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diff --git a/old/60034-0.txt b/old/60034-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 5fb51dc..0000000 --- a/old/60034-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,4728 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Principles of Ornament, by James Ward - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: The Principles of Ornament - -Author: James Ward - -Editor: George Aitchison - -Release Date: August 1, 2019 [EBook #60034] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PRINCIPLES OF ORNAMENT *** - - - - -Produced by Chuck Greif and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images available at The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - THE - PRINCIPLES OF ORNAMENT - -[Illustration: Patera in silver from the Hildesheim treasure. - - _Frontispiece._] - - - - - [Illustration] - - THE - PRINCIPLES OF ORNAMENT - - BY - JAMES WARD - HEAD-MASTER OF THE MACCLESFIELD SCHOOL OF ART - - EDITED BY - GEORGE AITCHISON, A.R.A. - PROFESSOR OF ARCHITECTURE AT THE ROYAL ACADEMY OF ARTS - - _NEW AND ENLARGED EDITION_ - - NEW YORK - CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS - 153-157 FIFTH AVENUE - 1896 - - RICHARD CLAY & SONS, LIMITED, - LONDON & BUNGAY. - - - - -EDITOR’S PREFACE - - -As Examiner on the Principles of Ornament at the Science and Art -Department, I found there was no good English text-book on the subject, -so the necessary information could only be picked up by extensive -reading and independent observation, and these are not to be expected -from young students. Certain parts of the subject have been admirably -treated by Moody in his _Lectures and Lessons on Art_,--in fact I know -of no book where the subjects treated show such keen observation and -profound knowledge, but they are embedded in lectures on other subjects, -and the book has no index. Having written the original Syllabus on the -Principles of Ornament, I was disposed to write a text-book, had not -other avocations prevented me. Last year Mr. Ward’s book on _The -Elementary Principles of Ornament_ was sent me, and though it was a -useful book and had a glossary, it contained some doubtful passages, and -being printed from a course of lectures it was a little too discursive. -In writing the new Syllabus this year I could not recommend it for a -text-book as it stood, but as I thought it would be unfair to Mr. Ward -for me to write a text-book after the trouble he had taken, I consented -to edit a new edition. I may here say that I have left Mr. Ward’s -musical comparisons as I found them, and have not revised his views on -Ogham, and Runic, nor those on the symbolic ornament of the Egyptians, -Assyrians, Siamese, Burmese, Japanese, Hebrews, Buddhists, and Brahmins. - - GEORGE AITCHISON. - - - - -EDITOR’S PREFACE - -TO THE SECOND EDITION - - -I have carefully revised the book without altering its substance. I have -also added an Appendix containing a few remarks on the Orders of -Architecture, with illustrations of some of the best classical examples; -believing that this would be useful, not only to carvers and modellers -who have to execute enrichments on Architecture, but to all students. - -The ornamented parts of the Greek and Roman Orders, figure sculpture -apart, show how two cognate nations, each with transcendent abilities -but of an entirely different range, abstracted the beauties of plants, -and conferred them on stone and marble to emphasize and adorn the rigid -forms of Architecture; how the Greeks seized on the exquisite beauties -of flowers, and adapted them, so as to retain the greatest purity of -form, and used them in the most sparing way; while the Romans, or Greeks -working under Roman dictation, used them lavishly to procure -magnificence; and eventually were so prodigal with their ornament as to -defeat the end in view, as little of the architecture was left plain; to -act as a foil to the enrichment; while from the quantity employed no -time could be spared to perfect the ornament. - -The power of abstracting and applying the beauties of floral form seems -now to be entirely lost. The great art of the present day seems to -consist in copying nature as exactly as it can be copied in hard -materials to make a colourable imitation; but in such a way that its -highest beauties are lost. - -Mr. Ward has added several illustrations which his experience shows him -will be useful to students, and he has added an Appendix on the -construction of some geometrical figures, and the methods of drawing -conic sections and spirals. - - GEORGE AITCHISON. - - - - -AUTHOR’S PREFACE - - -In the preface to the first edition of this book, I stated that the -contents consisted of a series of class lectures given to art students. -These lectures were not originally intended for publication. I was, -however, strongly advised to publish them, and did so without any -attempt at revision, under the title of _Elementary Principles of -Ornament_. Although there are many excellent text-books on ornament -published at the present time, there are none that exclusively treat of -the theory, or what is known as the “principles of ornament”; this -belief is shared with me by many of the principal art masters in the -country, and by many gentlemen whose names stand high in the list of -decorative artists, judging from the numerous letters and opinions I -received after the publication of the first edition. - -I was gratified to find that the book received a favourable recognition -from the authorities of the Science and Art Department. - -The present edition has been edited and revised by Professor Aitchison, -A.R.A., the Government Examiner in the subject and Professor of -Architecture at the Royal Academy. To that gentleman I here desire to -record my grateful thanks for his invaluable services in connection with -the book, and, I am sure I shall be right if I add, the thanks of all -students in ornamental art. Professor Aitchison has also written the new -introductory chapter. - -I wish here also to express my best thanks to John Vinycomb, Esq., -F.R.S.A.I., for his valuable suggestions to me in the chapter on -symbolic ornament. - -The illustrations must only be accepted as blackboard diagrams, they are -merely intended as aids in explanation of the text; more illustrations -have been added to this edition, a few that appeared in the former -edition have been left out. - - J. WARD. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - PAGE - -INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER. BY THE EDITOR 1 - - -CHAPTER I - -Definition of Ornament--Methods of Expression--Outlined, -Flat, Coloured, Relieved, and Shaded Ornament--Definition -of Arabesques 19 - - -CHAPTER II - -Elementary forms used in Ornament--Straight and -Curved line Ornament--The Greek Honeysuckle, -&c. 26 - - -CHAPTER III - -The Laws of Composition in Ornament enumerated and -explained 40 - - -CHAPTER IV - -The Shapes and Decoration of Mouldings--Fluted and -Reeded Ornament--Treatment of Floors, Walls, and -Ceilings--Relief Work on Ceilings 50 - - -CHAPTER V - -Outline and Division of Surfaces--Proportion of Rectangular -Surfaces--Spacing and Decoration of Circular -and Curved Objects--Decoration of Various -Shapes, of Planes and of Large Flat Surfaces--Abuses -of Purely Natural Forms applied to Articles -of Use--Application of Ornament and Materials in -Wall Decoration 68 - - -CHAPTER VI - -The Six Classes or Great Divisions of Ornament 80 - - -CHAPTER VII - -The Application of Plants in Ornament--Plants Used -in Historic Ornament--The Acanthus--Its Use by -the Ancients in Capitals, Candelabra, and on Flat -Surfaces--Modern Use and Treatment of the Acanthus 108 - - -CHAPTER VIII - -The Symbolic and Mnemonic Classes of Ornament 130 - - -CHAPTER IX - -Raphael’s Arabesques--Christian Symbolism--Comparison -of Symbolic and Æsthetic Ornament 138 - -APPENDIX ON THE ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE 145 - -A CHAPTER ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF FIGURES AND -CURVES IN PRACTICAL PLANE GEOMETRY 176 - -GLOSSARY 199 - - - - -INDEX OF ILLUSTRATIONS - - - FIGS. - -Acanthus leaf (Greek), from a capital of the Tower of -the Winds 151 - -Acanthus leaf (Greek), with flowers from a capital of -the Choragic Monument of Lysikrates 152 - -Acanthus (Mollis), from nature 149 - -Acanthus (Spinosus), from nature 150 - -Acanthus, soft-leaved, from the soffit of the architrave -at the Temple of Jupiter Stator 155 - -Acanthus used on candelabra and small pillars 156, 158 - -Acanthus, modern varieties of sea-weed and poppy-leaved -Acanthus 159 - -Acanthus, olive-leaf variety, from a Roman capital 153 - -Acanthus, olive-leaf variety, from a capital of Mars -Ultor 154, 187 - -Arrangement of a wall-paper pattern 84 - -Arrangements for wall-paper or room decoration, -improper 80-83 - -Astragal or bead moulding, with its ornament 77 - - -Bead and reel 78 - -Book-cover (German), sixteenth century 124 - -Border, upright lily, Greco-Roman 120 - -Borders, Greek 113-117 - -Borders of Medallions in enamelled earthenware by -Luca Della Robbia 144 - -Borders, Persian 118, 119 - -Borders derived from the laurel 140, 141 - -Bracts used for “clothing” stems in Scrolls, &c. 137, 157 - -Capital, Greek Doric 175 - -Capital, Greek Ionic 176-179 - -Capital, Greek Corinthian 180, 181 - -Capital, Roman Tuscan 182 - -Capital, Roman Doric 183 - -Capital, Roman Ionic 184 - -Capital, Roman Corinthian 185, 187 - -Capital, Roman Composite 188, 189 - -Capitals (Byzantine), from Sta. Sophia at Constantinople, -showing bossing out of ornament A and B - -Catenary, explained at page 31 - -Cavetto and its ornament 56, 68 - -Ceiling from Serlio’s architecture 89 - -Ceiling, portion from the vestibule of St. Spirito -(Florence), by Sansovino 88 - -Ceilings, fillings of 85-87 - -Ceilings, panelling of, showing at A an improper and -at B a proper arrangement 92 - -Checkers, carved 98, 99 - -Cinque-Cento floral ornament composed of the acanthus, -oak-leaf, convolvulus and wild rose 130 - -Circle, ornament derived from 24-40 - -Contrasting decoration on rectangular and circular -borders 95 - -Counter-change 171 - -Counter-change pattern, Saracenic 172 - -Cyma recta and its ornament 58, 64, 69 - -Cyma reversa and its ornaments. _See_ Ogee. - - -Diaper, Saracen 101 - -Diaper, Italian, sixteenth century 106, 107, 110 - -Diaper, Persian influence, sixteenth century 100 - -Diaper, Italian, German origin, sixteenth century 107 - -Door case at the Erechtheum, showing a portion of -the Architrave, with the pateræ on the fascia 96 - -Door panels illustrating improper division at A, -proper division at B 93 - - -Entablature of the Erechtheum C - -Entablature of the Caryatid portico attached to the -Erechtheum D - -Entablature of the Parthenon 175 - -Entablature of the Greek Ionic Temple on the Ilissus 176 - -Entablature of the monument of Lysikrates 180 - -Entablature of the Theatre of Marcellus 183 - -Entablature of the Temple of Fortuna Virilis 184 - -Entablature of the Pantheon, Rome 185 - -Entablature of Jupiter Tonans 186 - -Entablature of the Arch of Titus 189 - - -Festoon, or swag 27 - -Finger-plates of different outlines 94 - -Fluted ornaments for flat bands 75, 76 - -Frets, Greek 12-15 - -Frets, Egyptian 16 - - -Inscription from an Egyptian tablet 162 - -Inscription (Japanese), “Jiu” or long life 163 - -Interchange 173, 174 - - -Japanese decoration 1 - -Japanese decoration, altered 2 - - -Kiku-Mon, badge of the Empire of Japan 169 - - -Lamp bottoms 134, 135 - -Laurel from nature 139 - -Lemon from nature 145 - -Lily border, Greco-Roman 120 - - -Meander 44-47 - -Monograms in Christian art 170 - -Mouldings, profiles of Greek 61-66 - -Mouldings, profiles of Roman 55-60 - - -Network, Japanese 102 - - -Ogee, Roman 57, 71 - -Ogee, Greek 63, 70 - -Ogee with water-leaf ornament from the Erechtheum 70, 73 - -Ogee, Roman variety, with its ornaments 71 - -Opus Alexandrinum, from a pavement in the Church -of San Marco, Rome 79 - -Ovolo, from the Erechtheum, enriched 67 - - -Panel ornament, Renaissance 128 - -Panel (Venetian), illustrating balance without symmetry 126 - -Panel, Cinque-Cento 127 - -Panel with trophy of arms and armour 133 - -Panel, design for a carved wood panel from the -lemon plant 146 - -Panel arrangement from the tiger-lily 148 - -Paperhanging, design from the wild rose 143 - -Patera _Frontispiece_ - -Pear-tree, winter aspect, illustrating “balance” in -nature 160 - -Pilaster, designed by Donatello 121 - -Pilaster panel, Cinque-Cento 122 - -Pilaster decoration, Italian 123 - -Placque, in silver repoussé work, German seventeenth -century 125 - -Powdering, Japanese 103, 105 - - -Reduction of similar ornament in different spaces E - -Reeded ornaments for flat bands, &c. 76A, 76B - -Root forms, Mediæval and Oriental 138 - -Rosettes (Roman), composed of leaf and floral forms 136 - - -Scarab, Egyptian symbolic form 161 - -Scroll ornament on the roof of the Monument of -Lysikrates 53 - -Shield (Savage) made of cane and ornamented with -cut shells and zig-zags 97 - -Spandrel (Gothic), from Stone Church, Kent 131 - -Spandrel, by Alfred Stevens 132 - -Spiral 24 - -Spiral curves, examples of ornament chiefly based on -spiral curves 41, 43, 45, 47-51 - -Spotting 84, 103, 105 - -Straight-lined ornament 3-23 - -Superimposed Japanese powdering 104 - -Symbolic ornament, the Egyptian lotus and water 165 - - -Tail-pieces, or “lamp bottoms” 134, 135 - -Tchakra, sacred wheel of Brahma and Vishnu, also -the “wheel of fire” 168 - -Thyrsus, staff of the god Bacchus 167 - -Tiger-lily from nature 147 - -Tree of life from an Assyrian bas-relief with worshippers 166 - -Tripod stand on the top of the roof of the Monument -of Lysikrates 54 - - -Vase, from the Hildesheim treasures 129 - -Vases (Modern and Greek), showing unequal divisions -of the height and strengthening horizontal -bands 90, 91 - - -Wild rose from nature 142 - -Wine-crater. _See_ Vase. - -Winged globe and asps, Egyptian symbolic ornament 164 - - - - -INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER - - -It may not be amiss to point out the advantages of studying ornamental -art even to those who do not mean to be artists. The course to be -adopted, after acquiring the necessary geometry, is to draw or model -plants and to learn their anatomy. This will make the student accurately -acquainted with the forms of plants and of their parts, and as he -progresses he will find out beauties which have escaped him in a cursory -view; the further he proceeds, the more his admiration will be excited -by those subtle beauties he finds so hard to render and so easy to miss. -The student will then notice, how many illustrations of plants are near -enough to the originals to be unmistakable, but that the grace of the -plants has evaporated. As soon as he is sufficiently advanced to study -with advantage the best examples of ornamental art, he will find out the -difficulties the great ornamentalists have overcome in applying the -beauties of nature to works of art; and will then take a deeper interest -in these masterpieces, and receive a corresponding delight. He will -learn from these studies to reverence the artists and to admire the -nation that produced them; for “art is the mirror of a nation’s -civilization.” - -I have spoken only of floral ornament, though the highest ornament is -the human figure, and after that animal forms. The severity, however, of -the requisite studies to become a figure draughtsman, which demand a -knowledge of the skeleton and of the muscles, unfortunately deters -amateurs, and not unfrequently ornamentalists, from learning to draw the -figure, so that their works fall short of the excellence of the Greeks -and Italians, who were above all things figure draughtsmen. Amateurs too -will greatly aid the art, for as a rule excellence is only attained when -there are many educated lovers of it, who can appreciate a beautiful -creation, and reward the artist by their judicious admiration. - -For twenty years I have pointed out that Nature offers her beauties -gratuitously to mankind for its solace and delight; perhaps, however, -the following words of Emile de Laveleye, in his book on _Luxury_, will -have more weight:-- - -“Might not the man of the people, on whom the curse of matter weighs -with so heavy a load, find the best kind of alleviation for his hard -condition, if his eyes were open to what Leonardo da Vinci calls _la -bellezza del mondo_--‘the beautiful things of the earth’?... Pindar -says, ‘In the day when the Rhodians shall erect an altar to Minerva, a -rain of gold will fall upon the isle.’ The golden rain which falls on -any people when literature and the fine arts are encouraged ... is a -shower of pure and disinterested delights.” - -I am tempted to say something on the prospects of ornamental art. -Nothing in this world can be had without paying for it, but though we -must all live, those who have devoted their lives to the creation of -the beautiful, look more to the delight they give and the admiration -they excite, than to mere pecuniary rewards. No art will ever flourish -unless there are educated and enthusiastic admirers of its masterpieces. -The artist will never devote his talents to an art, and undergo the -ceaseless toil requisite to create beauty, unless he be rewarded by the -praise of real judges. I fear we cannot as yet make the Greek boast -“that we love the beautiful”; but until we do love it, we can hardly -expect to rival those who did. - -The whole ornamental art of the world is now before us, and it is not to -be believed that artists would not elaborate something new and beautiful -from all the knowledge they have gained, if there were a passionate -desire for it among the people. This can never be so long as the public -is content with paraphrases of deceased art, or merely asks for a jumble -of discordant scraps. Novelty we must needs have, for this generation -does not inherit the precise tastes of former days, not even those of -its immediate predecessor, and it is this generation that wants to be -charmed: it is true that it gets novelty, but it should want beautiful -novelty, and not that which is commonplace or ugly. Novelty in art is -not an absolute difference from what has gone before, for that is sure -to be bad, but only that difference and that improvement which one -instructed generation can give to the past excellence it builds on. It -is therefore necessary for the student who is born an artist, and hopes -to create new loveliness, to be steeped in the beauties of nature and of -art. To attain this a profound study of nature and the masterpieces of -former art are wanted, for, as Sir Joshua Reynolds said, “Invention is -one of the greatest marks of genius, ... and it is by being conversant -with the inventions of others that we learn to invent”; while to express -our knowledge and invention admirable draughtsmanship is requisite. - -We have a novel phase of ornament, which consists in twisting or -arranging certain plants into the shape required, to make them fit their -places. Much of this work is flabby or wire-drawn, and often omits the -highest beauty of the plants it uses, but even when the beauty of the -plant is not left out, the ornament is infinitely below the highest -flights of former art, in which the artist had absorbed the graces of -floral growth and had properly applied them. The highest ornament, by -its abstraction, is closely allied to architectural art, while all its -higher achievements are in conjunction with architecture; consequently -there should be a harmony between the decoration and the framework. -Natural foliage arranged on a geometrical basis makes a poor contrast to -noble architecture. - -All ornamental arts, that are not realistic imitations, must be founded -on precedent art. We have only one complete system of decorative art -that took an entirely new direction besides Gothic, and that harmonizes -with its architecture--the Saracenic--and that art is not congenial to -our taste, feelings, or desires. Gothic ornamental art is mostly too -barbaric or too realistic to suit us, except when it is borrowed from -Roman, Byzantine, or Saracenic sources; in fact, we have nothing but -Roman, Byzantine, and Renaissance art to fall back on for ornament; of -Greek ornamental art we have some carved stone-work, moulded metal-work, -painting on vases, incised work, and the traces of painting. Little of -secular Byzantine art remains, though it is not probable that it -materially differed from the ecclesiastical art of its period; it was -Roman art modified by the new religion and by Greek and Oriental taste, -in which saints and martyrs, with their attributes or symbols, took the -place of the antique gods and goddesses; while the Renaissance was an -attempted revival of Roman. - -We cannot expect to equal at once the masterpieces of Greek, Roman, or -Renaissance art; we have neither the centuries of experience nor the -cultivated public. Every artist, however, can, by the means before -mentioned, be sure of having conquered the preliminaries of his art, and -he can be sincere; he can give us those beauties from nature that have -captivated him, and have been transfused into ornament by the alembic of -his mind; such ornament will be sure to find some congenial spirits to -admire it: and I think I may say that a public sufficiently cultivated -to appreciate real art is gradually being formed. The highest art is -undoubtedly that which is the simplest and most perfect, which gives the -experience and skill of a lifetime by a few lines or touches; and this -art is more calculated to captivate the best taste of the day than the -complex or the intricate. However, there will even now be ample -recognition of the creations of any skilled artist who is sincere, let -his genius take him where it will. There is, too, this consolation for -every true artist whose works remain: that if there are few judges of -his work now, there may be more hereafter--judges who when they look at -his work will say, this is the work of a true artist; and he may confer -delight on unborn thousands, and direct attention, in after ages, to -those beauties of nature that have been overlooked. - -I will now revert to the book, and confine myself to such remarks as I -hope may be useful to those who study it. The student, when he has -learnt and comprehended the laws, should observe growing plants, and -notice that every plant illustrates some, and mostly many, of the laws; -and when he has clearly distinguished them, he should examine the best -ornament of antiquity and the Renaissance, and satisfy himself that the -laws, involved in the particular example he is studying, have been -followed. When he has done this, he should note any divergence from the -laws and endeavour to understand the reason for it. To ensure the effect -they intend, great artists sometimes ignore the ordinary laws. - -It is well that he should consider that the main object of every plant -is to live and propagate itself: to live it wants air, moisture, and -nourishment, and mostly sunshine, and it must strive to get these -necessaries amidst a crowd of competitors. In this struggle the plant is -often dwarfed or distorted, and still more frequently some of its parts -are deformed; its flowers must attract insects by their colour or scent, -and must allure the insects by the honey they distil to fertilize them; -so that beauty, except in the colour of the flowers, is for the plant a -secondary consideration. - -In ornament, on the contrary, beauty is the only consideration, except -perhaps in mnemonic and symbolic ornament; and these must have beauty, -or they cease to be ornament. - -Ornament has also to be portrayed on some material, or carved in it; it -should conform to the shape of the object, be governed by the quality of -the material, and by the use to which the object is to be put--_e.g._ a -leaf may be carved in certain woods, almost of the thinness of the real -leaf, but then it must be preserved in a glass case. This thinness is -not to be got if the leaf be carved in stone; the artist must therefore -see what beauties he can abstract from the plant he has chosen or from -floral growth generally, so that it can be carved. He should in all -cases know that his design can be expressed in the material to be used, -that it will ornament the object, will not be easily destroyed, and will -not interfere with the use of the object. If he succeeds in doing this, -his skill, taste, and judgment will be admired. This necessary -abstraction we unfortunately call _convention_, and when it makes good -ornament, and shows the characteristic beauty and vigour of plant form, -it is of the highest sort; this is found in the best Greek, Roman, and -Renaissance ornament, while when a coarse and clumsy imitation of nature -is made, with all the beauty left out, it is the lowest sort of -convention. - -Any cheap speculative houses that have carving upon them, will afford -ample illustrations of contemporary convention in its worst form. - -Gothic ornament was quite new; for no sooner did the architects, -carvers, masons, carpenters, and others find that they had surpassed -the old world in constructive skill, than they looked down on all the -old world arts, and would not be beholden to them. They were determined -to begin afresh; they had human beings, animals, trees, plants, and -flowers, as well as the Romans and Byzantines; why should they not make -as good statues and ornament? There is much to be said in favour of this -contention, for every one must desire to see his house, his town-hall, -and his church ornamented with the flowers and plants that he knows and -loves, instead of with the conventionalized plants of other countries -that he does not know, or that he has gazed on to satiety. But it is one -thing to have a longing, and another to be able to bring plants, leaves, -and flowers into the domain of high art. The early Gothic sculptors did -give a certain crispness, and in some cases even a monumental air to -their carved flora, and sometimes they got that mysterious look of -infinite complexity that is found in nature, and they had invention to a -marvellous degree. From the sculptors working on the spot, and being -able to see each figure and piece of ornament in its place, they never -missed their effect. All their ornament answered its main end, of giving -a broken mass of light and shade to contrast with plain surfaces, -mouldings, or