovered that -some of them had been using their opportunities to spread revolutionary -doctrines. Whether this order is yet in force I do not know. - -"The next thing to hard labor in Siberia is the sentence to become 'a -perpetual colonist.' This means that the exile is to make his living by -tilling the soil, hunting, fishing, or in any other way that may be -permitted by the authorities; he must be under the eye of the police, to -whom he reports at regular intervals, and he must not go beyond certain -limits that are prescribed to him. - -"The perpetual colonist has a grant of land, and is supplied with tools -and materials for building a house; he receives flour and other -provisions for three years, and at the end of that time he is supposed -to be able to take care of himself. Where he is sent to a fertile part -of the country, his life is not particularly dreadful, though at best it -is a severe punishment for a man who has been unaccustomed to toil, and -has lived in luxury up to the time of being sent to Siberia. Many of -these colonists are sent to the regions in or near the Arctic circle, -where it is almost continuous winter, and the opportunities for -agriculture are very small. Only a few things can be made to grow at -all, and the exile doomed to such a residence must depend mainly upon -hunting and fishing. If game is scarce, or the fishing fails, there is -liable to be great suffering among these unhappy men. - -"The friends of an exile may send him money, but not more than -twenty-five roubles (about $20) a month. As before stated, the wife of -an exile may have an income separate from that of her husband, and if -she chooses to spend it they may live in any style they can afford. - -"Many criminal and political exiles are drafted into the army in much -the same way that prisons in other countries are occasionally emptied -when recruits are wanted. They receive the same pay and treatment as -other soldiers, and are generally sent to distant points, to diminish -the chances of desertion. Most of these recruits are sent to the -regiments in the Caucasus and Central Asia, and a good many are found in -the Siberian regiments. - -"All money sent to exiles must pass through the hands of the officials. -It is a common complaint, and probably well founded, that a goodly part -of this money sticks to the hands that touch it before it reaches its -rightful owner. The same allegation is made concerning the allowances -of money and flour, just enough to support life, that are given to -exiles who are restricted to villages and debarred from remunerative -occupation." - -[Illustration: EXILES LEAVING MOSCOW.] - -"Did you personally meet many exiles while you were in Siberia?" Frank -inquired. - -"I saw a great many while I was travelling through the country," Mr. -Hegeman answered, "and in some instances had conversations with them. At -the hotel where I stopped in Irkutsk the clerk was an exile, and so was -the tailor that made an overcoat for me. Clerks in stores and shops, and -frequently the proprietors, were exiles; the two doctors that had the -largest practice were 'unfortunates' from Poland, and so was the -director of the museum of the Geographical Society of Eastern Siberia. -Some of the isvoshchiks were exiles. On one occasion an isvoshchik -repeated the conversation which I had with a friend in French, without -any suspicion that he understood what we were saying. Hardly a day -passed that I did not meet an 'unfortunate,' and I was told that much of -the refinement of society in the Siberian capital was due to the exiles. -In talking with them I was careful not to allude in any way to their -condition, and if they spoke of it, which was rarely the case, I always -managed to turn the conversation to some other subject. - -[Illustration: TAGILSK, CENTRE OF IRON-MINES OF SIBERIA.] - -"When on the road I met great numbers of exiles on their way eastward. -Five-sixths of them were in sleighs or wagons, as it has been found -cheaper to have them ride to their destinations than to walk. Those on -foot were accompanied by their guards, also on foot; there was a wagon -or sleigh in the rear for those who were ill or foot-sore, and there -were two or more men on horseback to prevent desertions. Formerly all -prisoners were obliged to walk to their destinations. The journey from -St. Petersburg to Nertchinsk required two years, as it covered a -distance of nearly five thousand miles." - -"Do they sleep in the open air when on the road, or are they lodged in -houses?" inquired Fred. - -"There are houses every ten or fifteen miles, usually just outside the -villages," was the reply. "In these houses the prisoners are lodged. The -places are anything but inviting, as the space is not large. No attempt -is made to keep it clean, and the ventilation is atrocious. In winter it -is a shelter from the cold, but in summer the prisoners greatly prefer -to sleep out-of-doors. Sometimes the guards will not grant permission -for them to do so, owing to the danger of desertion, but the scruples of -the guards may be overcome by a promise obtained from all that no -attempt will be made to escape, and that everybody shall watch everybody -else. - -[Illustration: A SIBERIAN VALLEY.] - -"From fifty to two hundred exiles form a batch or convoy. They are sent -off once or twice a week, according to the number that may be on hand. -All the convoys of exiles go to Omsk, in Western Siberia, and from there -they are distributed throughout the country--some in one direction and -some in another. Those that travel on foot rest every third day, and the -ordinary march of a day is about fifteen miles; those in carriages are -hurried forward, only resting on Sundays, and not always then." - -"Do the guards of a convoy go all the way through with the prisoners?" - -"No, they do not; they go from one large town to another. In the large -towns there are prisons which serve as depots where exiles are -accumulated, and the distribution of prisoners is generally made from -these points. The officers and soldiers in charge of a convoy take their -prisoners to one of these depots and deliver up their charges; receipts -are given for the number of men delivered, just as for so many boxes or -bales of goods. The guard can then return to its starting-point, and the -prisoners are locked up until the convoy is ready for the road again. - -"The guards are responsible for their prisoners, both from escape and -injury. If a man dies on the road his body is carried to the next -station for burial, so that the station-master and others may certify to -the death; and if a man is killed while attempting to escape, the same -disposition must be made of his body. - -"Some years ago a Polish lady who was going into exile fell from a boat -while descending a river. She had a narrow escape from drowning, and the -officer in charge of her was very much alarmed. When she was rescued -from the water, he said to her, 'I shall be severely punished if you -escape or any accident happens to you. I have tried to treat you kindly, -and beg of you, for my sake, not to drown yourself or fall into the -river again.'" - -"But don't a good many escape from Siberia, and either go back to their -homes or get to foreign countries?" - -"The number of escapes is not large," Mr. Hegeman answered, "as the -difficulties of getting out of the country are very great. In the first -place, there is the immense distance from the middle of Siberia to -Moscow or St. Petersburg, or, worse still, to Poland. Nobody can hire -horses at a station without showing his paderojnia, and this is only -issued by the police-master, who knows the name and probably the face of -every exile in his district. Even if a man gets a paderojnia by fraud, -his absence would soon be discovered, and his flight can be stopped by -the use of the telegraph. - -"If an exile should try to get out of the country by going northward he -would be stopped by the shores of the Arctic Ocean. If he goes to the -south he enters China, or the inhospitable regions of Central Asia, -where it is difficult, if not impossible, for a European to travel -alone. - -"Occasionally some one escapes by way of the Amoor River, or the ports -of the Okhotsk Sea; but there are not many ships entering and leaving -those ports, and the police keep a sharp watch over them to make sure -that they do not carry away more men than they bring. I once met in -Paris a Pole who had escaped from Siberia by this route. By some means -that he would not reveal to me, he managed to get out of the Amoor -River and cross to the island of Saghalin. The southern half of the -island was then in possession of the Japanese, and he lived among them -for several months. Then he got on board an American whaling-ship, and -worked his passage to San Francisco, where he found some countrymen, who -helped him on his way to Paris. - -[Illustration: TWO EXILED FRIENDS MEETING.] - -"I know another man, a Russian nobleman, who escaped from Siberia and -went back over the route by which he had come. For convenience I will -call him Ivanoff, though that was not his name. He accomplished it in -this way: - -"He had concealed quite a sum of money about his person, which the -guards failed to find after searching him repeatedly. His offence was -political, and he was sentenced to twenty years' exile. While his convoy -was on the road between Krasnoyarsk and Irkutsk, he arranged to change -names with Petrovitch, a criminal who had been sentenced to three years' -banishment, and was to remain near Irkutsk. Ivanoff was to go beyond -Lake Baikal, whence escape is much more difficult. For one hundred -roubles the criminal consented to the change, and to take his chances -for the result. - -"The substitution was made at the depot in Irkutsk, where the names -were called off and the new convoys made out. The convoy for the -trans-Baikal was first made up, and when Ivanoff's name was read the -burglar stepped forward and answered the question as to his sentence. -The officers who had accompanied them from Krasnoyarsk were not present, -and so there was no great danger of the fraud being discovered; the -convoy was made up, the new officers moved off, and that was the last my -friend saw of his hired substitute. - -[Illustration: ESCAPING EXILES CROSSING A STREAM.] - -"Ivanoff (under his new name of Petrovitch) was sent to live in a -village about twenty miles from Irkutsk, and required to report twice a -week to the police. He found employment with a peasant farmer, and -managed to communicate with a friend in Irkutsk, though not without much -difficulty. The peasant used to send him to market with the produce of -the farm, as he found that Ivanoff could obtain better prices than -himself; the fact was he generally sold to his friend, who purposely -overpaid him, and if he did not find his friend he added a little to the -amount out of his own pocket. Ivanoff and his friend haggled a great -deal over their transactions, and thus conversed without arousing -suspicion. - -"Things went on in this way for some months, and the good conduct of the -apparently reformed criminal won him the favor of the police-master to -whom he was required to report. His time of reporting was extended to -once a week, and later to once a month. This gave him the chance of -escaping. - -"By a judicious use of his money he secured the silence of his employer -and obtained a paderojnia of the second class. The day after reporting -to the police he went to fish in the Angara, the river that flows past -Irkutsk and has a very swift current. As soon as he was missed his -employer led the search in the direction of the river. The coat, basket, -and fishing-rod of the unfortunate man lay on the bank; it was easy to -see that he had been standing on a stone at the edge of the water, and -the stone having given way the river had swallowed Ivanoff, and carried -his body away towards the Arctic Ocean. Some money was in the pocket of -the coat, and was appropriated by the officers. - -[Illustration: IVANOFF'S CAVE.] - -"But instead of being drowned, Ivanoff was safely concealed in a cave -under a large rock in the forest. He had found it on one of his hunting -excursions, and had previously conveyed to it a quantity of provisions, -together with some clothing supplied by his friend in Irkutsk. There he -remained for a fortnight; then he went to Irkutsk, and started on his -journey. - -"People leaving Irkutsk frequently drive to the first station in their -own vehicles, and there hire the carriages of the posting service. So -one evening Ivanoff rode out to the station in a carriage hired in front -of the hotel. He did not tell me, but I suspect that his friend supplied -the carriage, and possibly handled the reins himself. - -"At the station he boldly exhibited his paderojnia and demanded horses, -and in a few minutes he was on the road. Safe? Well, he could never tell -whether he was safe or not, as the telegraph might at any moment flash -an order for his detention. - -"On and on he went. He pretended to be, and really was, in a great -hurry. He was liberal to the drivers, but not over-liberal, lest he -might be suspected. Suspicion would lead to inquiry, and inquiry would -be followed by arrest. But he obtained the best speed that could be had -for a careful use of money, and was compelled to be satisfied. - -"Several times he thought he had been discovered, and his feelings were -those of intense agony. At one of the large stations the smotretal came -to him with an open telegram which said a prisoner was missing, and -orders had been sent along the line to watch for him. - -"Ivanoff took the telegram and read it. Then he noted down the -description of the fugitive (happily not himself), and told the -smotretal to take no further trouble till he heard from him, but to keep -a sharp watch for all new arrivals. 'Unless I telegraph you from the -next town,' said he, 'you may be sure that he has not passed any of the -intervening stations.' - -"He went on, and heard no more of the matter. At another point he fell -in with a Russian captain going the same way as himself. The captain -proposed they should travel together, for the double purpose of -companionship and economy. Much as he disliked the proposal, he was -forced to accede, as a refusal might rouse suspicion. - -"Luckily for him, his new friend was garrulous, and did most of the -talking; but, like most garrulous people, he was inquisitive, and some -of his queries were decidedly unpleasant. Ivanoff had foreseen just -such a circumstance, and made up a plausible story. He had just come to -Siberia, and only three days after his arrival was summoned back by the -announcement of his father's death. His presence was needed in St. -Petersburg to arrange the financial affairs of the family. - -[Illustration: EXILES AMONG THE MOUNTAINS.] - -"By this story he could account for knowing nobody in Siberia; and as he -was well acquainted with St. Petersburg he could talk as freely as one -might wish about the affairs of the capital. He was thrown into a cold -perspiration at one of the stations, where his garrulous companion -proposed, as a matter of whiling away the time after breakfast, that -they should examine the register for the record of their journeys -eastward. Ivanoff managed to put the idea out of his head, and ever -after made their stay at the stations as short as possible. - -"Imagine Ivanoff's feelings when one day the other said, - -"'Exiles sometimes escape by getting forged passports and travelling on -them. Wouldn't it be funny if you were one? Ha! ha! ha!' - -"Of course Ivanoff laughed too, and quite as heartily. Then he retorted, - -"'Now that you mentioned it, I've half a mind to take you to the next -police-station and deliver you up as a fugitive. Ha! ha! ha! Suppose we -do it, and have some fun with the police?' - -"Thereupon the serious side of the affair developed in the mind of Mr. -Garrulity. He declined the fun of the thing, and soon the subject was -dropped. It was occasionally referred to afterwards, and each thought -how funny it would be if the other were really a fugitive. - -"They continued in company until they reached Kazan. There they -separated, Ivanoff going to Nijni Novgorod and Moscow, and from the -latter proceeding by railway to Smolensk and Warsaw. From Warsaw he went -to Vienna. As soon as he set foot on the soil of Austria he removed his -hat and, for the first time in many months, inhaled a full breath of air -without the feeling that the next moment might see him in the hands of -the dreaded police. He was now a free man." - -"And what became of his companion?" - -"When they separated at Kazan, the latter announced his intention of -descending the Volga to Astrachan. It was fully a year afterwards that -my friend was passing a café in Paris, and heard his assumed name called -by some one seated under the awning in front of the establishment. -Turning in the direction of the voice, he saw his old acquaintance of -the Siberian road. - -"They embraced, and were soon sipping coffee together. Ivanoff talked -freely, now that he was out of danger of discovery, and astonished his -old acquaintance by his volubility. At length the latter said, - -"'What a flow of language you have here in Paris, to be sure. You never -talked so much in a whole day when we were together as in the hour we've -sat here.' - -"'Good reason for it,' answered Ivanoff. 'I had a bridle on my tongue -then, and it's gone now. I was escaping from a sentence of twenty years -in Siberia for political reasons.' - -"'And that's what made you so taciturn,' said the other. 'I was escaping -from the same thing, and that's what made me so garrulous. When we met -at that station I feared you might be on the lookout for me; and much as -I hated doing so, I proposed that we should travel together.' - -"They had a good laugh over the circumstances of their journey, where -each was in mortal terror of the other. The one was talkative and the -other silent for exactly the same reason--to disarm suspicion. - -[Illustration: SIBERIAN PEASANTS.] - -"I could tell you other stories of escaping from exile, but this one is -a fair sample of them all. Of those who attempt to leave the country not -one in twenty ever succeeds, owing to the difficulties I have mentioned, -and the watchfulness of the police. The peasants of Siberia will -generally help an escaping exile, but they do not dare to do it openly. -Many of them put loaves of bread outside their windows at night, so that -the runaways can come and obtain food without being seen. They plant -little patches of turnips near the villages for the same reason, and -call them gifts to the 'unfortunates.' Whenever the soldiers find any of -these turnip-patches they destroy them, in order to hinder the progress -of fugitives. - -"There is said to be a secret road or path through Siberia known only to -the exiles; it is about two thousand miles long, avoids all the regular -lines of travel, and keeps away from the towns and villages. It winds -over plains and among the mountains, through forests and near the -rivers, and is marked by little mounds of earth, and by notches cut in -the trees. - -"Those who travel this road must undergo great hardship, and it is said -that not more than half who undertake it are ever heard of again. They -perish of starvation or cold, or may venture too near the villages in -search of food, and fall into the hands of the police. The path must be -travelled on foot, as it is not sufficiently broad for horses; and when -any part of it is discovered by the soldiers the route must be changed. -The exiles have means of communicating with each other, and no matter -how closely the authorities may watch them, an occurrence in one -Siberian prison will soon be known at all others in the country." - -Frank asked Mr. Hegeman if he had ever seen any prisoners in Siberia -wearing chains? - -[Illustration: SIBERIAN MILK-WOMEN.] - -"Many of them," was the reply, "especially in the prisons in the towns, -and at the places where they are kept at hard labor. The simple exiles -are not required to wear chains; it is only those condemned to hard -labor for a long term of years that are thus oppressed. By an old law of -Russia the chains must not weigh more than five pounds; there is a belt -around the waist, and from this belt a chain extends to an iron band -around each ankle. The clanking of the chains, either on the road or in -the prisons, has a most horrible sound. - -"The continued use of this relic of barbarism is strenuously opposed by -a great many Russians. With the exception of the 'ball and chain,' which -is a form of military punishment everywhere, no other Christian nation -now requires its prisoners to wear chains continually. If the Emperor of -Russia would issue a decree that henceforth no prisoner shall be put in -chains except for specially unruly conduct or other good cause, and -abolish altogether the present regulations about chains, he would take a -long advance step for his nation." - -Doctor Bronson and the youths agreed with him. Fred was about to ask a -question when one of the stewards made the announcement, "_Obed gotovey, -gospoda!_" ("Dinner is ready, gentlemen!") - -Siberia and its exiles were forgotten for the time, as the party -adjourned to the dining-saloon of the steamer. - -[Illustration: SIBERIA IN SUMMER.] - - - - -CHAPTER XVII. - -CHARACTER OF THE SIBERIAN POPULATION.--ABSENCE OF SERFDOM, AND ITS -EFFECT.--A RUSSIAN FÊTE.--AMUSEMENTS OF THE PEASANTRY.--COURTSHIP AND -MARRIAGE.--CURIOUS CUSTOMS.--WHIPPING A WIFE.--OVERLAND THROUGH SIBERIA -AGAIN.--CHETAH AND THE BOURIATS.--IN A BOURIAT VILLAGE.--VERCKNE -UDINSK.--SIBERIAN ROBBERS.--TEA-TRAINS AND TEA-TRADE.--KIACHTA.--LODGED -BY THE POLICE.--TRADE BETWEEN RUSSIA AND CHINA. - - -When the conversation about Siberia was resumed, Frank suggested that -there must be a great many people in that country who were descended -from exiles, since it had been for a long time a place of banishment, -and the exiles were accompanied in many cases by their families. - -"Your supposition is correct," said Mr. Hegeman; "the descendants of -exiles are probably more numerous to-day than are the exiles themselves. -Eastern Siberia is mainly peopled by them, and Western Siberia very -largely so. All serfs exiled to Siberia under the system prevailing -before the emancipation became free peasants, and could not be restored -to their former condition of servitude. - -"Many descendants of exiles have become wealthy through commerce or -gold-mining, and occupy positions which they never could have obtained -in European Russia. When I visited Irkutsk I made the acquaintance of a -merchant whose fortune ran somewhere in the millions. He had a large -house, with a whole retinue of servants, and lived very expensively. He -was the son of an exiled serf, and made his fortune in the tea-trade. - -"Many prominent merchants and gold-miners were mentioned as examples of -the prosperity of the second and third generations from exiles. Of those -who had made their own fortunes in the country the instances were by no -means few. One, an old man, who was said to have a large fortune and a -charming family of well-educated children, was pointed out as an -illustration of the benefits of exile. Forty years before that time he -was sent to Siberia by his master out of the merest caprice. In Siberia -he obtained fortune and social position. Had he remained in Europe he -would probably have continued a simple peasant, and reared his children -in ignorance. - -[Illustration: AN EXILE PEASANT AND HIS FRIENDS.] - -"The advantages of Siberia are further shown by the fact that a great -many exiles decline to return to European Russia after their terms of -service are ended. Especially is this the case with those who are doing -well financially, or have families with them, either from their old -homes or by marriage in Siberia. I talked with several intelligent -Poles, who said they did not intend returning to Poland. 'We were drawn -unwillingly into the acts that caused our banishment,' they said, 'and -may suffer again in the same way if we go home; in Siberia there are no -disturbing influences around us, and we prefer to stay here.' On the -other hand, the love of home is very strong with many exiles, and they -take the first opportunity of leaving the country of their banishment." - -Fred asked if they had the same system of serfdom in Siberia before the -emancipation as in European Russia. - -"At the time of the emancipation," said Mr. Hegeman, "there was only one -proprietor of serfs in all Siberia; he was the grandson of a gentleman -who received a grant of land, with serfs, from Catherine II. None of the -family, with a single exception, ever attempted to exercise more than -nominal authority, and that one was murdered in consequence of enforcing -his full proprietary rights. - -[Illustration: A SIBERIAN LANDSCAPE.] - -"Siberia was a land of freedom, so far as serfs were concerned. The -system of serfdom never had any foothold there. The Siberians say that -the superior prosperity enjoyed by the peasants of their part of Russia -had a great deal to do with the emancipation measures of Alexander II. -The Siberian peasants were noticeably better fed, clothed, and educated -than the corresponding class in European Russia, and the absence of -masters gave them an air of independence. Distinctions were much less -marked among the people, and in many instances the officials associated -familiarly with men they would have hesitated to recognize on the other -side of the Ural Mountains." - -"It sounds odd enough to talk about Siberia as a land of freedom," said -Fred, "when we've always been accustomed to associate the name of the -country with imprisonment." - -Just then the steamer stopped at one of its regular landings; and as she -was to be there for an hour or more, the party took a stroll on shore. -There were only two or three houses at the landing-place, the town which -it supplied lying a little back from the river, upon ground higher than -the bank. - -It happened to be a holiday, and there was quite a group at the -landing-place. The peasants were in their best clothes, and several -games were in progress. Frank and Fred hardly knew which way to turn, as -there were several things they wished to see all at once. - -[Illustration: GIRLS PLAYING AT SKAKIET.] - -Some girls were in a circle, with their hands joined; they were singing -songs which had a good deal of melody, and the whole performance -reminded the youths of the "round-a-ring-a-rosy" game of their native -land. Close by this group were two girls playing a game which was called -_skakiet_ in Russian. They had a board balanced on its centre, and a -girl stood on each end of the board. The maidens jumped alternately into -the air, and the descent of one caused her companion to go higher each -time. Mr. Hegeman said it was a favorite amusement in the Russian -villages. It required a little practice, as the successful performer -must maintain a perfectly upright position. Two girls who are skilled at -the game will sometimes keep up this motion for fifteen or twenty -minutes without apparent fatigue. - -Among the men there were wrestling-matches, which were conducted with a -good deal of vigor. Frank observed that some of the wrestlers received -very ugly falls, but did not seem to mind them in the least. The Russian -peasantry are capable of rough handling. They are accustomed to it all -their lives, and not at all disturbed by anything of an ordinary -character. They resemble the lower classes of the English populace more -than any other people. - -The women are more refined than the men in their amusements. Singing and -dancing are very popular among them, and they have quite a variety of -dances. A favorite dance is in couples, where they spin round and round, -until one of the pair drops or sits down from sheer fatigue. - -[Illustration: A VILLAGE FESTIVAL.] - -As our friends strolled near the river-bank they came upon a group of -women engaged in one of these dances. Three or four of the by-standers -were singing, and thus supplied the music; two women stood facing each -other in the centre of the group, each with her hands resting on her -hips. One of the singers raised her hands, and at this signal the -whirling began. - -When this couple was tired out another came forward, and so the dance -was kept up. Fred thought the dress of the dancers was not particularly -graceful, as each woman wore stout boots instead of shoes. They had -already observed that the old-fashioned boot is not by any means -confined to the sterner sex among the Russian peasantry. - -Some of the women wore flowers in their hair, but the majority of the -heads were covered with handkerchiefs. Doctor Bronson explained to the -youths that a woman may wear her hair loosely while she is unmarried, -but when she becomes a wife she wraps it in a kerchief, or encloses it -in a net. - -Naturally this explanation by the Doctor led to a question about -marriage customs in Russia. - -"Courtship in Russia is not like the same business in America," remarked -the Doctor, in reply to the query. "A good deal of it has to be done by -proxy." - -"How is that?" - -"When a young fellow wishes to take a wife, he looks around among the -young women of his village and selects the one that best pleases him. -Then he sends a messenger--his mother, or some other woman of middle -age--to the parents of the girl, with authority to begin negotiations. -If they can agree upon the terms of the proposed marriage, the amount of -dowry the bride is to receive, and other matters bearing on the subject, -the swain receives a favorable report. Sometimes the parents of the girl -are opposed to the match, and will not listen to any proposals; in such -case the affair ends at once, the girl herself having nothing to say in -the matter. Quite likely she may never know anything about it. - -"The whole business is arranged between the elders who have it in -charge. The custom seems to be largely Oriental in its character, though -partaking somewhat of the marriage ways of France and other European -countries. - -"Supposing the negotiations to have resulted favorably, the young man is -notified when he can begin his visits to the house of his beloved. He -dresses in his best clothes (very much as an American youth would do -under similar circumstances), and calls at the appointed time. He -carries a present of some kind--and the long-established custom requires -that he must never make a call during his courtship without bringing a -present. One of the gifts must be a shawl." - -"In that case," said Fred, "the young men are probably favorable to -short courtships, while the girls would be in no hurry. If every visit -must bring a present, a long courtship would heap up a fine lot of -gifts." - -"That is quite true," Doctor Bronson replied, "and instances have been -known where the match was broken off after the patience and pocket of -the suitor were exhausted. But he has a right to demand a return of his -presents in such an event." - -"And, as has happened in similar cases in America," Frank retorted, "he -does not always get them." - -"Quite true," said the Doctor, with a smile; "but the family playing -such a trick would not find other suitors very speedily. Human nature is -the same in all countries, and even the young man in love is shy of -being defrauded. - -[Illustration: RUSSIAN PEASANT WOMEN.] - -"But we will suppose everything has gone favorably," the Doctor -continued, "and the suitor has been accepted. As a matter of fact, -Russian courtships are short, only a month or two, and possibly for the -reason you suggested. A day is fixed for the betrothal, and the ceremony -takes place in the presence of the families of both the parties to the -engagement. The betrothal is virtually a marriage ceremony, as it binds -the two so firmly together that only the most serious reasons can -separate them. The betrothal ceremony is at the house of the bride's -parents, and is followed in due course by the wedding, which takes place -in church. - -"Custom requires that the bride shall supply a certain quantity of -linen and other household property, while the husband provides the -dwelling and certain specified articles of furniture. Between them they -should be able to set up house-keeping immediately, but there are -probably many cases where they cannot do so. Among well-to-do people the -bride provides a dozen shirts, a dressing-gown, and a pair of slippers -for her husband; she is supposed to spin the flax, weave it into cloth, -and make the shirts; but, as a matter of fact, she buys the material, -and very often gets the garments ready-made. - -"For a day or two before the wedding, all the dowry of the bride is -exhibited in a room set apart for the purpose; a priest blesses it with -holy water, and friends call to gaze upon the matrimonial trophies. -Among the middle and upper classes the bridegroom gives a dinner to his -bachelor friends, as in some other countries, the evening before the -wedding; the bride on the same evening assembles her companions, who -join in singing farewell to her. The bridegroom sends them a liberal -supply of candy, cakes, bonbons, and the like, and they indulge in quite -a festivity. - -"Among the peasants the companions of the bride accompany her to the -bath on the evening before the wedding, and both going and returning she -is expected to weep bitterly and loudly. An English lady tells how she -heard a Russian girl, who was about to be married, giving vent to the -wildest grief, while her companions were trying to cheer her by singing. -The lady felt very sorry for the poor maiden, and rejoiced when she -passed out of hearing. - -"A little later in the evening the lady went with a friend to call at -the bride's cottage, and entered quite unannounced. The bride was -supping heartily, her face full of expressions of joy; the Englishwoman -was startled and still more surprised when the girl asked, - -"'Didn't I do it well?' - -"It then came out that the weeping was all a farce, though there may be -cases where it is not so. - -[Illustration: MAKING CALLS AFTER A WEDDING.] - -"On the day of the wedding the bride and groom do not see each other -until they meet in church. After the ceremony the whole party goes to -the house of the bride's parents, where a reception is held in honor of -the event. When it is over, the young couple go to their own home, if -they have one; the next morning all the parents and relatives go and -take coffee with the newly married; then there are dinner-parties at the -houses of both pairs of parents; other parties and dinners follow, and -sometimes the feasting is kept up for a week or more. It is a trying -ordeal for all concerned, and there is general rejoicing when the -festivities are over. - -"Among the peasantry it is the custom, at least in some parts of -Russia, for the bride to present a whip to her husband the day after -the wedding. This whip is hung at the head of the bed, and, if report is -true, it is not unfrequently used." - -"I remember seeing a whip hanging at the head of the bed in some of the -houses we have visited," said Fred, "and wondered what it was there -for." - -"The curious thing about the matter is," the Doctor continued, "that a -good many wives expect the whip to be used. The same lady I just -referred to says that one of her nurse-maids left her to be married. A -short time after the marriage she went to the _nachalnik_, or justice of -the peace, of her village, and complained that her husband did not love -her. The nachalnik asked how she knew it, and the young wife replied, - -"'Because he has not whipped me once since we were married!' - -[Illustration: CEREMONY AFTER A PEASANT'S WEDDING.] - -"Among the peasantry the married couple goes to the house of the owner -of the estate to receive his blessing. He comes to the door and welcomes -them as they bow in front of him till their foreheads nearly touch the -ground." - -The steamer's whistle recalled the party, and in a little while they -were again on their voyage. Mr. Hegeman resumed the story of his ride -through Siberia as soon as all were seated in their accustomed places. - -"I think we were at Nertchinsk," said he, "when we turned aside to the -mines where the exiles were formerly