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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/59924-0.txt b/59924-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..f4fe5c5 --- /dev/null +++ b/59924-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,15956 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Arts in The Middle Ages and at the +Period of The Renaissance, by Paul Lacroix Jacob + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license + + +Title: The Arts in The Middle Ages and at the Period of The Renaissance + +Author: Paul Lacroix Jacob + +Translator: James Dafforne + +Release Date: July 15, 2019 [EBook #59924] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ARTS IN THE MIDDLE AGES *** + + + + +Produced by Chuck Greif and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images available at The Internet Archive) + + + + + + + + + + _THE ARTS IN THE MIDDLE AGES, + AND AT THE PERIOD OF THE RENAISSANCE._ + +[Illustration: THE ANNUNCIATION. + +Fac-simile of a Miniature from the “Hours” of Anne de Bretagne formerly +belonging to Catherine de Medicis + +(Library of M. A. Firmin Didot.)] + + + + + THE ARTS + + IN + + THE MIDDLE AGES, + + AND AT THE PERIOD OF + + THE RENAISSANCE. + + + BY PAUL LACROIX + (Bibliophile Jacob), + CURATOR OF THE IMPERIAL LIBRARY OF THE ARSENAL, PARIS. + + + Illustrated with + NINETEEN CHROMOLITHOGRAPHIC PRINTS BY F. KELLERHOVEN + + AND UPWARDS OF + + _FOUR HUNDRED ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD_. + + + FOURTH THOUSAND. + + + LONDON: + BICKERS AND SON, 1, LEICESTER SQUARE. + + + + +[Illustration] + + + + +PREFACE OF THE EDITOR. + + +The aim and scope of this work are so explicitly set forth in the +appended Preface by its Author as to require for the book no further +introduction. The position held by M. LACROIX in the Imperial Library of +the Arsenal, Paris, is a sufficient guarantee of his qualifications for +undertaking a publication of this nature. How far his labours were +appreciated in France is evident from the fact that, when the first +edition made its appearance, it was exhausted within a few days. + +It may fairly be presumed that THE ARTS IN THE MIDDLE AGES will find +equal favour in England, where so much attention has of late years been +given to the subject in all its various ramifications; and where,--in +our National Museum, Kensington, especially,--we are accumulating so +extensive and valuable a collection of objects associated with the +epochs referred to by M. LACROIX. + +In preparing these sheets for the press, my task has been little more +than to put an excellent and conscientious _literal_ translation of the +French text into language somewhat in harmony with the construction of +our own. In so doing, however, it has been my object to retain, as far +as practicable, the peculiar--sometimes the quaint--phraseology of the +original writing. A few notes are added when they appeared necessary by +way of explaining terms, &c., or to render them more intelligible to the +general reader. But some words are used by the Author for which no +English equivalent can be found: these have been allowed to stand +without note or comment. + +JAMES DAFFORNE. + +BRIXTON, _February, 1870_. + +[Illustration] + + + + +[Illustration] + + + + +PREFACE TO THE SECOND FRENCH EDITION. + + +More than twenty years ago we published, with the aid of our friend +Ferdinand Séré, whose loss we regret, and with the co-operation of other +learned men and of the most eminent writers and artists, an important +work, entitled “THE MIDDLE AGES AND THE RENAISSANCE.” That work, which +consists of no less than five large quarto volumes, treated in detail +the manners and customs, the sciences, literature, and the arts of those +two great epochs, a subject as vast as it is interesting and +instructive. Thanks to the learning it displays, to its literary merit +and its admirable execution, it had the rare good fortune to attract +immediately the attention of the public, and even now it maintains the +interest which marked its first appearance. It has taken its place in +the library of the amateur, not only in France but also among +foreigners; it has become celebrated. + +This exceptional result, especially as regards a publication of such +extent, induces us to believe that our work, thus known and appreciated +by the learned, may and ought henceforth to have still greater success +by addressing itself to a yet larger number of readers. + +With this conviction we now present to the public one of the principal +portions of that important work, and perhaps the most interesting, in a +form more simple, easier, and more pleasing; within the reach of youth +who desire to learn without weariness or irksomeness, of females +interested in grave authors, of the family that loves to assemble round +a book altogether instructive and attractive. We would speak of the +“ARTS IN THE MIDDLE AGES, AND AT THE PERIOD OF THE RENAISSANCE.” After +having reunited the scattered materials on this subject, we have ranged +them each in its own rank, taking care to discard all crudity of +learning and to preserve in our work the brilliant colouring in which it +was first clothed. + +All the Arts are interesting in themselves. Their productions awaken +attention and excite curiosity. But here it is not one Art only that is +treated of. We pass in review all the Arts, starting from the fourth +century to the second half of the sixteenth--Architecture raising +churches and abbeys, palaces and public memorials, strong fortresses and +the ramparts of cities; Sculpture adorning and perfecting other Arts by +its works in stone, marble, bronze, wood, and ivory; Painting, +commencing with mosaic and enamels, contributing to the decoration of +buildings jointly with stained glass and frescoes, embellishing and +illuminating manuscripts before it arrived at its highest point of +perfection, with the Art of Giotto and Raphael, of Hemling and Albert +Dürer; Engraving on wood and metal, with which is associated the work of +the medallist and the goldsmith; and after attempting to touch upon +Playing-cards and Niello-work, we suddenly evoke that sublime invention +destined to change the face of the world--Printing. Such are, in brief, +some of the principal features of this splendid picture. One can imagine +what an infinity, what variety and richness, of details it should +contain. + +Our subject presents, at the same time, another kind of interest more +elevated and not less alluring. Here each Art appears in its different +phases and in its diversified progress. It is a history, not alone of +the Arts, but of the epoch itself in which they were developed; for the +Arts, regarded in their generality, are the truest expression of +society. They speak to us of tastes, of ideas, of character: they +exhibit us in their works. Of all an age can leave to the future +concerning itself, that which represents it most vividly is Art: the +Arts of an epoch revivify it, and bring it back before our eyes. + +It is this which forms our book. Yet, we must remark, here its interest +is redoubled, for we retrace not only a single era, but two eras very +distinct from each other. In the first, that of the Middle Ages, which +followed the invasion of the Northmen, society was in a great measure +formed of new and barbarous elements, which Christianity laboured to +break up and fashion. In the second epoch, on the contrary, society was +organised and firmly established; it enjoyed peace, and reaped its +fruits. The Arts followed the same phases. At first rude and informal, +they rose slowly and by degrees, like society, out of chaos. At length +they nourished in perfect freedom, and progressed with all the energy of +which the human mind is capable. Hence the successive advances whose +history presents a marvellous interest. + +During the Middle Ages, Art generally followed the inspirations of that +Christian spirit which presided at the formation of this new world. It +arose to reproduce in an admirable manner the religious ideal. Only +towards the end of that period it searched out for beauty of form, and +began to find it when the Renaissance made its appearance: the +Renaissance, that is, the intellectual revolution, which, in the +fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, restored among modern nations the +sceptre to Literature and the Arts of antiquity. Then, with the +Renaissance, the Arts changed their direction, and especially the +principal Arts, those by which the genius of man expresses most forcibly +his ideas and his feelings. Thus, in the Middle Ages, a new style of +architecture is created that rapidly attained the highest degree of +perfection, the _ogival_ (later Gothic or flamboyant), of which we see +the _chefs-d’œuvre_ in our cathedrals: at the Renaissance, this was +replaced by architecture derived from that of the Greeks and Romans, +which also produced admirable works, but almost always less in harmony +with the dignity and splendour of worship. In the Middle Ages, Painting +chiefly applied itself to represent the _beau idéal_ of the religious +mind reflecting itself in the countenance; at the Renaissance, it is the +beauty of the physical form, so perfectly expressed by the ancients. +Sculpture, which comes nearer to Painting, followed at the same time all +similar phases, drawing the art of Engraving with it. Do not the +diversified changes through which the Arts passed, as retraced in this +book during two epochs, present to the intelligent reader a succession +of facts of the highest interest and a history most instructive? + +Our work is the only existing one on this great and magnificent subject, +of which the materials are scattered through a multitude of volumes. +Thus for the success of this undertaking it became necessary to unite +with us in our task men most distinguished by their learning and +talents: we are permitted to cite the names of MM. Ernest Breton, Aimé +Champollion, Champollion-Figeac, Pierre Dubois, Duchesne, Ferdinand +Denis, Jacquemart, Arch. Juvinal, Jules Labarte, Lassus, Louandre, +Prosper Mérimée, Alfred Michiels, Gabriel Peignot, Riocreux, De Saulcy, +Jean Designeur, le Marquis de Varennes. After such a list we record our +own name only to acknowledge that we have gone over and recast these +various works, and presented them in a form which gives them more unity, +but owes to them all the interest and all the charm it may offer. + +The numerous illustrations that adorn the work will engage the eye, +while the text will speak to the intelligence. The designs in +chromolithography are executed by M. Kellerhoven, who for several years +has made the art one of a high order, worthy to shine among the finest +works of our greatest painters, as is proved by his “Chefs-d’œuvre of +the Great Masters,” “Lives of the Saints,” and “Legend of St. Ursula.” + +No one is ignorant of the attention given in these days to archæology. +Information about objects of antiquity is necessary to every instructed +person. It ought to be studied so far as to enable us to appreciate, or +at least to recognise, the examples of olden time in Architecture, +Painting, &c., that present themselves to our notice. Thus it has become +for the young of each sex indispensable to good education. The perusal +of this book will be for such an attractive introduction to that +knowledge which for too long a time was the exclusive domain of the +learned. + +PAUL LACROIX +(Bibliophile Jacob). + + + + +[Illustration] + + + + +TABLE OF CONTENTS. + + + Page + + +FURNITURE: HOUSEHOLD AND ECCLESIASTICAL 1 + +Simplicity of Furniture among the Gauls and Franks.--Introduction +of costly taste in articles of Furniture of the Seventh +Century.--Arm-chair of Dagobert.--Round Table of King +Artus.--Influence of the Crusades.--Regal Banquet in +the time of Charles V.--Benches.--Sideboards.--Dinner +Services.--Goblets.--Brassware.--Casks.--Lighting.--Beds.--Carved-wood +Furniture.--Locksmith’s Work.--Glass and Mirrors.--Room of a +Feudal Seigneur.--Costliness of Furniture used for Ecclesiastical +Purposes.--Altars.--Censers.--Shrines and Reliquaries.--Gratings and +Iron-mountings. + + +TAPESTRY 37 + +Scriptural Origin of Tapestry.--Needlework Embroidery in Ancient +Greek and Roman Times.--Attalic Carpets.--Manufacture of Carpets in +Cloisters.--Manufactory at Poitiers in the Twelfth Century.--Bayeux +Tapestry, named “De la Reine Mathilde.”--Arras Carpets.--Inventory +of the Tapestries of Charles V.; enormous Value of these Embroidered +Hangings.--Manufactory at Fontainebleau, under Francis I.--The +Manufacture of the Hôpital de la Trinité, at Paris.--The Tapestry +Workers, Dubourg and Laurent, in the reign of Henry IV.--Factories of +Savonnerie and Gobelins. + + +CERAMIC ART 53 + +Pottery Workshops in the Gallo-Romano Period.--Ceramic Art disappears +for several Centuries in Gaul: is again found in the Tenth and Eleventh +Centuries.--Probable Influence of Arabian Art in Spain.--Origin of +Majolica.--Luca della Robbia and his Successors.--Enamelled Tiles in +France, dating from the Twelfth Century.--The Italian Manufactories of +Faenza, Rimini, Pesaro, &c.--Beauvais Pottery.--Invention and Works of +Bernard Palissy; his History; his _Chefs-d’œuvre_.--The _Faïence_ of +Thouars, called “Henri II.” + + +ARMS AND ARMOUR 75 + +Arms of the Time of Charlemagne.--Arms of the Normans at the Time of +the Conquest of England.--Progress of Armoury under the Influence of +the Crusades.--The Coat of Mail.--The Crossbow.--The Hauberk and the +Hoqueton.--The Helmet, the Hat of Iron, the Cervelière, the Greaves, +and the Gauntlet; the Breastplate and the Cuish.--The Casque with +Vizor.--Plain Armour and Ribbed Armour.--The Salade Helmet.--Costliness +of Armour.--Invention of Gunpowder.--Bombards.--Hand-Cannons.--The +Culverin, the Falconet.--The Arquebus with Metal-holder, with Match, +and with Wheel.--The Gun and the Pistol. + + +CARRIAGES AND SADDLERY 107 + +Horsemanship among the Ancients.--The Riding-horse and the +Carriage-horse.--Chariots armed with Scythes.--Vehicles of the +Romans, the Gauls, and the Franks: Carruca, the Petoritum, the +Cisium, the Plastrum, the Basterna, the Carpentum.--Different +kinds of Saddle-horses in the Days of Chivalry.--The Spur a +distinctive Sign of Nobility: its Origin.--The Saddle, its Origin +and its Modifications.--The Tilter.--Carriages.--The Mules of +Magistrates.--Corporations of Saddlers and Harness-makers, Lorimers, +Coachmakers, Chapuiseurs, Blazonniers, and Saddle-coverers. + + +GOLD AND SILVER WORK 123 + +Its Antiquity.--The Trésor de Guarrazar.--The Merovingian and +Carlovingian Periods.--Ecclesiastical Jewellery.--Pre-eminence of +the Byzantine Goldsmiths.--Progress of the Art consequent on the +Crusades.--The Gold and Enamels of Limoges.--Jewellery ceases to be +restricted to Purposes of Religion.--Transparent Enamels.--Jean of +Pisa, Agnolo of Siena, Ghiberti.--Great Painters and Sculptors from the +Goldsmiths’ Workshops.--Benvenuto Cellini.--The Goldsmiths of Paris. + + +HOROLOGY 169 + +Modes of measuring Time among the Ancients.--The Gnomon.--The +Water-Clock.--The Hour-Glass.--The Water-Clock, improved by the +Persians and by the Italians.--Gerbert invents the Escapement +and the moving Weights.--The Striking-bell.--Maistre Jehan des +Orloges.--Jacquemart of Dijon.--The first Clock in Paris.--Earliest +portable Timepiece.--Invention of the spiral Spring.--First appearance +of Watches.--The Watches, or “Eggs,” of Nuremberg.--Invention of the +Fusee.--Corporation of Clockmakers.--Noted Clocks at Jena, Strasburg, +Lyons, &c.--Charles-Quint and Jannellus.--The Pendulum. + + +MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS 187 + +Music in the Middle Ages.--Musical Instruments from the Fourth to the +Thirteenth Century.--Wind Instruments: the Single and Double Flute, the +Pandean Pipes, the Reed-pipe.--The Hautboy, the Flageolet, Trumpets, +Horns, _Olifants_, the Hydraulic Organ, the Bellows-Organ.--Instruments +of Percussion: the Bell, the Hand-bell, Cymbals, the Timbrel, the +Triangle, the _Bombulum_, Drums.--Stringed Instruments: the Lyre, +the Cithern, the Harp, the Psaltery, the _Nable_, the _Chorus_, the +_Organistrum_, the Lute and the Guitar, the _Crout_, the _Rote_, the +Viola, the _Gigue_, the Monochord. + + +PLAYING-CARDS 223 + +Supposed Date of their Invention.--Existed in India in the Twelfth +Century.--Their connection with the Game of Chess.--Brought into Europe +after the Crusades.--First Mention of a Game with Cards in 1379.--Cards +well known in the Fifteenth Century in Spain, Germany, and France, +under the name of _Tarots_.--Cards called _Charles the Sixth’s_ must +have been _Tarots_.--Ancient Cards, French, Italian, and German.--Cards +contributing to the Invention of Wood-Engraving and Printing. + + +GLASS-PAINTING 251 + +Painting on Glass mentioned by Historians in the Third Century of +our Era.--Glazed Windows at Brioude in the Sixth Century.--Coloured +Glass at St. John Lateran and St. Peter’s in Rome.--Church-Windows of +the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries in France: Saint-Denis, Sens, +Poitiers, Chartres, Rheims, &c.--In the Fourteenth and Fifteenth +Centuries the Art was at its Zenith.--Jean Cousin.--The Célestins of +Paris: Saint-Gervais.--Robert Pinaigrier and his Sons.--Bernard Palissy +decorates the Chapel of the Castle of Ecouen.--Foreign Art: Albert +Dürer. + + +FRESCO-PAINTING 269 + +The Nature of Fresco.--Employed by the Ancients.--Paintings at +Pompeii.--Greek and Roman Schools.--Mural Paintings destroyed by the +Iconoclasts and Barbarians.--Revival of Fresco, in the Ninth Century, +in Italy.--Fresco-Painters since Guido of Siena.--Principal Works of +these Painters.--Successors of Raphael and Michael Angelo.--Fresco +in _Sgraffito_.--Mural Paintings in France from the Twelfth +Century.--Gothic Frescoes of Spain.--Mural Paintings in the Low +Countries, Germany, and Switzerland. + + +PAINTING ON WOOD, CANVAS, ETC 283 + +The Rise of Christian Painting.--The Byzantine School.--First Revival +in Italy.--Cimabue, Giotto, Fra Angelico.--Florentine School: Leonardo +da Vinci, Michael Angelo.--Roman School: Perugino, Raphael.--Venetian +School: Titian, Tintoretto, Veronese.--Lombard School: Correggio, +Parmigianino.--Spanish School.--German and Flemish Schools: Stephen +of Cologne, John of Bruges, Lucas van Leyden, Albert Dürer, Lucas van +Cranach, Holbein.--Painting in France during the Middle Ages.--Italian +Masters in France.--Jean Cousin. + + +ENGRAVING 315 + +Origin of Wood-Engraving.--The St. Christopher of 1423.--“The Virgin +and Child Jesus.”--The earliest Masters of Wood-Engraving.--Bernard +Milnet.--Engraving in _Camaïeu_.--Origin of Engraving on Metal.--The +“Pax” of Maso Finiguerra.--The earliest Engravers on Metal.--Niello +Work.--_Le Maître_ of 1466.--_Le Maître_ of 1486. Martin Schöngauer, +Israel van Mecken, Wenceslaus of Olmutz, Albert Dürer, Marc Antonio, +Lucas van Leyden.--Jean Duret and the French School.--The Dutch +School.--The Masters of Engraving. + + +SCULPTURE 339 + +Origin of Christian Sculpture.--Statues in Gold and Silver.--Traditions +of Antique Art.--Sculpture in Ivory.--Iconoclasts.--Diptychs.--The +highest Style of Sculpture follows the Phases of +Architecture.--Cathedrals and Monasteries from the year 1000.--Schools +of Burgundy, Champagne, Normandy, Lorraine, &c.--German, +English, Spanish, and Italian Schools.--Nicholas of Pisa and +his Successors.--Position of French Sculpture in the Thirteenth +Century.--Florentine Sculpture and Ghiberti.--French Sculptors from the +Fifteenth to the Sixteenth Century. + + +ARCHITECTURE 373 + +The Basilica the first Christian Church.--Modification of +Ancient Architecture.--Byzantine Style.--Formation of the Norman +Style.--Principal Norman Churches.--Age of the Transition from +Norman to Gothic.--Origin and Importance of the _Ogive_.--Principal +Edifices in the pure Gothic Style.--The Gothic Church, an Emblem of +the Religious Spirit in the Middle Ages.--Florid Gothic.--Flamboyant +Gothic.--Decadency.--Civil and Military Architecture: Castles, +Fortified Enclosures, Private Houses, Town-Halls.--Italian Renaissance: +Pisa, Florence, Rome.--French Renaissance: Mansions and Palaces. + + +PARCHMENT AND PAPER 413 + +Parchment in Ancient Times.--Papyrus.--Preparation of Parchment +and Vellum in the Middle Ages.--Sale of Parchment at the Fair of +Lendit.--Privilege of the University of Paris on the Sale and Purchase +of Parchment.--Different Applications of Parchment.--Cotton Paper +imported from China.--Order of the Emperor Frederick II. concerning +Paper.--The Employment of Linen Paper, dating from the Twelfth +Century.--Ancient Water-Marks on Paper.--Paper Manufactories in France +and other parts of Europe. + + +MANUSCRIPTS 423 + +Manuscripts in Olden Times.--Their Form.--Materials of which +they were composed.--Their Destruction by the Goths.--Rare +at the Beginning of the Middle Ages.--The Catholic Church +preserved and multiplied them.--Copyists.--Transcription of +Diplomas.--Corporation of Scribes and Booksellers.--Palæography.--Greek +Writings.--Uncial and Cursive Manuscripts.--Sclavonic +Writings.--Latin Writers.--Tironian Shorthand.--Lombardic +Characters.--Diplomatic.--Capetian.--Ludovicinian.--Gothic.--Runic.-- +Visigothic.--Anglo-Saxon.--Irish. + + +MINIATURES IN MANUSCRIPTS 443 + +Miniatures at the Beginning of the Middle Ages.--The two “Vatican” +Virgils.--Painting of Manuscripts under Charlemagne and Louis +le Débonnaire.--Tradition of Greek Art in Europe.--Decline +of the Miniature in the Tenth Century.--Origin of Gothic +Art.--Fine Manuscript of the time of St. Louis.--Clerical and Lay +Miniature-Painters.--Caricature and the Grotesque.--Miniatures in +Monochrome and in Grisaille.--Illuminators at the Court of France +and to the Dukes of Burgundy.--School of John Fouquet.--Italian +Miniature-Painters.--Giulio Clovio.--French School under Louis XII. + + +BOOKBINDING 471 + +Primitive Binding of Books.--Bookbinding among the Romans.--Bookbinding +with Goldsmith’s Work from the Fifth Century.--Chained +Books.--Corporation of _Lieurs_, or Bookbinders.--Books bound in +Wood, with Metal Corners and Clasps.--First Bindings in Leather, +honeycombed (_waffled?_) and gilt.--Description of some celebrated +Bindings of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries.--Sources of Modern +Bookbinding.--John Grollier.--President de Thou.--Kings and Queens of +France Bibliomaniacs.--Superiority of Bookbinding in France. + + +PRINTING 485 + +Who was the Inventor of Printing?--Movable Letters in ancient +Times.--Block Printing.--Laurent Coster.--_Donati_ and +_Specula_.--Gutenberg’s Process.--Partnership of Gutenberg and +Faust.--Schœffer.--The Mayence Bible.--The Psalter of 1457.--The +“Rationale” of 1459.--Gutenberg prints by himself.--The “Catholicon” of +1460.--Printing at Cologne, Strasbourg, Venice, and Paris.--Louis XI. +and Nicholas Jenson.--German Printers at Rome.--_Incunabula._--Colard +Mansion.--Caxton.--Improvement of Typographical Processes up to the +Sixteenth Century. + + + + + +[Illustration] + + + + +TABLE OF ILLUSTRATIONS. + + +I. CHROMOLITHOGRAPHS. + +Plate To face page + +1. The Annunciation. Fac-simile of Miniature +taken from the “Hours” of Anne +de Bretagne, formerly belonging to +Catherine de Medicis FRONTISPIECE + +2. Distaff and Bedposts of the Sixteenth +Century 20 + +3. Adoration of the Magi. Bernese Tapestry +of the Fifteenth Century 46 + +4. Paris in the Fifteenth Century. Beauvais +Tapestry 50 + +5. Encaustic Tiles 58 + +6. Biberon of Henri Deux Faience 64 + +7. Casque, Morion, and Helmets 82 + +8. Entrance of Queen Isabella of Bavaria +into Paris. From Froissart’s +“Chronicles” 118 + +9. Jewelled Crosses of the Visigoths, found +at Guarrazar. Seventh Century 124 + +10. Drageoir, or Table Ornament. German +work 154 + +11. Clock of Damaskeened Iron of the Fifteenth +Century; and Watches of the +Sixteenth Century 180 + +12. Francis I. and Eleanor his Wife at their +Devotions. Sixteenth Century 266 + +13. The Dream of Life, a Fresco by Orcagna 276 + +14. St. Catherine and St. Agnes, by Margaret +van Eyck 300 + +15. Clovis the First and Clotilde his Wife 352 + +16. Decoration of La Sainte-Chapelle, Paris 386 + +17. Coronation of Charles the Fifth of +France. From Froissart’s “Chronicles” 464 + +18. Panel of a Book-cover of the Ninth +Century 472 + +19. Diptych of Ivory 474 + + +II. ENGRAVINGS. + + Page + +Abbey of St. Denis 416 + +Alhambra, Interior of the 405 + +Alphabet, Specimen of Grotesque 327 + +Altar-cloth of the Fifteenth Century 30 + + “ Cross ascribed to St. Eloi 137 + + “ of Gold 130 + + “ Tray and Chalice 31 + +Arch, Restoration of a Norman 343 + +Archer of Normandy 79 + +Archers of the Fifteenth Century, France 88 + +Arles, Sculptures on St. Trophimus 384, 385 + +Armour, Convex, of the Fifteenth Century 84 + + “ Knights in complete 89 + + “ Lion 90 + + “ of the Duc d’Alençon 92 + + “ Plain, of the Fifteenth Century 83 + +Arms of the Cardmakers of Paris 250 + + “ Goldsmiths of Paris 160 + +Arquebus with Wheel and Match 103 + +Arquebusier 102 + +Atelier of Etienne Delaulne 158 + + +Bagpiper, Thirteenth Century 199 + +Banner of Paper-makers of Paris 422 + + “ Printers-Booksellers of Angers 479 + + “ Printers-Booksellers of Autun 484 + + “ Saddlers of Tonnerre 121 + + “ Sword-cutlers of Angers 105 + + “ Tapestry Workers of Lyons 51 + +Banners of Corporations 161 + +Banquet in the Fifteenth Century 12 + +Basilica of Constantine, at Trèves 374 + +Basilica of St. Peter’s, Rome, Interior of 407 + +Bas-relief in carved wood 34 + +Battle-axe and Pistol, Sixteenth Century 104 + +Bed furnished with Canopy and Curtains 19 + +Belfry of Brussels 404 + +Bell in a Tower of Siena, Twelfth Century 206 + +Bells of the Ninth Century, Chime of 208 + +Bolt of the Sixteenth Century, with Initial 23 + +Bombards on fixed and rolling carriages 96 + +Bookbinders’ Work-room 482 + +Bookbinding for the Gospels 474 + + “ in an Unknown Material 480 + + “ in Gold, with precious Stones 474 + +Borders:-- + +Bible, called Clement VII.’s 463 + +Bible of St. Martial of Limoges 450 + +Book of the Gospels, Eighth Century 446 + +Book of the Gospels, Eleventh Century 451 + +Book of the Gospels in Latin 451 + +Employed by John of Tournes 519 + +Froissart’s “Chronicles” 465 + +Gospel in Latin 456 + +Lectionary in Metz Cathedral 448 + +“Livre d’Heures” of Anthony Vérard 516 + +“Livre d’Heures” of Geoffroi Tory 517 + +Lyons School 518 + +Missal of Pope Paul V. 467 + +“Ovid,” Fifteenth Century 465 + +Prayer-book of Louis of France 461 + +Sacramentary of St. Æthelgar 453 + +Bracelet, Gallic 124 + +Brooch, chased, enamelled, &c. 167 + + +Cabinet in damaskeened Iron, inlaid 22 + + “ for Jewels 21 + +Cameo-setting of the time of Charles V. 140 + +Cannon, Earliest Models of 98 + + “ Hand 99 + +Caparison of the Horse of Isabel the Catholic 117 + +Capital of a Column, St. Geneviève, Paris 392 + + “ “ St. Julien, Paris 392 + + “ “ The Célestins, Paris 393 + +Carruca, or Pleasure-carriage 108 + +Cart drawn by Oxen, Fifteenth Century 109 + +Castle of Marcoussis, near Rambouillet 397 + + “ Coucy, in its ancient state 399 + + “ Vincennes, Seventeenth Century 399 + +Cathedral of Amiens, Interior of 391 + + “ Mayence 388 + +Censer of the Eleventh Century 32 + +Chains 165 + +Chair called the “Fauteuil de Dagobert” 3 + + “ of Christine de Pisan 9 + + “ of Louise de Savoie 10 + + “ of Louis IX. 7 + + “ of the Ninth or Tenth Century 4 + +Chalice of the Fourth or Fifth Century 31 + + “ said to be of St. Remy 135 + +Château de Chambord 409 + +Chess-Players 225 + +Chest shaped like a Bed, and Chair 20 + +_Choron_, Ninth Century 211 + +_Chorus_ with Single Bell-end with Holes 199 + +Church of Mouen, Remains of the 378 + + “ St. Agnes, Rome 377 + + “ St. Martin, Tours 377 + + “ St. Paul-des-Champs, Paris 381 + + “ St. Trophimus, Arles, Portal 384, 385 + + “ St. Vital, Ravenna 376 + +Clock, Astronomical, of Strasburg Cathedral 184 + + “ of Jena, in Germany 183 + + “ Portable, of the time of the Valois 178 + + “ with Wheels and Weights 177 + +Clockmaker, The 170 + +Cloister of the Abbey of Moissac, Guyenne 386 + +Coffee-pot of German Ware 72 + +Concert; a Bas-relief (Normandy) 193 + + “ and Musical Instruments 194 + +Cooper’s Workshop, Sixteenth Century 16 + +Crossbow Men protected by Shield-bearers 85 + +Cross, Gold-chased 163 + +_Crout_, Three-stringed, Ninth Century 217 + +Crown of Suintila, King of the Visigoths 125 + +Crozier, Abbot’s, enamelled 138 + + “ Bishop’s 138 + +Cup, Italian Ware 62 + + “ of Lapis-lazuli, mounted in Gold 152 + + +Diadem of Charlemagne 127 + +Diptych in Ivory 345 + +Dish, Ornament of a 74 + +Doorways of the Hôtel de Sens, Paris 403 + +Dragonneau, Double-barreled 101 + +Drinking-cup of Agate 134 + +Dwelling-room of a Seigneur of the Fourteenth +Century 26 + + +Enamelled Border of a Dish 63 + + “ Dish, by Bernard Palissy 71 + + “ Terra-cotta 57 + +Engine for hurling Stones 95 + +Engraving:-- + +Columbus on board his Ship 325 + + +Ferdinand I. 335 + +Herodias 329 + +Letter N, Grotesque Alphabet 327 + +Lutma, of Groningen 337 + +Isaiah with Instrument of his Martyrdom 323 + +Maximilian, Coronation of 321 + +Phalaris, Tyrant of Agrigentum 333 + +Repose of the Holy Family 334 + +St. Catherine on her Knees 319 + +St. Hubert praying before the Cross +borne by a Stag 331 + +The Holy Virgin 338 + +Engraving:-- + +The Prophet Isaiah 323 + +The Virgin and Child 318 + +The Virgin and Infant Jesus 316 + +Ensign of the Collar of the Goldsmiths of +Ghent 144 + +Escutcheon in Silver-gilt 145 + +Escutcheon of France, Fourteenth Century 470 + +Ewer in Limoges Enamel 157 + + +Fac-simile of a Bible of 1456 503 + + “ “Catholicon” of 1460 506 + + “ Engraving on Wood 487 + + “ Inscription _Ex libris_ 441 + + “ Miniature drawn with a pen 450 + + “ Miniature of a Psalter 455 + + “ Miniature, Thirteenth Century 457 + + “ Page of a “Livre d’Heures” 510 + + “ Page of a Psalter of 1459 505 + + “ Page of the “Ars Moriendi” 495 + + “ Page of the most ancient +Xylographic “Donatus” 491 + + “ Xylographic Page of the +“Biblia Pauperum” 493 + +Fiddle, Angel playing on the 220 + +Flute, Double 197 + +Fresco-Painting:-- + +Christ and his Mother 273 + +Creation, The 278 + +Death and the Jew 281 + +Disciples in Gethsemane 275 + +Fra Angelico, of Fiesole 282 + +Fraternity of Cross-bowmen 280 + +Group of Saints 277 + +Pope Sylvester I. 274 + + +Gargoyles in the Palais de Justice, Rouen 372 + +Gate of Moret 401 + + “ St. John, Provins 402 + +Glass-Painting:-- + +Citadel of Pallas 262 + +Flemish Window 265 + +Legend of the Jew piercing the Holy +Wafer 260 + +St. Paul, an Enamel 264 + +St. Timothy the Martyr 255 + +Temptation of St. Mars 267 + +The Prodigal Son 257 + +Window, Evreux Cathedral 261 + +Goblet, by Bernard Palissy 69 + +Goldsmiths of Paris carrying a Shrine 162 + +Goldsmiths’ Stamps:-- + +Chartres 159 + +Lyons 159 + +Melun 159 + +Orleans 159 + +Gutenburg, Portrait of 492 + + +Harp, Fifteen-stringed, Twelfth Century 214 + + “ Minstrel’s, Fifteenth Century 216 + + “ Triangular Saxon, Ninth Century 214 + +Harper of the Fifteenth Century 215 + +Harpers of the Twelfth Century 215 + +Helmet of Don Jaime el Conquistador 80 + + “ of Hughes, Vidame of Châlons 82 + +Henry VIII. in the Camp of the Field of +the Cloth of Gold 119 + +Horn, or _Olifant_, Fourteenth Century 201 + + “ Shepherd’s, Eighth Century 201 + +Hour-glass of the Sixteenth Century 173 + +Hour-glass, Top of 186 + + +Initial Letter, Ninth Century 476 + +Initial Letters from Manuscripts 445 + +Initial Letters extracted from the “Rouleau +Mortuaire” of St. Vital 454 + + +Jacquemart of Notre-Dame at Dijon 176 + + +Key of the Thirteenth Century 23 + +King William, as represented on his Seal 77 + +Knight armed and mounted for War 114 + + “ entering the Lists 111 + + “ in his Hauberk 81 + +Knights, Combat of 89 + + +Lament composed shortly after the Death of +Charlemagne 188, 189 + +Lamps of the Nineteenth Century 17 + +Lancer of William the Conqueror’s Army 77 + +Library of the University of Leyden 475 + +Lute, Five-stringed, Thirteenth Century 216 + +Lyre, Ancient 209 + + “ of the North 209 + + +Mangonneau of the Fifteenth Century 97 + +Miniatures:-- + +Anne de Bretagne’s Prayer-book 468 + +Book of the Gospels of Charlemagne 447 + +Consecration of a Bishop 449 + +Dante’s “Paradiso” 466 + +Evangelist, An, transcribing 415 + +Four Sons of Aymon 458 + +Les Femmes Illustres 461 + +Margrave of Baden’s “Livre d’Heures” 469 + +Miniature of the Thirteenth Century 457 + +Missal of the Eleventh Century 452 + +Order of the Holy Ghost, Instituting the 464 + +Psalter of John, Duke of Berry 462 + +Psalter of the Thirteenth Century 455 + +“Roman de Fauvel,” from the 459 + +“Virgil,” in the Vatican, Rome 444 + +Mirror for Hand or Pocket 25 + +Monochord played with a Bow 221 + +Musician sounding Military Trumpet 202 + +Musicians playing on the Flute, &c. 198 + + “ “ Violin 219 + + +_Nabulum_, Ninth Century 211 + +Notre-Dame la Grande of Poitiers 383 + + “ Paris 390 + + “ Rouen 379 + + +Organ, Great, of the Twelfth Century 204 + + “ Pneumatic, of the Fourth Century 203 + + “ Portable, of the Fifteenth Century 205 + + “ with single Key-board 205 + +_Organistrum_, Ninth Century 213 + +Oxford, Saloon of the Schools 396 + + +Painting on Wood, Canvas, &c.:-- + +Baptism of King Clovis 286 + +Christ crowned with Thorns 304 + +Portrait of Leonardo da Vinci 292 + +Princess Sibylla of Saxony 305 + +St. Ursula 302 + +Sketch of the Virgin of Alba 312 + +The Holy Family 294 + +The Holy Virgin, St. George, and St. +Donat 300 + +The Last Judgment 311 + +The Patriarch Job 290 + +The Tribute Money 309 + +Paper-maker, The 420 + +Pendant, adorned with Diamonds, &c. 164 + + “ after a Design by Benvenuto Cellini 150 + +Playing-Cards:-- + +Ancient French 236 + +Buffoon, from a Pack of _Tarots_ 230 + +Charles VI. on his Throne 233 + +Engravings, Coloured, analogous to +Playing-Cards 227 + +From a Game of “Logic” 245 + +German Round-shaped 247 + +Italian Tarots 242 + +Justice 231 + +King of Acorns 244 + +Knave of Clubs 238 + +Knight from a Pack engraved by +“The Master of 1466” 249 + +_La Damoiselle_ 248 + +Moon, The 231 + +Roxana, Queen of Hearts 242 + +Specimen of the Sixteenth Century 236 + +Three and Eight of Bells 243 + +Two of a Pack of German Lansquenet 245 + +Two of Bells 244 + +Porte de Hal, Brussels 410 + +Pottery Figures, Fragments of 68 + + “ Ornamentation on 67 + +Printers’ Marks, Arnold de Keyser, Ghent 511 + + “ “ Bonaventure and Elsevier, +Leyden 520 + + “ “ Colard Mansion, Bruges 512 + + “ “ Eustace, W. 483 + + “ “ Fust and Schœffer 511 + + “ “ Galliot du Pré, Paris 513 + + “ “ Gérard Leeu, Gouwe 511 + + “ “ Gryphe, Lyons 515 + + “ “ J. Le Noble, Troyes 515 + + “ “ Philippe le Noir, &c., Paris 514 + + “ “ Plantin, Antwerp 515 + + “ “ Robert Estienne, Paris 515 + + “ “ Vostre, Simon, Paris 513 + + “ “ Temporal, Lyons 514 + + “ “ Trechsel, Lyons 512 + +Printing-office, Interior of a 499 + +_Psalterion_, Performer on the 212 + +“ Twelfth Century 211 + +Psaltery, Buckle-shaped 211 + + “ to produce a prolonged Sound 210 + + +Reredos in Carved Bone 363 + +Rebec of the Sixteenth Century 221 + +Reading-desk of the Fifteenth Century 33 + +Reliquary, Byzantine 129 + + “ Silver-gilt 143 + +Rings 165 + +_Rote_, David playing on a 218 + + +Saddle-cloth, Sixteenth Century 118 + +Salt-cellar, Enamelled 155 + + “ Interior base of 156 + +_Sambute_, or Sackbut, of the Ninth Century 202 + +Sansterre, as represented on his Seal 79 + +_Saufang_, of St. Cecilia’s at Cologne, The 206 + +Scent-box in Chased Gold 142 + +Scribe or Copyist in his Work-room 432 + +Sculpture:-- + +Altar of Castor 340 + +Altar of Jupiter Ceraunus 341 + +Bas-relief of Dagobert I. 347 + +Citizens relieving Poor Scholars 351 + +Coronation of the Emperor Sigismund 360 + +Fragment of a Reredos in Bone 363 + +Francis I. and Henry VIII. on the +Field of the Cloth of Gold 369 + +Gargoyles on the Palace of Justice, +Rouen 372 + +Roman Triumphal Arch 342 + +“Le Bon Dieu,” Paris 364 + +St. Eloi 366 + +St. John the Baptist preaching 368 + +St. Julien and his Wife conveying Jesus +Christ in their boat 362 + +Statue of Philip Chabot 370 + +Statue of Dagobert I. 347 + +Statue said to be of Clovis I. 353 + +Statues on Bourges Cathedral 357 + +Statuette of St. Avit 361 + +Stone Tomb 343 + +The “_Beau Dieu d’Amiens_” 355 + +The Entombment 371 + +Tomb of Dagobert 349 + +Seal of the Goldsmiths of Paris 159 + + “ King of La Basoche 419 + +Seal of the University of Oxford 478 + + “ University of Paris 417 + +Seals 166 + +Seats, Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries 8 + +Sedan Chair of Charles V. 120 + +Shrine in Copper-gilt 132 + +Shrine in Limoges 131 + + “ of the Fifteenth Century 147 + +Soldiers, Gallo-Romano 76 + +Spurs, German and Italian 113 + +Staircase of a Tower 398 + +Stall of the Fifteenth Century 33 + +Stalls in St. Benoît-sur-Loire 35 + +Sword of Charlemagne 126 + +Syrinx, Seven-tubed 197 + + +Table of King Artus of Brittany 5 + +Tapestry:-- + Construction of Boats for the Conqueror 44 + Hunting Scene 49 + Marriage of Louis XII. and Anne of + Brittany 46 + Mounted Men of Duke William’s army 45 + The Weaver 50 + +_Tintinnabulum_, or Hand-bell 206 + +Toledo, Gothic Architecture at 393 + +Tour de Nesle, Paris 400 + +Tournament Helmet, screwed on the Breastplate 82 + +Tournament Saddles, ornamented with +Paintings 116 + +Tree of Jesse. From a Miniature 195 + +Triangle of the Ninth Century 222 + +Trumpet, Curved, Eleventh Century 200 + + “ Straight, with Stand 200 + +Tympanum of the Thirteenth Century 208 + + +Vase of Rock-crystal, mounted in Silver-gilt 152 + +Vases of ancient shape 54, 55 + +_Vielle_, Juggler playing on a 220 + + “ Oval 220 + + “ Player on the 220 + + +Watches of the Valois Epoch 181 + +Water-jug, Four-handled 72 + +Water-marks on Paper 421 + +Window with Stone Seats 398 + +Wood-block cut in France, about 1440 488 + + “ Print cut in Flanders 486 + +Writing Caligraphic Ornament 442 + + “ Cursive, of the Fifteenth Century 439 + + “ Diplomatic, of the Tenth Century 438 + + “ of the Eighth Century 436, 437 + + “ of the Fifteenth Century 442 + + “ of the Fourteenth Century 440 + + “ of the Seventh Century 435, 436 + + “ of the Sixth Century 435 + + “ of the Tenth Century 437 + + “ Tironian, of the Eighth Century 437 + + “ Title and Capital Letters of the +Seventh Century 435 + +[Illustration] + + + + + THE ARTS IN THE MIDDLE AGES, + + AND AT THE PERIOD OF + + THE RENAISSANCE. + + + + +FURNITURE: + +ORDINARY HOUSEHOLD, AND APPERTAINING TO ECCLESIASTICAL PURPOSES. + + Simplicity of Furniture among the Gauls and Franks.--Introduction + of costly taste in articles of Furniture of the Seventh + Century.--Arm-chair of Dagobert.--Round Table of King + Artus.--Influence of the Crusades.--Regal Banquet in the time of + Charles V.--Benches.--Sideboards.--Dinner + Services.--Goblets.--Brassware.--Casks.--Lighting.--Beds.--Carved + Wood Furniture.--Locksmith’s Work.--Glass and Mirrors.--Room of a + Feudal Seigneur.--Costliness of Furniture used for Ecclesiastical + Purposes.--Altars.--Censers.--Shrines and Reliquaries.--Gratings + and Iron-mountings. + + +We shall be readily believed when we assert that the furniture used by +our remote ancestors, the Gauls, was of the most rude simplicity. A +people essentially addicted to war and hunting,--at the best, +agriculturists,--having for their temples the forests, for their +dwellings huts formed out of turf and thatched with straw and branches, +would naturally be indifferent to the form and description of their +furniture. + +Then succeeded the Roman Conquest. Originally, and long subsequent to +the formation of their warlike republic, the Romans had also lived in +contempt of display, and even in ignorance of the conveniences of life. +But when they had subjugated Gaul, and had carried their victorious arms +to the confines of the world, they by degrees appropriated whatever the +manners and habits of the conquered nations disclosed to them of refined +luxury, material progress, and ingenious devices for comfort. Thus, the +Romans brought with them into Gaul what they elsewhere had acquired. +Again, when, in their turn, the semi-barbarous hordes of Germany and of +the Northern steppes invaded the Roman empire, these new conquerors did +not fail to accommodate themselves instinctively to the social condition +of the vanquished. + +This, briefly stated, is an explanation--we admit, rather concise--of +the transition connecting the characteristics of the society of olden +days with those of modern society. + +Society in the Middle Ages--that social epoch which may be compared to +the state of a decrepid and worn-out old man, who, after a long, dull +torpor awakes to new life, like an active and vigorous child--society in +the Middle Ages inherited much from preceding times, though, to a +certain extent, they were disconnected. It transformed, perhaps; and it +perfected, rather than invented; but it displayed in its works a genius +so peculiar that we generally recognise in it a real creation. + +Proposing rapidly to pursue our archæological and literary course +through a twofold period of birth and revival, we cannot indulge the +belief that we shall succeed in exhibiting our sketches in a light the +best adapted to their effect. However, we will make the attempt, and, +the frame being given, will do our best to fill in the picture. + +If we visit any royal or princely abode of the Merovingian period, we +observe that the display of wealth consists much less in the elegance or +in the originality of the forms devised for articles of furniture, than +in the profusion of precious materials employed in their fabrication and +embellishment. The time had gone by when the earliest tribes of Gauls +and of Northmen, who came to occupy the West, had for their seats and +beds only trusses of straw, rush mats, and bundles of branches; and for +their tables slabs of stone or piles of turf. From the fifth century of +the Christian era, we already find the Franks and the Goths resting +their muscular forms on the long soft seat which the Romans had adopted +from the East, and which have become our sofas or our couches; changing +only their names. In front of them were arranged low horse-shoe tables, +at which the centre seat was reserved for the most dignified or +illustrious of the guests. Couches at the table, suited only to the +effeminacy induced by warm climates, were soon abandoned by the Gauls; +benches and stools were adopted by these most active and vigorous men; +meals were no longer eaten reclining, but sitting: while the thrones of +kings, and the chairs of state for nobles, were of the richest +sumptuousness. Thus, for instance, we find St. Eloi, the celebrated +worker in metals, manufacturing and embellishing two state-chairs of +gold for Clotaire, and a throne of gold for Dagobert. The chair ascribed +to St. Eloi, and known as the Fauteuil de Dagobert (Fig. 1), is an +antique consular chair, which originally was only a folding one; the +Abbé Suger, in the twelfth century, added to it the back and arms. +Artistic display was equally lavished on the manufacture of tables. +Historians tell us that St. Remy, a contemporary of Clovis, had a silver +table decorated all over with sacred subjects. The poet Fortunat, Bishop +of Poitiers, describes a table of the same metal, which had a border +representing a vine with bunches of grapes. + +[Illustration: Fig. 1.--The Curule Chair called the “Fauteuil de +Dagobert,” in gilt bronze, now in the Musée des Souverains.] + +Coming to the reign of Charlemagne, we find, in a passage in the +writings of Eginhard, his minister and historian, that, in addition to a +golden table which this great monarch possessed, he had three others of +chased silver; one decorated with designs representing the city of Rome, +another Constantinople, and the third “all countries of the universe.” + +[Illustration: Fig. 2.--Chair of the Ninth or Tenth Century, taken from +a Miniature of that period (MS. de la Bibl. Imp. de Paris).] + +The chairs or seats of the Romanesque period (Fig. 2) exhibit an attempt +to revive in the interior of the buildings, where they were used, the +architectural style of contemporary monuments. They were large and +massive, and were raised on clusters of columns expanding at the back in +three semicircular rows. The anonymous monk of Saint-Gall, in his +chronicle written in the ninth century, alludes to a grand banquet, at +which the host was seated on cushions of feathers. Legrand d’Aussy tells +us, in his “Histoire de la Vie Privée des Français,” that at a later +date--referring to the reign of Louis le Gros, in the beginning of the +twelfth century--the guests were seated, at ordinary family repasts, on +simple stools; but if the party was more of a ceremonious than intimate +character, the table was surrounded with benches, or _bancs_, whence the +term banquet is derived. The form of table was commonly long and +straight, but on occasions of state it was semicircular, or like a +horse-shoe in form, recalling the Romanesque round table of King Artus +of Brittany (Fig. 3). + +[Illustration: Fig. 3.--Round Table of King Artus of Brittany, from a +Miniature of the Fourteenth Century (MS. de la Bibl. Imp. de Paris).] + +The Crusades, bringing together men of all the countries of Europe with +the people of the East, made those of the West acquainted with luxuries +and customs which, on returning from their chivalrous expeditions, they +did not fail to imitate. We find feasts at which they ate sitting +cross-legged on the ground, or stretched out on carpets in the Oriental +fashion, as represented and described in miniatures contained in the +manuscripts of that period. The Sire de Joinville, the friend and +historian of Louis IX., informs us that this saintly king was in the +habit of sitting on a carpet, surrounded by his barons, and in that +manner he dispensed justice; but at the same time the practice of using +large _chaires_, or arm-chairs, continued, for there still is to be seen +a throne in massive wood belonging to that period, and called _le banc +de Monseigneur St. Louis_, embellished with carvings representing +fanciful and legendary birds and animals. It is unnecessary to add that +the lower orders did not aspire to so much refinement. In their abodes +the seats in use were settles, chests, or at best benches, the supports +of which were, to a slight extent, carved. + +This was the period when the practice commenced of covering seats with +woollen stuffs, or with silk figured on frames, or embroidered by hand, +displaying ciphers, emblems, or armorial bearings. From the East was +introduced the custom of hangings for rooms, composed of glazed leather, +stamped and gilt. These skins of the goat or sheep were called _or +basané_, because plain gilt; or embossed leather, in gold colour, was +made from them. _Or basané_ was also used to conceal the bare look of +arm-chairs. Towards the fourteenth century, tables of precious metals +disappeared, in consequence of fashion ruling in favour of the stuffs +which covered them; tapestry, tissues of gold, and velvets thenceforth +formed the table-cloths. On great occasions, the place of the principal +guests was distinguished by a canopy, more or less rich, erected above +their seats, as represented in the account of the sumptuous feast given +by King Charles V. to the Emperor Charles of Luxemburg, in the great +hall of the palace. M. Fréguier thus describes the banquet from +contemporary documents in the “Histoire de l’Administration de la Police +de Paris:”-- + +“The dinner was served on a marble table. The Archbishop of Rheims, who +had officiated that day, first took his place at table. The Emperor then +sat down, then the King of France, and the King of Bohemia, the son of +the Emperor. Above the seat of each of the three princes was a separate +canopy of gold cloth, embroidered all over with fleurs-de-lis. These +three canopies were surmounted by a larger one, also of cloth of gold, +which covered the whole extent of the table, and was suspended behind +the guests. After the King of Bohemia, three bishops took their place, +but far removed from him, and near the end of the table. Under the +nearest canopy the Dauphin was seated, at a separate table, with several +princes or nobles of the Court of France, or of the Emperor. The hall +was adorned with three buffets, or dressers, covered with gold and +silver plate; these three dressers, as well as the two large canopies, +were protected by a railing, to prevent the intrusion of the crowds of +people who had been permitted to witness the magnificence of the +display. Finally, there were to be seen five other canopies, under which +were assembled princes and barons round private tables; also numerous +other tables.” + +It is noteworthy that from the time of St. Louis these same chairs and +seats, carved, covered with the richest stuffs, inlaid with precious +stones, and engraved with the armorial bearings of great houses, issued +for the most part from the workshops of Parisian artisans. Those +artisans, carpenters, manufacturers of coffers and carved chests, and +furniture-makers, were so celebrated for works of this description, that +in inventories and appraisements of furniture great care was taken to +specify that such and such articles among them were of Parisian +manufacture; _ex operagio Parisiensi_ (Fig. 4). + +[Illustration: Fig. 4.--Louis IX. represented in his Regal Chair, +tapestried in fleurs-de-lis, from a Miniature of the Fourteenth Century. +(MS. de la Bibl. Imp. de Paris.).] + +The following extract, from an invoice of Etienne La Fontaine, the royal +silversmith, affords, in terms which require no comment, an idea of the +costliness lavished on the manufacture of an arm-chair, then called +_faudesteuil_, intended for the King of France, in 1352:-- + +“For making a fauteuil of silver and of crystal decorated with precious +stones, delivered to the said seigneur, of which the said seigneur +ordered the said goldsmith to make the framework, who ornamented it +with several crystals, illuminated pieces, many designs, pearls, and +other stones.... VIIᶜ LXXIIIIᵐ (774 louis). + +“For illuminated pieces placed under the crystals of the said fauteuil, +of which there are 40 of the armorial bearings of France, 61 of the +prophets holding scrolls, 112 half-length figures of animals on gold +ground, and 4 large representations of the judgments of Solomon.... +VIˣˣᵐ (620 louis). + +“For twelve crystals for the said fauteuil, of which five are hollow to +hold the bâtons, six flat, and one round,” &c. + +[Illustration: Fig. 5.--Seats from Miniatures of the Fourteenth and +Fifteenth Centuries.] + +It was only towards the commencement of the fifteenth century that +chairs stuffed with straw or rushes first appeared; they folded in the +form of the letter X (Fig. 5); the seats and arms being stuffed. In the +sixteenth century chairs with backs (_chaires_ or _chayeres à +dorseret_), in carved oak or chestnut, painted and gilt, fell into +disuse, even in the royal castles, as being too heavy and inconvenient, +and on account of their enormous size (Figs. 6 and 7). + +The dresser, which has just been described as used at the grand feast of +Charles V., and which moreover has been retained, altered to a sideboard +with shelves, almost to our time, was an article manufactured much less +for use than for show. It was upon this dresser,--the introduction of +which does not appear to go further back than the twelfth century, and +the name whereof sufficiently describes its purpose,--that there was +displayed, in the vast halls of manorial residences, not only all the +valuable plate required for the table, but many other objects of +goldsmith’s work which played no part in the banquet--vases of all +sorts, statuettes, figures in high relief, jewels, + +[Illustration: Fig. 6.--Christine de Pizan, contemporary with Charles V. +and Charles VI., seated on a Chair in carved wood with back and canopy, +and tapestry of worsted or figured silk. The box or chest which formed +the writing-table contained books. (Miniature from a MS. in the Bibl. of +Burgundy-Bruxelles, Fifteenth Century.)] + +and even reliquaries. In palaces and mansions, the dressers were of +gold, silver, or copper gilt; as were previously the tables. Persons of +inferior rank had only wooden tables, but they were scrupulous in +covering them with tapestry, embroidered cloth, and fine table-cloths. +At one time the display of wealth on the dressers in ecclesiastical +establishments attained to such a point, that we are reminded, among +other censures levelled against that fashionable exhibition of vanity, +of the expostulations of Martial d’Auvergne, author of the historical +poem, “Les Vigiles de Charles VII.,” addressed to the bishops on the +subject. One item significant enough is mentioned in ancient documents; +it is the tribute of half-a-dozen small bouquets, which the inhabitants +of Chaillot were bound to tender annually to the Abbey of Saint-German +des Prés, to decorate the dressers of Messire the Abbot. + +[Illustration: Fig. 7.