shafts, while much of it was vigorous; but some of the -early Gothic foliage has no grace, is often destitute of floral -character, and might be mistaken for hanks of string on pieces of -firewood, or worm-eaten wigs. The first touch of the Renaissance brought -a sweetness of proportion to architecture and a grace to floral ornament -that is most striking. - -Good traditional ornament has these inestimable advantages, that it has -been treated for ages by skilful men, so that its faults have been -corrected, new graces have been added to it, and it has been fitted to -properly fill the requisite shapes. From the first, the artist must have -noticed some special beauties and fitness in the plant he chose, and the -ornament must have had some striking qualities to make it popular; for -why else should it have been preferred and persisted in, when so many -other plants had great beauty? There is, however, some ornament that, -after it has once been perfected, seems incapable of further -improvement. The egg and tongue may be cited as an instance. It has -never been improved since the perfecting of Greek architecture, nor has -any good substitute for it been found. A coarse caricature of it is -still the most popular ornament of the ovolo. The Romans converted it -into a floral form at the Temple of Jupiter Tonans, with marked want of -success. - -The Greek honeysuckle and the acanthus are the most striking examples of -good traditional ornament. To take the acanthus first, it was started by -the Greeks, continued by the Romans, and used by the Byzantines with a -different character, then adopted by the Renaissance artists, and has -been treated in an entirely novel way by Alfred Stevens in our own day. -Stevens has given a peculiarly plastic character to its leafage in the -Wellington monument. That form of it which is used in the Corinthian -capital has had such an infinity of pains bestowed on it, that -improvement on the old lines is scarcely to be expected, though new -floral capitals may be invented. Every portion of the leaf, down to its -rafflings, has been perfected to the end the Romans destined it to -fulfil, though, as in all human inventions, something was sacrificed to -attain it. The Greek capital was rather deficient in outline, but it was -possessed of the most exquisite floral grace, and this was sacrificed by -the Romans to attain distinctness, strength, and dignity; these -qualities being particularly necessary when it was used in colossal -monuments. Even when it was on a smaller scale, we can see the -advantages of the change. In some Byzantine buildings, old Greek and -Roman Corinthian columns have been used together. As an isolated -ornament the Greek capital is greatly to be preferred, but when the two -are seen in conjunction as parts of the building, the Roman capital is -clear, distinct, and dignified, while the Greek one is a confused mass. - -In their colossal capitals, the Romans mostly substituted the olive-leaf -for the natural raffle, and used but four or five in each leaflet; -though the oak-leaf, the parsley, and the endive were occasionally used. -Each raffle of the olive-leafed variety is hollowed by a curve without -ribs, the only lines being those made by the edges of the hollows, and -each leaflet is hollowed out like a cockle-shell as well. In the best -examples, the upper edges of each leaflet are mostly clear of the one -above or overlap it; in the first case they are thrown up by the shadow -behind, in the latter the edges of the raffles are bright against the -half light of the leaflets above, and are also thrown up by the shade in -their points. The top of the complete leaf curls over, and thus throws -its shadow on the part below, so there is the contrast between masses of -light, graduated shade, and graduated shadow. The back of the leaf was -used to get a wide stem, and this stem tapers upwards, while the pipes, -that come from the eyes between the leaflets, taper downwards, are -nearly parallel with the stem, and are deeply undercut, thus making the -whole leaf distinct and vigorous (Fig. 110). If examples are compared, -the superiority of the parallel pipes over those that run into the stem -is at once seen. The lower leaves are cut through horizontally in the -middle, and come straight down on to the necking, which gives much more -vigour to the capital, than when the bell turns inwards above the -necking. - -The student will do well to carefully draw a good example, then model -it, and then carve it, for it has been the type from which most good -floral capitals have been derived. The acanthus and other floral -ornament used by the Italian Renaissance artists deserve quite as much -attention as the Roman; for though their ornament was not on the same -colossal scale, it was done by excellent figure sculptors who had -studied ornament, and were of finer artistic fibre than the Romans, -besides having the best Roman examples for their models. The Italian -artists were, too, nearly as fond of the human figure as the Greeks, and -introduced it wherever they could do so appropriately. - -There is perhaps but one other ornament that is worthy of the -profoundest study, the radiating ornament of the Greeks, known as the -Greek honeysuckle. This ornament is full of subtle devices, in the -elegant graduation of its forms, in the proportioning of the masses, in -its even distribution, and in the making of the different curves enhance -the value of one another. There is often, too, a suggestion of -horizontality or verticality introduced, that gives the highest value to -the composition; all showing the intimate acquaintance with nature that -the Greek artists possessed. Many of the Greek running patterns are both -original and effective, and in some of them tangential junction is -distinctly avoided, to attract attention to the ornament. The Greeks, -too, were pre-eminent in knowing the use of restraint and the value of -plainness. When the sculptor had carved his ornament on an architectural -monument he seemed to say, “Better this if you can!” - -The Byzantines understood the value of gradation, and when they wholly -ornamented a profile, they made some parts in bold, some in low relief, -and engraved or sunk other parts. The Saracens learned this art from -them, and so improved on it, that the general effect of their best work -resembles Greek art; at the proper distance the subordinate ornament -looks like a mere difference of texture. - -Saracenic ornament affords the only instances of complete floral -decoration without the figures of man or animals; and although it is -inclined to be monotonous, and geometrical forms are too predominant, it -is, when coloured and gilt, saved from monotony by the magical change of -the patterns on the beholder shifting his position. This effect is -obtained by trifling differences of level in the planes of the ornament -and by gilding. Its floral forms, however, are usually coarse and poor, -and have no refined graces. - -There are a few points not touched on in the book which it may be well -to mention. One is a device that was, I think, only used by the -Byzantines, _i. e._ bossing out ornament to catch the light. Constantine -the Great, when he had the Church of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem -built, had the capitals of the sanctuary columns made of silver, and -doubtless the silversmiths in working them hammered out some bosses to -catch the light. This device was seized on by the sculptors of Sta. -Sophia at Constantinople, and used in the marble capitals of its columns -and pilasters (Figs. A and B). - -I may also draw attention to another Byzantine device, which charmed Mr. -Ruskin at St. Mark’s--the leaves of capitals caught by the wind and -blown aside. Capitals with a similar device existed in Sta. Sophia at -Salonica, some of which were partly calcined by the late fire. The -propriety of using such an incident in the conventional stone ornaments -of a supporting member may be doubted, still we must admire the -observation and genius of the sculptor; and there are many opportunities -of using such an incident when the ornament is not on a supporting -member. I point it out to show what fresh resources for the -ornamentalist are to be found in nature, when he has the industry to -observe and the talent to create. - -There are cases where architectural features have to be reduced, and at -the same time to be emphasized too. No better example of this is to be -found than in the Caryatid temple attached to the Erechtheum. Its -entablature was below the main one, and so had to be smaller, and yet -was wanted to be important - -[Illustration: FIGS. A and B.--Byzantine Capitals from Sta. Sophia at -Constantinople, showing the bossing out of the ornament.] - -[Illustration: FIG. C.--Entablature of the Erechtheum.] - -[Illustration: FIG. D.--Entablature of the Caryatid portico of the -Erechtheum.] - -and weighty enough for the figures. All the frieze but the capping was -consequently left out, the top fascia of the architrave was enriched -with circular discs, and between the cappings of the architrave and -frieze a deep dentil band was introduced. Mainly by these means the due -effect was gained (Figs. C and D). - -Ornament has sometimes to be repeated in a composition on a smaller -scale, and this should not be done by merely reducing the scale so as to -have a diminutive reproduction, but by keeping the general form of the -ornament with fewer details. Several examples may be found in M. -Mayeux’s book.[1] Instances of the same motive being repeated in the -same height and in a narrower width are sometimes found. An example may -be seen beneath the double and single windows of an hotel in the Rue -Dalbard, Toulouse[2] (Fig. E). - -[Illustration: FIG. E.--Reduction of similar ornament in different -spaces.] - -Much might be said on the subject of materials, but I will only make a -few remarks. In making a design, due consideration should be given to -the material employed, so that the natural ornamentation of one material -may not be put on another; pottery is turned on the wheel, and is -adapted for painting, while hollow metal vessels are embossed, but it -is common enough to see pottery embossed, which can, it is true, be -accomplished by casting or by inlaying, yet this sort of ornamentation -always looks inappropriate. Stone is usually of large and wood of small -scantling, yet in the front of a stone building with arched openings the -wooden door-head is often made a continuation of the stone impost, -though the mouldings of the wood-work should be finer and the ornament -different. - -Although the young student should confine his attention to the best -styles, the advanced one should have some acquaintance with all -traditional ornament, even the styles of Louis XIV. and XV., a grafting -of Chinese and Japanese ornament on the current classic, for they are -the only modern styles, except the early Renaissance, that have complete -unity. The same style runs through the whole building, down to the door -furniture and the damask of the chairs; the handling, too, is often -admirable, and the examples are full of hints to the advanced student, -who is unlikely to be infected with the rococo style. - -I have dwelt much on carving for several reasons; it is the most lasting -of ornamental work, and as a rule the most important; it is susceptible -of the greatest perfection when executed in marble, and all -architectural ornament must eventually fall into the hands of the -sculptor, since he has devoted his life to its study. I may add that the -French architects look upon it as the weak point in English -architecture. - -To the young student I may say that he can never become an artist until -he has mastered the fundamental principles of his art; and that nothing -can deserve the name of ornament that is not both appropriate and -beautiful, and has been evolved from nature by the mind of man. I would -suggest to the young artist that the flora of the world is not confined -to the lotus, the honeysuckle, and the acanthus; that if accident caused -the original choice of these plants, it was the infinite pains bestowed -on their treatment that caused their persistence. There are, too, -thousands of beauties still to be culled from plants and flowers that -now remain outside the domain of art. Let the student remember that -knowledge, skill, truth, and sincerity are the main roads to real -success, and that real success is, to have produced some beauty that has -captivated or will captivate mankind. - - G. AITCHISON. - - - - -THE - -PRINCIPLES OF ORNAMENT - - - - -CHAPTER I - - -Ornament is the proper enrichment of an object or surface with such -forms, or forms and colours, as will give the thing decorated a new -beauty, while strictly preserving its shape and character. It is the -function of ornament to _emphasize_ the forms of the object it -decorates, not to _hide_ them. Decoration is not necessarily ornament; -for instance, the lovely sprays of plants with birds and cognate -subjects, painted on Japanese pottery, may be called beautiful -decoration, but cannot in our sense of the word be called ornament; for -however realistic ornament may be, it must show that it has passed -through the mind of man, and been acted on by it. This kind of -decoration might be a literal transcript from nature, and neither -emphasizes the boundaries of the decorated surface nor harmonizes with -them. It possesses an exquisite beauty of its own, for the drawing and -colour and the style of execution are good. With the exception of frets -and diapers, true ornament is rare in Japanese art. Fig. 1 is a -Japanese decoration on an oblong surface. Such a design is pretty, but -we can hardly call it ornament. Something must be done with it before we -can give it that name. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Japanese decoration.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Japanese decoration altered.] - -To make an ornamental design, the units of the decoration must be -arranged and brought into order; repetition and symmetry may not be -required, but _even distribution_, _order_, and _balance_ are -indispensable. The whole too must not appear to be accidental but -designed for the object, while No. 1 might have been made from a shadow -cast on a window. The sketch at Fig. 2 is an attempt to illustrate our -notion of ornament by using the elements in Fig. 1 evenly distributed, -having at the same time a due regard to the boundary-lines of the -panel. - -Applied ornament is that which is specially designed and fitted for the -position it occupies. - -_Independent ornaments_ are such things as shields, labels, medallions, -&c., with or without enclosing frames; pateræ, festoons, and other loose -ornamental objects, which may be attached to a surface, and may be used -alone, or in combination with applied ornament (Fig. 133). - -Numerous examples may be given of _inappropriate_ ornament. As a rule, -any kind of ornament that is not suited to the surface ornamented, or is -falsely constructed, may be called inappropriate. For instance, if -upright panels and pilasters were decorated with ornament running in -oblique lines, or with a strongly-marked series of horizontal bands; or -if a carpet pattern were designed to run in one particular direction; -or, from an architectural point of view, if columns supporting nothing -were used in decoration; if consoles or brackets were turned upside -down; or if curved mouldings were decorated with frets; or panels were -overloaded with mouldings; if forms, organic or otherwise, were used -together, but out of scale with one another; or things were made to -simulate what they are not; or there were a great excess of enrichment; -each of these examples might be considered as inappropriate ornament. - - -_Methods of Expression._--Ornament is expressed in three different ways: -Firstly, by pure outline, as traced with a point; secondly, where -breadth is added, by flat tints as in painting with the brush, or by -shading, hatching, spotting, or stippling; thirdly, by relief, or -sinking, as in modelling and sculpture. These three divisions may be -subdivided, but all the subdivisions are but varieties or combinations -of the first three genera. Relief modelled or pierced ornament has no -other outline than that given by light and shade; but it may also be -coloured, _i. e._ in two shades--one for the ornament and one for the -background, or with the forms and background “picked out” in a variety -of colours. Shaded or painted ornament in the flat is an imitation of -relief work, and will be noticed again. - - -_Ornament Expressed in Outline._--All the early decorative work of -mankind, both the prehistoric etchings on bone and on pottery, the line -decoration on Assyrian cylinders, bronze dishes and tablets, and the -incised work on the Greek, Etruscan, and Roman cistas, hand-mirrors, and -vases come under this head; as well as sgraffito-work when expressed by -outline, cut in plaster showing a different-coloured plaster beneath. - - -_Ornament Expressed by Flat Tints_, in monochrome or colour, with no -shading and without shadow, is a common method of ornamentation. This -class includes painted ornament on the flat, whether polychromatic or in -“grisaille”; inlaid wood-work, called parquetry when used for floors, -and marquetry when used for other purposes; inlaid marble, stone, tile -and plaster work, mosaic, tesselated, sectile and Alexandrine pavements; -damascened metal-work; some enamels, lac-work, and painted pottery; -woven, embroidered, printed, and stencilled stuffs, including oil-cloth; -enamelled glass; and some sgraffito-work. It is convenient to class -under this head certain work of slight thickness or relief, such as -lace, applied work of paper, stuffs, velvet, &c., fine filigree and -wire-work. Inlay under the name of “Tarsia” was greatly used by the -Italians in the decoration of cathedrals and churches and in fittings -and furniture; in cathedral stalls and sacristy fittings, boxwood was -commonly inlaid in walnut, but ebony and ivory were largely employed for -house furniture and fittings, and many different substances were -sometimes employed. Tortoiseshell, gold, silver, ivory, mother-of-pearl, -and different coloured woods are largely employed for the same purpose -by Orientals and others. A species of inlay composed of white and -stained ivory, ebony, and silver, in geometrical patterns, is much used -by the cabinet-makers of India--our Tunbridge ware is supposed to be an -imitation of it. - - -_Flat Tints enriched by Outline_ were sometimes used in Greek vases, and -are often used in inlays and damascened work; very pretty examples may -be found in old Chinese lac-work, inlaid with figures and landscapes in -black mother-of-pearl, the features, &c. being outlined. - - -_Relief-work._--Ordinary modelled and carved work, either in relief or -sunk, is too well known to need description; but under this heading are -included pierced, open, and turned work, and such compound work as may -be pierced, or turned and carved or incised as well. - - -_Coloured Relief-work._--All Egyptian, Greek, and Mediæval bas-reliefs, -and some if not all of their figure sculpture in the round, were -coloured, but when the figures were of white marble, the colour was -generally confined to the flesh, eyes, and hair, and to the stripes or -patterns on the dresses. In one of the white marble sarcophagi from -Sidon, now in the Museum at Constantinople, while figures of half -life-size are left wholly white, smaller figures are wholly coloured and -gilt, like the terra-cotta ones of Tanagra, and some of the ornament is -white on a purple ground. All the Italian Renaissance bas-reliefs in -“gesso duro” were wholly coloured. - -In Greek temples the carved ornament was coloured, including the -triglyphs, and parts of the ornament were often gilt, the uncut -mouldings too were mostly ornamented in colour. In some enamelled -pottery in relief, the figures or ornament were left white on a coloured -ground, or the drapery of the figures and the ornament were coloured, as -in some of the Della Robbia ware. All Roman embossed plaster was -coloured and gilt. Much relief-work in bronze and the precious metals -has been coloured by means of enamel, or alloys in the metal; coloured -mosaic has been used to clothe columns, and some mosaic and pietra dura -is in relief, as well as lac and ivory work inlaid with fine stones, -mother-of-pearl, and ivory; all Moresque and some Saracen embossed -plaster-work, and probably carved stone-work, was coloured and gilt; -some Burmese plaster-work in relief is gilt and inlaid with coloured -glass, and certain stuffs have had raised ornament upon them, formed by -stuffing with wadding the applied pieces, which sometimes were -embroidered. - - -_Shaded or Painted Ornament on the Flat in Imitation of -Relief-work._--This is probably the largest class, and includes -engraving, shaded ornament in chiaroscuro, and shaded and coloured -ornament with or without cast shadows; in it are included the Chinese, -Persian, Mediæval, and Renaissance translucent enamels, which are laid -over sunk (intaglio) work, and painters’ enamels; Boule work, which -consists of brass, tin, or pewter, inlaid in ebony or tortoiseshell with -the metal-work engraved; wood inlay in the shape of shaded natural -flowers, landscapes, architectural views, and figure subjects; shaded -ornament on woven or printed stuffs, and embroidery; and shaded painting -on china and glass, and in Arabesques. What we now call Arabesques were -paraphrases of Roman painted decoration, of which Pompeii offers us so -wide a knowledge. These decorations consisted of fantastic buildings, -interspersed with figures, animals, landscapes, and foliage. The -discovery of this kind of painting in the baths of Titus[3] at Rome led -Raphael to adopt it and to improve on it. The culminating point in -Arabesque painting was the decoration of the loggias of the Vatican by -Raphael and his pupil, Giovanni Recamatore, commonly known as Giovanni -da Udine. The Mohammedans, from whom the name was derived, mostly -avoided the figures of men and animals,[4] even in their secular -buildings or furniture, it being feared that the portrayal of living -creatures might lead them to idolatry; so spaces were filled with -intricate geometrical patterns and coarse foliage. - - - - -CHAPTER II - - -The _elementary forms_ used in ornament form the next division. It is -assumed that the space is given that we are required to ornament; for -example, a ceiling, a wall, a frieze, a panel, or a carpet. The -boundary-lines are the enclosing lines of our space or field, which may -be subdivided. This subdividing is called the _setting-out_. We have now -to think of the forms and character of the ornament we propose to adopt. - -It is now advisable to give illustrations of the various elementary -forms used in ornament. As lines, either straight or curved, are the -basis of all ornament, we begin with the straight line. It would be -difficult to overrate the value of the straight line in ornament. The -qualities of stability, firmness, and repose given by upright and -horizontal lines are well illustrated by the mouldings round rectilinear -panels, by cornices and pilasters, and by reeded and fluted ornaments. -All frets are composed of straight lines. The illustrations from Fig. 3 -to Fig. 23 are specimens of straight-lined ornaments. Taking the band or -two horizontal parallel lines in Fig. 3, and marking off equidistant -points on the upper and on the lower one, only alternating, and drawing -vertical lines from these points, we obtain the basis of a large class -of frets. Figs. 4, 6, 7, and 8 show further developments of the fret. -Figs. 5 and 18 show the elements of some Saracenic or Moresque frets, of -which Figs. 11, 21, and 22 are developments. Figs. 6, 8, 12, 13, and 14 - -[Illustration: FIGS. 3 to 7.--Straight-lined ornaments.] - -are Greek frets; 7 and 20 are Chinese. Fig. 9 is a Gothic nail-head -ornament; 10 is of German origin; 19 is a Japanese key pattern; and Fig. -23 is derived from the plaiting of rushes, ribbons, straws, or from -herring-bone brick-work, and is common to prehistoric and Byzantine -work. - -Frets are more appropriate to flat surfaces than to concave or convex -ones; they may, however, be used on slightly concave surfaces, such as -the inside bevels of plates or dishes; then their vertical lines will -compose well, by radiating from the centre of the plate. The square -within square, and double and single frets, shown at Figs. 8 and 15, -were often - -[Illustration: FIGS. 8 to 11.--Straight-lined ornaments.] - -used in conjunction by the Greeks, and earlier by the Egyptians, on the -ceilings of their tombs (Fig. 16), both singly, and alternating with -spirals and circular ornaments. (See Fig. 43.) - -The zigzag is another straight-lined form largely used as ornament; it -was used by the Egyptians and Early Greeks as the symbol of water (Figs. -28, 165). - -Lozenges and diamonds are other elements of straight-lined ornament, -and form the basis of many repeating patterns in woven stuffs, -paper-hangings, and tiles. Triangles, squares, hexagons, octagons, - -[Illustration: FIGS. 12 to 14.--Greek frets.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 15.--Fret and panel border, Greek.] - -and other polygons are also used largely as constructive bases in -pattern-designing. - -After the straight line, the curved is the other element in ornament. It -is pre-eminently the type of grace, and the “line of beauty.” Whether -seen in the outline of the cloud, the wave, or the rounded limb of the -human figure, the eye takes a delight in - -[Illustration: FIG. 16.--Egyptian ceiling fret.] - -tracing out the flowing curve. We have closed curves in such figures as -the circle, ellipse, oval, figure of eight, and in the vesica piscis, or -fish-shape, the latter being composed of two arcs of a circle of the -same radius, touching each other at their opposite extremities. The -parabola, hyperbola, &c., are open curves; such figures as the meander -(Fig. 29), the spiral (Fig. 24), the scroll (Fig. 25), and the swag or -festoon (Fig. 27), are also open curves. When the festoon is formed of -links and hangs like a chain from two points, it is called a catenary, -and is practically identical with the lines of festoons and the loopings -of drapery. - -[Illustration: 17 - -18 - -19 - -20 - -FIGS. 17 TO 20.