employed." - -"Yes," replied Fred; "you had just arrived at the house of the friend of -your companion, and accepted an invitation to remain for dinner." - -"That was it, exactly," responded the traveller. "We had an excellent -dinner, and soon after it was over we continued on our journey. We sent -back the tarantasse which we had hired from the station-master, and -obtained a larger and better one from our host. - -"Two nights and the intervening day brought us, without any incident -worth remembering, to Chetah, the capital of the province of the -trans-Baikal. It is a town of four or five thousand inhabitants, and -stands on the Ingodah River, a tributary of the Shilka. Below this point -the river is navigable for boats and rafts, and it was here that General -Mouravieff organized the expedition for the conquest of the Amoor. A -considerable garrison is kept here, and the town has an important place -in the history of Siberian exile. Many of the houses are large and well -built. The officers of the garrison have a club, and ordinarily the -society includes a good many ladies from European Russia. - -"I stopped two or three days at Chetah, and my courier friend continued -his journey. Finding a young officer who was going to Kiachta, on the -frontier of Mongolia, I arranged to accompany him, and one evening we -started. I think I have before told you that a Siberian journey nearly -always begins in the evening, and is continued day and night till its -close. The day is passed in making calls, and usually winds up with a -dinner at somebody's house. After dinner, and generally pretty late in -the evening, the last call is made, the last farewells are spoken, and -you bundle into your vehicle and are off. - -[Illustration: THE MOUNTAINS NEAR CHETAH.] - -"From Chetah the road steadily climbed the hills, and my companion said -we would soon be over the ridge of the Yablonnoi Mountains, and in the -basin of the Arctic Ocean. From the eastern slope of the mountains the -rivers flow through the Amoor to the Pacific Ocean; from the western -slope they run into Lake Baikal, and thence through the outlet of that -lake to the great frozen sea that surrounds the pole. The cold rapidly -increased, and when we crossed the ridge it seemed that the thermometer -went ten degrees lower in almost as many minutes. - -"The country through which we passed was flat or slightly undulating, -with occasional stretches of hills of no great height. There are few -Russian villages, the principal inhabitants being Bouriats, a people of -Mongol origin, who are said to have been conquered by the hordes of -Genghis Khan five hundred years ago. They made considerable resistance -to the Russians when the latter came to occupy the country, but ever -since their subjugation they have been entirely peaceful. - -[Illustration: A BOURIAT VILLAGE.] - -"Some of the Bouriats live in houses like those of the Russians, but the -most of them cling to the _yourt_ or _kibitka_, which is the peculiar -habitation of the nomad tribes of Central Asia. Even when settled in -villages they prefer the yourt to the house, though the latter is far -more comfortable than the former. - -"We changed horses in a Bouriat village, where a single Russian lived -and filled the office of station-master, justice of the peace, governor, -secretary, and garrison. I took the opportunity of visiting a yourt, -which proved to be a circular tent about eighteen feet in diameter, and -rounded at the top like a dome. There was a frame of light trellis-work -covered with thick felt made from horse-hair; at the highest point of -the dome the yourt has an open space which allows the smoke to pass out, -at least in theory. A small fire is kept burning in the middle of the -floor during the day, and covered up at night; the door is made of a -piece of felt of double or treble thickness, and hanging like a curtain -over the entrance. - -"I had not been two minutes inside the yourt before my eyes began to -smart severely, and I wanted to get into the open air. The pain was -caused by the smoke, which was everywhere through the interior of the -tent, but did not seem to inconvenience the Bouriats in the least. I -noticed, however, that nearly all their eyes were red, and apparently -inflamed, and doubtless this condition was caused by the smoke. - -"A family of several persons finds plenty of space in one of these -tents, as they can be very closely packed. The furniture is principally -mats and skins, which are seats by day and beds by night. They have pots -and kettles for cooking, a few jars and bottles for holding liquids, -sacks for grain, half a dozen pieces of crockery, and little else. A -wooden box contains the valuable clothing of the family, and this box, -with two or three bags and bundles, forms the entire wardrobe -accommodation. - -"My attention was drawn to a small altar on which were tiny cups -containing oil, grain, and other offerings to the Deities. The Bouriats -are Buddhists, and have their lamas to give them the needed spiritual -advice. The lamas are numerous, and frequently engage in the same -callings as their followers. By the rules of their religion they are not -permitted to kill anything, however small or insignificant. Whenever a -lama has a sheep to slaughter he gets everything ready, and then passes -the knife to his secular neighbor. - -"The Bouriats are not inclined to agriculture, but devote most of their -energy to sheep-raising. They have large flocks, and sell considerable -wool to the Russians. Their dress is a mixture of Russian and Chinese, -the conveniences of each being adopted, and the inconveniences rejected. -They decorate their waist-belts with steel or brass, shave the head, and -wear the hair in a queue, but are not careful to keep it closely -trimmed. With their trousers of Chinese cut, and sheepskin coats of -Russian model, they presented an odd appearance. The women are not -generally good-looking, but there is now and then a girl whose face is -really beautiful. - -"We were called from the yourt with the announcement '_Loshadi gotovey_' -("Horses are ready"), and were soon dashing away from the village. Our -driver was a Bouriat; he handled the reins with skill and the whip with -vigor, and in every way was the equal of his Russian competitor. For two -or three hundred miles most of our drivers were Bouriats, and certainly -they deserve praise for their equestrian abilities. At many of our -stopping-places the station-masters were the only Russians, all the -employés being Bouriats." - -Frank asked whether the Bouriats had adopted any of the Russian manners -and customs, or if they still adhered to their Mongol ways. - -[Illustration: A WANDERING PRIEST.] - -"They stick to their customs very tenaciously," was the reply, "and as -for their religion, the Russian priests have made no progress in -converting them to the faith of the Empire. Two English missionaries -lived for many years at Selenginsk, which is in the centre of the -Bouriat country, and though they labored earnestly they never gained a -single convert. - -"Buddhism is of comparatively recent origin among these people. Two -hundred years ago they were _Shamans_, or worshippers of good and evil -spirits, principally the latter, and in this respect differed little -from the wild tribes of the Amoor and of Northern Siberia. About the end -of the seventeenth century the Bouriats sent a mission to Lassa, the -religious capital of Thibet, and a stronghold of Buddhism. The members -of this mission were appointed lamas, and brought back the paraphernalia -and ritual of the new faith; they announced it to the people, and in an -astonishingly short time the whole tribe was converted, and has remained -firm ever since. - -"We spent a day at Verckne Udinsk, which has a church nearly two hundred -years old, and built with immensely thick walls to resist the -earthquakes which are not uncommon there. In fact there was an -earthquake shock while we were on the road, but the motion of the -carriage prevented our feeling it. We only knew what had happened when -we reached the station and found the master and his employés in a state -of alarm. - -"The Gostinna Dvor contained a curious mixture of Russians and Bouriats -in about equal numbers, but there was nothing remarkable in the goods -offered for sale. An interesting building was the jail, which seemed -unnecessarily large for the population of the place. A gentleman who -knew my companion told us that the jail was rapidly filling up for -winter. 'We have,' said he, 'a great number of what you call tramps in -America; in summer they wander through the country, and live by begging -and stealing, but in winter they come to the jails to be lodged and fed -until warm weather comes again. After spending the cold season here they -leave in the spring--as the trees do.' - -"He further told us there was then in the jail and awaiting trial a man -who confessed to the murder of no less than seventeen people. He had -been a robber, and when in danger of discovery had not hesitated to kill -those whom he plundered. On one occasion he had killed four persons in a -single family, leaving only a child too young to testify against him." - -Fred wished to know if robberies were common in Siberia. - -"Less so than you might suppose," was the reply, "when there is such a -proportion of criminals among the population. They are mostly committed -in summer, as that is the season when the tramps are in motion. The -principal victims are merchants, who often carry money in large amounts; -officers are rarely attacked, as they usually have only the money needed -for their travelling expenses, and are more likely than the merchants -to be provided with fire-arms and skilled in their use. My companion and -myself each had a revolver, and kept it where it could be conveniently -seized in case of trouble. We never had any occasion to use our weapons, -and I will say here that not once in all my journey through Siberia was -I molested by highwaymen. - -[Illustration: CROSSING THE SELENGA.] - -"When we left Verckne Udinsk we crossed the Selenga, a river which rises -in Chinese Tartary, and after a long and tortuous course falls into Lake -Baikal, whence its waters reach the Arctic Ocean. There was no bridge, -and we traversed the stream on a ferry. The river was full of floating -ice, and the huge cakes ground very unpleasantly against the sides of -the craft which bore ourselves and our tarantasse. The river was on the -point of freezing; there was just a possibility that it would close -while we were crossing, and keep us imprisoned until such time as the -ice was thick enough to bear us safely. As this would involve a -detention of several hours where the accommodations were wretched, the -outlook was not at all pleasant. - -"All's well that ends well; we landed on a sand-bank on the other side, -and after a little delay the boatmen succeeded in getting our carriage -on shore without accident. About six miles from the river the road -divided, one branch going to Irkutsk and the other to Kiachta, our -destination. Away we sped up the valley of the Selenga. The road was not -the best in the world, and we were shaken a good deal as the drivers -urged their teams furiously. - -"On this road we met long trains of carts laden with tea. Each cart has -a load of from six to ten chests, according to the condition of the -roads, and is drawn by a single horse. There is a driver to every four -or five carts, and he has a bed on the top of one of his loads. The -drivers were nearly always asleep, and their horses showed a good deal -of intelligence in turning out whenever they heard the sound of our -bells. If they did not turn out they received a reminder from the whip -of our driver, who always had an extra stroke for the slumbering -teamster." - -Frank asked where these carts were going. - -"They were going to Irkutsk," said Mr. Hegeman, "and from that city the -most of the tea they carried was destined for European Russia." - -"Oh, now I remember," said Frank; "Doctor Bronson told us about the tea -importation from China, and how it all came overland down to 1860, with -the exception of one cargo annually." - -"Many persons still prefer the tea brought by land, as the herb is -thought to be injured by passing over salt-water, although packed in -air-tight chests. At the time I speak of, not less than a million chests -of tea were taken annually from Kiachta to European Russia, a distance -of four thousand miles. To Kiachta it came on the backs of camels from -the tea districts of China, so that camels and horses in great number -were employed in the transport of tea. - -"Each chest is covered with rawhide, which protects it from rain and -snow, and from the rough handling and shaking it receives. Across -Siberia it is carried in carts in summer, and on sledges in winter. The -horse-caravans travel sixteen hours out of every twenty-four, and the -teams rarely go faster than a walk. The teams are the property of -peasants, who make contracts for the work at a certain price per chest. - -"For the latter part of the way the road was hilly and sandy, and our -progress was slow. About nine in the evening we reached Kiachta; and as -there is no hotel there, we went to the police-master to obtain -lodgings." - -"Not at the police-station, I hope," said Fred. - -"Not at all," Mr. Hegeman responded, with a slight laugh. "In many towns -of Siberia there is not sufficient travel to make hotel-keeping -profitable, and consequently there are no hotels. By custom and law the -inhabitants are required to receive travellers who may require -accommodation, and all such lodging-places are registered with the -police. For this reason we went to the police-master and received the -name of the citizen who was to be honored with our company. - -[Illustration: FINDING LODGINGS AT KIACHTA.] - -"It was about ten o'clock when we reached the house, accompanied by two -soldiers who brought the mandate of the office and showed us the way. -Everybody was in bed, and it required a good deal of knocking to rouse -the servants and afterwards the master, who came to the door in his -night-shirt. He stood shivering while our explanations were made, and -did not seem to realize his ludicrous appearance until we were admitted -to the mansion and our baggage was landed." - -Frank inquired if it was often necessary in Siberian towns to obtain -lodgings in this way, and whether they were paid for? - -"It was only the lateness of the hour and the fact that neither of us -had ever been in Kiachta that compelled us to apply to the -police-master. Travellers are unfrequent in Siberia, and the few -strangers that go through the country are cordially welcomed. Officers -are entertained by their fellow-officers, and merchants by their -fellow-merchants. Lodgings obtained as we obtained ours are paid for -exactly as they would be at a hotel. We were invited to move the next -day, but were so well lodged that we chose to stay where we were. - -"The morning after our arrival we delivered our letters of introduction -and made numerous calls, the latter including a visit to the -_Sargootchay_, or Chinese Governor of Mai-mai-chin. Which of you has -read enough about the relations between China and Russia to tell me -about these two places--Kiachta and Mai-mai-chin?" - -Frank was the first to speak, which he did as follows: - -"Kiachta and Mai-mai-chin were built in 1727 for the purposes of -commerce--Mai-mai-chin meaning in Chinese 'place of trade.' The towns -are about a hundred yards apart, one thoroughly Russian and the other as -thoroughly Chinese. From 1727 to 1860 nearly all the trade between the -two empires was conducted at this point, and the merchants who managed -the business made great fortunes. Women were forbidden to live in -Mai-mai-chin, and down to the present day the Chinese merchants keep -their families at Urga, two or three hundred miles to the south. The -same restriction was at first made upon the Russian merchants at -Kiachta, but after a time the rule was relaxed and has never since been -enforced. Until quite recently, strangers were forbidden to stay -over-night in Kiachta, but were lodged at Troitskosavsk, about two miles -away." - -"I should say right here," remarked Mr. Hegeman, "that my friend and -myself were really lodged in Troitskosavsk and not in Kiachta. The -latter place had about a thousand inhabitants, and the former four or -five thousand. At a distance only Kiachta is mentioned, just as a man -may say he lives in London or New York when his home is really in a -suburb of one of those cities." - -"I have read somewhere," said Fred, "that the Russian and Chinese -Governments stipulated in their treaty that the products and -manufactures of each country should be exchanged for those of the other, -and no money was to be used in their commercial transactions." - -"That was the stipulation," said Doctor Bronson, "but the merchants soon -found a way to evade it." - -"How was that?" - -[Illustration: CHINESE CASH FROM MAI-MAI-CHIN.] - -"The balance of trade was greatly in favor of China, as the Russians -wanted great quantities of tea, while they did not produce or -manufacture many things that the Chinese could use. Furs were the -principal articles of Russian production that the Chinese would take, -but their demand for them was not enough to meet the Russian demand for -tea. The treaty forbade the use of gold or silver coin under severe -penalties, but somebody discovered that it did not prohibit articles of -Russian manufacture being made of those metals. So they used to melt -gold and silver coin, and cast them into Chinese idols which were sold -by weight. The Government prohibited the melting of its coin, and then -the merchants bought their crude gold and silver directly from the -miners. With this source of supply always at hand they were able to -supply 'articles of Russian manufacture' without difficulty. As late as -1860 every visitor to Kiachta was searched, to make sure that he had no -gold coin in his possession." - -[Illustration: ARTICLES OF RUSSIAN MANUFACTURE.] - - - - -CHAPTER XVIII. - -GENERAL ASPECTS OF MAI-MAI-CHIN.--DINNER WITH A CHINESE GOVERNOR.--A -THEATRICAL PERFORMANCE.--LAKE BAIKAL: ITS REMARKABLE FEATURES.--A -WONDERFUL RIDE.--IRKUTSK.--ITS POPULATION, SIZE, AND -PECULIARITIES.--SOCIAL GAYETIES.--PREPARATIONS FOR A LONG -SLEIGH-RIDE.--LIST OF GARMENTS.--VARIETIES OF SLEIGHS.--FAREWELL TO -IRKUTSK.--SLEIGHING INCIDENTS.--FOOD ON THE ROAD.--SIBERIAN -MAILS.--ADVANTAGES OF WINTER TRAVELLING.--SLEIGHING ON BARE GROUND.--A -SNOWLESS REGION.--KRASNOYARSK. - - -"You have been in China, I believe," said Mr. Hegeman, during the pause -that followed the story of how the Russian and Chinese merchants -circumvented the stipulations of the treaty. - -[Illustration: SCENE IN A CHINESE TEMPLE.] - -"Oh yes," Frank responded. "We were at Peking, which is, I think, only -eight hundred miles from Kiachta. We went from Peking to the Great Wall -of China, so that we were less than seven hundred miles from the point -where you called on the Sargootchay. You can learn about our journey in -'The Boy Travellers in Japan and China.'" - -"I shall read the book with great pleasure," was the reply, "now that I -have met the youths whose travels are described in it. As you have seen -the Chinese at home, and know their manners and customs, I won't take -your time by telling you what I saw in Mai-mai-chin, which is just like -any other Chinese city in nearly every respect. - -"I may add that it is said to be the cleanest town in all China. It is -only half a mile square, carefully laid out, and its streets are swept -daily. Only the merchants and their employés, with a small garrison of -soldiers, are allowed to live there, and consequently there is no poor -population such as you always find in the other cities of the Empire." - -"That must be a great relief," Fred remarked. "Wherever we went in China -we saw so much degradation and suffering that it destroyed a great deal -of the pleasure of the journey." - -"I didn't see a beggar in Mai-mai-chin," continued Mr. Hegeman, "nor -anybody who looked like one. There were plenty of laborers employed in -handling the tea and other merchandise, but they all appeared to be well -cared for. Outside the town there was quite a camp of Mongolians with -their camel-trains, which are employed in the transportation of goods -across the great desert of Gobi. - -"The Sargootchay invited me to dinner, and I went there with the -Governor of Kiachta and some of his officers. The Sargootchay was -polite, and we tried to talk, but had a good deal of difficulty in doing -so on account of the numerous translations. - -"What I thought in my own language I said in French to one of my Russian -friends. He spoke in Russian to his Russian-Mongol interpreter, who -spoke in Mongol to the Mongol-Chinese interpreter of the Sargootchay. -Remarks and responses thus had to pass through four tongues to reach -their destination. - -[Illustration: THEATRE AT MAI-MAI-CHIN.] - -"The dinner was probably like what you had at Peking or Canton, and so I -will not take the time to describe it. After dinner we went to the -theatre, where we sat under a canopy and witnessed a performance which -included, among other things, a procession of fictitious wild beasts. -That they were very fictitious was shown by the accident of the tiger's -mask falling off and revealing the head of an astonished man. - -[Illustration: THE TIGER.] - -"The thermometer was below the freezing-point, and as the theatre was in -the open air, I was very glad that the performance was short. - -"From Kiachta I returned to Verckne Udinsk, and then proceeded to -Irkutsk by way of Lake Baikal. This lake is said to be the largest body -of fresh water in Asia. It is four hundred miles long by about fifty -broad, and is fourteen hundred feet above the level of the sea. The -quantity of water flowing into it is said to be ten times as much as -passes from it by its outlet, the Angara River. What becomes of the -other nine-tenths is a mystery that has puzzled many scientific men; -none of them have been able to establish a theory which the others have -not completely upset. - -"I crossed the lake in a steamboat, and during the voyage listened -eagerly to the description of the winter passage which is made on the -ice. I will give it as nearly as I can remember in the words of my -informant, a gentleman who filled the position of Superintendent of -Public Instruction in Eastern Siberia: - -[Illustration: A NATURAL ARCH ON LAKE BAIKAL.] - -"'The lake does not freeze over until quite late in the autumn, and when -it does the whole surface is congealed in a single night. In a few days -the ice is from three to six feet thick, and perfectly transparent. The -first time I crossed it was from the western to the eastern shore. The -former is mountainous, while the latter is low and flat. As we began our -ride the land on the other side was quite invisible, and it seemed to me -very much like setting out in a sleigh for a voyage from Queenstown to -New York. When I leaned over and looked downward, it was like gazing -into the depths of the ocean. It was not until I alighted and stood on -the firm ice that I could dispel the illusion that we were gliding over -the unfrozen surface of the lake, as the natives believe its guardian -spirit walks upon the waters without sinking beneath them. - -"'At night every star was reflected as in a mirror, and I saw the -heavens above me, beneath me, and all around. As the rising moon lighted -up the faint horizon of ice and sky, I could half believe I had left the -world behind me, and was moving away through the myriads of stars -towards the centre of another solar system distinct from our own.' - -"The natives have many superstitions concerning the Baikal," Mr. Hegeman -continued. "In their language it is the 'Holy Sea,' and they consider it -sacrilege to call it a lake. It is very deep, soundings of two thousand -feet having been made without finding bottom. It is more like a sea than -a lake in some of its peculiarities; gulls and other ocean birds fly -over it, and it is the only body of fresh water on the globe where the -seal abounds. There are banks of coral in some parts of it, in spite of -the high northern latitude and the constant coldness of the water. The -natives say that nobody is ever lost in the lake; any one drowned in -its waters is thrown up on the shores." - -"It must be a long drive from one side of the lake to the other," one of -the youths remarked. - -"It is, indeed," was the reply. "Formerly they had a station on the ice -in the middle of the lake, which was removed at the approach of spring. -One season the ice broke up unexpectedly, and the entire station, with -all its men and horses, was swallowed up. Since that time no station has -been kept there in winter, and the entire journey across, about -fifty-five miles, is made without a change. The horses are carefully -selected, and as the road is magnificent they go at great speed, -stopping only two or three times for a rest of a few minutes. - -[Illustration: CAVERNS ON LAKE BAIKAL.] - -"The western shore is mountainous, and in places very picturesque. There -are steep cliffs that come down to the water, and in some of these -cliffs you find caverns and arches which recall the pictured shores of -Lake Superior. Earthquakes are not unfrequent, and many persons believe -that the lake occupies the crater of an extinct volcano whose internal -fires are determined to keep themselves in remembrance. A village on the -shore of the lake was destroyed by one of the shocks. Half of it was -carried below the level of the water, and the other half thrown up to a -considerable height above its former position. - -"So much for this remarkable lake. From the western shore to Irkutsk -(about forty miles) the road follows near the bank of the Angara, which -is very swift. The river does not freeze until after the lake has been -covered with ice, and for two or three miles below the point where it -emerges from the lake it never freezes even in the severest winters. -There is a great rock in the stream at this point which is regarded with -superstition by the aboriginal inhabitants. They perform religious -ceremonies when passing it, and formerly it was a place of sacrifice. -Hundreds, if not thousands, of men, women, and children have been tossed -from this rock to be drowned in the swift current flowing below it. - -"It had been my original plan to reach Irkutsk on wheels, and remain -there till the winter roads were formed, so that I could continue from -that city in a sleigh. A snow-storm began an hour before I reached the -city, and indicated that I had made a very good calculation; it cleared -up soon after we passed the gate-way, and for several days thereafter -the weather was delightful. My reception was most cordial; Americans -were rare visitors in the capital of Eastern Siberia, and I was the -first that many of the people had ever seen." - -One of the youths remarked that he believed Irkutsk was a city of -considerable size and importance. - -[Illustration: PART OF IRKUTSK.] - -"It is the largest city in Siberia," said Mr. Hegeman, "and has a -population of about thirty-five thousand. The Governor-general of -Eastern Siberia lives there. He has many officers attached to his staff. -There are many wealthy citizens. The houses are large, well built, and -furnished, and the style of living is liberal. - -"The winter opens with a long list of balls, parties, dinners, concerts, -and other festivities, which are kept up until the coming of the Lenten -season. Every family keeps open house through the winter, and it is -customary to drop in whenever one chooses, and take tea at eight -o'clock. There is no formality about the matter. One of the ladies of -the house presides at the _samovar_, and the others of the party are -scattered around the parlors wherever it is most convenient or agreeable -to be. My recollections of Irkutsk are of the most pleasant sort, and I -greatly regret the place is so far away that one cannot easily revisit -it. - -[Illustration: VIEW OF THE PRINCIPAL SQUARE IN IRKUTSK.] - -"Since I was there Irkutsk has suffered by a fire that destroyed more -than half the buildings, and caused a vast amount of distress. For a -time it was thought the city would not be rebuilt, but I hear that it is -being restored very rapidly, and in a few years will be more attractive -than it was before the conflagration.[5] - -[5] The fire occurred on July 6th and 7th, 1879. About thirty-six -hundred buildings were destroyed, of which one hundred and more were of -stone or brick, and the rest of wood. Six Russian churches were burned, -and also two synagogues, one Catholic and one Lutheran church; five -bazaars, the meat-market, museum, club-house, custom-house, and other -public edifices were consumed. The loss was about fifteen millions of -dollars, and many persons formerly in good circumstances were rendered -penniless. The wealthy inhabitants who escaped loss or ruin gave -liberally to relieve the general distress, and the Government made -substantial provision for the unemployed. - -[Illustration: DRESSED FOR THE ROAD.] - -"When the winter roads were reported in a condition for travelling I -began my preparations for leaving Irkutsk on a sleigh-ride of thirty-six -hundred miles. The thermometer went to twenty degrees below zero soon -after the first fall of snow, and my Russian friends told me to prepare -for forty below. Under their advice I employed a tailor who knew his -business, and when his work was completed my room resembled a clothing -store of modest proportions. Here is what I bought: A sheepskin coat -with the wool inside; the garment fell below my knees, was without a -collar, and buttoned tight around the neck. It was intended for wearing -outside my ordinary suit of clothing. Outside of this was what the -Russians call a _dehar_; it was made of deer-skin, with the hair -outward, and as I walked it swept the floor like a lady's ball-dress. -The sleeves were six inches longer than my arms, and very inconvenient -when I wished to pick up any small article; the collar was a foot wide, -and when turned up and brought around in front completely concealed my -head. Then I had a fur cap, circular in shape and with lappets for -covering the ears. A lady made, from a piece of sable-skin, a mitten for -my nose. - -"For my foot-gear I discarded my leather boots. Outside of my ordinary -socks I had a pair of squirrel-skin socks with the fur inside, sheepskin -stockings with the wool inside and reaching to the knee, and outside of -these were deer-skin boots, with the hair outside, and reaching up -nearly to the junction of my lower limbs. Added to these garments for -excluding cold was a robe of sheepskins with the wool on, and backed -with heavy cloth. It was seven feet square, and something like a dozen -skins were required for making it. At one end it was shaped into a sort -of bag for receiving the feet." - -Fred suggested that such a costume must be very inconvenient for -walking, and it must be no easy matter to enter and leave a sleigh when -thus wrapped for a cold night. - -"You are quite right," said Mr. Hegeman; "it is the work of a minute or -more to turn over at night and change one's position, excepting, of -course, when the sleigh turns over first." - -"Did that happen often?" - -"Fortunately not," was the reply, "but the few experiences of this kind -that I had were quite sufficient. One night we were upset while going at -full speed down a hill. I was asleep at the time, and without the least -warning found myself in a mass of baggage, hay, furs, and snow. My first -thought was that an earthquake had hit us, and it was several seconds -before I realized what had happened. One of the horses broke loose and -ran away; the driver mounted the other and went after the fugitive, and -for half an hour my companion and myself were left alone with the sleigh -and its contents. We kept ourselves busy trying to get things to rights, -and as we had only the light of the stars to work by, we did not get -along rapidly. - -"We found one of the shafts and also a fender broken; otherwise the -vehicle had suffered no material damage. But I'm getting ahead of the -story. - -"I arranged to leave Irkutsk with some Russian friends who were going to -Krasnoyarsk, the next provincial capital. After getting my furs, the -next thing was to buy a sleigh, and again I took advice. - -[Illustration: A VASHOK.] - -"There is a sleigh called a _vashok_, which is much like a small -omnibus. It has doors at the side and is very capacious, but it has the -disadvantage that you are completely enclosed in it, and can see nothing -of the country you are passing through. A better vehicle is the -_kibitka_, a sort of tarantasse on runners, and suggestive of the -American chaise in the arrangement of its front. There is a hood which -can be lowered and fastened to an apron rising from the wooden box, in -which your feet are pushed when you enter the vehicle. By day you can -see the country and enjoy the fresh air, and at night or in storms you -close the hood and are very well protected from the weather. Ladies and -invalids prefer the vashok, while healthy men have a decided liking for -the kibitka. - -[Illustration: MY KIBITKA.] - -"At the rear of the kibitka there is usually a frame of poles, covered -with a net of half inch rope. It is a convenient receptacle for extra -baggage, and also serves to break the force of horses running against -the sleigh from behind. - -"The driver of the vashok sits on a seat much like that of an ordinary -carriage, while on the kibitka he is seated on the boxed front, with his -feet hanging over the side. The position is one that requires constant -vigilance to prevent falling off. The driver of a vashok might possibly -sleep a little without danger, but not so the driver of a kibitka. - -"My kibitka was made in European Russia, and was said to have travelled -six thousand miles before I owned it. In my possession it went -thirty-six hundred miles, and was certainly good for several thousand -more. In the whole ride it cost me about five dollars for repairs, -principally to the shafts and fenders. I gave eighty roubles for the -sleigh in Irkutsk, and sold it at Nijni Novgorod for ten. - -[Illustration: FAREWELL TO IRKUTSK.] - -"The day of my departure was spent in making farewell calls and getting -the baggage in readiness. A Russian gentleman was to accompany me in my -sleigh; two ladies, mother and daughter, were to be in another; and two -servants of the ladies, a man and a maid, were to be in a third. The -ladies lived in Irkutsk, and we were to dine at their house and start -from it. At the appointed time we went there. - -"There was a gay party at the dinner, and when it was over the starting -signal was given. All present seated themselves around the parlor, and a -few moments were given to silent prayer, the travellers asking, and the -others wishing for them, a safe journey. On rising, all who professed -the religion of the Eastern Church made the sign of the cross before the -_ikon_, or holy picture, and bowed towards it. Every true Russian -scrupulously observes this ceremony before starting on a journey, -whether by land or water. - -"The Angara sweeps gracefully around two sides of Irkutsk, and many of -the houses are on the bank. There is a swinging ferry to connect the -opposite shores; the boat is at the end of a strong cable, anchored -nearly a mile up the stream, and it is swung across through the force of -the current against its sides. Starting for Moscow it is necessary to -cross the river, and I was told there would be some friends at the ferry -to see me off. We had a good deal of seeing off, as nearly a dozen -sleighs, filled with friends of my companions, were to accompany us to -the first station. - -"When we reached the bank it was the close of the day; in fact, dusk was -about coming on. The ferry-boat was coming from the other shore. I -looked, and saw it was dressed in flags and Chinese lanterns; I looked -again, and there were American flags!