--Louise de Savoie, Duchess of Angoulême, mother +of Francis I., seated in a high-backed Chair of carved wood. (Miniature +from a MS. in the Imp. Bibl. of Paris.)] + +More plain, but also more useful, were the _abace_ and the _crédence_, +other kinds of sideboards which generally stood at a little distance +from the table; on one of these were placed the dishes and plates for +removes, on the other the goblets, glasses, and cups. It may be added +that the _crédence_, before it was introduced in the dining-halls, had +from very remote times been used in churches, where it was placed near +the altar to receive the sacred vessels during the sacrifice of mass. + +Posidonius, the Stoic philosopher, who wrote about a hundred years +before the Christian era, tells us that, at the feasts of the Gauls, a +slave used to bring to table an earthenware, or a silver, jug filled +with wine, from which every guest quaffed in turn, and allayed his +thirst. We thus see the practice of using goblets of silver, as well as +of earthenware, established among the Gauls at a period we consider +primitive. In truth, those vessels of silver were probably not the +productions of local industry, but the spoil which those martial tribes +had acquired in their wars against more civilised nations. With regard +to the vases of baked clay, the majority of those frequently exhumed +from burial-grounds prove how coarse they were, though they seem to have +been made with the help of the potter’s wheel, as among the Romans. +However that may be, we think it best to omit the consideration of the +question in this place, and to resume it in the chapter on the Ceramic +Art. But we must not forget to notice the custom which prevailed among +the earliest inhabitants of our country, of offering to those most +renowned for their valour beverages in a horn of the _urus_, which was +either gilt or ornamented with bands of gold or silver. The _urus_ was a +species of ox, now extinct, that existed in a wild state in the forests +with which Gaul was then partly covered. This horn goblet long continued +to be the emblem of the highest warlike dignity among the nations who +succeeded the Gauls. William of Poitiers relates, in his “Histoire de +Guillaume le Conquérant,” that towards the end of the eleventh century, +this Duke of Normandy still drank out of the horn of a bull, when he +held his full court at Fécamp. + +Our ancient kings, whose tables were made of the most precious metals, +failed not also to display rare magnificence in the plate that stood on +those superb tables. Chroniclers relate, for example, that Chilperic, +“on the pretext of doing honour to the people whom he governed, had a +dish made of solid gold, ornamented all over with precious stones, and +weighing fifty pounds;” and again, that Lothaire one day distributed +among his soldiers the fragments of an enormous silver basin, on which +was designed “the world, with the courses of the stars and the planets.” +In the absence of any authentic documents, it must be presumed that, in +contrast to this regal style, or rather far removed therefrom, the rest +of the nation scarcely used any other utensils but those of earthenware, +or wood; or else of iron or copper. + +Advancing in the course of centuries, and till the period when the +progress of the ceramic art enabled its productions at length to rank +among articles of luxury, we find gold and silver always preferred for +dinner services; but marble, rock crystal, and glass appeared in turn, +artistically worked in a thousand elegant or singular forms, as cups, +ewers, large tumblers, goblets, &c. (Fig 8). + +[Illustration: Fig. 8.--A State Banquet in the Fifteenth Century, with +the service of dishes brought in and handed round to the sound of +musical instruments. (Miniature from a MS. in the Imp. Lib. in Paris.)] + +To the goblet, especially, seem to belong all honorary privileges in the +etiquette of the table; for the goblet, a sort of large chalice on a +thin stem, was more particularly regarded as an object of distinction by +the guests, on account of the supposed antiquity of its origin. Thus we +see represented among the presents given to the Abbey of St. Denis by +the Emperor Charles the Bald, a goblet which is alleged to have belonged +to Solomon, “which goblet was so marvellously wrought, that never +(_oncques_) was there in all the kingdoms of the world a work so +delicate (_subtile_).” + +The goldsmiths, sculptors, and workers in copper had recourse to all +the devices of art and imagination to embellish goblets, ewers, and +salt-cellars. We find allusions, in the recitals of chroniclers, the +romances of chivalry, and especially in old invoices and inventories, to +ewers representing men, roses, and dolphins; to goblets covered with +flowers and animals; to salt-cellars in the form of dragons, &c. + +Several large pieces of gold plate, discontinued at a later period, +glittered then at grand banquets. Especially may be noted the portable +fountains raised in the middle of the table, and from which, during the +repast, flowed several sorts of beverages. Philip the Good, Duke of +Burgundy, had one in the form of a fortress with towers, from the summit +of which the figure of a woman poured out hippocras (spiced wine) from +her bosom, and that of a child, which sprinkled perfumed water. + +There were also plate-holders, well described by Du Cange as large +dishes made to contain vessels, cups, knives; comfit-boxes, which have +been replaced by our modern _bonbonnières_, and which formerly were +valuable caskets chased and damaskeened; and lastly, almsboxes, a +description of metal-urns, richly chased; these were placed before the +guests in order that, according to an ancient custom, each might place +therein some portions of meat, to be subsequently distributed to the +poor. + +If we glance at the other minor objects which completed the +table-service--knives, spoons, forks, bottle-stands, plate-mats, &c.--we +shall see that they no less indicate refinement and luxury. Forks, that +now seem to us so indispensable, are mentioned for the first time in +1379, in an inventory of Charles V. They had only two prongs, or rather +two long sharp points. As for knives, which, with spoons, had to supply +the place of forks for the guests to eat with, their antiquity is +undoubted. Posidonius, whom we have already quoted, says, when speaking +of the Celts:--“They eat in a very slovenly manner, and seize with their +hands, like lions with their claws, whole quarters of meat, which they +tear in pieces with their teeth. If they find a tough morsel, they cut +it with a small knife which they always carry in a sheath at their +side.” Of what were these knives made? Our author does not tell us; but +we may assume that they were of flint or of polished stone, like the +hatchets and arrow-heads so frequently found where these ancient people +dwelt, and which bear testimony to their industry. + +In the thirteenth century mention is made of knives, under the name of +_mensaculæ_ and _artavi_, which a little later were known by the word +_kenivet_, from which evidently is derived _canif_. To complete this +connection, we may remark that it is to be gathered, from a passage by +the same author, that the blades of some knives of that period were made +to slide into the handle by means of a spring, like our pocket-knives. + +Spoons, which necessarily were used by all nations as soon as dishes +more or less liquid were introduced, are described from the date of +almost our earliest history. Accordingly, we see, in the “Life of St. +Radegonde,” that that princess, who was constantly engaged in charitable +acts, used a spoon for feeding the blind and the helpless whom she took +under her care. + +At a very remote period we find in use _turquoises_, or nut-crackers. +Cruet-stands were, excepting in form, very similar to stands for two +bottles; for they are thus described:--“A kind of double-necked bottle +in divisions, in which to place two sorts of liquors without mixing +them.” The plate-mats were our _dessous de plat_, made of wicker, wood, +tin, or other metal. + +The manufacture of the greater number of these articles, if intended for +persons of rank, did not fail to engage the industry of artisans and the +talent of artists. Spoons, forks, nut-crackers, cruet-stands, +sauce-boats, &c., furnished inexhaustible subjects for embellishment and +chasing; knife-handles, made of ivory, cedar-wood, gold, or silver, were +also fashioned in the most varied forms. Until ceramic art introduced +plates more or less costly, they naturally enough followed the shape of +dishes, which in fact they are, on a small scale. But if the dishes were +of enormous size, the plates were always very small. + +If from the dining-room we pass to the kitchen, so as to form some idea +of culinary utensils, we must admit that, anterior to the thirteenth +century, the most circumstantial documents are all but silent on the +subject. Nevertheless, some of the ancient poets and early romancers +allude to those huge mechanical spits on which, at one and the same +time, large joints of different kinds, entire sheep, or long rows of +poultry and game, could be roasted. Moreover, we know that in palaces, +and in the mansions of the nobility, copper cooking-utensils possessed +real importance, because the care and maintenance of the copper-ware was +entrusted to a person who bore the title of _maignen_, a name still +given to the itinerant tinker. We also find that from the twelfth +century there existed the corporation of braziers (_dinans_), who +executed historical designs, in relievo, by the use of the hammer in +beating out and embossing copper,--designs that would bear comparison +with the most elaborate works produced by the goldsmith’s art. Some of +these artisans obtained such reputation that their names have descended +to us. Jean d’Outremeuse, Jean Delamare, Gautier de Coux, Lambert +Patras, were among those who conferred honour on the art of brazier’s +work (_dinanderie_). + +From the kitchen to the cellar the distance is usually but short. Our +forefathers, who were large consumers, and in their way had a delicate +appreciation, of the juice of the vine, understood how to store the +barrels which contained their wines in deep and spacious vaults. The +cooper’s art, when almost unknown in Italy and Spain, had existed for a +long time in France, as is attested by a passage taken from the +“Mémoires de l’Académie des Inscriptions:”--“We see by the text of the +Salic law that, when an estate changed hands, the new proprietor gave, +in the first place, a feast, and the guests were bound to eat, in the +presence of witnesses, a plate of boiled minced meat. It is remarked in +the ‘Glossaire de Du Cange’ that, among the Saxons and Flemings, the +word _boden_ means a round table; because the peasantry used the bottom +of a barrel as a table. Tacitus says that for the first meal of the day +the Germans had each their own table; that is to say, apparently a full +or empty barrel placed on end.” + +A statute of Charlemagne alludes to _bons barils_ (_bonos barridos_). +These barrels were made by skilled coopers (Fig. 9), who gave all their +care to form of staves, hooped either with wood or iron, the casks +destined to hold the produce of the vintage. According to an old custom, +still in vogue in the south of France, the inside of the wine-skin used +to be painted with tar, in order to give a flavour to the wine; to us +this would perhaps be nauseous, but at that time it was held in high +favour. In alluding to wine-skins, or sewn skins coated with pitch, we +may remark that they date from the earliest historic times. They are +still employed in countries where wine is carried on pack-animals, and +they were much used for journeys. If a traveller was going into a +country where he expected to find nothing to drink, he would fasten a +wine-skin on the crupper of his horse’s saddle, or, at least, would +sling a small leather wine-skin across his shoulder. Etymologists even +maintain that from the name of these light wine-skins, _outres légères_, +was derived the old French word _bouteille_; that, first having been +designated _bouchiaux_, and _boutiaux_, they finally were named +_bouties_ and _boutilles_. When, in the thirteenth century, the Bishop +of Amiens was setting out for the wars, the tanners of his episcopal +town were bound to supply him with two leathern _bouchiaux_--one holding +a hogshead, the other twenty-four _setiers_. + +[Illustration: Fig. 9.--A Cooper’s Workshop, drawn and engraved, in the +Sixteenth Century, by J. Amman.] + +Some archæologists maintain that, when there had been a very abundant +vintage, the wine was stored in brick-built cisterns, such as are still +made in Normandy for cider; or that they were cut out of the solid rock, +as we see them sometimes in the south of France; but it is more probable +that these ancient cisterns, which are perhaps of an earlier date than +the Middle Ages, were more especially intended for the process of +fermentation--that is to say, for making wine, and not for storing it; +which, indeed, under such unfavourable circumstances, would have been +next to impossible. + +What light did our ancestors use? History tells us that at first they +used lamps with stands, and hanging lamps, in imitation of the Romans; +which, however, must not lead us to the conclusion that, even in the +remotest times of our annals, the use of fat and wax for such purposes +was absolutely unknown. This fact is the less doubtful because, from the +time when trade corporations were formed, we find the makers of candles +and wax-chandlers + +[Illustration: Figs. 10 and 11.--Hanging Lamps of the Ninth Century, +from Miniatures in the Bible of Charles the Bald (Bibl. Imp. de Paris).] + +of Paris governed by certain statutes. As for the lamps, which, as in +ancient times, were on stands placed for this purpose in the houses, or +were suspended by light chains (Figs. 10 and 11), they were made in +accordance with the means of those for whom they were intended, and were +of baked earth, iron, brass, and gold or silver, all more or less +ornamented. Lamps and candlesticks are not unfrequently mentioned in the +inventories of the Middle Ages. In the fifteenth and sixteenth +centuries, German artisans made torch-holders, flambeaux, and +chandeliers in copper, wrought and embellished with representations of +all kinds of natural or fantastic objects; and in those days these works +of art were much in request. The use of lamps was all but general in the +early days of the monarchy; but as the somewhat dim and smoky flame +which they furnished did not give sufficient brilliancy to the +entertainments and solemn assemblies held in the evening, it became an +established custom to add to these lamps the light of resinous torches, +which serfs held in their hands. The tragic episode of the Ballet des +Ardents, as told by Froissart--which we shall hereafter relate in the +chapter on Playing Cards--shows that this custom, which we already see +alluded to in Grégoire de Tours, our earliest historian, was in fashion +until the reign of Charles VI. + +In subjugating the East, the Romans assumed and brought back with them +extreme notions of luxury and indolence. Previously their bedsteads were +of planks, covered with straw, moss, or dried leaves. They borrowed from +Asia those large carved bedsteads, gilt and plated with ivory, whereon +were piled cushions of wool and feathers, with counterpanes of the most +beautiful furs and of the richest materials. + +These customs, like many others, were handed down from the Romans to the +Gauls, and from the Gauls to the Franks. With the exception of +bed-linen, which came into use much later, we find, from the time of our +earliest kings, the various sleeping appliances nearly as they are +now--the pillow (_auriculare_), the foot-coverlet (_lorale_), the +counterpane (_culcita_), &c. No mention, however, is made of curtains +(or _courtines_). + +At a later period, while still retaining their primitive furniture, +bedsteads vary in their shapes and dimensions: those of the poor and of +the monks are narrow and homely; among kings and nobles they, in process +of time, became veritable examples of the joiner’s work, and only to be +reached by the aid of stools, or even steps (Fig. 12). The guest at a +château could not receive any greater honour than to occupy the same bed +as the lord of the manor; and the dogs by whom the seigneurs--all great +sportsmen--were constantly surrounded had the privilege of reposing +where their masters slept. Hence we recognise the object of these +gigantic bedsteads, which were sometimes twelve feet in width. If we are +to believe the chronicles, the pillows were perfumed with essences and +odoriferous waters; this we can understand to have been by no means a +useless precaution. We see, in the sixteenth century, Francis I. +testifying his great regard for Admiral Bonnivet by occasionally +admitting him to share his bed. + +Having completed our review of furniture, properly so called, we have +now to treat of that which may be termed highly artistic articles of +furniture--that is, those on which the workers in wood exercised their +highest talents--elevated seats of honour, chairs and arm-chairs, +benches and trestles; all of which were frequently ornamented with +figures in relief, very elaborately sculptured with a knife (_canivet_); +the _bahuts_, a kind of chest with either a flat or convex top, resting +on feet, and opening on the upper side, whereon were placed stuffed +leather cushions (Fig. 13); tubs, buffets, + +[Illustration: Fig. 12.--Bed furnished with Canopy and Curtains, from a +Miniature at the end of the Fourteenth Century. (MS. de la Bibl. Imp. de +Paris.)] + +presses, coffers both large and small, chess-boards, dice-tables, +comb-boxes, which have been superseded by our dressing-cases, &c. Many +specimens of these various kinds of furniture have descended to our +time; and they prove to what a degree of perfection and of elaborate +finish the art of cabinet-making and of inlaying had attained in the +Middle Ages. Elegance and originality of design in inlaid metals, +jasper, mother-of-pearl, ivory; carving, various kinds of veneering, and +of stained woods, are all found combined in this description of +furniture; some of which was ornamented with extreme delicacy of taste +(Plate I.), and still remains inimitable, if not in all the details of +execution, at least in rich and harmonious effect. + +At the time of the Renaissance, cabinets with numerous drawers and in +several compartments were introduced: these were known in Germany by the +name of artistic cabinets (_armoires artistiques_): the sole object of +the maker was to combine in one piece of furniture, under the pretext of +utility, all the fascination and gorgeous caprices of decorative art. + +To the Germans must be awarded the merit of having been the first to +distinguish themselves in the manufacture of these magnificent cabinets, +or presses; but they soon found rivals in both the French (Fig. 14) and +Italians (Fig. 15), who proved themselves equally skilful and ingenious +in the execution of this kind of manufacture. + +[Illustration: + + Fig. 13.--Chest shaped like a Bed, standing in front of a + Fireplace, and a Chair with cushions, in carved wood, from + Miniatures of the Fifteenth Century. (Bibl. Roy. de Bruxelles.) +] + +The art of working in iron, which can legitimately rank as one of the +most notable industries of the Middle Ages, soon came to lend its aid to +that of cabinet-making, both in embellishing and giving solidity to its +_chefs-d’œuvre_. The ornamentation of cabinets and coffers was +remarkable for the good taste and the high finish displayed in them. + +[Illustration: DISTAFF OF WOOD, Turned and Carved. Sixteenth Century. +Size of the Original.] + +In the hands of skilful artisans, of unknown artists dating from the +twelfth to the sixteenth century, iron seemed to assume great +ductility--indeed, we might say unprecedented submission. Observe, in +the gratings of courtyards, in the iron-work of gates, how those lines +are interlaced, how attractive are those designs, how those wrought +stems are delicately lengthened out, at once strong but light, and +finally how they expand with natural grace into leaves, fruits, and +symbolic figures. + +[Illustration: Fig. 14.--Small Cabinet for Jewels, in carved wood, after +the style of Jean Goujon, from the Château d’Ecouen, and which formerly +belonged to the Montmorency family. (In the Collection of M. Double.)] + +Moreover, the workers in metal did not confine themselves to the +application of iron on articles already prepared and manufactured by +other artisans; they had also to originate and execute, to ornament +caskets and reliquaries: but their special art was to manufacture bolts +(Fig. 16), locks, and keys; examples of this kind of ancient work will +always be admired. “Locks,” says M. Jules Labarte, “were at that time +carried to such a degree of perfection, that they were considered as +veritable objects of art; they were carried from place to place, as +would have been done with any other valuable article of furniture. +Nothing could be more artistic than the figures in high relief, the +armorial bearings, the letterings, the ornaments and the engravings +which embellished that portion of the key which the fingers grasp (Fig. +17), and for which we have substituted a common ring.” + +[Illustration: Fig. 15.--Cabinet in Damaskeened Iron, inlaid with gold +and silver. An Italian work of the Sixteenth Century.] + +Glass and glazing claim particular notice. It may be said that glass was +known in the remotest ages, for Phœnicia and ancient Egypt were, in the +time of Moses, renowned for their innumerable productions in vitrified +sand. In Rome they cast, cut, and engraved glass--they even worked it +with the hammer, if we are to believe Suetonius, who relates that a +certain artist had discovered the secret of making glass malleable. This +industrial art, which extended and improved under the emperors, found +its way to Byzantium, where it flourished during several centuries; +until Venice, claiming as she then did a prominent position in the +history of the arts, imported the process of the Byzantine method of +making glass, and in her turn excelled in this manufacture. Although +articles in glass and crystal, painted, enamelled, and engraved, are +frequently alluded to in historical and poetical narratives, and also in +the inventories of the Middle Ages, we know they were all the result of +Greek or Venetian manufacture. In this art France especially seems to +have been somewhat late in taking her first artistic step; such + +[Illustration: Fig. 16.--Bolt of the Sixteenth Century, with Initial of +Henry II. + +(In the Castle of Chenonceaux.)] + +[Illustration: Fig. 17.--Key of the Thirteenth Century, with two Figures +of Chimeras, back to back. + +(Soltykoff Collection.)] + +objects as were manufactured for the use of the rich never passed beyond +the limits of the rudest art. We should, however, observe that France +must have long been acquainted with the art of glazing, for in the +middle of the seventh century we find St. Benoît--called Biscop, who +built so many churches and convents in England--coming to France in +search of workmen for the purpose of glazing the church and the +cloisters of his abbey at Canterbury. And it is also mentioned in the +chronicles of the Venerable Bede, that the French taught their art to +the English glaziers. + +Towards the fourteenth century the windows of even the commonest houses +were generally glazed; at that date glass manufactories were found in +operation everywhere; and although they may not have rivalled in a +remarkable degree their predecessors of the Merovingian period, they +nevertheless made in large quantities all kinds of articles ordinarily +in use, as we can judge by the terms of a charter, dated 1338, by which +one Guionnet, in order to have the privilege of establishing a glass +factory in the forest of Chambarant, was bound to furnish as an annual +due to his seigneur, Humbert, Dauphin of Viennois, one hundred dozen +glasses in the shape of a bell, twelve dozen small shallow glasses, +twenty dozen goblets, twelve dozen amphoræ, twenty dozen lamps, six +dozen candlesticks, one dozen large cups, one large stand (or _nef_), +six dozen dishes without borders, twelve dozen jars, &c. + +We have alluded to Venice and the celebrity she attained in the art of +working glass. It was especially for the manufacture of mirrors and +looking-glasses that this large and industrious city made herself +renowned over all the world. If we are to believe Pliny, the Romans +purchased their glass mirrors at Sidon, in Phœnicia, where, in the +remotest ages, they had been invented. At this time were these mirrors +silvered? We must believe that they were, for a plate of glass, without +quicksilvering, could never be anything than glass more or less +transparent, and would permit of the light passing through, without +reflecting objects. But Pliny asserts nothing of the kind; and, +moreover, as the practice of using mirrors of polished metal, which was +taken from the Romans, was for a long time maintained among modern +nations, we may conclude either that the invention of glass mirrors was +not a great success, or that the secret of making them was lost. In the +thirteenth century an English monk wrote a treatise on optics, in which +allusion is made to mirrors lined with lead. Nevertheless, mirrors of +silver continued in use among the rich, and of iron and polished steel +by the poorer classes, till the time when glass became less expensive, +and Venetian looking-glasses were introduced, or cleverly imitated, in +all European countries; metal mirrors, which easily became dim, and did +not give the natural colour to reflected objects, were then +discontinued. At the same time, the elegant shape of the ancient +hand-mirrors was retained, the workers in gold and silver still +continuing to encircle them with most graceful designs; the only +difference being that the surface of polished steel or silver was +replaced by a thick and bright piece of Venetian glass, sometimes +ornamented with reflected designs produced in the coating of quicksilver +(Fig. 18). + +[Illustration: Fig. 18.--Hand or Pocket Mirror in gold or chased silver, +from an Engraving by Etienne Delaune, a celebrated French goldsmith and +engraver (Sixteenth Century).] + +From all these details, the reader will have the gratification of +ascertaining at a glance the general effect of furniture in use for +domestic purposes; and thus, after the analysis, he will have its +opposite. Fig. 19, a reproduction, taken from the “Dictionnaire du +Mobilier Français,” by M. Viollet-le-Duc, + +[Illustration: Fig. 19.--Dwelling room of a Seigneur of the Fourteenth +Century.] + +represents a dwelling-room of a rich nobleman in the fourteenth century. +What we now designate as a bedroom, and which was then called simply +_cambre_ or _chambre_, contained, besides the bed--which was very +large--a variety of other furniture in use for the ordinary requirements +of daily life; for the time that was not given to business, to out-door +amusements, to state receptions, and to meals, was passed, both by +nobles and citizens, in this room. In the fourteenth century +requirements for comfort had developed themselves in a remarkable degree +in France. To be convinced of this, we have only to glance at the +inventories, to read the romances and narratives of the day, and to +study with some little care the mansions and houses erected in the reign +of Charles V. A huge chimney admitted many persons to the fireside. Near +the hearth was placed the _chaire_ (seat of honour) of the master or of +the mistress. The bed, which usually stood in a corner, surrounded by +thick curtains, was effectually screened, and formed what was then +called a _clotet_; that is, a sort of small room enclosed by tapestry. +Near the windows were _bancals_, or benches with backs covered with +drapery, on which persons could sit and talk, read, or work, while +enjoying the view. A dresser was ranged along one side of the room, and +on its shelves were placed pieces of valuable plate, dishes for comfits, +and flower-vases. Small stools, arm-chairs, and, especially, numerous +cushions were placed here and there in the room. Flemish carpets, and +those which were called _sarrasinois_, covered the floor; this was +composed of enamelled tiles; or, in the northern provinces, of thick +squares of polished oak. These large, lofty, wainscoted rooms always +communicated with private staircases, through dressing-rooms and +wardrobes in which were located the domestics in immediate attendance. + +Let us now pass from domestic furniture to that used for ecclesiastical +purposes. We now leave the palaces of kings, the mansions of nobles, and +the dwellings of the rich, and enter the buildings consecrated to +worship. + +We know that in the early ages of Christianity religious ceremonies were +characterised by the greatest simplicity, and that the buildings in +which the faithful were wont to assemble were for the most part devoid +of any kind of decoration. By degrees, however, rich display entered +into churches, and pomp accompanied the exercise of religious worship, +especially at the period when Constantine the Great put an end to the +era of persecutions and proclaimed himself the protector of the new +faith. It is related that among the rich presents which this emperor +distributed throughout the Christian temples in Rome, were a golden +cross weighing two hundred pounds, patens of the same metal, lamps +representing animals, &c. At a later period, in the seventh century, St. +Eloi, who was a celebrated goldsmith before he became Bishop of Noyon, +gave his whole mind and talents to the manufacture of church ornaments. +He enlisted from among the monks of the various monasteries that were +subject to his episcopal authority, all those whom he fancied had an +aptitude for these works of art; he instructed and directed them +himself, and made them excellent artists; he transformed entire +monasteries into gold and silver-smiths’ workshops; and numerous +remarkable works increased the splendour of the Merovingian basilicas; +such, for example, were the shrine of St. Martin of Tours, and the tomb +of St. Denis, the marble roof of which was profusely ornamented with +gold and precious stones. “The bounty of Charlemagne,” says M. Charles +Louandre, “added new riches to the immense wealth already accumulated in +the churches. Mosaics, sculpture, the rarest kinds of marble, were +lavished on those basilicas for which the emperor evinced partiality; +but all these treasures were dispersed by the Norman invasions. From the +ninth to the eleventh centuries it would seem that, with the exception +of a few shrines and crosses, objects employed for ecclesiastical +purposes were not enriched by the addition of anything note-worthy; at +any rate, the works of that period and those of anterior date have not +been handed down to us, if we except some rare fragments. The reason is, +that, independently of the constant causes of destruction, the furniture +of churches was renewed towards the end of the eleventh century, when +the edifices themselves were rebuilt; and it is only from the date of +this mystical Renaissance that we begin to find in the texts precise +indications, and in museums or temples perfectly preserved monuments.” + +Ecclesiastical appendages include altars, altar-screens, the pulpit, +monstrances, chalices, incense-burners, candlesticks or lamps, shrines, +reliquaries, basins for containing holy water, and some other objects of +lesser relative importance, as crosses, bells, and banner-poles. To +these we may add votive offerings, which were generally either of gold +or silver. + +In the infancy of religious worship the altar took two distinct shapes; +sometimes the form of a table, with a top of stone, wood, or metal +supported by legs or by columns; sometimes it resembled an ancient +tomb, or a long coffer, narrowed at the base, and surmounted by a +similar covering, which invariably formed the upper portion, or the +table, of the altar. + +In addition to altars, more or less monumental, which were fixtures in +the churches, and which, from the earliest period, were placed under +_ciboria_ (a kind of dais or canopy supported by columns), small +portable altars were employed, in order to meet the requirements of the +service. They were intended to accompany the bishops, or the ordinary +clergy, who had to preach the faith in countries where no churches +existed. These altars, which were alluded to when the Christian religion +had made but slight progress, were no longer seen after it became +general; but we again find them at the time of the Crusades, when pious +pilgrims, who journeyed from place to place preaching the Gospel, were +obliged to say mass in fields and public places, where the faithful +assembled to hear them, and to “take up the cross.” M. Jules Labarte +gives the following summary description of a portable altar of the +twelfth century:--“It consists of a slab of lumachella marble, set in a +box of gilt copper, 36 centimètres in height by 27 in width, and 3 in +thickness. The top of the box is cut in such a manner as to leave +uncovered the stone on which the chalice was placed during the +celebration of mass.” + +Throughout all the periods of the Middle Ages, the ardent faith of which +seemed to consider sufficient honour could never be rendered to the real +presence of God in the holy sacrifice, the ornamentation of the altar +was everywhere looked upon as an object of the most extraordinary pomp +and of the most elevated artistic taste. Among the marvels of this kind +we must name, as occupying a leading place, the gold altar of St. +Ambrose, in Milan, which dates from 835, and those of the cathedrals of +Basle and Pistoia, which belong to the eleventh and twelfth centuries. +These gold altars, wrought with the hammer, were chased and sometimes +enamelled, and in addition to remarkably well executed designs in carved +work, taken from religious books, they usually also had on them +portraits of the donors. + +The altars and tabernacles were executed with an equal amount of art and +costliness; and from the earliest period of the fabrication or the +importation of carpets, embroideries, and gold and silver fabrics, we +see them employed for the purpose of covering, adorning, and of +rendering more striking and imposing the altar and its accessories, to +which the name of chancel was given (Fig. 20). + +The chalice and the altar-vessels, which date from the very cradle of +Christian worship, since without these sacred vases the fundamental +services of the religion of Jesus Christ could not have been performed, +perhaps owe it to this exceptional fact that they are not spoken of +before the eleventh century (Fig. 21). In truth, nowhere do we find an +indication of their ordinary shape, nor of the mode of their manufacture +in early times; but it is reasonable to suppose that the chalice +originally was identical, as it was in times approaching nearer to our +own, with the goblet of the ancients; or perhaps, to define it more +particularly, was the well-known _hanap_ (drinking-cup), the earliest +type of which tradition endeavours to trace to so early a date. At a +later period, and until the time when the artists of the Renaissance +period were called upon to remodel sacred ornaments, and they +transformed them into marvels of art on which were lavished all the +resources of casting, chasing, and glyptic, we observe that chalices +continued to be manufactured with the greatest care, adorned with +exquisite elegance, and enriched with all the brilliancy that art can +give them. + +[Illustration: Fig. 20.--An Altar-cloth embroidered in silver on a black +ground, representing the procession of a friar of the Abbey of St. +Victor. Fifteenth Century (copied from the original belonging to N. +Achille Jubinal).] + +All that can be said regarding the chalice applies equally to the +monstrances and the pyxes employed to contain and to exhibit the +consecrated wafers, as also to the censers, which originated in the +Jewish form of worship, and which, in accordance with the successive +epochs of Christianity, affected different mystical and symbolic shapes +(Fig. 22). Of these M. Didron gives the following description:--“They +were first formed of two open-work spheroids, in cast and chased copper, +ornamented with figures of animals and inscriptions.” Originally they +were suspended by three chains, which, according to tradition, signified +“the union of the body, the soul, and the divinity in Christ.” At +another period the censers represented, in miniature, churches and +chapels with pointed arches. Again, at the Renaissance, they took the +form of that now in use. + +[Illustration: Fig. 21.--An Altar-Tray and Chalice, in enamelled gold, +supposed to be of the Fourth or Fifth Century, found at Gourdon, near +Chalon-sur-Saône, in 1846. (Cabinet des Antiques, Bibl. Imp. de Paris.)] + +From the first, the lighting of churches was, to a certain extent, +carried out on much the same principle as that employed in princely +abodes and important mansions. Fixed or movable lamps were used; also +wax candles in chandeliers, for the ornamentation of which pious donors +and pious artisans, the former paying the latter, vied with each other +in skill and liberality. We may here observe that even in the early days +of Christianity, numerous candlesticks were generally employed both by +day and by night. The candlesticks on the altar represented the apostles +surrounding Christ; thus their number ought to be twelve. Placed around +the dead, they signified that the Christian finds light beyond the +grave. To the faithful they typified the day which shines brightly in +celestial Jerusalem. + +The worship of relics, established in the early days of the Church, +subsequently led to the introduction of shrines and reliquaries, a kind +of portable tomb which the disciples of the Gospel devoted to the +memory, and in honour, of martyrs and confessors of the faith. Thus from +the first, in collecting these holy relics, to which the faithful +attached every kind of miraculous powers, they dedicated what, according +to ecclesiastical writers, had been the temple of the living God, a +gorgeous sanctuary, worthy of so many virtues and miracles. Hence the +introduction of shrines into churches, and reliquaries into private +houses. + +[Illustration: Fig. 22.--Censer of the Eleventh Century, recalling the +shape of the Temple of Jerusalem, in copper repoussé. (Formerly in Metz +Cathedral, now at Trèves.)] + +Owing to the care bestowed on some of these by St. Eloi, from the +seventh century, they had become real marvels of intrinsic richness and +artistic finish. Nevertheless we are unacquainted with the shape which, +in accordance with the Christian liturgy, was originally given to the +shrines and reliquaries, although the Latin word _capsa_, from which the +word _châsse_ (shrine) is derived, conveys the idea of a kind of box or +coffer. Indeed this shape was retained for a long time by the whole of +Christendom; but the majority of shrines in gold and silver work which +do not date further back than the eleventh or twelfth century represent +tombs, chapels, and even cathedrals. This symbolic shape continued in +use to the time of the Renaissance, but with successive modifications +suggested by the architectural style of each period. We thus see there +was no precious material or delicate workmanship which was not employed +to contribute in making the shrines and reliquaries more magnificent. +Gold, silver, rare marbles, precious stones, were lavished on their +construction; the chaser and enameller embellished with figures and +emblems, with incidents taken from Holy Writ and from the lives of +saints, the shrines in which are deposited their remains. + +[Illustration: Figs. 23 and 24.--Stall and Reading-desk in carved wood, +from the Church of Aosta (Fifteenth Century).] + +We know that in the early days of Christianity the rite of baptism was +performed by immersion in rivers or in fountains, but at a period nearer +to our own time, basins or vessels of various dimensions were placed in +a small detached edifice, by the side of the church; into these the +neophytes were plunged when receiving the first sacrament. These +baptistries disappeared as soon as the practice of sprinkling holy water +on the forehead of the catechumen was definitely substituted for that of +immersion. Baptismal fonts then became what they now are, that is, a +kind of small erection above the level of the floor--piscinas, shells +(_vasques_), or basins, recalling to our minds, though on a reduced +scale, the primitive baptistries. They were placed inside the church, +either near the entrance, or in one of the side-chapels. At various +periods they were made of stone, marble, or bronze; and were ornamented +with subjects relating to the rite of baptism. It was the same with the +holy-water basins, which, according to ancient custom, were placed at +the entrance to the church, and generally assumed the form of a shell, +or of a large amphora, when not made simply of a hollowed stone to +recall the ancient baptismal vessels. + +[Illustration: Fig. 25.--Bas-relief in carved wood, representing a +Domestic Scene, from the Stalls called “Miséricordes,” in the Choir of +the Cathedral of Rouen (Fifteenth Century).] + +We must not overlook the altar and procession-crosses, which, as being +typical of the divine emblem of the Christian faith, could not fail to +become real objects of art even from the time of the catacombs. It would +be needless repetition to enumerate here the different materials used in +the manufacture of crosses, the various shapes that were given to them, +according to the purpose for which they were intended, and the subjects +and figures they represented. The sculptor, the modeller, the chaser, +the enameller, and even the painter, were associated with the goldsmith +in producing most exquisite works of this kind. The art of the +wood-carver and that of the worker in iron, which we have seen executing +such marvels for household furniture, could not fail to find scope in +the manufacture of objects used for religious purposes. It was +especially in making pulpits, ornamental screens, wainscoting, and +stalls, that the art of the wood-carver became renowned; he was no +longer simply an artisan, but became an artist of the highest order. In +the ornamentation of railings of choirs and tombs, the iron-work on +doors, of bolts, locks, and keys, the remarkable talent of the +locksmiths of the Middle Ages was displayed. Let us here remark, that in +the early days of worship the pulpit was simply a kind of stool on which +the preacher stood in order that his congregation might see him. By +degrees the pulpit was raised on supports or columns; and later again, +but only towards the end of the fifteenth century, we find it fixed at a +great height against one of the central pillars of the church, and +usually magnificently carved, as was also the dais, and the +sounding-board by which it was surmounted. + +To form an idea of the degree of perfection attained in wood-carving +from the thirteenth to the fourteenth century, we ought to inspect the +stalls of St. Justine, at Padua, those of the cathedrals of Milan and +Ulm, the church of Aosta (Figs. 23 and 24), &c., and the stalls of the +churches of Rodez, Albi, Amiens, Toulouse, and Rouen (Fig. 25). And if +we would examine a very ancient example of the art attained by workers +in iron, we have but to notice the hinges, dating from the thirteenth +century, which stretch, in arabesque designs, over the panels of the +western door of Notre-Dame, Paris. + +[Illustration: Fig. 26.--Design on the Stalls in the Church of St. +Benoît-sur-Loire.] + + + + +TAPESTRY. + + Scriptural Origin of Tapestry.--Needlework Embroidery in Ancient + Greek and Roman Times.--Altalic Carpets.--Manufacture of Carpets in + Cloisters.--Manufactory at Poitiers in the Twelfth Century.--Bayeux + Tapestry, named “De la Reine Mathilde.”--Arras Carpets.--Inventory + of the Tapestries of Charles V.; enormous Value of these + Embroidered Hangings.--Manufactory at Fontainebleau, under Francis + I.--The Manufacture of the Hôpital de la Trinité, at Paris.--The + Tapestry Workers, Dubourg and Laurent, in the reign of Henry + IV.--Factories of Savonnerie and Gobelins. + + +If there is an art which bears brilliant testimony to the industry and +ingenuity of mankind in the remotest ages, undoubtedly it is that of +weaving, or of embroidering tapestry; for, however far back we trace the +annals of nations, we find this art flourishing and producing marvels of +workmanship. + +Let us first open the Bible, the oldest of all historical documents; we +read therein of woven fabrics, not only worked on the loom, but also +made by hand, that is, richly embroidered in needlework on linen or +canvas. These magnificent fabrics, which were laboriously and minutely +executed, represented all kinds of designs in relief and in colours; +they were used as decorations for the holy temple, and as ornamental +garments for the priests who performed the religious ceremonies. +Indubitable proof of this is the description, in the book of Exodus, of +the curtains surrounding the tabernacle. Some of these embroideries, in +the manufacture of which gold and silver thread, combined with dyed +wools and silk, was used, were named _opus plumarii_ (work in imitation +of bird’s plumage); others--such, for example, as the veil of the Holy +of Holies, which represented cherubim in the act of adoration--were +called _opus artificis_ (work of the artisan), because they were made by +the weaver on the loom; and, with the aid of numerous shuttles, the woof +of wools and silks of various hues was introduced. + +In the traditions of the magnificent city of Babylon we also find +figured tapestry delineating the mysteries of religion, and handing +down to us the recollection of historical incidents. “The palace of the +kings of Babylon,” says Philostratus, in the “Life of Apollonius of +Tyana,” “was ornamented with tapestries in gold and silver tissues, +which recorded the Grecian fables of Andromeda, of Orpheus, &c.” The +Greek poet Apollonius of Rhodes, who wrote a century before our era, +relates in his poem of “The Argonauts” that the women of Babylon +excelled in the execution of these gorgeous textures. The famous +tapestries which were sold in the time of Metellus Scipio for 800,000 +sesterces (about 165,000 francs), and a hundred years later were +purchased for the exorbitant sum of two million sesterces (about 412,000 +francs) by Nero, to place on his festive couches, were of Babylonian +workmanship. + +Ancient Egypt, which would seem to have been the early cradle of an +advanced civilisation, was also renowned for this marvellous art, the +invention of which the Greeks attributed to Minerva, and to which +allusion is frequently made in their mythology. Penelope’s web, whereon +were delineated the exploits of Ulysses, has remained the most +celebrated among them all. It was on a similar web that Philomela, in +her prison, illustrated in embroidery the narrative of her misfortunes, +after Tereus had cut out her tongue, to prevent her telling her sister +Progne the outrage she had suffered at his hands. + +Throughout the poems of Homer we find embroidery of this kind either +mentioned, or described as made with the needle or loom, and intended +for decorative drapery, or as garments for men and women. During the +siege of Troy, Helen embroidered, upon a fine tissue, the sanguinary +combats of the heroes who were destroying each other for her sake. The +cloak of Ulysses represents a dog pulling down a fawn, &c. + +The custom of embroidering such scenes as combats and hunting-incidents +seems to have lasted during a long time. According to Herodotus, certain +races bordering on the Caspian Sea were accustomed to have figures of +animals, flowers, and landscapes delineated on their garments. This +custom is mentioned among the pagans by Philostratus, and among +Christians by Clement of Alexandria. Pliny, the naturalist, who lived in +the first century of our era, also alludes to it on several occasions in +his works. Three hundred years later, Amasius, Bishop of Amasia, +deplores the folly which “set a great value on this art of weaving, a +vain and useless art, which by the combination of the warp and woof +imitates painting.” “When persons thus dressed appear in the street,” +adds the pious bishop, “the passers-by look at them as walking pictures, +and the children point at them with their finger. We see lions, +panthers, bears, rocks, woods, hunters; the religiously inclined have +Christ, his disciples, and his miracles figured on their garments. Here +we see the wedding of Cana, and the pitchers of water turned into wine; +there we have the paralytic carrying his bed, or the sinner at the feet +of Jesus, or Lazarus being raised from the dead.” + +We have only to look into the works of the writers of the time of +Augustus to learn that the halls in the houses of the wealthy were +always hung with tapestry; and that the tables, or rather the beds, upon +which the guests were seated, were covered with carpets. + +The Attalian carpets, which were thus named because they came from the +inheritance bequeathed to the Roman people by Attalus, King of Pergamos, +were indescribably magnificent. Cicero, who was a connoisseur in such +matters, speaks of them with enthusiasm in his works. + +Under Theodosius I., that is to say, at the time of the decline of the +great empire which was soon to break up and be separated, and at last to +merge into new nationalities, a contemporaneous historian shows us “the +youth of Rome engaged in making tapestry-work.” + +In the early period of French history, this ingenious and delicate work +would seem to have been mainly carried on by women, and especially by +those of the highest rank. At any rate it is a fact that rich tapestries +were in common use, both in private houses and for ecclesiastical +purposes, as early as the sixth century; for Gregory of Tours does not +fail to tell us of the embroidered hangings, and also of the tapestry, +in most of the ceremonies which he describes. When King Clovis renounced +paganism and asked to be baptised, “this intelligence was the greatest +joy to the bishop; he orders the sacred fonts to be prepared; the +streets overhung with painted cloths; the churches ornamented with +hangings.” When the abbey-church of St. Denis had to be consecrated, +“its walls are covered with tapestry embroidered in gold and ornamented +with pearls.” These tapestries were for a long time preserved in the +abbey-treasury. Subsequently, this same treasury received, as a present +from Queen Adelaide, the wife of Hugh Capet, “a chasuble, a valance, as +also some hangings, worked by her own hand;” and Doublet, the historian +of this ancient abbey, states that Queen Bertha (the same whom the old +French proverb makes an indefatigable worker with her needle) +embroidered on canvas a series of historical subjects, depicting the +glorious deeds of the family. + +Nevertheless, there is no written authority for asserting that in France +the manufacture of tapestries and hangings worked on the loom can be +traced beyond the ninth century; but at this period, and a little later, +we find some documents which are as precise as they are curious--proving +that this industry, the principal object of which, at that period, was +the ornamentation of churches, had to a certain extent obtained a +footing, and was flourishing in religious establishments. The ancient +chronicles of Auxerre relate that St. Anthelm, the bishop of that city, +who died in 828, caused to be made, under his own directions, numerous +rich carpets for the choir of his church. + +One hundred years later we find a regular manufactory established at the +monastery of St. Florent, at Saumur. “In the time of the abbot Robert +III.,” says the historian of this monastery, “the vestry (_fabrique_) of +the cloister was further enriched by magnificent paintings and pieces of +sculpture, accompanied by legends in verse. The above-mentioned abbot, +who was passionately devoted to similar works, sought for and purchased +a considerable quantity of magnificent ornaments, such as large +_dorserets_[1] in wool, curtains, canopies, hangings, bench-covers, and +other ornaments, embroidered with various devices. Among other objects, +he caused to be made two pieces of tapestry of large size and of +admirable quality, representing elephants; and these two pieces were +joined together with a rare kind of silk, by hired workers in tapestry. +He also ordered two _dorserets_ in wool to be manufactured. It happened +that, during the time one of these was being completed, the +above-mentioned abbot went to France. The ecclesiastic left in charge +took advantage of his absence to forbid the artisans to work the woof +according to the customary method. ‘Well,’ said they, ‘in the absence of +our good abbot we will not discontinue our employment; but as you thwart +us we shall make quite a different kind of fabric.’ And this now admits +of proof. They made several square carpets, representing silver lions +upon a field of _gules_ (red), with a white border covered with scarlet +animals and birds. This unique piece of workmanship was looked upon as a +perfect specimen of this kind of fabric, until the time of the abbot +William, when it was considered the most remarkable piece of tapestry +belonging to the monastery. In fact, on the occasions of great +solemnities the abbot had the elephant tapestry displayed, and one of +the priors showed that on which were the lions.” + +From the ninth or tenth century there was also a manufactory at +Poitiers; and its fabrics, on which figured kings, emperors, and saints, +were of European celebrity, as appears to be attested, among other +documents, by a remarkable correspondence which took place, in 1025, +between an Italian bishop, named Léon, and William IV., Count of Poitou. +To understand rightly this correspondence, it must be borne in mind that +at the time Poitou was as famous for its mules as for tapestry. In one +of his letters, the bishop begs the count to send him a mule and a piece +of tapestry, both equally marvellous (_mirabiles_), and for which he has +been asking six years. He promises to pay whatever they may cost. The +count, who must have had a facetious disposition, replied, “I cannot, at +present, send you what you ask, because for a mule to merit the epithet +of marvellous, he would require to have horns, and three tails, or five +legs--and this I should not be able to find in our country. I shall +therefore content myself with sending you one of the best I can procure. +As to the tapestry, I have forgotten the dimensions you desire. Let me +have these particulars again, and it will then soon be sent to you.” + +But this costly industry was not limited to the French provinces. In the +“Chronique des Ducs de Normandie,” written by Dudon, in the eleventh +century, it is stated that the English were clever workers in this art; +and when designating some magnificent embroidery, or rich tapestry, it +was described as of English work (_opus Anglicanum_). Moreover, the same +chronicle relates that the wife of Richard I.,[2] the Duchess Gonnor, +assisted by her embroiderers, made hangings of linen and of silk, +embellished with images and figures representing the Virgin Mary and the +Saints, to decorate the church of Notre Dame, Rouen. + +The East, also, which from the earliest times had been renowned for the +art of producing beautiful embroidered fabrics, became still more famous +during the Middle Ages for those of wool and silk, embroidered with +silver and gold. It was from the East were brought the rich stuffs +covered all over with emblazonments, and with figures of animals, and +probably also embroidered in open-work: these fabrics were called +_étoffes sculptées_, or _pleines d’yeux_. + +The librarian Anastasius, in his book the “Lives of the Popes,” which +undoubtedly was written before the eleventh century, gives, when +describing church decorations, some curious and circumstantial details +regarding the subject we are now discussing. According to him, as early +as the time of Charlemagne (eighth century), Pope Leo III. “had a veil +made of purple worked in gold, on which was the history of the Nativity +and of Simon, having in the centre the Annunciation of the Virgin.” This +was to ornament the principal altar of the Holy Mother of God, at Rome. +He also ordered for the altar of the church of St. Laurence, “a veil of +silk worked in gold, having on it the histories of the Passion of our +Saviour and of the Resurrection.” He placed on the altar of St. Peter’s +“a veil of purple of a remarkable size, worked in gold and ornamented +with precious stones; on one side was seen our Saviour giving St. Peter +the power to bind and to loose, on the other the Passion of St. Peter +and St. Paul.” In the same book, several other pieces of tapestry are +described in such terms that it seems difficult to realise the richness +and the beauty of finish of these artistically-worked fabrics, which for +the most part came from Asia or Egypt. It was only in the twelfth +century, after the return from the first crusades had enabled Western +nations to admire and to appropriate to themselves luxuries quite new to +them, that the custom of using tapestry, while becoming far more general +in churches, found its way also into private dwellings. If, in the +cloisters, the monks, in order to find employment, lavished their utmost +care on the weaving of wool and of silk, there was the more reason why +this occupation should prove pleasing to the noble _châtelaines_ who +were confined to their feudal castles. It was then, when surrounded by +their tire-women, as in earlier times were the Roman matrons by their +slaves, that these fair dames, while listening to the reading of tales +of chivalry which deeply interested them, or inspired by a profound +faith, gave themselves to the task of reproducing with the needle either +the pious legends of the saints or the glorious exploits of warriors. +The bare walls, when thus draped with touching incidents or warlike +memorials, assumed a peculiar eloquence which doubtless inspired the +mind with grand visions, and aroused noble sentiments in the heart. + +Among the finest specimens of this kind is one which, owing to its +really exquisite character, has escaped what would have seemed +inevitable destruction. We allude to the famous Bayeux tapestry called +“_de la Reine Mathilde_” (of the wife of William the Conqueror). This +work represents the conquest of England by the Normans. If we are to +accept the ancient traditions to which it owes its name, it must date +from the last half of the eleventh century. + +In these days we may be permitted to doubt, in consequence of the many +discussions that have taken place among the learned, if this embroidery +is as ancient as was at one time supposed. And although we first find it +alluded to in an inventory (prepared in 1476) of the treasury of Bayeux +Cathedral, we may venture, with a certain degree of confidence, to +believe that it was made in the twelfth century by Englishwomen, who at +that time were particularly famous for their needlework; an opinion +confirmed by more than one author contemporaneous with William and +Matilda. + +This tapestry, which is 19 inches in height, by nearly 212 feet in +length, is a piece of brown linen, on which are embroidered with the +needle, in wool of different colours (and these seem to have lost none +of their early freshness), a series of seventy-two groups or subjects, +with legends in Latin interspersed with Saxon, embracing the whole +history of the Conquest, as related by the chroniclers of the period +(Figs. 27 and 28). + +At the first glance, this embroidery may seem to be but a rudely +executed grouping of figures and animals; nevertheless there is +character throughout, and the original outline, discoverable beneath the +intersections of the wool, is not wanting in a certain accuracy that +brings to our mind the vigorous simplicity of the Byzantine style. The +decoration of the double border, between which is delineated a drama +wherein 530 figures are introduced, is the same as those of the +paintings in manuscripts of the Middle Ages. And, in short, failing any +exact proof, if we are determined not to deprive this immense work of +its traditional antiquity, it might, with much probability, be +attributed to a female embroiderer of Queen Matilda, named Leviet, whose +skill has rescued her name from oblivion. It may also be well to observe +that at the time it is first alluded to in history, this tapestry is +found belonging to the very church in which Matilda desired to be +buried. + +We have already seen (in the chapter on Furniture) that towards the +twelfth and thirteenth centuries, under the influence of Eastern habits +and + +[Illustration: Fig. 27.--A piece of the Bayeux Tapestry, representing +the construction of Boats for William (with Border).] + +customs, the practice of sitting on carpets was established at the court +of our kings. From this date rich tapestries were frequently used for +making tents for campaigning or for hunting. They were displayed on +festive occasions; as, for instance, when princes were entering a town, +the object being to hide the bare walls. The dining-halls were hung with +magnificent tapestries, giving additional splendour to the interludes +(_entremets_, or _intermèdes_) performed during the repast. The +champions in the lists saw glittering around them, suspended from the +galleries, fabrics on which heroic deeds were embroidered. Lastly, the +caparison of the charger (the war-horse’s garb of honour) displayed its +brilliant emblazonings to the eyes of admiring crowds. + +[Illustration: Fig. 28.--A portion of the Bayeux Tapestry, representing +two mounted men of Duke William’s army armed from head to foot, and in +the act of fighting.] + +It was moreover the custom that the tapestries made for noblemen should +bear their respective armorial devices, the object being, no doubt, that +it might be known to whom they belonged when used on the occasion of the +entry of royal and other distinguished personages in solemn processions; +and also at jousts and tournaments. + +In the fourteenth century the manufactories of Flanders, which were of +considerable reputation even about the twelfth century, made great +advance, and the success of the Arras tapestries became so general that +the most handsome hangings were called Arras tapestry, although the +greater part of them did not come from that city. It may here be noticed +that the term _Arrazi_ is, in Italy, still synonymous with valuable +tapestry (Fig. 29). + +These fabrics were generally worked in wool, and sometimes in flax and +linen: but at the same period Florence and Venice, which had imported +this industry from the East, wove tapestries wherein gold and silk were +blended. + +[Illustration: Fig. 20.--Marriage of Louis XII. and Anne of Brittany. +Tapestry in wool and silk, with a mixture of gold and silver thread. +Made in Flanders the end of the Fifteenth Century. (Lent by M. Achille +Jubinal.)] + +An inventory, dated 21st January, 1379, contained in a manuscript now in +the “Bibliothèque Impériale,”--in which are enumerated “all the jewels +in gold and silver, all the rooms with embroidery and tapestries +belonging to Charles V.,”--gives us an idea not only of the multiplicity +of hangings and tapestries that appertained to the personal property of +royalty, especially at the Hôtel Saint-Pol, but it also shows us the +variety + +[Illustration: THE ADORATION OF THE MAGI. + +Tapestry of Berne of the fifteenth Century + +(Communicated by M. Achille Jubinal.)] + +of subjects therein represented. A few of these pieces of tapestry are +still preserved, but among some which have been destroyed or lost we may +mention those representing the Passion of our Saviour, the Life of St. +Denis, the Life of St. Theseus, and that entitled Goodness and +Beauty--all these were of large dimensions. Then again, the tapestry of +the Seven Mortal Sins, two pieces of the Nine Bold Knights, that of the +ladies hunting and flying (_qui volent_), in other words, hawking; that +of the Wild Men; two of Godfrey de Bouillon; a white tapestry for a +chapel, in the centre of which was seen “a compass with a rose,” +emblazoned with the arms of France and of Dauphiny, this was three yards +square; one large handsome piece of tapestry, “the king has bought, +which is worked with gold, representing the Seven Sciences and St. +Augustin;” the tapestry of Judith (the queen who subsequently appears on +playing-cards); a large piece of Arras cloth, representing the Battles +of Judas Maccabæeus and Antiochus; another of “the Battle of the Duke of +Aquitaine and of Florence;” a piece of tapestry “whereon are worked the +twelve months of the year;” another of “the Fountain of Jouvent” +(Jouvence), a large piece of tapestry “covered with azure fleurs-de-lys, +which said fleurs-de-lys are mingled with other small yellow +fleurs-de-lys, having in the centre a lion, and, at the four corners, +beasts holding banners, &c.”--in fact, the list is endless. We must +still, however, add to these figured tapestries those with armorial +bearings, made for the most part with “Arras thread,” and bearing the +arms of France and Behaigne (the latter being those of the queen, +daughter of the King of Bohemia). There was also a piece of tapestry +“worked with towers, fallow bucks and does, to put over the king’s +boat.” The tapestry called _velus_, or velvet, which now we call +_moquettes_, was as commonly seen as any other kind. There were also to +be noticed the _Salles d’Angleterre_, or the tapestries from that +country, which, as we have said, had previously acquired a great +celebrity in that art. Among these one was “_ynde_ (blue), with trees +and wild men, with wild animals, and castles;” others were vermilion, +embroidered with azure, having vignette borders, and in the centre +lions, eagles, and leopards. + +In addition to these, Charles V. possessed at his castle of Melun many +“silken fabrics and tapestries.” At the Louvre one could but admire, +among other magnificent pieces of tapestry, “a very lovely green room, +ornamented with silk covered with leaves; and representing in the centre +a lion, which two queens were in the act of crowning, and a fountain +wherein swans were disporting themselves.” + +Yet we must not be led away with the idea that it was only the royal +palaces which presented such sumptuousness; for it would be easy to +enumerate many instances similar to those we have given, by looking over +the inventories of the personal property of nobles, or those of the +treasuries of certain churches and abbeys. In one place the tapestries +represent religious subjects taken from the Bible, the Gospels, or the +legends of the saints; in another the subjects are either historical or +relating to chivalry, more especially battles or hunting scenes (Fig. +30). + +We are thus justified in asserting that the luxury of tapestry was +general among the higher classes. An expensive taste it was; because not +only does an examination of these marvellous works show us that they +could have been purchased only at a very high price, but in old +documents we find more than one certain confirmation of this fact. For +example, Amaury de Goire, a worker in tapestry, received in 1348, from +the Duke of Normandy and Guienne, 492 livres, 3 sous, 9 deniers, for “a +woollen cloth,” on which were represented scenes from the Old and New +Testaments. In 1368, Huchon Barthélmy, money-changer, received 900 +golden francs for a piece of “worked tapestry, representing La Quête de +St. Graal (the search for the blood of Christ); and in 1391, the +tapestry exhibiting the history of Theseus, to which we have already +alluded, was purchased by Charles V. for 1,200 livres; all these sums, +considering the period, were really exorbitant. + +The sixteenth century, remarkable for the progress and the excellence to +which the arts of every kind had attained, gave a renewed impulse to +that of tapestry. A manufactory was established by Francis I., at +Fontainebleau, where the tapestry was woven in one entire piece, instead +of being made up, as had been the practice, of separate pieces matched +and sewn together. In this new fabric gold and silver threads were mixed +with silk and wool. + +When Francis sent for the Primate from Italy, he commissioned him to +procure designs for several pieces of tapestry, to be made in the +workshops of Fontainebleau. But, while liberally rewarding the Italian +or Flemish artists and artisans collected in the dependencies of his +château, the king still continued to employ Parisian tapestry-workers; +proof of which is to be found in a receipt of the sieurs Miolard and +Pasquier, who give an + +[Illustration: Fig. 30.--Tapestry representing a Hunting Scene, from the +Château d’Effiat. (In the possession of M. Achille Jubinal.)] + +acknowledgment of having been paid 410 _livres tournois_, “to begin the +purchase of materials and other requisites for a piece of silk tapestry, +which the said seigneur had ordered them to make for his coronation, +according to the patterns which the said seigneur has had prepared for +this purpose, and on which must be represented a Leda, with certain +nymphs, satyrs, &c.” + +[Illustration: Fig. 31.--The Weaver. Drawn and Engraved by J. Amman.] + +Henry II. did even more than maintain the establishment at +Fontainebleau; in addition he instituted, in compliance with the request +of the guardians of the Hôpital de la Trinité, a manufactory of tapestry +in Paris, in which the children belonging to the hospital were employed +in dyeing wool and silk, and in weaving them in the loom with a high and +low warp. + +The new manufactory, whether on account of the excellence of its +productions, or from influential patronage, obtained so many privileges +that the public peace was on several occasions seriously disturbed by +the jealousy of the guild of tapestry-workers; an ancient and numerous +corporation still possessing great authority and influence. + +The manufactory of the Hôpital de la Trinité continued to flourish +during the reign of Henry III.; and Sauval, in his “Histoire des +Antiquités de + + PLAN OF PARIS IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY, + + WITH THIS LEGEND: + + _Mil cinq cents ans quarante et neuf passez_ + _Du déluge: Paris le noble roy_ + _Dix-huitième: fonda en grand arroy_ + _Ville et cité de Paris belle assez_ + _Devant que Rome eust des gens amassez_ + _Six cent cinquante et huit ans comme croy._ + + TRANSLATION. + + One thousand five hundred and forty-nine years after the Deluge, + the noble King Paris, the eighteenth of his name, founded with + great pomp the fine town and city of Paris, anterior to the + foundation of Rome, which took place, as I think, 658 (?) years + before Jesus Christ. + +[Illustration: PLAN OF PARIS IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY. + +Beauvais Tapestry (Communicated by M. Achille Jubinal.)] + +Paris,” informs us that in the following reign it reached its highest +point of prosperity. In 1594, Dubourg made in these workshops, from the +designs of Lerembert, the beautiful tapestries which, to a date very +near our own, decorated the Church of Saint-Merry. Henry IV., says +Sauval, hearing this work much spoken of, desired to see it, and was so +pleased therewith that he resolved to restore the manufactories in +Paris, “which the disorder of preceding reigns had abolished.” He +therefore established Laurent, a celebrated tapestry-worker, in the +_maison professe_ of the Jesuits, which had remained closed since the +trial of Jean Chastel. He allowed one crown a day, and one hundred +francs a year, as wages to this skilful artist; his apprentices +receiving ten sous a day, and his fellow-workmen twenty-five, thirty, +and even forty sous, according to their skill. At a later period Dubourg +and Laurent, who had entered into partnership, were both installed in +the galleries of the Louvre. Henry IV., following the example of Francis +I., brought from Italy skilled workers in gold and in silk. These he +lodged in the Hôtel de la Maque, Rue de la Tisseranderie: the special +works they made were hangings in fine cloth of gold and silver +(_frisé_). + +[Illustration: Fig. 32.--Banner of the Tapestry Workers of Lyons.] + +Subsequently to the sixteenth century, the tapestries fabricated at the +manufactories of the Savonnerie, the Gobelins, and at Beauvais, &c., +although more perfect as regards the weaving, and therefore presenting +greater regularity of design and a better comprehension of colour and +perspective, unfortunately lost the original simplicity which +characterized them in olden times. Approaching the reign of Louis XIV., +under the influence of the school of Le Brun,[3] they affected an +imitation of Greek and Roman forms, which seem out of place in France. +Handsome countenances are the result, out accompanied by meaningless +figures; the frankness of truth gives place to staid coldness, the ideal +usurps the place of nature, conventionality that of spontaneity. We find +them ingenious, pretty, and even beautiful productions, but wanting +character, the real soul of works of art. + + + + +CERAMIC ART. + + Pottery Workshops in the Gallo-Romano Period.--Ceramic Art + disappears for several Centuries in Gaul: is again found in the + Tenth and Eleventh Centuries.--Probable Influence of Arabian Art in + Spain.--Origin of Majolica.--Luca della Robbia and his + Successors.--Enamelled Tiles in France, dating from the Twelfth + Century.--The Italian Manufactories of Faenza, Rimini, Pesaro, + &c.--Beauvais Pottery.--Invention and Works of Bernard Palissy; his + History; his _Chefs-d’œuvre_.--The _Faïence_ of Thouars, called + “Henri II.” + + +We can assuredly say, with M. Jacquemart, that “the history of the +ceramic art of the Middle Ages is shrouded by a veil which probably will +always remain impenetrable. Notwithstanding the constant investigations +of local societies, and the numerous documents that have been brought to +light, nothing has transpired to remove the doubts of the archæologist +regarding the places where the manufacture of pottery had its birth +among us.” + +Nevertheless, it is certain that at the Gallo-Romano period--that is to +say, when the Romans, having made themselves masters of that country, +had introduced their customs and their industry--Gaul possessed numerous +and considerable pottery workshops, which produced vessels and vases of +all kinds. Maintaining the ancient forms and processes of manufacture, +these factories continued to furnish, till about the sixth century, +amphoræ, basins, cups on stems, dishes, plates, and bottles. They were +made, with the aid of the potter’s wheel, of grey, yellow, or brown +clay. Some of the finest quality were covered with a brilliant varnish, +resembling red sealing-wax both in colour and appearance; and these +articles were often ornamented with much care and delicacy. We find +vases surrounded with garlands of leaves, cups embellished with figures +of men and animals; these are so many proofs that this was a manufacture +to which the influence of art was by no means unknown. + +Yet it is also evident that this industry--one of a sufficiently +elevated kind--nearly disappeared about the period of the invasions and +wars amidst the tumult of which French monarchy had its birth; and +there remained but the simple art that provided for ordinary +requirements an assemblage of articles rude and devoid of character. + +It must be remembered, however, that the ceramic art which had +flourished in the West merely migrated, instead of becoming extinct; and +it found, like so many other arts, a new country in that Byzantium +destined to be the sanctuary of ancient magnificence. Whatever may be +the reason, ceramic art disappeared from the soil of France during a +long period; and it is still a question what was the real origin of its +revival. Did it revive of itself, or was it under the influence of +example? Did it owe its resuscitation to any immigration of artisans, or +to the importation of some process of manufacture? These questions still +remain unanswered. + +[Illustration: Fig. 33.--Vases of ancient shape, represented in the +decorative sculpture of the Church of St. Benoît, Paris. (Twelfth +Century.)] + +The ceramic art, which perhaps we somewhat wrongly style modern, is +characterized by the use of enamel, or overlaying articles with a glaze +having a metallic basis; this the fire of the oven vitrifies; it is a +process of which the ancients were entirely ignorant. + +But, in searching the tombs that belonged to the ancient abbey of +Jumièges (in Normandy), and which date from the year 1120, there have +been found fragments of pottery of a fine but porous clay, covered with +a glazing somewhat similar to that now used. + +Moreover, we read in a chronicle of the ancient province of Alsace, that +in the year 1283 “died a potter of Schelestadt, who was the first to +cover earthen vessels with glass.” + +But we also know that at the time when these isolated attempts were +being carried out in France, the Persians and Armenians had long before +discovered the art of making magnificent enamelled ware for covering the +exterior of their monuments; and that the Arabs settled in Spain +produced wonderful examples of painted and enamelled earthenware, with +which they decorated and furnished those palaces whose grand ruins are +still to us like the fairy visions of a dream or of enchantment. The +vases of the Alhambra, types of an art as original as it was singularly +ingenious, claim, and doubtless will always claim, the admiration of +minds that can appreciate the beautiful in whatever form it may present +itself. + +[Illustration: Fig. 34.--Vases of ancient form, represented in the +decorative sculptures of the Church of St. Benoît, Paris. (Twelfth +Century.)] + +And now, are we to suppose that the intercourse between nations and the +transactions of commerce must necessarily have made western Europe +acquainted with the enamelled dishes of Asia, or the _chefs-d’œuvre_ of +the African race in Spain? Or, on the other hand, shall we say that it +was by a spontaneous effort of invention that our forefathers opened up +the road to a new domain of art? In the one case we have the opinion, +deservedly respected, of Scaliger, who affirms the fact, apparently very +significant, that during the Middle Ages there existed in the Balearic +Islands manufactories of pottery of Arab origin; our learned author even +adds, that in accordance with the most probable etymology, the name of +_Majolica_, which was first given to Italian ware (the earliest in the +European revival of the ceramic art), was derived from _Majorca_, the +largest, as we know, of the Balearic Islands, in which locality the +principal manufactory of these pottery wares was situated. But, on the +other hand, a comparative examination of Arab and Italian wares excludes +all idea not only of affiliation, but even of imitation or reminiscence +between them. + +In the face of such contradictory coincidence, if we may say so, it +would be as difficult as it would be rash to pronounce an opinion; we +consider it better, while disregarding problematical indications, to +boldly face a train of facts now determined by historical proof. + +“At the commencement of the fifteenth century”--we cannot do better than +borrow from M. Jacquemart a passage which he himself took from the +Italian work by Passeri, on Majolica (Pesaro, 1838, in 8vo.)--“Luca +della Robbia, the son of Simone di Marro, apprenticed himself to a +Florentine goldsmith, Leonardo, the son of Giovanni; but disliking the +confinement of a laboratory, he soon became a pupil of the sculptor +Lorenzo Ghiberti, who made the gates of the Baptistry at Florence. His +rapid progress under so able a master placed him in a position, when he +could not have been more than fifteen years old, to undertake the task +of ornamenting a chapel for Sigismond Malatesta, at Rimini. Two years +later, Pietro di Medici, who was having an organ erected in Santa-Maria +dei Fiori, at Florence, directed Luca to execute some marble sculptures +in that church. The fame which he gained by these works drew everybody’s +attention to the young sculptor. Orders reached him in such numbers that +he clearly saw the impossibility of executing them in marble or in +bronze; added to this, he bore with impatience the restraint imposed by +working with such rigid materials, of which the laborious handling +trammelled the flights of his imagination. Soft and plastic clay was a +material far better suited to his readiness of conception. At the same +time, Luca dreamt of the future, and of glory; and thus having in view +the object of executing works which, though less perishable, might be +rapidly executed, he devoted all his efforts to discover a coating which +would give to clay the polish and the hardness of marble. After many +trials, a varnish made of tin (_étain_), which was white, opaque, and of +a resisting nature, furnished him with the result he hoped for. The art +of producing fine earthenware was discovered, which first received the +name of vitrified clay (_terra invetriata_). + +“Luca’s enamel was a most perfect white; he first used it alone for +figures, in semi-relief, which were raised on a blue background. At a +later period he ventured to colour his figures, and Pietro di Medici +was one of the first who encouraged this kind of work for the decoration +of palaces. The fame of this novel art spread with rapidity; all the +churches were anxious to possess some specimen of the master, so that +Luca was soon compelled to associate with himself his two brothers +Ottaviano and Agostino, in order to keep pace with the requirements of +the public. He endeavoured, nevertheless, to extend the application of +his discovery by painting flowers and groups of figures on a smooth +surface; but in the year 1430 death cut short his remarkable career, and +stayed, in the hands of the inventor, the progress of _enamelled +pottery_ (Fig. 35). + +[Illustration: Fig. 35.--Enamelled Terra-cotta, by Luca della Robbia.] + +“The family of Luca, however, made public the secret of his discovery. +His two nephews, Luca and Andrea, produced some figures and designs of +singular merit in terra-cotta. Luca ornamented the floor of the Loggia +of Raphael. Girolumo, a relative of Luca, come to France, where he +decorated the château of Madrid, in the neighbourhood of Paris. Two +females, Lisabetta and Speranza, added to the renown of the family Della +Robbia.” + +Such is the history of the revival, or rather of the creation, of +ceramic art in Italy, as briefly recorded by a man thoroughly acquainted +with the subject. An ancient author, and, moreover, a competent writer, +instances some monuments of an earlier date; among others a tomb at +Bologna, in which were tiles covered with a green and yellow varnish, +and vessels (_écuelles_) of the same kind inserted in the façades or +porticoes of the churches of Pesaro and the abbey of Pomposa. But to the +honour of Luca della Robbia it may be remarked, that these specimens of +an earlier industry differed essentially from his productions; because +the glazing that covered them, the basis of which was lead, was so +transparent, that through it could be seen either the clay or the +colours underneath; whereas the enamel discovered by Luca, the basis of +which was tin, had, on the contrary, for its essential character, an +opacity which may be termed intense. Let us observe, moreover, that in +order to embellish his productions with paintings, Luca was accustomed +to apply colours to the first and general coating, which became fixed by +a subsequent process of baking. + +It is by recognising the distinction we have just laid down between +these two processes, that the productions of Italian ceramic art are +ordinarily classified: the _demi-majolica_, with transparent glaze, +somewhat like the Spanish-Arabian pottery, and also, perhaps, like +Asiatic tiles; then the _majolica_, by which we understand fine +earthenware, where the clay is covered with a coating of opaque varnish, +distinguishing the invention due to Luca della Robbia. + +Having given priority of invention to Luca della Robbia, it is as well, +nevertheless, here to state, that from the eleventh and twelfth +centuries there existed in France a kind of ceramic art employed +especially in the manufacture of varnished pottery-tiles. Many, of baked +clay, have been found with drawings and designs in black or brown on a +white or yellow ground (Plate IV.). At a later period these tiles, of +which we see such brilliant specimens in the small pictures in +manuscripts, especially in those + +[Illustration: PAVING TILES OF THE FOURTEENTH AND FIFTEENTH +CENTURIES.] + +of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, were embellished with +designs, emblems, armorial bearings, and scrolls. As already stated, in +the passage from the author whom we have taken as our guide, the impulse +which Luca della Robbia gave to ceramic art extended itself with +rapidity in every direction; and if any other reason were wanting, +beyond the intrinsic value of this art, to account for its development, +we should say that the circumstances in the midst of which Luca made his +discovery were eminently favourable to its advancement. + +Luxurious display was, at that time, prominent among the classes who +aspired to ostentation. When writing of furniture, we saw to what a +pitch of splendid profusion kings, princes, and nobles carried the mania +for displaying their wealth. We particularly pointed out sideboards in +the dining-rooms, covered with plate and all kinds of objects, which +were only placed there to dazzle the eyes. The custom of these displays +having been introduced, it could nevertheless be only indulged in by +those in possession of considerable fortunes, and therefore it will be +readily understood how quickly fashion affected the productions of +ceramic art; which, in addition to being recognised as works of art, +were singularly well suited, both in character and by their comparative +cheapness, to the spirit of ostentation which had taken possession of +people of inferior rank. It was sufficient that some piece of majolica +should have found a place on the sideboard of a prince amidst the gold +and the silver which hitherto had alone enjoyed this privilege, for the +lower ranks of the _bourgeoisie_ and the _tiers-état_ to adopt the +fashion, in their dining-rooms, of decorating them either with majolica +alone, or associated with plate. + +And admitting this fact, that the productions of ceramic art were thus +allowed to find admittance, and, as it were, in some measure an equally +distinguished position, amidst plate and objects of precious metals, it +resulted that this new industry, supported by the best artists, soon +became remarkable for works which were at the same time most beautiful +and original. + +As something new in history, we find simple pieces of pottery--to give +them their generic name--passing as valuable offerings among the great, +and employed on very many occasions to denote ardent admiration in the +world of courtly gallantry. It is thus we have handed down to us, +principally on cups by renowned masters, portraits of the beauties who +in those times adorned the ranks of the nobility: the Dianas, the +Francescas, the Lucias, the Proserpines, whom their admirers caused to +be portrayed in order to offer them their own likenesses. + +It was at Florence, about the year 1410, that Luca della Robbia first +introduced his invention; but as soon as the process became known, the +greater part of the towns of Italy, especially those of Tuscany, +established manufactories, among which a remarkable rivalry soon arose: +Pesaro, Gubbio, Urbino, Faenza, Rimini, Bologna, Ravenna, Ferrara, Citta +Castellana, Bassano, Venice, emulated each other, and almost all +succeeded in giving, as it were, an individual character to their +productions. + +Pesaro--the place were the earliest workshops of ornamental pottery in +Italy were seated, and the processes of which (derived from Luca della +Robbia) seem to have blended with the ancient Spanish, or +_Majorquaises_--presents to us a design of a rather harsh and stiff +character. “The outlines of figures,” adds M. Jacquemart, “are drawn in +manganese black, the flesh is the colour of the enamel, and the drapery +alone is of uniform tint.” + +It was at Pesaro that the celebrated Lanfranco flourished. The ceramic +museum of Sèvres has two of his pieces: it was he who invented the +method of applying gold to earthenware, at a time when the early +processes of ornamenting this manufacture had ceased to be employed, and +had given place to delicate paintings, which, although no longer +executed by the most renowned artists of Italy, were nevertheless the +work of intelligent pupils who had received the benefit of their +teaching and example. + +The manufactory at Gubbio had for its founder Giorgio Andreoli, who, +both as a sculptor and an artist in majolica, executed works as +remarkable in form as in effect. “The palette of mineral colours adopted +by Andreoli was the most perfect of the period; and coppery yellows, +ruby reds, are frequently used in his works.” There are still extant +some works signed by this _master_ (a title officially conferred on him +by a patent of nobility); one is a slab in the Sèvres collection, and +another a tablet representing the Holy Family. + +Urbino--of which the dukes, especially Guidobaldo II., signalized +themselves as the most zealous patrons of ceramic art--became famous +through the works of Francesco Xanto, who executed historical subjects +on enamelled clay. Xanto had as a successor Orazio Fontana, who has been +named “the Raphael of Majolica,” and who produced, among other +magnificent objects, some vases which, when subsequently seen by +Christina of Sweden, so impressed her by their beauty that she offered +to exchange for them silver vases of equal size. + +It was at the manufactory of Deruta that imaginative subjects on +majolica were first introduced; Bassano was famous for its landscapes +with ruins; Venice became celebrated for delicate ware with _repoussé_ +reliefs; Faenza is still proud of her Guido Salvaggio; Florence of her +Flaminio Fontana, &c. + +Majolica attained to its highest point of brilliancy under the Duke of +Urbino whom we have already named, Guidobaldo II., who was ever ready to +make any sacrifice in order that this art might be introduced into the +manufactories under his patronage. He even obtained from Raphael and +Giulio Romano some original drawings to serve as examples; and this +feeling having once been inculcated, we soon find artists of renown, +such as Batista Franco and Raphael del Colle, tendering their services +for the ornamentation of majolica. Thus the productions of this period +are distinguishable among all others for harmony of composition and +accurate drawing, qualities which render them specially noteworthy (Fig. +36). Then, almost immediately, followed the decline of this art. While +flourishing more and more until the middle of the sixteenth century, the +art of making majolica had fallen, at the termination of that epoch, +into a kind of degenerate industry, swayed by the caprice of fashion, +and thereby reduced to mannerism. + +Nearly at the commencement of the renovation of ceramic art, Italian +artisans had established themselves in various places, which then became +so many artistic centres. Eastern Europe had for its earliest +instructors three brothers, Giovanni, Tiseo, and Lazio, who settled at +Corfu. Flanders was indebted for the knowledge of these processes to +Guido of Savino, who took up his abode at Antwerp. And about the year +1520 we find a manufactory at Nuremberg, of which the ware, though +materially differing in character from Italian majolica, may still very +probably have been derived from Italy. + +We may add that letters of the King of France mention that from 1456 +there were certain revenues derivable from the “Beauvais Potteries;” and +in the twenty-seventh chapter of the first book of “Pantagruel,” +published in 1535, Rabelais places among the various articles composing +the trophy of Panurge, “a saucer, a salt-cellar of clay, and a Beauvais +goblet;” which proves, as M. de Sommerard remarks, “that as early as +this date, there were manufactured in this city vessels of clay +sufficiently good in quality to be placed on the table with silver and +pewter utensils;” but it does not naturally follow that France had not +long to wait for the man of genius who would soon leave her nothing to +covet from Italy. + +[Illustration: Fig. 36.--Cup, Italian Ware. In the Collection of Baron +Alph. Rothschild. Taken from MM. Carle Delange and C. Borneman’s work.] + +About the year 1510, in a small village in Périgord, a child was born +who, after receiving the rudiments of education, was obliged while still +quite young to try to gain a livelihood by his own industry. This +child’s name was Bernard Palissy. He first learnt the trade of a +glazier, or rather of a glass-fitter and painter. This trade, while it +initiated him into the principles of drawing, and gave him a certain +insight into chemical manipulations, at the same time aroused in him a +taste for art and the study of natural sciences. While “painting figures +in order to gain his daily bread,” as he himself tells us in one of the +works he has left behind him, and which gives us the highest opinion of +his simple yet energetic nature, he applied himself to the study of the +true principles of art in the works of the great Italian painters--the +only artists then in repute. Owing to various circumstances the trade +of glazier proving unprofitable, he at once began the study of geometry, +and soon obtained credit, in the part of the country wherein he dwelt, +as “a clever draughtsman of plans.” Such comparatively mechanical labour +as this could not long suffice for the active vigour of a mind thirsting +after progress and discovery. Moreover, Palissy, while employed on his +calling as a land-surveyor, had never ceased to give close observation +to the structure and composition of geological strata. With the purpose +of dispelling the doubts in his mind, and also with the object of +obtaining substantial confirmation regarding the system he had already +originated, he began to travel. The result of his journeyings was the +inauguration of a theory which, after having long been contemptuously +rejected by the learned, was nevertheless destined to form the +foundation of principles which are now considered as the basis of modern +geological science. + +[Illustration: Fig. 37.--A figured Border of an Enamelled Dish, by +Bernard Palissy.] + +But if the certain knowledge which Palissy thought he had acquired as to +the early convulsions of the globe had succeeded in satisfying his own +mind, the glazier-surveyor (who was now a married man with a family) +still remained in straitened circumstances, and was obliged to find some +means of avoiding actual want. We must refer to what he himself says +more than a quarter of a century later, and when success had completely +crowned his efforts, to learn what were his recollections of his early +and hazardous experiments in a new channel. “Know,” says he, in his +expressive language, “that it is twenty-five years since an earthen +vessel was shown to me; it was turned, enamelled, and of such exquisite +beauty, that from that very moment I began to argue with myself, while +remembering observations made derisively to me by some persons when I +was painting figures. And seeing that they were beginning to give up the +use of these objects in the country where I lived, and that glazing also +was not in great demand, I set myself to think that had I but discovered +the art of making enamel, I might make earthen vessels and other +articles of beautiful appearance; for God had given me the capacity to +understand a little about ceramic painting, and from that instant, +without in the least regarding my utter ignorance of siliceous +substances, I set myself to discover enamels like a man groping in the +dark.” + +It has been much disputed, but we may as well say at once to no purpose, +how to assign with certainty a particular locality whence came this +object which inspired Palissy; but whatever may have been its origin, it +seems to us to be a question of little moment, because at the time when +Palissy must have seen it, the Italian manufactories, and even those +which were afterwards established in various localities, had succeeded +in disseminating their wares far and wide; and, besides this, the works +of Palissy, which we still see, bear testimony to a style that was +peculiarly his own, and in some measure original. + +However this may have been, here we have him seeking out and grinding +all kinds of substances, mixing them, and coating with them pieces of +ware which he first subjected to the action of an ordinary potter’s +oven, afterwards to the more powerful heat employed by glass-makers. +Then we see him building an oven in his own house--taking into his +service a working potter, to whom, on one occasion, when he has no money +for the payment of wages, he is obliged to give his own clothes; again +we find him turning, single-handed, a mill for grinding his materials +which ordinarily required “two powerful men” to work it; then again, +wounding his hands in repairing the oven that the fire cracked, and the +bricks and mortar of which had become “liquified and vitrified;” so that +he is obliged for several days “to eat his soup with his fingers tied up +in rags;” pushing the conscientiousness and zeal of an experimentalist +so far as to fall down in a state of insensibility on finding that the +whole contents of an oven, on which he had been relying, proved to have +numerous defects. In despite + +[Illustration: BIBERON OF HENRI II WARE. + +Or Oiron fayence. (Pourtales’ Collection.) Now in the possession of J. +Malcolm, Esq.] + +of his poverty we see him destroying pieces of work that he considered +were not quite perfect, though a fair price was offered him for them, +merely because “they might bring discredit on him and loss of +reputation;” and finally, we see him breaking up and putting into the +fire, for want of other fuel, the flooring of his house and the +furniture of his humble abode. + +The magnificent discovery, brought about by the single initiative of an +individual who had said that he would succeed, and who heroically +endured all kinds of misery, privations, and humiliations, in order to +attain his object, was the labour of not less than fifteen years. + +“To console me,” relates Palissy, “even those from whom I had a right to +expect help laughed at me” (he here alludes to his family--his wife, and +children--who had not the same unbounded faith as himself in the +ultimate success of his labours); “they paraded the town exclaiming that +I was burning the woodwork of my house; thus was my credit injured, and +I was looked upon as a fool. Others said I was attempting to make base +coin. I went about quite humiliated, ashamed of myself. I owed money in +several quarters, and generally had two children out at nurse, and not +able to pay the cost. All ridiculed me, saying: ‘He deserves to starve, +because he has given up his trade.’ + +“Struggling on in this way, at the end of ten years I became so thin +that my legs and arms had no roundness of shape left about them; my legs +were all of a size (_toutes d’une venue_); so that as soon as I began to +walk, the garters with which I fastened my stockings used at once to +slip down, stockings and all, on to my heels.... For many years, having +nothing wherewith to cover my ovens, I was exposed all night long to the +winds and the rains, without receiving any help or consolation, except +from the screech-owls hooting on one side and the dogs howling on the +other.... Sometimes I found myself, with all my garments wet through +from the rain, going to bed at midnight, or at dawn of day; and when +proceeding in this condition to bed, I went reeling along without a +light, and stumbling from side to side, like a man drunk with wine; I +was overcome by previous sorrow, the more so because after +long-continued work I saw my labour lost. And on entering my chamber I +found a fresh persecution awaiting me--the complaints of my wife--worse +than the first, and which now makes me wonder how it was I did not die +of grief.... I have been in such anguish that many and many a time I +fancied I was at death’s door.” + +At last, despite all these obstacles, disappointments, physical and +mental suffering, the determined experimentalist succeeded in his +anticipations, and gave to the world those works he called _rustics_, +and which were so original and so beautiful that they had but to be seen +in order to invite attention, and to gain for him all the praise, as +well as the profit, he received. + +We have just intimated it was at Saintes that Palissy, when in search of +immortal fame, underwent his rude apprenticeship. A short time after he +had attained these definite results, religious questions having caused +some disturbances in Saintonge, the Constable de Montmorency, who had +been sent to suppress the Huguenot rising, had an opportunity of seeing +Palissy’s works: he requested that he should be presented to him, and at +once declared himself his friendly protector. And we must take this word +protector in its widest sense, for the potter, who had zealously +embraced the doctrines of the Reformation, and who subsequently +preferred to be imprisoned for life rather than abjure his faith (if he +did not die in the Bastille, at least he was imprisoned there at the +time of the Massacre of St. Bartholomew), indeed required protection, as +much for the exercise of liberty of conscience as for carrying on his +artistic labours. After Montmorency had commissioned him to execute some +considerable works, which also gained him the patronage of several +important personages, he obtained for him the favour of royalty. Palissy +was summoned to Paris, and received the title of “inventeur des +rustiques figulines du roi et de la reine-mère”--Henri II. and Catherine +de Médicis. He was lodged in the Tuileries; and was not long there +before he became renowned, not only for his ceramic productions, but +also for his scientific knowledge. + +In the recent building operations at the Tuileries, on digging a trench +in the garden, the workshop of Bernard Palissy was discovered; being +recognised by fragments and various pieces of enamelled pottery with +figures in relievo. Among these was found a large fragment of the dish +of Palissy, known under the name of the Baptismal Dish, on account of +the subject represented thereon. In July, 1865, while excavating in the +part of the palace where the “Salle des Etats” has been built, the +workmen discovered, below the level of the surface soil, two ovens for +baking pottery, in a tolerably good state of preservation. One contained +pieces of those muffles (_gazettes_) Palissy is said to have invented, +and which were employed in baking delicate pieces of work--imprints of +various kinds of ornaments, and figures in altorelievo: two of these +are described by Palissy himself in the “Devis d’une grotte pour la +royne, mère du roy” (“device of a grotto for the queen, the king’s +mother”), and which he thus indicates in the following sentence:--“I +should wish to make certain figures from nature, following her so +closely, even to the small hair in the beard and eyebrows, as to make +them the natural size.” These peculiarities are to be seen in the +fragments of the moulds which have been discovered. In the same page +Palissy says, “Also there would be another, composed completely of +sea-shells of different kinds; that is to say, the two eyes of two +shells, the nose, mouth, and chin, forehead and cheeks, all made out of +sea-shells, as well as even the remainder of the body.” This was found +in fragments, as also a hand moulded from nature, and holding a sword of +ancient make (Fig. 39). Among the fragments moulded from the naked and +the draped form, is the one which we give (Fig. 40); it is thus +described by Palissy:--“Also for the sake of astonishing mankind, I +wished to make three or four (figures) draped, and with their hair +dressed in quaint ways, whose dresses and head-dresses shall be of +divers linen, cloths, or striped materials so natural that no man would +think but it was the object itself which the workman had wished to +imitate.”[4] + +[Illustration: Fig. 38.--Ornamentation on Pottery by Bernard Palissy.] + +We thus see how Palissy, called “Maître Bernard des Thuilleries,” +deserved the esteem of the sovereigns who desired he should be near +them. + +M. Jacquemart says of Palissy ware:--“It is remarkable in more ways than +one--for its white paste with a shade of yellowish grey, for its +hardness, and its infusibility, equalling that of fine earthenware or +pipe-clay. These give it a special character, that distinguishes it from +Italian productions, the clay of which is of a dirty and dusky red. The +enamel has great brilliancy; it is hard, and is not unfrequently wavy +(_tresaille_). The colours vary a little, but they are bright--pure +yellow, yellow ochre, indigo blue, grey blue, emerald green produced +from copper, yellow green, violet brown, and manganese violet. As for +the white, it is somewhat dull, and cannot be compared with Luca della +Robbia ware; wherefore the most persevering researches of Palissy, who +invented all the processes which he employed in his work, aimed at the +attainment of greater brilliancy. The under part of Palissy ware is +never of a uniform tone of colour; it is spotted or tinted with blue, +yellow, and violet brown. + +[Illustration: Figs. 39 and 40.