--Straight-lined ornaments] - -In the illustrations, we have at Fig. 30 circles touching each other; -this is the framework of some diapers and repeating forms. Next we come -to circles intersecting each other. Fig. 31 is a pattern common alike -to Saracenic, Egyptian, and Japanese diapers. Fig. 32 is a border -ornament of the same pattern with a centre. - -[Illustration: FIGS. 21 to 23.--Straight-lined ornaments.] - -An effective disc border, like that made by savage tribes from cut -shells, is shown at Fig. 33, and a development of the latter is that of -Fig. 34, taken - -[Illustration: FIGS. 24. 25.--Spiral and Scroll.] - -from Assyrian tesseræ, small oblong pieces of stone or metal, on which -the pattern was incised, and often alternating with the _guilloche_ -(Figs. 37, 38, 39, and 40). The guilloche was an important pattern in -Assyrian work, in Greek moulding decoration, and in their flat painted -ornament. - -[Illustration: FIG. 26. A, B, C, D, E.--Scale-work (imbricated).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 27.--Festoon (catenary).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 28.--Zigzag.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 29.--Meander.] - -Figs. 35 and 36 are further examples of ornament obtained from the -circle and its segments; the former being the Gothic ball-flower. -Imbricated or scale ornament was much used for roofs, to ornament small -columns and circular mouldings. Examples are given at Fig. 26, A, B, and -C. - -[Illustration: FIGS. 30 to 36.--Ornaments mostly derived from the -circle.] - -We now pass from the circle to the spiral,[5] from which a great part of -ornamental forms are derived. - -Fig. 41 is an Egyptian wave scroll, and 42 is the familiar Greek wave. -Fig. 43 is from an Egyptian ceiling; all these contain the spiral as -their chief characteristic. Fig. 44 shows two intersecting meanders, - -[Illustration: FIGS. 37 to 40.--Ornaments mostly derived from the -circle.] - -47 is a scroll intersected by a meander, 46 is an eccentric meander, 45 -is the scroll or antispiral of the cyma recta, and 48 is the double -spiral of the cavetto decoration. Fig. 70 is the ornament on the Greek -cyma reversa or ogee, called by the French _rais de cœur_; 71 is a Roman -variety. - -[Illustration: FIGS. 41 to 48.--Ornaments chiefly based on spiral -curves.] - -Fig. 50 shows the anatomy or centre lines of the purely æsthetic Greek -pattern developed at Fig. 49. Figs. 51 and 52 are additional examples. -Fig. 53 is one of the scrolls, and in Fig. 54 is shown the irregular -meanders and spiral curves forming the stand for the tripod on the roof -of the choragic monument of Lysikrates. - -[Illustration: FIGS. 49 to 52.--Greek borders from vases.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 53.--Scroll ornament on the slope of the roof of the -choragic monument of Lysikrates.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 54.--Portion of the tripod stand on top of the roof -of the monument of Lysikrates.] - - - - -CHAPTER III - - -The laws of composition in ornament are deduced from nature, but we must -look to works of art for their proper application. - -The laws that may be deduced are numberless, but the principal ones may -be given as follows:-- - -GEOMETRICAL ARRANGEMENT, PROPORTION, STABILITY, REPETITION, CONTRAST, -SYMMETRY, RADIATION, TANGENTIAL JUNCTION, REPOSE, VARIETY, -SUBORDINATION, BALANCE, UNITY, SERIES, GROWTH, SUPERPOSITION, FITNESS. -Some of these are preliminary laws; _e.g._ we cannot have ornament -without some _geometrical arrangement_, even spots in a line must be set -out at regular distances, or with a recurring element of irregularity; -and as every plant and part of it are set out on a geometrical basis, we -cannot have good floral ornament without such an arrangement. The same -may be said of the setting out of the more complex schemes of ornament, -and besides this framework, a whole class of ornament depends on -geometrical arrangement. There must be _harmonic proportion_ between the -parts of the ornament, as well as between the enrichment and the ground, -to make ornament pleasing; this last element of proportion is generally -called _even distribution_, and is found in all good work; at the same -time it admits of a variety of treatment: in some Indian, Chinese, and -Saracenic ornament it is painfully monotonous, while in good Roman and -Renaissance work, though the law is observed, there is such variety and -contrast, that it never becomes tiresome. Ornament to be satisfactory -must have _Stability_, and not look as if it would fall down. After -these preliminaries, _Repetition_ may be looked on as the first law; as -anything repeated forms elementary ornament. _Contrast_ comes next, as -the mere alternation of upright and horizontal lines form a contrasted -ornament | ---- | ---- | ---- | _Symmetry_ perhaps comes next, and is the -repetition of any form on its axis; even the rudest blot so doubled -makes ornament. _Radiation_ alone is the basis of much ornament, and -directly we get as far as the scroll, we must have _tangential -junction_, for broken-backed curves are hardly ornament. Next comes -_Repose_: any decoration that seems to crawl is not pleasing but -distressing. As we advance we want _Variety_ and _Subordination_. An -unsymmetrical ornament generally requires _Balance_; _Unity_ is -necessary in any complex system. _Series_ adds a new element by the -repetition at stated intervals of a succession of different objects, or -of similar ones of increasing or decreasing size. _Growth_ gives us one -of the most vigorous and delightful elements in nature, and -_Superposition_ may be looked on as the last addition to ornament yet -made by man; while _Fitness_ may be said to include all before-mentioned -and more. - -The descriptions just given will serve for the definition of some of -the laws, but others require further explanation. - - -_Proportion_, by which “harmonic proportion” is meant, applies also to -the architectural features of a design, and is indispensable in -designing borders, composed of lines or mouldings, and in panels. The -width of such border, or series of mouldings, should be a proportionate -part of the narrowest width of the space or panel. There are certain -distances between lines that are more pleasing than others, and as a -rule, one space should preponderate. In mouldings the same thing is -true, but in addition to the spaces, there are the projections and -contours to be studied. The study of Greek profiles (Figs. C and D, p. -15) is most valuable, though Greek mouldings are unsuitable for external -work in this climate. The methods of proportioning cornices given in -Vitruvius are useful (the application of proportion to surfaces will be -found at Chap. IV.). - - -_Stability._--Instability is mostly found in creeping or twining plants, -put vertically, and not attached to a central stem, or to the framework -of the panel; also to bulky forms put on slight ones, that from their -size seem unable to support the weight. We know from experience that -trunks of trees support the enormous mass of branches and foliage above -them by their solidity, and bear the strain of winds by their strength -and the spread and tenacity of their roots. In the rare case in which -such an arrangement is wanted in ornament, we must resort to some -device, such as difference of texture between the supports and the mass -above, to indicate superior supporting power. - - -_Repetition_ is the first method by which things were turned into -ornament, but if it be carried too far it produces monotony; this may be -seen in a long succession of similar windows in factories, and the -endless rows of iron railings to parks. A little more thought would put -in proper places a larger or more ornate window; and in the case of -railings would afford a larger and more important post or a group of -them: this infusion of Variety would correct the monotonous appearance, -and greatly add to the pleasure of the beholders. The ornaments on -mouldings, patterns in checkers, net-work, or diapers may be repeated up -to a certain point without being tiresome, but symbolic and -distinguishing forms must, as a rule, be used sparingly. One human -figure is mostly enough in an ornamental panel, because the figure -absorbs the attention, though cupids or very young children may be -repeated; the former are imaginary creatures, and the latter sportive -ones, but even these should be so arranged as to compose with the -foliage, which should be an open screen they are seen playing through. -The difficulty of preventing even cupids from absorbing all interest, -was probably the cause of the ancients so often making them half-floral. - - -_Contrast_ in form or colour imparts vigour to the composition; the -commonest illustration of contrast in form is the circle and the -straight line, but more subtle contrasts are found in Nature’s works, -very flat curves being contrasted with sharp ones; and in colour, -besides the contrasts of the leaves and flowers, there are often spots -of contrasting colour on flowers to heighten their brilliancy, though -this is mostly effected by the pistils and stamens. The “egg and -tongue,” one of the most effective ornaments invented, has the smooth -curved eggs contrasted with the thin lines of the shells, and the curved -eggs with the straight edge of the tongue. (Fig. 67.) Renaissance and -Roman ornament (see Fig. 129) give the amplest illustrations of -contrast; varieties of foliage contrasting with vases, labels, shields, -armour, masks, animals, and human figures. (See Figs. 121, 123, 124, -126, 127, 130, 132, and Frontispiece.) - - -_Symmetry_ has been defined before as the mere doubling of a form on its -axis; it is one of the most important means of producing ornament, as -well as one of the laws most commonly found in nature. Nothing in -nature, however, is absolutely symmetrical, though there is a suggestion -of symmetry about the bulk of its works. - - -_Radiation_ is the spreading out of lines from a point, like a fan, and -these lines may be straight or curved, and the axis of the radiating -lines may be vertical, horizontal, or oblique. It is found in the human -hand, in the wing feathers of birds, in the scallop and similar bivalve -shells, in the umbels of flowers, and in much other plant growth. The -Greek honeysuckle is the most beautiful instance of its adaptation as -ornament. (See Figs. 49, 50, 51, 52, and 115.) If the centre of the -radiating lines is kept below the springing line, it adds greatly to the -interest and beauty of the ornament. A succession of festoons or of -drapery hanging from two points are examples of one species of curved -radiation. - - -_Tangential Junction._--Euclid’s definition of a tangent is as -follows:--“A straight line is said to touch a circle, when it meets the -circle, and being produced does not cut it,” and is obtained by drawing -a line perpendicular to any radius from the point at which it touches -the circumference. In ornament, tangential junction means that where two -curves of opposite curvature meet they are to meet at the tangential -points of each (Fig. 25), and in the case of a curve being continued by -a straight line, the point of junction is the tangential point. A curve, -however, should never be continued by a straight line, but by a flatter -curve. The beauty imparted by following this rule is seen in the Ionic -capitals of the Temple of Apollo at Bassæ, where the two volutes are -joined by a curve instead of by the usual straight line (see Fig. 179 in -Appendix). - - -_Repose._--The absence of a look of motion in ornament; this appearance -of motion may be seen in some flamboyant tracery and Saracenic patterns, -in some modern paper-hangings, and in patterns in woven and printed -stuffs. The word repose is sometimes used to denote an absence of -spottiness. In the best pilaster panels, horizontal lines are introduced -partly for contrast, and partly to give repose by checking the -appearance of motion in the curved plant forms. (Fig. 127.) - - -_Variety_ is a difference of form or arrangement in the ornament from -that which immediately precedes or follows it. In nature we see that -every leaf varies from every other by subtle differences, though the -foliage is roughly alike, and it is for this reason that Nature’s works -never pall upon us. General similarity with slight variety is the most -proper for the highest and most dignified ornament. In other cases -absolute variety is permissible. Variety is the salt of ornament that -takes off the insipidity of repetition. - - -_Subordination._--The state of being inferior to another, a regular -descending series. In any complex system of ornament, one part should be -chosen as the most important, and all the rest should lead up to it; but -certain distinct parts, such as masses or flowers, may re-echo in a -fainter way the main motive. In drawing, subordination is obtained by -the principal mass being larger than the rest, and by its details being -larger and more pronounced; in painting, by the above and by the -principal part being more vivid in colour; in modelling, by greater size -and relief. The Romans and Cinque Cento artists were great masters of -this art. In some panels, though the highest relief is not great, there -is an infinity of gradation, the lowest relief gradually sinking into -the ground. In a Renaissance bas-relief of a full face the greatest -projection is about the sixteenth of an inch, and yet the face is -perfectly modelled. Modern English carved ornament is too frequently -deficient in this quality. - - -_Balance._--The making unsymmetrical masses of equal weight. In the -creations of nature we see balance employed in trees, shrubs, and plants -(Fig. 160); in leaves, made as it were on a symmetrical basis, balance -is equally employed. In simple oval leaves, for example, one side is -more convex than the other, and the balance is got by the curve in the -rib. - - -_Unity_ is the completeness of any system of ornament not marred by -incongruous elements or forms. - - -_Series_ is the repetition of a limited succession of different forms: -in the egg and tongue, of two; in the bead and reel, of three; in -branches of plants when the leaves regularly diminish in size, of many. -(Fig. 67.) Long series may be seen in Saracenic ornament, where the same -text is repeated sometimes with ornament between the texts. - - -_Growth._--This is at once the rarest and most delightful of the hints -taken from nature by great ornamentalists. In climbing plants, whose -stalks are polygonal, and that twist to reach an object, or for the -flowers to get the sun, the edges of the stalk are seen to form a -spiral. Sometimes this vigour of growth is seen in the turn of a leaf or -the clasp of a tendril round a twig. The capitals and the tripod stand -of the choragic monument of Lysikrates are good examples. (Figs. 53 and -54.) - - -_Superposition._--This is most frequently seen in Saracenic ornament, -but it is also found in Renaissance ornament. The simplest form is in -the case of meanders of different curvature when one is put over the -other, the upper one being more vigorous in form and colour. The next -case is where larger ornaments of a more striking colour are put over a -smaller and less obtrusive pattern, as in the Persian windows of the -Suleimanyeh at Constantinople; but the commonest case is that of -inscriptions over floral ornament, examples of which are without number -in Saracenic work. This, like nearly all other inventions in ornament, -is taken from nature. We see twining or creeping plants overgrowing -trees or bushes, and parasitical plants overgrowing others, from which -they get their sustenance, and have therefore roots, stems, and flowers, -but no leaves. Saracenic diapers frequently have many planes superposed, -and as each pattern is differently coloured and gilt, any change of -position in the beholder brings out a new pattern. This may be seen in -the Alhambra Court at the Crystal Palace. (Fig. 101.) - - -_Fitness_, in its most obvious sense, is arranging the ornament so that -it may not interfere with the proper use of the thing ornamented. The -enrichment of a sword-hilt must not hurt the hand, nor render the proper -wielding of the sword difficult or impossible; and the same canon -applies to the handles of flagons, jugs, or drinking vessels, &c.; in a -secondary sense it is a due consideration of the qualities of the -material to be ornamented, and of the appropriateness of the ornament to -the purpose for which the article is intended; and thirdly, it supposes -a well-ordered design, whose completeness would be marred by anything -being added or removed. - -The want of what is called “alternation” in design is analogous to a -surface that is so elaborately decorated with a uniform repeating -pattern that it is wearisome to look at. - -The value of plain spaces in design is enormous. Charles Lamb, in one of -his delightful letters to Coleridge, says in finishing--“I will leave -you, in mercy, one small white spot _empty_ below, to repose your eyes -upon, fatigued as they must be with the wilderness of words they have -by this time painfully travelled through.” To the designer this analogy -will be obvious and useful. - -Plain spaces as alternations in design, are the oases in the desert, and -may be compared to a refreshing silence after a continuous chatter or -deafening noise. - -It is easier to do too much than to know exactly where to stop. Excess -of ornament defeats its own end, there is no foil to set it off, and it -must be guarded against. The Saracens, by the relative weight of their -ornament, have to some extent obviated this objection. To know the value -of plainness is to enhance the ornament used. To have this vividly -brought home to you, the best Greek architecture should be compared with -late Roman. In the Greek you see a very small quantity of exquisite -ornament surrounded by plainness, which makes it doubly precious; in -late Roman, every surface is covered without a spot to rest the eye on, -so that the whole becomes dull, confused, and monotonous. - - - - -CHAPTER IV - - -Before speaking of the decoration of mouldings, a few words must be said -on the mouldings themselves. The Greeks were the first people who -carried the art of moulding or profiling to any perfection, and they are -still supreme; they mainly used straight-lined sections for strength, -but added a few curved sections to prevent monotony. The air of Greece -is pellucid and the sunshine brilliant, so for their curved sections -those that approximated to conic sections were preferred as having more -subtle shade, segments of circles being rarely used. (See Figs. 61-64.) -The greatest efforts were made to have these mouldings as exquisite as -possible, so as to get variety of shade and shadow, and mouldings of the -same species were rarely or never alike. The Romans, who had much -coarser artistic sensibilities than the Greeks, and were slaves to easy -rules, used segments of circles for their mouldings instead of the Greek -curves. (See Figs. 55-66.) They also had an atmosphere less clear, and -their sunshine was not so brilliant. The Mediævals, who lived in misty -climates with little sunshine, were as logical in their methods, but -were not possessed of the artistic sensibilities of the Greeks, so, -although their mouldings answer the - -[Illustration: FIGS. 55 to 60.--Profiles of Roman mouldings with their -fillets.] - -[Illustration: FIGS. 61 to 66.--Profiles of Greek mouldings with their -fillets.] - -purpose, they lack refinement. The Mediævals got their effects by deep -undercutting, and by putting fillets or leaving arrises on such parts as -were to tell bright;--Classic and Renaissance mouldings, however, are -alone treated of here. - -[Illustration: FIG. 67.--The ovolo or echinus from the Erechtheum, -enriched.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 68.--The cavetto moulding.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 69.--The cyma recta.] - -In the best periods of ancient art it was the invariable custom to adopt -a form nearly like the profile or section of the moulding, and to double -it for the basis of its decoration, and nothing could produce a more -pleasing and artistic result, for then the moulding never lost its -character, however elaborately it might be enriched. The diagrams from -Figs. 67 to 78 will help to illustrate this: for instance, at Fig. 67 we -have the Greek ovolo, ornamented with eggs, called - -[Illustration: FIG. 70.--The Greek ogee with water leaf ornament.] - -by the Greeks “turnip stones,” which resemble the section of the -moulding doubled; at 70 and 73 the Greek ogee is shown with the water -leaf ornament - -[Illustration: FIG. 71.--Roman variety of the ornament on the ogee.] - -used to enrich it, for which we have no distinctive name--it is called -by the French “_Rais de Cœur_,” and resembles the section of the -moulding doubled; at 71 is a Roman variation of this ornament; at 68, a -Roman cavetto, or hollow; at 69, a “cyma recta.” Fig. 77 is a curved -“astragal” or bead moulding; and at Fig. 78 is the bead and reel -ornament. (See also Figs. 72 and 73 for examples of Greek bead and reel -ornament.) Figs. 74, 75, and 76 are examples of ornament used for flat -bands or fascias. When these are sunk with semi-circular or elliptical -channels they are called “fluted,” and when raised in relief “reeded.” - -[Illustration: FIG. 72.--Decorated mouldings from the temple of Minerva -Polias at Athens, ogee, ovolo, and beads.] - -We may next briefly speak of the ornamental treatment of floors, walls, -and ceilings. - -Beginning with the floor, it must be remembered that in floor decoration -the sense of flatness should be preserved; raised and especially angular -surfaces are to be avoided, and what is unpleasant to use is unpleasant -to be suggested for use, though the Assyrians used relief on their -floors. Whether the - -[Illustration: FIG. 73.--Greek cyma reversa or ogee decorated with the -water leaf, a fret ornament carved on upper fillet, and a bead and reel -below.] - -[Illustration: 74. From Jupiter Tonans. - -75. From the Forum of Nerva. - -76. From the Temple of Jupiter Stator. - -FIGS. 74 to 76.--Fluted ornaments.] - -decoration be obtained by carpets, rugs, floor-cloth, inlaid marble or -metal, mosaic, tiles, or parquetry, nothing should be introduced to -disturb the flatness, - -[Illustration: FIGS. 76 A and 76 B.--Reeded ornaments for flat bands.] - -by shading the forms or by imitating mouldings, or a ridge and furrow. -All realistic renderings of animals - -[Illustration: FIG. 77.--Astragal or bead moulding.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 78.--Bead and reel.] - -or plants should be carefully avoided. The colour may be varied, but -evenly distributed, and mostly sober; though the Romans sometimes used -lapis lazuli for their floors, or encrusted them with gems, and the -Byzantines used gold or silver chased and enriched with niello. Mosaic -work applied to floors was an early form of decoration, and is still of -a high order in the scale of floor decorations, the highest - -[Illustration: FIG. 79.--Opus Alexandrinum from a pavement in the Church -of San Marco (Rome).] - -being marble inlaid with other marbles or with mastic, like those in the -Baptistery at Florence and the Cathedral at Siena. The use of marble or -tiles in this country is limited to the floors of museums, baths, halls -and passages; on account of their coldness, they cannot be used with -comfort in ordinary rooms. Mosaic may be treated with borders and lines -like the framing of a picture, with the field (or central space) either -plain, powdered with spots of decoration, or covered with a pattern. -Black and white is the most dignified treatment. If other colours are -used, black with pale red or cream colour, or low-toned reds, greens, -greys, and yellows are to be preferred. Opus Alexandrinum is one of the -most magnificent floor decorations yet used; rectangular or circular -slabs of porphyry are surrounded with bands composed of geometrical -figures in purple, green, and black porphyry, on a white marble ground, -though marble occasionally takes the place of porphyry in the smaller -geometrical patterns. (See Fig. 79.) - -Floor-cloths and linoleums are of modern introduction. The decoration of -these coverings is best when it is of subdued colours treated flatly. - -In carpets, the pattern should, as a rule, radiate from geometric -points; at least the more important spots should be on a circular, -lozenge, or square basis, so that the eye should not be carried in one -particular direction. If animals are used, they should have a simple -outline, and should be treated flatly. Realistic flowers, birds, human -figures, landscapes, and architecture are out of place on carpets. A -border always improves a carpet, if properly designed to harmonize with -the centre, or to enhance its value. - -Walls may be decorated with metals or marbles; with wood panelling, -either plain, moulded, inlaid, carved or incised; with plaster flatly -embossed or sunk, or in which stones, shells or looking-glass, &c. is -embedded; with plain colour, with painted or stencilled patterns; with -furs or feather work; with hangings of velvet, satin, silk, or calico, -either plain, enriched, or embroidered; by tapestry, matting, stamped -leather or - -[Illustration: FIGS. 80 to 83.--Improper arrangements for wall-papers or -room decoration.] - -its imitations, and by paper-hangings. If pictures are to be hung on a -wall, it is obvious that a low-toned decoration, that will set them off, -is alone admissible; since the pictures themselves are the principal -decoration, the walls should be treated as an unobtrusive background. -The best decoration for appearance after simple colour or a painted -pattern is silk or woven stuffs.[6] If paper-hangings be chosen, they -should have a uniform pattern and be free from spots; for the eye should -not be arrested by any particular form, nor be forcibly carried in any -direction. In illustration of this, we may suppose the diagrams, Figs. -80, 81, 82, and 83, to represent decorated wall spaces. All these -decorative arrangements are bad as wall-coverings; but by combining -their elements, at Fig. 84 a tolerably good paper-hanging is produced -that will form a background for furniture and pictures. - -[Illustration: FIG. 84.