--four American flags and one -Russian. It was the first time my national standard had ever been -hoisted at Irkutsk. - -"There was a lump in my throat and a film over my eyes as I raised my -cap and tried to give three cheers. My voice proved to be husky, and the -effort was not crowned with distinguished success. It was a surprise -planned by several of my Russian friends; when it was all over, I -remembered how one of the ladies had asked me several days before how -the American flag was made, and obtained from me a drawing showing the -arrangement of stripes and stars. There wasn't an American flag in -Irkutsk, and they had caused these to be made for the occasion." - -"What a hospitable people they must be at Irkutsk!" said Frank. Fred -echoed the sentiment, and so did Doctor Bronson. The latter said it was -only those who had been a long time from home who could appreciate the -feeling that comes over a man when he sees his country's flag thus -displayed. - -"After many expressions of good-will and good wishes for everybody, and -hand-shakings without number, our sleighs were driven on the ferry-boat, -and we swung across the Angara. At the first station we made a merry -party till a late hour; then the friends who came to see us off returned -to Irkutsk, while we travellers took to our sleighs and went comfortably -to sleep, while our horses dashed gayly over the smooth road. - -"For the first fifty miles after leaving Irkutsk the road follows the -bank of the Angara; at times we were close to the dark waters, and never -far away from them. A dense fog, or frost-cloud, lay on the river; the -night was cold, and the moisture congealed on everything where it could -find a resting-place. In the morning every part of my sleigh save the -running portion was white with hoar-frost. Each little fibre projecting -from the canvas and matting that formed the cover had been turned to a -stalactite or a stalagmite, and the head of every nail and bolt -resembled oxydized silver. Horses were white without regard to their -natural color, and even the garments of the drivers had come in for -their share of the congelation. - -[Illustration: WORK OF THE FROST-KING.] - -"Many times afterwards I had occasion to remark the beauties of the work -of the frost-king. Houses and fences were cased in ice, its thickness -varying with the condition of the weather. Trees and bushes were covered -with crystals, and in the morning sunlight they sparkled as though -coated with diamonds. Sometimes the trees resembled fountains caught and -frozen when in full action. The pictured delineations of the frost had -all the varieties of the kaleidoscope, but without its colors. - -"During the night I slept well, in spite of several severe thumps -received from sleighs going in the other direction. Russian sleighs are -so built that two of them can run together with considerable force -without serious consequences. Look at the picture of a vashok and you -will understand it. - -"The runners are about thirty inches apart, and generally shod with -iron. On each side there is a fender, which consists of a stout pole -fastened to the forward end of the runner, and extending downward and -outward to the rear, where it is about two feet from the runner and held -by strong braces. On a level surface it is just clear of the snow, but -when the vehicle tips ever so little the fender sustains the weight and -prevents an overturn. When two sleighs moving in opposite directions -come together, the fenders slip against each other like a pair of -fencing foils. - -"Occasionally the shock of meeting is so severe that the fenders are -broken. An accident of this kind happened one day to my kibitka, the -fender on one side being completely torn off. At the next station I -summoned a carpenter and had the missing fender restored and made -stronger than it was before." - -Frank asked how the traveller's baggage was carried in a Siberian -sleigh? - -"Baggage is spread over the bottom of the sleigh," said Mr. Hegeman, in -reply to the question. "Wooden and other solid trunks must be discarded, -and in their place the Russians have what they call _chemidans_. The -chemidan is made of soft leather, very broad and flat, and must not be -filled with fragile articles. For ladies' bonnets and other crushable -things there are chemidans which more resemble the packing-case of a -framed picture than anything else; they fit easily into the bottom of a -sleigh or tarantasse, and are strong enough to bear the weight of the -traveller. Baggage is spread over the bottom of the vehicle, and the -chinks and crevices are filled with straw or hay to make as level a -surface as possible. Over this is spread a rug of sheepskins. There is -no seat as in an ordinary vehicle, but you sit there very much as you -would on the carpet in the corner of a room. Each traveller has a corner -of the sleigh, and wedges himself into a comfortable position by means -of pillows; he may lie down, recline, or sit bolt upright as he -chooses." - -"Did you carry your provisions for the road, or could you rely upon the -stations to furnish them?" Fred inquired. - -[Illustration: INTERIOR OF A RUSSIAN INN.] - -"We could rely upon the stations for the _samovar_ with hot water, and -for bread and eggs," was the reply, "the same as in the tarantasse -journey I have already described, but everything else that we wanted had -to be carried along. We had our own tea and sugar, likewise our -roast-beef, cabbage-soup, and _pilmania_." - -"What is pilmania?" - -"The best thing imaginable for this kind of travelling. It consists of a -piece of cooked meat--beef or mutton--about the size of a grape, -seasoned and wrapped in a thin covering of dough, and then rolled in -flour. We had at starting nearly a bushel of these dough-covered -meat-balls frozen solid and carried in a bag. When we reached a station -where we wished to dine, sup, or breakfast, we ordered the _samovar_, -and said we had pilmania, before getting out of the sleigh. A pot of -water was immediately put on the fire and heated to the boiling-point; -then a double handful of our pilmania was dropped into the pot, the -water was brought to the boil again and kept simmering for a few -minutes. The result was a rich meat-soup which Delmonico could not -surpass. - -"The bag containing the frozen pilmania seemed to be filled with -walnuts. Our cabbage-soup was in cakes like small bricks, and our -roast-beef resembled red granite. We carved the beef with a hatchet, -and then thawed out the slices while waiting for the _samovar_. We had -partridges cooked and frozen. With all the articles I have named for -dinner, what more could we wish, especially when we had appetites -sharpened by travelling in the keen, pure air of Siberia?" - -"Wasn't there danger, while you were in the stations eating your meals, -that things would be stolen from the sleigh?" was the next interrogatory -by one of the youths. - -[Illustration: MAIL-DRIVER AND GUARD.] - -"I had fears of that before starting," was the reply, "but my friends -assured me that thefts from vehicles on the post-roads were very rare. -There were always several employés of the station moving about, or -engaged in harnessing or unharnessing the teams, so that outsiders had -little chance to pilfer without being discovered. The native Siberians -have a good reputation for honesty, and the majority of those exiled for -minor offences lead correct lives. According to my experience, the -Siberians are more honest than the inhabitants of European Russia. After -passing the Ural Mountains we always employed somebody to watch the -sleigh while we were at meals in the station, which we did not do while -in Siberia. - -"The gentleman who rode with me was an officer in the Russian service; -he, like myself, carried a second-class paderojnia, but the ladies had -only a third-class one. On the second day of our journey, just as we had -finished dinner and our teams were ready to start, it was announced that -the post with five vehicles was approaching. We donned our furs very -quickly, while our servants gathered up our part of the dinner -equipment. Leaving enough money on the table to pay for what we had -received from the station, we bundled into our vehicles and hastened -away. There was no danger of our losing the two teams which had been -secured on the second-class paderojnias, but we were not at all certain -about the other. If there had not been sufficient horses at the station -for the post, our third team would have been taken from us, and we might -have waited for hours before obtaining horses. The best way of solving -the problem was to be out of the way when it came up for solution. As -the man said of a railway accident, 'Presence of mind is good, but -absence of body is better.' - -[Illustration: DISTANT VIEW OF A SIBERIAN VILLAGE.] - -"We obtained excellent speed from the horses where the roads were good, -as we gave a fee to the drivers at the end of their routes, -proportioning it according to the character of their service. My sleigh -generally took the lead, and we always promised a liberal gratuity for -extra rate of progress. The regulations require that vehicles not on -Government service shall go at a pace of ten versts (six and two-third -miles) an hour, provided the roads are in good condition. If a driver -just came up to the regulations and no more, we gave him eight or ten -copecks; if he was accommodating and energetic, we increased his -gratuity accordingly. Fifteen copecks was a liberal reward, twenty -munificent, twenty-five princely, and thirty imperial. We went at -breakneck pace where the roads permitted, and often where they did not. -Occasionally we stimulated the drivers to a race, and then our progress -was exciting, as well as dangerous. - -"The post was carried twice a week each way, and we frequently -encountered it. The bags contained merchandise in addition to letters -and newspapers, as the Government does a sort of express business -through the post-office, to the great convenience of the public. This -accounted for the large number of vehicles employed. Travellers may -purchase tickets and have their carriages accompany the post, but in so -doing they are liable to a good many extortions. Each convoy is -accompanied by a postilion or guard, who is responsible for its -security; he is usually a soldier, and must be armed to repel robbers. -Sometimes these postilions were so stuck around with pistols that they -resembled travelling arsenals, and must have been very dangerous to -themselves." - -Frank asked how many horses were required for the service of the post at -each station. - -"The rules require each station-master to keep ten troikas, or thirty -horses, ready for use; many stations had forty or fifty horses each, and -the villages could generally supply any reasonable demand after those in -the station were exhausted. Fourteen _yemshicks_ (drivers) are kept at -every station; they are boarded by the smotretal, and receive about four -dollars each a month, in addition to whatever gratuities they can pick -up. When the post was expected they generally whispered that fact to our -man-servant, so that we could get away as soon as possible. They -preferred our service to that of the post, as we could be relied upon -for gratuities, while none were obtainable from the inanimate bags of -the Government mail. - -"Our good road lasted for two days and into the early hours of the -third; then the snow became very thin, and at times we were dragged over -bare ground for considerable distances. From very cold the weather -turned to warm, and threatened to spoil our provisions as well as the -roads. - -"Winter is by far the best time for travelling in Siberia, though at -first thought one would suppose the summer preferable. In summer the -weather is hot, there are clouds of dust when no rain falls, and long -stretches of mud when it does; there are swarms and swarms of -mosquitoes, flies, and all sorts of winged things that trouble traveller -and horses to a terrible degree. There is one kind of fly that drives -the horses into a frenzy, so that they sometimes break away from the -carriages or become unmanageable. A Russian gravely told me that this -Siberian horsefly could bite through an iron stove-pipe without hurting -his teeth, but I'm inclined to doubt it. - -[Illustration: SOLDIERS IN SIBERIAN FERRY-BOATS.] - -"Then, too, there are many streams to be crossed by fording or ferrying, -and often there are long delays at the ferries. Fresh provisions can -only be carried for a day or two at most, and a traveller must load his -vehicle with a liberal stock of canned goods or run the risk of a very -hard time. The frost seals up the rivers, causes the mosquitoes, flies, -dust, mud, and kindred annoyances to disappear, and preserves your -provisions for an indefinite period, except when a 'thaw' comes on. If -you ever make a journey through Siberia, by all means make it in winter. - -"The last hundred miles of our ride, from Irkutsk to Krasnoyarsk, was -made over more bare ground than snow. In some places we had five or six -horses to each carriage, and even then our progress was slow. -Fortunately it became cold again, but the sky was cloudless; we longed -for snow to cover the ground and improve the condition of the roads. - -"The last morning we took breakfast at a station fifty versts from -Krasnoyarsk, and learned that for the last thirty versts before reaching -the city there was absolutely no snow. Very curiously the snow extended -up to the door of the station, and disappeared not more than a yard -beyond it! Looking one way there was bare ground; looking the other the -road was good for sleighing. - -[Illustration: VIEW OF KRASNOYARSK FROM THE OPPOSITE BANK OF THE -YENISEI.] - -"Over cakes and tea we arranged our programme, which resulted in the -ladies leaving their vashok until their return to Irkutsk, and riding -into town on a telega. My sleigh and the other were unloaded, the -baggage was piled into telegas, the sleighs were mounted on wagons which -we hired from the peasants, and with very little trouble the whole -difficulty was adjusted. Altogether we were not at the station more than -an hour, and at least half that time was taken for lunch." - -Fred asked how it happened that there was good sleighing in one -direction and hardly any snow in the other. - -"It is a climatic peculiarity," Mr. Hegeman explained, "and is not -confined to that locality. You remember I mentioned Chetah, the first -provincial capital as you go west from the Amoor River. At Chetah very -little snow falls in the winter, and sometimes for the entire year -wheels must be used. Krasnoyarsk is in the valley of the Yenisei River, -and they told me that very little snow falls within twenty miles of the -town, and in some winters none at all. I must leave the scientific men -to explain it. - -"I heard a story at Krasnoyarsk of an Englishman who was travelling -alone through Siberia a few winters before the time of my visit. Finding -no snow there on his arrival, he decided to wait until it fell, and the -roads would be good enough for him to proceed. He waited days and days, -but no snow. The days grew into weeks, and the weeks into months, but -still no snow. He remained sullenly at the hotel or wandered about the -streets; the hotel-keeper did not enlighten him, as he was a good -customer, and the stranger did not seek counsel of any one else. He -might have been there to this day had he not met in the hotel a -fellow-countryman who was travelling eastward. The latter explained the -climatic conditions of the place to his long-detained compatriot, and -then the latter made arrangements for proceeding on his journey. - -"Before I forget it," continued Mr. Hegeman, "let me say that the -Russians have several songs in which the delights of sleighing are -described. Here is one of them, which may possibly need the explanation -that the duga is the yoke over the shaft-horse's neck, and Valdai is the -place where the most famous bells of Russia are cast. You already know -that a troika is a team of three horses harnessed abreast-- - - "'Away, away, along the road, - The fiery troika bounds; - While 'neath the duga, sadly sweet, - The Valdai bell resounds. - - "'Away, away, we leave the town, - Its roofs and spires, behind, - The crystal snow-flakes dance around - As o'er the steppe we wind. - - "'Away, away, the glittering stars - Shine greeting from above; - Our hearts beat fast as on we glide, - Swift as the flying dove.' - -"I will tell you of a sleigh-ride in which there is less poetry than in -the song I have quoted. - -"An English gentleman was stopping with some Siberian friends, and one -day it was proposed to take a ride in a sledge. The Englishman had -taken his seat and the driver was about mounting to his place, when the -horses made a sudden start and dragged the reins from the driver's -hands. - -[Illustration: A DANGEROUS RIDE.] - -"All that the Englishman could do was to hold on, and this he did to the -best of his ability. The horses made straight for a ravine two or three -hundred feet deep; the unfortunate passenger and his friends thought he -was going to certain death, but as they reached the edge of the ravine -the horses whirled about and ran in the opposite direction. - -"The sledge in turning was swung over the abyss, and hung for an instant -in the air; the team ran two or three miles before it was stopped by one -of the horses stumbling among some logs. Severely bruised and with his -hand half crushed, the Englishman got out of the sledge, and concluded -he had had all the riding he desired for that day at least." - - - - -CHAPTER XIX. - -POSITION AND CHARACTER OF KRASNOYARSK.--A LESSON IN RUSSIAN -PRONUNCIATION.--MARKET SCENE.--SIBERIAN TREES.--THE _OUKHABA_.--A NEW -SENSATION.--ROAD-FEVER AND ITS CAUSE.--AN EXCITING ADVENTURE WITH -WOLVES.--HOW WOLVES ARE HUNTED.--FROM KRASNOYARSK TO TOMSK.--STEAM -NAVIGATION IN SIBERIA.--BARNAOOL.--MINES OF THE ALTAI.--TIGERS AND TIGER -STORIES.--THE _BOURAN_.--ACROSS THE BARABA STEPPE.--TUMEN AND -EKATERINEBURG.--FROM EUROPE TO ASIA.--PERM, KAZAN, AND NIJNI -NOVGOROD.--END OF THE SLEIGH-RIDE. - - -Frank asked what was meant by the word Krasnoyarsk: was it derived from -a river, a mountain, or did it belong to an individual? - -"_Krasnoe_," said Mr. Hegeman, "means 'red,' and Krasnoyarsk gets its -name from the red cliffs of the Yenisei on which it stands. All around -the town the soil is of a reddish hue, and so are the hills that form -the horizon in every direction. The Yenisei is a fine river, one of the -largest in Siberia, and where it passes Krasnoyarsk it is fully half a -mile wide. In summer there are two or three steamboats running to the -Arctic Ocean from a point a little below Krasnoyarsk; rapids and shoals -prevent their coming up to the town. The tributaries of the river are -rich in gold deposits, and many of the residents have grown wealthy by -gold-mining. - -"Krasnoyarsk has a population of about twelve thousand, and in a general -way is a sort of pocket edition of Irkutsk. It is the capital of the -province of Yeniseisk, and the centre of trade for a wide extent of -country. Markets, churches, and buildings in general are like those of -Irkutsk, and there is an appearance of prosperity throughout the place." - -Fred asked how it happened that the names of nearly all the towns in -Siberia ended in "sk." They had been hearing about Irkutsk, Yeniseisk, -Selenginsk, and he didn't know how many others. - -Dr. Bronson came to the young man's relief as follows: - -"I think you learned in St. Petersburg that the termination 'sk' is -equivalent to 'of' in English?" - -"Certainly," replied Fred, "I learned that 'vitch' means 'son of.' Paul -Ivanovitch, for example, being Paul, son of Ivan. I understand also that -Alexandrovsky was named after Alexander, Petrovski after Peter, -Nicolayevsk after Nicholas, and so on through the list of Russian saints -and emperors. But I've not heard of any distinguished personages with -the names I've just quoted belonging to towns or cities." - -[Illustration: BEGGAR AT A SIBERIAN STATION.] - -"These Siberian names really assist the memory in a geographical way," -the Doctor answered, "as they tell us where the town is located. -Selenginsk is on the Selenga River; Irkutsk is on the Irkut, where it -empties into the Angara; Yeniseisk (province) is in the valley of the -Yenisei, and the town of that name is on the river's bank. In the same -way Omsk is on the Om, Tomsk on the Tom, Tobolsk on the Tobol, Irbitsk -on the Irbit, and Kansk on the Kan. The list could be extended to great -length." - -"I must make a note of that," said Fred, "as it will be of use to -students of geography in the schools at home. But what hard words they -are to pronounce!" - -"They are not as difficult as they seem at first sight," said the -Doctor. "The chief difficulty comes from our knowing they are Russian, -and expecting they will twist our tongues. Three consonants together are -terrible--in Russian; in English they are easy enough." - -"I quite agree with you," said Mr. Hegeman. "After I went to America, on -my return from Siberia, many of my friends complained of the -jaw-breaking names of the places I had visited, and declared they never -could speak them. A lady of my acquaintance tried in vain to pronounce -Irkutsk; its three consonants, _t_, _s_, and _k_, were too much for her, -but she had not the slightest difficulty in asking me about the fasts -and feasts of the Church. The _s_, _t_, and _s_ of 'fasts' and 'feasts' -are consonants, and just as difficult of pronunciation as the others; -but the one set is Russian and the other 'English, you know.' - -"Let me suggest an easy way of wrestling with the Russian terminals -_tsk_, _nsk_, _msk_, and the like: - -"If you're struggling with Irkutsk take the word 'coot,' which is -perfectly familiar to you. Put an _s_ to it and make 'coots,' and then a -_k_ to that and make 'cootsk' or 'kutsk.' With the prefix _er_ you have -the capital of Eastern Siberia before you. - -"In the same way dispose of Kansk by building up the word 'can' till you -have reached the end. The other terminals which seem so difficult may be -rendered perfectly innocuous to the organs of speech if kindly and -intelligently treated. - -"To return to Krasnoyarsk and its snowless district. - -"A description of the place, its buildings, markets, and other features -would be nearly a repetition of that of Irkutsk, but on a smaller scale. -In the market I was particularly interested in the character and -abundance of the fish offered for sale. Among them were pike, sturgeon, -perch, and others with which I was familiar, and there was one fish -which closely resembled the smelt. Another that I had never before seen -had a bill resembling that of a duck and a long and thin body. All these -fishes came from the Yenisei or its tributaries; some of them dwell -permanently in the river, and others ascend in the summer from the -Arctic Ocean. - -"There is a fish called _omulli_ by the Russians, and evidently a member -of the trout family. It lives in the smaller streams of Siberia, and -furnishes a caviar that is greatly prized. The omulli's caviar is of a -golden color, and quite in contrast with the black caviar made from the -roe of the sturgeon. - -"The Yenisei at Krasnoyarsk has a swift current, and resembles the -Mississippi at St. Louis, according to the descriptions they gave me. Of -course I could not verify the statement, as the river was frozen over at -the time of my visit. The width and volume of the Yenisei gave interest -to a story which was told by one of the residents: - -[Illustration: POLICEMAN AT KRASNOYARSK.] - -"One of the good citizens of Krasnoyarsk had been attending a wedding on -the other side of the river, and started for home rather late at night, -with the intention of reaching the ferry about daylight. He was in a -telega drawn by two horses; on the way from the wedding he fell asleep, -and the horses took their own course. When they reached the river they -were doubtless hungry, and impatient to return to their stable. The -ferry-boat was on the other side, and the animals did not choose to -wait. They plunged in and started across; the telega, being wholly of -wood, had sufficient buoyancy to keep it afloat, but the occupant was -awakened by the cold bath. Though frightened half to death, he had the -good sense to lie perfectly still and make the best of the situation; -the hardy beasts took him safely over, but he never cared to repeat the -adventure. The few individuals that saw him coming in the early daylight -could hardly believe their eyes; and one, at least, thought it was -Neptune in his chariot ascending the waters of the Yenisei." - -"Another illustration of the excellence of the horses of Siberia," said -Fred. "I long to travel in that country, and have the experience of -riding behind them." - -Frank asked Mr. Hegeman if there were any high mountains in the -neighborhood of Krasnoyarsk. - -[Illustration: HILLS NEAR A SIBERIAN RIVER.] - -"There are not," was the reply, "only some low hills and rounded peaks -that do not rise to the height and dignity of mountains. I believe most -geographers are agreed on applying the term 'mountain' only to -elevations of fifteen hundred feet and more, everything below that -figure being called a hill. Under this restriction there are no -mountains on the road through Siberia between Lake Baikal and the Ural -range. Most of the country is flat and uninteresting; sometimes it is a -perfectly level plain, and in other places it is undulating like a -rolling prairie in Kansas or Nebraska. Along the rivers it is broken by -ranges of hills, but as soon as you go back from the rivers you come to -the plain again. - -"Hour after hour, and day after day, we rode over this monotonous -country, the landscape, or rather snowscape, presenting very little to -attract the eye. This feature of the country makes the Siberian journey -a dreary one, not unlike the journey from the Missouri River to the -Rocky Mountains before the days of the transcontinental railway." - -Fred asked if this level part of Siberia was treeless like many portions -of our Western country. - -"There is a vast amount of treeless land," said Mr. Hegeman, in response -to the inquiry, "but it is not all of that sort. There are many forests -of birch, pine, spruce, and larch. In some localities birch is the only -wood for building purposes, in others larch, and in others pine or -spruce. Other Siberian trees are willow, fir, poplar, elm, and maple. -Central and Southern Siberia are well wooded, but the farther we go -towards the north the fewer trees do we find. The plains bordering the -Arctic Ocean are treeless; the poplar disappears at 60° north latitude, -the birch at 63°, and the pine and larch at 64°." - -"I thought I had read about a species of cedar that grows over the -plains to the far North," said the Doctor, "and that it serves to make -that region habitable by furnishing fuel for the natives." - -"I was about to mention the trailing cedar," said Mr. Hegeman. "The -Russians call it _kedrevnik_, and some of the native tribes regard it as -a special gift of Providence. It spreads on the ground like a vine, and -has needles and cones similar to those of the cedar; the trunks are -gnarled and twisted, very difficult to cut or split, but vastly -preferable to no wood at all. Thousands of miles of country are covered -with the trailing cedar, and in winter it is found by digging in the -snow. - -"On leaving Krasnoyarsk," continued Mr. Hegeman, "I travelled with a -gentleman who had been northward to the shores of the Arctic Ocean -during the previous summer, he accompanying me in my sleigh, while his -own was occupied by a servant and a goodly amount of baggage. For thirty -miles there was no snow, and so we mounted our sleighs on wagons and -sent them to the beginning of the snow road, while we followed in a -telega a few hours after their departure. We overtook them just at the -beginning of the snow road, and were glad enough to change from the -telega. The vehicle had no springs, and we were shaken in it worse than -if tossed in a blanket. The frozen ground was rough, and reminded me of -a nutmeg-grater on a Brobdingnagian scale. - -"We had started with the intention of overtaking the sleighs before -sunset, but our slow progress over the rough roads had so delayed us -that the evening was well advanced before our destination was reached. -The transfer of baggage was made in the moonlight; one or two small -articles disappeared in the operation, but whether stolen or -accidentally lost we never knew. - -[Illustration: JUMPING AN "OUKHABA."] - -"In Irkutsk I had been told that a new sensation awaited me in the -Siberian _oukhaba_, and I found it on the first night's travelling after -leaving Krasnoyarsk. What do you suppose it was?" - -Both the youths shook their heads and said they didn't know, while -Doctor Bronson preserved a discreet silence. - -"The oukhaba of the Siberian road," Mr. Hegeman explained, "is the -equivalent of the 'hog-wallow' of the American one; the former is formed -in the snow, and the latter in the bare ground. It is caused by the snow -lying in drifts or ridges when it is blown by the wind, and also by the -roads being worn with much travel. The road is a succession of ridges -and hollows; the drivers go at full speed, without the slightest regard -to the pitching and tossing of the sleigh, and the result is a severe -trial of one's nerves. The motion causes a rush of blood to one's head, -and develops what the Russians call 'the road-fever.' - -"I did not escape the road-fever, and to this day I shudder when -thinking of this part of my experience, the most disagreeable feature of -the journey. My body was sore and stiff; at every jolt it seemed as -though the top of my head would fly off; sleep was next to impossible; -and when I did manage to slumber, my dreams were something frightful. My -temper was spoiled, and a quarrel might have been created with anything -and anybody without the least effort. The fever runs its course in two -or three days, but may last longer; as long as the roads are bad the -inexperienced traveller is liable to it. Sometimes the sleigh made a -clear jump of five or six feet, and the wonder was that the vehicle did -not go to pieces and leave us hopelessly wrecked." - -Fred asked if any wolves were seen in this part of the journey or -elsewhere in Siberia. - -"Occasionally we saw wolves," was the reply, "but not often. There are -plenty of wolves in Siberia, but they have enough to live upon in the -game that abounds everywhere, so that they are not likely to attack -travellers. Siberian and American wolves are much alike, but the former -are said to be larger and fiercer than their American cousins. - -"I can tell you some wolf stories, but they do not belong to Siberia. It -is only in Western Russia and in Poland that travellers are attacked by -wolves, and then only in the severest winters, when game is very scarce -and hunger has made the animals desperate." - -"Please tell us one of those stories," said Frank. "I have read accounts -of men being chased by wolves, but have just now forgotten what they -were." - -The request was echoed by Fred, and Mr. Hegeman kindly gratified their -wish. - -"To begin with," said he, "the horses are the object of attack and not -the men in the vehicle; but of course when the horses are overpowered -the wolves make no distinction and devour everything edible. When -desperate they will venture to the farm-yards to kill sheep and cattle. -Their favorite article of food, other than wild game, is a pig, and the -squealing of a pig is an appeal that no hungry wolf can resist. - -[Illustration: WOLVES ATTACKING A BUFFALO.] - -"Advantage of this propensity is taken by those who go out to hunt the -wolf for amusement. On a moonlight night two hunters go out with an open -sledge drawn by two horses; they carry their guns, with plenty of -ammunition, a pig tied by the feet, and a bag of hay, together with furs -and robes to keep them warm. When they reach the middle of the forest -where the wolves abound, the horses' heads are turned towards home, the -bag of hay, fastened to a rope from twenty to forty feet long, is thrown -out, and the pig's ear is pinched until the poor creature squeals in his -loudest tones. If a wolf is within hearing he comes at once, and if -there are other wolves they follow him and his example. The pig's ear is -continually twisted; the squealing resounds through the forest, and when -the wolves come in sight they mistake the bag of hay for the animal they -seek. They rush for it, and as they come within range are shot down. -The sleigh does not stop to pick up the game, but continues its course -at a walk or slow trot, provided the driver can restrain the -terror-stricken horses. The next day the dead wolves, if any, are -gathered for the sake of their skins. - -"Sometimes a dozen or more wolves will be killed in this way in a single -night, but more frequently the hunters return empty-handed. Sometimes -the wolves come in great numbers, and with so much fierceness that the -hunters are obliged to flee for their lives--not always successfully. - -"And now comes the wolf story I promised; it was told to me by a Russian -officer some years ago, and I will endeavor to give it as nearly as -possible in his own words. Imagine that he is talking to you as he -talked to me: - -"'I was stopping for a part of the winter at the house of a -fellow-officer near Vilna, where he had a large estate. His name was -Selmanoff, and he was noted for his excellent horsemanship and his love -for all kinds of hunting sport. - -"'The winter was one of the worst that had been known for a long while, -and two or three times we heard of travellers through the forest having -been pursued by wolves. Of course this led to a wolf hunt, which -Selmanoff proposed and I heartily accepted. - -"We made our preparations, selecting a broad sledge open all around, and -formed of wicker-work, so that it was light as well as strong. We -carried two short, smooth-bore guns of large calibre--rifles are not -desirable on these hunts, as it is impossible to take accurate aim from -the moving sledge in the moonlight. The guns were breech-loaders, and -the charge was a heavy one of buck-shot and ball. - -"We had two horses, young and powerful beasts, and the driver was one of -the best on the estate. After dining heartily we started about sunset -and drove some twenty miles or so into the middle of the forest, over a -good road which had been trodden by the peasants carrying their produce -to the market at the nearest town. Our decoy pig lay quietly among the -furs, and gave no sign of his presence save an occasional grunt of -dissatisfaction at his uncomfortable position. - -[Illustration: A SIBERIAN WOLF.] - -"'At the spot where the hunt was to begin we turned about and threw out -our bag of hay; then we twisted the pig's ear and he protested with a -loud squeal. - -"'An answering howl came from the forest, and seemingly not a dozen -yards away. Another howl and another followed quickly, and then the air -was full of them. - -"'In a minute or so a dark form was revealed on the snow behind us, and -making straight for the hay-bag. Selmanoff gave me the first fire, and I -took it. The wolf fell at my shot just as he was within a few yards of -the bag. - -[Illustration: SUMMER AND WINTER IN RUSSIA.] - -"'But another came, and then another, and in a few minutes there were a -dozen or more in sight. We shot them as fast as they came within range, -but the numbers did not diminish. The shooting and the howling of the -wolves frightened the horses, and the driver had a difficult task to -restrain them. - -"'As the wolves increased in number, we saw we were in danger; the -extent of the pack was far beyond our expectation, and the -long-continued hunger of the brutes had made them very fierce. The -shooting of one after another did not seem to restrain their ardor in -the least; those that were untouched by our shot dashed madly ahead, and -showed a determination to appease their hunger at all hazards. - -"'Selmanoff told the driver to increase the speed of the horses. He gave -the order not a moment too soon. Just as the horses were put to a -gallop, several wolves sprang from the forest at our side, and if we had -been going slowly they would have easily reached the sleigh. As it was, -we passed within a few feet of them, and their howls of angry -disappointment