--Fragments of Figures on which the +moulds have been found in one of Palissy’s Ovens at the Tuileries.] + +“It would be exceedingly difficult, not to say impossible, to enumerate +the various shapes he was able to give to his enamelled ware. Combining +in + +[Illustration: Fig. 41.--Goblet, by Bernard Palissy. (Museum of the +Louvre.)] + +himself all the artistic talent of his day, he was at the same time a +skilful designer and an intelligent modeller; and thus he discovered a +thousand resources for the display of elegance and richness; sometimes +in the multiplicity of relievos and in the outline of his vases, +sometimes in the mere application of colour.... In many of his +productions, particularly dishes and bowls, are seen natural objects +represented with astonishing truthfulness as to form and colour; nearly +all these are modelled from nature, and grouped with perfect taste; from +the lower surface, rippled by streams of water in which fish of the +river Seine are swimming, coiled reptiles rise gracefully from among +fossil shells (we must remember that Palissy was a geologist), found in +the tertiary strata of Paris; on the _marli_ (the sloping edge of the +dish), amidst delicate ferns arranged in masses, lizards, crayfish, and +large-bodied frogs climb and jump (Fig. 42). The accuracy of their +movements, the truth of tones produced by a limited variety of +colours--all indicate a close observer. We must not, however, form our +opinion of Palissy from these _rustic_ works alone, but also from his +vases, where he introduced all the ornamental richness of those times, +and on which he took a pleasure in developing all his fertility of +composition and his knowledge as a designer.... On this point Palissy +followed the same law to which all artists of the sixteenth century were +subject--he was a worker in precious metals. By their graceful +originality, their fringed (_frangées_) borders, their figured +accessories, these vases put us in mind of metal. How could it have been +otherwise? Was not Benvenuto Cellini at that time, we will not say the +object of all imitations, for this would be an insult to the skilful +artists of that period, but at all events the ideal towards which the +inspirations of others were directed? As regards the human figure, +Palissy’s constant endeavour was to approach the Italian type; and as +doubtless the school of Fontainebleau furnished him with most of his +models, in the greater part of his figures we trace that graceful +_elongation_ of form, that elegant simplicity, which, in the works of +Jean Goujon, fall into mannerism (Figs. 43 and 44). + +“Palissy did not limit himself to the production of small and +moderate-sized vases for ornamenting sideboards, buffets, tables, and +brackets; he raised pottery to the most gigantic proportions in his +_rustiques figulines_, intended as ornaments for gardens, grottoes, +fountains, and the halls of stately mansions. The castles of Nesle and +of Chaulnes, of Reux and of Ecouen, and the garden of the Tuileries, +contained some remarkable specimens. All have perished with the +devastation of the buildings in which they stood; a single fragment of a +capital, preserved in the Museum of Sèvres, proves the truthfulness of +the writers of the sixteenth century regarding the monumental creations +of the potter of Saintes. + +“After the death of Palissy, in 1589, the art which he had created +insensibly declined, until soon it almost completely disappeared in +France.” + +This latter remark has reference to the style which was peculiarly of +Palissy’s own invention, and not to the production of ceramic works +generally; though the art failed not to give evidence of a certain +vitality, + +[Illustration: Fig. 42.--Enamelled Dish, by Bernard Palissy. (Museum of +the Louvre.)] + +it employed as guides or models the fanciful examples of Italian ware, +in preference to the really masterly specimens of the French artist. +Among the different centres of manufacture which, at that period, were +deserving of notoriety, we must specially name Nevers, whence came +numerous examples characterised by subjects taken from biblical +narratives, as well as from Roman and contemporaneous times; Rouen, +where the manufacture probably was not of an earlier date than the +beginning of the seventeenth century, and which evidently had to provide +its full supply of dishes for the table when, owing to the heavy +expenses of war, the courtiers, following the example of Louis XIV., +sent their plate to the mint, and “_se mirent en faïence_,” “took to +earthenware,” as Saint-Simon says. Lastly we have Montreuil-sur-Mer, +which, if we are to credit the specimens collected in the district by M. +Boucher de Perthes, one of our most learned antiquarians, possessed a +manufactory that produced some remarkable “open-work” vases. + +[Illustration: Fig. 43.--Four-handled Water-jug. German ware of the +Sixteenth Century.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 44.--Egg-shaped Coffee-pot. German ware of the +Sixteenth Century.] + +Let us also mention the Dutch pottery, called _Delft ware_, which, in +the beginning of the seventeenth century, began to find a place on all +sideboards and dressers. According to M. Brongniart, these came from a +manufactory founded prior, perhaps, to the sixteenth century. We also +instance the fine earthenware, in relievo, manufactured with undoubted +ability in Germany, especially in the town of Nuremberg. In the Louvre +and in the Cluny Museums may be seen magnificent specimens of enamelled +slabs and vases of architectural forms, ornamented with figures. +Majolica was equally esteemed on the banks of the Rhine. Many specimens +are found, dating from the latest years of the sixteenth century, in +which identity of form or similarity of _sigles_ (earths or clays) to +primitive works had led to their being, at first, classified among +Italian majolica. However, the majority of these examples, ornamented +with escutcheons and arabesques, combined generally with Latin or German +inscriptions, bear on the reverse a cipher in Gothic letters, leaving no +doubt as to the artist’s country. + +Now a word on a question we ought not to pass in silence, though it yet +remains unanswered, and doubtless will never be explained. + +Why is this name of _faïence_ commonly given in France, almost from the +revival of the ceramic art, to the productions of the new industry? Some +say, “because Faenza was the first among Italian manufactories that +introduced, generally, painted and ornamented potteries into France, +where it acquired great reputation.” Others discover in France itself, a +small town called Faïence, near Fréjus, in Provence, “where the +manufacture of enamelled clays was in full activity before there was any +evidence of it elsewhere;” and thus it gave its name to the pottery +called _majolica_ by the Italians: this would be nothing less than to +deprive Luca della Robbia of the merit, if not of the invention, at +least of priority. Unfortunately for this last opinion, those who state +it cannot bring in support of their assertion any certain details of the +nature of the productions ascribed to that locality, and which by their +very celebrity ought to have been safe from destruction. Thus it is +evident there is here a point of dispute regarding which it is difficult +to form a decisive opinion. + +Though, in a certain measure, lying out of the province to which our +observations have hitherto been limited, we have still to notice a small +group of productions which are known by connoisseurs under the title of +_faïences fines d’Henri II._; of these there are not more than forty +authenticated specimens. The locality of this manufacture, which seems, +so to speak, to have been isolated--for the ware is unlike any +contemporaneous productions--is quite unknown. “We only know,” says M. +Jacquemart, “that most of the examples came from the south-west of +France, from Saumur, from Tours, and especially from Thouars. As to the +date, it is indelibly inscribed on the vases, some having the salamander +of Francis I., others the arms of France with three crescents +interlaced, the emblem adopted by Henri II. They consist of cups, ewers, +drinking-vases, oval sugar-basins, salt-cellars, and candlesticks. The +form is ornate and pure, and is relieved by elegant mouldings. On the +clay--a yellowish white, and covered with a crystallized varnish, the +basis of which is lead, and consequently is transparent--wind bands of +yellow ochre bordered with dark brown, and interlaced with all the +inventive richness which characterized the period; small designs in +green, violet, black, and occasionally in red, enhance this decoration.” + +Much search has been made, but, as yet, without any reliable result, for +the name of the artist to whom might be attributed the creation of these +works, and of the individual style they denote. + +However this may be, if England claims the first application of +pipe-clay to fine earthenware, the French can, by showing her the +_faïence d’Henry II._, prove that, two hundred years before, an unknown +artist in France was setting an example in that art in which England now +prides herself. + +[Illustration: Fig. 45.--Ornament of a Dish, Italian ware. (Collection +of M. le Baron Alph. de Rothschild.)] + + + + +ARMS AND ARMOUR. + + Arms of the Time of Charlemagne.--Arms of the Normans at the Time + of the Conquest of England.--Progress of Armoury under the + Influence of the Crusades.--The Coat of Mail.--The Crossbow.--The + Hauberk and the Hoqueton.--The Helmet, the Hat of Iron, the + Cervelière, the Greaves, and the Gauntlet; the Breastplate and the + Cuish.--The Casque with Vizor.--Plain Armour and Ribbed + Armour.--The Salade Helmet.--Costliness of Armour.--Invention of + Gunpowder.--Bombards.--Hand-Cannons.--The Culverin, the + Falconet.--The Arquebus with Metal-holder, with Match, and with + Wheel.--The Gun and the Pistol. + + +The most ancient and authentic document that presents to us a just and +almost perfect idea of the arms in use towards the end of the eleventh +century, is the celebrated tapestry of Bayeux, of which we have already +spoken. + +It is sufficient to examine with some attention that complex and +illustrated narrative of the conquest of England in 1066, to learn what +was the general aspect of war at that period. But any one who has at all +studied the ancient historians and the annals of our earliest career as +a people, will not fail to recognise, as so many constituent parts +combining to form the equipment of war, most of those weapons that were +adopted among various races, the contests and the union of which was to +give birth to modern nations. + +If we can rely on the testimony of some miniatures in manuscripts of the +time of Charlemagne, Roman customs are constantly recalled in the +costume and arms of the warriors of the eighth and ninth centuries (Fig. +46), “but with the modifications necessarily resulting from +contemporaneous corrupt taste,” as observed by M. de Saulcy, whom, it +may be remarked, we follow step by step, as it were, in the labours +which he has conscientiously devoted to the history of warlike arms; +“for at that time the helmets, the bucklers, and the swords had assumed +forms very unlike the models whereof they were supposed to be an +imitation. One can readily imagine that costume had become subjected to +the same sort of change as language, corrupted as this was by the +admixture of German manners with those of the nations subjected to +Rome.” + +In the middle of the ninth century the Normans disembarking, possessed +themselves of Neustria, and introduced among the French nation, with +which they at first contended, and at length concluded a peace, an +entire series of defensive arms entirely novel in form, if not in their +nature. It is then, according to certain learned men, that warriors are +seen, in illustrated manuscripts, attired in dresses furnished with +small rings or iron scales, wearing pointed helmets, and using shields +cut horizontally above, and terminating at the base in a point more or +less sharp. + +[Illustration: Fig. 46.--Gallo-Romano Soldiers. Fac-simile of Miniatures +in the MS. of Prudentius. (Imp. Library of Paris.)] + +In the Bayeux tapestry we see the army of William that fought the battle +of Hastings composed of three different bodies of troops: the archers, +light infantry, armed with arrows and darts; foot-soldiers, or Heavy +infantry, using weightier arms, and clad in iron mail; and cavalry, in +the midst of which figures the Duke William (Fig. 47). + +The costume exhibits little variety; only two sorts of accoutrements are +observable; one very plain, worn by men who have no helmet, is evidently +that of an inferior soldier; the other, covered with iron rings, not +interlaced, extends from the shoulders to the knees, and belongs only +to warriors whose head-dress is a narrow, conical helmet, more or less +sharply pointed, extending behind (_en couvre nuque_) to cover the nape +of the neck (Fig. 48), and in front provided with a metal protector for +the face, called the _nasal_. + +Among the horsemen thus encased in iron, are some who have boots and +stirrups, others are without them, and even wear no spurs. Their shields +are convex, secured to the arm by a leather strap, generally circular at +top, and terminating in a point below. Some, however, are polygonal and +convex, and in the centre show a rather long point. + +[Illustration: Fig. 47.--King William, as represented on his seal +preserved in England.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 48.--Lancer of William’s Army.] + +Offensive arms consist of swords, axes, lances, javelins, and arrows. +The swords are long, of uniform width nearly to the extremity which +comes abruptly to a point, and have heavy, strong hilts. The axes +exhibit no remarkable peculiarity. The spears terminate in an iron +point, probably sharpened, and equal in length to one-sixth of the +handle. We see also clubs, maces, and, finally, pronged staves (_bâtons +fourchus_), doubtless the earliest form of the weapon; these last were +subsequently called _bisaguë_, and, with maces and clubs, were +ordinarily used by serfs and peasants; the sword and the spear being +reserved for freemen. + +The sling is not to be found in the hands of any warrior; but it is +remarkable that, in the border of the Bayeux tapestry, it is used by a +peasant aiming at a bird; from which it may be inferred that the sling +had become a mere weapon for field-sport. Moreover, this was also the +case with the bow among the French; which was again held in honour after +the advent of the Normans, especially since the latter could ascribe to +it their success at the battle of Hastings, where Harold, the opponent +of William, was killed by an arrow. Nevertheless, the statutes of the +Conqueror, who himself excelled with the bow, did not include that +weapon among those of the nobility. + +From the conquest of the Normans to the Crusades, we scarcely find +anything worth notice, except the adoption of a very murderous implement +of war, which acquired the name of the flail, or armed whip (_fléau_, or +_fouet d’armes_); it was formed of iron balls studded with points, and +was attached to the end of a strong staff by small chains. But we come +to a period when the events which occurred in Asia had a considerable +influence on the arms and the military costume of Europe. The first and +principal of the importations due to those distant expeditions was that +of the coat of mail, then in common use among the Arabs, and which has +since been discovered in the sculptures of the period of the Sassanidæ, +a royal race that ruled over Persia from the third to the seventh +century. + +It is not affirmed that prior to the first crusade we had no knowledge +of iron chain-work, of which the Orientals made defensive helmets; but +we imitated it only in a heavy and clumsy manner. This armour, which was +of ponderous weight, and, besides, was far from rendering invulnerable +those who were burdened with it, had not displaced the _haubergeons_, +the _jacques de fer_, the _brigandines_, the _armures à macles_ (Fig. +49), (such were the names given to the cuirasses of leather and of cloth +covered with metal plates); but when such defensive armour came to be +better known, with all its original good qualities; and when we had +learned to make it according to the Oriental method, there was no +further delay in adopting that network of iron (_tricot_) at once +flexible, light, and, in some degree, impenetrable. However, since the +manufacture of ancient armour was more simple, and consequently less +costly, it was not altogether abandoned. It is only so late as the time +of Philip Augustus and Louis IX. (the thirteenth century) that the use +of coats of mail became general; to this some knights attached mail +hose, to protect the thighs, legs, and feet (Fig. 50). + +In the reign of Louis le Gros (twelfth century) we see the first attempt +at a movable vizor adapted to the conical helmet of the Normans; and to +the same period must be referred the invention of the crossbow: or, it +may rather be said that a stock, or _arbrier_, was added to the bow, +which afforded greater facility for stretching the string, and also +aided in directing the arrow. This new weapon, after being exclusively +used in the chase, appeared in warfare; but, in 1139, Pope Innocent II., +confirming the decisions of the Council of Lateran, which had condemned +it as too destructive, prohibited its use. The crossbow was not restored +to military equipments until the third crusade, under Richard Cœur de +Lion, who, having permitted his men to resume the weapon, was +subsequently assumed to have invented it. + +[Illustration: Fig. 49.--Norman Archer.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 50.--Jean Sansterre, as represented on his Seal. +Reproduced by Meyrick.] + +During the first crusade, barons and knights wore a hauberk of links of +iron or steel. Every warrior had a helmet--silver-plated for royalty, of +steel for nobles, and of iron for the private soldiers. The crusaders +used the lance, the sword, a kind of dagger called _miséricorde_, the +club and the battle-axe, the sling and the bow. + +In the windows which Suger, minister of Louis VII., caused to be painted +for the church of the abbey of Saint-Denis, and which represented the +principal events of the second crusade, we see the chiefs of the +crusaders still clothed in hauberks of links, or _macles_ (plates of +iron); the helmet is conical and without the nose-piece (_nasal_); and, +lastly, the buckler, formed like a scutcheon, covers the breast, +generally suspended from the neck by a leather thong. + +Towards the middle of the twelfth century, the iron breastplate is said +to have been introduced; it was placed over the chest to support the +hauberk, the direct pressure of which being found detrimental to health. +But no description of it is to be met with in the romances of chivalry, +that furnish the best documentary evidence regarding the armour of the +twelfth and thirteenth centuries. + +[Illustration: Fig. 51.--Helmet of Don Jaime el Conquistador (Armeria +Real, Madrid.)] + +Under Philip Augustus, who, as we know, was one of the leaders of the +third crusade, the conical helmet assumed a cylindrical form; to this +was occasionally added a vizor called _ventail_, intended to protect the +face. Richard I., King of England, is represented on his seal with this +kind of helmet; level with the eyes and also at the height of the mouth +are two horizontal slits, which admit of seeing and breathing. Still the +use of the conical helmet without vizor or nose-piece was retained even +to the thirteenth century in Spain, as is proved by that worn by Jaime +I., King of Aragon (Fig. 51), which is preserved in the Armeria Real, +Madrid. It is of polished steel, is surmounted by a dragon’s head, and +portions of it are richly ornamented. + +Thus in the third crusade the use of the “coat-of-arms” became +general,--a sort of overcoat, if we may so term it, of cloth or of silk +stuff, and the purpose of which, at first, was only to mitigate the +insupportable effect of the rays of an Eastern sun on metal armour. This +new garment soon served, moreover, when made of various colours, to +distinguish different nations marching under the standard of the Cross +(Fig. 52). It became really a dress of military splendour, was made of +the richest stuffs, and embroidered in gold or silver with excessive +refinement. + +[Illustration: Fig. 52.--Knight in his Hauberk (after Meyrick).] + +The slingers, who had never been otherwise recruited than from the +lower orders, disappeared from the French armies after the reign of St. +Louis. As for the archers, those of England wore at that time, over the +hauberk, a leather jacket, adopted subsequently by the French archers, +and called _jacque d’Anglois_. An old author, in fact, thus mentions +it:-- + + “C’étoit un pourpoint de chamois; + Farci de bourre sus et sous; + Un grand vilain jacque d’Anglois, + Qui lui pendoit jusqu’aux genoux.” + +The _jacque_ having become the fashion in France was soon recognised in +every kind of material more or less costly; it continued in use until +the end of the fourteenth century; Charles VI. wore one of black velvet +during a journey he made in Brittany. + +[Illustration: Fig. 53.--Helmet of Hughes, Vidame of Chalons. (End of +Thirteenth Century.)] + +[Illustration: Fig. 54.--Tournament Helmet, screwed on the Breastplate. +(End of Fifteenth Century.)] + +The casque, or helmet, from that time enclosing the head entirely, +assumed, under St. Louis, the form of two truncated cones “réunis par +leurs grandes bases.” In addition to the helmet there was also worn at +that time the _chapel de fer_, which at first was only a simple cap +underneath the hood of the hauberk; but when, curtailing the hood, a +brim was added to the cap, it thus became a hat almost of the form of +the felts now in use. To protect the neck there was also attached to the +rim of the hat a tippet of mail, falling on the shoulders, and called +_camail_.[5] The iron cap then took + +[Illustration: CASQUE, MORION, AND HELMETS. + +With and without vizors, from the Armeria Real at Madrid.] + +the name of _coiffre_ or _cervelière_, and later it became a kind of +reversed pot concealing the entire head, and kept in position by its +weight only (Fig. 53). + +[Illustration: Fig. 55.--Plain Armour of the Fifteenth Century, about +1460. (Museum of Artillery, Paris.)] + +Again; there had for some time been manifested a movement which +gradually caused the knights to be entirely cased in iron. A king of +Scotland, contemporary with Philip Augustus, is represented on his seal +with a plate of armour intended to protect the elbow. The knee-cap +followed. Under Philip the Bold, successor of St. Louis, the iron +_grévières_ (greaves), or half leg-pieces, protecting the front of the +legs, were adopted. In the reign of Philip the Fair we have the first +example of an iron gauntlet with its fingers separate and jointed: +previously it was merely an inflexible piece covering the back of the +hand. About the same time the _cervelière_, either flat or spherical, +became pointed at the top, and took the name of _bassinet_; but this +bassinet was unlike the casque which, in the following century, +retained that name and was made completely closed. The exact period of +the transition from mailed armour to that of plain iron or steel, called +also plate-armour, dates from the first thirty years of the fifteenth +century (Fig. 55). + +[Illustration: Fig. 56.--Convex Armour of the Fifteenth Century, said to +be that of Maximilian. (Museum of Artillery, Paris.)] + +The annals of Florence contain a statute of 1315, requiring every +horseman serving in a campaign to have a helmet, a breastplate, +gauntlets, cuishes, and leg-pieces, all of iron; but in France and +England the whole of these pieces were not adopted until somewhat later. +In the reigns of Philip V. and Charles IV. we see the ventail of the +helmet with a grating, and the vizor opening with a hinge. The +bassinet, lighter than the helmet, was at first worn by the knight when +no hostile encounter was anticipated; but subsequently, and at an early +date, the vizor was added to the bassinet, as well as to the casque; and +then it became as much used as the helmet, which, towards the end of the +fourteenth century, was abandoned. + +About the same period some portions of iron horse-armour began to make +their appearance. We find entered in the inventory of the armour of +Louis X., a _chanfrein_ (a plate of iron fastened on the horse’s +forehead). + +[Illustration: Fig. 57.--Crossbow Men protected by Shield-bearers. +Fifteenth Century. After a Miniature from the Chronicles of Froissart. +(MS. Bibl. Imp. de Paris.)] + +The crossbow, for some time prohibited by ecclesiastical authority, was +the weapon most in use at the period spoken of; as having the double +advantage of being drawn with more power than the ordinary bow, and of +throwing its arrows to a longer distance with greater precision. +Historians say that at Crécy, in 1346, there were fifteen thousand +crossbow men in the French army. The Genoese were considered the most +skilful in Europe; and next, those of Paris. A manuscript in the +British Museum shows them wearing iron helmets, _brassières_,[6] and +leg-pieces; and for body-covering, jackets with long, hanging sleeves. +While the bowmen had both hands occupied in discharging their arrows, +shield-bearers were employed to protect them by means of large bucklers +(Fig. 57). + +In the year 1338 the use of firearms is for the first time noted in +France. But we think it right to reserve all we have to say of these +modern offensive weapons until our history of the ancient system of +armour is finished. Considering the early imperfections of firearms, the +old system must have long continued, especially among combatants of +noble degree--for they affected contempt for the new warlike equipments, +by means of which personal valour became in a manner useless and could +no longer ensure victory in battle. + +Under John the Good, that is, in the middle of the fourteenth century, +plain armour was generally adopted; the long coat of mail, heavier and +less convenient, was entirely abandoned; but chain-armour still covered +certain parts of the body not yet protected by iron plates. The +_bassinet_, then very pointed, was furnished with mail, covering the +neck and a portion of the shoulders. The upper part of the arm was +protected by a half-armlet, called the _épaulette_, but the lower part +was provided with mail. + +Ornaments began to be introduced in armour in the reign of Charles V.; +until that time it had a simple and plain appearance. For instance, the +_camail_ of the _bassinet_ is embroidered on the shoulders with gold and +silver, and the point surmounting it is decorated with an imitation of +foliage--an ornament which, according to the “Chronicle of Du Gueslin,” +had the disadvantage of presenting a kind of handle to an opponent. The +cuirass, to which it was then deemed sufficient to impart a bright +polish, or to paint in ordinary colours, sometimes bright, sometimes +dark, began to be engraved and chased towards the end of the following +reign. + +In the time of Charles VI. there was introduced, for the first time, +four or five flexible plates, called _faldes_, which protected the lower +part of the stomach without impeding the movements of the body. A little +later, _tassettes_ were added; they were attached to the top of the +thigh to guard the hips and the groin. It appears that at this period +the artisans of Milan, were especially renowned for the manufacture of +armour; for Froissart relates that Henry IV., King of England, when Earl +of Derby,[7] and preparing to enter the lists with the Duke of Norfolk, +requested armour from Galeas, Duke of Milan, who sent it with four +Milanese armourers. The swords and spears made at Toulouse and at +Bordeaux were also held in great repute; so also were the double-handed +swords in use from the middle of the thirteenth century, and +manufactured at Lubeck, in Germany. The steel helmets of Montauban were +also much in request. + +Towards the commencement of the fifteenth century, engines of war, +distinct from those in which powder was used, had attained a remarkable +degree of perfection. When John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy, marched +upon Paris, in 1411, there was with his army a considerable number of +machines called _ribaudequins_, a species of gigantic crossbow drawn by +a horse, and which with enormous strength threw javelins to a great +distance. + +Under Charles VII., the breastplate of the cuirass was composed of two +parts: one covered the breast; the other, reaching to the hips, +protected the stomach, and was attached to the former by clasps and +leather straps. Generally the breastplate was convex. + +Taught by the disastrous defeat of Agincourt,--where ten thousand men, +of whom eight thousand were of the nobility, had fallen, owing to the +precision and the celerity of the fire of the English archers,--Charles +VII. instituted in France the _franc archer_ (Fig. 58), who wore the +_salade_ and the jacket or _brigandine_, and carried the dagger, the +sword, the bow, the quiver or crossbow _garnie_. These archers were +exempt from all taxes or imposts; their equipments were declared not +distrainable for debts, and during war they received pay at the rate of +four livres a month. + +The _salade_, a part of armour which has remained particularly +celebrated, and the name of which has been applied subsequently to +helmets of divers forms, is pre-eminently the helmet of the epoch of +Charles VII. At first it was a head-dress for war, composed of a simple +cap (_timbre_), that covered the top of the head, with a pendent piece +of metal of greater or less length at the back, which sometimes was made +for protecting the neck, and + +[Illustration: Fig. 58.--Franc Archers (Fifteenth Century), from the +Painted Hangings of the Town of Rheims.] + +sometimes to guard a portion of the shoulders. Towards the end of the +fifteenth century there was added to the salade a small vizor, that was +gradually lengthened downwards to near the upper lip, and in which a +narrow opening was then made for the sight. In the reign of Louis XII. +the salade received a chin-piece, the lower part of which was a +_gorget_, that surrounded and protected the neck. The top of the cuirass +had a cord, to which was attached the salade; and this helmet, so +different to the primitive salade, continued to bear the same name (Fig. +59). + +[Illustration: Fig. 59.--Knights in complete Armour, with the _Salade_. +(End of Fifteenth Century.) A Single Combat, taken from “The Triumph of +Maximilian,” by Burgmayer, after a drawing by Albert Dürer.] + +The _brigandine_, recalling the early armour abandoned for the coat of +mail, was composed of small plates of steel or iron arranged on a strong +piece of leather, and stitched or fixed with wire, in the form of the +scales of a fish. A decree of Peter II., Duke of Brittany, issued in +1450, ordered the nobles to equip themselves as archers, or in +brigandine, if they knew how to use arrows; but otherwise, to be +provided with _guisarmes_, with good salades, and leg-armour; each noble +was to be attended by one _coustillier_, and to have two good horses. +The _guisarme_ was a sort of two-edged and pointed javelin. The +_coustillier_ was a foot-soldier, or a horseman, whose duty it was to +act as a servant to the nobleman, and to carry the _coustille_, a long, +slender sword, triangular or square, apparently resembling the foil in +our fencing-rooms. + +[Illustration: Fig. 60.--Armour ornamented with Lions, supposed to be +that of Louis XII. (Museum of Artillery, Paris.)] + +About this period French noblemen displayed much magnificence in the +adornment of the _chanfrein_ of their horses. For instance, we know that +at the siege of Harfleur, in 1449, the charger of the Count de Saint-Pol +had on its head a massive gold chanfrein, of the most delicate work, +valued at not less than twenty thousand crowns. In the same year, at the +siege of Bayonne, the Count de Foix entered the conquered city mounted +on a horse whose chanfrein of polished steel was enriched with gold and +precious stones to the value of fifteen thousand gold crowns. + +Half a century later--that is, in the reign of Charles VIII. and that of +Louis XII.--chargers wore, besides the chanfrein, the _manefaire_, +protecting the neck, the _poitrail_, the _croupière_, the _flancois_, +which respectively covered the chest, the back, and the flanks of the +horse; and to these was added another piece of armour placed under the +tail. + +Of the date of Louis XII., we still see embossed suits of armour +ornamented with fluting, sometimes blended with beautiful engraved work +executed in the metal by the use of aquafortis, or subjects in relievo +produced by embossing: ornamentation of this nature elevated the +equipments of the warrior to real works of art (Fig. 60). + +Louis XII. was the first to admit Greek mercenaries into his army. These +were named _stradiots_; they tendered their military services equally to +both Turks and Christians. The armour of these troops consisted of a +cuirass with sleeves and gauntlets in mail, and over this a jacket; on +their head a vizorless helmet was worn. The stradiots were armed with a +large sword, called a _braquemart_, much resembling the Turkish sword, +but with a cross-handle; the sword and its scabbard were ornamented with +Grecian devices. They carried in addition several small arms at the +saddle-bow, and also a _zagaye_, a very long lance, tipped at both +extremities with iron. + +At this period also was introduced the _pertuisane_,[8] the blade of +which, wider than that of the lance, formed a crescent immediately above +the handle. + +There were at that time two kinds of cross-bows--one for discharging +bolts, the other for bullets. The bow was slung by means of a +_moulinet_, a kind of hand-winch. + +Embossed and fluted armour was not the only kind used in France and in +Italy at the end of the fifteenth and the commencement of the following +century. The monuments in the former country of the time of Louis XII., +and on the other side of the Alps, show how prevalent was a peculiar +description of plain armour, whereof the cuirass, which was longer than +that of the embossed armour, had a rib or raised line in the middle. +This rib, which completely altered the character of the cuirass, in that +it served to turn aside the thrust of the lance, became increasingly +distinctive as the seventeenth century drew near. + +In the reign of Francis I. embossed and ribbed armour were equally + +[Illustration: Fig. 61.--Damaskeened Armour of the end of the Sixteenth +Century. (Portrait of François, Duc d’Alençon, from Montfaucon’s “La +Monarchie Françoise.”)] + +used (Fig. 61). In the Museum of Artillery, in Paris, is preserved the +armour which that king wore at the battle of Pavia. The body is longer +than in the cuirass of the preceding century, the rib in the centre is +more raised, the gusset of the shoulder-piece is made of several +movable plates, and of large size. The _casque_, a generic name given +since those times to all descriptions of head-armour, assumed a +comfortable and elegant shape, which was maintained as long as the use +of armour continued. + +Another cuirass of the same date, still longer in the body, was made to +turn up towards the lower extremity, and then took an inward bend to fit +the hip. It was made with movable plates overlapping from below; this +allowed the wearer to stoop, which it was almost impossible to do when +the breast-piece and the back-piece were in one. Sometimes these plates +were only three or four in number over the stomach, and the others over +the breast were only represented, not genuine plates. + +The armour called _à éclisse_, or _à écrevisse_, worn at a certain +period by the halberdiers, must not be passed over; it received this +name because the cuirass was made of horizontal plates (_éclisses_), +three or four inches in width, which, though they covered the entire +body, did not in any way impede its movements. + +We must, however, refer to a peculiarity in this armour which prevented +its general adoption; it was that as the movement or “play” of the +_éclisses_ made it convenient to wear, so from this flexibility it was +found that the plates frequently became disconnected, and thus left a +part of the body defenceless. In making the _éclisses_ to overlap from +below, regard was had to the usual direction of a sword-cut or +dagger-thrust, which usually came from below; but there was all the more +danger from blows of the _martel_[9] and battle-axe, the stroke of which +weapon was directed downwards. + +Bronzed armour came in about the middle of the sixteenth century, and +was somewhat commonly worn in 1558; it was introduced on account of its +being far more easily kept clean than polished steel. For the same +reason black armour was tried, but the engravings and chasings, the +gildings and damaskeenings were more effective on the greenish ground; +consequently black varnish was given up in favour of bronze. At the end +of the sixteenth century, and during the long civil wars which desolated +France, armour took a variety of shapes, and as regards ornamentation at +least, there was generally to be seen a strange medley of the style of +the previous century with that of the period (Fig. 61). However, the +decline of the use of armour, which became in a measure inevitable, was +at hand. + +De la Noue, an eminent Huguenot officer of the time of Charles IX., +says, in his “Discours Militaires”--“The penetrating power of pikes and +arquebuses has very naturally led to the adoption of armour stronger and +more capable of great resistance than formerly. It is now so heavy that +one is laden with anvils rather than protected by armour. Our +men-at-arms and light cavalry in Henry II.’s time presented a much finer +appearance, with their helmets, their brassarts, tassets,[10] and the +morion,[11] carrying the lance with a flag; their armour was not so +heavy but that a strong man was able to support its weight for +twenty-four hours; but those of the present day are so ponderous that a +young knight of thirty has his shoulders quite crippled.” + +Thus, in endeavouring to make the resistance of armour keep pace with +the improvement in new warlike engines, they rendered it useless; +because the weight was intolerable, especially in warm weather, during +long marches, or in lengthened combats. Having vainly tried to make +suits of armour invulnerable, men began to leave off wearing such +portions as were of minor importance, which by degrees were entirely +discontinued. Under Louis XIII. we see armour undergoing further +modifications, but of fashion rather than of utility: finally, there is +every reason to think that the magnificent armour presented by the +Republic of Venice to Louis XIV., in 1668, and which is now to be seen +in the Museum of Artillery in Paris, was one of the latest sets made in +Europe. + +Let us now retrace our steps to examine a series of arms, the gradual +adoption of which was destined to completely change the art of warfare. + +It is now the almost universal opinion that the invention of +gunpowder,--assumed to have been discovered in 1256, or at all events +its application to artillery, which first dates from 1280,--is due to +Berthold Schwartz, an Augustin friar, born at Fribourg. Some writers, +however, make these dates a century later, and affirm that powder and +cannons were first known from 1330 to 1380. Nevertheless, the employment +of artillery only became general during the wars of Charles-Quint and of +Francis I., that is, towards 1530, or two centuries after its +invention. + +But perhaps in place of giving, as we have done, the unconditional +acceptation to the word _artillery_ which it now has, we ought perhaps +to have said artillery used with gunpowder; for long before the +invention of gunpowder the word _artillery_ was employed when speaking +of all machines or engines of war (Fig. 62). Thus in the middle of the +thirteenth century we find among the _personnel_ of the _artillery_ a +grand master of the crossbow men, masters of the engines, of the +cannoniers (the word _cannon_ was even then applied to the tube forming +one of the principal portions of an engine for hurling projectiles), and +in 1291 we see Philip the Fair appointing a grand master of the +artillery of the Louvre. + +[Illustration: Fig. 62.--Engine for hurling Stones; taken from a +Miniature of the Chevalier au Cygne. (Bibl. Imp. de Paris, No. 340, S. +E.)] + +In order to follow methodically the progress of the manufacture of arms +such as we shall call novel, we will, in the first place, treat +separately of the engines of large calibre which were first employed, +and then of portable arms. + +The earliest allusion to cannons in France is found in 1338, in an +account of the treasurer of war, wherein we read:--“To Henri de +Vaumechon, for buying powder and other necessaries for cannons,” which +had been used at the siege of Puy-Guilhem, in Périgord. + +In Froissart, we next find that, in 1340, the inhabitants of Quesnoy, +when repelling the attack of the French, made use of bombards and cannon +which hurled huge bolts at the besiegers. But the statement of Villani, +that the English were indebted to the employment of artillery for the +victory of Crécy, in 1346, must be treated as a pure invention, because +it is certain that the firearms which may have been in use at that time +were in no way suited to field warfare; and that they were only employed +with the older engines in the attack and defence of fortresses. Not only +did their cumbrous weight and the rude construction of their carriages +render them extremely difficult of transport, but, intended as they were +to be employed as catapults, they were generally constructed for hurling +heavy projectiles, by causing these to describe a curved line, like +modern shells; and their shape is, in fact, much more like that of our +mortars than of cannon (Fig. 63). + +[Illustration: Fig. 63.--Bombards on fixed and rolling carriages. (From +the MSS. 851 and 852, Bibl. Imp. de Paris.)] + +“It would seem,” says M. de Saulcy, “that, in loading them, hollow +cylinders (_manchons_), or movable chambers, were used, in which the +charge was previously laid; and these fitted, by means of a wedge, into +the body of the piece. Sometimes these cylinders were at the side, and +formed a right angle with the axis of the piece, but usually they fitted +into the breech, of which they formed a prolongation.” + +The name _bombards_, which we have just used, and which is derived, as +we may conclude, from the Greek _bombos_ (noise), was the first employed +for designating cannon; but these engines were so imperfect in +principle, and so feeble in power, that catapults, which had played so +signal a part in sieges during the Middle Ages, were used in preference +when very heavy projectiles had to be hurled (Fig. 64). + +[Illustration: Fig. 64.--Mangonneau; an Engine of War of the Fifteenth +Century. (Miniature in the MS. 7,239, Bibl. Imp. of Paris.)] + +Originally the piece rested, as it were, fixedly on a massive support; +but soon the means of sighting had to be considered; thus we see +depicted in early manuscripts pieces that could be moved up and down by +means of trunnions; or which were elevated or depressed for firing by a +sort of tail or long projection behind the tube; at other times the +muzzle of the cannon is sustained by a fork more or less buried in the +ground. This bombard, attached to a platform on wheels, received the +denomination of _cerbotana ambulatoria_; this last word conveying the +idea of the movability of the engine. + +We have seen that projectiles were of stone, but there is no doubt that +from the fourteenth century they were also made of metal; that was +nothing new, for ancient engines of war, including the sling, threw +leaden balls and masses of red-hot iron. No doubt it was with the object +of giving the largest size possible to projectiles of artillery by means +of powder that stone was used; which, in the state of the art at that +time, was much better adapted than metal for large balls. + +Christine of Pisa, who wrote in the time of Charles VI. the “Livre des +Faits d’Armes et de Chevalrie,” has left us a collection of very +interesting details of the condition of artillery used with powder, +which, as early as the fifteenth century, had become much more extended +than would be easily believed; moreover, in the descriptions this author +gives of armaments, or of narratives of battles, we almost always still +see catapults, the large cross-bows, &c., appearing by the side of +cannon; a certain proof that the use of powder found its equivalent in +more than one instance in the ancient means of the propulsion of +projectiles. + +[Illustration: Fig. 65.--Earliest Models of Cannon. In the Tower of +London.] + +Valturio, an Italian writer, whose treatise on military art was first +printed in 1472, has described and drawn all the engines of war then in +use. Cannons are not forgotten. We observe that the greater number of +these pieces have no longer any box forming a movable chamber; this +implies an important advance in the art of making them; but, on the +other hand, these cannons, bound with cords to a block of wood, or +resting on platforms, must have been very difficult to move. + +At this period pieces of the largest calibre, which projected enormous +balls of stone, were more commonly called _bombards_; mortars, the very +short cannons throwing heated projectiles; cannons, pieces of medium +calibre carrying iron projectiles (Fig. 65); culverins, the long pieces +loaded with leaden balls, which, as well as the powder, were rammed in +with an iron rod; hand-cannons, or _bâtons à feu_ (Fig. 66), were in a +manner portable, for if they were handled by one man, it was never +without his having recourse to another for firing them. + +This last-named term, _bâtons à feu_, like that of _cannon_, existed +before the invention of gunpowder. As swords and lances had often been +designated under the generic name of _bâtons_, it followed that the name +which implied arms in general should also be applied to the earliest +portable firearms. In ancient royal ordinances we even see the term +_gros bâtons_ used to designate large pieces of artillery. + +[Illustration: Fig. 66.--Hand Cannon (or _Bâton à feu_), taken from a +piece of Tapestry belonging to the Church of Notre Dame de Nantilly, +Saumur.] + +According to M. de Saulcy, the most important improvement ever made in +artillery is certainly that which consisted in placing a gun with +trunnions on a carriage _à flasques_--upright beams of wood, between +which the gun can oscillate, and united by cross-pieces; this carriage +was mounted on wheels, and admitted of the gun being inclined by the +simple use of a wedge of wood placed under the breech. But, strangely +enough, it is most difficult to state precisely the date of this +improvement. Nevertheless, circumstances tend to the belief that it was +between 1476 and 1494--that is, during the reigns of Louis XI. and of +Charles VIII.--that they succeeded in making pieces of all calibres +carrying iron shot, and also in solidly fixing the trunnions, which not +only supported the weight, but also resisted the recoil of the cannon. +The carriages for these guns were mounted on wheels. From this period +the art of fortifying towns underwent a complete revolution, which +suddenly changed the whole system. + +When, in 1494, Charles VIII. entered Italy to conquer the kingdom of +Naples, the French artillery produced universal admiration. The Italians +had only iron guns, drawn by bullocks in rear of the army, and more for +appearance than for use. After the first discharge it was some hours +before the gun was ready for a second. The French had lighter cannon of +bronze, drawn by horses, and moved with so much order that their +transport hardly delayed the march of the army; they planted their +batteries with incredible promptitude, considering the period, and the +rounds were as quickly delivered as they were well aimed. Cotemporaneous +Italian writers say that the French used almost exclusively iron shot, +and that the guns, both of large and small calibre, were admirably +balanced on their carriages. + +Yet no single specimen, or even a drawing, of this remarkable artillery +has been handed down to us. The Museum of Artillery does, indeed, +possess one small piece, on which, between the trunnions and the breech, +is this inscription:--“Presented by Charles VIII. to Bartemi, Lord of +Pins, captain of the bands of artillery, in 1490.” This cannon presents +nothing remarkable in its construction, for we already recognise the +form, one that has scarcely varied since then, and which, it seems, was +definitely adopted under Louis XII. and Francis I. Of this period we +still have two magnificent bronze cannons. They were found at Algiers in +1830; the porcupine, the salamander, and the fleur-de-lys that ornament +them, made their origin known. + +Artillery, which in the reign of Charles VIII. had become an important +arm, and had, besides, the prestige of success in Italy, became a +subject to which particular attention was given in succeeding reigns. +But, we again say, the true principles of manufacture and mounting were +already well ascertained, and only improvements in matters of detail +remained to be discovered. + +The Armoury Real of Madrid contains a curious _dragonneau_,[12] cast at +Liège in 1503, which figured in the siege of Santander in 1511 (Fig. +67). The carriage, consisting of a single piece of carved oak, is by its +delicacy and finish worthy of sustaining this masterpiece of +bronze-work, which presents a double interest, first as regards art, and +then on account of the rapid advance already made in firearms; for this +_dragonneau_ has a double barrel, and is loaded at the breech. + +[Illustration: Fig. 67.--Double-barrelled Dragonneau. Armoury Real of +Madrid.] + +Having arrived at this point, let us again retrace our steps, in order +to note, and rapidly follow from its origin, the progress of firearms. + +The earliest of these used in the middle of the fourteenth century were +called hand-cannon, and were merely formed of an iron tube pierced with +a vent, without stock or lock. + +A manuscript of that period represents a warrior who, standing on one of +those little movable towers then forming part of the siege _matériel_, +is shooting a stone with a gun of this description. The piece is resting +on the parapet. By the side a sling is placed with its stone--a +circumstance which indicates the relative power of the hand-cannon, as +no doubt each engine was to be used alternately. In another place is a +horseman holding a small gun with a prolongation; the muzzle is +supported by a prong fixed on the pommel of the saddle. Thus it was +impossible for him to take aim, and he applied the fire with his hand. + +A little later, to prevent the effect of the recoil, there was added +below the barrel, a little short of the centre, a sort of hook, intended +to serve the purpose of checking the piece. When fired, it was supported +on a fork or on a wall; hence the name of _arquebuse à croc_, which took +the place of that of _canon à main_. + +[Illustration: Fig. 68.--Arquebusier. Drawn and Engraved by J. Amman.] + +The _arquebuse à croc_ sometimes weighed from fifty to sixty pounds, +measured from five to six feet in length, and in principle was chiefly +adapted for firing from a wall; it was lightened a little that it might +be used by foot-soldiers, who, however, never fired it without a fixed +or a movable rest. + +The inconvenience of applying fire with the hand, which, moreover, +prevented the right direction of the missile, was soon partially +superseded by adapting to the barrel a stock to fire from the shoulder, +and a lock for a match, called a _serpentin_, which had only to be let +down to ignite the powder at the touch-hole. This was the matchlock +arquebus still used by certain Eastern nations in our time, and which +secured victory to the Spaniards at the battle of Pavia. + +Although the matchlock arquebus, which was made lighter, and was then +called _mousquet_, continued to be the usual arm of infantry until the +time of Louis XIII., many serious objections to the use of the +_serpentin_ continued. It compelled the soldier always to have a lighted +match, or some means of striking a light. Besides, for nearly each shot +it was necessary so to regulate the match that the end of it, which was +placed in the head of the _serpentin_ (lock), should come exactly into +the priming-pan; then the priming-pan had to be opened; these operations +were, so to speak, impossible for mounted men, who at the same time had +to manage their horses. + +[Illustration: Fig. 69.