--Arrangement for the lines of a wall-paper.] - -The diagram, Fig. 80, arrests the eye; 81 and 82 tend to exaggerate the -height or breadth of the room; for patterns in which vertical or -horizontal lines predominate will have the effect of lengthening or -widening the surface of the wall; whilst the diagram 83, being composed -of oblique lines, will not only give a look of weakness to the wall, but -will lead the eye from one corner of the room to the other. A pattern, -to be satisfactory as a background, should neither arrest the eye nor -carry it in any particular direction. - -The height of a real dado generally depends on the height of the -chair-backs, but it may be influenced by the height of the ceiling, and -partly by the use to which the room is put; high wainscoting prevents -small-sized pictures from being seen. If the wainscot - -[Illustration: FIGS. 85 to 87.--Fillings of ceilings showing various -schemes of all-over effects.] - -be higher than the centre of the wall, the upper part of the wall may -have a stronger decoration with a more flowing pattern than would be -admissible on a - -[Illustration: FIG. 88.--Portion of the ceiling of vestibule of Sacristy -of S. Spirito (Florence) by Sansovino.] - -wall with lower wainscoting. If there be a frieze in the room, a still -freer and more pictorial treatment may be allowed on it. The Greeks -called the frieze Zoophoros, or life-bearing, because it was generally - -[Illustration: FIG. 89.--Ceiling from Serlio’s architecture.] - -adorned with figures of men or animals. Wall spaces need not be panelled -in small rooms, as the window-openings, doors, and fireplaces mostly -break up the space sufficiently. If the rooms, though small, are high, a -dado and a frieze are improvements. On ceilings there is more room for -variety and elaboration. There are many ways of decorating ceilings. We -may take the cornice as the frame, and regard the ceiling as the space -to decorate; the simplest way is to powder it (Fig. 85), or to cover it -over with a scroll-work pattern (Fig. 86). An effective treatment -consists in lightly covering the field with a pattern steadied by -labels, shields, or medallions (Fig. 87). - -In dividing a ceiling into panels, either by painting or by relief work, -the centre panel or compartment should generally be larger than any of -the others (see Fig. 89, and 92 at B), though there are excellent -Renaissance ceilings divided into equal panels. When the ceiling is -unequally divided, the spaces should be in harmonic proportion, so that -no two series of panels shall be the same width; this, however, does not -apply to the widths of the stiles and rails, which should be alike. -Figs. 88 and 89 show such arrangements. Care must be taken in designing -the subdivisions of ceilings that the panels, interspaces, and mouldings -are well contrasted. A safe guide for the designer in obtaining the -requisite proportions is to be found in the Roman ceilings, although -those of which drawings are preserved were mostly vaulted. For flat -ceilings, good examples may be studied of the best period of Italian -Renaissance (Fig. 88), and in both cases the mouldings of the panels are -usually given. Where a ceiling to be decorated is divided by beams, the -panelling, if admissible, should be repeated in the different -compartments. Ceilings of corridors or long rooms may be harmonically -divided across at discretion. - -Relief work or modelled ornament on ceilings should be so regulated that -the light from windows or from artificial illumination should cause -little cast shadow, only enough to define the outline; the forms should -be carefully rounded off in the more important masses to lessen the -abruptness of cast shadow. A preponderance of light in the larger -masses, connected and softened by lower tones, is commonly adopted. - -On the carved surface itself, the play of light and shade should be -quite secondary, and not compete in strength with the deeper shadows -cast by the ornament on its ground. If this be not attended to, -confusion and obscurity are apt to be produced. - -A nice balancing of light and shade is of the greatest importance in -relief ornament. It may here be remarked, that for outdoor work in a -sunny climate, a lower relief in the carving and more delicacy in the -mouldings is admissible, than in a misty one like ours, where strong -sunlight rarely occurs; and for this reason a bolder treatment of relief -is necessary, which allows of a coarser material being used. Before -leaving the subject of relief ornament, it would be as well to state, -that no carved decoration should be fastened on to a ceiling or panel, -but should be worked out of the material itself; and also that where -human figures are used on ceilings, they must be so arranged as to be -seen from the heads at the most important point in the room; seen from -the feet the figures appear to be upside down. - - - - -CHAPTER V - - -In setting out spaces for decoration the chief aim should be to get them -in harmonic proportion. The Greeks were the great masters of this art, -the most subtle proportions being chosen by them, but there is not space -here to enter into refinements. Roughly speaking, the proportion of -1¾ to 1 is fairly agreeable; when the space required approaches a -double square, it looks better if it somewhat exceeds or falls short of -that figure. As a rule, a marked preponderance in the height or length -should be given to every oblong used in decoration, and with those rough -rules, an educated eye can mostly, after a few trials, obtain harmonious -proportions. Those forms about which there is an uncertainty always look -feeble and unsatisfactory, _e.g._ an oblong that approaches the square, -or an ellipse that approaches a circle. In the case of the square there -should be no doubt about its being a square, so it is necessary that the -ornamentation chosen be calculated to emphasize the shape and not give -it the appearance of an oblong, _i.e._ the ornament should be -symmetrical on both the axes, and it is often useful to accentuate the -corners as well; if the square be surrounded by a border it is -sometimes advisable to strengthen its corners by knees. If this be done -it is necessary to have them at the four corners; if they be applied to -the two upper or the two under corners, the square will be taken for an -oblong. The repetition of squares is much more endurable than a -repetition of similar oblongs. A common case of the monotonous effect of -similar oblong panels is to be seen in a four-panelled door with the -middle rail in the centre, so the middle rail is commonly put below the -centre to get variety in the panels. Even in so graceful a form as the -human figure, sculptors rarely represent it in a perfectly symmetrical -attitude, particularly in bas-relief, unless it be to express some -marked emotion, or for the sake of the composition; there are, however, -a few figures in front view, symmetrically arranged, that form the -centres of ornamental compositions: the front view of animals in -bas-relief is still less admissible. The circle is by far the most -beautiful and useful closed curve, but it is not always available, as in -the case of a central feature in a very long ceiling or in oblong -panels, and its place must be then supplied by an ellipse, which has -this merit, that its proportions are infinite, the straight line and the -circle being only extreme cases of the ellipse; but when the choice is -unfettered the long (major) axis should so far exceed the short (minor) -as to afford a contrast; an ellipse that differs but slightly from the -circle too much resembles one that is ill-drawn. When an ellipse is -placed with the long axis vertical, which is sometimes necessary in -oblong panels, looking-glasses, &c., it should be tied to the vertical -and horizontal framework to prevent an - -[Illustration: FIG 90.--Vase by Stevens showing unequal divisions of the -height, and strengthening horizontal bands.] - -appearance of instability, and when this cannot be done it should be -supported by foliage. - -In horizontally dividing objects circular in plan and curved in section, -such as vases, with lines or bands, several things have to be -considered. The lines themselves have a strengthening effect, but the -question is where they are best applied: if the curves of the object -vary considerably, the points at which the variations begin are the -proper places, and in this case, as in all others, variety and the -predominance of one division are to be adopted; if, however, the vase - -[Illustration: FIG. 91.--Vase showing unequal divisions of the height, -and strengthening horizontal bands.] - -is to be decorated, the predominant space for the most important -decoration must be placed where the curve is nearly uniform, or else the -ornament will be distorted. The Greek painted vases, with a few -exceptions, are the best examples of excellence in their divisions -(Figs. 90 and 91). Due consideration must also be given to the placing -of the vase; some of the Greek vases, intended to stand on the ground, -have the main ornament confined to the shoulder. - -In the division of objects in the round, it is a general rule that they -should not be divided in the middle, but that the upper or under part -should be distinctly predominant, and that the two parts should be -different. There is, however, an exception to this rule, for when -certain objects are wanted to be symmetrical on their horizontal axes, -the upper and under forms should then be identical, _e.g._ in the case -of certain vases, candlesticks, and balusters. - -[Illustration: FIG. 92.--Panelling of ceilings showing at A a bad, and -at B a better arrangement.] - -In the case of ornamental objects whose outline is a matter of taste, -such as finger-plates, care must be taken that they neither have a weak -outline wholly made up of curves, like A, nor one that is too angular, -like B; the design C seems to obviate both these defects (Fig. 94). - -[Illustration: _Fig. 93._--Door panels illustrating an ill-proportioned -division at A, and a well-proportioned one at B.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 94.--Finger-plates for a door, of different -outlines.] - -Compositions wholly formed of parallel straight lines, such as -entablatures, and some door and window architraves, have a severity, -that borders upon the monotonous, that is sometimes called dryness. The -Greeks corrected this defect in their entablatures by introducing -figures in the frieze, while the Romans mostly ornamented their friezes -with festoons and foliage. In the door architrave at the Erechtheum -circular pateræ are used on the fascia for this reason (Fig. 96); modern -ornamentalists have introduced curved figures to correct the dryness. -Archivolts to circular openings without imposts, and not enclosed by -straight lines, lack firmness and rigidity, which may be imparted by -inserting frets or flutes radiating from the centre, on the fascia of -the archivolt (Fig. 95). Similar devices may be employed to correct -weakness in planes of varied outline. In the shield of the savage (Fig. -97), made of black and yellow cane ornamented with cut shells, the two -horizontal bands, just below the junction of the semicircles with the -straight lines, strengthen the composition; there is a fair amount of -contrast between the oblique lines of the ornaments, and the circular, -slanting, and horizontal lines; though the circular cut shell-work of -the ends is excessive and monotonous. Extreme repetition is a common -fault of savage art. - -When a surface requires ornament and yet to be kept flat, the painted or -inlaid ornament upon it should not be shaded nor have cast shadows, or -when carved it should be sunk: what beauty can be got by flat colours -may be seen in the tiles from Rhodes, Cairo, and Damascus. On large -surfaces the best forms of applying ornaments is within lines of -checkers, network (Figs. 98 and 99), or diapers, and except in the case -of very large surfaces, where striking variety may be introduced at set -intervals, the ornament should be uniform in general - -[Illustration: FIG. 95.--Contrasting decoration on rectangular and -circular borders.] - -effect, leaving the varieties to be discovered by closer inspection. One -of the best examples of this, though it is not in diapers, is in the -Medici Chapel at Florence. Michael Angelo enriched a string there with -copies of antique masks; in looking at the sides of the chapel the -masks seem all alike, but on going near them, each one is seen to be -different. Innumerable examples of ornament within network, checkers, -and diapers, maybe found in Saracenic, Moresque, Gothic, and Renaissance -work. - -[Illustration: FIG. 96.--Door case at the Erechtheum showing the pateræ -on the fascia.] - -To adopt forms directly from nature for the shape of any article of use -is rarely successful, though the best shapes have mostly been suggested -by natural forms. The Orientals, especially those of the extreme East, -have been very fond of this direct imitation, as in vessels made in -imitation of a piece of bamboo, of gourds with both single and double -bulbs, of eggs, cocoanuts, the horns and hoofs of animals including the -horn of the rhinoceros, of shells, flowers, &c., but they mostly want -stands or feet, which partly removes them from pure realism, except in -the case of the bamboo, the form of which too is not particularly -beautiful. When the ancient traditions had died out in England, and the -proper application of ornament - -[Illustration: FIG. 97.--Shield made of cane and ornamented with cut -shells and zigzags.] - -to articles of use was unknown, it occurred to many that such objects -might be directly imitated from nature. Sprays of fuchsia with a large -flower on each were used for curtain hooks; branches of plants were -used for gas brackets with the flame coming from the flower; and vases -made in imitation of the blossom of the arum. Sometimes nature itself -was not vast enough for imitation; earthenware bowls and wine-coolers -were made in imitation of wickerwork, gold brooches in imitation of -twisted bread, and other adaptations were made that were equally -incongruous. It is true that the Japanese sometimes protect their -porcelain with an outer covering of woven cane, and wicker-covered -bottles are not unknown here. The Kafirs, too, carry their milk in woven -baskets; yet in spite of these cases, there is an apparent absurdity in -such designs, not to speak of the poverty of invention they betray. - -FIGS. 98 and 99.--Carved checkers. - -Such vagaries are happily disappearing, since the creation of museums -and schools of ornamental art, but they are by no means extinct. - -Every article, whether for use or ornament, should first be constructed -as elegantly as possible for its purpose, or supposed purpose; and only -be ornamented when the ornament does not appear incongruous, and does -not interfere with its use, but only emphasizes its form or relieves it -from monotony. Although this chapter is mainly confined to outlines and -divisions of surfaces, something has been said about the application of -ornament, so it may be remarked that the lower part of a wall should be -treated with more severity and sobriety than the upper part; for the -lower part is partly hidden by furniture, and is most liable to injury. -The Romans and Byzantines mostly used marble for the lower parts of -walls in magnificent buildings, though in houses of less magnificence -marble was either imitated by painting, or else simple floral decoration -was used. The Saracens also employed marble, but when that was not easy -to obtain, tiles took its place. The Mediævals used marble, wood -panelling, or tapestry, and when the walls were wholly painted, they -often imitated the more costly materials. Geometrical figures or diapers -are most appropriate for this part, when it is painted or papered. The -part of the wall above this may be treated with greater freedom and -elaboration. The part of the wall on a level with the eye should have -greater finish bestowed on it, unless there be a frieze with figures or -a higher class of ornament to a larger scale. - - - - -CHAPTER VI - - -Having previously considered the principal elements of ornament, it is -now advisable to classify ornament in accordance with the spaces it has -to fill, and these may roughly be divided into six classes or great -divisions, as follows:-- - - 1. Uniform surfaces, as floors, walls, and ceilings. - 2. Horizontal bands, as friezes, &c. - 3. Perpendicular bands, as panels of piers, pilasters, stripes, &c. - 4. Symmetrical arrangements, as panels, either rectangular or of closed - curved figures. - 5. Symmetrical arrangements composed of straight and curved lines or - of compound curves, as spandrels, panels of curved and straight lines. - 6. Unsymmetrical spaces founded by straight or curved lines, or by both. - -_The uniform surfaces_ of large undivided areas are mostly decorated in -the following ways: by all-over patterns, by diapering, checkering, -powdering, or spotting. All-over patterns may be symmetrical, balanced, -or one-sided, and are drawn, painted, modelled, or carved. The typical -pattern, if symmetrical, has no - -[Illustration: FIG. 100.--Waving pattern, stamped velvet, 16th century. -Italian, showing Saracenic influence.] - -two pieces of the ornament alike in the one half; and if balanced or -onesided has no two pieces alike; so that the whole is full of interest -from its variety. It is, however, rarely seen, as, unless the artist -does it for his own delight, few amateurs care to pay for it. It is -simulated in paper-hangings by the repetition of a piece, the width of -the paper (Fig. 143), called a repeat; by stencilling or pouncing the -repeat, if painted; and by cast repeats, if in plaster. This is one of -the cheap substitutes for the real thing which pervades European art. -The Chinese formerly supplied paper-hangings that would cover a whole -room without a repeat. - -A _diaper_ pattern is properly one contained in some repeating -geometrical figure not composed of straight lines. In Saracenic and -Moresque work real diapers are mostly found, a geometrical framework -being laid over some interlaced floral patterns (Fig. 101). The name -diaper comes from jasper, through the Low Latin _diasprum_, Italian -_diaspro_, or French _diapre_, and was originally applied to woven -stuffs from the East. (See Figs. 101, 106, 107, 109, and 110.) These -were mostly of silk covered with small patterns in colour, that -suggested the appearance of the flowering of jasper. - -In vulgar parlance, it is now applied to all patterns enclosed in a -repeating geometrical form. Dados in painted decoration were mostly -diapered, as may be seen in one of the churches of St. Francis, Assisi; -and at the Sainte Chapelle at Paris, the diapers are on painted -hangings; at the Arena Chapel at Padua the dado is painted in imitation -of marble panels. - -Checkers and network enclosing carved patterns are found on the walls -of Gothic cathedrals and churches (Figs. 98, 99). When the space covered -with checkers, network, or diapers is not too large the patterns should -so far resemble one another as to give a uniform appearance, the -variations being only enough to prevent disgust on a near view. Two -patterns may sometimes alternate, but in very large surfaces another -distinct pattern should be introduced, at certain intervals, to relieve -the monotony. Care must be taken to make the network and pattern of the -proper scale for the building or room, and for the other decoration. - -[Illustration: FIG. 101.--Moresque diaper.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 102.--Japanese network.] - -Diapers are found in Chinese and Japanese decoration, although -rectilinear network is more common (Fig. 102), but powdering is most -favoured by them (Figs. 103-105). Sometimes it is put over a pattern -(Fig. 104). Powdering was, too, a favourite method of ornamenting in the -Middle Ages. - -The _second division_ is ornament arranged in horizontal bands. The -Greeks were pre-eminent in the use of horizontal bands in their -sculptured and - -[Illustration: FIG. 103.--Japanese powdering.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 104.--Superimposed Japanese powdering.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 105.--Japanese powdering.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 106.--Diaper, Italian brocade, 16th century.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 107.--Diaper in velvet brocade, 16th century. -Italian (German origin).] - -painted decorations. The embroidered or woven patterns on their dresses, -shawls, and curtains, and the beautiful ornament on their vases, were -mainly - -[Illustration: FIG. 108.--Construction lines of Fig. 109.] - -designed on this system. The _frieze_ is a characteristic feature in -Greek architecture; and if you take the band ornaments out of Greek work -there is very little ornament left. Figs. 37, 42, 45, 49, 51, 52, 113, - -[Illustration: FIG. 109.--Velvet brocade, 16th century. Italian.] - -114, and 115 are some of their favourite band patterns. Figs. 116 and -117 show some of the patterns on dresses taken from the Greek vases. The -shawl (_peplum_) of Demeter on a vase at the British Museum has chariot -races, winged cupids, animals, birds, and dolphins in the successive -bands; the sacred shawls of Minerva at the Parthenon (_pepla_) are only -known by description. One had the battle of the gods and giants woven or -embroidered on it, and another was ornamented with the portraits of -Antigonus and Demetrius Poliorcetes (Plutarch’s Demetrius). - -Spotting at regular intervals was the favourite way of decorating the -larger surface of dresses. The circular flower that usually formed the -spot in Greek ornament was composed of a greater number of petals than -the Roman, and is probably of Assyrian origin. (See Fig. 116.) Saracen -work also affords good examples of horizontal band treatment. (See Figs. -118 and 119.) - -_The third division_: perpendicular bands are not so common in -decoration as the former class; they are mostly architectural in -character, and usually form divisions between wall-spaces in the shape -of panels in piers and pilasters. Triglyphs in friezes may even be -classed in this division, and so may the soffits of arches in the -Classic and Renaissance styles; the decoration of the soffits of beams -and of ribs and groins in Gothic, though some purists say it gives a -look of weakness to the arch. When the soffits of arches are wide in -proportion to their height they may be panelled, and if narrow be -treated like pilaster panels, the bottom of each side - -[Illustration: FIG. 110.--Diaper in silk brocade. Italian or Spanish, -16th century; formerly used for dress purposes, but now only employed -for furniture.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 112.--Stamped velvet, 16th century. Italian.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 113.--Greek ivy meander border.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 114.--Greek border from a vase.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 115.--Greek border with fret bands.] - -[Illustration: FIGS. 116 AND 117.--Greek borders.] being at the -springing; the tops may nearly touch at the crown, or be separated by a -circular panel. The decoration of pilaster panels in relief should be -comparatively low, and although some of the minor details may almost -sink into the ground, there should be nothing vague; the danger to be -apprehended being a loss of architectural severity - -[Illustration: FIGS. 118 AND 119.--Persian borders.] - -in this supporting feature. The ornament on a pilaster must be -symmetrically built with the strongest elements at the base and the -lightest at the top. The best examples of this kind of decoration are -Roman, Italian, and French Cinque-Cento work. The latter may be seen in -the well-known pilasters of Louis XII. The artists of those times paid -the same attention to pilaster decoration that the - -[Illustration: FIG. 120.--Upright lily border. Greco-Roman.] - -Greeks did to horizontal band-work. Figs. 121, 122, and 123 show some -examples of pilaster decoration. When the main ornamental effect is -obtained, the next problem to be solved is to get the greatest possible -variation in the planes of the carving, so that the ornament may not -have the air of being cut out with a fret-saw, with the face slightly -carved and pinned on. It is sometimes well to accentuate certain -portions if care be taken to avoid spottiness; occasionally the main -piece of ornament that has the greatest projection may be echoed up the -pilaster with a sort of ebb and flow, only the greatest subsidiary -projection should be less than the main one. Modern ornamentalists have -insisted, that if animal forms are introduced they should be repeated, -and rise in scale of importance as they get higher; but this method does -not seem to have been adhered to by the Romans or Renaissance artists. -In the latter we sometimes meet with cupids or children at the very base -of the panel. - -[Illustration: FIG. 121.--Pilaster designed by Donatello.] - -_The fourth division._--Ornament in panels, &c. Ceilings - -[Illustration: FIG. 122.--Italian Cinque-cento pilaster panel.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 123.--Italian pilaster decoration.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 124.--German book cover, date 1572, in four enamel -colours and gold.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 125.--Plaque in repoussé work. German 17th -century.] - -have been treated in Chapter IV., and floors cannot have real panels, so -upright rectangular panels may be taken first. Their simplest -ornamentation is by moulding; if the mouldings have stopped ends, they -are known as linen panels. When narrow and unmoulded they may be filled -with symmetrical ornament - -[Illustration: FIG. 126.--Venetian panel illustrating “balance” without -symmetry.] - -on either side of an upright stem, either purely floral (Figs. 148 and -120), or after the manner of pilaster panels, or the ornament may spring -from vases at the bottom (Fig. 127), or they may have central medallions -circular or oval, pateræ or bosses; and in cases where these narrow -panels are in a long succession, each one may be varied, or the centres -alone may be varied, if the size and weight of the centres be -preserved; circular and oval panels in moulded frames should be avoided -in woodwork on account of the chances of the mouldings splitting. In -Saracenic and Moresque work the - -[Illustration: FIG. 127.