rang in our ears. - -"'We cut the rope that held the hay-bag; it detained our pursuers only a -few moments, as they quickly discovered it was not what they wanted. - -"'On they came again. We loaded and fired as fast as we could; there was -no occasion to take accurate aim, as the road behind us was fairly -filled with wolves, and it was quite sufficient to point our guns at the -dark mass revealed against the snow. - -"'We had made six or eight miles on our return, when an additional -danger that threatened us was suggested by my friend. There was a sharp -angle in the road a mile or so ahead of us, and, at the pace we were -proceeding, the sledge would certainly be upset in going around the -angle. As we approached the point of peril we ceased firing, laid our -guns among the furs, ordered the speed of the horses to be slackened--no -easy thing to accomplish--and then both of us hung out as far as -possible on the inner side of the sledge, to keep it from going over. - -"'As we made the turn the sledge was poised for some distance on one of -its runners, and if we had not taken all the precautions I have named, -it would have gone over. From this point was a clear and comparatively -straight run homeward of ten or twelve miles, and the horses were put to -their best work. They had no need of urging, as they knew the danger -that threatened as well as we did. - -"'One horse stumbled and fell; he was up in an instant, but not before -the wolves had actually reached the sledge. One of them jumped directly -at it, but as he did so I pressed the muzzle of my gun to his head and -fired. Another sprang upon the fallen horse as he was rising to his -feet, but was shaken off before he obtained a good hold with his fangs. - -"'The servants of the chateau heard us coming at full speed and our -rapid firing. They knew something was the matter, and as we neared the -house they began shouting and waving lanterns. The wolves slackened -their speed and gave up the chase, but not until we were within a -hundred yards of safety. - -[Illustration: VILLAGE ON A RUSSIAN ESTATE.] - -"'We dashed into the court-yard, the gates were closed, and then -Selmanoff and I, both fainting from exhaustion after our terrible ride, -were assisted from the sledge and into the house. You may be sure that -since then I have never wished to undertake a wolf-hunt of this sort.'" - -"An excellent story," said Frank. "It is certainly better than those -wherein people are obliged to draw lots to see who shall be sacrificed -to the wolves in order that the others may escape." - -"I agree with you," said Fred. "There's quite enough of the sensational -in having everybody get away safely after an exciting run, instead of -being eaten up by their pursuers. If only the wolves are killed it is -all right, as they are enemies of the human race, and do no good to any -one except to furnish skins for sleigh-robes, rugs, and other useful or -ornamental things." - -It was agreed unanimously that the best known use for a wolf was to -convert his skin into something of the kind described. When this -decision had been reached, the conversation reverted to the sleigh-ride -through Siberia. - -"We left the road in pursuit of wolves, while travelling westward from -Krasnoyarsk," said Mr. Hegeman. - -"Jumping oukhabas," suggested one of the youths. - -"Yes, that was it exactly. Well, we jumped oukhabas, rode over bare -ground, were caught in a snow-storm, and had a tough time generally till -we reached Tomsk, the next provincial capital. It takes its name from -the river Tom on which it stands, and is a prosperous place with about -twenty thousand inhabitants. - -"As at Irkutsk, there are many wealthy merchants in the city, and also a -fair number of citizens who have made fortunes by mining for gold. The -houses are spacious and well-built, and there is a large 'gymnasium,' -or high-school, for boys, and an 'institute,' or high-school, for girls. -Many private teachers find employment in rich families who prefer -educating their children at home. Tomsk may be regarded as the most -important place in Siberia next to Irkutsk. - -"There is a line of water communication between Tomsk and Tumen, a -thousand miles to the westward, but of course it is only available in -summer. Fifteen or twenty steamboats are engaged in the traffic; they -descend the Tom to the Ob, and the Ob to the Irtish, which they ascend -to the Tobol. Then they follow the Tobol to the Tura, and the Tura to -Tumen. With barges in tow, the journey occupies twelve days; without -them it is made in a week. Travellers are so few that it does not pay to -run boats for passengers alone, and all the boats in use when I was -there were mainly for freight purposes, and had limited space for -passengers. If you look at the map of Siberia, you will see that it -possesses an excellent system of water communication. - -[Illustration: A SLIGHT MISHAP.] - -"The only navigation of the Tom that I saw was by a native who had -fallen through a hole in the ice and just crawled out. He stood dripping -on the edge for a moment, as though uncertain what to do; then, -evidently realizing his danger, he sprang on his sledge and rode away, -to reach home before he was frozen solid. - -"At the suggestion of my companion we decided to go to Barnaool, which -lies about three hundred miles south of the main road, and is the centre -of the Russian mining region of the Altai Mountains. We remained a day -at Tomsk, in order to see the Governor and obtain his permission to -leave our route, which was readily granted. - -"We started in the evening, and forty-four hours later drove into -Barnaool and alighted at the hotel. An officer who left Tomsk a few -hours in advance of us, kindly notified the station-masters of our -approach, and thus caused them to have horses in readiness. If he had -not done so we should have been seriously delayed, as the regulations -require only three troikas to be kept at the stations on the side road, -while ten are maintained along the great route. For the last part of the -way the drivers took us to houses of their friends instead of going to -the post-stations. The peasants through Siberia have a good many horses, -and are glad to earn money in this way by transporting travellers. - -[Illustration: SUMMER VIEW NEAR BARNAOOL.] - -"Barnaool is a prosperous town, depending partly upon the gold-mining -interest, and partly upon trade with the Kirghese and other people of -Central Asia. It has a Club, a Geographical Society, a large and -interesting museum, together with smelting-works, factories, and -machine-shops connected with the mining interests. Social conversation -has a good deal to do with gold and silver and other precious things, -and in summer many of the officials are absent at the mining -establishments in the mountains. The society is similar to that of -Irkutsk, and fully as accomplished and hospitable. They told me I was -the first American that had ever been in Barnaool, and I was most -heartily welcomed and made to feel at home. - -"One day a gentleman invited me to call at his house, and said his -daughters were under the impression that Americans were black. 'I will -not undeceive them,' said he, 'and if they appear astonished when they -see you, you will understand it.' - -"When I called at the house and was presented to the family, I was -immediately surrounded by three or four little girls, and they looked -with great curiosity at my face. Finally one of them sidled up to her -mother and said something, of which I caught the words, '_Nee chorney_' -("Not black")." - -After Frank and Fred had laughed over this little anecdote, their -informant explained that the impression that Americans were black was -not confined to the family of this gentleman at the foot of the Altai -Mountains. He said he had been told of it on several occasions, not only -in Siberia but in European Russia; but it was almost always confined to -the lower class of people, or to children who had received their -information from servants. - -"I had an odd experience of this impression about our national color a -few years ago," said Doctor Bronson. "It was in a small city of Austria -where strangers do not often penetrate, and our countrymen are not as -well known as in Vienna and Paris. - -"I was making a purchase in a shop, and while chatting with the -saleswoman she asked my nationality. I told her I was an American. She -shook her head doubtingly, and said she thought I must be an Englishman, -as I 'didn't look like an American.' - -"'Why don't I look like an American?' I asked. - -"'There was an American gentleman here a few months ago,' said she, 'and -he was just as black as your hat.' - -"I didn't follow the topic further," said Doctor Bronson, "but concluded -to let her have her own opinion about my national complexion." - -"One of the most interesting things I saw at Barnaool," said Mr. -Hegeman, resuming the subject of conversation, "was the Government -Museum. I spent the greater part of a day there, and only had time to -glance over the admirable collection. There is a mining department which -contains models of all the machinery used in gold-mining, and in many -instances the machines themselves. Some of the machines are nearly a -hundred years old, and almost identical with those in use to-day. There -is a letter from the Empress Elizabeth, bearing her autograph, giving -directions about the working of the mines in her time; it is kept in an -ivory box on the table around which the Mining Board holds its sessions. -The first discoveries of precious metals in the Altai region were made -by one of the Demidoffs, who was sent there by Peter the Great. A -monument in the public square of Barnaool records his services and keeps -his memory green. - -"There are models of mines similar to those in the Mining School at St. -Petersburg, so that the student can see what kind of work is before him. -They showed me a steam-engine which is said to have been made at -Barnaool in 1764, for the purpose of blowing the furnaces; the director -of the museum claimed that it was on the principle adopted by James Watt -in 1765, and therefore, he argued, the credit of the improvement upon -the old engine of Newcomen should be given to Siberia rather than to -Scotland. - -[Illustration: ATTACKED BY A TIGER.] - -"Very interesting was the collection of natural history, which included -the skins of two enormous tigers killed a few years before in one of the -Southern districts of Western Siberia. Both these tigers had histories, -and were supposed to be murderers; one of them fell after a long fight -in which he killed one of his assailants and wounded two others. The -other tiger had sprung upon a man who was riding one horse and leading -another; the man escaped by leaving the led horse for the tiger to -devour. He rode to the nearest village where he could obtain weapons and -assistance, and then returned to the locality of the attack. Carefully -creeping through the tall grass, he found the tiger busy over his meal; -every few moments he raised his head and paused to listen for the sound -of approaching footsteps, but so cautiously did the hunter proceed that -he was not heard. - -"He managed to get within ten yards of the ferocious beast, and then by -a well-directed shot stretched him on the ground. The fame he obtained -for his prowess, and the money from the sale of the skin to the museum, -compensated him for the loss of the horse, but it must be remembered -that he ran a great risk in searching for the tiger as he did. - -[Illustration: BEARCOOTS AND WOLVES.] - -"There were in the museum some fine specimens (stuffed) of the bearcoot, -an enormous eagle of the Altai Mountains. It is considerably larger than -the American eagle, and strong enough to kill easily a deer or a wolf. -The Kirghese tame these eagles and employ them for hunting purposes, -just as hawks were employed in England centuries ago. A bearcoot will -swoop down upon a full-grown deer and kill him in a few minutes; a deer -running at full speed can be overtaken by a bearcoot in a course of -little more than a mile, when he has the advantage of fully a mile at -the start. - -"Sometimes when a pack of wolves has run down a deer and killed it, a -pair of bearcoots will appear and take possession of the game. Two -bearcoots are a match for a dozen wolves, and the latter acknowledge -their inferiority by getting out of the way immediately. - -"Some experiments on the power of the bearcoot to resist poison were -made at Barnaool shortly before my visit. Half a grain of curara (deadly -poison from Brazil) had no effect beyond increasing the bird's appetite. -Four grains of strychnine caused his feathers to tremble fifteen minutes -after swallowing the stuff, and five hours later threw him into -convulsions from which he recovered next day. A week later seven grains -of curara had no effect upon him for two days; then he went into -convulsions, which lasted several hours and ended with his death. - -[Illustration: THE STEPPE IN SUMMER.] - -"But we are staying too long at Barnaool, and must go to the road again. -From Barnaool we went northward and westward to Tumen over the great -Baraba Steppe; it is but a steppe from one place to the other, but the -distance is a thousand miles, and we were a week in making it. We were -caught in a _bouran_, or storm, analagous to the Texas norther or the -_bora_ of Trieste. The wind blew violently, the snow whirled in blinding -masses; the road was so buried that several times we lost our way, and -finally concluded it safest to wait at a station till the storm was -over. Happily we were not long delayed. - -"In summer these _bourans_ or _ouragans_ (a word which is probably of -the same origin as _hurricane_) are sometimes so severe that they sweep -dry the bed of a small river in a few minutes, and create large clouds -of dust as they pass over the land. The one we encountered was from the -south, and therefore warm. A northern _bouran_ in winter is something -terrific, as the thermometer goes very low and the intense cold added to -the wind is destructive to animal life. Men and horses have been lost in -these _bourans_, and I was cautioned not to venture to face them if I -could avoid doing so. - -"Many Tartars live on the Baraba Steppe, but we saw few of them, as we -changed horses at the houses of the Russian peasants. There was formerly -a very small population of Russians on the steppe between Tumen and -Tomsk; the Governor-general of Siberia persuaded Catherine the Great to -give him all the conscripts of a levy instead of sending them to the -army. He settled them with their families in villages along the route -across the steppe, and the present population consists of the -descendants of these people, together with exiles and voluntary -emigrants of the present century. - -"Grain is produced in abundance on the steppe. Wheat, rye, and oats are -often as low as ten or twenty cents a bushel, as there is no market for -produce beyond what can be sold to travellers. A railway is one of the -hopes of the future, and when it comes the steppe will be prosperous. A -great deal of hemp and flax is raised there; I bought about sixty feet -of half-inch rope for thirty cents at one station, and afterwards -learned that I paid too much. Our harness was constantly breaking, and -every few days it was necessary to buy a quantity of rope for purposes -of repair. A Russian mujik will perform wonders of harness-mending if -you give him plenty of rope. - -"I will not weary you with describing in detail the rest of the long -sleigh-ride. Through Tumen we went without delay, and from that place to -Ekaterineburg we had no incident of consequence. At Ekaterineburg we -stopped a day, and passed several hours among the shops devoted to the -sale of semi-precious stones, which are cut into all sorts of fantastic -shapes. The town is as famous for these things as is Cologne for the -perfumed spirit that bears its name, Naples for coral, or Benares for -brass-ware. More than a thousand workmen are engaged by private -employers or by the Government in this industry. The _Granilnoi Fabric_, -or Government Lapidary Establishment, was closed at the time of my -visit, which happened during Christmas week. I understand it has since -been sold, and is now in private hands. - -[Illustration: SPECIMEN OF ROCK-CRYSTAL.] - -"Itinerant dealers in the streets offer the cut crystals to strangers, -and the waiters at the hotels have stocks of them for sale. The -collections at the dealers are a bewildering array of amethyst, beryl, -topaz, tourmaline, chalcedony, jasper, aquamarine, malachite, quartz, -and other stones. There are seals, paper-weights, beads, vases, -statuettes, brooches, buttons, charms, and an endless variety of -ornamental things. - -"There were imitations of leaves, flowers, and grapes tastefully -arranged together, and formed of differently colored stones; there were -miniature caves and grottos in which the stones were artistically -grouped; and there were busts of the Emperor of Russia and other high -personages in the Empire, together with busts of the reigning sovereigns -of Europe. Learning that I was an American, the proprietor of one -establishment showed me a half-finished bust of President Lincoln cut in -topaz and about six inches high. - -"We left Ekaterineburg one evening, and about midnight passed the ridge -of the Ural Mountains and entered European Russia. The Urals at this -point are a succession of low hills covered with fir-trees, and as you -look at the range from Ekaterineburg you would not suspect you were in -the neighborhood of mountains. North and south of this point the -mountains become more steep, but they nowhere attain to great heights. -All this part of the Urals is rich in minerals; there are extensive -mines of iron, copper, and gold, those of iron being of the greatest, -and the gold-mines of the least importance. - -"A very large part of all the iron used in Russia comes from the Urals, -and the same is the case with the copper. The copper-money of the Empire -is coined at the _Moneta Fabric_, or mint, at Ekaterineburg, and from an -immense foundery a few miles away comes the Russian sheet-iron which is -so popular in America for the manufacture of parlor stoves and -stove-pipe. The Urals contain the only mines where malachite is found -in quantities of any consequence, and when you look at a piece of this -beautiful oxide of copper you can be almost absolutely certain that it -came from the neighborhood of Ekaterineburg. A mass of malachite -weighing more than four hundred tons was found there about the middle of -the present century, the largest single piece ever discovered. - -[Illustration: MONUMENT AT THE BOUNDARY.] - -"At the boundary between European and Asiatic Russia there is a stone -monument with the word EUROPE on one side and ASIA on the other. It is -only seventeen hundred feet above the level of the sea, and was erected -to commemorate the visit of the Emperor Alexander I. to his Siberian -dominions. I stepped from the sleigh and stood for a few moments with a -foot in either continent, but though I made careful observation I could -not discover any difference between the soil, climate, productions, -manners, customs, or social conditions of the Occident and Orient of the -Old World. - -[Illustration: WESTERN SLOPE OF THE URAL MOUNTAINS.] - -"Down the Western slope of the Urals we drove as fast as our horses -could carry us, making brief halts to change horses at the stations, -jumping oukhabas that threatened to shake us and our vehicles to pieces, -repelling the advances of beggars that solicited us at every -stopping-place, riding sometimes for many miles at a time between double -rows of birch-trees which the Government has planted to mark the roads -and prevent the snow from drifting, and now and then coming temporarily -to grief through the breaking of our harness. We found the stations more -numerous and more commodious than in Asiatic Russia, the country more -densely peopled, and as the days of fasting had given way to days of -feasting, we found an abundance of provisions wherever we stopped. We -carried now only our tea and sugar, as everything else was easy to -procure. - -"We passed through Perm at night and in a snow-storm, and my -recollections of the place are consequently few. From Kazan my road lay -along the frozen surface of the Volga to Nijni Novgorod, where the -sleigh-ride was to terminate. - -"Sometimes the sleigh was left on the ice of the river while the drivers -went to the station on the bank to change horses, and sometimes it was -driven up the sloping road and then down again. Going up was all right, -but descending was occasionally perilous. - -[Illustration: DESCENDING A HILL SIDE ROAD.] - -"The sleigh manifested a tendency to go faster than the horses; there -was usually no protecting wall or rail at the outer edge of the slope, -and more than once we narrowly escaped being pitched down a steep cliff -of frozen earth to the solid ice fifty or a hundred feet below. At such -times the way of safety lay in forcing the horses ahead, in the hope -that they would overcome the sideling motion of the sleigh. As there was -a chance that they might stumble, and throw horses, sleigh, passengers, -baggage, and driver all in a heap, the alternative was nearly as bad as -the preliminary danger. - -[Illustration: BAPTIZING THROUGH THE ICE.] - -"On the 6th of January we passed several places where baptizings through -the ice were in progress. This is one of the days that the Church -consecrates to baptismal ceremonies, and throughout the Empire many -thousands of devout worshippers are plunged into the icy water. We did -not stop to witness the ceremony, but caught a glimpse of a priest -reading from a book, while another was holding by the hands a man whose -head just rose above the surface of the water. As fast as the baptized -ones emerged from the hole through the ice they ran rapidly to the -village, a short distance away. - -"There at last are the domes of Nijni Novgorod, and there I say farewell -to my sleigh. - -[Illustration: END OF THE SLEIGH-RIDE.] - -"I have passed two hundred and nine stations, with as many changes of -horses and drivers. More than seven hundred horses have been attached to -my sleigh, and drawn me over a road of all degrees of goodness and -badness. In forty days from Irkutsk I have spent sixteen in the towns -and villages on the way. I have slept twenty-six nights in my sleigh, -with the thermometer varying all the way from 35° above zero to 44° -below, and have passed through four severe storms and perhaps a dozen -small ones. - -"Including the detour to Barnaool, my sleigh-ride was thirty-six hundred -miles long. From Stratensk around by Kiachta to Irkutsk I travelled -about fourteen hundred miles in wheeled vehicles, so that altogether my -land journey from the steamboat at Stratensk to the railway at Nijni -covers a distance of five thousand miles. - -"And now," said Mr. Hegeman, in conclusion, "if you want to cross -Siberia you can do it more easily than when I made the journey. From -Perm, which you can reach by steamboat in summer, there is a railway to -Ekaterineburg, and it will shortly be finished to Tumen, if it is not -already.[6] From Tumen take a steamboat to Tomsk, if you don't mind -roughing it a little, and from Tomsk your land journey need not be -terrifying. You can easily make out the rest of the route by taking my -own in reverse. Whether you descend the Amoor or cross the Desert of -Gobi to Peking, you will have enough of novelty to compensate you for -the fatigue." - -[6] Since the above was written, the author has received a letter from -M. Nicolai Ostrowski, Director of the Ural Railway, which says, "Since -October 1, 1878, Perm and Ekaterineburg have been united by the Ural -Railway. Since January 1, 1886, trains have been running regularly -between Ekaterineburg and Tumen. A line is under construction from -Samara to Ufa, which will probably be extended to Ekaterineburg or -Tcheliabinsk, to form a direct line in the direction of Omsk, the -capital of Occidental Siberia." - -The youths thanked Mr. Hegeman most heartily for the entertaining -account he had given them of his journey through Siberia. Doctor Bronson -added his acknowledgment to that of the youths, and the thoughts of the -party were again turned to what was occurring around them. - - - - -CHAPTER XX. - -DOWN THE VOLGA AGAIN.--RUSSIAN RECEPTION CEREMONY.--SIMBIRSK, SAMARA, -AND SARATOV.--GERMAN SETTLERS ON THE VOLGA.--DON -COSSACKS.--ASTRACHAN.--CURIOUS POPULATION.--VOYAGE ON THE CASPIAN -SEA.--THE CASPIAN PETROLEUM REGION.--TANK-STEAMERS.--INTERESTING FACTS -AND FIGURES OF THE NEW PETROLIA.--PRESENT PRODUCT OF THE BAKU -OIL-FIELDS.--EXCURSION TO BALAKHANI, AND VISIT TO THE -OIL-WELLS.--TEMPLES OF THE FIRE-WORSHIPPERS.--ANTIQUITY OF THE CASPIAN -PETROLEUM REGION.--MARCO POLO AND OTHER AUTHORITIES. - - -While our friends were listening to Mr. Hegeman's account of the journey -through Siberia, the boat was continuing steadily on her course down the -Volga. One of her passengers was a Russian count on the way to his -estate, from which he had been absent for nearly two years. He had -notified his people of his coming, and when the steamer stopped at the -village where he was to land, there was quite an assemblage ready to -meet him. - -Doctor Bronson ascertained that they would remain at the landing an hour -or more, as there was a considerable amount of freight to be put on -shore. The party prepared to spend the time on land, and quite -unexpectedly Frank and Fred were treated to a curious and interesting -spectacle. It was the welcome of the count by his people, in accordance -with Russian custom. - -As he ascended the bank to the village, he was met by a procession of -men, women, and children. It was headed by four venerable men with long, -flowing beards, and dressed in the sheepskin coats with which we have -been made familiar. One of the men in front carried a dish on which was -a loaf of bread, and his comrade had another dish filled with salt. One -man of the second couple carried a jug or pitcher of water. The Doctor -explained to the youths that the presentation of bread, salt, and water -was a ceremonial of Russian hospitality of very ancient date. - -[Illustration: OFFERING OF THE VILLAGERS.] - -The men bowed low as they approached the count; on his part he urged -them to stand upright and regard him as their friend. They halted -directly in front of him, and then the bearer of the bread spoke in -dignified tones as follows: - -"We come, most noble master, to give the welcome of our village, and -present you such food as we can offer, according to the ancient custom -of our country." - -In a few kindly words the count thanked them for their hospitality, and -wished that their lives would be prosperous and happy. Then he cut a -slice out of the loaf of bread and ate it, after dipping it in the salt. -Next he drank a glass of the water, pouring it from the pitcher with his -own hands. When he had finished he again thanked the men for their -hospitality, and asked them to give his good wishes to all the people. -This ended the ceremony, and the count was then at liberty to enter the -carriage that stood waiting, and ride to his house, some distance back -from the river. - -Doctor Bronson explained that bread and salt have a prominent place in -Russian ceremonials, not only of welcome, but at weddings and on other -occasions. The bread is invariably the rye or black bread of the -country, and the guest to whom it is offered would show great rudeness -if he declined to partake of it. A knife lies on the top of the loaf; -the guest himself cuts the loaf, and must be careful to dip the slice in -the salt before placing it in his mouth. - -In their descent of the Volga, our friends passed a succession of -villages on either bank, and occasionally a town or city of importance. -The day after leaving Kazan they stopped at Simbirsk, the capital of the -province of the same name, and the centre of a considerable trade. It is -on the right bank of the river, and has a population of twenty-five or -thirty thousand. - -About a hundred miles farther down the Volga is Samara, which generally -resembles Simbirsk, but is larger, and possesses a more extensive -commerce. A railway extends from Samara to Orenburg, on the frontier of -Siberia. On the other side of the Volga Samara is connected with the -railway system which has its centre at Moscow. With railway and river to -develop its commerce, it is not surprising that the place is prosperous, -and has grown rapidly since the middle of the century. - -Mr. Hegeman told the youths that many Swiss and Germans were settled -along this part of the Volga, and he pointed out some of their villages -as the boat steamed on her course. The Government allows them perfect -freedom in religious matters, and they have an excellent system of -schools which they manage at their own expense and in their own way. In -other respects they are under the laws of the Empire, and their industry -and enterprise have had a beneficial effect upon their Muscovite -neighbors. The first of these settlers came here more than a hundred -years ago; their descendants speak both German and Russian, and form -quite an important part of the population. - -Larger than Simbirsk and Samara rolled into one is Saratov, about a -hundred miles below the city we have just described. It contains nearly -a hundred thousand inhabitants; its houses are well built and spacious, -and its streets are unusually broad, even for Russia. Our friends took a -carriage-ride through the city, visited several of its sixteen or -eighteen churches, and passed an hour or more in one of the factories -devoted to the manufacture of leather goods. - -Frank and Fred thought the churches were fully equal to those of any -other Russian city they had seen, with the exception of a few of the -most celebrated, and they greatly regretted their inability to make a -fuller inspection of the place. But they consoled themselves with the -reflection that they had seen the principal cities of the Empire, and -the smaller ones could not offer many new and distinctive features. - -In the province of Saratov they were on the border of the region of the -Don Cossacks, and at some of the landings they had glimpses of this -primitive people. Their country did not seem to be well cultivated, and -Doctor Bronson told the youths that the Don Cossacks were more noted for -skill in horsemanship than for patient industry. They prefer the raising -of cattle, sheep, and horses to the labor of the field, and though many -of them have accumulated considerable wealth they have little -inclination for luxurious living. - -[Illustration: SHOEING AN OX.] - -An amusing scene at one of the landings was the Cossack method of -shoeing an ox. Frank thus describes it: - -"The poor beast was flung upon his side and firmly held down by half a -dozen men, while his legs were tied together in a bunch. Then he was -turned upon his back, so that his feet were uppermost, giving the -blacksmith an excellent opportunity to perform his work. The -blacksmith's 'helper' sat upon the animal's head to keep him from rising -or struggling; the unhappy ox indicated his discomfort and alarm by a -steady moaning, to which the operators gave not the least attention. - -[Illustration: KNIFE-WHIP.] - -"At a shop in one of the villages we bought some souvenirs. Among them -was a whip with a short handle and a braided lash, with a flat piece of -leather at the end. The leather flap makes a great noise when brought -down upon a horse's sides, but does not seem to hurt him much; crackers, -like those on American and English whips, seem to be unknown here, at -any rate we did not see any. - -"The handle of the whip is sometimes utilized as the sheath of a knife. -The one we bought contained a knife with a long blade, and reminded us -of the sword-canes of more civilized countries." - -"We stopped at Tsaritsin," said Fred, in his journal, "and had a short -run on shore. At this point the Volga is only forty miles from the river -Don, which empties into the Sea of Azof, and is navigable, in time of -high water, about eight hundred miles from its mouth. There is a railway -connecting the rivers, and also a canal; the latter is much longer than -the railway, and was made by utilizing the channels of some little -streams tributary to the rivers, and connecting them by a short cut. - -"The Don is connected with the Dneiper as well as with the Volga; the -three rivers form an important part of the great net-work of water -communication with which Russia is supplied. The Dneiper enters the -Black Sea at Kherson, near Odessa; next to the Volga it is the largest -river of European Russia, and flows through a fertile country. It is -about twelve hundred miles long, and its navigation was formerly much -obstructed by rapids and other natural obstacles. Many of these -hinderances have been removed by the Government, but the river has lost -some of its commercial importance since the railways were established. - -"From Tsaritsin to Astrachan there is not much of interest, as the -country is generally low and flat, and the towns and villages are few in -number. Much of the country bordering the river is a marsh, which is -overflowed at the periods of the annual floods, and therefore is of -little value except for the pasturage of cattle. - -"As we approached the mouth of the Volga we found the river divided into -many channels; in this respect it resembles the Nile, the Ganges, the -Mississippi, and other great watercourses of the globe. On one of these -channels the city of Astrachan is built. It is not on the mainland, but -on an island. Another channel passes not far from the one by which we -came, and maintains a parallel course for a considerable distance. - -[Illustration: ARMENIAN BISHOP OF ASTRACHAN.] - -"Astrachan is the most cosmopolitan city we have seen in Russia, even -more so than Kazan. The character of its seventy or eighty thousand -inhabitants may be understood when I tell you that it has thirty-seven -Greek churches, two Roman Catholic, two Armenian, and one Protestant, -and is the seat of a Greek archbishop and an Armenian bishop. Then it -has an Indian temple, fifteen mosques, and a Chinese pagoda. It has a -botanical garden, an ecclesiastical school, schools of all the grades -peculiar to the large towns of Russia, a naval academy, and I don't know -how many other institutions. Books are printed here in Russian, Tartar, -and other languages, and as you walk through the bazaars your ears are -greeted by nearly all the tongues of Europe and Asia. - -"To get at the cosmopolitan peculiarities of the city we were obliged to -go through narrow and dirty streets, which somewhat marred the pleasure -of our visit. In this respect Astrachan is more Oriental than Russian; -its history dates beyond the time of the Russian occupation of the lower -Volga, and therefore we must expect it to have Oriental features in -preponderance. - -"In commercial matters Astrachan is important, as it stands between -Europe and Central Asia, and exchanges their goods. Great quantities of -raw and embroidered silks, drugs, rhubarb, hides, sheepskins, tallow, -and other Asiatic products come here, and in return for them the -Russians dispose of cotton and other manufactures suited to the wants of -their Kirghese and Turcoman subjects or neighbors. - -"We are told that there are more than a hundred manufacturing -establishments in Astrachan. Vast quantities of salt are made here or in -the immediate vicinity, and the fisheries of the Volga and the Caspian -Sea, which is only twenty miles away, are among the most important in -the world. Unfortunately the harbor is so much obstructed by sand that -only vessels of light draught can reach it from the Caspian. Since the -opening of the railway connecting the Caspian with the Black Sea, much -of the commerce which formerly came to Astrachan is diverted to the new -route. - -"We landed from the steamer and were taken to a hotel which promised -very poorly, and fully sustained its promise. But any lodging was better -than none at all, and as we were to remain only long enough to get away, -it didn't much matter. We breakfasted on the steamer just before leaving -it, and