--Arquebus with Wheel and Match.] + +About 1517 the Germans invented the screw-plate called _à +rouet_,--wheel-lock (Fig. 69). + +To the Spaniards is due the merit of the improvement that followed, the +type of which is still in a measure perpetuated in our percussion guns; +which, in their turn, have just been replaced by the needle-gun. The +Spanish screw-plate, often called the _miquelet_ screw-plate, had on the +outside a spring, which pressed, at the extremity of its movable limb, +on one of the catches of the hammer; when the gun was cocked the other +catch pressed against a pin which projected from the inside and +traversed the screw-plate; this pin could be removed, and then the +spring acted on the hammer, which was no longer held back; the flint +(for at that time a flint was fitted to the gun) struck upon a ribbed +plate of steel forming part of the cover of the priming-pan, the action +of the flint on the plate produced the fire. + +Among the arms in use during the sixteenth century was one called +_petrinal_ or _poitrinal_ (petronel), on account of the bent stock, +which rested on the chest. This short and heavy arquebus, which could +only throw balls, but of a very large size, to a short distance, was +usually suspended from the shoulder by a strap or a broad cross-belt. + +Light troops were armed with these guns, and took the name of +_carabins_; from this the weapon was next called _carabine_--a +designation which since then has received quite another meaning. + +[Illustration: Fig. 70.--Battle-axe and Pistol of the 16th Century. +(Museum of Artillery, Paris.)] + +Then followed the _pistoles_ and the _pistolets_, thus named, it is +said, because they were invented at Pistoia; but, with other +etymologists, we can also believe that they owed the name to the fact of +their bore being of equal diameter with that of the _pistole_, a coin of +the time. The earliest pistols were made with wheels (_à rouet_), and +the barrel did not measure more than a foot in length. Subsequently they +varied in shape and in use; some were made which fired several shots in +succession, and in other cases they attempted to combine a pistol with +the dagger or the battle-axe. (Fig. 70, &c.) This is a notably fine +specimen. + +We must not forget to note, in what may be called _les armes de luxe_, +the joint application of the match-holder and the wheel to +highly-finished arms, this combination being available. + +The screw-plate _à miquelet_, improved by French experiments, led to the +mechanism called flint-lock (_fusil_). There were also then pistols and +arquebuses with flint-locks, as formerly there had been pistols and +arquebuses with wheels. Subsequently the explanatory became the absolute +term, and the entire weapon was known as _fusil_. + +[Illustration: Fig. 71.--Banner of the Sword-cutlers of Angers.] + + + + +CARRIAGES AND SADDLERY. + + Horsemanship among the Ancients.--The Riding-horse and the + Carriage-horse.--Chariots armed with Scythes.--Vehicles of the + Romans, the Gauls, and the Franks: the Carruca, the Petoritum, the + Cisium, the Plaustrum, the Basterna, the Carpentum.--Different + kinds of Saddle-horses in the Days of Chivalry.--The Spur a + distinctive Sign of Nobility: its Origin.--The Saddle, its Origin + and its Modifications.--The Tilter.--Carriages.--The Mules of + Magistrates.--Corporations of Saddlers and Harness-makers, + Lorimers, Coachmakers, Chapuiseurs, Blazonniers, and + Saddle-coverers. + + +THE horse has been described by Buffon as “the noblest conquest made by +man.” Historians, both, sacred and profane, inform us that the conquest +dates from the most remote ages. In the Book of Job we have this +magnificent description:--“Then the Lord said, Hast thou given the horse +strength? hast thou clothed his neck with thunder? Canst thou make him +afraid as a grasshopper? the glory of his nostrils is terrible. He +paweth in the valley, and rejoiceth in his strength: he goeth on to meet +the armed men. He mocketh at fear, and is not affrighted; neither +turneth he back from the sword. The quiver rattleth against him, the +glittering spear and the shield. He swalloweth the ground with +fierceness and rage; neither believeth he that it is the sound of the +trumpet. He saith among the trumpets, Ha, ha; and he smelleth the battle +afar off.” The sacred writer is here referring expressly to the fiery +animal trained for war, and obedient to the master who has trained him. + +Xenophon, in his “Treatise on Horsemanship” and his “Instructor of +Cavalry,” and Diodorus in his “Histories,” are among the Greeks who +adduce the most numerous testimonies to the honour in which equestrian +exercises were held. Among the Latins, Virgil, in reference to the +funereal games celebrated by Acestes in honour of Anchises, tells us +that the Roman youth were taught equestrian art as practised by the +Trojans. The horse and chariot races, which took place at the solemn +games in Greece, have always been justly celebrated; as were those which +continued in Rome and in all the great cities of the Roman world until +the fifth or sixth century. + +We are disposed to believe that the use of the saddle-horse and the +carriage-horse was introduced about the same time. But it seems that +chariots were rarely mounted by any but chiefs, who fought from that +ambulatory elevation while squires managed the horses. + +[Illustration: Fig. 72.--The Carruca, or Pleasure-Carriage, drawn by a +Pair of Horses, dating from the Fifth to the Tenth Century. (Taken from +a MS. of the Ninth Century, in the Royal Library at Brussels.)] + +To Cyrus the Great is ascribed the first idea of arming chariots with +scythes, which cut to pieces in every direction those who opposed the +progress of the vehicle, or who were thrown down by the violence of the +shock. The same war-carriages were found among the Gauls; for a king +named Bituitus, having been taken prisoner by the Romans, appeared in +his chariot armed with scythes in the triumphal procession of the +general who had conquered him. + +[Illustration: Fig. 73.--Cart drawn by Oxen, end of the Fifteenth +Century. (Taken from the “Chroniques de Hainault,” MS. in the Royal +Library at Brussels.)] + +Riding on horseback was not only practised, but was carried to the +highest degree of perfection, among the nations of antiquity; and the +use of chariots was, in former times, almost general in war and on +certain state occasions. The Romans, and in imitation of them the Gauls +who prided themselves on being skilful carriage-builders, had several +sorts of wheeled vehicles. Those adopted by the Romans and the Gauls, +but discountenanced by the Franks, who preferred to ride on horseback, +were the _carruca_, or _carruque_, with two wheels and a pair of horses +(Fig. 72), richly ornamented with gold, silver, and ivory; the +_pilentum_, a four-wheel carriage with a cloth canopy; the _petoritum_, +an open carriage suitable for rapid travelling; the _cisium_, a +basket-carriage drawn by mules, and used for long journeys; and finally, +various carts--the _plaustrum_, the _serracum_, the _benne_, the +_camuli_ (trucks), &c. These last, which were chiefly employed as +field-carts, continued in use even after pleasure-carriages had entirely +disappeared. There remained, however, independent of mule-litters, the +_basterna_ and _carpentum_, state-carriages of the Merovingian period, +but only queens and ladies of high rank, who were unequal to long +journeys on horseback, indulged in such means of locomotion, while +men--even kings and high personages--would have blushed to be conveyed +like “holy relics,” as picturesquely expressed by one of Charlemagne’s +courtiers; but certainly not at the period of the “lazy kings,” when, as +Boileau has well said,-- + + “In Paris, four oxen, in pace soft and slow, + Drew the indolent monarch, when airing he’d go.” + +“Chivalry,” wrote M. le Marquis de Varenne, “the exercises of which were +the image of war, rendered horsemanship a new art always indispensable +in the education of the nobility; and _chevalier_ soon became synonymous +with a man of good birth.” “The Book of Facts,” by the “Bon Chevalier +Messire Jean le Maingre, called _Baucicaut_, Marshal of France,” written +in the beginning of the fifteenth century, enumerates the exercises +which a youth aspiring to the title of a gentleman had to +undergo:--“They endeavoured to leap (_sailler_) upon a charger, fully +armed; _item_, leaped, without placing the foot in the stirrup, on a +charger in all its armour; _item_, leaped from the ground a-straddle on +to the shoulders of a tall man on a large horse, seizing the man by the +sleeve with one hand, without other assistance; _item_, placing one hand +on the saddle-bow of a large charger, and the other near the ears, +taking him by the mane, and from the level ground jumping to the other +side (_côté_) of the charger.” + +The Chevalier Bayard, while yet page to the Duke of Savoy, and only +seventeen years of age, performed, as his historian relates, wonders in +the meadows of Ainay, at Lyons, before King Charles VIII., “in leaping +on his charger,” and by his management of it creating a favourable +impression of his merits. This will suffice to show the estimation in +which horsemanship was held. No one was regarded as a valiant knight +until he had proved his prowess in jousts and tournaments (Fig. 74) in +the rank of squire. Although his functions were essentially those of +serving, a squire, who ranked higher than a page, was to the knight +rather an auxiliary and a companion than a servant. It was his duty to +carry the arms of the knight, to take charge of his table, his house, +and his horses. On the field of battle he remained in his rear, ready to +defend him, to lift him up if he were overthrown, and to provide him, +when necessary, with another horse or other arms. He guarded the +prisoners captured by the knight, and occasionally fought for him at his +side. + +The principal sign distinguishing knights from squires consisted in the +material of which their spurs were made--of gold for the former, of +silver for the latter. It is well known that, at the disastrous battle +of Courtray, the Flemings collected after the action, from the slain, +four thousand pairs of gold spurs; consequently, four thousand knights +of the army of Philip the Fair had fallen. + +[Illustration: Fig. 74.--A Knight entering the Lists. (From a Miniature +in the “Tournois du Roi René.”)] + +In order to _win his spurs_ (of gold)--an expression become +proverbial--it was indispensable that one who aspired to the honour +should perform some valiant deed, proving him worthy of being “dubbed,” +or armed as a knight. The ceremony of admission commenced by presenting +the spurs; and whosoever conferred the order of chivalry, were he king +or prince, condescended to put on and fasten the spurs for the +recipient. In pursuance of the same principle, when a knight, having +committed a fault or any cowardly act, had incurred blame or correction, +it was by deprivation of, or by changing his spurs, that his degradation +commenced. For a slight offence a herald substituted silver spurs for +those of gold, which lowered a knight to the grade of squire. But in a +case of “forfeiture,” as it was termed, an executioner or a cook cut off +the straps of his spurs, or they were struck off on a dunghill with an +axe: infamy was the future portion of him who had been subjected to that +public disgrace. + +The privilege of wearing spurs was regarded as a mark of independence +and authority; so that when a noble tendered faith and homage to his +sovereign, he was obliged to take off his spurs in token of vassalage. +In 816, ere chivalry had been instituted, an assembly of lords and +bishops prohibited ecclesiastics from adopting the profane fashion of +wearing spurs then prevailing among the higher classes of the clergy. + +The use of the spur appears to date from the most ancient times. The +origin of the word has been much disputed. From the time of Louis le +Débonnaire it was called _spuors_, which has become _sporen_ in Germany, +_sperane_ in Italian, _spur_ in English, _éperon_ in French. The Latins +called it _calcar_ (which originally signified cock’s spur), doubtless +from the form first given to the spur. That form has strangely varied +during centuries. The oldest known shape is that of the spur found in +the tomb of Queen Brunehaut, who died in 613, and which is simply like a +skewer. This seems to have long continued to be the form; but, from the +commencement of the thirteenth to the end of the sixteenth century, the +spur is seen in the form of a rose, or of a star with a turning rowel, +and was mostly fashioned in a very rich and delicate manner. At the +period when horses were clad in steel or leather, the spurs were +necessarily very long, in order to reach the animal’s flanks (Figs. 75 +and 76). The spurs of Godfrey of Bouillon, which have been preserved +(their authenticity is more or less questionable), are in that style. In +the reign of Charles VII. the young nobles wore, rather for show than +for use, spurs the rowel of which was as large as the hand, and fixed at +the end of a metal stem half a foot long. + +If, therefore, from time immemorial every mounted horse “felt the spur,” +there was at least a period when every sort of spur could not be +indiscriminately applied to the flanks of each individual of the equine +race. “There are,” says Brunetto Latini, a writer of the thirteenth +century, in his “Treasury of all Things”--a sort of encyclopædia of the +age--“there are horses of several kinds: chargers, or tall horses, for +the combat, whence the expression, ‘mounting the high horse;’ others, +for gentle exercise, use palfreys, which were also called amblers and +hackneys; others employ pack-horses, _courtants_ (cropped horses), to +carry a load (_somme_).” _Somme_ here signifies a burden, and this, +which we now call baggage, consisted of spare arms and hauberk, which a +knight was careful to take with him when he went to the wars. Mares and +_bât_-horses (horses carrying the _bât_, or load) were reserved for +agriculture and other field-purposes; and it was clearly on that account +that a knight was not allowed to ride them. To make a knight ride upon a +mare was, like the loss of his spurs, one of the most degrading +punishments that could be inflicted on him, and thenceforth “any one who +regarded his own honour would no more have touched that disgraced knight +than a shaven idiot (leper).” + +[Illustration: Fig. 75.--German Spur.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 76.--Italian Spur.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 77.--A Knight armed and mounted for War. (Museum of +Artillery, Paris.)] + +The horses of French knights were without ears or mane; those of the +Germans without tails. According to Carrion-Nisas, the armour of the +horse, and the style in which it was caparisoned, were the cause of +these mutilations. We have elsewhere remarked that if the men were cased +in steel their horses were not less heavily cuirassed (Fig. 77). The +entire armour and appointments of a horse were called the harness; the +plates of steel or leather (for leather also was often used) were called +_bardes_. We find enumerated, not only the articles of which the harness +consisted--_chanfrein_, _nasal_, _flancois_, &c.--but examples are cited +to denote the sumptuousness of this equipment of the horse. We need not, +however, dwell longer here on this subject, that refers more properly to +the manufacture of arms; but a few words must be said regarding the +saddle, which is, if we may use the expression, an implement of +horsemanship, and not a part of the armour. + +The use of saddles seems to have been unknown in early times, and never +to have been introduced among certain nations which, by the way, were +most famous in the art of training the horse and making him serviceable. +The Thessalonians and the Numidians rode on the bare back, without +saddle or stirrups; seated firmly on the horse simply by the pressure of +the knees and the calf of the legs; a position which is still that of +the boldest riders in the East and in Africa. Hippocrates has ascribed +the common and severe diseases of the hips and legs which afflicted the +Scythians to the rider’s want of support on horseback. Galen makes the +same remark regarding the Roman legions, who only introduced the use of +a saddle about the year 340 of the Christian era. The Gauls and Franks +used neither saddles nor stirrups; but when steel armour was adopted, it +would have been impossible for knights to preserve an equilibrium +without the aid of a saddle, or to sustain the slightest shock to which +they were exposed, as armour rendered them in a manner rigid, or with +little flexibility on their large horses. + +They therefore had recourse to a high, or rather a deep, saddle, closely +adhering to the thighs and loins, with large stirrups serving as +supports to the feet. The several parts of the armour being splendidly +ornamented, it followed that the saddles, which also were exposed to +view, were no more neglected than other ornaments of the animal. +Engraved and chased, they were also gilt and painted, and thus, with the +shield, helped to distinguish, by the “devices” they bore, the armed +warrior completely cased in his steel covering (Figs. 78 to 81). + +As to stirrups, of which there certainly is no trace among the Greeks or +the Romans, it may be said they were coeval with the invention of +saddles. They made their appearance in the earliest days of the +Merovingian dynasty; and if we accept the German etymology which the +learned have offered (_streben_, to support one’s self), the name and +the object was introduced by the Franks into Gaul. However that may be, +they were no longer dispensed with, especially in war, and when the +weight of armour rendered their use necessary. They were of course very +large, very massive, and very clumsy in the days of chivalry. When they +diminished in size and weight they were wrought with more care, and +became objects of art, charged with ingenious ornaments, and embellished +with engraving, chasing, and gilding. + +[Illustration: Figs. 78 and 79.--Tournament Saddles, ornamented with +Paintings, taken from the Armoury Real, Madrid. Sixteenth Century. +(Communicated by M. Ach. Jubinal.)] + +In accordance with the opinion held by M. de la Varenne, we have already +ascribed the disuse of private carriages to the contempt with which the +Franks regarded a mode of conveyance deemed by them to be effeminate. +But, following the same author, we must observe that a reason might +also be discovered in the wretched condition into which, after the +decline of the Romans, those magnificent roads formed by them in all +their conquered provinces had fallen. In towns, moreover, the streets, +narrow, crooked, and with no regular direction, were very frequently so +many holes and quagmires. Philip Augustus I. had some of the streets of +Paris paved in that _lutèce_[13] which already, at the time of the Roman +conquest, had deserved the significant epithet of _miry_. The princes +and the nobles who, as Molière humorously makes Mascarilla say, feared +“to leave the impression of their shoes in mud,” and could not without +difficulty drive about the towns in carriages, consequently had recourse +to the horse or the mule. The ladies made use of them also; but very +frequently, if not carried in litters, they rode on a pillion behind the +horseman. + +[Illustration: Fig. 80.--The Caparison of the Horse of Isabel the +Catholic. (Communicated by M. Ach. Jubinal.)] + +In the thirteenth century chariots reappeared; but the fashion did not +long prevail, for Philip the Fair discouraged them, in one of the +clauses of his sumptuary ordinance of 1294, by declaring that “no +citizen may have a chariot.” + +The litter continued to be held in repute for processions; but queens +frequently rode on horseback. Isabel of Bavaria rode on a beautiful +palfrey, with her ladies and her maids also on horseback, on the +occasion of her entering Paris to espouse Charles VI. And when Mary of +England, who went to be married to Louis XII., made her entry into +Abbeville, she also, as Robert de la Marck relates, was mounted on a +palfrey, as were most of her ladies, “and the remainder in chariots; and +the king, riding a large, prancing bay horse, came to receive his bride, +with all the gentlemen of his household and of his guard on horseback.” +The meeting of Henry VIII. and Francis I. in the camp of the Field of +the Cloth of Gold, presented the most beautiful display that had ever +been seen of caparisoned horses, decorated and furnished with +unprecedented richness (Fig. 82). + +[Illustration: Fig. 81.--Saddle-cloth. Sixteenth Century.] + +Charles V., in consequence of frequent attacks of gout, was soon +compelled to renounce riding. When he went into the country, or on a +journey, he was generally followed by a litter and a chair. Mules bore +the litter, in which he could recline, while bearers carried the chair, +which was + +[Illustration: ENTRANCE OF THE QUEEN ISABEAU OF BAVARIA INTO PARIS. + +From a Miniature in Froissart’s Chronicles, National Library, Paris.] + +provided with a movable back; its four uprights could be fitted with a +sort of canopy of canvas or leather. + +In 1457 the ambassadors of Ladislaus V., King of Hungary, presented to +Marie of Anjou, Queen of France, a chariot which excited the admiration +of the whole court and the inhabitants of Paris, “because,” as the +historian of the times says, “it was _branlant_ (suspended), and very +rich.” + +[Illustration: Fig. 82.--Henry VIII. in the Camp of the Field of the +Cloth of Gold (1520). From the Bas-reliefs of the Hôtel of the Bourg +Herolde at Rouen.] + +It is difficult to reconcile the inference to be drawn from the +ordinance of Philip the Fair with the assertion of many historians, that +coaches first appeared in France only in the time of Francis I. The +point is still doubtful. Nevertheless, one may suppose historians to +mean that coaches, instead of being the only vehicles employed in Paris +in the time of Francis I., were but chariots of a grander and more +gorgeous description than any seen before that time. But we know for +certain that, during the Middle Ages, the horse and the mule were +generally ridden by everybody, by citizens and by nobles, by women and +by men. The horse-blocks fixed in the streets--too narrow evidently, if +not for one carriage, at least for two to pass each other--and the rings +fastened on doors sufficiently denote that it was so. The mule was +especially ridden by sedate men, such as magistrates and doctors, who +had to “amble” through the towns. “To take care of the mule,” a +proverbial expression signifying to wait impatiently, is derived from +the custom of lawyers’ servants remaining in the court of the Palace to +take charge of the riding-horses or mules belonging to their masters. + +According to Sauval, the two first coaches seen in Paris, and which +called forth the wonder of the people, belonged, one to Queen Claude, +the first wife of Francis I.; and the other to Diana of Poitiers, his +mistress. + +[Illustration: Fig. 83.--Sedan-chair of Charles V. (Armoury Real, +Madrid.)] + +The fashion was soon followed; so much so, that even where the sumptuary +laws were still regarded as efficient, we find parliament entreating +Charles IX. to prohibit the circulation of coaches (_coches_) through +the town. The magistrates continued, until the commencement of the +seventeenth century, to attend at the courts of justice on their mules. +Christopher of Thou, father of the celebrated historian, and first +President of Parliament, was the first who came thither in his carriage; +but only because he suffered from gout, for his wife continued to ride +on horseback, seated pillion-fashion behind a servant. + +Henry IV. had only one carriage. “I shall be unable to go and see you,” +he one day wrote to Sully, “for my wife uses my coach (_coche_).” These +coaches were neither elegant nor convenient. For doors they were +provided with leathern aprons, which were drawn or opened for entrance +or exit, with similar curtains to protect against the rain or the sun. + +Marshal Bassompierre, in the time of Louis XIII., had a glass coach made +for him, which was regarded as a real marvel: it originated the impulse +which has led to the productive era of modern coach-building. + +Formerly there were in Paris, as appears from numerous documents, +several corporations representing the saddler’s trade. First came the +_selliers-bourreliers_, and the _selliers-lormiers-carrossiers_. The +privileges of the first secured to them specially the manufacture of +saddles and harness (collars and other articles for draught). The second +made also carriages, bridles, reins, &c. Another very ancient +corporation was that of the _lormiers-éperonniers_--“artisans,” says the +Glossary of Jean de Garlande, “whom the military nobles greatly +patronised, because they manufactured silvered and gilt spurs, metal +breastplates for their horses, and well-executed bits.” There were also +_chapuissiers_, who made saddle-bows and pack-frames for the beasts of +burden, which were mostly manufactured of alder-wood. + +The _blazenniers_ and _cuireurs_ then covered with leather the packs and +the saddles prepared by the _chapuissiers_; and, finally, +saddle-painters were employed to ornament them, either in compliance +with fashion, which has always been omnipotent in France, or according +to the laws of heraldry, when intended for men of rank for purposes of +state or war. + +[Illustration: Fig. 84.--Banner of the Corporation of the Saddlers of +Tonnerre.] + + + + +GOLD AND SILVER WORK. + + Its Antiquity.--The Trésor de Guarrazar.--The Merovingian and + Carlovingian Periods.--Ecclesiastical Jewellery.--Pre-eminence of + the Byzantine Goldsmiths.--Progress of the Art consequent on the + Crusades.--The Gold and Enamels of Limoges.--Jewellery ceases to be + restricted to Purposes of Religion.--Transparent Enamels.--Jean of + Pisa, Agnolo of Sienna, Ghiberti.--Great Painters and Sculptors + from the Goldsmiths’ Workshops.--Benvenuto Cellini.--The Goldsmiths + of Paris. + + +In the remarks upon furniture, we were compelled to trespass on the +domain which we now again approach; for, having to trace the history of +secular and religious luxury, we cannot but frequently encounter the +goldsmiths and their splendid works. It will thus happen more than once +that we shall have to indicate briefly certain important facts already +described, in some details, in preceding chapters. + +It is known that in old times, even the most remote, the goldsmith’s art +flourished. There is scarcely any ancient narrative which does not +allude to jewels; and every day the discovery of precious objects, found +in ruins and in tombs, still attests the high state of perfection the +art of gold and silver work had attained among races long since extinct. + +The Gauls, when under Roman dominion, applied themselves successfully to +the business of the gold-worker. We may again say that the triumph of +the Christian religion, under Constantine the Great, while encouraging +the interior decoration of places of worship, added a fresh impulse to +the development of this beautiful art. + +The popes succeeding St. Sylvester (who had stimulated the liberality of +Constantine) continued to accumulate, in the churches at Rome, the most +costly and massive articles of gold-work. Symmachus (498 to 514) alone, +according to a calculation made by Seroux d’Agincourt, enriched the +treasures of the basilicas to the amount of 130 pounds weight of gold, +and 1,700 of silver, forming the material of objects most finely +wrought. It was from the very court of the Greek emperors that the +examples of this magnificence were derived; for we hear St. John +Chrysostom exclaiming, “All our admiration is at present reserved for +the goldsmiths and the weavers;” and it is well known that in +consequence of his bold indiscretion in rebuking the extravagance of the +Empress Eudoxia, this eloquent Father of the Church expiated in exile +and persecutions his ardent zeal and his sincerity. + +[Illustration: Fig. 85.--Gallic Bracelet, from a Cabinet of Antiquities. +(Imp. Library, Paris.)] + +The brilliant specimens of the gold-work of the Visigoths, which, in +1858, were exhumed in the field of Guarrazar, near Toledo, and which +have been obtained for the Cluny Museum, throw a new light on the +monuments of that period. Far from indicating any original style, they +afford further proof that the barbarians who came from the North became +subjected, in the arts, to Byzantine influence. The most remarkable, not +only in its dimensions and extreme richness, but in the peculiarity of +its ornaments, is a votive crown, intended to be hung, according to the +custom of those times, in a sacred place--that of Recesvinthe, who +reigned over the Goths of Spain from 653 to 672. It is composed of a +large fillet, jointed, and formed of a double plate of the finest gold. +Thirty uncut sapphires and as many pearls, regularly alternating, +arranged in three rows and in quincunxes,[14] are seen on its exterior +circle. Chased ornaments occupy the spaces between the stones. The +votive crown of King Suintila, which we here reproduce (Fig. 86), is +fully as rich, and about thirty years older. + +[Illustration: GOLD CROSSES OF A KING OF THE GOTHS. + +Found at Guarrazar. Seventh Century. (Museum of the Hotel Cluny) (Taken +from the work of M. Ferdinand de Lasteyrie.)] + +It is of massive gold, ornamented with sapphires and pearls arranged in +rose-pattern, and set off by two borders similarly set with delicate +stones. But the originality of this precious gem consists in the letters +hanging as pendants from its lower border. These letters, open-worked, +are filled with small pieces of red glass set in gold; their combination +presents the following inscription:--“_Suintilanus Rex offeret_” +(offering of the King Suintila). Each of them is suspended from the +fillet by a chain with double links, sustaining a pendant of violet +sapphire, pear-shaped. Finally, the crown is suspended by four chains +attached to a circular top of rock-crystal. + +[Illustration: Fig. 86.--Votive Crown of Suintila, King of the Visigoths +from 621 to 631. (Armoury Real, Madrid.)] + +“Five of the crowns so fortunately discovered at Guarrazar,” says M. de +Lasteyrie, “have crosses. These, attached by a chain to the same +circular top, were evidently intended to remain suspended across the +circle of the crown.” The cross belonging to the crown of Recesvinthe is +by far the richest; eight large pearls and six sapphires, all mounted in +open-work, adorn the front. The four other crosses are of the form which +in heraldry is called _croix patée_; but they differ in size and in the +ornaments with which they are enriched. + +We have already stated that the kings and grandees of the Merovingian +period displayed in their plate and in some of their state-furniture a +richness of gold-work the profuseness of which was ordinarily opposed to +good taste. We have seen at his work the celebrated Saint Eloi, +bishop-goldsmith; and we have mentioned not only his remarkable +productions, but also the enduring influence he exercised over a whole +historical period of art. Finally, we have observed that +Charlemagne--whose object seems to have been not only to imitate +Constantine, but to surpass him--endowed the churches magnificently with +works of art, without prejudice to the numberless splendours which his +palaces contained. + +[Illustration: Fig. 87.--The Sword of Charlemagne. Preserved in the +Imperial Treasury at Vienna.] + +According to a tradition, the loss of most of the beautiful objects of +gold-work belonging to that monarch may have been owing to the +circumstance that they were disposed around him in the sepulchral +chamber where the body was deposited after death; and the emperors of +Germany, his successors, may not have scrupled to appropriate those +riches, of which some rare specimens, particularly his diadem and sword, +are still preserved in the Museum of Vienna (Figs. 87 and 88). + +Ecclesiastical display, notably extinct during the period of trouble and +suffering through which the Church passed in the seventh and eighth +centuries, and to which the power of Charlemagne was to put an end, +manifested itself in an extraordinary degree from that time. For +example, it was calculated that under Leo III., who occupied the +pontifical chair from 795 to 816, the weight of the plate which the Pope +gave to enrich the churches, amounted to not less than 1,075 pounds of +gold and 24,744 pounds of silver! + +[Illustration: Fig. 88.--Diadem of Charlemagne. Preserved in the +Imperial Treasury at Vienna.] + +To that period belongs the famous gold altar of the basilica of St. +Ambrose of Milan, executed in 835, by order of Archbishop Angilbert, by +Volvinius; and which, notwithstanding its immense intrinsic value, has +come down to our time. “The four sides of this monument,” says M. +Labarte, “are of extreme richness. The front, entirely of gold, is +divided into three panels by a border of enamel. The centre panel +represents a cross of four equal projections, formed by fillets of +ornaments in enamel, alternating with precious stones uncut but +polished. Christ is seated in the centre of the cross. The symbols of +the Evangelists occupy its branches. Three of the Apostles are placed in +each angle. All these figures are in relief. The right and left panels +contain each six bas-reliefs, the subjects of which are taken from the +life of Christ; they are encircled by borders of enamels and precious +stones alternately disposed. The two sides, in silver relieved with +gold, exhibit very rich crosses, treated in the same style as the +borders. The back, which is also of silver relieved with gold, is +likewise divided in three large panels; that in the centre contains four +medallions, and each of the others six bas-reliefs, of which the life of +St. Ambrose supplied the subjects. In one of the medallions of the +centre panel is seen St. Ambrose receiving the gold altar from the hands +of Archbishop Angilbert; in the other, St. Ambrose is giving his +benediction to Volvinius, the master goldsmith (_magister faber_), as he +is designated in the inscription transmitting to us the name of the +author of this work, of which no description can give an exact idea.” + +It was not Italy alone which possessed skilful goldsmiths, and +encouraged them. We have in particular, among other enlightened and +active supporters of ecclesiastical gold-work, a succession of the +bishops of Auxerre, to whom must be added Hincmar, bishop of Rheims, who +caused a splendid shrine to be made for the relics of the illustrious +patron of his church. It was cased in plates of silver, and statues of +twelve bishops adorned its borders. + +But, notwithstanding all its artistic magnificence, the jewellery of the +West could only appear to be the reflex of the wonders produced at the +same epoch by the goldsmiths of the East, or the Byzantines, to adopt a +term generally sanctioned. + +One of the most curious specimens of Byzantine art, preserved in Russia, +is a gold reliquary lined with a plate of silver, in the centre of which +is an embossed representation of the Crucifixion. Above the head, on a +gilt nimbus, is an inscription in Greek, “Jesus Christ, King of Glory.” +This treasure, remarkable for its extreme finish, is covered with a +mosaic of precious stones of different colours, in partitions of gold; +the cross being quartered in enamel, with silver filigree. At the back +the names of the archimandrite Nicolos are engraved. It is a work of the +tenth century, and was found in the Iberian monastery on Mount Athos. + +[Illustration: Fig. 89.--Byzantine Reliquary, in Enamel, brought from +Mount Athos. Tenth Century. (Collection of M. Sebastianof.)] + +If rare specimens only of jewellery have come down to us of a date prior +to the eleventh century, this may be accounted for not merely by their +intrinsic value having indicated them to the uncivilised as fit objects +of plunder during the invasions which took place after the reign of +Charlemagne, but also, as we have elsewhere remarked, by the +re-introduction of church furniture, which was in some measure a +necessary result of renovated architecture. It was right to adapt the +style of plate to that of the edifice it was to adorn. The forms which +were then employed for various objects of church-service showed the +influence of the severe style derived from the original Byzantine type; +the latter, moreover, explained itself by the repute, especially in +metallurgy, enjoyed by the city of Constantine, to which the East +generally had recourse when taking in hand any work of importance. + +The _German_ school particularly would acquire a Byzantine character, +owing to the marriage of the Emperor Otho II. with the Greek princess +Theophania (972)--an alliance which naturally bound the two empires in +closer ties, and attracted a considerable number of artists and artisans +to Germany from the East. Of the works of that period still in +existence, one of the most remarkable is the rich gold cover of the book +of the Gospels, now in the Royal Library, Munich; on which are executed, +in the embossed style, various bas-reliefs of great delicacy, and +designed with the purity at that time distinguishing the Greek school. + +[Illustration: Fig. 90.--Altar of Gold, presented to the ancient +Cathedral of Basle by the Emperor Henry II., now in the Cluny Museum.] + +The Emperor Henry II. was therefore welcomed (_bien-venu_), and, if one +may say so, well served by the condition of art in Germany, when, +elevated to the throne in 1002, and inspired by ardent piety, he sought, +by princely liberality to the churches, to surpass even Constantine and + +[Illustration: Fig. 91.--Enamelled Shrine, in Limoges Work of the +Twelfth Century. (Museum of Cluny.)] + +Charlemagne. It is to Henry that the Cathedral of Basle owes the +decorations of the altar, to which none can be compared for richness, +except that of Milan; yet without recalling it by its style, which has +lost every trace of the antique, and is a clearly-pronounced type of the +art which the Middle Ages were to create as their own. It is right to +mention also the crown of the sainted emperor, and that of his wife, now +preserved in the Treasury of the King of Bavaria; both are in six +jointed parts, making a circle; the former bears figures of winged +angels; the other, stalks with four leaves designed with correctness and +grace, and executed in a manner which evinces the greatest dexterity. +“Moreover,” says M. Labarte, “the taste for jewellery was then generally +diffused throughout Germany; and many prelates followed the example set +by the emperor. Willigis, the first Archbishop of Mayence, may be cited; +he endowed his church with a crucifix weighing 600 pounds, the several +parts of which were adjusted with such art that each could be detached +at the joints; and Bernward, Bishop of Hildesheim, who, like St. Eloi, +was himself a celebrated goldsmith, and to whom is ascribed a crucifix +enriched with precious stones and filigrees, and two magnificent +candelabra, which still constitute a portion of the treasures of the +church whereof he was the pastor.” + +About the same period--that is, in the early days of the eleventh +century--a monk of Dreux, named Odorain, who had made himself famous in +France by his works in precious metals, executed a large number of +objects for King Robert, intended for the churches the monarch had +founded. + +[Illustration: Fig. 92.--Shrine in Copper Gilt. (End of the Twelfth +Century.)] + +It has been remarked in the preceding chapter, that the Crusades gave a +great impulse to the goldsmith’s art in Europe, in consequence of the +great demand for shrines and reliquaries intended for the reception of +the venerated remains of saints which the soldiers of the faith brought +back from their distant expeditions (Figs. 91 and 92). The offerings of +consecrated vessels and of altar-fronts were also multiplied. The Holy +Scriptures received cases and coverings which were so many splendid +works entrusted to the goldsmiths. To speak truly, had it not been for +the essentially religious direction which, at that period, certain +departments of luxury acquired by the Crusaders in the East had taken, +we might perhaps have seen the arts, that only in the West recommenced +a real existence, become extinguished, and in a manner perish in the +first burst of their revival. + +It is chiefly to the minister of Louis le Gros, Suger, Abbot of +Saint-Denis, who died in 1152, that the honour of this consecration of +arts is due, for he distinctively proclaimed himself their protector; he +endeavoured to render legitimate their position in the State, by +opposing their pious aims to the too exclusive censures of St. Bernard +and his disciples. + +Conjointly with the powerful abbot, there is deserving of special +mention a simple monk, Theophilus, an eminent artist who wrote in Latin +a description of the Industrial Arts of his time (_Diversarum Artium +Schedula_), and devoted seventy-nine chapters of his book to that of the +goldsmith. This valuable treatise shows us, in the most unmistakable +manner, that the goldsmiths of the twelfth century must have possessed a +comprehensiveness of knowledge and manipulation, the mere enumeration of +which surprises us the more now that we see industry everywhere tending +to an almost infinite division of labour. At that time the goldsmith was +required to be at once modeller, sculptor, smelter, enameller, +jewel-mounter, and inlay-worker. He had to cast his own models in wax, +as well as to labour with his hammer or embellish with his graver: he +had to make the chalice, the vases, and the pyx, for the metropolitan +churches, on which were lavished all the resources of art; and to +produce, by the ordinary process of punching, the open-work or the +designs of copper intended to ornament the books of the poor (_libri +pauperum_), &c. + +The treasury of the Abbey of Saint-Denis still possessed, at the time of +the Revolution, several _chefs-d’œuvre_ produced by the artists whose +processes are described by Theophilus; especially the rich mounting of a +cup of Oriental agate, bearing the name of Suger, which it is believed +he used for the service of mass; and the mounting of an ancient sardonyx +vase, known as the cup of the Ptolemies, which Charles the Simple had +given to the abbey. Having been deposited, in 1793, in the Cabinet of +Medals, Paris, the mounting of the cup of the Ptolemies and the chalice +of Suger remained there until they were stolen in 1804. + +Among the examples of that period still existing, and which, +conditionally, every one is permitted to inspect, we may distinguish, +with M. Labarte,--in addition to “the great crown of lights” suspended +under the cupola in the cathedral of Aix-la-Chapelle, and the +magnificent shrine in which Frederick I. collected the bones of +Charlemagne,--in the Museum of the Louvre, a vase of rock-crystal +mounted in gold and embellished with gems, presented to Louis VII. by +his wife Eleanora; in the Cluny Museum, several candelabra; in the +Imperial Library in Paris, the covering of a Latin manuscript, numbered +622; a cup of agate onyx (Fig. 93), bordered with a belt of precious +stones raised on a groundwork of filigree; and the beautiful gold +chalice of St. Remy (Fig. 94), which, after having appeared in the +Cabinet of Antiquities, was restored in 1861 to the treasury of the +church of Notre-Dame, Rheims. + +Severe forms and an elevated style were the characteristics of the +jewelled works of the eleventh and twelfth centuries; and, for the +principal elements of accessory embellishment, we most frequently see +pearls, precious stones, with enamelled divisions which, according to +the minute description of Theophilus, are only delicate mosaics whose +various coloured segments are separated by plates of gold. + +[Illustration: Fig. 93.--A Drinking Cup, called Gondole, of Agate; from +the Treasury of the Abbey of Saint-Denis. (Cabinet of Antiquities, Imp. +Library, Paris.)] + +In the days of St. Louis, a period of active and generous piety, there +was (an assertion which may appear hazardous after what we have said of +the zeal of preceding centuries) a remarkable accession to the number +and the splendour of the gifts and offerings of jewellery to the +churches. For instance, it was then that Bonnard, Parisian goldsmith, +assisted by the ablest artisans, devoted two years to the manufacture of +the shrine of + +[Illustration: Fig. 94.--Chalice, said to be of St. Remy. (Treasury of +the Cathedral of Rheims.)] + +St. Geneviève, on which he expended one hundred and ninety-three marks +of silver and seven and a half marks of gold; the mark weighing eight +ounces. The shrine, consecrated in 1212, was in the form of a little +church, with statuettes and bas-reliefs enriched with precious stones. +It was deposited in the French mint in 1793; but the spoil realised only +twenty-three thousand eight hundred and thirty livres. Half a century +earlier, the most celebrated German goldsmiths were engaged during +seventeen years upon the famous reliquary in silver gilt, called the +“Great Relics,” which the cathedral at Aix-la-Chapelle still possesses; +it was fabricated from the gifts deposited in that space of time by the +faithful in the poors’-box of the porch; an edict of the Emperor +Barbarossa having appropriated all the offerings to that object, “so +long as it remained unfinished.” + +Moreover, that period, which may be regarded as denoting the zenith of +the goldsmith’s art for sacred purposes, is also that wherein occurred +the important transition which was to introduce into domestic life the +same lavishness so long devoted only to objects applicable to +ecclesiastical use. But, before entering upon that new phase, we ought +to mention, not without much commendation, the enamelled gold-work of +Limoges, which was greatly celebrated for several centuries. From the +Gallo-Romano period Limoges had acquired a reputation for the works of +its goldsmiths. St. Eloi, the great goldsmith in the time of the +Merovingian kings (Fig. 95), was originally from that country, and he +was working under Alban, a goldsmith, and master of the mint at Limoges, +when his reputation led to his being called to the court of Clotaire II. +The ancient Roman colony had retained its industrial speciality, and +during the Middle Ages was remarkable for the production of works of a +peculiar character, which are supposed to have been fabricated there +prior to the third century, if we may judge from a passage in +Philostratus, a Greek writer of that period. + +This work consisted of a mixed style, inasmuch as the material forming +the ground of the work is copper; and, moreover, the principal effects +are due not less to the skill of the enameller than to the talent of the +worker in metal. The process of fabrication is very simple--that is, in +the way of description--yet the execution must have been extremely +protracted and minute. + +“After having prepared and polished a plate of copper,” says M. Labarte, +whose account we transfer to our own pages, “the artist marked on it all +the parts which were to rise to the surface of the metal, in order to +produce the outlines of the drawing or of the figure he wanted to +represent; then, with gravers and scrapers, he dug deeply in the copper +all the space which the various metals were to cover. In the hollows +thus _champlevés_ (a word sometimes used to signify the mode of +producing this kind of work), he placed the material to be vitrified, +which was afterwards melted in a furnace. When the enamelled piece was +cold, he polished it by various means, so as to bring to the surface of +the enamel all the lines of the drawing produced by the copper. Gilding +was afterwards applied to the parts + +[Illustration: Fig. 95.--Cross of an Altar, ascribed to St. Eloi.] + +of the metal thus preserved. Until the twelfth century, only the +outlines of the drawing ordinarily rose to the surface of the enamel, +and the tints of the flesh, as well as the dresses, were produced by +coloured enamel; in the thirteenth century enamel was no longer used but +to colour the ground-work. The figures were entirely preserved on the +plate of copper, and the outlines of the drawing were then shown by a +delicate engraving on the metal.” + +[Illustration: Fig. 96.--An Abbot’s Enamelled Crozier, made at Limoges. +(Thirteenth Century.)] + +[Illustration: Fig. 97.--A Bishop’s Crozier, which appears to be of +Italian manufacture. (Fourteenth Century. Cathedral of Metz.)] + +Between the enamels partitioned (_cloisonnés_) and the enamels +_champlevés_ the difference, as we can see, is only the first +arrangement of the divisions to receive the several vitrifiable +compositions. Making allowances for the influence of fashion, these two +styles of analogous works were held in almost equal estimation. +Nevertheless, it seems that the preference ought to be assigned to the +goldsmith’s art in Limoges, which, at a time when there was manifested a +demand for private reliquaries and collective offerings to the churches, +had this advantage over the other, that it was much less costly, and +consequently more accessible to all classes (Fig. 96). In the present +day there is scarcely a museum, or even a private collection, that does +not contain some specimen of the ancient Limousine[15] industry. + +With the fourteenth century the splendour of the goldsmith’s art ceases +to display, as its exclusive object, ecclesiastical decoration and +embellishment; but it suddenly became so developed among the laity that +King John (of France) desiring, or pretending to desire, to restore it +to the exclusive line it had till then retained, prohibited by an +ordinance, in 1356, the goldsmiths from “_working_ (fabricating) gold or +silver plate, vases, or silver jewellery, of more than one mark of gold +or silver, excepting for the churches.” + +But it is possible to issue ordinances in order to show the advantage of +evading them, and to benefit exclusively by the exception. This is what +appears to have then occurred; for, in the inventory of the treasury of +Charles V., son and successor of the king who signed the sumptuary edict +of 1356, the value of the various objects of the goldsmith’s art is +estimated at not less than nineteen millions. This document, in which +the greater number of the articles are described to the minutest detail, +would suffice in itself to exhibit a truthful historical view of the art +at that period; and, at all events, it affords a striking idea of the +artistic progress made in that direction, and of the extravagance to +which the trade was subservient. + +When considering the subject of furniture in domestic life, we indicated +the names and the uses of several articles which were displayed on the +tables or sideboards--plateholders, ewers, urns, goblets, &c.; we also +adverted to the numerous and capricious forms they assumed--flowers, +animals, grotesque images; we need not, therefore, recur to the matter; +but we ought not to overlook the jewellery, of all sorts--insignia, or +ornaments of the head-dress, gems, clasps, chains and necklaces, antique +cameos (Fig. 98), which appear in the treasury of the King of France. + +In treating of ecclesiastical furniture we, moreover, observed that the +goldsmith’s art, although devoting itself to secular ornaments, +nevertheless continued to work marvels in the production of objects for +ecclesiastical use; it would be mere repetition to support this +assertion by other examples. + +[Illustration: Fig. 98.