--Cinque-cento panel.] - -panels are mostly filled by diapers, and in late European work it was -common to enrich the corners, and sometimes to form a centre, leaving -the rest of the panel plain, spotted, powdered, or filled with -interlaced work. - -In ornamental panels the mouldings of the frame - -[Illustration: FIG. 128.--Renaissance panel ornament.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 129.--Wine crater in silver from the Hildesheim -treasures. Antique Roman.] - -must never be wholly ornamented (see Fig. 128); sometimes they may be -wholly plain, but if there be several mouldings, it is well to slightly -enrich one member to connect the frame with the panel and detach it from -the plain stiles and rails; these should never be carved when enriched -panels are used. When great richness is required, and the panels are -carved, inlay or incised ornament is the best form of enrichment for the -stiles and rails. - -[Illustration: FIG. 130.--Cinque-cento floral ornament composed of the -acanthus, oak leaf, convolvulus, and wild rose, &c.] - -_The fifth division._--Compound shapes such as spandrels, segmental -pediments, compound panels, and tail-pieces (Figs. 134, 135), the last -known in France under the name of “lamp bottoms,” some arms and pieces -of armour and some utensils (Fig. 133). - -[Illustration: FIG. 131.--Gothic spandrel from Stone Church in Kent.] - -In spandrels between two arches a slight deviation from symmetry may be -allowed if the sides are well balanced, but it requires great skill to -render the ornament satisfactory (Fig. 131). If the arch mouldings are -properly emphasized, the spandrels may have a free and unsymmetrical -treatment, for they do not appear so constructively important as the -panels of pilasters, and so greater freedom is allowed to the artist. -The Gothic spandrel (Fig. 131) from Stone Church, in Kent, is a good -example of balance. - -[Illustration: FIG. 132.--Spandrel by Stevens.] - -_The sixth division._--Unsymmetrical spaces to be filled with ornament -are rare, being mostly found in Saracen work and in arms and utensils, -except in the case of angular spandrels composed of a vertical and -horizontal line and a segment (Fig. 132); in all these cases, balance -must be the principle employed. Fig. 132 shows a well-balanced design -for a right-angled spandrel between a round arch and a vertical line, -the work of the late Alfred Stevens. - -[Illustration: FIG. 133.--Panel with trophy of arms and armour.] - -[Illustration: FIGS. 134 and 135.--Tail-pieces (Renaissance), or lamp -bottoms.] - - - - -CHAPTER VII - - -The ornamentalist is more indebted to plants and flowers, both for -materials and suggestions in design, than to any other division in the -domain of nature. The best conventional and æsthetic floral ornament was -the outcome of the study of plants and flowers. That characteristic -Greek ornament, the honeysuckle or anthemion, is said to have originated -from the Egyptian lotus flower, or the Sacred Hom, and not from the -honeysuckle; the conventional rendering of this flower in ornament is -said to have been adapted from the Egyptian forms by the Chaldæans; and -later the children of those ancient flower-worshippers, the Assyrians, -developed the pattern into more ornate forms. The Greeks in their turn -are supposed to have copied the anthemion from the Assyrians: at first -it was archaic and stiff, but full of vitality as ornament, and well -adapted for its various uses and positions; and at last perfected to -such a degree of æsthetic purity in the Erechtheum, as to lose all -traces of any particular plant, while embodying the best qualities of -plant-growth; for in it we see vigorous life combined with grace and -elegance. - -Another phase of floral and leaf growth, and its proper development -into pure ornament, can be studied in the many rosettes of the various -styles. These are circular in plan, and would appear at first sight to -be derived from flowers, but are mostly a cluster of leaves, radiating -like the spokes of a wheel, either straight or curved. - -[Illustration: FIG. 136.--Rosettes or pateræ from Roman ornament, -composed of leaf and floral forms.] - -There are many plants--for instance, the bedstraw and the madder--that -have their sets of leaves arranged in a whorl round the joints of their -upright stems; looking down on these leaves we notice that the plan -appears like a rosette. This idea may have occurred to the ancients when -designing their rosettes. The results, obtained by grouping a cluster of -leaves together in this manner, are finer and stronger in appearance -than any imitation of flowers, particularly in sculptured work. (See -Fig. 136.) Leaflets and bracts growing at the junctions of stems and -leaves also furnished ideas and forms for the making up of rosettes and -similar ornament; but more use is made of these bracts in what is called -“clothing stems,” or sheaths, some varieties of which are illustrated at -Figs. 137 and 157; in fact, very good ornament is often composed of a -stem or meander clothed with these bracts alone. Root forms are not much -used in European ornament, though Indian, Saracen, and Mediæval -decoration abound in examples of the treatment of roots. (See Fig. -138.) The objection to their use is this, that it gives the whole -ornament the appearance of having been pulled up and hung to dry. This -must always be an objection to their use, unless the root can be shown -in the ground; consequently the Roman and Renaissance artists let their -ornament - -[Illustration: FIG. 137.--Bracts used for “clothing” stems in scrolls, -&c.] - -spring from vases or clusters of leaves. When roots are used it is clear -that the general outline of the root must alone be taken, and the -character of the growth expressed simply, to prevent confusion and -obscurity. - -[Illustration: FIG. 138.--Mediæval and Oriental root forms.] - -As a rule, all redundances, excrescences, and accidental waywardness of -growth, that might be interesting to a botanist, ought to be avoided in -the decorative rendering of plant form; the average form and the higher -beauties should alone be expressed. Though this may seem a paradox, the -less realistic we make our designs, the more nature we put into them. -We should strive to put the most perfect forms of nature into our -ornament, avoiding those that are poor and stunted, as well as -over-nourished and rank ones, though nature abounds in both. - -[Illustration: FIG. 139.--Laurel from nature.] - -In Persian[7] ornament we find flower and plant forms treated in a -thoroughly decorative manner (Figs. 118 and 119); the pink and hyacinth -were as great favourites with Persian decorators as the maple and vine -were in mediæval work, the lotus and papyrus in Egyptian, the peony in -Chinese, and the chrysanthemum in Japanese; while such styles as the -Greek, Roman, Celtic, and Saracenic are more purely conventional, and, -without having much realism, are still based on natural forms. - -Students in design cannot be too strongly advised to cultivate the habit -of making correct drawings of - -[Illustration: FIGS. 140 and 141.--Borders derived from the laurel.] - -all kinds of plants, both in flower and fruit, especially those of -single flower and of simple growth, accompanied by careful notes of the -construction at the stem and leaf junctions. - -The botanical analysis of a plant may serve a scientific end, and be -useful to show the student the construction of the plant, but it makes a -very poor show in an artistic design. Landor the poet said it was an -act of cruelty to cut a flower from its stem: it would be interesting to -know his opinion of that school which believes in dissecting plants to -find “new forms,” many of whose designs present novelties that nature -never dreamt of, such as leaves neatly cut in half, elevations, and -sections of petals, stamens, pistils, seed pods, and other curious forms -suggested - -[Illustration: FIG. 142.--Wild rose from nature.] - -by these dissections, so that the design when completed is an anatomical -preparation, and certainly innocent of any violation of the second -commandment. A section through some flowers may, however, give -suggestions of outline for some flat ornament. The testimony of the best -old decorative design is against this practice. It is refreshing to see -that in England a reaction is setting in, mainly owing to the efforts -of such men as Sir Edward Burne-Jones, Messrs. Morris, Crane, and a few -others, who prefer nature to novelty. - -[Illustration: FIG. 143.--Design for a paper-hanging from the wild -rose.] - -In selecting plants for particular purposes, it is well to bear in mind -the material to be decorated, whether it be woven stuff, wood, or -metal-work, and to choose the kind best adapted to the purpose--as the -hare-bell, the wild poppy, grasses, and delicate ferns for muslins, -cottons, and lace; the oak, orange, lemon, pomegranate, and the mallow -for wood-and for stone-carving, and for iron-work. At the same time, a -too rigid adherence to these principles is not to be advised. What is of -most importance is to adhere to the growth - -[Illustration: FIG. 144.--Borders of medallions in enamelled earthenware -by Luca della Robbia.] - -and character of the plant we use; for instance, a plant like the laurel -(Fig. 139) is best suited for an upright or horizontal border. (See -Figs. 140, 141.) The wild rose (Fig. 142) and the lemon (Fig. 145) are -both - -[Illustration: FIG. 145.--Lemon from nature.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 146.--Design for a carved wood panel from the lemon -plant.] - -suitable for panels of almost any form, for all-over patterns, or for -paper-hangings, &c. (See Figs. 143 and 146.) For narrow upright panels, -plants of upright growth, such as the lily, the ox-eye, and the iris, -&c., are most suitable. (See for illustrations Figs. 147 and 148.) A -trailing vine makes a good ceiling decoration, and was so used by the -Byzantine mosaic workers. Lastly, plants of horizontal growth, such as -the dandelion, the daisy, &c., looked at from above, might be best -adapted for a floor, a carpet, or a table-cover. - -[Illustration: FIG. 147.--Tiger lily from nature.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 148.--Panel arrangement from the Tiger lily.] - -The well-known conventional _acanthus_ and its varieties must now be -described. There have been various suggestions concerning the identical -plant from which the acanthus ornament is derived, but, like the -anthemion of the Greeks, there is some - -[Illustration: FIG. 149.--Acanthus Mollis from nature.] - -obscurity about it. The story told by Vitruvius of the sculptor -Callimachus having the Corinthian capital suggested to him, by finding -the plant growing round a basket covered by a square tile, is a -plausible and certainly a pretty one (Vit. lib. 4, cap. 1). At any rate, -Callimachus is credited by Vitruvius with the first use of the acanthus -in capitals. The ornamental forms of the acanthus bear little -resemblance to the natural leaf. (See Figs. 149, 150, 151, and 152.) The -two latter are - -[Illustration: FIG. 150.--Acanthus Spinosus from nature.] - -leaves from Greek capitals, the first two have been drawn from nature. -The acanthus, as we know it in the capitals of the Greek and Roman -Corinthian, and the Roman Composite orders, is an artistic creation, -adapted to suit the ends of a grand style of architecture, and not an -imitation of a particular leaf. The characteristic difference of the -classic ornament from the natural leaf lies in the “pipes” that start -from the “eyes” at the base of the leaflets, - -[Illustration: FIG. 151.--Greek acanthus leaf from a capital of the -Tower of the Winds.] - -and, somewhat contrary to nature, taper downwards to the base of the -leaf; these pipes, together with the central stalk, impart that strength -and dignity which is necessary for architectural foliage, especially -when it adorns the bell of a capital. (See Fig. 154.) The pipes are less -important, and are consequently less marked in examples of smaller work, -such as may be found in the acanthus of candelabra and panels, in which -constructive strength is not required. - -[Illustration: FIG. 152.--Greek acanthus leaf with flowers from a -capital of the Choragic Monument of Lysikrates.] - -On the Corinthian capital, the acanthus presents a simple edge exactly -repeated on each leaflet, with far less serration than is seen in the -natural foliage: this imparts dignity to the leaf. On modillions a more -serrated and smaller variety is used, with the stalks and pipes still -prominent; while on candelabra and small pillars the leaves lie flatter, -and the leaflets overlap, and owing to the fact that the leaves are -smaller in scale and nearer to our eyes, more serrations and more detail -may be put into them, for the smaller the scale the more detail is -necessary. - -[Illustration: FIG. 153.--Roman leaf of capital,--the olive leaf -acanthus variety,--see Introductory Chapter.] - -[Illustration: Plan showing stalk, pipes, and undercut channels of Fig. -153.] - -(See Fig. 156.) To prevent the foliage in the latter examples from -appearing flimsy, as it would naturally do with an overlapping edge much -cut up, the edges of the leaves should be slightly thickened and rounded -so as to catch the light, thus giving a rich quality to the decoration. -The Greeks mostly used - -[Illustration: FIG. 154.--Acanthus: olive leaf variety from a capital of -Mars Ultor.] - -that kind of acanthus that is known as the _Acanthus spinosus_, or the -prickly variety; the Romans preferred the _Acanthus mollis_, or the -soft-leaved kind. The olive-leaf has been used for the raffles of the -leaves in the capitals of Jupiter Stator, Mars Ultor, and the Pantheon -at Rome (see Figs. 154, 185, and 188), while at the Temple of Vesta at -Tivoli the capitals have the oak-leaved variety. A bit of the -soft-leaved acanthus is shown at Fig. 155 from the soffit of the -architrave at the temple of Jupiter - -[Illustration: FIG. 155.--Soft-leaved acanthus from the soffit of the -architrave at the temple of Jupiter Stator.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 156.--Acanthus used on candelabra and small -pillars.] - -Stator. The Romans sometimes used the acanthus in a lavish way, -overloading mouldings with it; the cornice of the Temple of Jupiter -Tonans, for instance, is overdone with decoration. (See Fig. 186.) The -more modern type of acanthus used on majolica - -[Illustration: FIG. 157.--Water plant stem, showing channelling.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 158.--Acanthus and water leaf foliage from an -antique Roman shaft.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 159.--Modern varieties of sea-weed and poppy-leaved -acanthus used in decoration.] - -plates and in painted decoration is of a very free character, but it -only holds a secondary place, being generally found in combination with -animal forms and grotesques. The utmost freedom in the curve and reflex -curve may be allowed in the painted forms of the acanthus; this being -logical enough when we consider that the greater part of the leafage is -generated by the free play of the brush. (See Fig. 159.) The arabesques -of the Vatican, and the Italian cinque-cento ware, afford the best -examples of this painted foliage. The acanthus was the parent of nearly -all the subsequent styles of decorative foliage down to the Saracenic -and late Romanesque, and its modifications have shown the difficulty of -improving on the Classic type. We are advised by ornamentalists and -writers on art to seek for a new leaf that might in time rival the -acanthus in ornament. The advice may be good, and many have given their -attention to it, but no lasting results have as yet been obtained. Of -late years there is a kind of scroll-work much favoured by some -ornamentalists. It cannot of course be called new, few things can be in -this world; but its persistent application, from illumination to -stone-carving, will perhaps in time stamp it with a traditional -character. The foliage is more like sea-weed than anything else, but it -also has a faint resemblance to the acanthus, the ox-eye, and the wild -poppy (Fig. 159). We have no fixed principles of ornamental art; even -ornamentalists themselves disagree as to what is good, and what is bad, -so that nothing lives long enough to become national ornament. How can -we hope to vie with the ornamental - -[Illustration: FIG. 160.--Winter aspect of a pear tree, illustrating -“balance” in nature.] - -art of Greece, when the artists disagree and the nation is indifferent; -while the Greeks enjoyed unity of artistic thought, and gloried in the -worship of the beautiful? To gain a fuller insight into the delicate -varieties of the acanthus, the student is advised to carefully examine -and draw the foliage in the pilasters of Louis XII.’s tomb. The late -Alfred Stevens has done more than any one of late years to properly -apply the acanthus. (See Fig. 132.) - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - - -The “_symbolic_” and “_mnemonic_” classes of ornament are large, and are -interesting alike to the historian, the antiquary, and the student of -art. It is not easy to draw the line between them, as the latter skirts -the ground of the former so closely. Mnemonic ornament is that class -which includes written characters, signs, hieroglyphics, and natural -forms as aids to memory. The scenes, facts, or ideas so recalled may or -may not be in relation to the thing decorated; _e.g._ we see texts from -the Korân in Kufic and other characters, used to decorate the walls and -gateways of mosques, and dresses, vases, candlesticks, and other -articles of domestic use. Japanese ornament abounds in mnemonic -characters with or without other forms. All writing came from the -picture-writing of barbarous tribes; the symbols of these pictures were -used on the one hand for letters, and on the other for ideas. In the -decorative art of most nations, inscriptions can be found on their -buildings, utensils, and articles of luxury; and as in the case of some -illuminated manuscripts, it is not only difficult to know where the -lettering ends, and the ornament begins, but whether the main end was -not ornament rather than instruction. The art of illumination or -decorative writing really begins when there is a desire to have the -written matter presented in a beautiful form, and to those who could not -read the illumination alone was of importance. In the hands of artists -letters have often been arranged as a highly ornamental cipher. -_Monogram_ and _cipher_ are almost synonymous terms; the former differs -only from the latter in this respect, that a monogram may have different -forms of the letters in different positions, and still have the same -meaning, while a cipher cannot have more than one particular form or -else it defeats its purpose, if used as a signet or as a trade-mark. The -decorations found on the tombs, sarcophagi, and stone tablets, &c., of -ancient Egypt are mnemonical in character, and this was the primary -reason of their existence: they were sculptured on the granite slabs, to -record the names and virtues of the deceased kings and persons of note, -but at the same time they were made pleasing to the eye; the perfect -balance and even distribution of these inscriptions render them highly -decorative, and they become mnemonic ornament. (See Fig. 162.) This -diagram is the hieroglyphic inscription taken from the famous “Tablet of -Four Hundred Years.” It is the third line of the twelve on this -monument, and is thus translated: “King of Upper and Lower Egypt, -Ra-user-ma, Sotep-en-ra, Son of Ra, Ramases Mer-amen, Chieftain -enriching the lands with memorials of his name.” The inscription at Fig. -163 occurs frequently in Japanese pottery; it represents the word “Jiu,” -meaning longevity or everlasting life. The Japanese symbols of -longevity are the following: the god of longevity, a very old man with a -large head and merry countenance, holding a scroll in his hands, and -accompanied by a crane, as an attribute, and sometimes by a stork or a -sacred tortoise. The crane itself is a symbol of long life; the bamboo, -the fir, and the plum together make a second; and the gourd is another. -Religion has had, from the earliest period of man’s history, Art for its -earthly handmaid, and nine-tenths of symbolic ornament pertains to -religious ordinances and ceremonies. Nearly all the beginnings of art -expressed religious thought by means of symbols; the picture writing of -barbarians, the hieroglyphic or priestly compositions of the Egyptians -on papyrus and granite, the Runic and Ogham inscriptions of the Northmen -and ancient Celts, were alike endowed with an occult meaning, but they -were symbols to the initiated only. A good example of symbolic ornament -may be seen at Fig. 164. The winged globe so common in Egyptian art has -been found sculptured on the lintels of temple doorways almost thirty -feet in length. The globe is said to symbolize the sun, the outspread -wings the overshadowing presence of Providence, and the asps dominion or -the monarchy. The Scarab, or winged beetle (Fig. 161), is an emblem of -the Creator or Maker. The disc or ball that it holds between its claws -is said to represent the Sun, from which all life is derived. Another -and more natural meaning attached to the disc is that it represents the -ball containing the egg which the beetle usually rolls to a place of -safety, where it is buried, and in course of time new life will spring -from it. This emblem occurs as a central ornament in some Egyptian -ceilings. Nearly all Egyptian ornament was symbolic. The canons or laws -laid down by the Egyptian priests and chief scribes for the guidance of -artists were for centuries unvarying; every ornament, including -representations of the human figure, was drawn and sculptured by rule, -and no one was allowed to alter the type under severe penalties. The -blue Nymphea or lotus flower is pre-eminently characteristic of Egyptian -ornament (see Fig. 165); it was sacred as the type of coming - -[Illustration: FIG. 161.--Egyptian Scarabeus.] - -plenty, as it appeared just before the springing of the crops, and -immediately after the subsidence of the Nile; it was therefore to the -Egyptians the harbinger of their daily bread, so there need be little -wonder that it was worshipped by them as the emblem of earthly goodness. -There is a species of lotus that bears fruit, and it is said that the -form of the Jewish seven-branched candlestick was derived from it. The -lotus was used in the decoration of everything Egyptian, the fresh -flowers were used in garnishing the offerings to their gods, and was -also presented as a peace offering to strangers and visitors. Next - -[Illustration: FIG. 162.--Inscription from an Egyptian tablet.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 163.--Japanese inscription, “Jiu,” or “long life.”] - -[Illustration: FIG. 164.--Winged-globe and asps, Egyptian Symbolic -ornament.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 165.--Symbolic ornament, the Egyptian lotus and -water.] - -in importance to the lotus came the palm as a symbolical plant; this was -used by the Assyrians in their bas-reliefs. It was, when surrounded by -the sacred hom, called the “tree of life” (Fig. 166). The date-palm is -here surrounded by the sacred hom, which grew on the slopes of the -Hindoo Kush, and was the plant from which inebriating drink was first - -[Illustration: FIG. 166.--Sacred tree of life or hom (British Museum), -from an Assyrian bas-relief.] - -made by the Aryans. The date-palm was certainly the tree of life to -Eastern nations, affording them food, alcoholic drink,[8] and shelter. -Many animals, birds, and hybrid creations, such as the Egyptian sphinx -and the winged bull of Assyria, had symbolical meanings. - -The fir-cone, so common in Assyrian ornament, was an emblem of fire, as -the lotus was an emblem of water, and this cone placed on a staff, and -adorned with ribbons, was carried by the Bacchanals and Mænads when -celebrating the festivals of Dionysus, the Greek Bacchus. This is known -as the “thyrsus,” or staff of Bacchus. (See Fig. 167.) The pine-tree was -sacred to Dionysus, from its supplying turpentine - -[Illustration: FIG. 167.--Three forms of the thyrsus or staff of -Bacchus.] - -to make torches; wine also was made from its cones, both important -elements in these festivals. The head of the thyrsus was often made of -ivy leaves instead of the pine-cone, and Bacchus is said to have -concealed spears under this head of leaves, and thus overcome those who -were inimical to him (Diodorus Sic. lib. iii. cap. iv.; Ovid’s -_Metamor_. iii. 667). The vine and the ivy were also sacred to Bacchus, -and are symbolical of him in Greek and Roman decoration. Early Christian -and mediæval art are also teeming with symbolic ornaments. These -ornaments are often called indifferently “emblems,” “attributes,” -“symbols,” &c. Allegory is a kind of parable, and the word is often -applied to allegorical painting or sculpture, which is a representation -of one thing under the image of another, and is mostly expressed by -human or animal forms.