had no use for the hotel for several hours. - -[Illustration: A TARTAR KHAN.] - -"In our sight-seeing we went to a Tartar _khan_, or inn, a large -building two stories high and built around a court-yard, in accordance -with the Tartar custom. The court-yard receives wagons and horses, while -the rooms that front upon it are rented to merchants and others who -desire them. The master of the place will supply food to those who -expressly ask for it, and pay accordingly, but he is not expected to do -so. - -"Travellers pick up their food at the restaurants in the neighborhood, -and either bring it to their quarters or devour it at the place of -purchase. A corridor runs around each story of the khan, and the rooms -open upon this corridor. - -[Illustration: TARTAR POSTILIONS.] - -"Under one of the stair-ways there is a room for the Tartar postilions -who care for the horses of travellers. With their round caps, loose -garments, and long pipes they formed a picturesque group around a fire -where one of their number was watching the boiling of a pot which -probably contained their dinner. - -[Illustration: TARTAR PALACES IN SOUTHERN RUSSIA.] - -"In the last few years Astrachan has developed quite an important trade -in petroleum, in consequence of the working of the wells at Baku, on the -western shore of the Caspian. Steamers and sailing-vessels bring it here -in immense quantities, and from Astrachan it is shipped by the Volga to -all parts of Russia, and also to Germany and other countries. There are -several machine-shops for the repair of steamships, steamboats, and -barges engaged in the oil trade. The oil business of the Caspian region -is growing very rapidly, and promises to make a serious inroad upon the -petroleum industry of the United States. - -[Illustration: GYPSY FAMILY AT ASTRACHAN.] - -"There is a line of steamers on the Caspian Sea for the transport of -petroleum; they are constructed with tanks in which the oil is carried -in bulk, and their engines are run by petroleum instead of coal. Their -accommodations for passengers are limited, but as the voyage is made in -a couple of days we were not particular, and took places on the first -vessel that offered. - -"Owing to the shallowness of the lower Volga the oil-steamers, excepting -some of the smaller ones, do not come to Astrachan, but transfer their -cargoes at 'Diavet Foot' (Nine Feet), which is so called from its depth -of water. Diavet Foot is eighty miles from Astrachan, and on a shoal -which spreads out like a fan beyond the mouth of the Volga. A small -steamer having several barges in tow took us to the shoal, where we were -transferred to the _Koran_, a handsome steamer two hundred and fifty-two -feet long and twenty-eight feet broad. There was a large fleet of -river-boats, barges, and sea-steamers at Diavet Foot, and we watched -with much interest the process of transferring kerosene from the -tank-steamers which had brought it from Baku to the barges for -conveyance up the river." - -An English gentleman, who was connected with the petroleum works at -Baku, kindly gave the youths the following information: - -[Illustration: AN OIL-STEAMER ON THE CASPIAN SEA.] - -"There are nearly a hundred steamers on the Caspian engaged in the oil -traffic. They are of iron or steel, average about two hundred and fifty -feet in length by twenty-seven or twenty-eight in breadth, and carry -from seven hundred to eight hundred tons (two hundred thousand to two -hundred and fifty thousand gallons) of petroleum in their tanks. Their -engines are of one hundred and twenty horse-power, and make a speed of -ten knots an hour; they use petroleum for fuel, and it is estimated that -their running expenses are less than half what they would be if coal -were burned instead of oil. The steamers were built in Sweden or -England, and brought through from St. Petersburg by means of the canals -connecting the Volga with the Neva. Some of the largest steamers were -cut in two for the passage of the canals, the sections being united at -Astrachan or Baku. - -"The oil-steamers for river work are from sixty to one hundred and fifty -feet long; they are fitted with tanks, like the sea-steamers, and are -powerful enough for towing tank-barges in addition to the transport of -their own loads. They run from Diavet Foot to Tsaritsin, four hundred -miles up the Volga, the first point where there is railway connection to -Western Europe. Some of them proceed to Kazan, Nijni Novgorod, and other -points on the upper Volga, and also through the canals to St. -Petersburg, but the greater part of them land their cargoes at -Tsaritsin. - -"When you get to Baku you will see how rapidly the loading of the -steamers is performed. When a steamer is ready for her cargo, an -eight-inch pipe pours the kerosene into her tanks, and fills her in -about four hours. Then she starts for Diavet Foot, where the oil is -pumped into the river steamers and barges; she fills her tanks with -fresh water, partly in order to ballast her properly, and partly because -water is very scarce at Baku, and then starts on her return. Five or six -days make a round trip, including the loading and unloading at either -end of the route. - -"At Baku the water is pumped into reservoirs, to be used in the -refineries or for irrigating the soil in the vicinity of the works, and -then the steamer is ready for her load again. From Tsaritsin the oil is -carried in tank-cars similar to those you have in America. I can't say -exactly how many tank-cars are in use, but think the number is not much -below three thousand. Twenty-five cars make an oil-train, and these -oil-trains are in constant circulation all over the railways of Russia -and Western Europe." - -Frank asked if the enterprise was conducted by the Government or by -individuals. - -"It is in the hands of private parties," said the gentleman, "who are -generally organized into companies. The leading company was founded by -two Swedes, Nobel Brothers, who have spent most of their lives in -Russia, and are famous for their ingenuity and enterprise. The petroleum -industry of Baku was practically developed by them; they originated the -idea of transporting the Baku petroleum in bulk, and the first -tank-steamer on the Caspian was built by them in 1879, according to the -plans of the elder brother. - -[Illustration: TANKS AT A STORAGE DEPOT.] - -"Bear in mind that the Volga is frozen for four months in the year, at -the very time when kerosene is most in demand for light. Nobel Brothers -arranged for a system of depots throughout Russia and Germany, where oil -could be stored in summer for distribution in winter. The largest of -these depots is at Orel, and there are four other large depots at St. -Petersburg, Moscow, Warsaw, and Saratov. - -"The depot at Orel can receive eighteen million gallons, and the four -other large depots about three million gallons each. The smaller depots, -together with the depot at Tsaritsin, make a total storage capacity of -between fifty and sixty million gallons of petroleum available for use -when the Volga is frozen and traffic suspended. - -[Illustration: VIEW IN AN OIL REGION.] - -"All this was done before the completion of the railway between the -Caspian and Black seas. The line from Batoum, on the Black Sea, by way -of Tiflis to Baku, on the Caspian, was opened in 1883, and immediately -about two hundred tank-cars were set to carrying oil to where it could -be loaded into steamers for transportation to the ports of the -Mediterranean and to England. A pipe-line similar to what you have in -America to connect your oil regions with the seaboard, will probably be -established before long between Baku and Batoum; the oil will be pumped -from Baku to the crest of the pass through the Caucasus Mountains, and -from there it will run by gravity like a mountain stream down to the -shores of the Black Sea. There it can be loaded into tank-steamers, or -placed in barrels for distribution wherever it can find a market. - -[Illustration: BITS FOR DRILLING WELLS.] - -"Perhaps I may be building castles in the air," said the gentleman, -"since I am not of your nationality, but I look upon the European market -for American petroleum as doomed to destruction. The Baku petroleum has -driven your American product from Russia, and is rapidly driving it from -the markets of Germany, France, and Austria. We think it quite equal to -your petroleum, and in some respects superior. American oilmen claim -that theirs is by far the better article, and as each side can bring the -opinions of scientists to prove the correctness of its claim, the -question resolves itself into one of cheapness of production and -transportation. For the market of Europe and Asia we think we have a -great advantage in being nearer to it. It is as far from Batoum to -England as from New York, and therefore you may be able to supply Great -Britain with petroleum, by reason of the cost of transportation. - -"Two plans are under consideration for overcoming the disadvantages of -the closing of the Volga route by ice for one-third of the year. Look on -the map of Russia and see the position of Vladikavkaz at the foot of the -Caucasus Mountains. The railway reaches that point, and it has been -proposed to extend it to a connection with the Batoum-Baku line at -Tiflis, a distance of one hundred and ten miles. The line would be very -costly, as it must run through the Caucasus range; a longer but less -expensive line would be from Vladikavkaz to Petrovsk, on the shore of -the Caspian Sea, half way between Baku and the mouth of the Volga. It -could be reached in a day by the tank-steamers from Baku, and -communication is open for the entire year. - -"Since either of these lines would be useful for strategic purposes as -well as for commerce, it is probable that one or both of them will be -built within the next few years. They would be useful for the supply of -Russia and Germany in the winter season, and render the enormous storage -depots less necessary than they are at present. - -[Illustration: A SPOUTING WELL.] - -"The Baku petroleum is utilized not only for making kerosene, but for -the manufacture of lubricating oils and for liquid fuel for steam-ship, -railway, and other purposes. The oil refuse is burned on the steamer, -and railways; for the last two or three years it has been employed by -the Tsaritsin-Griazi Railway Company in its locomotives, where it has -completely taken the place of coal. It is the only fuel used by the -Trans-Caucasian railway from Baku to Batoum and Poti, and wherever it -has been tried in competition with coal brought from great distances, it -has been adopted. I wonder you don't make use of it in America." - -[Illustration: DERRICK AND TANKS IN THE AMERICAN OIL REGION.] - -Doctor Bronson suggested that probably the reason why liquid fuel had -not taken the place of coal in America, was in consequence of the -relative prices of the two substances. "In Russia," said he, "coal is -dear; in America it is cheap, and our coal-fields are exhaustless. Three -hundred thousand tons of coal have been carried annually from England to -the Black Sea; it retails there for ten or twelve dollars a ton, which -would be an enormous price in America. Now what will your petroleum fuel -cost at Batoum?" - -"The present price," said his informant, "is twenty-six English -shillings (nearly seven dollars) a ton. Weight for weight, it is cheaper -than coal; one ton of it will make as much steam as two tons of coal, -and thus you see there is an enormous saving in cost of fuel. Then add -the saving in wages of stokers, the additional space that can be given -to cargo, and the gain in cleanliness, as the liquid fuel makes neither -smoke nor cinders. - -"The Russian Government is making experiments at Sebastopol with a view -to adopting _astaki_, as petroleum refuse is called, as the fuel for its -men-of-war. I predict that as fast as the furnaces can be changed you -will see all steamers on the Black Sea burning the new substance instead -of the old. Come with me and see how the liquid fuel works." - -"He led the way to the engine-room of the steamer," said Frank, in his -journal, "and asked the engineer to show us how the machinery was -propelled. - -"The process is exceedingly simple. Small streams of petroleum are -caught by jets of steam and turned into vapor; the vapor burns beneath -the boilers and makes the steam, and that is all. The flow of steam and -oil is regulated by means of stopcocks, and steam can be made rapidly or -slowly as may be desired. - -"Our friend told us that a fire of wood, cotton-waste, or some other -combustible is used to get up steam at starting. This is done under a -small boiler distinct from the main ones, and it supplies steam for the -'pulverizer,' as the petroleum furnace is called. - -"When steam is on the main boilers the small one is shut off and the -fire beneath it is extinguished. Even this preliminary fire is rendered -unnecessary by a newly invented furnace in which a quantity of -hydro-carbon gas is kept stored and in readiness. We were told that the -action of the pulverizer is so simple that after the engineers have -adjusted the flame at starting and put the machinery in operation, they -do not give them any attention till the end of the voyage. One stoker, -or fireman, is sufficient to watch all the furnaces of a ship and keep -them properly supplied with astaki." - -A good many additional details were given which we have not space to -present. The study of the petroleum question occupied the attention of -the youths during the greater part of the voyage, and almost before -realizing it they were entering the Bay of Baku, and making ready to go -on shore. - -Frank and Fred were astonished at what they saw before them. Baku is on -a crescent-shaped bay, and for a distance of seven or eight miles along -its shores there is a fringe of buildings on the land, and a fringe of -shipping on the water. Thirty or forty piers jut from the land into the -bay; some of the piers were vacant, while others had each from three to -half a dozen steamers receiving their cargoes or waiting their turns to -be filled. Not less than fifty steamers were in port, and there were -several hundred sailing craft of various sizes and descriptions riding -at anchor or tied up at the piers. It was a busy scene--the most active -one that had greeted their eyes since leaving the fair at Nijni -Novgorod. - -They landed at one of the piers, and were taken to a comfortable hotel -facing the water, and not far away from it. The youths observed that the -population was a cosmopolitan one, quite equal to that of the -fair-grounds of Nijni; Russians, Armenians, Turcomans, Kirghese, -Persians, Greeks, all were there together with people of other races -and tribes they were unable to classify. The streets were filled with -carts and carriages in great number, and they found on inquiry that -almost any kind of vehicle they desired could be had with little delay. - -Doctor Bronson and his young friends had visited the petroleum region of -their own country, and very naturally desired to see its formidable -rival. They learned that the wells were eight or ten miles from Baku, -and as it was late in the day when they arrived, their visit was -postponed till the following morning. - -Securing a competent guide they engaged a carriage, and early the next -day left the hotel for the interesting excursion. We will quote Frank's -account of what they saw: - -[Illustration: AN OIL REFINERY WITH TANK CARS.] - -"We found the road by no means the best in the world," said the youth, -"as no effort is made to keep it in repair, and the track is through a -desert. On our right as we left Baku is the _Chorney Gorod_, or Black -Town, which contains the refineries; it reminded us of Pittsburg, with -its many chimneys and the cloud of smoke that hung over it. Then we -crossed the track of the railway, and the lines of pipe that supply the -refineries with oil. Right and left of us all over the plain there are -reservoirs and pools of petroleum; there are black spots which indicate -petroleum springs, and white spots denoting the presence of salt lakes. -By-and-by we see a whole forest of derricks, which tells us we are -nearing Balakhani, the centre of the oil-wells. - -[Illustration: TARTAR CAMEL-CART AT BAKU.] - -"Passing on our left the end of a salt lake five or six miles long, we -enter the region covered by these derricks, and our guide takes us to -the Droojba well, which spouted a stream of petroleum three hundred feet -high when it was opened. Two million gallons of petroleum were thrown -out daily for a fortnight or more from this one well, and two months -after it was opened it delivered two hundred and fifty thousand gallons -daily. Our guide said it ruined its owners and drove them into -bankruptcy! - -"You will wonder, as we did, how a discovery that ought to have made a -fortune for its owners did exactly the reverse. We asked the guide, and -he thus explained it: - -"'The Droojba Company had only land enough for a well, and none for -reservoirs. The oil flowed upon the grounds of other people, and became -their property. Some of it was caught on waste ground that belonged to -nobody, but the price had fallen so low that the company did not realize -from it enough to pay the claims of those whose property was damaged by -the débris that flowed from the well along with the petroleum. In this -region considerable sand comes with the oil. The sandy product of the -Droojba well was very large, and did a great deal of damage. It covered -buildings and derricks, impeded workings, filled the reservoirs of other -companies or individuals, and made as much havoc generally as a heavy -storm.' - -[Illustration: ANCIENT MOUND NEAR THE CASPIAN SEA.] - -"The process of boring a well is very much the same as in America, and -does not merit a special description. The diameter of the bore is larger -than in America; it varies from ten to fourteen inches, and some of the -wells have a diameter of twenty inches. Oil is found at a depth of from -three hundred to eight hundred feet. Every year the shallow wells are -exhausted, and new borings are made to greater depths; they are nearly -always successful, and therefore, though the petroleum field around -Balakhani is very large, the oil speculators show no disposition to go -far from the original site. To do so would require a large outlay for -pipe-lines, or other means of transporting the product, and as long as -the old spot holds out they prefer to stick to it. - -[Illustration: CURIOUS ROCK FORMATIONS.] - -"Our guide said there were about five hundred wells at Balakhani; there -are twenty-five thousand wells in America, but it is claimed that they -do not yield as much oil in the aggregate as the wells in this region. - -"From the wells the oil is conducted into reservoirs, which are nothing -more than pits dug in the earth, or natural depressions with banks of -sand raised around them. Here the sand in the oil is allowed to settle; -when it has become clear enough for use the crude petroleum is pumped -into iron tanks, and then into the pipe-lines that carry it to the -refineries in Chorney Gorod. - -"Some of the ponds of oil are large enough to be called lakes, and there -are great numbers of them scattered over the ground of Balakhani. The -iron cisterns or tanks are of great size; the largest of them is said to -have a capacity of two million gallons. - -"There is no hotel, not even a restaurant, at Balakhani, and we should -have gone hungry had it not been for the caution of the hotel-keeper, -who advised us to take a luncheon with us. The ride and the exertion of -walking among the wells gave us an appetite that an alderman would -envy, and we thoroughly enjoyed the cold chicken, bread, and grapes -which we ate in the carriage before starting back to the town. We -reached the hotel without accident, though considerably shaken up by the -rough road and the energetic driving of our Tartar coachman." - -While Frank was busy with his description, Fred was looking up the -history of the oil-wells of Baku. Here is what he wrote concerning them: - -[Illustration: MODERN FIRE-WORSHIPPERS--PARSEE LADY AND DAUGHTER.] - -"For twenty-five hundred years Baku has been celebrated for its -fire-springs, and for a thousand years it has supplied surrounding -nations and people with its oil. From the time of Zoroaster (about 600 -B.C.) it has been a place of pilgrimage for the Guebres, or -Fire-worshippers, and they have kept their temples here through all the -centuries down to the present day. At Surukhani (about eight miles from -Baku and four or five from Balakhani) there are some temples of very -ancient date; they stand above the mouths of gas-wells, and for twenty -centuries and more the Fire-worshippers have maintained the sacred flame -there without once allowing it to become extinct. On the site of Baku -itself there was for centuries a temple in which the sacred fire was -maintained by priests of Zoroaster until about A.D. 624. The Emperor -Heraclius, in his war against the Persians, extinguished the fires and -destroyed the temple. - -"Since the eighth century, and perhaps earlier, the oil has been an -article of commerce in Persia and other Oriental countries. Read what -Marco Polo wrote about it in the thirteenth century: - -"'On the confines of Georgine there is a fountain from which oil springs -in great abundance, inasmuch as a hundred ship-loads might be taken from -it at one time. This oil is not good to use with food, but 'tis good to -burn, and is used also to anoint camels that have the mange. People come -from vast distances to fetch it, for in all countries there is no other -oil.' - -"It is probable that the good Marco means camel-loads rather than -ship-loads--at least that is the opinion of most students of the -subject. The fire-temple of the Guebres is a walled quadrangle, with an -altar in the centre, where the fire is kept; the sides of the quadrangle -contain cells where the priests and attendants live, and in former times -there were frequently several thousands of pilgrims congregated there. -We were told that the place would not repay a visit, and therefore we -have not gone there, as we are somewhat pressed for time, and the -journey is a fatiguing one. - -[Illustration: A BURNING TANK.] - -"For a considerable space around the temple there are deep fissures in -the ground whence the gas steadily escapes. Before the Russians -occupied the country there was an annual sacrifice by the -Fire-worshippers. A young man was thrown into one of the fissures, where -he perished, though some writers assert that he leaped voluntarily, -through the persuasion of the priests. - -"Though famous through many centuries, and carried thousands of miles -east and west for purposes of illumination, the oil of Baku was never -gathered in large quantities until the present century, and the -exploitation of the oil-fields on a grand scale is an affair of the last -twenty years. - -[Illustration: A FALL IN OIL.] - -"In 1820 it was estimated that the yield of the Baku oil-wells was about -four thousand tons of naphtha, of which the greater part was sent to -Persia. The annual production remained about the same until 1860, when -it was 5484 tons; in 1864 it was 8700 tons; in 1870, 27,500; and in -1872, 24,800 tons. Down to that time the Government held a monopoly of -the oil-fields, and levied a royalty for operating them. In 1872 the -monopoly was removed, and the lands were offered for sale or long lease. - -[Illustration: A RISE IN OIL.] - -"There was a rush of speculators to the oil fields, stimulated by the -knowledge of what had been accomplished in America. Sixty-four thousand -tons were produced in 1873, 94,000 in 1875, 242,000 in 1877, 420,000 in -1880, 800,000 in 1883, and over 1,000,000 tons in 1884. In 1885 the -total quantity of raw petroleum pumped or received from the wells was -105,000,000 poods, or nearly 2,000,000 tons. Twenty-seven million poods, -or nearly 500,000 tons, were distilled at Baku. The largest portion, -two thirds at least, was sent off by sea to Astrachan, and thence up -the Volga, to be forwarded by tank-cars for distribution to all parts of -Russia and to Baltic ports, and thence to Germany and England. About -7,250,000 poods have been shipped by the Trans-Caucasian Railway to -Batoum, on the Black Sea, going thence to the Danube, to Odessa, to -Marseilles, and some by the Suez Canal to India and China. Every day -large trains of tank-cars leave Baku _via_ Tiflis for Batoum, and a -pipe-line from Baku to Batoum may be looked for before long. - -"Down to 1870 the oil was taken from pits which were dug like ordinary -wells; boring began in that year on the American system, and the first -bored well went into operation, the oil being pumped out by the ordinary -pumping machinery. - -"The first flowing well, or _fontan_ (fountain), as it is called here, -was struck in 1873. In that year there were only seventeen bored wells -in operation, but by the end of 1874 there were upward of fifty. The -flowing wells cease to flow after a time, varying from a few weeks to -several months; one well spouted forty thousand gallons of oil daily for -more than two years, and afterwards yielded half that amount as a -pumping well. The history of many wells of this region is like a chapter -from the 'Arabian Nights.' - -"We are in the midst of oil, and shall be as long as we remain at Baku. -There are pools of oil in the streets; the air is filled with the smell -of oil; the streets are sprinkled with oil, as it is cheaper and better -than water; ships and steamers are black and greasy with oil, and even -our food tastes of oil. Everybody talks oil, and lives upon oil -(figuratively, at least), and we long to think of something else." - - NOTE TO SECOND EDITION.--Since the first edition of this book was - printed the following telegram has been received: "Baku, October 5, - 1886. At Tagieff's wells a fountain has commenced playing at the - rate of thirty thousand poods of petroleum an hour. Its height is - two hundred and twenty-four feet. In spite of its being five versts - from the town, the petroleum sand is pouring upon the buildings and - streets." Thirty thousand poods are equivalent to one hundred and - twenty-five thousand gallons; multiplied by twenty-four it gives - the unprecedented yield of three million gallons a day. Estimating - thirty gallons to the barrel, we have a well flowing one hundred - thousand barrels of oil daily! This is something never dreamed of - by the wildest petroleum speculator in America. A single well of - the Baku district is producing more oil than the aggregate of all - the petroleum wells in the United States. - - Plans for a pipe line from Baku to Batoum, with an annual capacity - of one hundred and sixty million gallons, have been completed, and - the work will be pushed as rapidly as possible. The successful - operation of this pipe line can hardly fail to have a serious - effect upon the petroleum industry of America. - - - - -CHAPTER XXI. - -A GLANCE AT CENTRAL ASIA.--RUSSIAN CONQUEST IN TURKESTAN.--WAR AND -DIPLOMACY AMONG THE KIRGHESE TRIBES.--RUSSIAN TAXES AND THEIR -COLLECTION.--TURCOMAN AND KIRGHESE RAIDS.--PRISONERS SOLD INTO -SLAVERY.--FORTIFIED VILLAGES AND TOWERS OF REFUGE.--COMMERCE IN -TURKESTAN.--JEALOUSY OF FOREIGNERS.--TRAVELS OF VÁMBÉRY AND -OTHERS.--VÁMBÉRY'S NARROW ESCAPE.--TURCOMAN CHARACTER.--PAYMENTS FOR -HUMAN HEADS.--MARRIAGE CUSTOMS AMONG THE TURCOMANS.--EXTENT AND -POPULATION OF CENTRAL ASIA. - - -When our friends had completed their study of the Petrolia of Europe -they looked around for new worlds to conquer. Being in Russia, they -followed Russian tendencies, and turned their eyes in the direction of -Central Asia. - -"Wouldn't it be a splendid trip," said Frank, "to go through Central -Asia to India and the Far East? How long would it take, and would it be -very expensive?" - -"I'm afraid there would be too many difficulties in the way," replied -the Doctor, with a smile. "In the first place the Russians are not -inclined to allow men of other nationalities to see what they are doing -in the disputed country between their possessions and those of the -English. They would treat us very politely, but, in one way and another, -would keep us from crossing Afghanistan to the English lines. We should -not be welcome visitors among the English in Northern India. Most of -them regard Americans as more friendly to Russia than to England in -whatever concerns Central Asia, and the English officials in the -disputed country would not aid our movements." - -"What would be our facilities for travelling, supposing we met with no -official opposition?" - -"Starting from Baku," replied the Doctor, "we could cross the Caspian to -Mikhailovsk in a steamer in from sixteen to eighteen hours. Mikhailovsk -is in what was once the Turcoman country, but is now Russian territory. -It was permanently occupied in 1869, and since that time Russia has been -extending her possessions until she is now at the borders of India, -with only a narrow strip of territory between the English possessions -and her own. - -[Illustration: CAMP SCENE NEAR THE ALTAI MOUNTAINS.] - -"From the time of Peter the Great to the present," the Doctor continued, -"Russia has been steadily pressing farther and farther into Asia. If -inclined to be a punster, I should say she has advanced steppe by -steppe; the Kirghese and Turcoman steppes have been conquered one after -another--sometimes by fighting, and sometimes by diplomacy, but more -frequently by a skilful combination of both forms of conquest. The -Russians have a thorough knowledge of Asiatic people, probably because -they have so much Asiatic blood in their own veins, and in their -dealings with the savage or half-civilized natives of this vast country -they manage things much better than the English do. - -"A large part of the Kirghese country was won without actual fighting, -though with military assistance. It was generally in this wise: - -"Two tribes might be at war with each other, and Russia, after some -negotiation, would come to the aid of the weaker. The presence of a -Russian battalion of cavalry would be quite sufficient to frighten the -stronger tribe into keeping the peace, as its chief would understand -that resistance might cost him his dominions. Having made matters quiet, -the Russian commander would propose to leave, and let the chief whose -cause he had been espousing take care of himself. - -[Illustration: A KALMUCK PRIEST.] - -"The chief would then see for the first time the uncomfortable situation -he would be in with the retirement of his ally; the stronger tribe would -assail him, and be all the more bitter against him on account of his -alliance with the Russians. He begged the Russians to stay. After some -hesitation they consented, provided the management of affairs was handed -over to them. They generally received what they wanted, and then -proceeded to conquer the other tribe and make themselves master over -both. - -"Sometimes the Russians follow another policy; they establish themselves -with the weaker tribe, make peace between the two factions, and then -build a fort and coolly announce that they will remain permanently. The -tribes find it useless to resist, and thus they become subject to -Russia." - -"Don't the English accuse the Russians of stirring up trouble among the -Kirghese and Turcoman tribes, so as to have an excuse for interference?" -one of the youths inquired. - -"I believe they do," the Doctor answered. "The Russians indignantly deny -that such is the case; of course they would deny it, even if confronted -with unquestionable proof. - -[Illustration: SCENE ON THE EDGE OF THE KIRGHESE STEPPE.] - -"They have sent a great many military expeditions into Central Asia in -the last fifty years. For a long time their base of operations was at -Orenburg, on the frontier of Siberia, but latterly it has been -transferred to the shores of the Caspian. Orenburg is now far in the -rear, and its chief use is as a military post, from which order is -maintained among the Kirghese. - -"Some of the Russian expeditions have turned out disastrously, but they -have always followed a disaster by a triumph. In one expedition every -man was killed, captured, or perished of starvation or thirst in the -desert, but immediately another army was put in motion, and the Russians -more than recovered the prestige they had lost. The list of the battles -fought in Central Asia is a long one, but longer still is the list of -bloodless conquests made through Russian diplomacy. - -"Khanates, chieftaincies, and principalities have been absorbed by -Russia in her southward and eastward march over the steppes and along -the valleys of the rivers. The cities of Tashkend, Samarcand, Khiva, -Kokan, and Bokhara, have passed from the flag of the intolerant Moslem -to that of the tolerant Russian, and with the cities have gone the -khanates and principalities of which they were the capitals." - -Fred asked if the subjugation of these territories had been beneficial -to their inhabitants or not. - -[Illustration: KIRGHESE GROUP.] - -"In every way it has been a benefit to them, and none of those who are -peaceably disposed would care to return to their old condition. The -Russian yoke is easy upon the necks of the inhabitants; the Russians -make no interference with the religion, laws, manners, and customs of -the people, excepting where they are manifestly cruel or tyrannical; -they allow the natives to do exactly as they like, protect them in the -possession of their property, give them facilities of trade never before -enjoyed, and in every way better their condition. - -"In place of the outrageous taxes formerly levied by the Moslem -authorities whenever the khan or his officials wanted money, the -Russians have a fixed annual tax which is never above the easy ability -of the subject to pay; it is generally asserted that the taxes in Asia -are much lighter than those of European Russia, to make sure that there -shall be no discontent among the people. The Russian Government requires -that every subject shall pay a tax, not so much for the value of the -article received as an acknowledgment of subjection. - -"In the settled portions of Russia the tax is payable in money, but in -the wilder regions taxes are collected 'in kind.' On the shores of the -Arctic Ocean and through all the northern part of Siberia the _yessak_, -or tax, is one fox-skin; in Kamtchatka it was formerly one sable-skin, -but since the increase in the price of the fur, one skin is received for -every four inhabitants, who arrange the division among themselves. In -some of the grain-growing parts of the Empire the tax is paid in grain; -on the Amoor River it is paid in fish, and among the Kirghese and -Turcomans it is paid in cattle, sheep, or horses, which constitute the -circulating medium of the country. - -[Illustration: KIRGHESE CHIEF AND FAMILY.] - -"In return for this tax, and provided the new subject in Central Asia -behaves himself, he has the protection of a powerful government. The -Russian Government has its faults, but it is immeasurably superior to -the old way in which these countries were ruled. - -"By the religion of the Moslem might makes right, and this was the -foundation of the governmental system of the Kirghese and Turcoman -tribes, together with the khanates previously mentioned. Robbery was a -recognized means of making a living; not robbery by detail, as practised -by highwaymen and burglars, but wholesale robbery in which entire tribes -were concerned. Many thousands of people lived by raiding, and the raid -was as legitimate a way of acquiring property as selling goods in a shop -and making a profit on them." - -[Illustration: CARAVAN IN RUSSIAN TERRITORY.] - -Frank and Fred made an exclamation of surprise as the Doctor continued: - -"The Kirghese who occupy the region immediately south of the Altai -Mountains, and are still found on the southern confines of the Baraba -Steppe, are broken into many independent tribes; they are nomadic in -their habits, wandering from place to place in search of pasturage for -their immense flocks and herds. In winter they frequent the valleys -among the outlying hills of the Altai Mountains, and in summer descend -upon the plains. Many of the tribes live altogether on the plains, and -their range covers many thousands of square miles. - -"Quarrels were numerous among them, chiefly growing out of disputes -about pasturage or water, and these are the quarrels in which the -Russians interfered, both in the interest of humanity and the spread of -their power. Frequently these disputes led to raids for purposes of -plunder; quite as frequently one tribe would make a raid on another with -which it was at peace for the sole object of robbery. - -"Attacks were generally made at night, and if they were successful the -robbers would drive off the flocks and herds of the tribe assailed. Men, -women, and children were taken to be sold into slavery in the markets of -Khiva and Bokhara, or kept among their captors. These slaves were -treated with the greatest cruelty; they were severely beaten for the -slightest offence or failure to perform what had been ordered, were -poorly fed, and often compelled to wear chains. They were generally -maimed for life, by means of a horse-hair run through the heel, in order -to prevent their escape from captivity. - -"All this business was brought to an end by the Russians when they -occupied the Kirghese country. They compelled the tribes to live -peacefully with each other, and if any dispute arose about water or -pasturage it was referred to the Russian commander of the district for -adjustment. If one tribe made a raid on another it was compelled to give -up the stolen property, and furthermore a heavy fine was levied upon the -raiders--half going to the Russian Government and half to the injured -tribe. The Russians generally made the fine heavy enough to furnish a -percentage for the officers who took the trouble to adjust the -differences. - -"Russian goods were introduced among these nomadic people, markets were -opened, and every facility was offered for the increase of commerce. -Long caravans were constantly in motion between Orenburg, Sempolatinsk, -and other points in Russian territory, and Khiva, Bokhara, and -Samarcand, far to the east. They traversed the Kirghese and Turcoman -country, and wherever they went they found a material difference in the -matter of safety, whether the territory was under Russian rule or -remained independent. If the latter, the caravans were constantly liable -to attack and plunder; if the former, they were invariably free from -molestation. - -"The capture of Bokhara, Samarcand, and Khiva reduced the slave-markets -of the Turcoman raiders, but by no means put an end to their plundering -expeditions. The independent Turcomans were estimated to be about a -million in number, divided into several tribes, who sometimes warred -upon each other, but constantly upon the Persians and other peaceable -people. In the wars between Khiva and Bokhara, Samarcand and Kokan, -they took sides with those who would pay the most for their services. - -[Illustration: KIRGHESE RAID ON A HOSTILE TRIBE.] - -"Down to very recently the whole of Northern Persia was subject to -Turcoman raids, and agriculture was carried on under great -difficulties.