--An Ancient Cameo-setting of the time of Charles +V. (Cab. of Ant., Bibl. Imp., Paris.)] + +But, dismissing those two questions, let a contemporary poet raise a +third, which deserves a place here. Eustache Deschamps, who died in +1422, equerry and usher-at-arms to Charles V. and Charles VI., +enumerates the jewels and gems which the female nobility of the time +aspired to possess. “It was indispensable,” he says-- + + “Aux matrones, + Nobles palais et riches trônes; + Et à celles qui se marient + Qui moult tôt (bientôt) leurs pensers varient, + Elles veulent tenir d’usaige ... + Vestements d’or, de draps de soye, + Couronne, chapel et courroye + De fin or, espingle d’argent ... + Puis couvrechiefs à or batus, + A pierres et perles dessus ... + Encor vois-je que leurs maris, + Quand ils reviennent de Paris, + De Reims, de Rouen et de Troyes, + Leur rapportent gants et courroyes ... + Tasses d’argent ou gobelets ... + Bourse de pierreries, + Coulteaux à imagineries, + Espingliers (étuis) taillés à émaux.” + +They desired, moreover, and said that they ought to have given to them-- + + “Pigne (peigne) et miroir d’ivoire ... + Et l’estui qui soit noble et gent (riche et beau), + Pendu à chaines d’argent; + Heures (livres de piété) me fault de Notre-Dame, + Qui soient de soutil (delicat) ouvraige, + D’or et d’azur, riches et cointes (jolies), + Bien ordonnés et bien pointes (peintes), + De fin drap d’or très-bien couvertes, + Et quand elles seront ouvertes, + Deux fermaux (agrafes) d’or qui fermeront.” + +We thus see that, according to the above programme, the jewel-box of a +princess, or of a lady of rank, must have been really splendid. +Unfortunately for us, the specimens of these female ornaments of the +fourteenth and fifteenth centuries are still more rare in collections +than objects of massive plate; and one is almost left to imagine their +appearance and their richness from the entries in inventories, that +chief source of information regarding the times of which the memorials +have disappeared. + +It is there we see the costliness of the _fermails_, or clasps of cloaks +and copes, called also _pectoraux_, because they fastened the garments +across the breast; girdles, chaplets (head-dresses), portable +reliquaries, and other “little jewels (Fig. 99) _pendants et à pendre_,” +the fashion of which we have restored under the name of _breloques_, and +which represent every variety of object more or less whimsical. We see, +for instance, gold clasps representing a peacock, a fleur-de-lis, two +hands “clasped.” This one is embellished with six sapphires, sixty +pearls, and other large gems; that one with eighteen rubies, and four +emeralds. From a girdle of Charles V., which is made “of scarlet silk +adorned with eight gold mountings,” are suspended “a knife, scissors, +and a pen-knife,” ornamented in gold; the trinkets (pendants) represent +“a man on horseback, a cock holding a mirror in the form of a trefoil,” +or “a stag of pearls with enamelled horns;” or, again, a man mounted on +a double-headed serpent, “playing on a Saracenic horn” (of Saracen +origin). Finally, we remark that in reliquaries a fashion long +established was maintained, which consisted of forming them of a +statuette representing a saint (Fig. 100), or of a subject that +comprised his image, and to which were attached, by a small chain, +relics inlaid in a little tabernacle of gold or silver, preciously +wrought. + +[Illustration: Fig. 99.--Scent-box in Chased Gold. (A French Work of the +Fifteenth Century.)] + +But now the fifteenth century opens out, and with it a period of tumult. +France suddenly beheld that impulse to industry paralyzed, which, to +prosper, requires a condition of affairs very different from sanguinary +civil dissensions and foreign invasion. Not only were the workshops +closed, but princes and nobles were more than once constrained to +appropriate the gorgeous decorations of their tables and their +collections of gems, to pay and arm warriors under their command, or +even to redeem themselves from captivity. + +At that time the goldsmith’s art flourished in the neighbouring country +of Flanders, then quietly submissive to the powerful house of Burgundy, +which, with equal taste and liberality, encouraged the art, which had +installed itself in the principal cities. This was also an epoch of +magnificent productions + +[Illustration: Fig. 100.--Reliquary, Silver-gilt, surmounted by a +Statuette of the Virgin with the Infant Jesus, representing Jeanne +d’Evreux, Queen of France. (Museum of Sovereigns, in the Louvre.)] + +in that country, but not more than one or two examples remain; these are +attributed to Corneille de Bonte, who worked at Ghent, and was + +[Illustration: Fig. 101.--The Ensign of the Collar of the Goldsmiths of +Ghent. (Fifteenth Century.)] + +generally considered the most skilful goldsmith of his time (Figs. 101 +and 102). However that may be, the style of the goldsmith’s art of the +fifteenth century continued, as in the two or three preceding centuries, +conformable to the contemporaneous style of architecture. For instance, +the shrine of Saint-Germain-des-Près, which was of that period, had the +form of a small ogivale[16] church; and some specimens still existing in +Berlin are of the Gothic character, the prevailing style of the edifices +of those times. But an influence was making itself felt that was not +long in entirely modifying the general aspect of the productions of the +trade we are considering. That transformation must have been promoted by +Italy; in the midst of which, in spite of intestine troubles and serious +contentions with other nations, a luxury and opulence prevailed. Genoa, +Venice, Florence, Rome, had long been so many centres where the Fine +Arts struggled for pre-eminence and inspiration. Among the majority of +the wealthy merchants who had + +[Illustration: Fig. 102.--Escutcheon in Silver-gilt, executed by +Corneille de Bonte, in the Fifteenth Century. (Museum of the Hôtel de +Ville, Ghent.)] + +become patricians of those gorgeous republics were found so many +Mæcenases, under whose patronage flourished great artists whom popes and +princes emulously countenanced. “From the moment,” says M. Labarte, +“when the Nicolases, the Jeans of Pisa, and the Giottos, throwing off +the Byzantine yoke, caused Art to emerge from languor and supineness, +that of the goldsmith could no longer find favour in Italy but by +maintaining itself on a level with the progress of sculpture, whose +daughter it was.[17] When we know that the great Donatello,--Philip +Brunelleschi, the bold architect of the dome of Florence,--Ghiberti, the +author of the marvellous doors of the Baptistery, had goldsmiths for +their earliest masters, we may judge what artists the Italian goldsmiths +of that period must have been.” The first in date is the celebrated Jean +of Pisa, son of Nicolas, who, brought from Arezzo in 1286, to sculpture +the marble table of the high-altar, and a group of the Virgin between +St. Gregory and St. Donato, desired to pay tribute to the taste of the +time by ornamenting the altar with those fine chasings on silver +coloured with enamels to which we give the name of translucid enamels in +relief; and also by designing a clasp or jewel with which he decorated +the breast of the Virgin. Both chasings and clasp are now lost. + +To Jean (Giovanni) of Pisa succeeded his pupils Agostino and Agnolo of +Siena. + +In 1316 Andrea of Ognibene executed, for the Cathedral of Pistoia, an +altar-front, which has come down to us, and must have been followed by +more important works. Then come Pietro and Paulo of Arezzo, Ugolino of +Siena, and finally Master Cione,[18] the author of the two silver +bas-reliefs still to be seen on the altar of the Baptistery of Florence. +Master Cione, whose school was numerous, had for his principal pupils +Forzane of Arezzo and Leonardo of Florence, who worked on the two most +noted monuments of the goldsmith’s art which time and depredations have +respected--the altar of Saint-Jacques at Pistoia, and that same altar of +the Baptistery to which the bas-reliefs of Cione were afterwards +adapted. During more than a hundred and fifty years the ornamentation of +these two altars, of which no description can give an idea, was, if we +may so say, the arena wherein all the most famous goldsmiths met. + +At the end of the fourteenth century Luca della Robbia, who, as we have +seen, distinguished himself in ceramic art, and afterwards Brunelleschi, +no less great as an architect than as a sculptor, came forth from the +studio of a goldsmith. At the same period shone Baccioforte and Mazzano +of Placentia, Arditi the Florentine, and Bartoluccio, master of the +famous sculptor Ghiberti, to whom we owe those doors of the Baptistery, +which Michael Angelo pronounced worthy of being placed at the entrance +to Paradise. + +[Illustration: Fig. 103.--Shrine of the Fifteenth Century. (Collection +of Prince Soltykoff.)] + +It is well known that the execution of these doors was, in 1400, +submitted to competition; and it may be said, in honour of the +goldsmith’s art, that Ghiberti, vying with the most celebrated +competitors--for among them were Donatello and Brunelleschi--owed his +triumph, perhaps, to the simple fact that he had treated, as it were by +habit, his model with all the delicacy of the goldsmith’s art. And it +must be added, and to the praise of the great artist, that although in +great reputation for sculptured works of the highest importance, he +adhered faithfully all his life to his first profession, and considered +it not derogatory even to manufacture jewellery. Thus, for example, in +1428 he mounted as a signet for Jean de Medicis, a cornelian said to +have belonged to the treasury of Nero, and he set it as a winged-dragon +emerging from a cluster of ivy leaves; in 1429, for Pope Martin V., a +button of the cope, and a mitre; and in 1439, for Pope Eugene IV., a +golden mitre, embellished with five and a half pounds weight of precious +stones,--its front representing Christ surrounded by numerous cherubs, +and at the back the Virgin in the midst of the four Evangelists. + +During the forty years employed in the execution of the doors of the +Baptistery, Ghiberti continued to derive assistance from several +goldsmiths, who, so guided, could not fail in their turn to become +skilful masters. + +The list would be long of goldsmiths who, by the single force of their +talents, or under the direction of renowned sculptors, competed during +two centuries in the production of the marvellous works with which the +churches of Italy are still crowded; and in fact it would be only a +monotonous detail, the interest of which can scarcely be enhanced by any +description we could give of their works. Nevertheless, we may cite the +most illustrious of them: for instance, Andrea Verrochio, in whose +studio Perugino and Leonardo da Vinci passed their time; Domenichino +Ghirlandajo, so called because when a goldsmith he had invented an +ornament in the form of garlands, of which the ladies of Florence were +passionately fond; he afterwards relinquished the hammer and the graver +for the painter’s pencil; Maso Finiguerra, who, reputed to be the +cleverest niello-worker of his time, engraved a _pax_, or paten, still +preserved in the cabinet of bronzes in Florence; it is acknowledged to +be the plate of the first engraving printed,--the Imperial Library of +Paris possesses the only early proof of it. + +In 1500 was born Benvenuto Cellini, who was to be the embodiment of the +genius of the goldsmith’s art, and who raised it to the zenith of its +power. “Cellini, a Florentine citizen, now a sculptor,” as his +contemporary Vasari relates, “had no equal in the goldsmith’s art when +devoting himself to it in his youth, and was perhaps for many years +without a rival, as well as in the execution of small figures in full +relief and in bas-relief, and all works of that nature. He mounted +precious stones so skilfully, and decked them in such marvellous +settings, with small figures so perfect, and sometimes so original and +with such fanciful taste, that one could not imagine anything better; +nor can we adequately praise the medals which, when he was young, he +engraved with incredible care in gold and silver. At Rome he executed, +for Pope Clement VII., a fastening for the cope, in which he represented +with admirable workmanship the Eternal Father. He also mounted with rare +talent a diamond, cut to a point, and surrounded by several young +children carved in gold. Clement VII. having ordered a gold chalice with +its cup supported by the theological attributes, Benvenuto executed the +work in a surprising manner. Of all the artists who, in his own time, +tried their hands at engraving medals of the Pope, no one succeeded +better, as those well know who possess them or have seen them. Also to +him was entrusted the execution of the coins of Rome; and finer pieces +were never struck. After the death of Clement VII., Benvenuto returned +to Florence, where he engraved the head of Duke Alexander on the coins, +which are so beautiful that to this day several specimens are preserved +as precious antique medals; and rightly so, for in them Benvenuto +surpassed himself. At length he devoted himself to sculpture and to the +art of casting statues. He executed in France, where he was in the +service of Francis I., many works in bronze, silver, and in gold. +Returning to his native country, he was employed by the Duke Cosmo de +Medicis, who at once required of him several works in jewellery, and +afterwards some sculptures.” + +Thus, Benvenuto is at the same time goldsmith (Fig. 104), engraver in +medals, and sculptor, and he excels in these three branches of the art, +as the productions which have survived him attest. Nevertheless, +unfortunately, the greater part of his works in the goldsmith’s art have +been destroyed, or are now confounded with those of his contemporaries, +upon whom Italian taste, combined with his original genius, had +exercised a powerful influence. In France there remains of his works +only a magnificent salt-cellar, which he executed for Francis I.; in +Florence is preserved the mounting of a cup in lapis-lazuli, +representing three anchors in gold enamelled, heightened by diamonds; +also the cover, in gold enamelled, of another cup of rock-crystal. But, +besides the bronze bust of Cosmo I., we may still admire, with the group +of Perseus and Medusa, which ranks among grand sculptures, the reduced +form, or rather the model of that group, which in size approaches +goldsmith’s work; and the bronze pedestal, decorated with statuettes, on +which Perseus is placed; works that enable us to see of what Cellini +was capable as a goldsmith. And, let us repeat, the influence which he +exercised over his contemporaries was immense, as well in Florence as in +Rome, as well in France as in Germany; and, had his work been thought +utterly worthless, he would remain not less justly celebrated for giving +an impulse to his time by imprinting on the art which he professed a +movement as fertile as it was bold. + +[Illustration: Fig. 104.--A Pendant, after a design by Benvenuto +Cellini. Sixteenth Century. (Cabinet of Antiquities, Bibl. Imp., +Paris.)] + +Moreover, in imitation of the monk Theophilus, his predecessor of the +twelfth century, Benvenuto Cellini, after having given practical +example, desired that the theories he had found prevailing, and those +which were due to his faculty for originating, should be preserved for +posterity. A treatise (“Trattato intorno alle otto principali Arti dell +‘Orificeria”), in which he describes and teaches all the best processes +of working in gold, remains one of the most valuable works on the +subject; and even in our days goldsmiths who wish to refer back to the +true sources of their art do not neglect to consult it. + +The artistic style of the celebrated Florentine goldsmith is that of a +period when, by an earnest return to antiquity, the mythological element +was introduced everywhere, even in the Christian sanctuaries. The +character, which we may call autochthone,[19] of the pious and severe +Middle Ages, ceased to influence the production of plastic works, when +the models were taken from the glorious remains of idolatrous Greece and +Rome. The art which the religion of Christ had awakened and upheld +suddenly became again Pagan, and Cellini proved himself one of the +enthusiasts of the ancient temples raised in honour of the gods and +goddesses of Paganism; that is to say, under the impulse given by him, +and in imitation of him, the phalanx of artists, of which he is in a +manner the chief, could not fail to go far on the new road by which he +had travelled among the first. + +When Cellini came to France he found, as he himself says in his book, +that the work consisted “more than elsewhere in _grosserie_” (the +_grosserie_ comprised the church plate, vessels, and silver images), +“and that the works there executed with the hammer had attained a degree +of perfection nowhere else to be met with.” + +The inventory of the plate and jewels of Henry II., among which were +many by Benvenuto Cellini--the inventory prepared at Fontainebleau in +1560--shows us that, after the departure of the Florentine artist, the +French goldsmiths continued to deserve that eulogium; and to comprehend +of what they were capable in the time of Charles IX., it is sufficient +to recall the description, preserved in the archives of Paris, of a +piece of plate which the city had caused to be made to offer as a +present to the king on the occasion of his entry into his capital in +1571. + +“It was,” says that document, “a large pedestal, supported on four +dolphins, and having seated on it Cybele, mother of the gods, +representing the mother of the king, accompanied by the gods Neptune and +Pluto, and the goddess Juno, as Messeigneurs the brothers, and Madame +the sister, of the king. This Cybele was contemplating Jupiter, who +represented our king, and was raised on two columns, the one of gold, +the other of silver, having his device inscribed--‘Pietate et Justitia.’ +Upon this was a large imperial crown, on one side held in the beak of an +eagle perched on the croup of a horse on which Jupiter was mounted; and +on the other side supported by the sceptre he held--thus being, as it +were, deified. At the four corners of the pedestal were the figures of +four kings, his predecessors, all of the same name--that is, Charles the +Great, Charles V., Charles VII., and Charles VIII., who in their time +fulfilled their missions, and their reigns were happy, as we hope will +be that of our king. In the frieze of that pedestal were the battles and +the victories, of all kinds, in which he was engaged; the whole made of +fine silver, gilt with ducat gold, chased, engraved, and in workmanship +so executed that the style surpassed the material.” + +[Illustration: Fig. 105.--Cup of Lapis-lazuli, mounted in Gold enriched +with Rubies, and a Figure in Gold enamelled. (Italian Work of the 16th +Century.)] + +[Illustration: Fig. 106.--Vase of Rock-crystal, mounted in Silver-gilt +and enamelled. (Italian Work of the 16th Century.)] + +That rare piece was the work of Jean Regnard, a Parisian goldsmith; and +the period when such works were produced was precisely that during which +religious wars were about to cause the annihilation of a great number of +the _chefs-d’œuvre_, ancient and modern, of the goldsmith’s art. The new +iconoclasts, the Huguenots, shattered and melted down, wherever they +triumphed, the sacred vessels, the shrines, the reliquaries. Then were +lost the most precious gold-wrought memorials of the times of St. Eloi, +of Charlemagne, of Suger, and of St. Louis. + +At the same period Germany, where the influence of the Italian school +had made itself felt less directly, but which could not escape from its +impulse, possessed also, especially at Nuremburg and Augsburg, +goldsmiths’ workshops of high character; these furnished the empire, and +even foreign countries, with remarkable works. A new career opened to +the German goldsmiths when the cabinet-makers of their country had +invented those _cabinets_, whereof we have already said something +(_vide_ FURNITURE), and in the intricate decoration of which appear +statuettes, silver bas-reliefs, and inlay-work of gold and precious +stones. + +The _treasuries_ and the museums of Germany have succeeded in preserving +many rich objects of that period; but one of the most rare collections +of the kind is that in Berlin, where, in substitution for the originals +in silver which have been melted down, are gathered a great number of +beautiful bas-reliefs in lead, and several vases in tin,--copies of +pieces of plate supposed to be of the sixteenth and seventeenth +centuries. And on this point it may be remarked that the high price of +the material, together with the sumptuary laws, not always admitting of +the possession of gold or silver vases by the citizens, it sometimes +happened that the goldsmiths manufactured a table-service of tin, on +which they bestowed so much pains that these articles were transferred +from the sideboards of citizens to those of princes. The inventory of +the Count d’Angoulême, father of Francis I., alludes to a considerable +table-service of tin. Indeed, several goldsmiths devoted themselves +exclusively to this description of work; and, to this day, the tins of +François Briot, who flourished in the time of Henry II., are regarded as +the most perfect specimens of plate of the sixteenth century. + +However that may be, after Cellini, and until the reign of Louis XIV., +the goldsmith’s art did but follow faithfully in the footsteps of the +Italian master. Elevated by the impulse of the Renaissance, the art +succeeded in maintaining itself in that high position without, however, +any striking individuality discovering itself, until, in a century not +less illustrious than the sixteenth, new masters appeared and imparted +to it additional lustre and magnificence. These are named Ballin, +Delaunay, Julien Defontaine, Labarre, Vincent Petit, Roussel, goldsmiths +and jewellers of Louis XIV., who retained them in his pay, and lodged +them in the Louvre. It was for that prince they produced an imposing +collection of admirable works, for which Le Brun often furnished the +designs, and under an inspiration altogether French, abandoned the +graceful, though rather _fluette_ forms of the Renaissance, and gave to +them a character more diffuse and grand. Then, for a short time, every +article of royal furniture proceeded from the hands of the goldsmith. +But, alas! once more the majority of these marvels must disappear, as +happened to so many others. Even the monarch who had ordered them +despatched his acquisitions to the crucibles of the mint, when, the war +having exhausted the public treasury, he found himself compelled, at +least for example’s sake, to sacrifice his silver plate and to deck his +table with earthenware. + +Having finished this sketch of the goldsmith’s art in general, it may +not be inappropriate to add a brief notice of the more special history +of the French goldsmiths, of which the wealthy corporation may be +considered not only as the most ancient, but as the model of all those +that were formed among us in the Middle Ages. But first, since we have +already referred to the exceptional part taken by the goldsmiths of +Limoges in the industrial movement of that period, we cannot proceed +further without noting another description of works, which, although +derived from the oldest examples, nevertheless gave, and with justice, a +kind of new lustre to the ancient city where the first goldsmiths of +France had distinguished themselves. + +“Towards the end of the fourteenth century,” says M. Labarte, “the taste +for gold and silver articles having led to the disuse of plate of +enamelled copper, the Limousine enamellers endeavoured to discover a new +mode of applying enamel to the reproduction of graphic subjects. Their +researches led them to dispense with the chaser for delineating the +outlines of designs; the metal was entirely concealed under the enamel, +which, spread by the brush, formed altogether both the drawing and the +colouring. The first attempts at this novel painting on copper were +necessarily very imperfect; but the processes gradually improved, until +at length, in 1540, they attained perfection. Prior to that period, the +enamels of Limoges were almost exclusively devoted to the reproduction +of sacred subjects, of which the German school furnished the designs. +But the arrival of Italian artists at the court of Francis I., and the +publication of engravings of the works of Raphael and other great +masters of Italy, gave a new direction to the school of Limoges, which +adopted the style of that of Italy. Il Rosso and Primaticcio painted +cartoons for the Limousine enamellers; and then + +[Illustration: DRAGEOIR, OR TABLE ORNAMENT + +Of Enamelled and Gilt Copper. German, latter part of Sixteenth +Century.] + +they who had previously worked only on plates intended to be set in +diptychs, on caskets, created a new species of goldsmith’s art. Basins, +ewers, cups, salt-cellars, vases, and utensils of all sorts, +manufactured with thin sheet-copper in the most elegant forms were +decorated with their rich and brilliant paintings.” + +In the highest rank of artists who have rendered this attractive work +illustrious we must place Léonard (Limousin), painter to Francis I., who +was the first director of the royal manufacture of enamels founded by +that king at Limoges. Then followed Pierre Raymond (Figs. 107 to 110), +whose works date from 1534 to 1578, the Penicauds, Courteys, Martial +Raymond, Mercier, and Jean Limousin, enameller to Anne of Austria. + +[Illustration: Figs. 107 and 108.--Faces of an Hexagonal Enamelled +Salt-cellar, representing the Labours of Hercules. Executed at Limoges, +for Francis I., by Pierre Raymond.] + +With the remark that, at the end of the sixteenth century, Venice, +doubtless imitating Limoges, also manufactured pieces of plate in +enamelled copper, we return to our national goldsmiths. + +This celebrated corporation could, without much trouble, be traced back +in Gaul to the epoch of the Roman occupation; but it is unnecessary to +search for its origin beyond St. Eloi, who is still its patron, after +having been its founder and protector. Eloi, become prime-minister to +Dagobert I.--thanks in some measure to his merits as a goldsmith, which +distinguished him above all, and gained him the honour of royal +friendship--continued to work no less at his forge as a simple artisan. +“He made for the king,” says the chronicle, “a great number of gold +vases enriched with precious stones, and he worked incessantly, seated +with his servant Thillon, a Saxon by birth, at his side, who followed +the lessons of his master.” + +[Illustration: Fig. 109.--Interior base of a Salt-cellar, executed at +Limoges; with a Portrait of Francis I.] + +This extract seems to indicate that already the goldsmith’s art was +organised as a corporation, and that it comprised three ranks of +artisans--the masters, the journeymen, and the apprentices. Besides, it +is clear that St. Eloi founded two distinct corporations of +goldsmiths--one for secular, the other for religious works, in order +that the objects sacred to worship should not be manufactured by the +same hands that executed those designed for profane uses or worldly +state. The seat of the former in Paris was first the Cité, near the very +abode of St. Eloi long known as the _maison au fèvre_, and surrounding +the monastery of St. Martial. Within the jurisdiction of that monastery +was the space comprised between the streets of La Barillerie, of La +Calandre, Aux Fèves, and of La Vieille Draperie, under the denomination +of “St. Eloi’s Enclosure.” A raging fire destroyed the entire quarter +inhabited by the goldsmiths, excepting the monastery; and the lay +goldsmiths went forth and established themselves as a colony, still +under the auspices of their patron saint, in the shadow of the Church of +St. Paul des Champs, which he had caused to be constructed on the right +bank of the Seine. The assemblage of forges and shops of these artisans +soon formed a sort of suburb, which was called _Clôture_, or _Culture +St. Eloi_. Subsequently some of the goldsmiths returned to the Cité; but +they remained on the Grand-Pont, and returned no more to the streets, +where the cobblers had established themselves. Moreover, the monastery +of St. Martial had become, under the administration of its first abbess, +St. Anne, a branch of the goldsmith’s school which the “Seigneur Eloi” +had established in 631 in the Abbey of Solignac, in the environs of +Limoges. That abbey, whose first abbot, Thillon or Théau--a pupil, or, +as the chronicle expresses it, a servant of St. Eloi--was also a skilful +goldsmith, preserved during several centuries the traditions of its +founder, and furnished not only models, but also skilful workmen, to all +the monastic ateliers of Christendom which exclusively manufactured for +the churches jewelled and enamelled plate. + +[Illustration: Fig. 110.--Ewer in Enamel, of Limoges, by Pierre +Raymond.] + +However, the goldsmiths of Paris engaged in secular works continued to +maintain themselves as a corporation; and their privileges, which they +ascribed to the special regard of Dagobert for St. Eloi, were +recognised, it is said, in 768 by a royal charter, and confirmed in 846 +in a capitulary of Charles the Bald. These goldsmiths worked in gold and +silver only for kings and nobles, whom the strictness of the sumptuary +laws did not reach. The Dictionary of Jean de Garlande informs us that, +in the eleventh century, there were in Paris four classes of workmen in +the goldsmith’s trade--those who coined money (_nummularii_), the +clasp-makers (_firmacularii_), the manufacturers of drinking-goblets +(_cipharii_), and the goldsmiths, properly so called (_aurifabri_). The +ateliers and the shop-windows of these last were on the Pont-au-Change +(Fig. 111), in competition with the money-changers, who for the most +part were Lombards or Italians. From that epoch a rivalry commenced +between these two trade guilds, which only ceased on the complete +downfall of the money-changers. + +[Illustration: Fig. 111.--Interior of the Atelier of Etienne Delaulne, a +celebrated goldsmith of Paris, in the Sixteenth Century. Designed and +engraved by himself.] + +When Etienne Boileau, Provost of Paris in the reign of Louis IX., wrote +in obedience to the legislative designs of the king, his famous “Livre +des Métiers,” to establish the existence of guilds on permanent +foundations, he had scarcely more to do than to transcribe the statutes +of the goldsmiths almost the same as those instituted by St. Eloi, with +the modifications consequent on the new order of things. By the terms of +the ordinances drawn up by Louis, the goldsmiths of Paris were exempt +from the watch, and from all other feudal services; they elected, every +three years, two or three _anciens_ (seniors) “for the protection of +the trade,” and these _anciens_ exercised permanent vigilance over the +works of their colleagues, and over the quality of the gold and silver +material used by them. An apprentice was not admitted as a master until +after ten years’ apprenticeship; and no master could have more than one +apprentice, in addition to those belonging to his own family. The +corporation, so far as concerned the fraternity with respect to works +for charitable and devotional purposes, had a seal (Fig. 116) which +placed it under the patronage of St. Eloi; but, with regard to its +industrial association, it imprinted on manufactured articles a _seing_, +or stamp, which guaranteed the value of the metal. The corporation soon +obtained, from Philip of Valois, a coat-of-arms, which conferred on it a +sort of professional nobility; and acquired, owing to the distinguished +protection extended to it by that king, a position which nevertheless it +did not succeed in preserving in the united constitution of the six +mercantile bodies; for, although it laid claim to the first rank on +account of its antiquity, it was forced, notwithstanding the undeniable +superiority of its works, to be contented with the second, and even to +descend to the third rank. + +[Illustration: Fig. 112.--Stamp of Lyons.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 113.--Stamp of Chartres.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 114.--Stamp of Melun.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 116.--Ancient Corporate Seal of the Goldsmiths of +Paris.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 115.--Stamp of Orléans.] + +The goldsmiths, at the time of the compilation of the code of +professions by Etienne Boileau, were already separated, voluntarily or +otherwise, from several trades which had long appeared in their train; +the _cristalliers_, or lapidaries; the gold and silver beaters; the +embroiderers in _orfroi_ (gold-fringe); the _patenôtriers_ +(bead-stringers) in precious stones lived under their own regulations; +the _monétaires_ (bullion-dealers) remained under the control of the +king and his mint; the _hanapiers_ (drinking-cup makers), the +_fermailleurs_ (makers of clasps), the pewterers, boxmakers, inferior +artisans and others who worked in common metals, had no longer any +connection with the goldsmiths of Paris. But in the provinces, in towns +where the masters of a trade were insufficient to constitute a community +or fraternity having its chiefs and its own administration, it was +indispensable to reunite under the same banner the trades between which +there was the most agreement, or rather the least contrariety. Thus, in +certain localities in France and the Low Countries, the goldsmiths, +proud as they might be of the nobility of their origin, sometimes found +themselves united as equals with the + +[Illustration: Fig. 117.--Arms of the Corporation of Goldsmiths of +Paris, with this device: “Vases Sacrés et Couronnes, voilà notre +Œuvre.”] + +pewterers, the mercers, the braziers, and even the grocers; and thus it +came to pass that they combined on their banners of fleurs-de-lis the +proper arms of each of these several trades. Thus, for instance, we see +the banner of the goldsmiths of Castellane (Fig. 118) united with the +retail mercers and tailors--it shows a pair of scissors, scales, and an +ell measure; at Chauny (Fig. 119), a ladder, a hammer, and a vase, +indicate that the goldsmiths had for compeers the pewterers and the +slaters; at Guise (Fig. 120), the association of farriers, coppersmiths, +and locksmiths, is allied with the goldsmiths by a horse-shoe, a mallet, +and a key; the brewers of Harfleur (Fig. 121) quartered in their arms +four barrels between the bars of the cross _gules_ charged with a goblet +of gold, which was the emblem of their associates the goldsmiths; at +Maringues (Fig. 122), the gold cup on a field _gules_ surmounts the +grocer’s candles. + +These banners were displayed only on great public ceremonies, in solemn +processions, receptions, marriages, the obsequies of kings, queens, +princes, and princesses. Exempted from military service, the goldsmiths, +unlike other trade corporations, had not the opportunity of +distinguishing themselves in the militia of the communes. They, +nevertheless, occupied the first place in the state processions of +trades, and frequently filled posts of honour. Thus in Paris they had +the custody of the gold and silver plate when the good city entertained +some illustrious guest at a banquet; they carried the canopy above the +head of the king on his joyful accession; or, crowned with roses, walked +bearing on their shoulders the venerated shrine of St. Geneviève (Fig. +123). + +[Illustration: Fig. 118.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 119.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 120.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 121.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 122.] + +In the wealthy cities of Belgium, where the corporations were queens +(_reines_), the goldsmiths, by virtue of their privileges, dictated the +law and swayed the people. No doubt in France they were far from +enjoying the same political influence; nevertheless, one of them was +that provost of merchants, Etienne Marcel, who, from 1356 to 1358, +played so bold a part during the regency of the Dauphin Charles. But it +was especially in periods of peace and prosperity that the goldsmith’s +art in Paris shone in all its splendour; then its banners incessantly +waved in the breeze for the festivals and processions of its numerous +and wealthy brotherhoods to the churches of Notre-Dame, St. Martial, St. +Paul, and St. Denis of Montmartre. + +[Illustration: Fig. 123.--The Corporation of the Goldsmiths of Paris +carrying the Shrine of St. Geneviève. (From an engraving of the +Seventeenth Century.)] + +In 1337 the number of the wardens of the goldsmith’s guild in Paris had +increased from three to six. They had their names engraved and their +marks stamped on tablets of copper, which were preserved as archives in +the town-hall. Every French goldsmith, admitted a master after the +production of his principal work, left the impression of his sign +manual, or private mark, on similar tablets of copper deposited in the +office of the guild; while the stamp of the community itself was +required to be engraved at the mint to authorise its being used. Every +corporation thus had its mark, which the wardens set on the articles +after having assayed and weighed the metal. These marks, at least in the +later centuries, represented in general the special arms or emblems of +the cities; for Lyons, it is a lion; for Melun, an eel; for Chartres, a +partridge; for Orleans, the head of Joan of Arc, &c. (Figs. 112 to 115). + +[Illustration: Fig. 124.--Gold Cross, chased. (A French Work of the +Seventeenth Century.)] + +The goldsmiths of France manifested, and with reason, a jealousy of +their privileges, it being more indispensable for them than for any +other artisans to inspire that confidence without which the trade would +have been lost; for their works were required to bear as authentic and +legal a value as that of money. Therefore, it may be understood that +they exercised keen vigilance over all gold or silver objects which were +in any way under their warranty: hence the frequent visits of the sworn +masters to the ateliers and shops of the goldsmiths; hence the perpetual +lawsuits against all instances of negligence or fraud; hence those +quarrels with other trades which arrogated to themselves the right of +working in precious metals without having qualified for it. Confiscation +of goods, the whip, the pillory, were penalties inflicted on goldsmiths +in contraband trade who altered the standard, concealed copper beneath +the gold, or substituted false for precious stones. + +It, indeed, seems remarkable that while for the most part other trades +were subject to the control of the goldsmiths, the latter were +responsible only to themselves for the aggressions which they constantly +committed within the domain of rival industries. Whenever the object to +be manufactured was of gold, it belonged to the goldsmith’s trade. The +goldsmith made, by turns, spurs as the spur-maker; armour and arms, as +the armourer; girdles and clasps, as the belt-maker and the clasp-maker. +However, there is reason to believe that in the fabrication of these +various objects, the goldsmith had recourse to the assistance of special +artisans, who could scarcely fail to derive all possible advantage from +such fortuitous association. Thus, when the gold-wrought sword which +Dunois carried when Charles VII. entered Lyons in 1449, mounted in +diamonds and rubies, and valued at more than fifteen thousand crowns, +was to be made, the work of the goldsmiths probably consisted only of +the fashioning and chasing the hilt, while the sword-cutler had to forge +and temper the blade. In the same manner, when it was required to work a +jewelled robe, such as Marie de Medicis wore at the baptism of her son +in 1606, the robe being covered with thirty-two thousand precious stones +and three thousand diamonds, the goldsmith had only to mount the stones +and furnish the design for fixing them on the gold or silk tissue. + +[Illustration: Fig. 125.--Pendant, adorned with Diamonds and Precious +Stones. (Seventeenth Century.)] + +Long before Benvenuto and other skilful Italian goldsmiths were summoned +by Francis I. to his court, the French goldsmiths had proved that they +needed only a little encouragement to range themselves on a level with +foreign artists. But that patronage having failed them, they left the +country and established themselves elsewhere; thus at the court of +Flanders, Antoine of Bordeaux, Margerie of Avignon, and Jean of Rouen, +distinguished themselves. It is true that in the reign of Louis XII., +whose exchequer had been exhausted in the Italian expeditions, gold and +silver had become so scarce in France, that the king was obliged to +prohibit the manufacture of all sorts of large plate (_grosserie_). But +the discovery of America having brought with it an abundance of the +precious metals, Louis XII. recalled his ordinance in 1510; and +thenceforth the corporations of goldsmiths were seen to increase and +prosper, as luxuriousness, diffused by the example of the great, +descended to the lower ranks of society. Silver plate soon displaced +that of tin; and before long personal display had attained such a +height, “that the wife of a merchant wore on her person more jewels than +were seen on the image of the Virgin.” The number of the goldsmiths then +became so great that in the city of Rouen alone there were in 1563 _two +hundred and sixty-five_ masters having the right of stamp! + +[Illustration: Figs. 126 to 131.--Chains.] + +[Illustration: Figs. 132 to 136.--Rings.] + +To sum up this chapter. Until the middle of the fourteenth century it is +the religious art which prevails; the goldsmiths are engaged only in +executing shrines, reliquaries, and church ornaments. At the end of that +century, and during the one following, they manufactured gold and +silver + +[Illustration: Figs. 137 to 141.--Seals.] + +plate, enriching with their works the treasuries of kings and nobles, +and imparting brilliant display to the adornment of dress. In the +sixteenth and seventeenth centuries the goldsmiths applied themselves +more to chasing, enamelling, and inlay-work. Everywhere are to be seen +marvellous trinkets--necklaces, rings, buckles, chains, seals (Figs. 124 +to 142). The weight of metal is no longer the principal merit; the skill +of the workman is especially appreciated, and the goldsmith executes in +gold, in silver, and in precious stones, the beautiful productions of +painters and engravers. Nevertheless, the demand for delicate objects +had the disadvantage of requiring much solder and alloy, which +deteriorated the standard of metal. Then a desperate struggle commenced +between the goldsmiths and the mint--a struggle which was prosecuted +through a maze of legal proceedings, petitions, and ordinances, until +the middle of the reign of Louis XV. At the same time the Italian and +German goldsmiths making an irruption into France and introducing +materials of a low standard, the old professional integrity became +suspected and was soon disregarded. At the end of the sixteenth century +very little plate was ornamented: there is a return to massive plate, +the weight and standard of which could be easily verified. Gold is +scarcely any longer employed, except for jewels; and silver in a +thousand forms creeps into the manufacture of furniture. After +_cabinets_, covered and ornamented with carving in silver, came the +articles of silver furniture invented by Claude Ballin. But the mass of +precious metal withdrawn from circulation was soon returned to it, and +the fashion passed away. The goldsmiths found themselves reduced to +manufacture only objects of small size; and for the most part they +limited themselves to works of jewellery, which subjected them to less +annoyance from the mint. Besides, the art of the lapidary had almost +changed its character, as well as the trade in precious stones. Pierre +de Montarsy, jeweller to the king, effected a kind of revolution in his +art, which the travels of Chardin, of Bernier, and of Tavernier, in the +East had, so to say, enlarged. The cutting and mounting of precious +stones has not since been excelled. It may be said that Montarsy was the +first jeweller, as Ballin was the last goldsmith. + +[Illustration: Fig. 142.--Chased and Enamelled Brooch, embellished with +Pearls and Diamonds. (Seventeenth Century.)] + + + + +HOROLOGY. + + Modes of measuring Time among the Ancients.--The Gnomon.--The + Water-Clock.--The Hour-Glass.--The Water-Clock, improved by the + Persians and by the Italians.--Gerbert invents the Escapement and + the moving Weights.--The Striking-bell.--Maistre Jehan des + Orloges.--Jacquemart of Dijon.--The first Clock in Paris.--Earliest + portable Timepiece.--Invention of the spiral Spring.--First + appearance of Watches.--The Watches, or “Eggs,” of + Nuremberg.--Invention of the Fusee.--Corporation of + Clockmakers.--Noted Clocks at Jena, Strasburg, Lyons, + &c.--Charles-Quint and Jannellus.--The Pendulum. + + +Among the ancients there were three instruments for measuring time--the +_gnomon_, or sun-dial, which is only, as we know, a table whereon lines +are so arranged as successively to meet the shadow cast by a gnomon,[20] +thus indicating the hour of the day according to the height or +inclination of the sun; the water-clock (_clepsydra_), which had for its +principle the measured percolation of a certain quantity of water; and +the hour-glass, wherein the liquid is exchanged for sand. It would be +difficult to determine which of these three chronometric modes can lay +claim to priority. There is this to be said that, according to the +Bible, in the eighth century before Christ, Ahaz, King of Judah, caused +a sun-dial to be constructed at Jerusalem; again, Herodotus says +Anaximander introduced the sun-dial into Greece, whence it passed on to +the other parts of the then civilised world; and that, in the year 293 +before our era, the celebrated Papirius Cursor, to the astonishment of +his fellow-citizens, had a sun-dial traced near the temple of Jupiter +Quirinus. + +According to the description given by Athena (Athenæus?), the +water-clock was formed of an earthenware or metal vessel filled with +water, and then suspended over a reservoir whereon lines were marked +indicating the hours, as the water which escaped drop by drop from the +upper vessel came to the level. We find this instrument employed by most +ancient nations, and in many countries it remained in use until the +tenth century of the Christian era. + +[Illustration: Fig. 143.--The Clockmaker. Designed and Engraved by J. +Amman.] + +In one of his dialogues Plato declares that the philosophers are far +more fortunate than the orators--“these being the slaves of a miserable +water-clock; whereas the others are at liberty to make their discourse +as long as they please.” To explain this passage, we must remember that +it was the practice in the Athenian courts of justice, as subsequently +in those of Rome, to measure the time allowed to the advocates for +pleading by means of a water-clock. Three equal portions of water were +put into it--one for the prosecutor, one for the defendant, and the +third for the judge. A man was charged with the special duty of giving +timely notice to each of the three speakers that his portion was nearly +run out. If, on some unusual occasion, the time for one or other of the +parties was doubled, it was called “adding water-clock to water-clock;” +and when witnesses were giving evidence, or the text of some law was +being read out, the percolation of the water was stopped: this was +called _aquam sustinere_ (to retain the water). + +The hour-glass, which is still in use to a considerable extent for +measuring short intervals of time, had great analogy with the +water-clock, but was never susceptible of such regularity. In fact, at +different periods important improvements were applied to the +water-clock. Vitruvius tells us that, about one hundred years before our +era, Ctesibius, a mechanician of Alexandria, added several cogged-wheels +to the water-clock, one of which moved a hand, showing the hour on a +dial. This must have been, so far as historical documents admit of +proof, the first step towards purely mechanical horology. + +In order, then, to find an authentic date in the history of horology, we +must go to the eighth century, when water-clocks, still further +improved, were either made or imported into France; among others, one +which Pope Paul I. sent to Pepin le Bref. We must, however, believe that +these instruments can have attracted but little attention, or that they +were speedily forgotten; for, one hundred years later, there appeared a +water-clock at the court of Charlemagne, a present from the famous +caliph Aroun-al-Raschid, regarded, indeed almost celebrated, as a +notable event. Of this Eginhard has left us an elaborate description. It +was, he says, in brass, damaskeened with gold, and marked the hours on a +dial. At the end of each hour an equal number of small iron balls fell +on a bell, and made it sound as many times as the hour indicated by the +needle. Twelve windows immediately opened, out of which were seen to +proceed the same number of horsemen armed _cap-à-pie_, who, after +performing divers evolutions, withdrew into the interior of the +mechanism, and then the windows closed. + +Shortly afterwards Pacificus, Archbishop of Verona, constructed one far +superior to all that had preceded it; for, besides giving the hours, it +indicated the date of the month, the days of the week, the phases of the +moon, &c. But still it was only an improved water-clock. Before horology +could really assume an historical date, it was necessary that for motive +power weights should be substituted for water, and that the escapement +should be invented; yet it was only in the beginning of the tenth +century that these important discoveries were made. + +“In the reign of Hugh Capet,” says M. Dubois, “there lived in France a +man of great talent and reputation named Gerbert. He was born in the +mountains of Auvergne, and had passed his childhood in tending flocks +near Aurillac. One day some monks of the order of St. Benedict met him +in the fields: they conversed with him, and finding him precociously +intelligent, took him into their convent of St. Gérauld. There Gerbert +soon acquired a taste for monastic life. Eager for knowledge, and +devoting all his spare moments to study, he became the most learned of +the community. After he had taken vows, a desire to add to his +scientific attainments led him to set out for Spain. During several +years he assiduously frequented the universities of the Iberian +peninsula. He soon found himself too learned for Spain; for, in spite of +his truly sincere piety, ignorant fanatics accused him of sorcery. As +that accusation might have involved him in deplorable consequences, he +preferred not to await the result; and hastily quitting the town of +Salamanca, which was his ordinary residence, he came to Paris, where he +very soon made himself powerful friends and protectors. At length, after +having successively been monk, superior of the convent of Bobbio, in +Italy, Archbishop of Rheims, tutor to Robert I., King of France, and to +Otho III., Emperor of Germany, who appointed him to the see of Ravenna, +Gerbert rose to the pontifical throne under the name of Sylvester II.: +he died in 1003. This great man did honour to his country and to his +age. He was acquainted with nearly all the dead and living languages; he +was a mechanician, astronomer, physician, geometrician, algebraist, &c. +He introduced the Arab numerals into France. In the seclusion of his +monastic cell, as in his archiepiscopal palace, his favourite relaxation +was the study of mechanics. He was skilled in making sun-dials, +water-clocks, hour-glasses, and hydraulic organs. It was he who first +applied weight as a motive power to horology; and, in all probability, +he is the inventor of that admirable mechanism called escapement--the +most beautiful, as well as the most essential, of all the inventions +which have been made in horology.” + +This is not the place to give a description of these two mechanisms, +which can hardly be explained except with the assistance of purely +technical drawings, but it may be remarked that weights are still the +sole motive power of large clocks, and the escapement alluded to has +been alone employed throughout the world until the end of the +seventeenth century. Notwithstanding the importance of these two +inventions, little use was made of them during the eleventh, twelfth, +and thirteenth centuries. The water-clock and hour-glass (Fig. 144) +continued exclusively in use. Some were ornamented and engraved with +much taste; and they contributed to the decoration of apartments, as at +present do our bronzes and clocks more or less costly. + +[Illustration: Fig. 144.