[9] In a recent picture called “Hope,” by Mr. -Watts, we have a fine allegorical illustration, in a figure seated on a -sphere, or the world, bending her ear to catch the strains of a lyre -which she plays, which has only one string left; there is a weird -feeling of loneliness about the composition, just relieved from utter -desolation by the music that is left in the one string. - - - - -CHAPTER IX - - -The arabesques of the Vatican have been noticed before; there were, -however, arabesques on the ceiling of the Sala del Cambio at Perugia, -painted by Perugino, Raphael’s master, also in the Borgia apartment at -the Vatican, and in the Villa Madama; arabesques of the latter are said -to have been copied from the plaster work in Hadrian’s villa near -Tivoli. - -Raphael, being one of the greatest modern painters, added to the beauty -of this sort of decoration by the exquisite drawing and composition of -the figures. Some of the medallions at the Loggias contain subjects said -to be taken from antique gems, and Scripture subjects are also -introduced; the expulsion of Adam and Eve from Paradise is balanced by -one of Omphale and Hercules, the queen having the club. - -When a cipher or a sign conveys to our minds an idea, or an association -of ideas, we call it a “_symbol_,” particularly if the idea is connected -with religion. The commonest form met with in symbolic art is the -circle, as the symbol of eternity, from its having neither beginning nor -ending; it often appears as a serpent with its tail in its mouth, for -this, like many other Pagan symbols, was adopted by the early -Christians. The circle in the shape of a wheel has perhaps had the -widest signification in art. The wheel of fire, or sun-wheel, was an -emblem of the Teutonic sun-worshippers. The _tchakra_, or sacred wheel, -is the emblem of the religion of Brahma; it is the shield of Brahma and -Vishnu, as a wheel of fire; it is to the Siamese a type of universal -dominion, a sign of disaster, and the symbol of eternity. (See Fig. -168.) The wheel form at Fig. 169 is the _kikumon_ or badge of the Empire -of Japan; it is derived, however, from the chrysanthemum. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 168.--The “tchakra,” or sacred wheel of Brahma and Vishnu, - also called the “wheel of fire.” -] - -[Illustration: FIG. 169.--Kiku-Mon, badge of the empire of Japan.] - -Christian art, from the beginning of the first century of our era to the -fourth, consisted almost entirely of symbols. The first Christians were -fearful lest their new converts should relapse into Paganism, and so -avoided images; and being persecuted they used only a few symbols such -as the fish, the dove, the lamb, and the monogram of Christ. This last -consisted of two Greek letters X and P (Chi and Rho), the Chi forming -the cross as shown at A in Fig. 170; another form of this is shown at B, -in which a cross has the Rho formed on the upright stem, and has the -first and last letters of the Greek alphabet (Alpha and Omega) written -beneath the arms. This form sometimes appears on the nimbus over the -head of a lamb; the latter sometimes stands on a round hill, at the -bottom of which issue four streams, the whole symbol signifying “Christ -the first and the last, the Lamb of God,” the streams “the four -evangelists whose gospels are the water of life to the whole world.” - -At C, Fig 170, we have the monogram that the Emperor Constantine placed -on the _labarum_, or - -[Illustration: FIG. 170.--Sacred Monograms in Christian Art.] - -Imperial standard, after his conversion; it was woven in gold on purple -cloth. Christ was sometimes represented as Orpheus, with a lyre in his -hand, amid the birds and beasts; the commonest personification of Him -was, however, as the Good Shepherd caring for His sheep, in which He was -always represented young and beautiful. Every allegorical representation -of the Founder of the Christian religion was rendered pleasing to the -eye of the new converts, and anything pertaining to the dreadful scene -of the Crucifixion was avoided. The Christian Church was symbolized -under the form of a ship, with our Lord as the pilot and the -congregation as the passengers; whence we may have the word _nave_ (of -a church), from _navis_, a ship; _naus_, a ship, was also the Greek name -for the inner part of a temple. - -[Illustration: FIG. 171.--Counterchange ornament, Spanish embroidery.] - -The dove in Christian art is the emblem of fidelity and of the Holy -Spirit, the pelican of the Atonement, and the phœnix of the -Resurrection. One of the symbols of our Lord is a fish, because its -Greek name Ἰχθύς (Ichthus) contains the initials of “Jesus Christ, the -Son of God, the Saviour.” It was also used as the symbol of a Christian -passing through the world without being sullied by it, as the fish is -sweet, in spite of its living in salt water; it is found engraved in the -soft stone of the Roman catacombs (where the early Christians took -refuge), with the monogram and other inscriptions. The _Vesica piscis_, -or fish form, often encloses the Virgin and Child, and is the common -form of the seals of religious houses, abbeys, colleges, &c. The four -evangelists are represented respectively as a lion, a calf, a man, and -an eagle,--St. Mark being the lion, the calf St. Luke, the man St. -Matthew, and the eagle St. John. - -[Illustration: FIG: 172.--Moresque Counterchange pattern, inlaid -marble.] - -Many plants are used as symbols in Christian art: the vine, as typical -of Christ, during Byzantine times and the Middle Ages. In Scripture we -find frequent allusions to the vine and grapes; the wine-press is -typical of the “Passion,” as we read in Isaiah. The passion-flower, as -its name denotes, was, and is, used as an emblem of the death of Christ. -The lily is the emblem of purity, and has always been used as the -attribute of the Virgin Mary in pictures of the Annunciation. We find -this plant often engraved on the tombs of early Christian virgins. From -the iris, formerly called a lily, is derived the flower de luce, or -_fleur-de-lis_, one of the finest conventional renderings of any flower; -it was much used as a decoration in sculpture, painting, and weaving -during the thirteenth and following centuries. It was the royal insignia -of France; mediæval Florence bore it on her shield and on her coin, the -_fiorino_; and it was used in the crowns of many sovereigns, from King -Solomon down to our own Queen. The trefoil is an emblem of the Trinity, -and is a common form in Gothic decoration. - -[Illustration: FIGS. 173 and 174.--Interchange ornament.] - -The symbolic and mnemonic classes have now been described, and the -_æsthetic_ alone remains. Æsthetic form we owe to the clearness and -directness of the Greek mind. The Greeks were contented with the simple -solution of the problem before them, which was to beautify what they had -in hand. If they wanted allegorical subjects they confined them to their -figure subjects, and being thus freed from other disturbing elements, -they concentrated their whole attention on perfecting floral form. They -attained perfection in this as they did in their figures, by correcting -the peculiarities of the individual by a study of the best specimens of -a whole class; and thus succeeded in making the most perfect type of -radiating ornament, and of adapting it to sculpture and painting, on -flat and curved surfaces. This ornament has perfect fitness, for you can -neither add to it nor take away from it without spoiling its perfection. -The same may be said, only in a minor degree, of the colour applied to -the carved patterns of the Saracens and Moors: they are both æsthetic -works, solely created for their beauty. A symphony in music is a -composition of harmonious sounds; it has little subject-matter, and is -analogous to æsthetic ornament, only the ear is charmed by the former, -as the eye is by the latter. - - - - -APPENDIX - -ON THE ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE - - -It seemed to me that a short chapter on the orders would be useful to -students, not only because so much ornament is used as an enrichment to -architecture itself, but also because a very much larger proportion of -it is used in conjunction with architecture, and without some slight -knowledge of the subject, the ornament and the architecture, instead of -setting off each other’s characteristic beauties, are apt to spoil one -another. The rigid lines of architecture should act as a foil to the -graceful curves of ornament, and the plain faces should not only set off -fretted surfaces, but make the undulations of carved ornament precious. -When I speak of ornament, I include the highest form of it, the human -figure, and I may point to the Doric frieze of the Greeks as a brilliant -example of success. This conjunction of ornament and architecture, -however, demands high qualities in the ornament, and insight in the -artists as to what is wanted for mutual contrast or emphasis; and if -this be successfully accomplished, I think it must be conceded that the -combined work gives a finer result than the uncombined excellence of -each. - -Mean ornament, whether of figures or plants, tends to degrade the -architecture with which it is associated, and may spoil it by the main -lines not properly contrasting with the adjacent architectural forms, or -by the ornament being on too large a scale. I have seen in modern work, -the stately dignity of a grand room utterly destroyed by colossal -figures. Michelangelo, in his superb ceiling at the Sistine Chapel, has -by use of gigantic figures dwarfed the vast chapel into a doll’s house. -I may add that there is monumental colouring as well as monumental form: -the finest examples of such colouring may be seen in many of the grand -buildings in Italy and at Constantinople, notably at St. Mark’s and at -Sta. Sophia; but you may also see magnificent halls and churches, -coloured to look like French plum-boxes. - -The elaborate system of proportioning parts to one another and to the -whole, which is so important in architecture as to be its main -characteristic, is equally valuable for the division of spaces for -ornament. - -Mouldings which form so great a feature in architecture as to have given -rise to the saying that “mouldings are architecture,” give lessons in -elegance of shape, and in the proper contrast of forms, that are useful -to the ornamentalist who has to design the shapes of small objects; -while the Corinthian capital has been the prototype of most of the -floral capitals up to the present day. - -It is admitted that in those periods of history when architecture, -sculpture, and painting attained their highest excellence, the painter, -sculptor, and architect have not only sympathized with one another, but -each one has been no mean judge of the sister arts. At the Renaissance, -and immediately before it, artists are to be found who were goldsmiths, -sculptors, painters, and architects, and some few who were poets, -musicians, and engineers as well. - -The origin of the orders was probably in the verandah of the Greek -wooden hut. In some of the paintings on the Greek vases may be seen the -processes by which the Doric and Ionic capitals were evolved; but for -our purpose, which is not archæology, only some of the best examples -need be referred to, after the wooden hut had been converted into a -marble temple. - -An order consists of a column supporting an architrave, frieze, and -cornice, which is called the entablature. The column generally consists -of a shaft, a capital, and a base, except in the Doric columns of the -Greeks and early Romans, which were baseless. The capital was the -capping-piece which you now see put on the tops of story-posts by -carpenters to shorten the bearing of the bressummer. The architrave was -what we now call a bressummer, and bore the trusses of the roof; the -fascias of the architrave show that in some instances this bressummer -was composed of three balks of timber, each projecting slightly over the -one below. The frieze was the wide band immediately above the architrave -and below the cornice, comprising the triglyphs or ends of the trusses, -and the filling in between them, which is called the metope. The metopes -were left open in early Greek temples, but were eventually filled with -sculpture. The cornice was the projecting boarded caves; while the -slanting - -[Illustration: FIG. 175.--The Parthenon. Greek Doric: enlarged section -of annulets at A.] - -undersides of the mutules were copied from the slanting timbers of the -roof. - -I will speak first of the Greek orders, not only because they were the -earliest, but because the Greeks showed the greatest artistic -sensibility in their choice of forms, in the composition of lines, and -in their arrangements for light and shade. I begin with the DORIC. The -shaft is conical, and fluted with twenty shallow segmental flutes that -finished under the capital, which consists of a thick square cap called -the abacus, with a circular echinus under it, finished at the bottom -with rings called annulets, and a little below them is a deep narrow -sunk chase called the necking, and the shaft has no base. - -The Greeks were a seafaring people, mainly inhabiting the sea-shore, the -islands of the Archipelago, and the edges of Asia Minor, and were thus -acquainted with the forms of the sea and of shells. The echinus of the -Doric capital resembles the shell of the sea-urchin, or echinus, when it -has lost its spines, and was probably called after it. The ovolo -moulding that was most used was called the cyma or wave. At the -Parthenon, the finest example of the Doric, the architrave is plain, and -was once adorned with golden shields and inscriptions; it is capped by a -square moulding called the tænia or band; the frieze, with its square -cymatium, is capped with a carved astragal, and is divided -longitudinally by the triglyphs, projecting pieces, ornamented with two -whole and two half vertical channels, from which the word triglyph takes -its name; below the tænia is a narrower square moulding the width of the -triglyph, and beneath it, ornamented with drops called guttæ. I may -point to this as a most artistic device both to relieve the monotony of -the tænia and to weld the architrave with the frieze. The triglyphs -begin at the angles of the frieze, and range centrally over all the rest -of the columns, with an additional triglyph between each, though in the -frieze over the larger central opening of the Propylæum there are two -intermediate triglyphs; the nearly-square metopes between the triglyphs -are filled with figure-sculpture. The cornice consists of the square -mutule band, from which the mutules project, whose slanting underside is -enriched with drops; and above the mutules is their capping, a narrow -fascia under the corona; the corona or main projecting member of the -cornice is throated at the bottom, and its capping consists of a wide -fillet, deeply-throated, with a hawk’s-bill moulding under it. These -together form the most superb piece of architectural work that exists, -and has called forth the rapturous admiration of all the tasteful in the -world, from the time it was built to the time of Ernest Renan, one of -its latest distinguished admirers. - -I have lingered over this order because it is a masterpiece for all -time. Those who have seen it in England alone are possibly convinced -that this praise has been ill-bestowed; yet even these would change -their opinion if they saw it when perfectly white on a clear day in -bright sunshine; but in London, even at its best, the clear air and -fierce sun of Athens is wanting, as well as the pentelic marble, and the -chances are that the sculpture in the metopes has been left out. This -Doric of the Greeks is true architecture, fitted to the climate, and -made by men of genius to charm the most gifted race the world has seen. -To the Greek architect no thought and no labour was too great in -designing his building, to form it so that the sun would play melodies -on it from dawn to dusk. Such truly national architecture cannot be -imported into a different climate without losing most of its effect, nor -can it be transferred to a coarse and opaque material without losing -much of its charm; while its sculpture, the finest the world has yet -seen, portrayed national traditions or events connected with its faith. -But even here in London, if you see paraphrases of Greek architecture -just painted white on a clear sunshiny day, you will see a faint reflex -of its pristine glory. The rising moon that the sun makes on the -echinus, contrasted with soft graduated warm shades and sharp blue -shadows, is the finest thing an architect has ever compassed. The -splendid sculpture that adorned its metopes may be seen in the Elgin -room of the British Museum. This one example is a model for those who -seek perfection in exquisite simplicity, for almost all the mouldings -are square ones, and there is no enrichment beyond the highest -figure-sculpture, and one little carved astragal; and I may add, that -the perfection of the whole composition of the Temple is as great as -that of this part. - - -THE IONIC. - -The example, given on account of its simplicity, is from the Temple on -the river Ilissus. The column differs from that of the Doric by being of -slenderer proportions, by having twenty-four deep elliptical flutes with -fillets in its shaft, by having a cushioned capital inserted between the -thin moulded - -[Illustration: FIG. 176.--Entablature, capital and base of the Greek -Ionic Temple on the Ilissus.] - -abacus, and a shallow echinus carved with the egg and tongue. The -peculiarity of this cushioned cap is, that each side of the front and -back faces are formed into volutes, and come down considerably below the -bottom of the capital, and are carved on the faces with a shell -spiral.[10] The junctions of the plain surfaces of the volutes with the -projecting circular echinus are masked by a half honeysuckle. At the -bottom of the shaft is a circular pedestal or base of slight projection, -consisting of an upper and lower torus joined by a hollow (trochilus), -the upper torus being horizontally fluted and the lower one plain, and -there is no square plinth. - -In this case the architrave is deep and without fascias, though the -Ionic order has mostly three fascias; its capping (cymatium) consists of -a fillet with a plain cyma and astragal beneath. The frieze, which has -no triglyphs, is supposed to have been sculptured with figures; its -cymatium consists of an ogee and astragal, to admit which the underside -of the corona is deeply hollowed out; the cymatium of the corona -consists of a narrow fillet and a cyma. The crowning member probably -only existed on the raking sides of the pediment. - -As this is not a treatise for architects, but a sketch of the subject -for ornamentalists, one example is enough to show the difference between -the Doric and Ionic, but the capital of the most ornate example, that of -the Erechtheum, is given; its main differences from the former one being -these, that the ornaments on the mouldings are carved instead of only -being painted, that in the entablature there are three fascias to the -architrave, that the column has a neck carved with floral ornaments and -a carved necking, and the sweeps of the capital as well as the spirals -of the volutes are more numerous. - -[Illustration: FIG. 177.--Side elevation, plan, and section of the Ionic -capital, from the Temple on the Ilissus. - -Side Elevation. Plan. - -Section. Section.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 178.--Greek Ionic: half of the Capitol from the -north portico of the Erechtheum at Athens. _A_ is a regular guilloche -with coloured glass beads in the eyes.] - -I have given too the capital of the internal Ionic columns of Apollo -Epicurius at Bassæ, to show how much it is improved by making the top of -the capital curved instead of straight. The Ionic is more graceful and -as a rule more ornate than the Doric, but is not so majestic. Capitals -from the - -[Illustration: FIG. 179.--Capital from the Temple of Apollo Epicurius at -Bassæ. Greek Ionic.] - -Erechtheum, from the Temple at Bassæ, from the last Temple of Diana at -Ephesus, and from the Mausoleum are at the British Museum. - - -THE CORINTHIAN. - -Callimachus, according to Vitruvius, invented this capital, and is -supposed to have lived about 396 B.C., forty years before Alexander the -Great was born. Besides the beauty of this order of the choragic -monument of Lysikrates, it is the only undoubted and complete Greek -specimen that we have in Europe. The main importance of the invention, -besides its intrinsic beauty, is its being adopted by the Romans as -their favourite order and used throughout their dominions. I give you -here the story Vitruvius tells of its invention. Besides the prettiness -of the story, it serves as an incitement to the reflection, that if -those whose hand and eye are trained will only observe what they see, -they may get notions for inventions. - -“A marriageable maid, a citizen of Corinth, was taken ill and died. -After her burial, her nurse gathered the things in which the maid most -delighted when she was alive, put them into a basket, and carried them -to the grave and put them on the top, and so that they might last the -longer in the open air, covered them with a tile. By chance this basket -was put on an acanthus root. The acanthus root meanwhile, pressed by the -weight, put forth its leaves and shoots about spring time; these shoots -growing against the sides of the basket, were forced to bend their tops -by the weight of the corners of the tile and to make themselves into -volutes. Then Callimachus, who from the elegance and subtlety of his -sculpture was called Catatechnos by the Athenians, passing by that -grave, noticed the basket and the tender growth of leaves round it, and -charmed by the style and novelty of its form, made his columns among the -Corinthians after that pattern.” (Vit. lib. 4, cap. i. pp. 9, 10.) - -[Illustration: FIG. 180.--Entablature, capital and base of the -Lysikrates monument. Greek Corinthian.] - -A Corinthian capital was found by Professor Cockerell in the Temple at -Bassæ, supposed by him to have been used there. Another was found at -Athens by Inwood, and there is a graceful capital of one of the engaged -Corinthian columns at the Temple of Apollo Didymæus, at Branchidæ, near -Miletus, of unknown date. - -I do not look on work as Greek that was done after the second century -B.C., when Greece became a Roman province. - -The Corinthian capital of the monument of Lysikrates is more than one -and a half times as high as the lower diameter of the column, while the -Doric capital of the Parthenon is only about half a diameter to the -necking, and the Ionic capital of the Erechtheum about eight-tenths. - -The abacus of the capital is deep and moulded, is hollowed out -horizontally on the four sides in plan, and has the sharp angles of the -abacus cut off. The floral cap consists of a bottom range of sixteen -plain water leaves, about half the height of the eight acanthus leaves -of the upper row; these have a blossom between each pair of leaves. - -Above the top, and at the sides of the centre leaf, on each of the four -sides of the capital, spring two acanthus sheaths, out of each sheath -spring three cauliculi; the one most distant from the centre forms a -volute under one side of the angle of the abacus, and is supported by -the turned-over top leaf of the sheath; the lowest cauliculi form two -volutes touching one another at the centre. The third cauliculus comes -from between the two former, and forms much smaller volutes than those -immediately below them, touching - -[Illustration: FIG. 181.--Capital of the Lysikrates monument. Greek -Corinthian.] - -at the centre, but turning the reverse way to those beneath; from the -middle of these springs a honeysuckle, whose top is as high as the top -of the abacus, and there is a little floral sprig between the angle -volutes and the honeysuckle, to relieve the bareness of the basket or -bell. The foliage of this capital is exquisitely graceful, but the -outline of the capital is not happy. The entablature is Ionic, to leave -the frieze clear for the sculptured history of Bacchus, turning some -pirates into dolphins. The architrave is deep with three equal fascias, -the face of each one inclined inwards, and a cymatium. Above the -cymatium of the frieze is a cornice with a heavy dentilled bed mould. - -The Greeks were consummate artists, who bore in mind the adage that -“rules are good for those who can do without them,” and adapted every -part of their buildings to produce the effect of light and shade they -wanted. The profiles of their mouldings were mostly slightly different -in every example we have, and mostly approximate to conic sections, so -as to have the shade less uniform, segments of circles being rarely -used; and there was in Athens an affluence of excellent figure -sculptors. - -It has always seemed to me that the slight variations the Greeks made in -their profiles to get perfection, and their passion for simplicity, were -greatly due to their intimate knowledge of the nude human figure. All -their recruits were exercised naked, and they must have noticed that the -perfecting of the human shape by training was brought about by slight -variations. - - -THE ROMAN ORDERS. - -The Romans, great people as they were in subjugating, governing, and -civilizing so great a portion of the world, and possibly on that very -account, were - -[Illustration: FIG. 182.--The Tuscan order.] - -not artistic in the sense that the Greeks were. The Romans were slaves -to easy rules and methods; most, if not all, the profiles of their -mouldings were struck with compasses, and they were almost destitute of -good figure sculptors. They had, however, a passion for magnificence, -and for ornate stateliness and dignity, and they rarely failed to get -these in their public monuments. - -Besides the three orders which were taken from the debased Greek -examples of their own time, the Romans added two, the order of the -_Tuscans_, and an invention of their own called the _Composite_. - - -THE TUSCAN. - -The Tuscan is described by Vitruvius, lib. 4, cap. 7, as an incomplete -Doric, but with a base and a round plinth. The portico of St. Paul’s, -Covent Garden, by Inigo Jones, is the best example we have of it in -London. The example given is from the learned Newton Vitruvius. - - -THE ROMAN DORIC. - -One of the earliest examples, with the exception of that at Cora, which -is rather debased Greek than Roman, is the example on the Theatre of -Marcellus at Rome, finished by Augustus. The column is not fluted, and -has no base, and the capital has been greatly altered from that of the -best Greek examples. The abacus has a cymatium; the echinus has been -reduced in depth, and is an ovolo, and the annulets are merely three -plain fillets; the column too has a neck and a necking. In the -entablature the architrave is - -[Illustration: FIG. 183.--Roman Doric. From the Theater of Marcellus. - -The crowning members of the cornice are conjectural, for the whole has -been broken away. See Desgodetz.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 184.