[7] The raids were sometimes carried up to within a hundred -miles of Teheran, or about five hundred miles inside the Persian -boundary. They were organized months beforehand, and sometimes as many -as five or six thousand men were engaged in a single enterprise. A raid -was called a 'chapow' by the Persians; in the Turcoman language it was -an 'alaman.' - -[7] In an article in HARPER'S MAGAZINE for March, 1886, Mr. William -Simpson, an English artist and journalist, who went to the Afghan -frontier with the Boundary Commission, says it is only within a couple -of years that the raiding was brought to an end. He frankly credits -Russia with the suppression of the raiding system, and says she deserves -the thanks of the civilized world. - -"A Turcoman leader would announce his intention of making an alaman, but -the route was always kept secret through fear of betrayal. The Turcomans -are splendid horsemen, and while organizing an expedition they put their -steeds under a system of training to enable them to make long and swift -marches whenever occasion required. When everything was ready the party -started; it travelled slowly until it reached the Persian frontier, and -was often weeks on the way. - -"Passing the frontier, the hard work of the campaign began. The region -selected for the raid was reached as soon as possible; then the invading -force was divided into small parties, and each had a particular village -assigned to it. Their movements were made so as to catch the people at -work in the fields, and capture the cattle before they could be driven -into a place of safety. Not only the cattle, but all the men, women, and -children that could be seized were taken. The old and useless were -slaughtered without mercy; the young or able-bodied were carried off, to -be sold into slavery. A wealthy Persian was held for a heavy ransom, but -a poor man had no chance of redemption. - -"The plundering was kept up as long as there was anything to steal, and -then the expedition returned to its own territory. Sometimes in a single -raid as many as a hundred thousand horses, sheep, goats, and other -animals were captured, and a thousand or more people were carried into -slavery." - -Frank asked if the Persian Government made no provision for the -protection of its people. - -"Very little," replied the Doctor; "the Persian troops were in the -cities and large towns, which the Turcomans never attacked, and as there -was no telegraph through the country, the raiders almost invariably got -to a safe distance before a pursuit could be started. Very often the -Persian officials on the frontier connived at the raids, and the people -were forced to rely upon themselves for protection." - -"In what way could they do anything against the robbers?" was the very -natural query that followed this statement. - -"Their villages are built of mud, and may be called forts," the Doctor -replied. "The walls are from twenty to thirty feet thick, and about -forty in height; they form a quadrangle, or circle, where cattle can be -driven at night, and there is only a single door-way, too low to permit -the passage of a man on horseback. The raiders never stop to besiege a -place; all their work is done by a sudden dash, and the Turcoman would -never think of dismounting to pass the low door-way. Inside there is a -stone door which may be closed to prevent ingress; it is thick and -strong, and once inside of their mud village the people are safe. - -[Illustration: LASGIRD--A FORTIFIED VILLAGE IN NORTHERN PERSIA.] - -"Here is a picture of one of these villages," said the Doctor; "it is -called Lasgird, and is about a hundred miles east of the capital of -Persia. You will observe that there is a double tier of dwellings on the -top of the circular wall; the enclosed space accommodates the cattle and -other live-stock of the village, and is also utilized for the storage of -grain. On the outside, near the top, there is a balcony made of -projecting timbers covered with branches of trees; it has no outer -railing, and must be a very unsafe place for a promenade. Inside of such -a retreat the people had nothing to fear, as the Turcomans have no -artillery and did not care to stay long enough to batter down the -walls." - -Fred remarked that it must be difficult for those at work in the fields -at any distance to get to the village before they were overtaken by the -raiders on their swift horses. - -[Illustration: TOWER OF REFUGE.] - -"So it is," was the reply, "and to further protect themselves they had -towers of refuge in their fields, where they could run in case of -danger. Some of the towers had ladders on the outside which were drawn -up as the Turcomans approached, while others were entered by narrow -door-ways similar to those of the villages. On the hills there were -signal-towers where watchmen were stationed; when the dust of an -approaching alaman was seen, the watchmen gave warning and the people -fled for safety." - -"What a life to lead!" said one of the youths. "Always apprehensive of -danger, and never knowing when the murderous Turcomans might come!" - -"It was much like the life of the early settlers of New England," said -the Doctor, "when the Indians were liable to come at any moment, and the -men carried their guns to church on Sunday. The same condition of things -has continued until quite recently on our western frontier, and still -exists in a few places in Texas and New Mexico. But the difference is -that in our country it never lasted for many years in any one place, -while in Persia the situation was the same for centuries. - -"These Turcoman thieves hampered agriculture in the way I have -described, and they also restricted commerce by plundering the caravans. -Merchants travelled with an armed escort and in large numbers. Even this -did not save them from attack, as a great caravan was unwieldy, and -often the robbers would dart in and seize a few camels laden with -merchandise while the escort was so far away in another part of the line -that it could not rush to attack the marauders until they had finished -their work and departed. And remember that for centuries trade has -followed this dangerous route! - -"A curious thing about these raids is that the departure of a -plundering expedition was always accompanied by religious ceremonies. -The Mollahs, or Moslem priests, gave their blessing to the thieves, and -prayed for Allah's favor upon the enterprise. When the party returned -laden with plunder, and driving slaves and stolen cattle in great -number, the same priests offered prayers in thanks for Allah's blessing, -and a portion of the proceeds of the expedition was set apart for the -cause of religion." - -[Illustration: FRAMEWORK OF TURCOMAN TENT.] - -"Then they must be of a different religion from the Persians," Fred -observed, "as they would not be likely to make war upon people of their -own faith." - -[Illustration: THE TENT COVERED.] - -"Unfortunately for your theory, that was not the case," the Doctor -answered. "Persians and Turcomans are all Moslems; they have different -sects, just as have the adherents of the Christian religion, but in a -general way they may be said to be of the same faith. Moslems make war -upon each other with very little hesitation; the only thing in which -they appear to be united is in their hatred of all other religions than -their own." - -"I suppose they have not received travellers with any courtesy," said -Frank. "Do they permit foreigners to visit their country and study its -character?" - -[Illustration: INTERIOR OF TENT.] - -"Not at all," was the reply, "if they can prevent it, and they are not -at all particular about the mode of prevention. Of course, since the -country was occupied by Russia there has been a change in this respect, -and under Russian protection a stranger may travel there with -comparative safety. - -"In former times most of the Europeans who ventured into Turkestan (the -collective name for the countries of Central Asia) paid the penalty of -their temerity with their lives. Russians, Englishmen, Germans, and -others perished, and not one explorer in ten returned to tell the story -of his travels. Two English ambassadors, Colonel Stoddart and Captain -Conolly, ventured into Bokhara about 1840, and were murdered, the former -after four years' imprisonment, and the latter after a twelvemonth. - -"Stoddart was repeatedly tortured, and finally was promised his freedom -if he would embrace the Moslem religion. To save his life he consented, -and went through the required ceremony; the Emir of Bokhara continued to -torture him, and finally ordered the heads of both Conolly and Stoddart -to be cut off in the public square of Bokhara. - -"Stoddart was executed first, and then the Emir offered Conolly his -freedom if he would become a Moslem. 'No,' said he, 'I prefer to die. -Stoddart became a Moslem and you have killed him. Go on with your work.' -The Emir nodded to the executioner, and the work of execution was -completed. - -"Wood, another Englishman, who went to Bokhara to ascertain what had -become of Stoddart and Conolly, was imprisoned for some time, and -narrowly escaped with his life. A more fortunate explorer was Arminius -Vámbéry, a Hungarian, who travelled through Central Asia disguised as a -dervish from Constantinople. At the very outset of his journey he was -obliged to wait for three-quarters of a year in Teheran before he could -find the right kind of party to travel with. In his character of dervish -he associated with pilgrims like himself, who wished to visit the Moslem -shrines of Bokhara and Samarcand. They were twenty-four in number, and -nearly all of them were distinguished for their poverty. They intended -to beg their way through the country and back again; Vámbéry had a -little money, which he carefully concealed, as it would not be in -accordance with his assumed character of dervish to be known to have any -ready cash. - -[Illustration: VÁMBÉRY'S RECEPTION BY TURCOMAN CHIEF ON THE CASPIAN -SHORE.] - -"From Teheran they went north to the Turcoman country, which then -extended westward to the shores of the Caspian Sea. On landing, they -were greeted by the Turcoman chief who ruled in that district; he was -very hospitable, and entertained them for a whole month merely for the -sake of having visitors. - -"In a caravan of Turcoman horsemen they journeyed to Khiva, crossing a -desert region where for days they had only the water they carried on -their saddles. They fell short of water, and while their suffering was -severe they were relieved by the chief of the caravan, who had an extra -store concealed in his baggage. As he doled it out to the pilgrims he -said it had always been his custom to carry an extra supply of water -while crossing the desert, and distribute it when most needed. But this -same man had proposed a few days before to leave Vámbéry to perish in -the desert, on the mere suspicion that he was a European in disguise. - -"Vámbéry gives an excellent description of the Turcoman character, which -has been fully confirmed by other travellers, and later by the Russian -conquerors of Turkestan. They are honest in their dealings with each -other, and often display much tenderness; at the same time they are the -most brutal of slave-masters and man-stealers, and capable of the -severest cruelty. Vámbéry says that one day a Turcoman said it was a sin -to destroy a basket in the desert, because it had once been the seat of -a man on a camel; the same man denied a drop of water to a slave whom he -had fed on salt-fish for two days, and his delight at the suffering of -his victim was equal to that of a countryman over the antics of a clown -at a circus. - -[Illustration: RECEIVING PAYMENT FOR HUMAN HEADS--KHIVA.] - -"Some of the tribes, in their wars with each other, cut off the heads of -those whom they slay in battle, and bring them home as trophies; Vámbéry -happened to be present in Khiva when, one day, the Khan's treasurer was -paying for human heads. As each warrior came forward he emptied his sack -on the ground, and an accountant made note of the number of skulls and -the name of their owner. - -[Illustration: TURCOMAN TROPHY--A RUSSIAN HEAD.] - -"The payment was not in money, but in robes of honor, which were of -different colors, according to the number of slain to each warrior's -credit. Some received the robe of forty heads, others the robe of -twenty, and others that of ten, five, or four. It was like the different -degrees of the decorations awarded by the rulers of the nations of -Europe, or the rewards of merit issued by a school-teacher to diligent -and well-behaved pupils. - -"Another time Vámbéry was in the public square of Khiva when about three -hundred prisoners of war were brought in. They were separated into two -divisions, those who had not reached their fortieth year, and were to be -sold as slaves or given as presents, being placed in one category. They -were chained together and led away, and then the old men were brought -forward for punishment; and what do you suppose it was? - -"These gray-bearded old men were tied hand and foot and placed flat on -their backs on the ground. Then their eyes were gouged out, the -executioner kneeling on the breast of each to perform his dreadful work. -Each time when he finished with a victim he deliberately wiped his knife -on the latter's flowing beard. Vámbéry says the scene will make him -shudder as long as he lives, and no wonder. - -"And yet he found the people of Khiva full of pious charity. The same -khan who had ordered this cruel treatment of prisoners of war, loaded -the supposed dervish and his companions with presents, and showed them -every kindness. When Vámbéry left in the direction of Bokhara, he was -mounted on a good donkey, and had plenty of clothing, provisions, and -money, which had been given him by the faithful. - -"Vámbéry says he one day asked a robber who was noted for piety, how he -could sell his brother religionists into slavery. The robber replied -that the holy book, the Koran, was certainly more precious than man, and -yet it was bought or sold for a few small coins. He added that Joseph, -the son of Jacob, was a prophet, but was sold into slavery without being -any the worse for it. His argument was forcible, and the stranger -concluded it was best not to oppose it." - -Frank asked how the women of the Turcoman tribes were treated by their -lords and masters. - -"Women among the Turcomans have an inferior position, as in all Moslem -countries," the Doctor replied. "They are far more the slaves of their -husbands than their equals; sometimes they are treated with great -kindness, but more frequently their lives are full of hardship. They -perform most of the labor of the camp and village, the men being chiefly -occupied with the care of the flocks and herds, making expeditions for -the sake of plunder, or warring on neighboring tribes. - -"Husbands sell their wives as they sell cattle or sheep, and the poor -creatures have no redress for their wrongs. A husband buys his wife from -her parents, and she has very little voice in the transaction; the price -is generally based upon the social standing of the parties, and the -ability of the purchaser to pay for the property. Among nearly all the -nomad tribes of Turkestan the marriage ceremony includes a race for the -bride; the game is called _Kökbüri_ (green wolf), and is decidedly -interesting. - -[Illustration: KÖKBÜRI--A RACE FOR A BRIDE.] - -"The girl is mounted on a swift horse, and carries the carcass of a lamb -before her on the saddle. She is given a certain start in advance of the -bridegroom and his friends; they follow on horseback, and unless the -bridegroom can take the lamb from her hands during the race the match is -'off.' She makes a show of resistance, and generally leads the party a -long distance, but the affair having been negotiated beforehand, is -pretty sure to end in the surrender of the lamb. In some tribes the girl -must be lifted from the saddle by the bridegroom, who carries her on his -own horse back to the point of starting. - -"There is this difference in the treatment of the women of Turkestan and -those of most other Moslem countries," the Doctor continued, "that they -are not required to cover their faces. In Turkey, Egypt, and Arabia the -Moslem woman who leaves her face uncovered commits an act of great -impropriety, but this is not the case in Turkestan. Many of the women -are quite pretty in their youth, but their good looks do not last long. -The men are of good height and figure, and their manners are grave and -dignified. The hair and beard are dark, and the complexion may be set -down as a light shade of brown." - -Frank asked how many tribes and people were included in Turkestan or -Central Asia, and how great was the population. - -[Illustration: VIEW OF THE CITADEL OF KHIVA.] - -"That is a very difficult question to answer," said the Doctor, "in fact -it is impossible to do so exactly. The census-taker is unknown in -Central Asia, except in the cities and towns; even there he does not -enumerate the whole population, but only the heads of families and the -men capable of bearing arms. Turkestan includes all the country between -the Caspian Sea and the 110th degree of longitude east, and from Siberia -southward to Persia, Afghanistan, and Thibet. Turkestan means 'The land -of the Turks.' On the maps it is generally divided into Eastern and -Western Turkestan, the former lying partly in the Chinese Empire, and -the latter covering the vast plain of the Caspian and Aral seas. The -population is variously estimated at from eight to twelve millions. -Russia has absorbed nearly all of Western Turkestan, and the Russian -officials think they have at least eight millions of people in their new -possessions. - -"The tribes and provinces are divided and subdivided so that they are -not easy to name. Western Turkestan was formerly known as Independent -Tartary, and comprises the Turcoman steppes, the khanates of Khiva, -Bokhara, Samarcand, and Kokan, together with Balkh and some smaller -provinces which are in dispute between Russia and Afghanistan. These -disputes have led to quarrels between Russia and England, and quite -likely will lead to war at no distant day. - -[Illustration: AN OZBEK HEAD.] - -"The people dwelling in Turkestan are mainly of the Turkish race; their -language is Turkish, and the country was the seat of the race that -spread its boundaries by a career of conquests, which did not stop until -it entered Europe and pressed as far westward as the walls of Vienna. -Briefly we may say the inhabitants of Turkestan are Ozbeks or Uzbeks -(the dominant race), Turcomans, Kirghese, Karakalpaks, Tajiks, -Persians, Kipchaks, and a few Arabs, Hindoos, and Jews. The Ozbeks are -the most civilized people of the country, and are mainly settled in the -cities and towns; they fill most of the official positions, and their -leading families can trace their descent for centuries. The Persians are -mostly descended from those who have been stolen by the Turcomans and -sold into slavery, and the Arabs, Hindoos, and Jews may be regarded as -wanderers who have been drawn there by business or accident. - -"I have already told you something of the Kirghese, whose country was -the first to be absorbed by Russia. The other people of Turkestan -besides those just mentioned are not sufficiently numerous or important -to deserve special description. If you wish further particulars, you -will find them in Schuyler's 'Turkestan,' Vámbéry's 'Travels in Central -Asia,' 'History of Bokhara,' and Shaw's 'High Tartary, Yarkand, and -Kashgar.'" - -The conversation was interrupted by a gentleman who called to ask if -Doctor Bronson and his young friends would like to make a trip to the -other side of the Caspian Sea. A steamer was to leave in two or three -hours for Mikhailovsk, and the next morning would see them landed in the -country where, until quite recently, the Turcomans reigned and robbed at -will. - -The invitation was promptly accepted, and when the steamer left Baku our -friends were among her passengers. What they saw and heard will be told -in the next chapter. - - - - -CHAPTER XXII. - -FRANK AND FRED IN THE TURCOMAN COUNTRY.--THE TRANS-CASPIAN -RAILWAY.--SKOBELEFF'S CAMPAIGN, AND THE CAPTURE OF GEOK TEPÉ.--ENGLISH -JEALOUSY OF RUSSIAN ADVANCES.--RIVERS OF CENTRAL ASIA.--THE OXUS AND -JAXARTES.--AGRICULTURE BY IRRIGATION.--KHIVA, SAMARCAND, AND BOKHARA.--A -RIDE ON THE TRANS-CASPIAN RAILWAY.--STATISTICS OF THE LINE.--KIZIL -ARVAT, ASKABAD, AND SARAKHS.--ROUTE TO HERAT AND INDIA.--TURCOMAN -DEVASTATION.--THE AFGHAN BOUNDARY QUESTION.--HOW MERV WAS -CAPTURED.--O'DONOVAN AND MACGAHAN: THEIR REMARKABLE JOURNEYS.--RAILWAY -ROUTE FROM ENGLAND TO INDIA.--RETURN TO BAKU. - - -[Illustration: MAP SHOWING THE RELATIONS OF RUSSIA AND ENGLAND IN THE -EAST.] - -Our young friends were up early, in their eagerness to see the country -of the Turcomans. They found themselves looking at a comparatively flat -region, quite in contrast with the chain of the Caucasus, that filled -the horizon to the west of Baku, and interposed a formidable barrier -between the Caspian and Black seas. The steamer headed into a narrow bay -which formed the harbor of Mikhailovsk, the new town whence the -Trans-Caspian Railway takes its departure in the direction of India. - -[Illustration: SAND-STORM IN THE DESERT.] - -Everything indicated the newness of the place. Houses, barracks, piers, -railway-station, all were new, and many of the houses were not even -finished. Russian soldiers and Russian officers were numerous in the -crowd at the landing-place, and there were scores of mujiks busily -engaged in handling goods destined for the railway or for the steamers, -but they did not by any means have a monopoly of the labor market of -Mikhailovsk. Tartars, Kirghese, Turcomans, Persians, and other Asiatics -were there in considerable numbers. They appeared to be quite as -industrious as the mujiks, and every way as keen to scent a job wherein -money was to be earned. - -It is an interesting circumstance that the Turcomans, now that they are -forbidden to indulge in raiding, have turned their attention to steady -industry, and promise to make good citizens. Whatever may be their -faults, they are not a lazy people; they gave up their raiding habits -very unwillingly; but when once convinced that they must live by -industry, they seem to have accepted the situation. - -[Illustration: TURCOMAN COURT OF JUSTICE.] - -Mr. Ivanovich, the gentleman who invited our friends to cross the -Caspian, was connected with the management of the Trans-Caspian Railway, -as the line from Mikhailovsk is called. During the voyage from Baku he -gave the youths an account of the building of the railway, and matters -connected with it, of which Frank made the following notes: - -"The Trans-Caspian Railway," said Mr. Ivanovich, "owes its existence to -a military necessity that arose in 1879. When the Russians first -occupied the Turcoman country they built fortifications, and settled -down to stay. General Skobeleff always claimed that we made a great -mistake in doing so; the Government did not think it safe to make a -movement directly into the Turcoman country, and consequently several -years were occupied in doing what Skobeleff thought should have been -done in one. The Turcomans knew nothing about regular warfare, and we -might have crushed them in a little while with our trained battalions. -But we waited so long that they learned how to fight, partly through our -own instruction, and then it required the best of fighting to defeat -them. - -"It looked at one time as if the Turcomans would altogether prevent us -from getting any foothold in their country beyond the shores of the -Caspian. Skirmishes almost without number occurred, in which sometimes -the Russians and sometimes the Turcomans had the best of the contest. -Skobeleff, then a captain, was one of those who landed at Krasnovodsk in -1869. He made more successes in the fighting with the Turcomans than -anybody else; but in 1873 he was called away in the campaign against -Khiva, and from that time to 1879 nothing of moment was accomplished. - -[Illustration: KIRGHESE TOMB.] - -"In 1878 Tekme Sardar, a Turcoman chief, submitted to the Russians, and -was received into their camp at Krasnovodsk. He remained there several -months, and then, for some real or fancied injury, fled from the camp, -and collected his followers with the determination to make war on the -invaders. At a place called Geok Tepé he formed a junction with other -chiefs, and established a camp. - -"Tekme Sardar had made good use of his eyes during his stay among us. He -showed his people how to build forts. About forty thousand Turcomans, -with their families, collected at Geok Tepé, and threw up an immense -earthwork exactly like the defences built by the Russians. General -Lomakin advanced against this earthwork in 1879, and after a series of -skirmishes outside the walls he attacked the Turcomans in their -stronghold, and was severely repulsed. He retired to the shores of the -Caspian, and thus ended the campaign for that year. - -[Illustration: CHARGE OF RUSSIAN CAVALRY AGAINST TURCOMANS.] - -"General Skobeleff was then appointed to the command of the Turcoman -district, and the Government told him he could have anything he wanted -in men or munitions of war. - -"The Government had a hundred miles of railway material somewhere on its -south-western frontier, which was intended for use in case of the -failure of the Berlin Congress. Skobeleff asked for this material, and -it was at once transferred to the Caspian. He changed the base of -operations from Krasnovodsk to Mikhailovsk, and at once began the -construction of the line. The whole movement was made so quietly that -hardly anything was known of the work until the track had been laid -about half-way to Kizil Arvat, one hundred and forty-four miles from -Mikhailovsk. - -"Skobeleff could not wait for the completion of the railway. While the -road was being constructed he pushed forward to Bami, a strong point in -the Akhal oasis, where he built a fort, and gradually collected the -materials for the siege of Geok Tepé. When everything was in readiness -he advanced and began the siege, which lasted fully a month. - -"Perhaps the following figures will interest you: The Russians were -between eight and ten thousand strong, of all arms, infantry, cavalry, -and artillery. The artillery comprised sixty-nine guns, while the -Turcomans had no cannon to oppose them with. When the siege began, -Skobeleff found that his cannon made little impression upon the clay -walls of the fort, so he ordered his artillery to fire over the walls -and into the enclosed space, in order to demoralize the people within as -much as possible. In fighting against Asiatics, artillery always has a -prominent part. Its moral effect in frightening them is certainly ten -times as great as its destructive power. - -[Illustration: RUSSIAN ARMY ON THE TURCOMAN STEPPES.] - -"During the siege the artillery fired from one hundred to five hundred -shots daily, and the infantry used from ten thousand to seventy thousand -rounds of ammunition in the same time. Skobeleff sunk a mine under the -rampart, and exploded more than a ton of gunpowder at a single blast. It -made a wide breach, through which the Russian army poured into the fort, -with very little opposition on the part of the Turcomans. The latter -fled in the direction of Merv, but were pursued by the Russian cavalry. -The slaughter is said to have been fearful, and the Russians say that -twenty thousand Turcomans perished in the siege and capture of Geok -Tepé. During the assault and pursuit the infantry fired 273,804 rounds, -the cavalry 12,510, and the artillery 5,864; 224 military rockets were -also used.[8] - -[8] Marvin's "The Russians at the Gates of Herat." - -"Many careful students of the history of Central Asia," continued Mr. -Ivanovich, "consider the siege and capture of Geok Tepé the most -important victory ever achieved by the Russians in Turkestan. It -opened the way for the Russian advance to the frontier of India, and -carried the boundaries of the Empire southward to those of Persia. In -the interest of humanity it was of the greatest importance, as it broke -up the system of man-stealing and its attendant cruelties which the -Turcomans had practised for centuries. The people of Northern Persia no -longer live in constant terror of Turcoman raids; the slave-markets of -Central Asia are closed, and doubtless forever." - -Frank asked if the English Government was as well pleased with the -result of the siege as were the Russians. - -Mr. Ivanovich said he did not know exactly how the English regarded the -victory, but from the tone of their press and the utterances of British -statesmen, he did not think they would have mourned if the Russians had -been repulsed. "England," said he, "is jealous of Russian advances in -Turkestan. Lord Salisbury believed that the Turcoman barrier against -Russia would last his lifetime, and many other English statesmen and -officers shared his belief. - -"No doubt they were very sorry for the sufferings of the Persians, who -were sold into slavery after seeing their homes plundered and their -fields devastated, but I question if they were willing, for political -reasons, to see the Turcomans wiped out as they were at Geok Tepé. I -think I have read much more in the English papers about the loss to -English commerce by the Russian occupation of Central Asia than of the -gain to humanity by the suppression of the Turcoman raids. - -"The interests of British trade are the first consideration of the -British statesman. Many thousands of Africans and Asiatics have died by -British bullets and sabres that the commerce of England might be -extended. Unless I mistake the temper of the British Government, I am -afraid that the advisers of the Queen would prefer the old state of -things to the new on the Turcoman steppes. The sale of a thousand bales -of Manchester cottons in the bazaars of Turkestan is of more consequence -to England than the enslavement of a thousand Persians and the -desolation of their homes. - -"But that is wandering from the subject," said Mr. Ivanovich, with a -smile. "I may be prejudiced, but can't help regarding England as a -disturber of the peace all over the world, whenever the disturbance will -benefit her trade. She doesn't believe in monopoly, except where she can -be the monopolist, and for that reason she is jealous of the way we -Russians are trying the monopoly business for ourselves. We have the -trade of ten millions of Asiatics: no great thing to be sure, but we -don't propose to hand it over to England just because she wants it. We -have cotton factories and other manufacturing establishments, as England -has, and the more markets we can have the better it will be for us." - -The gentleman paused, and gave Fred an opportunity to ask if there were -any navigable rivers in Turkestan, and, if so, what they were. - -[Illustration: WINTER CAMP IN TURCOMANIA.] - -"There is no navigation worth the name," was the reply. "Central Asia -contains only two rivers of any importance--the Oxus and the Jaxartes. -The Oxus is sometimes called the Amoo Darya, or Jihoon, and the Jaxartes -the Syr Darya. The Oxus is the largest; it rises in the Pamir district, -in a lake fifteen thousand feet above the sea, and in the upper part of -its course receives several tributary rivers that drain Bokhara and the -north-eastern part of Afghanistan. It is about twelve hundred miles -long, and flows into the Aral Sea; for the last eight hundred miles of -its course it is navigable for small steamboats, but its mouth is -divided into so many shallow channels that boats have great difficulty -in entering it. The Russians have half a dozen steamers on the Aral Sea, -and as many more light-draught steamboats for navigating the Oxus." - -"Haven't I read that the Oxus formerly emptied into the Caspian Sea?" -said Frank. - -"Quite likely you have," said Mr. Ivanovich, "as there is little doubt -that such was the case. The old bed of the Oxus can be distinctly -traced, and geographers are generally agreed that the river entered the -Caspian by three mouths. Ptolemy and Strabo both state distinctly that -in their time the Oxus flowed into the Caspian, and formed the principal -trade-route between Europe and Asia." - -"How came it to change its course?" - -[Illustration: TURCOMAN IRRIGATING WHEEL.] - -"Much of the region traversed by the Oxus is a desert, and the only -agriculture possible there is by irrigation. In order to increase the -area under cultivation, the Turcomans built dams that turned the Oxus in -the direction of a vast plain which contains the Aral Sea. Since the -occupation of the country by the Russians, it has been proposed to -return the Oxus to its ancient bed, and bring it down to the Caspian. It -is not likely that this will be done, as the result would be that the -whole lower course of the Oxus, where there are many flourishing farms -and gardens, would again become a desert waste. Much less water flows -through the Oxus than in former times, and the engineers who have -studied the question do not think the river would be navigable when -returned to its ancient bed. - -[Illustration: SCENE AT A FERRY