--An Hour-glass of the Sixteenth +Century,--French Work.] + +History does not inform us who was the inventor of the striking +machinery; but it is at least averred that it existed at the +commencement of the twelfth century. The first mention of it is found in +the “Usages de l’Ordre de Cîteaux,” compiled about 1120. It is there +prescribed to the sacristan so to regulate the clock, that it “sounds +and awakens him before matins;” in another chapter the monk is ordered +to prolong the lecture until “the clock strikes.” At first, in the +monasteries, the monks took it in turn to watch, and warn the community +of the hours for prayer; and, in the towns, there were night watchmen, +who, moreover, were maintained in many places to announce in the streets +the hour denoted by the clocks, the water-clocks, or the hour-glasses. + +The machinery for striking once invented, we do not find that horology +had attained to any perfection before the end of the thirteenth century; +but, in the commencement of the following it received its impulse, and +the art from that time continued to progress. + +To give an idea of what was effected at that time, we will borrow a +passage from the earliest writings in which horology is mentioned; that +is, from an unpublished book by Philip de Maizières, entitled “Le Songe +du Vieil Pélerin:”--“It is known that in Italy there is at present +(about 1350) a man generally celebrated in philosophy, in medicine, and +in astronomy; in his station, by common report, singular and grave, +excelling in the above three sciences, and of the city of Padua. His +surname is lost, and he is called ‘Maistre Jehan des Orloges,’ residing +at present with the Comte de Vertus; and, for the treble sciences, he +has for yearly wages and perquisites two thousand florins, or +thereabouts. This Maistre Jean des Orloges has made an instrument, by +some called a _sphere_ or clock, of the movement of the heavens, in +which instrument are all the motions of the signs (zodiacal), and of the +planets, with their circles and epicycles, and multiplied differences, +wheels (_roes_) without number, with all their parts, and each planet in +the said sphere, distinctly. On any given night, we see clearly in what +sign and degree are the planets and the stars of the heavens; and this +sphere is so cunningly made, that notwithstanding the multitude of +wheels, which cannot well be numbered without taking the machinery to +pieces, their entire mechanism is governed by one single counterpoise, +so marvellous that the grave astronomers from distant regions come with +great reverence to visit the said Maistre Jean and the work of his +hands; and all the great clerks of astronomy, of philosophy, and of +medicine, declare that there is no recollection of a man, either in +written document or otherwise, who in this world has made so ingenious +or so important an instrument of the heavenly movements as the said +clock.... Maistre Jean made the said clock with his own hands, all of +brass and of copper, without the assistance of any other person, and did +nothing else during sixteen entire years, if the writer of the book, who +had a great friendship for the said Maistre Jean, has been rightly +informed.” + +It is known, on the other hand, that the famous clockmaker, whose real +name Maizières assumes to be lost, was called Jaques de Dondis; and +that, in spite of the assertion of the writer, he had only to arrange +the clock, the parts of which had been executed by an excellent workman +named Antoine. However this may be, placed at the top of one of the +towers of the palace of Padua, the clock of Jaques de Dondis, or of +“Maistre Jean des Orloges,” excited general admiration, and several +princes of Europe being desirous to have similar clocks, many workmen +tried to imitate it. In fact, churches or monasteries were soon able to +pride themselves on possessing similar _chefs-d’œuvre_. + +Among the most remarkable clocks of that period, we must refer to that +of which Froissart speaks, and which was carried away from the town of +Courtray by Philip the Bold after the battle of Rosbecque in 1382. “The +Duke of Burgundy,” says our author, “caused to be carried away from the +market-place a clock that struck the hours, one of the finest which +could be found on either side the sea; and he conveyed it piece by piece +in carts, and the bell also. Which clock was brought and carted into the +town of Dijon, in Burgundy, was there deposited and put up, and there +strikes the twenty-four hours between day and night.” + +It is the celebrated clock of Dijon which then as now was surmounted by +two automata of iron, a man and a woman, striking the hours on the bell. +The origin of the name of _Jacquemart_ given to these figures has been +much disputed. Ménage believes that the word is derived from the Latin +_jaccomarchiardus_ (coat of mail--attire of war); and he reminds us +that, in the Middle Ages, it was the custom to station, on the summit of +the towers, men (soldiers wearing the _jacque_) to give warning of the +approach of the enemy, of fires, &c. Ménage adds that, when more +efficient watchers occasioned the discontinuance of these nocturnal +sentinels, it was probably considered desirable to preserve the +remembrance of them by putting in the place they had occupied iron +figures which struck the hours. Other writers trace the name even to the +inventor of this description of clocks, who, according to them, lived in +the fourteenth century, and was called Jacques Marck. Finally, Gabriel +Peignot, who has written a dissertation on the _jacquemart_ of Dijon, +asserts that in 1422 a person named Jacquemart, clockmaker and +locksmith, residing in the town of Lille, received twenty-two livres +from the Duke of Burgundy, for repairing the clock of Dijon; and from +that he concludes, seeing how short the distance is from Lille to +Courtray, whence the clock of Dijon had been taken, that this Jacquemart +might well be the son or the grandson of the clockmaker who had +constructed it about 1360; consequently the name of the _jacquemart_ of +Dijon is derived from that of its maker, old Jacquemart, the clockmaker +of Lille (Fig. 145). + +[Illustration: Fig. 145.--Jacquemart of Notre-Dame at Dijon, made at +Courtray in the Fourteenth Century.] + +Giving to each of these opinions its due weight, we confine ourselves to +stating that, from the end of the fourteenth century to the beginning +of the fifteenth, numerous churches in Germany, Italy, and France +already had _jacquemarts_. + +The first clock possessed by Paris was that in the turret of the Palais +de Justice. Charles V. had it constructed in 1370 by a German artisan, +Henri de Vic. It contained a weight for moving power, an oscillating +piece for regulator, and an escapement. It was adorned with carvings by +Germain Pilon, and was destroyed in the eighteenth century. + +In 1389, the clockmaker Jean Jouvence made one for the Castle of +Montargis. Those of Sens and of Auxerre, as well as that of Lund in +Sweden, date from the same period. In the last, every hour two cavaliers +met and gave each other as many blows as the hours to be struck: then a +door opened, and the Virgin Mary appeared sitting on a throne, with the +Infant Jesus in her arms, receiving the visit of the Magi followed by +their retinue; the Magi prostrating themselves and tendering their +presents. During the ceremony two trumpets sounded: then all vanished, +to re-appear the following hour. + +[Illustration: Fig. 146.--Clock with Wheels and Weights. Fifteenth +Century. (Cabinet of Antiquities, Bibl. Imp., Paris.)] + +Until the end of the thirteenth century, clocks were destined +exclusively + +[Illustration: Fig. 147.--A portable Clock of the time of the Valois.] + +to public buildings; or they at least affected, if we may say so, a +monumental character which precluded their admission into private +houses. The first clocks with weights and the flywheel made for private +use appeared in France, in Italy, and in Germany, about the commencement +of the fourteenth century; but naturally they were at first so costly +that only nobles and wealthy persons could obtain them. But an impulse +was given which led to the manufacture of these objects more +economically. In fact, it was not long before portable clocks were seen +in the most unpretentious abodes. This of course did not prevent the +production of expensive examples, either as regards ornamentation or +carving, or in placing the clock on costly pedestals or cases, within +which were suspended the weights (Fig. 146). + +The fifteenth century has distinctly left its mark on the progress of +horology. In 1401 the Cathedral of Seville was enriched with a +magnificent clock which struck the hours. In 1404, Lazare, a Servian by +birth, constructed a similar one for Moscow. That of Lubeck, which was +embellished with the figures of the twelve Apostles, dates from 1405. It +is proper to notice also the famous clock which Jean-Galeas Visconti had +made for Pavia; and more especially that of St. Marc of Venice, which +was not executed until 1495. + +The spiral spring was invented in the time of Charles VII.: a band of +very fine steel, rolled up into a small drum or barrel, produced, in +unrolling, the effect of the weights on the primitive movements. To the +possibility of enclosing that moving power in a confined space is due +the facility of manufacturing very small clocks. In fact, one finds in +certain collections, clocks of the time of Louis XI., remarkable not +only for the artistic richness of their decoration, but still more so +for the small space they occupy, although they are generally of very +complicated mechanism; some marking the date of the month, striking the +hour, and serving also as alarm-clocks. + +It is difficult, if not impossible, to determine the exact date of the +invention of watches. But, in truth, we ought perhaps to regard the +watch, especially after the invention of the spiral spring, as only the +last step taken towards a portable form of clock. It is however true, +according to the statements found in Pancirole and Du Verdier by the +authors of the “Encyclopædia of Sciences,” that at the end of the +fifteenth century watches were made no larger than an almond. Even the +names Myrmécides and Carovagius are cited as those of two celebrated +artisans in such work. It was said that the latter made an alarm-watch +which not only sounded the hour required, but even struck a light to +ignite a candle. Besides, we know for certain that, in the time of Louis +XI., there were watches very small yet perfectly manufactured; and it is +proved that, in 1500, at Nuremberg, Peter Hele made them of the form of +an egg, and consequently the watches of that country were long known as +_Nuremberg eggs_. + +We learn, moreover, from history that in 1542, a watch which struck the +hours, set in a ring, was offered to Guidobaldo of Rovere; and that in +1575, Parker, Archbishop of Canterbury, bequeathed to his brother +Richard a cane of Indian wood having a watch placed in its head; and, +finally, that Henry VIII. of England wore a very small watch requiring +to be wound up only every eighth day. + +It is not inappropriate here to remark that the time kept by these +little machines was not regular until an ingenious workman, whose name +has not come down to us, invented the fusee, a kind of truncated cone; +to the base of this was attached a small piece of catgut which, spirally +rolling itself up to the top, became fastened to the barrel that +enclosed the spring. The advantage of this arrangement is, that owing to +the conical form of the fusee, the traction of the spring acting as it +relaxes on a greater radius of the cone, it results in establishing +equilibrium of power between the first and the last movements of the +spring. Subsequently a clockmaker named Gruet substituted jointed +(_articulées_) chains for catgut; the latter having the great +disadvantage of being hygrometric and varying in tension with the state +of the atmosphere. + +The use of watches spread rapidly in France. In the reigns of the +Valois, a large number were made of very diminutive size, to which the +clockmakers gave all sorts of forms, especially those of an acorn, an +almond, a Latin cross, a shell (Figs. 148 to 150). They were engraved, +chased, enamelled; the hand which marked the hour was very frequently of +delicate workmanship, and sometimes ornamented with precious stones. +Some of these watches set in motion symbolic figures, as well as Time, +Apollo, Diana, the Virgin, the Apostles, and the saints. + +It may be conceived that all these complicated works required numerous +craftsmen. It was therefore considered proper to unite these artisans in +a community. The statutes which they had received from Louis XI. in 1483 +were confirmed by Francis I. They contained a succession of laws, +intended to protect at the same time the interests of members of the +corporation and the dignity of their profession. + +No one was admitted as master but on proof of having served eight years +of apprenticeship, and after having produced a _chef-d’œuvre_ in the + +[Illustration: CLOCK OF DAMASCENED IRON AND WATCHES Of the Fifteenth and +Sixteenth Centuries.] + +house, or under the supervision, of one of the inspectors of the +corporation. The visiting inspectors, elected by all the members, as +well as by the trustees and the syndics, were authorised when +introducing themselves into the workshops, to look after the proper +construction of watches and clocks; and if it happened that they found +such as did not appear to be made according to the rules of art, they +could not only seize and destroy them, but also impose a fine on the +maker for the benefit of the corporation. The statutes also gave +exclusive right to the accredited masters to trade, directly or +otherwise, with all the stock, new or second-hand, finished or +unfinished. + +[Illustration: Figs. 148 to 150.--Watches of the Valois Epoch. +(Sixteenth Century.)] + +“Under the influence of these wise institutions,” M. Dubois remarks, +“the master-clockmakers had no fear of the competition of persons not +belonging to the corporation. If they were affected by the artistic +superiority of some of their colleagues, it was with the laudable desire +to contend with them for the first places. The work of one day, superior +to that of the preceding, was surpassed by that of the day following. It +was by this incessant competition of intelligence and knowledge, by this +legitimate and invigorating rivalry of all the members of the same +industrious community, that science itself attained by degrees the +zenith of the excellent and the sublime of the beautiful. The ambition +of workmen was to rise to the mastership, and they attained that only by +force of labour and assiduous efforts. The ambition of the masters was +to acquire the honours of the syndicate--that consular magistracy the +most honourable of all, for it was the result of election, and the +recompense of services rendered to art and to the community.” + +Having thus reached the middle of the sixteenth century, and not wishing +to exceed the compass assigned to this sketch, we may limit ourselves to +the mention of some of the remarkable works produced during a century by +an art that had already manifested itself with a power never to be +diminished. + +The clock which Henry II. had constructed for the château of Anet has +long been regarded as very curious. Every time the hand denotes the +hour, a stag appears from the inside of the clock, and darts away +followed by a pack of hounds; but soon the pack and the stag stop, and +the latter, by means of very ingenious mechanism, strikes the hours with +one of his feet. + +The clock of Jena (Fig. 151), which is still in existence, is not less +famous. Above the dial is a bronze head presumed to represent a buffoon +of Ernest, Elector of Saxony, who died in 1486. When the hour is about +to strike, the head--so remarkably ugly as to have given the clock the +name of the _monstrous head_--opens its very large mouth. A figure +representing an old pilgrim offers it a golden apple on the end of a +stick; but just when poor Hans (so was the fool called) is about to +close his mouth to masticate and swallow the apple, the pilgrim suddenly +withdraws it. On the left of the head is an angel singing (the arms of +the city of Jena), holding in one hand a book, which he raises towards +his eyes whenever the hours strike, and with the other he rings a +hand-bell. + +The town of Niort, in Poitou, possessed also an extraordinary clock, +ornamented with a great number of allegorical figures--the work of +Bouhain, + +[Illustration: Fig. 151.--Clock of Jena, in Germany. (Fifteenth +Century.)] + +in 1570. A much more famous clock was that of Strasburg (Fig. 152), +constructed in 1573, and which was long considered to be the greatest of +all wonders. It was entirely restored in 1842 by M. Schwilgué. Angelo +Rocca, in his “Commentarium de Campanis,” gives a description of it. Its +most important feature was a moving sphere, whereon were represented the +planets and the constellations, and which completed its rotation in +three hundred and sixty-five days. On two sides of the dial and below it +the principal festivals of the year and the solemnities of the Church +were represented by allegorical figures. Other dials, distributed +symmetrically on the façade of the tower in which the clock is situated, +marked the days of the week, the date of the month, the signs of the +zodiac, the phases of the moon, the rising and setting of the sun, &c. +Every hour two angels + +[Illustration: Fig. 152.--Astronomical Clock of the Cathedral at +Strasburg, constructed in 1573.] + +sounded the trumpet. When the concert was finished, the bell tolled; +then immediately a cock, perched on the summit, spread his wings +noisily, and made his crowing to be heard. The striking machinery, by +means of movable trap-doors, cylinders, and springs concealed in the +interior of the clock, set in motion a considerable number of automata, +executed with much skill. Angelo Rocca adds that the completion of this +_chef-d’œuvre_ was attributed to Nicolas Copernicus; and that when this +able mechanician had finished his work, the sheriffs and consuls of the +city had his eyes put out in order to render it impossible for him to +execute a similar clock for any other city. This last statement is the +more deserving to rank among mere legends from the fact that, +independent of existing proof of the clock being made by Conrad +Dasypodius, it would be very difficult to prove that Copernicus ever +visited Alsace, or had his eyes put out. + +A similar tradition is attached to the history of another clock still in +existence, and which was not less celebrated than that of Strasburg. We +refer to that of the Church of St. John at Lyons, made in 1598 by +Nicholas Lippius, a clockmaker of Basle; repaired and enlarged +subsequently by Nourisson, an artisan of Lyons. Only the horary +mechanism now acts; but the clock is not on that account neglected by +visitors, to whom the worthy attendants still repeat, in perfect faith, +that Lippius was put to death as soon as he had finished his +_chef-d’œuvre_. To show the improbability of this pretended penalty it +is sufficient to remark, with M. Dubois, that even in the sixteenth +century persons were not killed for the crime of making _chefs-d’œuvre_; +and there is, besides, proof that Lippius died in peace, and honoured, +in his native country. + +To these famous clocks must be added those of St. Lambert at Liège, of +Nuremberg, of Augsburg, and of Basle; that of Medina del Campo, in +Spain, and those which, in the reign of Charles I., or during the +Protectorship of Cromwell, were manufactured and placed in England, at +St. Dunstan’s in London,[21] and in the Cathedral of Canterbury, in +Edinburgh, and in Glasgow, &c. + +Before concluding, and to do justice to a century to which we have +assigned a period of decline, we are bound to acknowledge that some +years before the death of Cardinal Richelieu--that is to say, from 1630 +to 1640--artists of ability made praiseworthy efforts to create a new +era in horology. But the improvements they had in view were directed +much more to the processes of the construction of the several parts +composing the clockwork of watches and clocks than to the beauty and +ingenuity of the workmanship. This was progress of a purely professional +character, in order to create a more ready and inexpensive supply; a +progress which we may regard as services rendered by art to trade. The +period of great constructions and delicate marvels was past. Ornamental +_Jacquemarts_ were no longer placed in belfries. Mechanical +_chefs-d’œuvre_ were no longer set in frail gems. The time was still far +off when, laying down the sceptre of that empire on which “the sun never +sets,” the conqueror of Francis I., retiring to a cloister, employed +himself in the construction of the most complicated clockwork. Charles +V. had as assistant, if not as teacher, in his work the learned +mathematician, Jannellus Turianus, whom he had induced to join him in +his retreat. It is said that he enjoyed nothing so much as seeing the +monks of Saint-Just standing amazed before his alarum watches and +automaton clocks; but it is also stated that he manifested the greatest +despair when obliged to admit it was as impossible to establish perfect +concord among clocks as among men. + +In truth, Galileo had not yet arrived to observe and formulate the laws +of the pendulum, which Huygens was happily to apply to the movements of +horology. + +[Illustration: Fig. 153.--Top of an Hour-Glass, engraved and gilt. (A +French Work of the Sixteenth Century.)] + + + + +MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. + + Music in the Middle Ages.--Musical Instruments from the Fourth to + the Thirteenth Century.--Wind Instruments: the Single and Double + Flute, the Pandean Pipes, the Reed-pipe, the Hautboy, the + Flageolet, Trumpets, Horns, _Olifants_, the Hydraulic Organ, the + Bellows-Organ.--Instruments of Percussion: the Bell, the Hand-bell, + Cymbals, the Timbrel, the Triangle, the _Bombulum_, + Drums.--Stringed Instruments: the Lyre, the Cithern, the Harp, the + Psaltery, the _Nable_, the _Chorus_, the _Organistrum_, the Lute + and the Guitar, the _Crout_, the _Rote_, the Viola, the _Gigue_, + the Monochord. + + +The history of Music in the Middle Ages would commence about the fourth +century of our era. In the sixth century, Isidore of Seville, in his +“Sentiments sur la Musique,” writes as follows:--“Music is a modulation +of the voice, and also an accordance of several sounds and their +simultaneous union.” + +About 384, St. Ambrose, who built the Cathedral of Milan, regulated the +mode in which psalms, hymns, and anthems should be performed, by +selecting from Greek chants those melodies he considered best adapted to +the Latin Church. + +In 590, Gregory the Great, in order to remedy the disorder which had +crept into ecclesiastical singing, collected all that remained of the +ancient Greek melodies, with those of St. Ambrose and others, and formed +the antiphonary which is called the _Centonien_, because it is composed +of chants of his selection. Henceforward, ecclesiastical chanting +obtained the name of _Gregorian_; it was adopted into the whole of the +Western Church, and maintained its position almost unaltered down to the +middle of the eleventh century. + +It is thought that originally the music of the antiphonary was noted in +accordance with Greek and Roman usage--a notation known as the +_Boethian_, from the name of Boethius the philosopher, by whom we are +informed that in his time (that is, about the end of the fifth century) +the notation was composed of the first fifteen letters of the alphabet. + +The sounds of the octave were represented--the major by _capital_ +letters, the minor by _small_ letters, as follows:-- + +Major mode A B C D E F G +Minor mode a b c d e f g + +Some fragments of music of the eleventh century are still preserved, in +which the notation is represented by letters having above them the signs +of another kind of notation called _neumes_ (Fig. 154). + +[Illustration: Fig. 154.--Lament composed shortly after the Death of +Charlemagne, probably about 814 or 815, and attributed to Colomban, +Abbot of Saint-Tron. (MS. de la Bibl. Imp., No. 1,154.)] + +_Musical Notation expressed in Modern Signs, the Text and Translation of +the Lament on Charlemagne._ + +[Illustration: A so lis or tu us que ad oc ci du a Lit to ra ma ris plan +ctus pul sat pec to ra Ul tra ma ri na ag mi na tris] + +[Illustration: ti ti a Te ti git in gens cum er ro re ni mi o Heu me do +lens plan go! + +Fran ci Ro ma ni at que cun cti cre du li, Luc tu pun gun tur et mag na +mo les ti a in fan tes, se nes glo ri o si prin ci pes Nam clan git or +bis de trimentum Ka ro li Heu mi hi mi se ro!] + + A solis ortu usque ad occidua + Littora maris, planctus pulsat pectora; + Ultra marina agmina tristitia + Tetigit ingens cum errore nimio. + Heu! me dolens, plango. + + Franci, Romani, atque cuncti creduli, + Luctu punguntor et magna molestia, + Infantes, senes, gloriosi principes; + Nam clangit orbis detrimentum Karoli. + Heu! mihi misero! + + From the East to the Western shores, + sorrow agitates every heart; and inland, + this vast grief saddens armies. + Alas! in my grief, I, too, weep. + + French, Romans, and all believers are + plunged into mourning and profound + grief: children, old men, and illustrious + princes; for the whole world deplores the + loss of Charlemagne. + Alas! miserable me! + +About the fourth century the _neumes_ were in use in the Greek Church; +they are spoken of by St. Gregory of Nazianzus. Certain modifications in +them were introduced by the Lombards and Saxons. + +“They were specially in use from the eighth to the twelfth century,” +says M. Coussemaker, in his learned work, “Histoire de l’Harmonie au +Moyen Age,” “and consisted of two sorts of signs: some formed like +commas, dots, or small inclined or horizontal strokes, which represented +isolated sounds; others in the shape of hooks, and strokes variously +twisted and joined, expressing groups of sound composed of various +intervals. + +“These commas, dots, and inclined or horizontal strokes were the origin +of the long notes, the breve and the semibreve, and afterwards of the +square notation still in use in the _plain-chant_ of the Church. The +hook-shaped signs and the variously twisted and joined strokes gave rise +to the ligatures and connections of notes. + +“From the eighth to the end of the twelfth century--that is, during one +of the brightest periods of musical liturgy--the _neumes_ were the +notation exclusively adopted over the whole of Europe, both in +ecclesiastical singing and also in secular music. From the end of the +eleventh century, this system of notation was established in France, +Italy, Germany, England, and Spain.” + +The chief modification to which the notation of music was subject at the +end of the eleventh century is due to the monk Guido, of Arezzo. In +order to facilitate the reading of the _neumes_, he invented placing +them on lines, and these lines he distinguished by colours. The second, +that of the _fa_, was red; the fourth, that of the _ut_, was green; the +first and the third are only traced on the vellum with a pen. In order +that the seven notes should be better impressed upon the memory, he gave +as an example the three first lines of the Hymn of St. John the Baptist, +in which the syllables _ut, re, mi, fa, sol, la_, corresponded to the +signs of the gamut:-- + + “_Ut_ queant laxis _Re_sonare fibris + _Mi_ra gestorum _Fa_muli tuorum, + _Sol_ve polluti _La_bii reatum, + Sancte Joannes.” + +The choristers, in singing this hymn, slightly raised the intonation of +each of the italicised syllables, which were soon adopted for indicating +six of the notes of the gamut. To supply the seventh, which was not +named in this system, the barbarous theory of _muances_ (divisions) was +introduced, and it was not until the seventeenth century the term _si_ +was applied in France. + +But after the commencement of the tenth century many individuals, and +especially poets, had invented rhythmical songs, which were entirely +different from those of the Church. “Harmony formed by successions of +various intervals,” as we are told by the author whom we have before +quoted, “obtained in the eleventh century the name of _discantus_, in +old French _déchant_. Francon de Cologne is the most ancient author who +makes use of this word. During the whole course of the eleventh century +the composition of melody was independent of harmony, and henceforth the +composition of music was divided into two very distinct parts. The +people, and poets and persons in high life, constructed the melody and +the words; but being ignorant of the science of music, they resorted to +a professional musician to have their inspirations written down. The +first were very justly called _trouvères_ (_trobadori_), the others the +_déchanteurs_, or harmonisers. Harmony was then only adapted for two +voices--a combination of fifths, and of movements in unison. + +“In the twelfth century, the construction of melody continued to be in +the hands of poets. The _déchanteurs_ or harmonisers were the +professional musicians. Popular songs became very numerous. Troubadours +multiplied all over Europe, and the greatest lords deemed it an honour +to cultivate both poetry and music. Germany had her ‘master-singers,’ +who were in request at every court. In France, the Châtelain de Coucy, +the King of Navarre, the Comte de Béthune, the Comte d’Anjou, and a +hundred others acquired a brilliant reputation by songs, of which they +composed both the words and the melody. The most celebrated of these +_trouvères_ was Adam de la Halle, who flourished in 1260.” + +In the fourteenth century, the name of _counterpoint_ was substituted +for that of _déchant_; and in 1364, at the coronation of Charles V. at +Rheims, a mass was sung which was written in four parts, composed by +Guillaume de Machault, poet and musician. + +Among the ancients the number of musical instruments was considerable, +but their names were even still more numerous, because derived from the +shape, the material, the nature and character of the instruments, all of +which varied infinitely, according to the whim of the maker or the +musician. Added to this, every country had its national instruments; and +as each in its own language designated them by descriptive names, the +same instrument appeared under ten different denominations, and a +similar name was applied to ten instruments. However, having nothing but +monumental representation to guide us, and in the absence of the +instruments themselves, an almost inextricable confusion arises. + +The Romans carried back to their own country, as the results of +conquest, specimens of most of the musical instruments they found in use +in the countries subdued by them. Thus Greece supplied Rome with nearly +all the soft instruments of the class of lyres and flutes. Germany and +the northern provinces, being inhabited by warlike races, gave to their +conquerors the taste for loud-sounding instruments, such as trumpets and +drums. Asia, and Judæa especially, which had multiplied various kinds of +metal-instruments for use in their religious ceremonies, were the means +of naturalising in Roman music deep-toned instruments of the class of +bells and tom-toms (a kind of drum). Egypt introduced into Italy the +timbrel along with the worship of Isis. Byzantium had no sooner invented +the first pneumatic organs than the new religion of Christ took +possession of them for exclusive consecration to its service, both in +the East and in the West. + +All the musical instruments of the known world had therefore taken +refuge, as it were, in the capital of the Roman empire; but their fate +was only to disappear and sink into oblivion after they had played their +part in the last pomps of that falling empire, and in the final +festivals of the ancient mythology. In a letter in which he specially +treats of “various kinds of musical instruments,” St. Jerome, who lived +from 331 to 420, speaks of those which were in use in his time for the +requirements of religion, war, ceremonial, and art. He mentions, in the +first place, the organ, and describes it as composed of fifteen brazen +pipes, two air-reservoirs of elephant’s skin, and twelve large sets of +bellows, “to imitate the voice of thunder.” He next specifies, under the +generic name of _tuba_, several kinds of trumpets: that which called the +people together, that which directed the march of troops, that which +proclaimed the victory, that which sounded the charge against the enemy, +that which announced the closing of the gates, &c. One of these +trumpets, the shape of which is rather difficult to gather from his +description, had three brazen bells, and _roared through four +air-conduits_. Another instrument, the _bombulum_, which must have made +a frightful uproar, was, as far as we can conjecture from the text of +the pious writer, a kind of peal of bells attached to a hollow metallic +column which, by the assistance of twelve pipes, reverberated the sounds +of twenty-four bells that were set in motion by one another. Next come +the _cithara_ of the Hebrews, in the shape of a triangle, furnished with +twenty-four strings; the sackbut, of Chaldæan origin, a trumpet formed +of several movable tubes of wood, fitting one into the other; the +psaltery, a small harp provided with ten strings; and lastly, the +_tympanum_, also called the _chorus_, a hand-drum to which were fixed +two metal flute-tubes. + +[Illustration: Fig. 155.--Concert; a Bas-relief, taken from a Capital in +Saint-Georges de Boscherville, Normandy. (A Work of the Eleventh +Century.)] + +A nomenclature of a similar kind, applying to the ninth century, exists +in a history of Charlemagne, in Latin verse, by Aymeric de Peyrac. This +shows as that, during the lapse of four centuries, the number of +instruments had been nearly doubled, and that the musical influence of +Charlemagne’s reign had made itself felt in the revival and improvement +of several instruments which had been formerly abandoned. This curious +metrical composition enumerates all the stringed, wind, and pulsatile +instruments which celebrated the praise of the great emperor, the +protector and restorer of music. The number of instruments specified +are twenty-four in number, among which we find nearly all those +mentioned by St. Jerome. + +[Illustration: Fig. 156.--Concert and Musical Instruments. From a +Miniature in a Manuscript of the Thirteenth Century.] + +The names, therefore, of musical instruments had passed through seven or +eight centuries without undergoing any kind of change than that +naturally resulting from variations in the language. But the instruments +themselves, during this long interval of time, had been often modified +to such extent that the primitive denomination not unfrequently appeared +to contradict the musical characteristics of the instrument to which it +still continued to be attached. Thus, the _chorus_, which had been a +four-stringed harp, and from its name seems to indicate a collection of +instruments, had become a wind-instrument.[22] So also the psaltery, +which was originally touched by a _plectrum_ (stick) or with the +fingers, now only gave forth its notes under the influence of a bow; an +instrument that had had twenty strings now only retained eight; another, +the name of which seemed to refer to a square shape, was rounded; those +primitively made of wood were now constructed of metal. There is reason +to believe that, generally speaking, these changes were made not so much +with the view of any musical improvement, properly so called, as with an +idea of gratifying the + +[Illustration: Fig. 157.--The Tree of Jesse. The ancestors of Jesus +Christ are represented with Musical Instruments, and as forming a +Celestial Concert. (Fac-simile from a Miniature in a Manuscript Breviary +of the Fifteenth Century. Royal Library, Brussels.)] + +fancy of the eye (Figs. 155 to 157). Scarcely any fixed rules for the +construction of musical instruments existed before the sixteenth +century, when learned musicians applied mathematical principles to the +theory of manufacture. Down to 1589 musical instruments were made in +Paris by workmen who were organ-makers, lute-makers, or even +coppersmiths, under the inspection and guarantee of the community of +musicians; but at this epoch the makers of musical instruments were +united in a trade corporation, and obtained, through the goodwill of +Henry III., certain privileges and special statutes. + +As musical instruments have always been divided into three particular +classes,--stringed, pulsatile, and wind instruments,--we shall adopt +this natural division in passing under review the various kinds in use +during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. We shall not, however, +pretend to be always able to point out the precise musical value of +these instruments, for in several instances we have no knowledge of +them, except from representations more or less truthful. + +The class of wind instruments comprised flutes, trumpets, and organs; +each of these was, however, subdivided into several very distinct kinds. +In the division of flutes alone, for instance, we find the straight +flute, the double flute, the side-mouthed or German flute, the Pandean +pipes, the _chorus_, the _calamus_, the bagpipes (_muse_ or _mousette_), +the _doucine_ or hautboy, the _flaïos_ or flageolet, &c. + +The flute is the most ancient of musical instruments; even in the Middle +Ages no orchestra was considered complete which did not contain an +entire order of flutes, differing both in shape and tone. In principle, +the simple flute, or _flûte à bec_, consisted of a straight pipe of hard +and sounding wood, made in one piece, and pierced with four or six +holes. But the number of holes being successively increased to eleven, +and the pipe being enlarged to a length of seven or eight feet, the +result was that the fingers were unable to act simultaneously upon all +the openings; thus, in order to close the two holes farthest from the +mouthpiece, keys were attached to the body of the flute which the +instrumentalist acted on with his foot. + +The simple flute, of greater or less length, is seen on the figured +monuments of every epoch. The double flute, which was equally in use, +had, as its name indicates, two pipes, generally of unequal lengths; the +_left-hand_ tube, which was the shortest and therefore called the +_feminine_, produced shrill sounds, while the _right-hand_, or +_masculine_, gave the low notes. Whether these two tubes were united or +were separate, this flute had always two distinct mouths,--although they +were often very close together--on which the musician played +alternately. The double flute (Fig. 158) was the instrument employed in +the eleventh century by the _jongleurs_ or jugglers as an +accompaniment. + +The side-mouthed flute, which was at first very little used, owed its +celebrity in the sixteenth century to the improvements it received from +the Germans, hence it acquired the name of the _German flute_ (Fig. +160). + +The _syrinx_ was nothing but the ancient Pandean pipes, composed +generally of seven tubes of wood or metal, gradually decreasing in +length; they were closed at the bottom, and at the top took the form of +a horizontal plane, which was touched by the lip of the musician as it +passed along (Fig. 159). In the eleventh and twelfth centuries, the +syrinx, which must have produced very shrill and discordant music, was +generally made in the shape of a semicircle, and contained nine tubes in +a metallic case pierced with the same number of holes. + +[Illustration: Fig. 158.--Double Flute, Fourteenth Century. (From +Willemin’s “French Monuments.”)] + +[Illustration: Fig. 159.--Seven-tubed _Syrinx_, Ninth or Tenth Century. +(Angers MS.)] + +The _chorus_, which in the time of St. Jerome was composed of a skin and +two tubes, one forming the mouth, the other the bell-end (Fig. 161), +must have presented a very great similarity to the modern bagpipes. In +the ninth century its shape had changed but little, except that we +sometimes find two bell-ends, and the membranous air-reservoir is in +some examples replaced by a kind of case made of metal or resonant wood +(_bois sonore_). Subsequently this instrument was transformed into a +simple dulcimer. + +The _calamus_, called the _chalemelle_ or _chalemie_, which derived its +origin from the _calamus_ or reed-pipe of the ancients, became in the +sixteenth century a treble to the hautboy, the _bombarde_ being its +counter-bass and tenor, and the bass being executed on the _cromorne_. +There was, however, quite a group of hautboys. The _douçaine_ or +_doucine_, a soft flute, the great hautboy of Poitou played the parts of +tenor or of fifth. The length of the hautboy having been found +inconvenient, it was divided into pieces united in a movable cluster +(_faisceau_) known by the name of _fagot_. This instrument was +afterwards called _courtaut_ in France, and _sourdeline_ or _sampogne_ +in Italy, where it had become a kind of bagpipe, like the _muse_ or +_estive_. The _muse de blé_ was a simple reed-pipe, but the _muse +d’Aussay_ (or _d’Ausçois_, district of Auch) was certainty a hautboy. +With regard to the bagpipes, properly so called, they generally bore the +name of _chevrette_, _chevrie_, or _chièvre_, on account of the skin of +which the bag was made. They were also designated by the names of +_pythaule_ and _cornemuse_, drone-pipe (Fig. 162). + +[Illustration: Fig. 160.--German Musicians playing on the Flute and +Goat’s Horn. (Drawn and Engraved by J. Amman.)] + +The _flaïos de saus_, or reed-flutes, were nothing but mere whistles, +such as village children are still in the habit of making in the spring; +but there were, says an ancient author, more than twenty kinds, “as many +loud as soft,” which were coupled by pairs in an orchestra. The +_fistule_, the _souffle_, the _pipe_, and the _fretiau_ or _galoubet_, +were all small flageolets played on by the left hand while the right +marked the time on a tambourine or with the cymbals. The _pandorium_, +which has been classed among the flutes without its shape and character +of tone being rightly determined, must have presented, at least at its +origin, some similarity of sound to the stringed instrument called +_pandore_ (_pandora_). + +[Illustration: Fig. 161.--_Chorus_ with single Bell-end with Holes. +(Ninth Century, MS. of Saint-Blaise.)] + +[Illustration: Fig. 162.--Bagpiper, Thirteenth Century. (Sculpture on +the Musicians’ Hall at Rheims.)] + +Trumpets formed a much more numerous class than the flutes. In Latin +they were called _tuba_, _lituus_, _buccina_, _taurea_, _cornu_, +_claro_, _salpinx_, &c.; in French, _trompe_, _corne_, _olifant_, +_cornet_, _buisine_, _sambute_, &c. In most cases, however, they derived +their name either from their shape, the sound which they produced, the +material whereof they were made, or the use for which they were +specially intended. Thus, among military trumpets of copper or brass, +the names of some (_claro_, _clarasius_) indicating the piercing sound +which they produced; the names of others seem rather to refer to the +appearance of their bell-ends (Fig. 164), which imitated the head of a +bird, a horn, a serpent, &c. Some of these trumpets were so long and +heavy that a foot or stand was required to support them, while the +performer took the end in his mouth and blew through it with full power +of breath (Fig. 163.) + +The shepherds’ horns, made of wood rimmed with brass, were a heavy and +powerful kind of speaking-trumpet, which in the eighth century the Welsh +herdsmen and those of the _landes_ of Cornouaille always carried with +them (Fig. 165.) When the barons or knights desired to convey any +signals rendered necessary either in war or hunting, they were in the +habit of using horns of a much more portable character, which were +suspended at their girdles; they used them, also, as drinking vessels +when occasion required. At first these instruments were generally made +of nothing but buffalo’s or goat’s horns; but when the fashion arose of +working delicately in ivory, they took the name of _olifant_, an +appellation destined to become famous in the old romances of chivalry, +in which the _olifant_ played a very important part (Fig. 166). To cite +only one example among a thousand, Roland, when overwhelmed by numbers +in the valley of Ronceveaux, sounded the _olifant_ in order to call +Charlemagne’s army to his aid. + +[Illustration: Fig. 163.--Straight Trumpet with Stand. (Eleventh +Century. Cotton MS., British Museum.)] + +[Illustration: Fig. 164.--Curved Trumpet. (Eleventh Century. Cotton MS., +British Museum.)] + +In the fourteenth century, according to a passage in a manuscript in the +Library of Berne, quoted by M. Jubinal, there were in bodies of troops +_corneurs_, _trompeurs_, and _buisineurs_, who played under certain +special circumstances. The _trompes_ sounded for the movements of the +knights, or men-at-arms; the _cornes_ for the movements of the banners +or the foot-soldiers, and the _buisines_, or clarions, when the entire +camp (_ost_) was to march. The heralds-at-arms, whose duty it was to +make the announcements or proclamations in the public ways, were in the +habit of using either long trumpets, called _à potence_, on account of +the forked stick whereon they were supported, or trumpets _à tortilles_ +(serpentine), the name of which sufficiently indicates their shape. +Added to this, the sound of the trumpet or horn accompanied or +signalised the principal acts of the citizens both in public and private +life. During the meals of great men, the water, the wine, and the bread, +were heralded by sound of trumpet. In towns this instrument announced +the opening and closing of the gates, the opening and closing of the +markets, and the time of curfew, till the time when the horn and the +copper trumpet were superseded in this function by the bells in +church-towers. + +[Illustration: Fig. 165.--Shepherd’s Horn. Eighth Century. (MS., British +Museum.)] + +[Illustration: Fig. 166.--Horn, or _Olifant_, Fourteenth Century. (From +Willemin’s “French Monuments.”)] + +Polybius and Ammianus Marcellinus tell us that the ancient Gauls and +Germans had a great passion for large, hoarse-sounding trumpets. At the +time of Charlemagne, and still more in the days of the Crusades, the +intercourse that took place between the men of the West and the African +and Asiatic races introduced among the former the use of musical +instruments of a harsh and piercing tone. Then it was that the +Saracen-horns, made of copper, replaced the wooden or horn trumpets. At +the same period sackbuts, or _sambutes_ (Fig. 167), made their +appearance in Italy: in those of the ninth century, we find the +principle of the modern trombone. About the same epoch the Germans +introduced great improvements into the trumpet by adapting to it the +system of holes, which up to that time had been the characteristic of +flutes (Fig. 168). + +[Illustration: Fig. 167.--_Sambute_, or Sackbut, of the Ninth Century. +(Boulogne MS.)] + +[Illustration: Fig. 168.--German Musician sounding the Military Trumpet. +Drawn and Engraved by J. Amman.] + +But among all the wind instruments of the Middle Ages, the organ was the +one most imposing in its nature, and destined to the most glorious +career. The only instrument of this kind known by the ancients was the +water-organ, in which a key-board of twenty-six keys corresponded to the +same number of pipes; and the air, acted upon by the pressure of water, +produced most varied sounds. Nero, it is said, spent a whole day +examining and admiring the mechanism of an instrument of this kind. + +The water-organ, although described and commended by Vitruvius, was not +much in use in the Middle Ages. Eginhard speaks of one constructed, in +826, by a Venetian priest; and the last of which mention is made existed +at Malmesbury in the twelfth century. But this latter might be regarded +more in the light of a steam-organ; for, like the warning whistles of +our locomotives, it was worked by the effects of the steam of boiling +water rushing into brass pipes. + +[Illustration: Fig. 169.--Pneumatic Organ of the Fourth Century. +(Sculpture of that date at Constantinople.)] + +The water-organ was, in very early times, superseded by the pneumatic or +wind-organ (Fig. 169), the description of which given by St. Jerome +agrees with the representations on the obelisk erected at Constantinople +in the time of Theodosius the Great. We must, however, fix a date as +late as the eighth century for the introduction of this instrument into +the West, or at least into France. In 757, Constantine Copronymus, +Emperor of the East, sent to King Pépin a number of presents, among +which was an organ that excited the admiration of the court. +Charlemagne, who received a similar present from the same monarch, had +several organs made from this model. These were provided, according to +the statement of the monk of Saint-Gall, with “brazen pipes which were +acted on by bellows made of bull’s hide, and imitated the roaring of +thunder, the accents of the lyre, and the clang of cymbals.” These +primitive organs, notwithstanding the power and richness of their +musical resources, were of dimensions which rendered them quite +portable. It was, in fact, only in consequence of its almost exclusive +application to the solemnities of Catholic worship that the organ became +developed on an almost gigantic scale. In 951, there existed in +Winchester Cathedral an organ which was divided into two parts, each +provided with its apparatus of bellows, its key-board, and its +organist. Twelve bellows above, and fourteen below, were worked by +seventy strong men, and the air was distributed by means of forty valves +into four hundred pipes, arranged in groups or choirs of ten, each group +corresponding with one of the twenty-four keys of each key-board (Fig. +170). + +[Illustration: Fig. 170.--Great Organ, with Bellows and double +Key-board, of the Twelfth Century. (MS. at Cambridge.)] + +In the ninth century, the German organ-makers acquired great renown. The +monk Gerbert, who, as we have already remarked, became pope under the +name of Sylvester II., and co-operated so efficiently in the progress of +the horological art, established in the monastery of which he was abbot +a workshop for the manufacture of organs. We must add, that all the +musical treatises written from the ninth to the twelfth century entered +into very considerable details concerning the arrangement and working of +this instrument. Nevertheless, the admission of the organ into churches +did not fail to meet with earnest opponents among the bishops and +priests of the day. But while some complained of the thunder and +rumbling of the organs, others appealed to the examples of king David +and the prophet Elisha. Finally, in the thirteenth century, the right of +placing organs in all churches was no longer disputed, and the only +question was, who could build the most powerful and most magnificent +instruments. At Milan was an organ the pipes of which were of silver; at +Venice some were made of pure gold. The number of these pipes was varied +and multiplied to an infinite extent, according to the effects the +instrument was required to produce. The mechanism was, generally +speaking, rather complicated, and the working of the bellows very +laborious. In large organs the key-board was made up of key-plates five +or six inches wide, which the organist, his hands defended by thickly +padded gloves, had to strike with his clenched fist in order to bring +out the notes (Fig. 171). + +[Illustration: Fig. 171.--Organ with single Key-board of the Fourteenth +Century. (Miniature from a Latin Psalter, No. 175, Bibl. Imp., Paris.)] + +The organ, which, as we have seen, was at first of a portable nature, in +some cases resumed its original dimensions (Fig. 172). It was then +sometimes called simply _portatif_ (hand-organ), and sometimes _régale_ +or _positif_ (choir-organ). Raphael, in one of his famous pictures, +represents St. Cecilia singing sacred hymns, and accompanying herself on +a choir-organ. + +[Illustration: Fig. 172.--Portable Organ of the Fifteenth Century. +(Miniature in Vincent de Beauvais’ “Miroir Historial,” MS. in the Bibl. +Imp., Paris.)] + +The class of pulsatile instruments was formed of bells, cymbals, and +drums. + +[Illustration: Fig. 173.--_Tintinnabulum_ or Hand-Bell of the Ninth +Century. (Boulogne MS.)] + +[Illustration: Fig. 174.--The _Saufang_ of St. Cecilia’s at Cologne. +(Sixth Century.)] + +[Illustration: Fig. 175.