--Roman Ionic. Entablature, capital, and base of -an angle column, at the Temple of Fortuna Virilis.] - -shallower than in the Greek examples. In the frieze the triglyphs are -over the centres of the angle columns; the guttæ are the frustums of -cones, while those of the Greeks were cylinders or with hollowed sides; -the cornice has a dentilled bed mould; and the mutules have disappeared, -but their edge runs through and the soffit is slanting, and ornamented -alternately with coffers and small guttæ, six on face and three deep; -and besides, the cymatium of the corona is capped by a large cavetto; -this in the Greek examples was only the crowning member of the slanting -sides of the pediment. There are Roman Doric columns at the Colosseum, -at Diocletian’s Baths at Rome, and elsewhere. The Doric, best known to -us, was elaborated by the Italian architects of the Renaissance. - - -THE ROMAN IONIC. - -The Ionic was not much more to the taste of the Romans than the Doric, -for, with the exception of the examples in tall buildings, where the -orders were piled up one over the other, the Temple of Fortuna Virilis -is the only good example, although there is a very debased one at the -Temple of Concord. The columns of the Temple of Fortuna Virilis somewhat -resemble the Greco-Roman ones of the Temple of Bacchus at Teos; they -have similar paltry capitals, and an Attic base, but their truly Roman -entablature is very notably worse than that at Teos, in fact, it might -be used as an example of what to avoid in profiling. The cornice is -crushingly heavy for the frieze and architrave, the parts are -disproportionate, the corona having almost disappeared to make room for -the - -[Illustration: FIG. 185.--Roman Corinthian. Entablature, capital, and -base of the Pantheon.] - -extra crowning member, and the floral ornaments on some of the mouldings -are gigantic. Its main importance to us is from the use made of it by -the Renaissance architects, some of whom, however, greatly improved its -appearance, by making it a four-faced capital, by adding a necking and -putting festoons from the eyes, thus giving the capital greater depth -and importance. - - -THE ROMAN CORINTHIAN. - -The magnificence of this capital took the Romans, so that good examples -of the other orders, except of the Composite, are rare. As I said -before, the only undoubted Greek Corinthian order that has come down to -us is that of the Lysikrates monument, though we have many Greco-Roman -examples. The best Roman example I can give you is that of the Pantheon; -the existing portico is believed by M. Chedanne to be a copy of -Agrippa’s, made in the days of Septimius Severus. At any rate, it has -the comparative simplicity that characterized some of the buildings just -before our era. The capital has two rows of eight leaves, the upper row -not rising to quite so great a height above the lower ones as these do -above the necking, and there is space between the upper leaves to show -the stalks of the sheaths of the cauliculi; the inner ones finish under -the rim of the basket, the outer ones form the volutes under the angles -of the abacus, and above these a curled leaf masks the overhanging of -the angles of the abacus. From some foliage on the top of the upper - -[Illustration: FIG. 186.--Roman Corinthian. Entablature of Jupiter -Tonans.] - -middle leaf, a stalk runs up behind the cauliculi, and blossoms in the -abacus. - -It may be observed that the cauliculi of the centre and of the volute -have lost the floral character and become stony. The shafts are -unfluted, being of granite, and have the favourite Roman base, a plain -upper and a lower torus, with two scotias separated by double astragals -and fillets. The entablature consists of an architrave of three fascias, -the bottom edge of whose projections are moulded, the whole architrave -is capped with a cymatium consisting of a wide fillet and an ogee with -an astragal beneath. The frieze is slightly shallower than the -architrave, and has nothing on it but the inscription, and its cymatium -is the counterpart of that of the architrave on a smaller scale. The -cornice is heavy, and its bed mould consists of an uncut dentil band, an -ovolo carved with the egg and tongue, and an astragal carved with the -bead and reel, a modilion band with carved modilions, a shallow corona, -and a deep cyma-recta-cymatium with fillets. - -I have added the fine and gigantic capital of Mars Ultor and the -entablature of Jupiter Tonans, which is overladen with ornament, as a -contrast to the almost stern simplicity of that of the Pantheon. - -I shall only draw your attention to two points in this ornamentation, -the omission of the tongues between the eggs, leaving only the upright -line, and the attempt to turn the egg and tongue into a foliated form. -The egg itself is covered with ornament, and is set in the centre of -acanthus leaves. We must praise the boldness of the author, who has -given us a new ornament, but deplore his want of tasteful invention -which has forced him to give a bad one. - -The varieties of leaves used in capitals have been mentioned in the body -of the book. - - -THE ROMAN COMPOSITE. - -This order has been called the Composite, from the mixture of Ionic and -Corinthian motives in its capital. The example given is from the Arch of -Titus, erected to celebrate the taking of Jerusalem in 70 A.D. The main -thing to be remarked is the capital; for the entablature is Corinthian, -less ornate than that of Jupiter Tonans or Jupiter Stator, and very -inferior to the latter in its proportions. It may be imagined that all -the foliage above the upper row of leaves in a Corinthian capital has -been removed, that a carved Ionic echinus has been put in at the level -of the bottom of the Corinthian cauliculi, that on the centre of the -echinus there is a calix, from which a flower runs up above the top of -the abacus, and from each side of the calix spring curved bands running -into the hollow of the abacus and ending in heavy volutes coming down to -the tops of the upper row of leaves, the lower parts of the bands and -the spaces between the spirals being filled with foliage. The parts of -the bell thus left bare by the omission of the sheaths of the cauliculi -have two little scrolls of foliage to cover them. The worst fault of the -capital is, that the upper part has no artistic connection with the -lower, and taken merely as an isolated capital, its volutes are too -ponderous for the rest. We must, however, give the Romans credit for the -merits of the invention. They - -[Illustration: FIG. 187.--Roman Corinthian. Half of the capital of Mars -Ultor.] - -saw that in tall columns, and in this case the columns are on pedestals, -the volutes of Corinthian columns - -[Illustration: FIG. 188.--Roman composite capital from the Arch of -Titus.] - -were too insignificant. This capital when once invented took the Romans, -and was applied everywhere. - -[Illustration: FIG. 189.--Roman Composite. Entablature, capital, and -base, Arch of Titus.] - -It was the practical solution for a practical people of a want that was -felt. Artistically speaking, it was no solution, and we can imagine that -if such a solution had been offered to the Athenians in their palmy -days, the author would have been howled at, and hunted out of the city. - -I may mention that the orders that have passed through the hands of the -Italian masters and been altered by them are not Classical, but -Renaissance. - -Those who wish to study this subject will find the Greek examples in -Stuart and Rivett’s _Antiquities of Athens_; in Mr. Penrose’s -_Principles of Athenian Architecture_; in the books published by the -Dilettanti Society; in Cockerell’s _Temple of Jupiter Panhellenius at -Ægina_; in Inwood’s _Erectheion_; and in Wilkins’ _Antiquities of Magna -Græcia_. J. Pennethorne’s _Elements and Mathematical Principles of the -Greek Architects_ gives many examples of profiles: “The Roman,” in _Les -Édifices Antiques de Rome_, by Desgodetz; Cresy and Taylor’s -_Architectural Antiquities of Rome_; Normand’s _Parallel of the Orders_; -and Mr. Phené Spiers’ _Orders of Architecture_. - - - - - A CHAPTER ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF SOME FIGURES AND CURVES IN - PRACTICAL PLANE GEOMETRY USEFUL IN ORNAMENT. - - -Definitions and names of figures from 1 to 13. - -An Equilateral triangle is a triangle which has _three equal_ sides. -(Fig. 1.) - -An Isosceles triangle is that which has only two sides equal. (Fig. 2.) - -A Scalene triangle is that which has _three unequal_ sides. (Fig. 3.) - -A Right-angled triangle is that which has a right angle. (Fig. 4.) - -An Acute-angled triangle is that which has _three_ acute angles. (Fig. -5.) - -A Parallelogram is a four-sided figure which has its opposite sides -parallel. (Fig. 6.) - -A Rhombus is a _four-sided_ figure which has all its sides equal, but -its angles are not right angles. (Fig. 7.) - -A Lozenge is a square set angle-wise. (Fig. 8.) - - NOTE.--A square, an oblong, a rhombus, and a rhomboid are all - species of parallelograms. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1] - -[Illustration: FIG. 2] - -[Illustration: FIG. 3] - -[Illustration: FIG. 4] - -[Illustration: FIG. 5] - -[Illustration: FIG. 6] - -[Illustration: FIG. 7] - -[Illustration: FIG. 8] - -A Diamond is composed of two _equilateral_ triangles set back to back. -(Fig. 9.) - -All other four-sided figures are called Trapeziums. If one opposite pair -of sides be parallel, and the other pair not, the figure is called a -Trapezoid. (Fig. 10.) - -Polygons.--A Polygon is a plane rectilineal figure contained by more -than four straight lines. - -A Regular Polygon is that which has its sides _equal_, and its angles -also are _equal_. - -An Irregular Polygon may have _unequal_ sides and _unequal_ angles, or -_unequal_ sides and _equal_ angles, or _equal_ sides and _unequal_ -angles. In this chapter regular polygons are only treated of. - -Polygons are named according to the number of sides or angles they may -have. A polygon having - - 5 sides is a Pentagon. - 6 “ a Hexagon. - 7 “ a Heptagon. - 8 “ an Octagon. - 9 “ a Nonagon. - 10 “ a Decagon. - 11 “ a Undecagon. - 12 “ a Dodecagon. - 13 “ a Tridecagon. - 14 “ a Tetradecagon. - 15 “ a Pentadecagon. - 16 “ a Hexadecagon. - 17 “ a Heptadecagon. - 18 “ an Octadecagon. - 19 “ a Nonodecagon. - 20 “ a Bisdecagon. - -Figs. 11, 12, and 13 are self-explanatory. - -Fig. 14. From a given point D without to draw Tangents to a given circle -A B C. - -Join E the centre of the circle D. - -Bisect D E in F. With F as centre and F E radius describe the circle D B -E cutting the given circle in A and B. Draw the required tangents from D -to touch the given circle at A and B. N.B.--A tangent to a circle or arc -is always at right angles to a radius drawn to the point of contact. - -[Illustration: FIG. 9] - -[Illustration: FIG. 10] - -[Illustration: FIG. 11] - -[Illustration: FIGS. 12 and 13] - -[Illustration: FIG. 14] - -Fig. 15. To draw an Exterior Tangent to two given circles A B and C D K. - -Join the centres E and F cutting the circumference of the larger circle -at K. Bisect E F in G. From K in the line K F cut off a part K P equal -to the radius of the smaller circle E B. - -With centre G and radius K F describe a semicircle; with F as centre and -radius F P describe a circle. The semicircle cuts this circle at H. Join -F H, and produce it to C. At E draw E A parallel to F C. Join A C, which -is the exterior tangent required. - -Fig. 16. To draw an Interior Tangent to two given circles B E and F D. - -Join the centres E and F. Bisect E F in G, and describe a semicircle on -E F. From K on the larger circle mark off K J and E F equal to the -radius of the smaller circle, and with F as centre and F J as radius -describe an arc passing through semicircle at H. Join F H cutting the -larger circle at C, and draw E A parallel to F H. The points of contact -are A and C, through which the _interior_ tangent is drawn. - -Fig. 17. Within a given circle to describe _any_ Regular Polygon--say a -Pentagon. - -Draw the diameter A F and divide it into the same number of parts as the -required polygon is to have sides--in this case it will be five parts. -To divide the diameter into the number of equal parts, draw a line A X -any angle to A F. Set off any convenient measurement five times on this -line. Join point 5 to F, and draw the lines 4, 4´, 3, 3´, &c., parallel -to 5 F to meet the diameter. With A and F as centre and A F as radius -describe arcs intersecting at L. From - -[Illustration: FIG. 15] - -[Illustration: FIG. 16] - -[Illustration: FIG. 17] - -L draw a line through the _Second_ division on A F at point 2´ cutting -the circumference at B. Join A B. This is the length of the side of the -required polygon. Set off the length of the side A B around the -circumference at C, D, and E. Join the points A, B, C, D, E to complete -the required _pentagon_. - -N.B.--A Regular Hexagon may be inscribed in a circle by setting off the -length of its radius _six_ times round the circumference, and joining -the points. - -Fig. 18. On a given line to construct _any_ Regular Polygon,--say a -Pentagon. - -Produce the given line A B to R, and with B as centre and A B as radius -describe a semicircle A C R. Divide the semicircle into as many parts as -the polygon is to have sides--in this case five. Draw a line from point -B to the _second_ division point Q C. Bisect A B and B C to find P, -which will be the centre of a circle passing through the points A B C. -Mark off the points D and E, making the distances C D, D E, and E A each -equal to A B. Join C D, D E, and E A to complete the required polygon. - -Fig. 19. Special method of drawing an Octagon in a given circle. - -Draw two diameters B F and H D at right angles to each other. Bisect -angles H K B and B K D in the lines K A and K C. Produce the lines K A, -K C, to meet the circumference at G and E. The _eight_ points thus found -on the circumference are joined to make the required octagon. - -Fig. 20. To inscribe an Octagon in a given square. - -With each corner of the square as centres, and half the diagonal of the -square as radius, describe arcs - -[Illustration: FIG. 18] - -[Illustration: FIG. 19] - -[Illustration: FIG. 20] - -cutting the sides of the square at F, G, H, K, &c. Join these points to -complete the required octagon. - -Fig. 21. To describe a circle to touch two given straight lines A B and -A C, one point of contact being given. - -Bisect the angle B A C in A D. At C draw a perpendicular to A C, meeting -A D at D. With D as centre and D C as radius describe the required -circle. - -Fig. 22. To inscribe a _circle_ in a given triangle A B C. - -Bisect any two of the angles as at B and C. The lines of bisection -intersect at D. Produce B D to E. With centre D and distance D E -inscribe the required circle. - -Fig. 23. A square being given, to inscribe _four equal circles_ each -touching _two_ others and _two_ sides of the square. - -Draw the diagonals and two lines parallel to the sides through the -centre of the given square. Join the extremities of the latter lines to -obtain the points 1, 2, 3, and 4. With these points as centres, and 1 E -drawn perpendicular to C A as radius, inscribe the four required -circles. - -Fig. 24. A square being given, to inscribe _four equal circles_ each -touching _two_ other and _one_ side of the square. - -Draw the diagonals and two lines through the centre parallel to the -sides of the given square A B C D. Bisect any one of the angles made by -a diagonal and one of the sides of the square, as at D. Produce the line -of bisection until it meets the vertical centre line at point 1. With -the central point O as centre - -[Illustration: FIG. 21] - -[Illustration: FIG. 22] - -[Illustration: FIG. 23] - -[Illustration: FIG. 24] - -and O 1 as radius, describe a circle to obtain the points 1, 2, 3, 4. -These are the centres of the required circles. - - N.B.--If the central portion made by the meeting of the four - circles were removed, the remaining parts of the circles would form - a figure known as the _quatrefoil_, a form common in architecture. - -Fig. 25. To inscribe _six equal circles_ in a given equilateral triangle -A B C. - -Bisect the angles of the given equilateral triangle as at E, and draw -the bisection lines through to meet the centre of each side. Bisect the -angle A B J to obtain the point D on C K. Through D draw G F parallel to -A B, also F H and H G parallel to the sides of the triangle. With D as -centre and D K as radius inscribe one of the required circles, and with -the same radius and F, 2, H, 1, and G as centres inscribe the remaining -circles. - -Fig. 26. (1) Within a given circle to inscribe a _hexagon_. (2) Without -the same circle to describe a _hexagon_. (3) Within the inner hexagon to -inscribe _three equal circles_ each touching each other and two sides of -the hexagon. - -(1) Mark off the length of the radius of the given circle B D F six -times on the circumference as at D E F, &c. Draw the three diameters A -D, B E, and G F, and produce them a little beyond these points. Join the -points G, D, E, F, &c., by straight lines to produce the hexagon within -the given circle. (2) Bisect the angle K O H, the line of bisection will -cut the circle at point R. Through R draw H K parallel to B C. With O as -centre and O H as radius describe a circle cutting the produced -diameters at K, L, M, &c. - -[Illustration: FIG. 25] - -[Illustration: FIG. 26] - -Join the latter points to produce the required hexagon without the given -circle. (3) Join the points G, E, A. This will obtain the points 1, 2, 3 -on the diameters. Draw 1, 4 perpendicular to G B. With 1, 4 as radius -and 1 as centre describe one of the required circles. 3 and 2 are the -centres of the other two required circles. - -Fig. 27. Within a given circle to inscribe any number of _equal -circles_, each touching the circumference and two other circles. - -Divide the circle in the same number of parts as the number of circles -required--in this case five. Draw the five radii. Bisect the angles B D -A and A D C. Draw E F perpendicular to D A. D E F is a triangle any two -angles of which bisect as at D and E. From point 1 thus obtained on D A -and radius 1 A inscribe a circle. From D as centre and D 1 as radius -describe a circle cutting the five radii in points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. With -the latter points as centres and 1 A as radius describe the remaining -required circles. - -Fig. 28. This problem is worked in the same manner as Fig. 27, _seven_ -circles being inscribed instead of _five_ in a given circle. - -Fig. 29. To inscribe a _trefoil_, or _three equal_ semicircles having -adjacent diameters in a given circle. - -Divide the given circle into six equal parts by marking off the length -of the radius six times on the circumference. From the centre D to these -six points draw radii. Bisect any of the six sectors as at E. Draw E C -obtaining F on one of the radials. On either side of F draw lines from -it to meet the alternate radials perpendicular to B D and D C, and - -[Illustration: FIG. 27] - -[Illustration: FIG. 28] - -[Illustration: FIG. 29] - -join their extremities, thus making the equilateral triangle 1, 2, 3. On -the sides of this triangle describe the three semicircles required by -using points 1, 2, and 3 as centres, and 2 F as radius. The completed -figure is the trefoil, and the inscribed three semicircles have their -diameters adjacent. - -Fig. 30. To describe an equilateral triangle within and without a given -circle. - -[Illustration: FIG. 30] - -Draw six radii dividing the given circle into six equal parts. Join -their alternate extremities as at L M N. This makes the required -_equilateral_ triangle within the circle. Draw tangents to the circle at -L M and N, or lines at right angles to L O, M O, and N O. Produce the -latter radii to meet the tangents at A B C. A B C is the _equilateral_ -triangle without the circle. - - N.B.--It will be seen that the triangle B A C is made up of four - similar triangles each equal to L M N. Also, if six of the smaller - triangles, as A L M, were placed around points A B and C a hexagon - would be formed. This figure is very useful in designing - geometrical and other repeating _all over_ patterns in ornament. - - -CONIC SECTIONS. - -The figures known as the Conic Sections are the Ellipse, the Parabola, -and the Hyperbola. - -The Cone may have other sections in addition to these, such as the -section through any point below the apex, on the axis, and taken -parallel to the base; this would be a _circle_, and a section through -the apex perpendicular to the base would be an _isosceles triangle_. - -The Ellipse is the curve of the section made by a plane passing -_obliquely_ through a cone from side to side. - -The Parabola is the curve of the section made by a plane passing through -a cone _parallel_ to _one_ of its sides. - -The Hyperbola is the curve of a section made by a plane passing through -a cone _parallel_ to its _axis_, or _inclined_ at a greater angle to its -base than its side, but _not_ through its apex. - -Fig. 31. The elevation of a cone is shown at A B C. A section through -point X at right angles to the axis of the cone is a _Circle_. A section -passing through and across the cone from point X, but not at right -angles to the axis, is an _Ellipse_, as at X 1. A section through X -parallel to the opposite side A C is a Parabola, as at X 2. A section -through X parallel to the axis, as at X 3, or a section through X at any -other angle greater than the angle made by the side and base, as at X 4, -is a Hyperbola. - -Figs. 32, 33, and 34 show the actual shape of the sections X 1, X 2, and -X 3 respectively. - -Fig. 32. In this figure the _major_ or _transverse_ axis of the Ellipse -is equal to X 1. To find the _minor_ or _conjugate_ axis bisect X 1 -(Fig. 31) in H, draw through it F G parallel to A B, drop a -perpendicular from F to _f_, and describe the semicircle _f h g_. From H -drop a perpendicular to A B, and produce it to _h_ to meet the -semicircle, _k h_ is then half the length of the minor axis of the -Ellipse, as C D. Divide A E into any number of equal parts, and A G into -the same number. Draw from C lines through the divisions as 1, 2, 3 &c., -and from D lines to 1´ 2´ 3´ &c. The curve of the required Ellipse will -pass through the intersections of these lines, as at 1´´ 3´´ 5´´ &c. - -Fig. 33. In this figure, the Parabola, the line C D is equal to X 2 -(Fig. 31), while A B is _twice_ the length of D 2 (Fig. 31). Divide G B -into any number of equal parts, and join the points of the divisions to -C. Divide D B into the same number of equal parts, and draw lines from -the points of division parallel to D C to meet the similar numbered -lines drawn from B G; through these meeting points the curve of the -Parabola will be drawn. - -Fig. 34. The only difference between the working of this figure--the -Hyperbola--and the Parabola is that the lines which in the Parabola were -drawn parallel to G B, are here drawn to a point E on C D produced, C D -being equal to X 3 (Fig. 31). This point E is found by drawing the line -from 7 on D B to E on C D produced, where C E equals twice X O (Fig. -31). - -Fig. 35. To describe an Archimedean spiral of any number of -revolutions--say _three_, the longest radius A B being given. - -[Illustration: FIG. 31] - -[Illustration: FIG. 32] - -[Illustration: FIG. 33] - -[Illustration: FIG. 34] - -[Illustration: FIG. 35.--Archimedean Spiral.] - -Divide the radius A B into _three_ equal parts for the three -revolutions. With B as centre and B A as radius describe a circle, and -divide it into any number of equal parts--say eight, by drawing four -diameters. Each of the three divisions on A B is divided into eight -equal parts. With centre B and the point of each succeeding division as -radius, describe arcs, meeting in following order the _next nearest_ -diameter as shown at arcs 1 1´´, 2 2´´, 3 3´´, &c. Through point 8 with -radius B 8, the second division, describe a circle, and through point 16 -with centre B describe a circle. In these two divisions arcs are drawn -as described above for the division A 8, &c., to the next nearest -diameter. The _spiral_ is then drawn through the points thus formed on -the diameters, which mark its path as at 1´, 2´, 3´, &c., until it ends -in its centre at B. - -Fig. 36. To draw Goldman’s Volute, the _cathetus_ C F being given. - -Divide C F into 15 equal parts. With C as centre describe a circle A E B -to form the eye of the volute, making the diameter 3⅓ of these parts. -Bisect A C and C B in 1 and 4. On 1 4 draw a square, 1, 2, 3, 4. Produce -the sides 1 2, 2 3, and 3 4 to G, H, and I respectively. - -Divide 1 C into three equal parts. Draw lines parallel to 1 G through -the points of division to P and L, which cut the line C 2 in the points -6 and 10. Through these points (6 and 10) draw lines to M and Q parallel -to E H, cutting C 3 in 7 and 11. In the same way draw lines parallel to -3 I from 7 and 11 to N and R. The points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, &c., will then -form the centres of the series of quadrants which are to form the _outer -spiral_ that begins with the radius 1 F. To describe the _inner spiral_. -A´ F´ in Fig. 36 (_a_) is equal to A F (Fig. 36). F´ S´ is made equal to -the breadth of the fillet at the top F S. V´ F´ is drawn at right angles -to F´ A´ and equal to C 1. By joining V´ A´ and drawing T´ S´ parallel -to V´ F´, then T´ S´ is obtained which will be the length of _half_ the -side of the square for drawing the inner spiral. The method for -obtaining the _inner spiral_ is the same as for the _outer_. - -Fig. 37. There is no geometric means of drawing a perfect catenary -curve; at best we can only obtain it by an approximation in geometry. -The curve is formed by suspending a chain from two points and pricking -points along the curve of the chain. These - -[Illustration: FIG. 36.--Goldman’s volute.] - -points will mark the path of the catenary. In the accompanying figure -three catenary curves are drawn from a chain suspended from points A and -B. - -Fig. 38.--To draw a cycloid curve when the _generating_ circle is -given. In order to find the length of the line A B on which the circle -rolls, and which must be the length of the circumference of the given -circle, we must first find _approximately_ that length by - -[Illustration: FIG. 37.--Catenary curves.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 38.