ON THE OXUS.] - -"The other river of Central Asia, the Jaxartes, or Syr Darya, is smaller -than the Oxus, and about eleven hundred miles long. It rises in the -Pamir region, and empties, like the Oxus, into the Aral Sea. Its course -is generally parallel to the Oxus, and in the same way it fertilizes a -large area of what would otherwise be desert. Its volume has greatly -diminished in the last few centuries, and is even known to be -considerably less than it was sixty or eighty years ago. The Oxus enters -the southern end of the Aral Sea, while the Jaxartes comes in -considerably farther to the north. The diversion of these two rivers -would probably result in drying up the Aral Sea, a shallow body of water -two hundred and fifty miles long by half as many wide." - -[Illustration: MAP OF THE RUSSO-AFGHAN REGION.] - -Fred asked if the Caspian was higher or lower than the Aral Sea. - -"They are of the same level, or nearly so," was the reply, "though some -engineers say the Aral is about one hundred and fifty feet higher than -the Caspian, and the indications are that the two seas were formerly -connected. The whole plain of Turcomania is thought to have been at one -time an inland sea. At its southern extremity the Aral is bordered by an -immense marsh, and it is through this marsh that the Oxus discharges its -waters. - -"Khiva stands near the Oxus, in the midst of beautiful gardens, all -nourished by the water from the river. Khiva, Bokhara, Samarcand, and -Kokan would become masses of ruins if the Oxus and Jaxartes were dried -up, and you may be sure the Russians will give the subject careful -consideration before disturbing the course of the waters. Nowhere in the -world will you see more careful irrigation than along these rivers, with -the possible exception of the Nile valley. All through Central Asia the -only possible agriculture is upon the watercourses, or where there are -never-failing wells. Canals and irrigation-wheels are everywhere, and -you will often see evidences of excellent engineering abilities in the -construction of some of the artificial water-ways. - -"General Annenkoff, the officer in charge of the construction of the -Trans-Caspian Railway, has a scheme for creating a new oasis, capable of -supporting two hundred thousand people, near the disputed boundary -between Turkestan and Afghanistan. He proposes to turn one of the -tributaries of the Oxus for that purpose, and is confident that he can -make a fertile area of several hundred square miles by carefully -utilizing the water of the stream." - -On landing at Mikhailovsk, our friends were introduced to several -Russian officers, some of whom had been in America, and who heartily -welcomed the trio of travellers from that far-away land. They were -invited to the club-house, where they were lodged and cared for; the -town did not boast an hotel other than a very indifferent khan, which -had all the discomforts of the Orient, with none of its good points. - -Frank and Fred endeavored to find the time-table of the railway, with a -view to making an excursion into Turkestan. Their inquiries were -rewarded with the information that there was no regular time for running -the trains, as the business transacted on the line was nearly all of a -military character. But a train was to leave in the morning for Kizil -Arvat, one hundred and forty-four miles, and if they cared to make the -journey they were at liberty to do so. - -Finding they would have time to go to Kizil Arvat and return before the -departure of the steamer for Baku, they accepted the invitation, which -included the Doctor as well as themselves. Early the next morning the -train rolled out from the station; it consisted of a locomotive and ten -or twelve carriages. One carriage contained the officers of a regiment -of infantry that filled the remaining vehicles; the regiment was bound -for the frontier, where England and Russia have latterly been discussing -the question of the boundary, and a discussion of this kind is -materially assisted by the presence of soldiers. - -[Illustration: TURCOMAN WOMAN SPINNING.] - -We will refer to Fred's account of the railway journey in Turkestan. - -"We were invited to seats in the carriage where the officers were -riding. They did everything to make our journey agreeable, and we were -indebted to them for a great deal of information about Central Asia. -Some of them had been to the British frontier, and one had visited -Cabul, Herat, and Candahar. - -"The route of the railway was partly across the desert, and partly along -the valleys of two or three small rivers of no special importance except -for their usefulness in supplying water for the line. For a considerable -distance the line lies near the Etrek, a river that was of great use to -General Skobeleff in his advance upon Geok Tepé. At times it is simply a -dry channel, but water can generally be found by digging a few feet in -the sand that forms, in the rainy season, the bed of the stream. - -[Illustration: VILLAGE OF TURCOMAN TENTS.] - -"The country is a plain, with here and there a few hills not worthy to -be called mountains. Sometimes the plain is flat for a long distance, -and again it is undulating like the rolling prairies of our Western -States. Vegetation is scanty at best, and a large part of the country is -absolutely desert. The great need of Central Asia is water. If a million -springs could be opened, all giving a copious flow like some of the -great springs in our Rocky Mountains, the next ten or twenty years would -see a great change in the aspect of Turkestan. - -"One of the officers told me that the country was of the same general -character all the way to the frontier of Afghanistan. 'The railway can -be extended without trouble,' said he, 'as far as we wish to carry it. -There's not an obstacle at all formidable to railway engineers.' - -"I asked, with some hesitation, where they wished to carry their railway -line. I knew the subject was not disconnected with politics, but the -question was innocent enough, and he could answer it as he chose, and -probably did. - -[Illustration: THE NEW RUSSO-AFGHAN FRONTIER.] - -"'We built the line,' said he, 'first to Kizil Arvat, one hundred and -forty-four miles, and then extended it to Askabad, one hundred and ten -miles farther. We are now building to Sarakhs, one hundred and -eighty-five miles from Askabad, and there we may stop. Perhaps it will -be pushed on to Herat, two hundred and two miles from Sarakhs, but it -can not be under the present political situation. Afghanistan is under -English control. You know the English Government gives the Ameer of that -country a large annual payment of money for his friendship; and until we -are willing to give a higher bribe he is not likely to permit us to -build railways in his territory. - -"'From Sarakhs our next line will be to Merv, the rich oasis that came -under Russian control a few years ago, or possibly Merv may be reached -by a branch from Askabad. Perhaps there will one day be a line from Merv -to Samarcand and Bokhara, but this is far in the future. From Merv a -railway may be run along the valley of the Murghab to Herat; but it is -not a direct route, and we are much more likely to reach Herat by way of -Sarakhs, along the valley of the Heri-Rud. Whichever way we take, the -building of the road would not be at all difficult. The Murghab route -has the disadvantage of being longer than that of the Heri-Rud, but its -cost per mile would be much less, as the country is smoother. - -"'I suppose,' he continued, 'that there is a sort of race between -England and Russia to get to Herat with a railway. England is building -north from India, while we are building south from the Caspian. The -terminal points of the two lines are now less than eight hundred miles -apart, and it is very evident that the English and Russian locomotives -will be whistling in the hearing of each other, and blowing steam in -each other's faces, within the next few years.[9] - -[9] Early in 1886 the Central Asian Railway was completed to Kaakha, a -distance of 590 versts (390 miles) from Mikhailovsk. The line was -completed to Merv in April, 1886, and the echoes of the Turcoman oasis -were awakened by the shriek of the locomotive. At the latest advices -work was being pushed between Merv and Chardjuya, on the Oxus, and -General Annenkoff had promised to complete the line to the banks of the -historic river before the end of the year. The Emir of Bokhara has -agreed to provide the material for a bridge across the Oxus, and the -Russian engineers have completed the survey of the line as far as -Samarcand. It is hoped that the railway will reach Bokhara and Samarcand -by the end of 1887. The entire railway as planned will extend from -Mikhailovsk, on the Caspian, by way of Kizil Arvat (245 versts), Askabad -(445 versts), Kaakha (590 versts), to Merv (770 versts, or 510 miles); -thence to Chardjuya, on the Amoo Darya (Oxus), and Bokhara to Samarcand, -a total distance of 1065 versts (700 miles), of which no less than -five-sevenths is practically now completed. All the rails, sleepers, and -rolling material for the Trans-Caspian Railway are supplied from the -Russian Crown depots. Apart from this, the total cost of making the line -from the Caspian to the Oxus is estimated at 12,250,000 roubles, or -about 16,000 roubles per verst. - -The Russians have a grand scheme for another line of railway through -Asia, which was originally proposed by M. de Lesseps. The first step -would be to complete the railway connection along the lower Volga, -between Tsaritsin and Astrachan. The Asiatic line would start from -Astrachan, pass through Khiva, Bokhara, and Samarcand into Chinese -Turkestan, where it would touch Tang-Kissar, Kashgar, and Yarkand, in -addition to other cities and towns of lesser note. It would skirt the -shores of Lake Lob, and after descending the valley of the Kan (Han) -terminate at Hankow, on the banks of the Yang-tse-Kiang, six hundred -miles above the mouth of the great river of China. - -"'If we were not confronted by diplomacy we could reach Herat -considerably in advance of the English, as we have the shorter and -easier line to build to get there. But with our scrupulous regard for -treaties and agreements, we may be hindered in our railway building, and -have the mortification of seeing our rivals there ahead of us. The -English consider Herat the key to India, and are determined that we -shall not possess it. We don't care much for it anyway, but are -perfectly willing to place it beneath the sheltering wings of the Black -Eagle. - -"'When you are considering Sarakhs,' he continued, 'remember that there -are two places of that name. Old Sarakhs is a mass of ruins; only a -single building remains, and that is a tomb in which the body of Abel is -said to rest. Another tomb a few miles away is known as the tomb of -Cain, and there is a tradition that the Garden of Eden was in the -neighborhood of Sarakhs. The Russians have occupied Old Sarakhs, and -will establish a military post there of considerable importance as soon -as the railway is completed. - -[Illustration: OLD SARAKHS.] - -"'Old Sarakhs is near the Heri-Rud River, which here forms a dividing -line between Persia and the Turcoman country. The Persians have built a -town called New Sarakhs on their side of the river, and protected it by -a fort; they keep a small garrison there, and as we have no quarrel with -Persia, and are not likely to have, it is quite sufficient for all -purposes of peace. - -"'I wish you could go with me through that country and see the effect of -the Turcoman raiding system which was continued through generations, and -has only recently come to an end. Centuries ago the valleys of the -Murghab and Heri-Rud contained a large population, and the same was the -case over a wide extent of country. - -"'Ride where you will, you find the traces of irrigating canals in great -number. In the third century this region was said to contain a thousand -cities, probably an exaggeration, but indicative of the dense population -it sustained, and might still sustain. In many places the valleys of the -Murghab and Heri-Rud are several miles in width and perfectly flat. -There are ruined canals all over these wide places, showing that they -were once cultivated; they might be cultivated again and rendered -fertile as of old by the same system that was once in vogue. The country -is a desert because it is not tilled, and it is not tilled because it -has no inhabitants. Turcoman raids have made the desolation by -enslaving, killing, or driving away the people that once lived here. - -[Illustration: SARIK TURCOMAN WOMAN.] - -"'Since the raiding ceased the Sarik Turcomans, who were formerly as -much addicted to it as any others, have turned their attention to -agriculture. They have occupied parts of the Murghab Valley near -Pul-i-Khisti and Ak Tapa, where they have cleared out the old irrigation -canals, set their ploughs and other implements at work, and seem to be -forgetting altogether their former mode of life. They have settled into -villages, but live in kibitkas in preference to houses of mud or other -solid materials. Considering their recent subjugation, they are quite -friendly with the Russians; they know we will never allow them to resume -their predatory life, but as long as they behave themselves they will -find us to be kind masters, and our military and engineering work in -their country will assure them a good market for their surplus produce.' - -"I asked the gentleman to tell me the difference between Pul-i-Khisti -and Pul-i-Khatun, which we had read so much about in the newspapers, at -the time of the conflict between the Russians and Afghans. - -"'Pul-i-Khatun is on the Heri-Rud or Tejend River, a few miles south of -Sarakhs. In the Persian language "pul" means bridge, and "khatun" lady, -so that Pul-i-Khatun may be translated "Bridge of the Lady." The bridge -that bears this name is said to have been erected in the time of -Tamerlane, the great conqueror, at the request of one of the ladies of -his family. It is of brick, in six arches, and has not been repaired for -a long time; the central arch is broken, but the others are in -serviceable condition. - -[Illustration: PUL-I-KHISTI AND AK TAPA.] - -"'Pul-i-Khisti means "Bridge of Bricks," and is over the Murghab River, -where that stream unites with the Kushk. It became famous as the scene -of the fight between the Russians and Afghans, in the early part of -1885. Each party throws the blame of the affair upon the other; -naturally enough I think the Afghans were at fault, but as I may be -prejudiced on the subject it is not worth while to discuss it. -Pul-i-Khisti is close to Penjdeh, which is nothing more than a mass of -ruins where a town once stood; the Russians may be able to make -something out of it, and the next time I go there I shouldn't be -surprised to find a strong fort. - -"'The English wanted to make the boundary so that it would leave Penjdeh -in the possession of the Afghans, but we persuaded them that the place -would be safer in our hands than theirs. You will find on the map the -boundaries as they have been arranged, and as long as England keeps to -her agreement there is not likely to be any trouble. Of course we shall -faithfully abide by our promises, but one can never tell when the -treacherous Afghans will cross the boundaries and make depredations upon -our peaceful subjects. Then we will defend our rights; it is for such -defence we have built the railway on which you are now travelling, and -we shall maintain a good-sized force of troops on or near the frontier. -By means of our railways and steamers we can get to the frontier a great -deal quicker than England can possibly reach it from her capital; and if -she chooses to make war on us she will find us ready. - -[Illustration: PENJDEH.] - -"'With the Vladikavkaz Railway finished to Petrovsk on the Caspian, and -the Trans-Caspian Railway completed to Sarakhs, we could bring troops -from Moscow to the latter point inside of a week. There would only be -the crossing of the Caspian, which is little more than a ferry, between -Petrovsk and Mikhailovsk, to break the continuous journey by rail. From -Sarakhs to Herat, as I before said, is about two hundred miles, which -could be covered in two or three weeks by a Russian army. We think we -can get to Herat more quickly than England can in case of war, but let -us all hope that the necessity for the experiment may never come.'" - -Fred thought there was a confident smile on the face of the Russian as -he pronounced the above words. It was very evident that the Russians in -Central Asia had an abiding faith in their ability to take care of -themselves in case of a conflict with England. - -While conversing with another officer, the youths ascertained that he -had accompanied the first Russian expedition to the Merv Oasis, or -rather the expedition that converted that stronghold of the Turcomans -into Russian territory, with the loss of only one man. The gentleman -said the Oasis was watered by the Murghab, which practically terminated -there; the river was diverted into a great number of little streams, and -the country included in these streams formed the Oasis. The Mervis were -more peaceable than their fellow Turcomans, but very jealous of -strangers, and not willing to admit anybody to their limited territory. - -They had a fort larger and stronger than the one against which -Skobeleff's army was nearly shattered to pieces at Geok Tepé; it was an -enclosure with high, thick walls of mud, and large enough to hold the -whole population with their flocks and herds. The Oasis is about one -hundred and twenty miles from Askabad and ninety from the nearest point -on the Tejend; it was formerly incorporated with the surrounding -provinces of Turkestan, but for many years has been independent. - -[Illustration: COLONEL ALIKHANOFF.] - -"We wanted Merv," said the Russian officer to whom allusion has just -been made, "but we didn't want to fight for it; so we resorted to -diplomacy, and through the skill of General Komaroff and Colonel -Alikhanoff, aided by a few others who were in the secret, we came into -peaceful possession of the place. I have no doubt the Mervis are all -very glad we are there, now that the thing has been done. - -"Colonel Alikhanoff went from Askabad to Merv in company with a Russian -merchant who had a dozen camels laden with goods. They remained there a -fortnight, and then returned safely, accompanied by several delegates -from the Mervis who wished to consult with the Russian commander at -Askabad about some camels that had been stolen from them by the -Persians. The delegates were kindly received, and went home with a -favorable report which ultimately led to the occupation of Merv by a -small force of Russian cavalry and infantry. A fort was built, and a -bazaar opened for the exchange of Russian goods for the products of the -Oasis, and ever since then the Russians and Mervis have been on terms of -friendship. Of course there were some of the Mervis who opposed the -advent of our soldiers, but they are now our earnest advocates, and -would be the last to ask us to leave. - -[Illustration: THE GREAT HIGHWAY OF CENTRAL ASIA.] - -"Merv is about two hundred and forty miles from Herat, and if we should -ever be obliged to march against that Afghan stronghold, the Oasis will -be an excellent point to start from after accumulating the necessary -stores and material of war. It promises to be a good centre of trade, -and its importance was easy to comprehend when the English Government -made such a fuss as it did about our taking it. - -"Before we were established there," continued the officer, "an English -newspaper correspondent, Edmund O'Donovan, went to Merv by way of -Persia, and lived in the Oasis for five months. At first the people -treated him coldly, but he gradually won their confidence and convinced -them of his friendliness. They made him one of their elders, and -appointed him to a place on the Governing Council; he has told the story -of his residence among these strange people in an interesting volume -entitled 'The Merv Oasis.' - -"One of the most remarkable journeys ever made on the Turcoman steppes," -said the gentleman in conclusion, "was accomplished by another newspaper -correspondent, an American named MacGahan, during the campaign against -Khiva in 1873. Without an escort, and accompanied only by a servant and -two guides, he started from Fort Peroffsky, on the Jaxartes or Syr Darya -River, near the Aral Sea, to overtake General Kaufmann's army, that had -gone to the attack of Khiva. Its exact whereabouts were unknown; he had -eight or ten days of desert travel before him, and if he had fallen into -the hands of the Turcomans or Kirghese who roam over the desert, his -fate would have been certain death. - -"The Russians at Fort Peroffsky refused to allow him to start, as they -considered it impossible for him to make the journey, and he was obliged -to slip out of the place in the night. He had several narrow escapes, -but managed to get through all right and join General Kaufmann's column -just as the fighting before Khiva began. The officers told him the -chances of his getting across the desert with his life were not more -than one in a hundred. He remained with our army till the end of the -Khivan campaign, and every officer who knew him felt that he had lost a -personal friend when the news of MacGahan's death came a few years -later. The story of his adventures is told in his book--'Campaigning on -the Oxus and the Fall of Khiva.' - -"In 1875 a similar journey was made by Captain Burnaby, an English -officer of the Guards. He has given an admirable account of his -experience in a book entitled, 'A Ride to Khiva.'" - -"Conversation such as this," writes Fred in his journal, "beguiled the -tediousness of the ride over the flat and desolate region through which -the railway passes. At the few oases where we stopped, we saw little -villages of Turcomans, but they were so much alike that the descriptions -you have already read will answer for them all. At Kizil Arvat we found -an oasis containing altogether half a dozen square miles of tillable -land, on which were several Turcoman villages, and a Russian town of -perhaps a thousand inhabitants. - -"We call the town Russian from the flag that waves over it, rather than -from the nationality of those who live in it. They are Russians, -Turcomans, Kirghese, Persians, Armenians, and Jews, and I don't know how -many other races and kinds of people. There is a good deal of commerce, -mostly in the hands of Armenians and Russians, but much less than when -the railway terminated here. The business of Merv and the Penjdeh -district is at the end of the railway; in this respect the commerce of -Central Asia is much like that of our far-western country, and changes -its base with each change of the means of transport. - -[Illustration: TURCOMAN FARM-YARD.] - -"There is a fort at Kizil Arvat, and also a bazaar, and we are told that -Askabad is similarly provided. Whenever the Russians establish -themselves in any part of Turkestan, they build a fort and a bazaar -side by side. Hardly has the army pitched its tents before the shops are -opened and the natives are invited to come in and trade. All who come -are kindly treated; in a little time whatever hesitation the natives may -have possessed is gone, and the cheapness of the goods on sale converts -the former enemies into friends. There is no doubt that Russia -thoroughly understands the Asiatic nature, and deals with it -accordingly. - -[Illustration: MAP OF TURKESTAN, SHOWING ROUTE OF THE TRANS-CASPIAN -RAILWAY.] - -"Most of our return journey to Mikhailovsk was made in the night, which -we did not specially regret, where so much of the route was through the -uninteresting desert. We were told that when the railway was started, it -was intended to make a narrow-gauge line that would be taken up as soon -as the capture of Geok Tepé had been accomplished. But the undertaking -had not gone far before the plans were changed and a well-built railway, -on the standard gauge of Russia, was the result. The line is well -equipped with cars, and at no distant day will form a link in the -overland route from England to India. - -"When the Russian and Indian lines form a connection near Herat or -Candahar, the Vladikavkaz Railway will be completed to Petrovsk, on the -Caspian. The traveller may then go from London to Bombay or Calcutta in -nine or ten days. His entire journey will be made by rail, with the -exception of the passages of the English channel and the Caspian Sea, -the former requiring two hours, and the latter an entire day. Russia is -already talking of an extension of the line from Tsaritsin, along the -lower Volga and around the northern end of the Caspian to a connection -with the Trans-Caspian Railway. Should this line be made, the journey to -India would be wholly a land route, with the exception of 'The Silver -Streak,' between Dover and Calais." - -While our friends are musing on the possibilities of the railway to -India, and its benefits to commerce and civilization, they have -recrossed the Caspian and are once more in the Petrolia of Europe. And -now behold them seated in a train of the Trans-Caucasian Railway for a -ride to Tiflis and the Black Sea. - -A letter in the _New York Herald_ of April 19, 1886, says: - - "The Russians have established a military and naval station at Novi - Golfe, on the Caspian, twenty-two versts north-west of Mikhailovsk, - and connected it with the latter point by railway. In case of war - with England, the Russians are prepared to strike heavy blows in - Asia. They have two army corps in the Caucasus, and another in - Turkestan ready for service on their south-eastern frontier. The - vessels of the Kavkas and Mercury Steamship Company, Noble's - naphtha fleet, and the Greek and Armenian vessels on the Caspian - (which all fly the Russian flag), would be immediately pressed into - the service. The Russians believe that, barring bad weather, they - could, with these steamers and a number of sailing-vessels in - tow, transport sixty thousand men across the Caspian from - Astrachan, Baku, and Petrovsk to Novi Golfe and Mikhailovsk in - three days. - - [Illustration: CROSSING A RIVER IN CENTRAL ASIA.] - - "The Russians would thus dispose of about one hundred and fifteen - thousand men--Army of the Caucasus, sixty thousand; Turkestan, - thirty thousand; and fifteen thousand Turcoman auxiliaries. These - latter will supply the advance of the Russian columns heading - southward from Askabad and Merv. - - "The Russians have shown great tact and cleverness in the - management of their Turcoman subjects. There is at Merv a skeleton - army, or _cadre_, of three hundred Turcomans, under the command of - a Cossack officer named Kalotine. Of the three hundred, one hundred - are from Merv, one hundred are Tekkes, and the remainder from other - tribes. These men (irregular horse) remain in the service six - months. During that time they are paid twenty-five roubles a month, - and at its expiration are discharged with the rank of sergeant, but - remain liable to military duty in time of war. This plan was - adopted to secure good native non-commissioned officers for the - fifteen regiments of irregular cavalry. The son of the last Khan of - Merv is now a Russian sergeant. Ten native Turcomans hold the rank - of captain in the Russian army, and four that of lieutenant, - besides which many decorations have been given to those who took - part in Alikhanoff's foray. - - "The construction of the railway between Askabad and Merv presented - great difficulties, on account of the absence of water in many - places. To overcome this, artesian wells were dug. The width and - current of the Tegend-Bud necessitated an iron bridge at Kara-Bend. - The Trans-Caspian Railway is built upon the model of the - Trans-Caucasian one, the stations on both being near together, - solidly built and comfortable. There are sixteen stations between - Mikhailovsk and Askabad (four hundred and twenty-two versts). - - _Mikhailovsk to_ - Mallakara 22 Versts. - Bala Ischen 35 " - Aidin 29 " - Paraval 15 " - Atchai-Komm 16 " - Kasandjik 31 " - Ossausan 16 " - Ouchak 23 " - Kizil-Arvat 30 " - Koteh 28 " - Barni 24 " - Arolman 30 " - Baharden 30 " - Keli-Atta 27 " - Geok-Tepé 25 " - Besmeni 21 " - Askabad 20 " - -[Illustration: A NATIVE TRAVELLER.] - - - - -CHAPTER XXIII. - -BAKU TO TIFLIS.--THE CAPITAL OF THE CAUCASUS.--MOUNTAIN -TRAVELLING.--CROSSING THE RANGE.--PETROLEUM LOCOMOTIVES.--BATOUM AND ITS -IMPORTANCE.--TREBIZOND AND ERZEROOM.--SEBASTOPOL AND THE CRIMEA.--SHORT -HISTORY OF THE CRIMEAN WAR.--RUSSO-TURKISH WAR OF 1877-78.--BATTLES IN -THE CRIMEA AND SIEGE OF SEBASTOPOL.--VISITING THE MALAKOFF AND REDAN -FORTS.--VIEW OF THE BATTLE-FIELDS.--CHARGE OF THE LIGHT BRIGADE AT -BALAKLAVA.--PRESENT CONDITION OF SEBASTOPOL.--ODESSA.--ARRIVAL AT -CONSTANTINOPLE.--FRANK'S DREAM.--THE END. - - -For fifty miles after leaving Baku the railway follows the coast of the -Caspian Sea until it reaches Alayat, where the Government is -establishing a port that promises to be of considerable importance at no -distant day. The country is a desert dotted with salt lakes, and here -and there a black patch indicating a petroleum spring. The only -vegetation is the camel-thorn bush, and much of the ground is so sterile -that not even this hardy plant can grow. Very little rain falls here, -and sometimes there is not a drop of it for several months together. - -At Alayat the railway turns inland, traversing a desert region where -there are abundant indications of petroleum; in fact all the way from -Baku to Alayat petroleum could be had for the boring, and at the latter -place several wells have been successfully opened, though the low price -of the oil stands in the way of their profitable development. After -leaving the desert, a region of considerable fertility is reached. The -streams flowing down from the mountains are utilized for purposes of -irrigation, but very rudely; under a careful system of cultivation the -valley of the Kura River, which the railway follows to Tiflis, could -support a large population. - -From Baku to Tiflis by railway is a distance of three hundred and -forty-one miles, and the line is said to have cost, including rolling -stock, about fifty thousand dollars a mile. In the work on the desert -portion many of the laborers died from the effects of the extreme -dryness of the atmosphere. The whole distance from Baku to Batoum, on -the Black Sea, is five hundred and sixty-one miles. - -[Illustration: LOOKING DOWN ON THE STEPPE.] - -Tiflis is thirteen hundred and fifty feet above the level of the sea, -and the point where the railway reaches its greatest elevation is -eighteen hundred feet higher, or thirty-two hundred feet in all. The -grades are very steep; there is one stretch of eight miles where it is -two hundred and forty feet to the mile, and for a considerable distance -it exceeds one hundred feet to the mile. It is proposed to overcome the -steepest grade by a long tunnel which would reduce the highest elevation -to little more than two thousand feet. - -Our friends reached Tiflis in the evening, after an interesting ride, in -spite of the monotony of the desert portion of the route. Frank will -tell us the story of their visit to the famous city of the Caucasus. - -"We were somewhat disappointed," said he, "with our first view of -Tiflis. We had an impression that it was in the centre of a fertile -plain surrounded by mountains; actually the ground on which it stands -is not fertile, and the surroundings consist of brown hills instead of -mountains. The sides of the hills are barren, and there would hardly be -a shrub or tree in the city were it not for the system of irrigation -which is maintained. The prettiest part of the city is the quarter -occupied by the Germans, where there are rows and groups of trees and a -great many luxuriant gardens. The Germans are descended from some who -came here in the last century to escape religious persecution. Though -born in Tiflis and citizens of Russia, in every sense they preserve -their language and customs, and do not mingle freely with their -Muscovite neighbors. - -"There are about one hundred and ten thousand inhabitants in Tiflis; -nearly one-third are Russians, rather more than a third Armenians, -twenty-three thousand Georgians, and the rest are Germans, Persians, and -mixed races in general. Most of the business is in the hands of the -Armenians, and many of them are wealthy; nearly all speak Russian, and -mingle with the Russians more harmoniously than do any of the others. -The Persians live in a quarter by themselves, and it is by no means the -cleanest part of the city. The Georgians preserve their dress and -language, and, though entirely peaceful, are said to maintain the same -hatred to Russia as when fighting to preserve their independence. - -"Many of the officials in the Caucasus are Armenians, and some of the -ablest generals of the Russian army belong to the same race. Gen. Loris -Melikoff is an Armenian, and so are Generals Lazareff and Tergoukasoff, -as well as others of less importance. The Armenians have four newspapers -at Tiflis, and four monthly reviews. There are nearly a million of these -people in Russia and the Caucasus, and their treatment is in marked -contrast to that of the eight hundred thousand Armenian subjects of -Turkey who have been most cruelly oppressed by the Sultan and his -officers. - -"We had read of the beauty of the Georgians, who used to sell their -daughters to be the wives of the Turks, and naturally looked around us -for handsome faces. We saw them among the men as well as among the -women; and we saw more handsome men than women, perhaps for the reason -that men were much more numerous. The Georgians are a fine race of -people, and so are all the natives of the Caucasus. The mountain air all -the world over has a reputation for developing strength and intelligence -among those who breathe it. - -"Since the occupation of Georgia and the other parts of the Caucasus by -Russia, the people are no longer sold as slaves for Turkish masters. -Whatever may be the faults of the Russian rule, it is certainly far in -advance of that of Turkey. - -[Illustration: VIEW OF TIFLIS.] - -"Tiflis may be said to be in two parts, the old and the new. The former -is on the bank of the river, and its streets are narrow and dirty; the -new part is on higher ground, and has been chiefly built by the Russians -since they obtained possession of the country. In this part the streets -are wide, and lined with many handsome buildings; in the old part there -are several Armenian churches and caravansaries, and the greater portion -of the commerce is transacted there. - -"We saw a great many Russian soldiers, and were told that a large -garrison is always maintained in Tiflis, which is a central point from -which troops can be sent in any direction. The Government offices and -the palace of the Governor-general are in the Russian quarter, and of -course there are plenty of Russian churches, with their gilded domes -sparkling in the sunlight. - -"We visited one of the churches, and also the Armenian Cathedral; we -tried to see the interior of a mosque, but were forbidden admittance -except on payment of more money than we chose to give. We drove to the -hot baths, which are situated just outside the city; they are largely -patronized, and have an excellent reputation for the relief of gout, -rheumatism, and similar troubles. There are many hot springs in the -neighborhood of Tiflis that have been flowing for centuries, without any -change in temperature or volume. - -"We wanted to go overland to Vladikavkaz, for the sake of the journey -among the Caucasus, but our plans were otherwise, and we continued by -railway to Batoum. The mountains of this range are as picturesque as any -we have ever seen. The passes are like those of the Alps or the Sierra -Nevadas, and as we wound along the line of railway to the crest of the -divide, every moment revealed a new and splendid picture. We had distant -views of Elburz and Ararat, two of the most famous mountains of this -region, and greatly regretted our inability to visit the latter, which -is revered as the resting-place of Noah's Ark. Mount