--Cycloid curve.] - -the following method. Draw the vertical diameter of the circle D C. Draw -D M at right angles to D C, and make it _three_ times the length of the -radius of the circle; make an angle of 30° at E, and draw a line -parallel to D M of any convenient length. The line E L making the angle -of 30° cuts C B in L. Join M L. M L is the approximate length of half -the circumference. Make A C and C B each equal to M L. Then A B is the -length _approximately_ of the circumference, drawn at right angles to C -D on which the circle rolls. Divide now half the circle into eight equal -parts, and draw a line from E S parallel to A B, and equal to M L. -Divide E S into eight equal parts. From the points 1, 2, 3, &c., draw -lines parallel to A C. With centres 1´, 2´, 3´, &c., and with radius E -C, describe arcs cutting them at 1´´, 2´´, 3´´, &c. The curve A D, which -must be drawn by free-hand, will then pass through these points. -Complete the cycloid by drawing D B in a similar manner. The length A B -can also be found approximately by dividing C D into seven equal parts, -and taking A B = 22 of those parts. - - - - -GLOSSARY OF TERMS USED IN ORNAMENT - - -_Many of the terms which appear in this Glossary have been explained in -the previous chapters. The reader should refer back to the text when any -of the terms are inadequately described here._ - - _Æsthetics_, the science of the beautiful. - - _Æsthetic_, when applied to ornament, not only means “beautiful,” - hut that beauty was the sole aim of its production, and - distinguishes it from symbolic and mnemonic ornament. See page 143. - - _Allegory_, the representation of one thing under the image of - another. It was mostly confined to human figures, but to aid its - comprehension attributes were added. Among the Pagans strength was - shown as Hercules with his club; health as a woman with a serpent; - rivers were represented as gods with crowns of sedge or rushes; - towns as gods or goddesses with mural crowns. Among the Christians, - a man holding a lamb, or a shepherd with his flock, was an - allegorical representation of Christ the Good Shepherd; the seven - cardinal virtues and the seven deadly sins were represented by - allegorical figures, and each had its proper attributes. - - _Alternation_, two different forms in succession, or alternating - with each other. Figs. 67, 75, and 76. - - _Anthemion_, a radiating ornament with a palmate outline; the - honeysuckle ornament of the Greeks. - - _Attributes_, the things assigned to any one. Amongst the Pagans - the eagle and thunderbolt to Jupiter, the trident to Neptune, the - peacock to Juno, &c. Amongst the Christians the nimbus was the - attribute of divinity, saintship, or martyrdom, the lily of - chastity, &c. - - _Balance_, equilibrium or counterpoise. In compositions that are - not symmetrical the _weight_ of the masses must be alike on either - side of a central axis; in those of symmetrical outline with - different fillings there must be equality of weight in the - fillings. Renaissance ornament affords many admirable examples of - balance. See page 46, and Figs. 126 and 131. - - _Banding_, decorating by means of horizontal stripes, mostly filled - with ornament. Figs. 116 and 117. - - _Catenary_, the curve formed by a chain hanging from two points. - Fig. 27. - - _Cauliculus_, the shoot or stem of a plant forming the volutes - under the angles of the abacus, and those in the centre of each - face of a Corinthian capital; in modern works this name is mostly - confined to the central spirals, the outer ones being called - volutes. Figs. 180, 181, 185, 187, and 188. - - _Checkering_, covering a surface with a square pattern like a - chess-board, in which the colour or the ornament alternates. The - outline is formed by equidistant vertical and horizontal lines - crossing one another. Figs. 98 and 99. - - _Colour_, apart from the literal meaning of the word, is a vague - technical term to express character and contrast in ornament. - - _Complexity_, interweaving or intricacy; the opposite of - simplicity. Ornament in which the leading forms are not apparent, - is mainly to be found in Celtic, Saracenic, Moresque, and Gothic - ornament. It is also characteristic of the decadent periods of all - historic styles. - - _Contrast_, the opposition of dissimilar figures or positions, by - which one contributes to the effect of the other; _e. g._ the - straight line with the circle, vertical and horizontal lines - alternating; in colour black with white, &c.; ornamental forms - where flat and sharp curves contrast with one another; a plain - space alternating with an ornamented one, or an enriched moulding - round a plain panel, or _vice versâ_, &c. See page 43. - - _Conventional._ This is a word of great elasticity. In early - decoration natural objects were highly conventionalized through the - want of skill in the artists, who could not copy, but only portray - their impressions, thus the Egyptians and early Greeks represented - water by the zig-zag. These early conventionalized forms were - sometimes perpetuated through religious conservatism, after the - artists had become skilful. All ornament is more or less - conventional, but the term is usually applied to designate that - ornament in which the most beautiful and characteristic floral - forms have been abstracted and adapted to the material employed and - the effect wanted. The styles most characterized by conventional - ornament are the Greek and the early Gothic; they are equally - effective as ornament in their respective countries, but the Greek - has all the grace and vigour of the highest plant form, while - Gothic has mostly only the vigour. Figs. 49-54. The Romans and the - Renaissance architects also successfully conventionalized. Figs. 91 - and 129. Convention now too often means leaving out all grace and - vigour. Saracenic-Persian ornament is perhaps the least - conventionalized of fairly good ornament. Figs. 49, 53, 54, 118, - and 119. _Conventional_ is also used in opposition to _realistic_ - ornament. - - _Counterchange_, a pattern in which the ornament and ground are - mostly similar in shape but different in colour and alternate with - each other. See Figs. 171 and 172. - - _Cymatium_, the capping to a vertical member, as the cymatium of - the abacus of the Roman Doric, of the architrave, of the frieze, of - the corona. See Appendix on the orders. - - _Diaper_, derived from jasper, originally employed to designate - those coloured patterns on stuffs that suggested the flowerings of - jasper; subsequently a pattern enclosed in repealing geometrical - forms not composed of straight lines; but unhappily employed of - late years to designate any repeating patterns enclosed in - geometric forms, including checkers and net-work. Figs. 101, 107, - 109, and 110. - - _Emblem_, in Latin, means embossed ornament on vessels, inlaid - work, and mosaic. In modern English it is a device, and was the - animal or thing that was painted on a shield to show the temper or - striking quality or achievement of the warrior. It is also used as - an allegorical representation of some virtue or quality. We say the - cock is an emblem of watchfulness; the lion, of courage; the - scales, of justice; the lily, of purity; but the latter may be used - as a symbol of the Virgin Mary. - - _Equilibrium._ See _Balance_. Also Figs. 130 and 160. - - _Enlargement of Subject_, _e. g._ the figure of Bacchus is wanted - for a given space which it does not fill; the due filling of the - space may sometimes be attained by the addition of his attributes, - as a leopard, a thyrsus, a vine and grapes; accessories even may be - wanted, as a satyr, mænad, rocks, trees, &c. - - _Eurythmy_, harmony or elegance in ornament; a quality obtained by - the use of contrasted but harmonious and dignified forms, expressed - in a measured or proportionate quantity. - - _Even distribution_, the plain space and ornament proportionately - arranged; Indian ornament gives the most mechanical instance of - this, while good Roman and Cinque Cento pilaster panels give the - most artistic examples of this arrangement. It is sometimes - improperly used to designate the balancing of masses in a design. - Figs. 101, 102, 143, &c. - - _Expression_, the method of representing ornament by various means, - as in outline by the pencil, pen, or point; in painting, by the - brush; and in relief or sunk work by modelling. In another sense - _expression_ is giving the proper treatment and character to - ornament. - - _Fanciful_, a term sometimes applied to grotesque creations, for - example, to the hybrid animals, and the figures ending in foliage, - met with in Pompeian and other decorations. Figs. 122, 131, 134, - and 135. - - _Fitness_, absolute propriety; beautiful ornament adapted to its - purpose and not interfering with the use of the object ornamented. - See page 48. - - _Flexibility_, a quality derived from the appearance of plants of - free growth; the freedom and elasticity found in natural forms when - converted into ornament give a look of flexibility, in opposition - to rigid and angular lines which produce a look of _inflexibility_. - See Fig. 54. - - _Fluted_, channelled in hollows, semi-circular, segmental, or - elliptical in section; like those on some of the shafts of Greek - and Roman columns. See also Figs. 75 and 76. - - _Geometric_, or “geometrical arrangement,” the setting out of all - good ornament; also the bounding lines for ornament constructed on - a basis of geometry, as in diapers, &c.; the triangle, square, - lozenge, diamond, the circle, the hexagon, octagon, and other - polygons, are the chief geometrical forms for patterns in ornament. - Saracenic decorations are pre-eminently geometric in construction. - See Figs. 101, 102, 106, 107, 110, and 172. - - _Grotesque_, from the word grot or grotto. When the fantastic - arabesques of ancient Roman decoration were discovered under the - baths and in grottoes, they were originally called grotesque, and - were imitated in the Vatican. (See Figs. 122 and 128.) The word is - mainly used now to describe the coarse and humorous carvings of - heads, satyrs, &c., originally used to decorate the built grottoes - of the late Renaissance, which gradually overspread all buildings. - The word is also used to denote the quaint class of Gothic - sculptured creations (Fig. 131), such as winged dragons, grinning - monsters, &c., that serve to decorate the ends of dripstone - mouldings; gargoyles, bosses, and finials, &c. - - _Growth_ is a concise expression for those forms which denote the - special vigour shown by plants at certain epochs of their growth, - the twist of the stem of creeping plants to get light to the - flowers, the bursting of the bud from a capsule, or the clasp of a - tendril. Examples are to be met with in the volutes of Greek - Corinthian capitals, in the base of the tripod on the choragic - monument of Lysikrates, in Renaissance sculpture, and in early - Gothic. - - _Guilloche_, snare-work; an ornament composed of parallel curved - lines flowing and crossing each other; these forms may best be - illustrated by the bending of ropes round circular pins so as to - cross one another. See Figs. 37, 38, 39, and 40. - - _Hieroglyphic_, sacred carving, mostly applied to Egyptian picture - and symbolic writing. See Fig. 162. - - _Idealistic_, used by some writers as equivalent to conventional, - in opposition to “realistic”. - - _Imbrication_, overlapping scale-like ornaments; as seen in - fir-cones, the hop, and curved tiles on roofs, are examples of - imbrication. The bark of the Chili pine is a peculiar instance of - horizontal imbrication which is something like that of a Roman - roof. It is used as decoration on roofs, torus mouldings, and small - columns, and is a common way of filling certain spaces on Italian - majolica. See Fig. 26, A, B, C. - - _Inappropriate ornament_, that which is improperly applied, so as - to spoil the appearance, or interfere with the use of an object; is - false, out of scale, or redundant. See page 21. - - _Independent ornaments._ Things that are beautiful, quaint, or - curious, that may be attached to a wall or surface, as festoons, - shields, medallions, trophies, &c. See page 21, also Fig. 133. - - _Interchange_ is when running vertical or horizontal patterns are - divided by a vertical or horizontal axis, the colour of the ground - on either side of it being different, the ornament on each side of - the axis being of the colour of the opposite ground. See Figs. 173, - 174. - - _Interlacing_, ornament composed of bands, ribbons, ropes, rushes, - osiers, &c., woven together, or crossing at intervals, as seen in - Celtic, Byzantine, and Saracenic ornament; among examples of - interlaced work may be mentioned braided, trellis, basket, and - woven work. Figs. 22, 23. - - _Intersection_, the points at which lines or other forms cut one - another. - - _Monotony_, sameness of tone; often shown in excessive repetition; - a very undesirable feature in ornament: patterns within diapers - without contrasting elements; mouldings coming together whose - widths and profiles are nearly equal; panelling without sufficient - variety in size; carved ornament of nearly equal relief--in short, - any lack of variety in the composition, modelling, or colour of - ornament produces monotony. - - _Mnemonic_, ornament in which written signs or other elements are - used for the purpose of aiding the memory. See page 130. Figs. 162, - 163. - - _Naturalistic_, those forms that are used for decoration, that - resemble the spots and eyes on butterflies’ wings, or the markings - on the skins of reptiles and quadrupeds, or on the feathers of - birds; mostly found in the ornament of savage tribes. - - _Network_, as opposed to checkers, are squares set lozengewise or - forming diamonds; but the word is commonly applied to any figures - in outline, rectilinear or otherwise, covering a surface. See Fig. - 102. - - _Order_, regular disposition; a pleasing sequence in the - arrangement of opposed forms. Order is of such vital importance in - a design that ornament can scarcely have any existence without it. - - _Powdering_, sprays, flowers, leaves, and other decorative units - sprinkled on a ground; “powdering” is a favourite method of - decoration with the Japanese, and was with the Mediævals. See pp. - 63, 80, and 83, and Figs. 85, 103, and 105. - - _Proportion_, the harmonic spacing of lines and surfaces; of the - length, width, and projection of solids; the ratio between - succeeding units in flowing ornament, and the relation between the - spaces occupied by the ornament and its ground. - - _Radiation_, the divergence from a point of straight or curved - lines. Radiating ornament is improved by the point being below the - straight or curved line from which the radiation starts. Explained - at page 44. See Figs. 49, 50, and 51. - - _Realistic_, a style of decoration in which forms are applied - without alteration from natural forms or objects, or without - apparent alteration; it is opposed to the “conventional,” and is - rarely found in the best periods of good historic styles. See Figs. - 1 and 146. - - _Repetition_, a succession of the same decorative unit. For - explanation see pages 40-43. and Figs. 3, 9, and 32. - - _Reeded_, convex forms applied to a flat or curved surface, - producing the reverse effect of “fluting”; some of the columns in - Egyptian architecture are reeded, being sculptured to represent a - bundle of reeds tied together. See Figs. 76A and 76B. - - _Repose_, rest; the absence of apparent movement in ornament; this - apparent movement may be seen in some flamboyant tracery and - Saracenic work, and in some bad paper-hangings, &c.; also the - absence of spottiness. See page 45. - - _Scale_, the relative proportion of the different parts of a - decorative composition to each other, to the whole, and to the - thing ornamented. If a design is composed of different organic - forms, they should, as a rule, keep their natural proportion to - each other. Attributes are, however, often made to a much larger - scale in Greek coins and engraved gems. Equality in scale need not - be used when parts are cut off from each other by inclosing - mouldings, as in isolated panels, pilasters, medallions, spandrels, - &c.; the inclosed spaces may be filled with other subjects of - smaller or larger scale, as with landscapes, heads, or - inscriptions; the frieze of a room, from its greater importance, - may have its decoration larger in scale than the panels of the - door or shutters. The scale employed in the decoration of rooms, of - floors, or of pieces of furniture, may increase or destroy their - importance; hence, except in rare instances, the human figure - should not exceed its natural size, and may want to be much - smaller. And this precaution is equally important in the use of - plants; if the flowers or leaves in ornament are made gigantic, - they destroy the scale of the room or floor; though it may be known - that leaves four feet in diameter or six feet long actually exist. - - _Scalloping_ or _scolloping_, forming an edge with semi-circles or - segments, the convex side being outwards. - - _Scroll_, a roll of paper or parchment. As a unit in ornament, it - is usually applied to two spirals, each attached to the opposite - ends of a curved stem, each spiral coiling the reverse way, but the - word is often applied to ornament composed of a meander with - spirals. - - _Series_, usually the sequence of several dissimilar forms at - regular intervals, as the bead and reel in bead-mouldings, the - sequence of the same text in Saracenic work, and also a sequence of - forms similar in shape but in an increasing or decreasing order, as - branches of plants with leaves getting smaller from bottom to top. - - _Setting out_, the planning of a scheme of decoration; the first - constructive lines or marking-out of the ornament; the skeleton - lines of a design. See pages 26, 40, and 68. - - _Soffit_, an architectural term applied to the under side of any - fixed portion, as the soffit of a beam, an architrave, a cornice, - an arch, or a vault. - - _Spacing_, the marking of widths in mouldings, panels, stiles and - rails, borders, &c. Equality of division in decoration is, in most - cases, ineffective, and should be guarded against; harmonious - variety in such widths and distances is desirable for getting a - good effect. See pages 42, 62, 65, and 68-71. Also Figs. C, D, 88 - and 89. - - _Spiral_, the elevation of a wire continuously twisted round a - cylinder, or cone, also the plan of one twisted round a cone; in - ornament the word spiral, when used as a substantive, mostly means - the latter form. The curved line forming a volute (as in the Ionic - capital) and the outline of the wave ornament; the line of - construction in univalve shells. See Figs. 24, 41, 42, 43, 178, &c. - - _Stability_, firmness and strength in the general appearance of a - design; in climbing plants this appearance can only be given by - their attachment to a central upright or to the vertical sides of - the frame; the straight line is the chief factor of stability in - ornament. See page 42. Where many curved lines are used in the - decoration of long panels, straight-lined forms must be introduced - to counteract the effect of instability in the curved ones. See - Figs. 123 and 128. This is especially the case in pilasters which - are architectural features of support; and for the same reason the - heavier forms should be kept at the bottom and the lighter ones at - the top. - - _Style_, originally meant handwriting. In historic styles it means - the expression of the taste and skill of the people who produced - the work of art, whether it be architecture, sculpture, or - painting. Bygone styles are useful for study, and may be copied or - paraphrased, but can never be re-created, because the genius, - knowledge, opportunities, and surroundings of any later period are - unlikely to be the same. We classify them under the head of - conventional (sometimes called idealistic), realistic, and - naturalistic. It is also used to express good drawing or modelling, - which conveys the elegance, grace, or vigour of the best natural - forms. Sometimes it is applied to a composition in which those - qualities arc expressed, in contradistinction to the ill-drawn, - flabby, or commonplace. - - _Spotting._ This word has nearly the same meaning as “powdering,” - the only difference being that the units of form in such decoration - have a geometrical basis and are mostly equidistant, the ground - occupying much larger space than the ornament. See Fig. 80. - - _Stripe_, usually applied in ornament to narrow bands. - - _Suitability_, æsthetic and practical fitness; the great thing to - remember is the nature, surface, and shape of the object to be - decorated, and to design the ornament accordingly, for it is - evident that what would be a good ornament for one object or - position might be bad for another. - - _Superimposed_ or _superposed_, an ornament which is laid on the - surface of another, such as a large flowing pattern on a ground - covered with a smaller pattern, either geometric or floral; or a - broad, ribbon-like ornament laid on a pattern formed of narrow and - fine lines. This sort of ornamentation is mostly seen in the - decoration of the Saracens, but occasionally in that of the - Renaissance artists. In the wall-patterns of the Alhambra, we often - find two, three, and sometimes four different designs superimposed - on each other, the judicious use of different colours and gold - preventing confusion in the pattern; the complexity is sometimes of - a well-ordered kind. See Figs. 101, 102, and 104. - - _Subordination._ A regular gradation from the most important - feature to the least important. See the central panel of ceiling, - Fig. 89. - - _Symbol_ originally meant a token or a ticket among the Greeks; by - the Romans it meant the same, and also a signet. In modern English - it means a sign, emblem, or figurative representation. In - ornamental art it is mostly used to express some beautiful thing - that by knowledge or association brings to the mind some power or - dignity connected with religion. Attributes are often used as - symbols of the divinity to which they belong--the bow of Diana, the - thyrsus of Bacchus (Fig. 167), and the trident of Neptune, &c. In - Christian ornament the fish and lamb are mostly symbols of the - Saviour. It is sometimes difficult to determine when anything - should be called a symbol, an emblem, or an allegorical - representation; for instance, whether the Apocalyptic calf is a - symbol, an emblem, or an allegorical representation of St. Luke. - - _Symmetry_, equality of form and mass on either side of a central - line; absolute sameness in the two sides of a piece of ornament. - See Figs. 127 and 130. - - _Tangential Junction_, the meeting of curves at their tangential - points, so that they flow into one another without making an angle. - The principal constructive lines in foliated ornament and scroll - patterns should illustrate “tangential junction,” _i. e._ the - branches and curves should flow out of the central stem. See p. 45, - and Figs. 25 and 53. - - _Uniformity_, being of one shape; the square and circle are uniform - figures; it is one of the main causes of grandeur and dignity, but - if absolute, results in monotony. The Greek temples had apparently - uniform columns placed at uniform distances, and monotony was - avoided by delicate variations in the size and spacing of the - columns. - - _Unit_, the smallest or simplest _complete_ expression of ornament - in any scheme of decoration. - - _Unity_, perfect accord in all the parts of a design. Unity is - often a characteristic of designs that are very monotonous, so by - itself it will scarcely render a design pleasing. - - _Unsymmetrical_, without symmetry, such as the volute. See the word - _Balance_. - - _Variety_, the absence of similarity; a word embracing an infinity - of differences, from two things that are not absolutely alike, to - two things that are absolutely unlike. The judicious use of variety - gives interest to ornament, but uniformity with slight variety - gives the most dignity. - - - RICHARD CLAY & SONS, LIMITED, - LONDON & BUNGAY. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] M. Henri Mayeux, _La Composition Décorative_, 8vo, Paris, s.a. - -[2] See M. César Daly’s _Motifs Historique_, fol., Paris, 1881. - -[3] The chambers under Titus’ baths in which the paintings were found, -were originally parts of Nero’s golden house. - -[4] There are, however, figures of men and animals occasionally found -in their carved wood-work, tiles, damascened work, carpets, and -embroidery. - -[5] Many of the frets are woven spirals. - -[6] There is, however, a strong objection, from a sanitary point of -view, to the use of absorbent hangings, especially when the surface -is rough, for they not only absorb infection, but hold dust, which -generally contains the germs of disease. - -[7] There arc many styles of Persian ornamentation--that of the -Achæmenides, probably that of the Macedonians after the conquest of -Persia by Alexander the Great, that of the Sasanides, that of the -Saracens after they conquered the country, and their ornamentation -was doubtless influenced by the subsequent Mongul conquest. That -ornamentation which is generally called Persian, except modern work, -seems to be Saracenic. - -[8] In the sixteenth chapter of the Korân called the “Bee,” it is -said, “and of the fruit of the palm-trees and of grapes, ye obtain an -inebriating liquor and also good nourishment.” - -[9] - - “Eve’s tempter thus the rabbins have express’d, - A cherub’s face, a reptile all the rest.”--POPE. - - -[10] From Dr. Richter’s discoveries at Cyprus, it seems probable that -the Ionic volute may have taken its rise from an enlargement of the -Egyptian lotus. - - - - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's The Principles of Ornament, by James Ward - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PRINCIPLES OF ORNAMENT *** - -***** This file should be named 60034-0.txt or 60034-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/0/0/3/60034/ - -Produced by Chuck Greif and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images available at The Internet Archive) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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