Ararat has been -ascended by several travellers; they describe the journey as very -fatiguing, but were amply repaid by the magnificent view from the -summit. - -"We left Tiflis dry and dusty, and the dry air remained with us till we -crossed the ridge and began our descent. Then we entered the clouds, and -as we passed below their level found ourselves in a pouring rain. The -western slope of the Caucasus is a rainy region, while the eastern is -dry. Baku has too little rain, and Batoum too much; the western slope is -luxuriant, while the eastern is an arid desert, and the fertility of the -former continues down to the shore of the Black Sea. - -[Illustration: THE PASS OF DARIEL, CAUCASUS.] - -"Grapes and melons were offered at every station, at prices that were -a marvel of cheapness. Two cents would buy a large melon, and the same -money was gladly accepted for a bunch of grapes which would furnish a -dinner for a very hungry man. A great deal of wine is raised in this -region; three hundred thousand acres are said to be devoted to the -culture of the grape in the Caucasus, and about forty million gallons of -wine are made annually. Wine is plenty and cheap; the Russians refuse to -drink the wine of the Caucasus, just as Californians affect to despise -that of their own State. We are told that a large part of the so-called -foreign wine sold in Tiflis and other cities of the Caucasus is really -the product of the country under fictitious labels. - -[Illustration: GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF THE CAUCASUS.] - -"We have already mentioned the use of petroleum in the locomotives of -the Trans-Caucasian Railway. Where we stopped for fuel and water the -petroleum-tank was side by side with the water-tank, and there was no -sign of wood-yard or coal-heap. A few minutes charged the tender with -petroleum and water, in separate compartments, and then we moved on, -just as on any other railway line. - -"It is delightful riding behind a petroleum locomotive, as there are -neither cinders nor smoke. After the fire is started the furnace door is -not opened; the fireman regards the flame through a hole about two -inches square, and regulates it just as may be desired. They told us -that steam could be more evenly maintained than with coal or wood; there -was no excess of steam while waiting at stations, and consequently no -necessity for 'blowing off.' Wonder what railway in America will be the -first to adopt the new fuel? - -"The Trans-Caucasian Railway was begun in 1871; its starting-point was -at Poti, which has a poor harbor and stands in marshy ground, so that -fevers and malaria are altogether too common. In 1878 Russia came into -possession of Batoum, which has a good harbor, and immediately a branch -line sixty miles long was built from that city to connect with the -railway. Now nearly all the business has gone to Batoum. Poti is -decaying very rapidly, but for military reasons it is not likely to be -abandoned. - -"By the treaty of Berlin Batoum was made a free port, and the Russians -were forbidden to fortify it; but they have kept the Turkish -fortifications, and not only kept them uninjured, but have repaired -them whenever there were signs of decay. On this subject the following -story is told: - -"The casemated fortress which commands the port required to be -strengthened in certain points, and the contractors were asked for -estimates for the work. One man presented an estimate which he headed -'Repairs to Fortifications.' The general commanding the district -immediately sent for the contractor, and said to him, - -"'There are no fortifications in Batoum; they are forbidden by the -treaty of Berlin. Your estimates must be for "garrison-barrack repairs." -Remember this in all your dealings with the Government.' - -[Illustration: RUINED FORTRESS IN THE CAUCASUS.] - -"We were only a few hours in Batoum, as we embraced the opportunity to -embark on one of the Russian Company's steamers for Sebastopol and -Odessa. Batoum is growing very rapidly, and promises to be a place of -great importance in a very few years. The old town of the Turks has -given place to a new one; the Russians have destroyed nearly all the -rickety old buildings, laid out whole streets and avenues of modern -ones, extended the piers running into the sea, drained the marshes that -formerly made the place unhealthy, and in other ways have displayed -their enterprise. We were told that there is a great deal of smuggling -carried on here, but probably no more than at Gibraltar, Hong-Kong, and -other free ports in other parts of the world. - -[Illustration: RUINED CHURCH NEAR BATOUM.] - -"And now behold us embarked on a comfortable steamer, and bidding -farewell to the Caucasus. Our steamer belongs to the Russian Company of -Navigation and Commerce, which has its headquarters at Odessa; it sends -its ships not only to the ports of the Black Sea, but to the Levantine -coast of the Mediterranean, through the Suez Canal to India, and through -the Strait of Gibraltar to England. A line to New York and another to -China and Japan are under consideration; it is probable that the latter -will be established before the Trans-Atlantic one. The company owns more -than a hundred steamers, and is heavily subsidized by the Russian -Government." - -The first stop of the steamer was made at Trebizond, the most important -port of Turkey, on the southern coast of the Black Sea. It has a -population of about fifty thousand, and carries on an extensive commerce -with Persia and the interior of Asiatic Turkey. Latterly its commerce -has suffered somewhat by the opening of the Caspian route from Russia -to Persia, but it is still very large. - -Frank and Fred had two or three hours on shore at Trebizond, which -enabled them to look at the walls and gardens of this very ancient city. -Frank recorded in his note-book that Trebizond was the ancient -Trapezius, and that it was a flourishing city at the time of Xenophon's -famous retreat, which every college boy has read about in the -"Anabasis." It was captured by the Romans when they defeated -Mithridates. The Emperor Trajan tried to improve the port by building a -mole, and made the city the capital of Cappadocian Pontus. - -[Illustration: QUARANTINE HARBOR, TREBIZOND.] - -The Trebizond of to-day consists of the old and new town, the former -surrounded by walls enclosing the citadel, and the latter without walls -and extending back over the hills. It has two harbors, both of them -unsafe at certain seasons of the year. A few millions of the many that -Turkey has spent in the purchase of cannon and iron-clad ships of war -would make the port of Trebizond one of the best on the coast of the -Black Sea. - -Great numbers of camels, pack-horses, and oxen were receiving or -discharging their loads at the warehouses near the water-front. Fred -ascertained on inquiry that there were no wagon-roads to Persia or the -interior of Asiatic Turkey, but that all merchandise was carried on the -backs of animals. One authority says sixty thousand pack-horses, two -thousand camels, three thousand oxen, and six thousand donkeys are -employed in the Persian trade, and the value of the commerce exceeds -seven million dollars per annum. - -[Illustration: VIEW OF ERZEROOM.] - -"We are only a hundred and ten miles from Erzeroom," said Fred, "the -city of Turkish Armenia, which is well worth seeing. Wouldn't it be fun -to go there and have a look at a place that stands more than a mile in -the air?" - -"Is that really so?" Frank asked; "more than a mile in the air?" - -"Yes," replied his cousin, "Erzeroom is six thousand two hundred feet -above the level of the sea, and two hundred feet higher than the plain -which surrounds it. It had a hundred thousand inhabitants at the -beginning of this century, but now has about a third of that number, -owing to the emigration of the Armenians after the war between Turkey -and Russia in 1829. It is frightfully cold in winter and terribly hot in -summer, but for all that the climate is healthy." - -"How long will it take us to get there?" - -"About fifty hours," was the reply. "We must go on horseback, but can -return in forty hours, as the road descends a great part of the way from -Erzeroom to Trebizond. Isn't it strange that with such an immense trade -as there is between that place and this--for the road to Persia passes -through Erzeroom--the Turks have been content with a bridle-path instead -of a wagon-road, or, better still, a railway. Besides--" - -Further discussion of the road to Erzeroom and the possibilities of -travelling it were cut short by the announcement that it was time to -return to the steamer. An hour later our friends saw the coast of -Asiatic Turkey fading in the distance, as the steamer headed for -Southern Russia. - -Her course was laid for Sebastopol, the city which is famous for the -long siege it sustained during the Crimean war, and for possessing the -finest natural harbor on the Black Sea. Doctor Bronson suggested that -the youths should dispose of the time of the voyage by reading up the -history of that celebrated war, and particularly of the siege and -capture of Sebastopol. - -The weather was fine enough to tempt them to idleness, but Frank and -Fred had a rule that when they had anything to do they would do it. -Accordingly they busied themselves with the books at their command, and -made the following condensed account of the contest of Russia with the -nations of Western Europe: - -"The Crimea was conquered by Russia in the time of Catherine the Great, -and immediately after the conquest the Russians began to fortify the -harbor of Sebastopol (Sacred City). When they went there they found only -a miserable Tartar village called Akhtiar; they created one of the -finest naval and military ports in the world, and built a city with -broad streets and handsome quays and docks. In 1850 it had a population -of about fifty thousand, which included many soldiers and marines, -together with workmen employed in the Government establishments. - -"In 1850 there was a dispute between France and Russia relative to the -custody of the holy places in Palestine; there had been a contention -concerning this matter for several centuries, in which sometimes the -Greek Church and sometimes the Latin had the advantage. In 1850, at the -suggestion of Turkey, a mixed commission was appointed to consider the -dispute and decide upon it. - -"The Porte, as the Turkish Government is officially designated, issued -in March, 1852, a decree that the Greek Church should be confirmed in -the rights it formerly held, and that the Latins could not claim -exclusive possession of any of the holy places. It allowed them to have -a key to the Church of the Nativity at Bethlehem, and to certain other -buildings of minor importance. - -[Illustration: TURKISH AUTHORITY.] - -"If you want to know how the Christian churches are now quarrelling -about the sacred places in the East, read Chapters XXII., XXIII., and -XXIV. of 'The Boy Travellers in Egypt and the Holy Land.' - -"France accepted the decision, though she did not like it; Russia -continued to demand that the Latin monks should be deprived of their -keys, and finally insisted that the Czar should have a protectorate over -the Greek Christians in Turkey. The Porte said such a protectorate -would interfere with its own authority, and refused the demand; -thereupon the Russian Minister left Constantinople on the 21st of May, -1853. - -"This may be considered the beginning of the war between Russia and -Turkey, though there was no fighting for several months. - -"France came to the aid of Turkey; England came to the aid of Turkey and -France. Representatives of England, France, Austria, and Prussia met at -Vienna and agreed upon a note which Russia accepted; Turkey demanded -modifications which Russia refused; Turkey declared war against Russia -on the 5th of October, and Russia declared war against Turkey on the 1st -of November. - -"A Turkish fleet of twelve ships was lying at Sinope, a port on the -southern shore of the Black Sea. On the 30th of November the Russians -sent a fleet of eleven ships from Sebastopol which destroyed the Turkish -fleet, all except one ship that carried the news to Constantinople. Then -the allied fleets of the French and English entered the Black Sea, and -the war began in dead earnest. For some months it was confined to the -Danubian principalities and to the Baltic Sea; on the 14th of September, -1854, the allied army landed at Eupatoria, in the Crimea, and the extent -of their preparations will be understood when it is known that forty -thousand men, with a large number of horses and a full equipment of -artillery, were put on shore in a single day! - -"On the 20th of September the battle of the Alma was fought by -fifty-seven thousand English, French, and Turkish troops, against fifty -thousand Russians. The battle began at noon, and four hours later the -Russians were defeated and in full retreat. The Russians lost five -thousand men, and the Allies about three thousand four hundred; the -Allies might have marched into Sebastopol with very little resistance, -but their commanders were uncertain as to the number of troops defending -the city, and hesitated to make the attempt. - -"On the 17th of October the siege began. A grand attack was made by the -Allies, but was unsuccessful, and eight days later the famous charge of -the Light Brigade at Balaklava was made. On the 5th of November the -Russians attacked the Allies at Inkermann, and were repulsed. The battle -of Inkermann was fought in a fog by forty thousand Russians against -fifteen thousand French and English. The latter had the advantage of -position and weapons; the Allies frankly credited the Russian troops -with the greatest bravery in returning repeatedly to the attack as their -battalions were mowed down by the steady fire of the defenders. - -"During the winter the siege was pushed, and the allied army suffered -greatly from cholera, cold, and sickness. The siege continued during -spring and summer; the Allies made an unsuccessful attack on the -Malakoff and Redan forts on the 18th of June, 1855, and all through the -long months there were daily conflicts between the opposing armies. - -"The Russians sunk several ships of their fleet in the harbor of -Sebastopol soon after the battle of the Alma, but retained others for -possible future use. On the 8th of September the French captured the -Malakoff fort, the English at the same time making an unsuccessful -attack on the Redan. The Russians evacuated Sebastopol during the night, -crossing over to the north side of the harbor, burning or sinking their -fleet, and destroying their military stores. - -"This gave the Allies the possession of the city, and though the two -armies confronted each other for some time, there was never any serious -fighting after that. Other warlike operations were conducted along the -Russian shores of the Black Sea. Proposals of peace were made by Austria -with the consent of the Allies, and finally, on the 30th of March, 1856, -the treaty of peace was signed at Paris. The Allies had begun the -destruction of the docks at Sebastopol, but so extensive were those -works that with all the engineering skill at their command they were not -through with it until July 9th, when they evacuated the Crimea." - -"Will that do for a condensed history of the Crimean War?" said Frank, -as the result of their labors was submitted to the Doctor. - -"It will do very well," was the reply. "Perhaps some of your -school-mates who are not fond of history may be inclined to skip, but I -think the majority of readers will thank you for giving it." - -"Perhaps they would like a few words on the war between Turkey and -Russia in 1877-78," said Fred. "If you think so we will give it." - -Doctor Bronson approved the suggestion, and an hour or two later Fred -submitted the following: - -"In 1875 and '76 there were disturbances in Constantinople and in -several provinces of European Turkey. The Sultan of Turkey was deposed, -and either committed suicide or was murdered. There were revolts in -Herzegovina and Bulgaria, and the troops sent to suppress these revolts -committed many outrages. Servia and Montenegro made war upon Turkey on -behalf of the Christian subjects of the Porte; Russia came to the -support of Servia and Montenegro. There was a vast deal of diplomacy, in -which all the great powers joined, and on several occasions it looked as -though half of Europe would be involved in the difficulty. - -[Illustration: VIEW OF SEBASTOPOL.] - -"Turkey and Servia made peace on March 1, 1877. The principal nations of -Europe held a conference, and made proposals for reforms in Turkey -which the Porte rejected. Russia declared war against Turkey April 24, -1877, and immediately entered the Turkish dominions in Roumania and -Armenia. - -[Illustration: RUINS OF THE MALAKOFF, SEBASTOPOL.] - -"The war lasted until March 3, 1878, when a treaty of peace was made at -San Stefano, near Constantinople. Many battles were fought during the -war, and the losses were heavy on both sides; the severest battles were -those of the Shipka Pass and of Plevna. The fortune of war fluctuated, -but on the whole the successes were on the side of Russia, and her -armies finally stood ready to enter Constantinople. Her losses were said -to have been fully one hundred thousand men, and the cost of the war was -six hundred million dollars. - -"After the war came the Berlin Conference of 1878, which gave -independence to some of the countries formerly controlled by Turkey, -made new conditions for the government of others, regulated the -boundaries between Russia and Turkey, giving the former several ports -and districts of importance, and required the Porte to guarantee certain -rights and privileges to her Christian subjects. England interfered, as -she generally does, to prevent Russia from reaping the full advantages -she expected from the war, and altogether the enterprise was a very -costly one for the government of the Czar." - -"A very good summary of the war," said the Doctor. "You have disposed of -an important phase of the 'Eastern Question' with a brevity that some of -the diplomatic writers would do well to study. You might add that for -two centuries Russia has had her eye on Constantinople, and is -determined to possess it; England is equally determined that Russia -shall not have her way, and the other powers are more in accord with -England than with Russia." - -The steamer entered the harbor of Sebastopol, and made fast to the dock. -Frank and Fred observed that the port was admirably defended by forts at -the entrance. Doctor Bronson told them the forts which stood there in -1854 were destroyed by the Allies after the capture of the city, but -they have since been rebuilt and made stronger than ever before. - -As they neared the forts that guard the entrance of the harbor, a -Russian officer who was familiar with the locality pointed out several -objects of interest. "On the left," said he, "that pyramid on the low -hill indicates the battle-field of Inkermann; still farther on the left -is the valley of the Alma; those white dots near the Inkermann pyramid -mark the site of the British cemetery, and close by it is the French -one. In front of you and beyond the harbor is the mound of the Malakoff, -and beyond it are the Redan and the Mamelon Vert. Those heaps of ruins -are the walls of the Marine Barracks and Arsenal; they are rapidly -disappearing in the restoration that has been going on since 1871, and -in a few years we hope to have them entirely removed." - -There was quite a crowd at the landing-place, variously composed of -officers, soldiers, and mujiks; the former for duty or curiosity, and -the mujiks scenting a possible job. Our friends proceeded directly to -the hotel, which was only two or three hundred yards from the -landing-place. As soon as they had selected their rooms and arranged the -terms for their accommodation, Dr. Bronson told the proprietor that they -wished a carriage and a guide as soon as possible. A messenger was -despatched at once for the carriage, while the guide was summoned from -another part of the house. - -"I suppose you will go first to the cemetery," said the host of the -establishment. - -"We don't care for the cemetery," said the Doctor, "until we have seen -everything else. If there is any time remaining, we may have a look at -it." - -"Then you are Americans," exclaimed the landlord. "All Englishmen coming -here want to go first to the cemetery as they have friends buried there, -but Americans never care for it." - -Doctor Bronson smiled at this mode of ascertaining the nationality of -English-speaking visitors, and said it had been remarked by previous -visitors to Sebastopol. - -[Illustration: RUSSIAN CARPENTERS AT WORK.] - -When the guide and carriage were ready, the party started on its round -of visits. From the bluff they looked down upon the harbor, which was -lined with workshops and bordered in places by a railway track, arranged -so that ships were laden directly from the trains, and trains from the -ships. The railway connects with the entire system of the Empire. Doctor -Bronson said that if it had existed at the time of the war, the capture -of Sebastopol would have been out of the question. Russia had then only -a primitive means of communication by wagon-road; she had an abundance -of men and war material, but no adequate mode of transportation. The -Crimean war taught her the necessity of railways, and she has since -acted upon the lesson for which she paid such a high price. - -[Illustration: COSSACKS AND CHASSEURS.] - -Frank and Fred climbed quickly to the top of the Malakoff, and the -Doctor followed demurely behind them. The lines which marked the saps -and mines of the Allies have been nearly all filled up, and the traces -of the war are being obliterated. From the top of the casemate the guide -pointed out many places of interest. With considerable animation he -told how for twenty years after the war the ruins of the city remained -pretty nearly as they were when the Allies evacuated the Crimea; whole -squares of what had once been fine buildings were nothing but heaps of -stones. But now Sebastopol is being restored to her former beauty, and -every year large areas of the ruins are making way for new structures. - -"Sebastopol will be a greater city than it ever was before," said Doctor -Bronson, as they stood on the Malakoff. "It was a naval port before, and -not a commercial one; now it is both naval and commercial, and by -glancing at the map of the Black Sea you can perceive the advantages of -its position." - -Then the guide pointed out the new dock-yards and barracks, the -warehouses and docks of "The Russian Company of Navigation and -Commerce," the railway-station close to the shore of the harbor, and the -blocks of new buildings which were under construction. - -Then he showed the positions of Inkermann, the Tchernaya, and the Redan, -and indicated the lines of the French and English attack. When the scene -had been sufficiently studied, the party returned to the carriage and -continued their ride. The driver was instructed to go to Balaklava, -stopping on the way to show them the spot which history has made famous -for the charge of the Light Brigade. - -As they passed along the level plateau or plain of Sebastopol, they saw -everywhere traces of the camps of the armies that besieged the city. The -guide showed the route of the railway which connected the harbor of -Balaklava with the camp, the wagon-roads built by the Allies, the -redoubts that served as defences against attacks in the rear, and the -ridges of earth which marked the positions of the huts where officers -and soldiers had their quarters during the terrible winter of 1854-55. - -Naturally the conversation turned upon the charge of the Light Brigade. -One of the youths asked the Doctor what he thought of it. - -"There has been a great deal of controversy about the matter," was the -reply. "It is difficult to arrive at the exact facts, as Captain Nolan, -who brought the order for the cavalry to advance, was killed in the -charge. Comparing the statements of all concerned in issuing, receiving, -and executing the order, it is evident that the order was 'blundered' -somewhere. This was the understanding immediately after the controversy; -Tennyson's poem on the affair originally contained the following: - - "'Then up came an order - Which some one had blundered.' - -Afterwards these lines were stricken out, and do not appear in the poem -as printed in the editions of Tennyson's works. - -[Illustration: BRITISH SOLDIERS IN CAMP.] - -"The commander of the French army justly remarked of this charge, -_'C'est magnifique, mais ce n'est pas la guerre_' ("It is magnificent, -but it is not war"). Twelve thousand Russians had attacked the English -with the intention of taking Balaklava and its port, but they were -compelled to retire to the end of the valley. They had re-formed, with -their artillery in front, and infantry and cavalry immediately behind. -By the misunderstanding of the order of Lord Raglan, the British -commander-in-chief, Lord Lucan, who commanded the cavalry division, -ordered Lord Cardigan to charge with his light cavalry. - -"In other words the light cavalry, six hundred and seventy strong, were -to attack twelve thousand Russians with thirty cannon on their front. -The charge was over a plain a mile and a half long, and the Russians had -a battery of field artillery on each side of the valley within -supporting distance of that at the end. Consequently there is an -excellent description of the scene in Tennyson's lines, - - "'Cannon to right of them, - Cannon to left of them, - Cannon in front of them, - Volley'd and thunder'd.' - -"The charge was made very reluctantly by Lord Cardigan, as you may well -believe, but he had no alternative other than to obey the order of his -superior. There was never a more brilliant charge. The column advanced -at a trot for the first half of the distance, and afterwards at a -gallop; the Russian cannon made huge gaps in the ranks, but they were -closed up, and on and on swept the heroes, up to and beyond the Russian -cannon-- - - "'Sabring the gunners there, - Charging an army, while - All the world wonder'd: - Plunged in the battery-smoke, - Right thro' the line they broke; - Cossack and Russian - Reel'd from the sabre-stroke - Shatter'd and sunder'd. - Then they rode back, but not, - Not the six hundred.' - -[Illustration: ALFRED TENNYSON.] - -"According to one authority, out of six hundred and seventy British -horsemen that went to the charge, only one hundred and ninety-eight -returned. Another authority gives the total loss in killed, wounded, and -captured as four hundred and twenty-six. Five hundred and twenty horses -were lost in the charge." - -"Here is Balaklava," said the guide, as the carriage stopped at a turn -in the road overlooking the valley. - -Our friends stepped from the vehicle and sat down upon a little mound of -earth, where they tried to picture the scene of the dreadful October day -of 1854. Of the actors and spectators of that event very few are now -alive. - -The Doctor completed the recitation of the poem, and his youthful -listeners felt down to the depths of their hearts the full force of the -closing lines: - - "Honor the brave and bold, - Long shall the tale be told, - Yea, when our babes are old, - How they rode onward. - When can their glory fade? - O the wild charge they made! - All the world wonder'd. - Honor the charge they made! - Honor the Light Brigade! - Noble six hundred!" - -From the battle-field the party went to the village of Balaklava and -hired a row-boat, in which they paddled about the little, landlocked -harbor, and out through its entrance till they danced on the blue waters -of the Euxine Sea. Frank and Fred could hardly believe that the narrow -basin once contained a hundred and fifty English and French ships; it -seemed that there was hardly room for a third of that number. - -[Illustration: A BROKEN TARANTASSE.] - -On their return journey they passed a party with a broken tarantasse. -They stopped a moment and offered any assistance in their power, but -finding they could be of no use they did not tarry long. When they -reached Sebastopol the sun had gone down in the west, and the stars -twinkled in the clear sky that domed the Crimea. The next morning they -rambled about the harbor and docks of the city, and a little past noon -were steaming away in the direction of Odessa. - -A day was spent in this prosperous city, which has a population of -nearly two hundred thousand, on a spot where at the end of the last -century there was only a Tartar village of a dozen houses, and a small -fortress of Turkish construction. Odessa has an extensive commerce, and -the ships of all nations lie at its wharves. Its greatest export trade -is in wheat, which goes to all parts of the Mediterranean, and also to -England. The Black Sea wheat formerly found a market in America, but all -that has been changed in recent years through the development of the -wheat-growing interest in our Western States and on the Pacific Coast.' - -Immediately on their arrival they sent their passports to receive the -proper permission for leaving the country. Everything was arranged in -the course of the day, and on the following afternoon they embarked on a -steamer that carried them to Constantinople. - -[Illustration: THE BOSPORUS.] - -The second morning after leaving Odessa they entered the Bosporus, the -strait which separates Europe and Asia, and connects the waters of the -Black Sea with the Sea of Marmora and the Mediterranean. As they looked -at the beautiful panorama, which shifted its scene with every pulsation -of the steamer's engine, Frank said he had had a dream during the night -which was so curious that he wanted to tell it. - -"What was it?" the Doctor asked. - -"I dreamed," said Frank, "that England and Russia had become friends, -and made up their minds to work together for the supremacy of the world. -England had supplied the money for completing the railway to India; she -had built a tunnel under the British Channel, and it was possible to -ride from London to Calcutta or Bombay without changing cars. The Turks -had been expelled from Europe; European Turkey was governed by a Russian -prince married to an English princess; the principality had its capital -at Constantinople, and a guarantee of neutrality like that of Belgium, -to which all the great powers had assented. War and commercial ships of -all nations could pass the Bosporus and Dardanelles as freely as through -the Suez Canal, and the restrictions made by the treaty of Paris were -entirely removed. England and Russia had formed an offensive and -defensive alliance, and all the rest of the world had been ordered to -keep the peace. And they were keeping it, too, as they dreaded the -combined power of England's money and Russia's men." - -"A very pretty fancy!" said the Doctor. "What a pity it was all a -dream!" - -THE END. - - - - -INTERESTING BOOKS FOR BOYS. - - * * * * * - -BOUND VOLUMES OF HARPER'S YOUNG PEOPLE for 1881, 1883, 1884, 1885, and -1886, Handsomely Bound in Illuminated Cloth, $3.50 per vol. _Bound -Volumes for 1880 and 1882 are out of stock._ - -THE BOY TRAVELLERS IN THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE. Adventures of Two Youths in a -Journey in European and Asiatic Russia. With Accounts of a Tour across -Siberia, Voyages on the Amoor, Volga, and other Rivers, a Visit to -Central Asia, Travels among the Exiles, and a Historical Sketch of the -Empire from its Foundation to the Present Time. By THOMAS W. KNOX. -Copiously Illustrated. 8vo, Cloth, $3.00. - -THE BOY TRAVELLERS IN SOUTH AMERICA. Adventures of Two Youths in a -Journey through Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, Argentine -Republic, and Chili. With Descriptions of Patagonia and Tierra del -Fuego, and Voyages upon the Amazon and La Plata Rivers. By THOMAS W. -KNOX. Copiously Illustrated. 8vo, Cloth, $3.00. - -THE BOY TRAVELLERS IN THE FAR EAST. By THOMAS W. KNOX. Five Parts. -Copiously Illustrated. 8vo, Cloth, $3.00 each. - - PART I. ADVENTURES OF TWO YOUTHS IN A JOURNEY TO JAPAN AND CHINA. - - PART II. ADVENTURES OF TWO YOUTHS IN A JOURNEY TO SIAM AND JAVA. - With Descriptions of Cochin-China, Cambodia, Sumatra, and the Malay - Archipelago. - - PART III. ADVENTURES OF TWO YOUTHS IN A JOURNEY TO CEYLON AND - INDIA. With Descriptions of Borneo, the Philippine Islands, and - Burmah. - - PART IV. ADVENTURES OF TWO YOUTHS IN A JOURNEY TO EGYPT AND - PALESTINE. - - PART V. ADVENTURES OF TWO YOUTHS IN A JOURNEY THROUGH AFRICA. - -THE VOYAGE OF THE "VIVIAN" to the North Pole and Beyond. Adventures of -Two Youths in the Open Polar Sea. By THOMAS W. KNOX. Profusely -Illustrated. 8vo, Cloth, $2.50. - -HUNTING ADVENTURES ON LAND AND SEA. By THOMAS W. KNOX. Two Parts. -Copiously Illustrated. 8vo, Cloth, $2.50 each. - - PART I. THE YOUNG NIMRODS IN NORTH AMERICA. - - PART II. THE YOUNG NIMRODS AROUND THE WORLD. - -WHAT MR. DARWIN SAW IN HIS VOYAGE ROUND THE WORLD IN THE SHIP "BEAGLE." -Illustrated. 8vo, Cloth, $3.00. - -FRIENDS WORTH KNOWING. Glimpses of American Natural History. By ERNEST -INGERSOLL. Illustrated. 16mo, Cloth, $1.00. - -BY CHARLES CARLETON COFFIN. Four Volumes. Illustrated. 8vo, Cloth, $3.00 -each. - - THE STORY OF LIBERTY.--OLD TIMES IN THE COLONIES.--THE BOYS OF '76 - (A History of the Battles of the Revolution).--BUILDING THE NATION. - -CAMP LIFE IN THE WOODS; AND THE TRICKS OF TRAPPING AND TRAP MAKING. By -W. HAMILTON GIBSON, Author of "Pastoral Days." Illustrated by the -Author. 16mo, Cloth, $1.00. - -HOW TO GET STRONG, AND HOW TO STAY SO. By WILLIAM BLAIKIE. With -Illustrations. 16mo, Cloth, $1.00. - -"HARPER'S YOUNG PEOPLE" SERIES. Illustrated. 16mo, Cloth, $1.00 per vol. - - THE ADVENTURES OF JIMMY BROWN. Written by Himself and Edited by - W. L. ALDEN. - - THE CRUISE OF THE CANOE CLUB. By W. L. ALDEN. - - THE CRUISE OF THE "GHOST." By W. L. ALDEN. - - THE MORAL PIRATES. By W. L. ALDEN. - - TOBY TYLER; OR, TEN WEEKS WITH A CIRCUS. By JAMES OTIS. - - MR. STUBBS'S BROTHER. A Sequel to "Toby Tyler." By JAMES OTIS. - - TIM AND TIP; OR, THE ADVENTURES OF A BOY AND A DOG. By JAMES OTIS. - - LEFT BEHIND; OR, TEN DAYS A NEWSBOY. 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LOSSING, LL.D., Author of "Field-book of the Revolution," "Field-book -of the War of 1812," "Cyclopædia of United States History," &c. -Illustrated by Facsimiles of Pen-and-ink Drawings by H. Rosa. pp. xxii., -348. 8vo, Ornamental Cloth, $2.50. - -THE HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES NAVY, FOR BOYS. By BENSON J. LOSSING, -LL.D. Illustrated. 12mo, Half Leather, $1.75. - -THE ADVENTURES OF A YOUNG NATURALIST. By LUCIEN BIART. With 117 -Illustrations. 12mo, Cloth, $1.75. - -AN INVOLUNTARY VOYAGE. By LUCIEN BIART. Illustrated. 12mo, Cloth, $1.25. - -ROUND THE WORLD; including a Residence in Victoria, and a Journey by -Rail across North America. By a Boy. Edited by SAMUEL SMILES. -Illustrated. 12mo, Cloth, $1.50. - -THE SELF-HELP SERIES. By SAMUEL SMILES. 12mo, Cloth, $1.00 per volume. - - SELF-HELP.--CHARACTER.--THRIFT.--DUTY. - -POLITICS FOR YOUNG AMERICANS. By CHARLES NORDHOFF. 12mo, Half Leather, -75 cents. - -THE CHILDREN OF OLD PARK'S TAVERN. A Story of the South Shore. By -FRANCES A. 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Many Portraits. 12mo, Cloth, -$1.75. - -THE SWISS FAMILY ROBINSON; or, Adventures of a Father and Mother and -Four Sons on a Desert Island. Illustrated. 2 vols., 18mo, Cloth, $1.50. - -THE SWISS FAMILY ROBINSON--Continued: being a Sequel to the Foregoing. 2 -vols., 18mo, Cloth, $1.50. - -DOGS AND THEIR DOINGS. By Rev. F. O. MORRIS, B.A. Illustrated. Square -8vo, Cloth, Gilt Sides, $1.75. - -TALES FROM THE ODYSSEY FOR BOYS AND GIRLS. By C. M. B. 32mo, Paper, 25 -cents; Cloth, 40 cents. - -THE ADVENTURES OF REUBEN DAVIDGER; Seventeen Years and Four Months -Captive among the Dyaks of Borneo. By J. GREENWOOD. 8vo, Cloth, -Illustrated, $1.25; 4to, Paper, 15 cents. - -WILD SPORTS OF THE WORLD. A Book of Natural History and Adventure. By J. -GREENWOOD. Illustrated. Crown 8vo, Cloth, $2.50. - -CAST UP BY THE SEA; or, The Adventures of Ned Grey. By Sir SAMUEL W. -BAKER. 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