--Bell in a Tower of Siena. (Twelfth Century.)] + +There can be no doubt that the ancients were acquainted with large +bells, hand-bells, and strung-bells (_grelots_). But we must ascribe to +the requirements of Christian worship the first introduction of the +bell, properly so called, formed of cast-metal (_campana_ or _nola_, the +first having been made, it is said, at Nola), which was employed from +the first in summoning the faithful to the public services. In the first +instance the bell was merely held in the hand and shaken by some monk or +ecclesiastic who stood in front of the church-door, or mounted a raised +platform for the purpose. This _tintinnabulum_ (Fig. 173), or portable +bell, subsequently passed into the hands of the public criers, the +societies of ringers, and those who rang knells for the dead, at a time +when most of the churches were provided with _campaniles_ or +bell-towers, wherein were hung the parish bells, which daily assumed +dimensions of increasing importance. These great bells, of which the +_Saufang_ of Cologne (sixth century) is an example (Fig. 174), were at +first made of wrought-iron plates laid one over the other, and riveted +together. But in the eighth century they began to cast bells of copper +and even of silver. One of the most ancient still existing is that in +the tower of Bisdomini at Siena (Fig. 175). It bears the date of 1159, +and is formed in the shape of a cask, being rather more than a yard +high: the sound it produces is very sharp. The combination of several +bells of various sizes naturally produced the peal or chime; this at +first consisted of an arch of wood or iron whereon were suspended the +bells, which the player struck with a small hammer (Fig. 176). The +number and classification of the bells becoming subsequently rather more +complicated, the hand of the chimer was superseded by a mechanical +arrangement. This was the origin of those peals of bells for which there +was such a demand in the Middle Ages, and of which certain towns are +still so proud. + +The designations of _cymbalum_ and _flagellum_ were, in the first +instance, applied to small hand-chimes; but there were also regular +cymbals (_cymbala_ or _acetabula_), spherical or hollowed plates of +silver, brass, or copper. Some of these were shaken at the ends of the +fingers, or fastened to the knees or feet, so as to be put in motion by +the movement of the body. These small cymbals, or _crotales_, were a +kind of rattle (_grelots_), causing the dancers to make a noise in their +performance, as do the Spanish castanets, which in the sixteenth century +were called in France _maronnettes_, and were the same as the +_cliquettes_, or snappers, used by lepers in former days. Small +strung-bells became so much the fashion at a certain epoch that not only +was the harness of horses adorned with them, but they were suspended to +the clothes both of men and women, who at the slightest movement made a +ringing, tinkling noise, sounding like so many perambulating chimes. + +The use of pulsatile instruments producing a metallic sound increased +greatly in Europe, especially after the return from the Crusades. But +even before this date the Egyptian timbrel was used in religious and +festival music; this instrument was composed of a circle whereon rings +were hung, which tinkled as they struck together when the timbrel was +shaken. The Oriental triangle was also used on these occasions; this was +almost the same then as it is at the present day. + +The drum has always been a hollow case covered with a stretched skin, +but the shape and size of this instrument have caused great variations +in its name, and also in the way in which it was used. In the Middle +Ages it was called _taborellus_, _tabornum_, and _tympanum_. It +generally made its appearance in festal music, and especially in +processions; but it was not until the fourteenth century that it began +to take a place in military bands, at least in France; the Arabians, +however, have used it from the earliest ages. In the thirteenth century +the _taburel_ was a kind of tambourine, played on with only a +drum-stick; in the _tabornum_ we may recognise the military drum of the +present day; and the _tympanum_ was equivalent to our tambourine. +Sometimes, as seen in a sculpture in the Musicians’ Hall at Rheims, this +instrument was attached to the right shoulder of the performer, who +played upon it by striking it with his head, while at the same time he +blew through two metal flutes communicating with the inside of the drum +(Fig. 177). + +[Illustration: Fig. 176.--Chime of Bells of the Ninth Century. (MS. de +Saint-Blaise.)] + +[Illustration: Fig. 177.--_Tympanum_ of the Thirteenth Century. +(Sculpture on the Musicians’ Hall, Rheims.)] + +We have now to speak of stringed instruments, the whole of which may be +divided into three principal classes: those played on by the fingers, +those that are struck, and those which are rubbed (_frottées_) by means +of some appliance. + +As a matter of fact, there are some stringed instruments which may be +said to belong to all three of these classes, as all three modes of +playing upon them has been adopted either simultaneously or in +succession. + +The most ancient are doubtless those that are played on by the fingers, +first among which, in right of its antiquity, we must name the lyre; +from this have sprung the cithern, the harp, the psaltery, the +_nabulon_, &c. In the Middle Ages, however, considerable confusion arose +from the fact that these original names were at the time often diverted +from their real acceptation. + +The lyre, the stringed instrument _par excellence_ of the Greeks and +Romans, preserved its primitive form as late as the tenth century. The +strings were generally of twisted gut, but sometimes also of brass wire, +and varied in number from three to eight. The sounding-box, which was +always placed at the lower part of the instrument, was more often made +of wood than of either metal or tortoise-shell (Fig. 178). + +[Illustration: Fig. 178.--Ancient Lyre. (Angers MS.)] + +[Illustration: Fig. 179.--Lyre of the North. (Ninth Century.)] + +The lyre was held upon the knees, and the performer touched or rubbed +the strings with one hand, either with the fingers or by means of a +_plectrum_. The lyre specified as “Northern” (Fig. 179), was certainly +the origin of the violin, to the shape of which it even then bore some +resemblance; it was fastened at the top, and had a _cordier_ at the end +of the sounding-board, as well as a bridge in the centre of the face of +the instrument. + +The lyre was superseded by the psaltery and the cithern. The psaltery, +which never was furnished with fewer than ten, or more than twenty, +strings, differed essentially from the lyre and the cithern by the +sounding-board being placed at the top of the instrument. Psalteries +were made of a round, square, oblong, or buckler-shaped form (Fig. 181); +and sometimes the sounding-box was lengthened so as to rest upon the +shoulder of the musician (Fig. 180). The psaltery disappeared in the +tenth century and gave place to the cithern (_cithara_), a name which +had been at first applied to all kinds of stringed instruments. The +shape of the cithern, which in the days of St. Jerome resembled a Greek +_delta_ (Δ), varied in different countries, as is proved by the +epithets--_barbarica_, _Teutonica_, _Anglica_, which we find at +different times coupled with its generic name. In other places, in +consequence of these local transformations, it became the _nabulum_, the +_chorus_, and the _salterion_ or _psalterion_ (which latter must not be +confounded with the psaltery, a primary derivative of the lyre). + +[Illustration: Fig. 180.--Psaltery to produce a prolonged sound. Ninth +Century. (MS. in the Bibl. Imp., Paris.)] + +The _nabulum_[23] (Fig. 182) was made either in the shape of a triangle +with truncated corners, or of a semicircle joined at the two +extremities; its sounding-board occupied the whole of the rounded part, +and left but a very limited space for the twelve strings. The _chorus_ +or _choron_, the imperfect representation of which in the manuscripts of +the ninth and tenth centuries calls to mind the appearance of a long +semicircular window or of a Gothic capital N, generally had one of its +sides prolonged, on which the performer leaned so as to hold the +instrument in the same way as a harp (Fig. 183). + +[Illustration: Fig. 181.--Buckler-shaped Psaltery with many Strings. +(Ninth Century. Boulogne MS.)] + +[Illustration: Fig. 182.--_Nabulum._ Ninth Century. (MS. d’Angers.)] + +[Illustration: Fig. 183.--_Choron._ Ninth Century. (Boulogne MS.)] + +[Illustration: Fig. 184.--_Psalterion._ Twelfth Century.] + +The _psalterion_, which was in use all over Europe after the twelfth +century, and is thought to have originated in the East, where it was +found by the Crusaders, was at first composed of a flat box of sounding +wood, with two oblique sides; it assumed the shape of a triangle +truncated at its top, with twelve or sixteen metallic strings either of +gold or silver, which were played upon by means of a small bow of wood, +ivory, or horn (Fig. 184); subsequently the strings were made more +slender, the number being increased to as many as twenty-two; the three +angles of the sounding-box were cut off, and holes were made, sometimes +one only in the middle, sometimes one at each angle, and sometimes as +many as five, symmetrically arranged. The performer placed the +instrument against his chest, and held it so as to touch the strings +either with the fingers of the two hands, or with a pen or _plectrum_ +(Fig. 185). This instrument, which in the representations of poets and +painters never failed to figure in celestial concerts, produced tones of +incomparable softness. The old romances of chivalry exhausted all the +phrases of admiration in describing the _psalterion_. But the highest +eulogium which can be passed on this instrument is that it formed the +starting-point of the harpsichord, or of the stringed instruments struck +or played on by means of mechanism. + +[Illustration: Fig. 185.--Performer on the _Psalterion_. Fourteenth +Century. (MS. No. 703 in the Bibl. Imp. of Paris.)] + +It is, in fact, thought that a kind of harpsichord with four octaves, +which in the fourteenth century was called _dulcimer_ or _dulcemelos_, +and is but imperfectly described, was nothing else than a _psalterion_, +with a sounding apparatus that assumed the proportions of a large box, +to which also a key-board had been adapted. This instrument, when it had +but three octaves, was called _clavicord_ or _manicordion_, and in the +sixteenth century produced forty-two to fifty tones or semi-tones: one +string expressed several notes, and this was effected by means of plates +of metal which, serving as a movable bridge to each string, either +increased or diminished the intensity of its vibration. The grand-pianos +of the present day unquestionably have their key-boards placed in the +same position as they were in the _dulcimer_ and _clavicorde_. The +earliest improvements in metallic stringed instruments constructed with +a key-board are due to the Italians; these improvements soon had the +effect of throwing the _psalterion_ into oblivion. + +[Illustration: Fig. 186.--_Organistrum._ Ninth Century. (MS. de +Saint-Blaise.)] + +In the ninth century a stringed instrument was in use the mechanism of +which, although not very perfect, evidently tended to an imitation of +the key-board applied to organs: this was the _organistrum_ (Fig. 186), +an enormous guitar pierced with two sound holes, and provided with three +strings set in vibration by a small winch; eight movable screws, rising +or falling at will along the finger-board, formed so many keys which +served to vary the tones. In the first instance two persons performed on +the _organistrum_--one turning the winch while the other touched the +keys. When its size was decreased it became the _vielle_ (hurdy-gurdy) +properly so called, which could be managed by one musician. It was at +first called _rubelle_, _rebel_, and _symphonie_; subsequently this last +name was corrupted into _chifonie_ and _sifonie_, and we may remark that +even now in certain districts of central France the _vielle_ still +bears the popular name of _chinforgne_. The _chifonie_ never found a +place in musical concerts, and fell almost immediately into the hands of +the mendicants, who solicited alms accompanied by the doleful and +somewhat discordant notes of this instrument, and thence obtaining the +name of _chifoniens_. + +Notwithstanding all the efforts which were made to substitute wheels and +key-boards for the action of the fingers on the strings of instruments, +still those that were played on by the hand only, such as harps and +lutes, did not fail to maintain the preference among skilful musicians. + +[Illustration: Fig. 187.--Triangular Saxon Harp of the Ninth Century. +(Bible of Charles le Chauve.)] + +[Illustration: Fig. 188.--Fifteen-stringed Harp of the Twelfth Century. +(MS. in the Bibl. Imp., Paris.)] + +The harp was certainly Saxon in its origin, although some have imagined +they could discover traces of it in Greek, Roman, and even Egyptian +antiquities. This instrument was at first nothing but a triangular +cithern (Fig. 187), in which the sounding-board occupied the whole of +one side from top to bottom, instead of being limited to the lower +angle, as in the primitive _cithara_, or confined to the upper part as +in the psaltery. The English harp (_cithara Anglica_) of the ninth +century differed but little from the modern instrument; the simplicity +and good judgment shown in its shape bear witness to the perfection it +had already attained (Fig. 188). The number of strings and the shape of +this instrument varied constantly from time to time. The sounding-box +was sometimes made square, sometimes elongated, and sometimes round. The +arms were sometimes straight and sometimes curved; the upper side was +often lengthened so as to represent an animal’s head (Fig. 189) and the +lower angle, on which the instrument rested on the ground, terminated in +a griffin’s claw. According to the miniatures in manuscripts, the harp +was of a size that the top of it did not extend higher than the head of +the performer, who played upon it in a sitting posture (Fig. 190). There +were, however, harps of a lighter character, which the musician bore +suspended from his neck by a strap, and played upon while standing up. +This portable harp was the one that may _par excellence_ be called +noble, and was the instrument on which the _trouvères_ accompanied their +voices when reciting ballads and metrical tales (Fig. 191). In the +romances of chivalry harpers are constantly introduced, and their harps +are ever tuned to some lay of love or war; we find this taking place as +well in the north as in the south. “The harp,” says Guillaume de +Machaut-- + + “tous instruments passe, + Quand sagement bien en joue et compasse.” + +[Illustration: Fig. 189.--Harpers of the Twelfth Century, from a +Miniature in a Bible. (MS. in the Bibl. Imp., Paris.)] + +[Illustration: Fig. 190.--Harp-player of the Fifteenth Century. From an +Enamelled Dish found near Soissons, and preserved in the Bibl. Imp., +Paris.] + +In the sixteenth century, however, it began to fall into disfavour; it +was supplanted by the lute (Fig. 192), an instrument much used in the +thirteenth century, and by the guitar, which was brought into fashion in +France from Spain and Italy, and formed the delight both of the court +and private circles. At that time every great lord, imitating kings and +princesses, wished to have his lute or guitar player, and the poet +Bonaventure des Périers, _valet de chambre_ of Marguerite de Navarre, +composed for her “La Manière de bien et justement entoucher les Lucs et +Guiternes.” The lute and the guitar, which for about two centuries were +in high favour in what was called “chamber music,” have since the +above-named epoch scarcely been altered in shape. With certain +modifications, however, they gave rise to the _theorbo_ and the +_mandolin_, which never attained more than a transient or local favour. + +[Illustration: Fig. 191.--Minstrel’s Harp, of the Fifteenth Century. +(MS. in the _Miroir Historial_ of Vincent de Beauvais.)] + +[Illustration: Fig. 192.--Five-stringed Lute. Thirteenth Century. (MS. +in the Bibl. Imp., Paris.)] + +Stringed instruments that were played on by means of bows were not known +before the fifth century, and belonged to the northern races; they did +not become prevalent in Europe generally until after the Norman +invasion. At first they were but roughly made and rendered indifferent +service to musical art; but from the twelfth to the sixteenth century, +these instruments were subject to many changes both in form and name, +and were brought to perfection according as the execution of musicians +also improved. The most ancient of these instruments is the _crout_ +(Fig. 193), which must have produced the _rote_, so dear to the +minstrels and the _trouvères_ of the thirteenth century. The _crout_, +which is the instrument placed by tradition in the hands of the +Armorican, Breton, and Scotch bards,[24] was composed of an oblong +sounding-box, more or less hollowed out at the two sides, with a handle +fixed in the body of the instrument, in which were made two openings +that allowed the performer to hold it by the left hand and at the same +time to touch the strings; these, as a matter of principle, were only +three in number. Subsequently it had four strings, and then six--two of +which were played open (_à vide_). The musician played on it with a +straight or convex bow, provided with a single thread either of iron +wire or of twisted hair. Except in England, where the _crout_ was +national, it did not last beyond the eleventh century. It was replaced +by the _rote_, which was not, as its name (apparently derived from +_rota_, a wheel) would seem to intimate, a _vielle_ or _symphonie_. It +would be useless to seek for the derivation of the name of _rota_, +except in the word _crotta_, the Latin form of the term _crout_. + +[Illustration: Fig. 193.--Three-stringed _Crout_ of the Ninth Century. +From a Miniature.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 194.--King David playing on a _Rote_. From a Painted +Window of the Thirteenth Century. (Chapel of the Virgin, Cathedral of +Troyes.)] + +In the earliest _rotes_ (Fig. 194), those made in the thirteenth +century, there is an evident intention of combining the two modes of +playing on the strings--rubbing with a bow and touching with the +fingers. The box, which was not hollowed out and rounded at the two +ends, was much deeper at the lower end, where the strings commenced, +than higher up, near the pegs, where these strings are sounded open +under the action of the finger, which reaches them through an aperture; +the bow acting on them near the string-bridge in front of the +sounding-holes. It must have been difficult to touch with the bow one +string alone, but it should be remarked that the harmonic ideal of this +instrument consisted in forming accords by consonances of thirds, +fifths, and eighths. The _rote_ was soon developed into a new +instrument, assuming the form that our violoncellos have almost exactly +retained. The box was increased in size, the handle was lengthened +beyond the body of the instrument, the number of strings was reduced to +three or four, stretched over a bridge, and the sounding-holes were made +in the shape of a crescent. From this time the _rote_ acquired a special +character it had not lost even in the sixteenth century, when it became +the bass-viol. This was its true destination. The size of the instrument +dictated the manner in which it was held, either on the knees or on the +ground between the legs (Fig. 195). + +[Illustration: Fig. 195.--German Musicians playing on the Violin and +Bass-Viol. Drawn and Engraved by J. Amman.] + +The _vielle_ or _viole_, which had no affinity except in shape with the +_vielle_ (hurdy-gurdy) of the present day, was at first a small _rote_ +held by the performer against his chin or his breast, in much the same +way as the violin is now used (Fig. 196). The box, which was at first +conical and convex, became gradually oval in shape, and the handle +remained short and wide. It was, perhaps, this handle which terminated +in a kind of ornamental scroll in the shape of a violet (_viola_), that +originated the name of the instrument. The _viole_, just as the _rote_, +formed the accompaniment _obligato_ of certain songs; and among the +jugglers who played upon it good performers were rare (Figs. 197, 198). +Improvements in the _vielle_ came for the most part from Italy, where +the co-operation of a number of skilful lute-players was the means of +gradually forming the violin. Even before the famous Dnifloprugar, born +in the Italian Tyrol, had hit upon the model of his admirable violins, +the handle of the _vielle_ had been lengthened, + +[Illustration: Fig. 196.--Oval _Vielle_ with Three Strings, of the +Thirteenth Century. (Sculpture on the Cathedral of Amiens.)] + +[Illustration: Fig. 197.--Juggler playing on a _Vielle_, hollowed out at +the Sides. Fifteenth Century. (“Heures du Roi René,” MS. No. 159 in the +Bibl. Imp. of the Arsenal, Paris.)] + +its sides hollowed out, and its strings had received a more extended +field of action by removing the stringer (_cordier_) from the centre of +the sounding-board + +[Illustration: Fig. 198.--Player on the _Vielle_. Thirteenth Century. +(Taken from an Enamelled Dish at Soissons.)] + +[Illustration: Fig. 199.--Angel Playing on a Three-stringed Fiddle. +Thirteenth Century. (Sculpture in the Cathedral of Amiens.)] + +Henceforth the play of the board became more free and easy, the +performer was able to touch every string singly, and was in a position +to substitute effects more characteristic instead of the former +monotonous consonances. + +[Illustration: Fig. 200.--Rebec, of the Sixteenth Century. From +Willemin.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 201.--Long Monochord played on with a Bow. Fifteenth +Century. (MS. of Froissart, in the Bibl. Imp., Paris.)] + +England was the birthplace of the _crout_; France invented the _rote_, +and Italy the _viole_; Germany originated the _gigue_,[25] the name of +which may perhaps be derived from the similarity presented by the shape +of the instrument to the thigh of a kid. The _gigue_ was provided with +three strings (Fig. 199), and its special distinction from the _viole_ +was, that instead of the handle being as it were independent of the body +of the instrument, it was a kind of prolongation of the sounding-board. +The _gigue_, which bore a considerable resemblance to the modern +mandolin, was an instrument on which the Germans were accustomed to work +wonders in the way of performance; according, at least, to the statement +of Adenès, the _trouvère_, who speaks with admiration of the +“_gigueours_ of Germany.” The _gigue_, however, entirely disappeared, at +least in France, in the fifteenth century; but its name still remained +as the designation of a joyous dance, which for a considerable period +was enlivened by the sound of this instrument. + +Among the musical instruments of this class in the Middle Ages, we have +still to mention the rebec (Fig. 200), which was so often quoted by the +authors of the day, and yet is so little known, although it figured in +the court concerts in the time of Rabelais, who specifies it by the term +_aulique_, in contrast to the rustic _cornemuse_ (bagpipes). + +We must, in conclusion, speak of the monochord (_monocordium_), which is +always mentioned by the authors of the Middle Ages with feelings of +pleasure, although it appears to have been nothing more than the most +simple and primitive expression of all the other stringed instruments +(Fig. 201). It was composed of a narrow oblong box, on each end of the +front-board were fixed two immovable bridges supporting a metallic +string stretched from one to the other, and corresponding to a scale of +notes traced out on the instrument. A movable bridge, which was shifted +up and down between the string and the scale, produced whatever notes +the performer wished to bring out. In the eighth century there was a +kind of violin or mandolin furnished with a single metallic string +played on with a metallic bow. Later still, we find a kind of harp +formed of a long sounding-box traversed by a single string, over which +the musician moved a small bow handled with a sudden and rapid movement. + +The instruments we have named do not, however, embrace all those in use +in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. There certainly were others +which, in spite of the most intelligent investigations, and the most +judicious deductions, are now known to us only by name. As regards, for +instance, the nature and appearance of the _éles_ or _celes_, the +_échaqueil_ or _échequier_, the _enmorache_, and the _micamon_, we are +left to the vaguest conjectures. + +[Illustration: Fig. 202.--Triangle of the Ninth Century. (MS. of +Saint-Emmeran.)] + + + + +PLAYING-CARDS. + + Supposed Date of their Invention.--Existed in India in the Twelfth + Century.--Their connection with the Game of Chess.--Brought into + Europe after the Crusades.--First Mention of a Game with Cards in + 1379.--Cards well known in the Fifteenth Century in Spain, Germany, + and France, under the name of _Tarots_.--Cards called _Charles the + Sixth’s_ must have been _Tarots_.--Ancient Cards, French, Italian, + and German.--Cards contributing to the Invention of Wood-Engraving + and Printing. + + +The origin of playing-cards has for many years past formed a special +subject of investigation among scholars and antiquarians. For, however +trifling the matter may appear in itself, this curious point is +connected with two of the most important inventions of modern +times--engraving and printing. + +We must not, however, take upon ourselves to assert too positively that +all the profound researches, persevering study, and ingenious deductions +which have been applied to the subject have entirely succeeded in +elucidating the question. Nevertheless, a certain degree of light has +been thrown upon it, by which we shall endeavour to profit. + +The question is, at what date are we to fix the invention of +playing-cards, and to whom are we to attribute it? In order to solve +these queries, they must be divided; for, although the introduction of +playing-cards into Europe may not date back beyond the fourteenth +century, and the invention of our game of piquet may not have been prior +to the reign of Charles VII., it is at least asserted--(1st), that +playing-cards existed in India in the twelfth century; (2nd), that the +ancients played at games in which certain figures and numbers were +represented on dice or tablets; (3rd), that in comparatively recent +times the game of chess and the game of cards presented striking +affinities, proving the common origin of these two games--one connected +with painting, the other with sculpture. + +If we are to believe Herodotus, the Lydians, in order to beguile the +sufferings of hunger during a long and cruel famine, invented nearly +every game, especially that of dice. Later authors ascribe the honour of +these inventions to the Greeks, when irritated at the tedious delays of +the siege of Troy. Cicero even mentions by name Pyrrhus and Palamedes as +the originators of the “games in use in camps” (_ludos castrenses_). +What were these games? Some say, chess; others, dice or knuckle-bones. + +Certain very ancient specimens prove unquestionably that the Indian +cards were nothing but a transformation of the game of chess; for the +principal pieces in this game are reproduced on the cards, but in such a +way that eight players instead of two could take part in it. In the game +of chess there were only two armies of pawns, each having at its head a +king, a vizier (who was afterwards turned into a “queen”), a knight, an +elephant (which became a “bishop”), and a dromedary (afterwards a +“castle”). There can be no doubt that the course and arrangement of +these games were very different; but in both may be found an original +affinity in the fact that they recalled to mind the terrible game of +war, in which each adversary had to attack by means of stratagems, +combinations, and vigilance. + +We have now learned from certain authority (Abel de Rémusat, _Journal +Asiatique_, September, 1822) that playing-cards, proceeding from India +and China, were, like the game of chess (Fig. 203), in the hands of the +Arabians and the Saracens at the commencement of the twelfth century. It +is therefore almost certain they must have been brought into Europe +after the Crusades, with the arts, traditions, and customs which the men +of the West then derived from their Oriental antagonists. There is, +however, every reason to believe that the use of cards spread but +slowly; for at an epoch when the civil and ecclesiastical authorities +were constantly issuing ordinances against games of chance, we do not +find that cards were ever the subject of legal proceedings, like dice +and chess. + +The first formal mention made of playing-cards is found in a manuscript +chronicle of Nicolas de Covelluzzo, preserved in the archives of +Viterbo. “In the year 1379,” says the chronicler, “there was introduced +at Viterbo the game of cards, which comes from the country of the +Saracens, and is called by the latter _naïb_.” There is, in fact, a +German book, the “Jeu d’Or,” printed at Augsbourg in 1472, which +testifies to the fact that cards existed in Germany in the year 1300. +But, in the first place, this evidence is not contemporary with the fact +alleged; and, besides, + +[Illustration: Fig. 203.--Chess-Players. Fac-simile of a Miniature of +the Thirteenth Century. (MS. 7,266, Bibl. Imp., Paris.)] + +we may well suppose that the vanity of the Germans, which had attributed +to themselves the discovery of printing, desired, with about as much +reason, to appropriate also the invention of cards--that is, of +wood-engraving. We shall, therefore, act judiciously in paying but +little attention to this doubtful assertion, and hold to the account +given by the chronicler of Viterbo. But the latter, unfortunately, +furnishes us with no details as to the nature of these cards. Was the +game similar to that which is still extant in India? Or was it one +peculiar to the Arabs? These are questions which must remain unsolved. +The only facts presented to our notice are, that in 1379 cards made +their appearance in Europe, brought from Arabia, or the country of the +Saracens, and that their original name is given. The Italians for a long +time gave to cards the name of _naïbi_. In Spain they are still called +_naypes_. If it be understood that the word _naïb_ in Arabic signifies +“captain,” we shall see that the game in question was one of a military +character, like that of chess, and we shall be led to recognise in these +primitive cards the _tarots_ which were for a long time current in the +south of Europe. + +In 1387, John I., King of Castile, issued an ordinance prohibiting to +play with dice, _naypes_, or at chess. + +In the archives of the Audit Office, in Paris, there formerly existed an +account of the treasurer, Poupart, who states that, in 1392, he had +“paid to Jacquemin Gringonneur, painter, for three packs of cards in +gold and various colours, ornamented with numerous devices, to lay +before the lord the king (Charles VI.) for his amusement, 50 sols of +Paris.” This game, which seemed at first intended only for the amusement +of the king in his mental derangement, subsequently spread so much among +the people, that the provost of Paris, in an ordinance of January 22, +1397, issued a prohibition “to persons engaged in trade from playing at +tennis, bowls, dice, _cards_, and skittles, except on feast-days.” We +must remark that, twenty-eight years previously, Charles V., in a +celebrated ordinance which enumerates all the games of chance, did not +mention cards. + +The “Red Book” of the town of Ulm, a manuscript register preserved in +the archives of that town, contains an ordinance dated in 1397, in which +is conveyed a prohibition of games with cards. + +These facts are the only authenticated evidence which can be brought +forward with a view of fixing the approximate period of the introduction +of cards into Europe. Some authors have certainly imagined they were in +a position to determine an earlier epoch, but they have gone upon data +the value of which has since been destroyed by more thorough +investigation. + +In the fifteenth century there are evident traces both of the existence +and popularity of cards in Italy, Spain, Germany, and France. Their +names, colours, and emblems, their number and forms, were indeed +constantly changing, according to the country in which they were used +and the fancy of the players. But whether called _tarots_ or “French +cards,” they were in fact nothing but modifications of the primitive +Oriental cards, and an imitation more or less faithful of the ancient +game of chess. + +Reckoning from the fifteenth century, we meet with cards in every +enumeration of games of chance; we find them also proscribed and +condemned in ecclesiastical and royal ordinances. The clergy, too, +raised their voices against them; but these measures did not prevent the +trade in + +[Illustration: Figs. 204 and 205.--Jean Dunois, King Alexander, Julius +Cæsar, King Arthur, Charles the Great, and Godefroi de Bouillon. From +ancient coloured Wood-Engravings; prints analogous to the first +Playing-Cards of the Fifteenth Century. (Bibl. Imp., Paris, Department +of Manuscripts.)] + +them from increasing, nor great attention to their improved manufacture. +Poets and romance-writers vied with each other in speaking of them; they +appeared in the miniatures in manuscripts, and also in the first +attempts at engraving on wood and copper (Figs. 204 and 205). And, +notwithstanding the fragile nature of the cards themselves, some have +been preserved which belong to the earliest years of the fifteenth +century. + +As we have already seen, cards had, in principle, been classed among the +number of childish games; but it may be safely asserted that this could +not have long been the case, else how could we explain the legal +strictures and the ecclesiastical anathemas of which they were the +subject? + +St. Bernard, for example, speaking on the 5th of March, 1423, to the +crowd assembled in front of a church at Siena, inveighed with so much +energy, and fulminated with so much persuasion, against games of chance, +that all who heard ran at once and fetched their dice, chess, and +_cards_, and burnt them on the very spot. But, adds the chronicle, there +was a card-maker who, being ruined by the sermon of the saint, went to +seek him, and with a flood of tears said to him: “Father, I am a maker +of cards, and I have no other trade by which to live. By preventing me +from following my trade, you condemn me to die of hunger.” “If painting +is all you are capable of,” replied the preacher, “paint this picture.” +And he showed him an image of a radiating sun, in the centre of which +shone the monogram of Christ--I. H. S. The artisan followed his advice, +and soon made his fortune by painting this representation, which was +adopted by St. Bernard as his device. + +Although in every direction similar censures were directed against +cards, they nevertheless did not fail to come much into fashion, +especially in Italy; and to have a considerable sale. Thus, in 1441, we +find the master card-makers at Venice “who formed a rather numerous +association,” claiming and obtaining from the senate a kind of +prohibitory order against “the large quantity of _painted_ and _printed_ +cards which were made out of Venice and were introduced into the town, +to the great detriment of their art.” It is important to notice that +mention is made here of _printed_ as well as of painted cards. The fact +is, that at this date, not only did all the cities in Italy make their +own cards, but, in consequence of the invention of wood-engraving, +Germany and Holland exported a large quantity of them. We must also +point out that documents of the same date appear to establish a +distinction between the primitive _naïbi_ and cards properly so called, +without, however, affording any detailed characteristics of either. It +is, however, known that prior to the year 1419, one François Fibbia, a +noble of Pisa who died in exile at Bologna, obtained from the +“reformers” of this city, on the score of his being the inventor of the +game of _tarrochino_, the right of placing his escutcheon of arms on the +“queen _de bâton_,” and that of his wife’s arms on the “queen _de +denier_.” _Bâtons_, _deniers_, with _coupes_ and _épées_, were then the +suits of the Italian cards, as _carreau_ (diamond), _trèfle_ (club), +_cœur_ (heart), and _pique_ (spade), were those of the French cards. + +No original specimen has been preserved of the _tarots_ (_tarrochi_, +_tarrochini_) or Italian cards of this epoch; but we possess a pack +engraved about 1460, which is known to be an exact copy of them. Added +to this, Raphael Maffei, who lived at the end of the fifteenth century, +has left in his “Commentaries” a description of _tarots_, which were, he +says, “a new invention,”--in comparison, doubtless, with the origin of +playing-cards. From these two documents--though they present some +differences--we may gather that the pack of _tarots_ was then composed +of four or five series or suits, each of ten cards, bearing consecutive +numbers, and presenting so many _deniers_, _bâtons_, _coupes_, and +_épées_, equal in number to that of the card. To these series we must +add a whole assortment of figures, representing the _King_, the _Queen_, +the _Knight_, the _Foot-traveller_, the _World_, _Justice_, an _Angel_, +the _Sun_, the _Devil_, a _Castle_, _Death_, a _Gibbet_, the _Pope_, +_Love_, a _Buffoon_ (Fig. 206), &c. + +It is evident that _tarots_ were current in France long before the +invention of the game of piquet, which is unquestionably of French +origin; and among these _tarots_ we must class the cards that are called +those of Charles VI. (Figs. 207 and 208), and are now preserved in the +Print-Room of the Bibliothèque Impériale in Paris; these may be +considered as the oldest to be found in any collection, either public or +private. The Abbé de Longuerue states that he saw the pack with all its +cards complete; but only seventeen have been preserved to our day. These +cards are painted with delicacy, like the miniatures in manuscripts, on +a gilt ground, filled with dots forming a perforated ornamentation; they +are also surrounded by a silvered border in which a similar dotting +depicts a spirally twisted ribbon. This dotting is doubtless the _tare_, +a kind of goffering produced by small holes pricked out and arranged in +compartments, to which the _tarots_ owe their names, and of which our +present cards still retain a kind of reminiscence, in their backs being +covered with arabesques or dotted over in black or various colours. +These cards were about seven inches long and three and a half inches +wide, and were painted in distemper on cardboard ·039 inch thick. The +composition of them is ingenious and to some extent skilful, the drawing +correct and full of character, and the colouring or illumination +brilliant. + +[Illustration: Fig. 206.--The Buffoon, a Card from a Pack of _Tarots_. +Fifteenth Century.] + +Among the subjects they represent are some which deserve all the more +attention, because they can hardly fail to recall to mind a conception +somewhat similar to that of the “Dance of Death,” that terrible +“morality” which, dating from this epoch, was destined to increase more +and more in popularity. Thus, for instance, by the side of the +_Emperor_, who is covered with silver armour and holds the globe and the +sceptre, a _Hermit_ makes his appearance as an old man muffled in a cowl +and holding up an hour-glass, an emblem of the rapidity of time. Then we +have the _Pope_, who, with the tiara on his head, sits between two +cardinals; but _Death_ is also there, mounted on a grey horse with a +rough and shaggy coat, and sweeping down with his scythe kings, popes, +bishops, and other great men of the earth. If we see _Love_, represented +by three couples of lovers who embrace as they converse, while two +cupids dart at them their arrows from a cloud above; we also see a +_Gibbet_, on which hangs a gambler suspended by one foot, and still +holding in his hand a bag of money. An _Esquire_, clothed in gold and +scarlet, rides gallantly along, proudly waving his sword; a _Chariot_ +bears in triumph an officer in full armour; a _Fool_ places his cap and +bells under his arm that he may count upon his fingers. Finally, the +last trumpets are waking up the dead, who come out of their graves to +appear at the Last Judgment. + +[Illustrations: Fig. 207.--The Moon. + +Fig. 208.--Justice. + +(Cards taken from the Pack, said to be of Charles VI., preserved in the +Bibl. Imp., Paris.)] + +Most of these allegorical subjects have been retained in the _tarots_, +which include, independent of the sixteen figures of our piquet-pack, +twenty-two cards, representing the _Emperor_, the _Lover_, the +_Chariot_, the _Hermit_, the _Gibbet_, _Death_, the _House of God_, the +_End of the World_, &c. + +We should scarcely be justified in imagining that these _tarots_, +presenting as they did a picture of life so gloomily philosophical, +regarded from a Christian point of view, could have enjoyed any great +favour in the centre of a frivolous and corrupt court, devoted to little +else but _fêtes_, masquerades, and singing; this, too, at a time when +the State, a prey to every kind of intrigue, was falling into ruin, and +the voice of insurrection was surging up among a people burdened by +taxes, and decimated by pestilence and famine. On the other hand these +_tarots_ might well please the imagination of certain good people who, +having been deprived of their property in some of the disturbances +incidental to these times, could not fail to accept as a consolation +such emblematical representations of life and death. Artists of every +kind tried their best to reproduce them in all forms; and as these +designs found a place even in the ornaments of the female sex, it was +scarcely probable that playing-cards would form an exception. + +We are in possession of the remains of two ancient packs of cards, +produced by means of engraved plates; they were discovered, like most +cards of this date which have come to light, in the bindings of books of +the fifteenth century. These cards, which belong to the reign of Charles +VII., are essentially French in their character. We find in them the +king, the queen, and the knave of each suit, as in our present pack of +piquet cards. In one of these ancient packs we notice, however, traces +of the Saracenic origin of the _naïbi_; the Mussulman “crescent” being +substituted for the “diamond,” while the “club” is depicted in the +Arabian or Moorish fashion; that is, with four similar branches. There +is also another peculiarity; the “king of hearts” is represented by a +kind of savage, or hairy ape, leaning upon a knotty stick. The “queen” +of the same suit is likewise covered with hair, and holds a torch in her +hand. The “knave of clubs,” who is well fitted to serve as an escort to +the “king” and “queen of hearts,” is also covered with hair, and carries +a knotty stick on his shoulder. We may, besides, notice the legs of a +fourth hairy personage among those which have been separated from their +bodies by the knife of the bookbinder. But, with the exception of these, +all the other personages are clothed according to the fashion or the +etiquette which prevailed at the court of Charles VII. The “queen of +crescents” is represented in a costume similar to that of + +[Illustration: Fig. 209.--Charles VI. on his Throne, from a Miniature in +the MS. of the Kings of France. (Bibl. Imp., Paris.)] + +Mary of Anjou, the wife of the king; or in that of Gérarde Grassinel, +his mistress. The representations of the kings, the hairy one excepted, +are identical with those we have of Charles VII. himself, or the nobles +of his suite. Their costume was a velvet hat surmounted by the crown +ornamented with fleurs-de-lis; a robe open in front and lined with +ermine or _menu vair_, a tight doublet, and close stockings. The +“knaves” are copied from the pages and sergeants-at-arms of the period; +one wears the plumed flat cap and long cloak; another, on the contrary, +is clad in a short dress, and stands erect in his close-fitting doublet +and tightly drawn breeches. The latter displays, written on a streamer +which he is unrolling, the name of the card-maker, “F. Clerc.” These are +certainly cards of French invention, or, at any rate, of French +manufacture; but what explanation are we to give of the presence of the +savage “king” and “queen,” and the “hairy knave,” among the kings, +queens, and knaves all dressed according to the fashion of the time of +Charles VII.? We may, perhaps, find a satisfactory reply by referring to +the chronicles of the preceding reign. + +On the 29th of January, 1392, there was a grand _fête_ at the mansion of +Queen Blanche in honour of the marriage of a Chevalier de Vermandois +with one of the queen’s ladies. The king, Charles VI., had only just +recovered from his mental malady. One of his favourites, Hugonin de +Janzay, projected an entertainment in which the king and five lords were +to take a part. “It was,” says Juvénal des Ursins, “a masquerade of wild +men chained together, and all shaggy; their dress was made to fit close +to their body, and was rendered rough by flax and tow fastened on by +resinous pitch, greased so as to shine the better.” Froissart, who was +an eye-witness of this _fête_, says that the six actors in the _ballet_ +entered the hall yelling and shaking their chains. As it was not known +who these maskers were, the Duke of Orleans, brother of the king, +wishing to find out, took a lighted torch from the hands of his servant, +and held it so close to one of these strange personages that “the heat +of the fire caught the flax.” The king was fortunately separated from +his companions, who were all burned, with the exception of one only, who +threw himself into a tub full of water. Although Charles VI. escaped +from this peril, he was deeply affected by the thought of the danger to +which he had been exposed, and the result was a relapse into his former +insanity. + +This fearful _ballet des ardents_ left such an impression on the minds +of people generally, that seventy years afterwards a German engraver +made it the subject of a print. Should we, then, be venturing on an +inadmissible hypothesis if we attribute to a cardmaker of this epoch the +idea of introducing the same subject in a pack of cards? which, as is +abundantly proved, was modified according to the whim of the artist. In +order to justify the costume of a female savage and the torch, which +are given to the “queen of hearts,” we must not forget that Isabel of +Bavaria, consort of Charles VI., is accused of having assisted in +devising this fatal masquerade, which was intended to get rid of the +king; and of having taken as her accomplice the Duke of Orleans, her +brother-in-law, who is said to have purposely set fire to the clothing +of these pretended wild men, among whom was the king. + +The second pack, or fragment of a pack, which is dated back to this +epoch, presents a similarity to our present cards of a yet more striking +nature, at least in the characters and costumes of the figures; although +the names and devices of the personages still are suggestive of their +Saracenic origin. We must remark, under this head, that for several +centuries the names coupled with the different personages were +incessantly varying. In this pack we find “kings,” “queens,” and +“knaves” of clubs, hearts, spades, and diamonds; the Saracenic crescent +has disappeared. The “kings” are all holding sceptres, and the “queens” +carry flowers. Everything in the representations is not only in harmony +with the fashions of the period, but in addition to this, there are no +violations either of the laws of heraldry or of the usages of chivalry. + +According to tradition, this pack, the true piquet-pack, which +superseded the Italian _tarots_ and the cards of Charles VI., and soon +became generally used in France, was the invention of Etienne Vignoles, +called La Hire, one of the bravest and most active soldiers of that +period. The tradition has a right to our respect, for the mere +examination of this piquet-pack proves that it must have been the work +of some accomplished _chevalier_, or at least of a mind profoundly +imbued with the manners and customs of chivalry. But, without any wish +to exclude La Hire, who, as the historians say, “always had his helmet +on his head and his lance in his hand, ready to attack the English, and +never rested until he died of his wounds,” we are led rather to ascribe +the honour of this ingenious invention to one of his contemporaries, +Etienne Chevalier, secretary and treasurer to the king, who was +distinguished by his skill in designing. Jacques Cœur, whose commercial +relations with the East brought upon him the accusation of having “sent +arms to the Saracens,” might well have become the importer of Asiatic +cards into France, and Chevalier might then have amused himself by +applying devices to them or, as was then said, by _moralising_ or +symbolising them. In India it had been the game of the vizier and of +war; the royal treasurer turned it into a pack having reference to the +knight and chivalry. In the first place he placed on it his own armorial +bearings, the unicorn, which figures in several ancient packs of cards. +He did not forget the allusive arms of Jacques Cœur, and substituted +“hearts” for the _coupes_. He made the “clubs” imitate the heraldic +flower of Agnes Sorel; and also changed the _deniers_ into diamonds, or +arrow-heads (Fig. 210), and the _épées_ into spades, to do honour to the +two brothers Jean and Gaspard Bureau, grand-masters of artillery in +France. + +[Illustration: Fig. 210.--Ancient French Card of the Fifteenth Century. +(Bibl. Imp., Paris.)] + +[Illustration: Fig. 211.--Specimen of a Pack of Cards of the Sixteenth +Century. (Bibl. Imp., Paris.)] + +Etienne Chevalier, as the most skilful designer of emblems of the +period, was eminently capable of substituting, in playing-cards, ladies +or queens for the Oriental “viziers” or Italian “knights” which, on the +_tarots_, figured alone among the “kings” and “knaves.” We must, +however, repeat that we have no intention of depriving La Hire of the +honour of the invention, and only hazard a supposition in addition to +the opinion generally received. + +These cards, which bear all the characteristics of the reign of Charles +VII., must be looked upon as the first attempts at wood-engraving, and +at printing by means of engraved blocks. They were probably executed +between 1420 and 1440, that is to say, prior to most of the known +xylographic productions. Playing-cards, therefore, served as a kind of +introduction or prelude to printing from engraved blocks, an invention +which considerably preceded the printing from movable characters. + +When, however, we observe that so early as the middle of the fifteenth +century playing-cards were spread all over Europe, it is but natural to +imagine that some economical plan of manufacture had been discovered and +employed. Thus, as we have already mentioned, Jacquemin Gringonneur, in +1392, was paid fifty-six sols of Paris, that is about £7 1_s._ 8_d._ of +our present money, for three packs of _tarots_, painted for the King of +France. One single pack of _tarots_, admirably painted, about the year +1415, by Marziano, secretary to the Duke of Milan, cost one thousand +five hundred golden crowns (about £625); but in 1454, a pack of cards +intended for the Dauphin of France cost no more than five _sous of +Tours_ (about eleven or twelve shillings). In the interval between 1392 +and 1454 means had been discovered of making playing-cards at a cheap +rate, and of converting them into an object of trade; mercers were +accustomed to sell them together with the “pins,” which then took the +place of copper and silver counters; hence the French proverb, “Tirer +son épingle du jeu” (to get out of a scrape). + +Although the use of playing-cards continued to extend more and more, we +must not imagine that they had ceased to be the subject of prohibitory +and condemnatory ordinances on the part of the civil and ecclesiastical +authorities. On the contrary, a long list might be made of the decrees +launched against cards themselves and those that used them. Princes and +lords, as a matter of right, felt themselves above these prohibitions; +the lower orders and the dissolute did not fail to infringe them. It was +nevertheless the case, that in the face of these constantly-renewed +prohibitions, the manufacture of playing-cards could only be developed, +or rather perhaps be carried on, in some indirect mode. Thus, we find +the business at first was concealed, as it were, under that of a +stationer or illuminator. Not until December, 1581--that is, in the +reign of Henry III.--do we find the first regulation fixing the +statutes of the “master-cardmakers.” These statutes, confirmed by +letters patent in 1584 and 1613, remained in force down to the (French) +Revolution. In the confirmation of corporate privileges granted at the +latter date, it is laid down as a rule that henceforth master-cardmakers +should be bound to place their names, surnames, signs, and devices on +the “knave of clubs” (Figs. 212, 213) of every pack of cards. This +prescription appears to have done nothing more than legalise an old +custom--a fact which may be proved by an examination of the curious +collection of ancient cards in the Print-Room of the Bibliothèque +Impériale. We have already stated that for a period of many years the +names given to the various personages in the pack varied constantly, +according to the fancy of the cardmaker; a mere glance at the collection +just mentioned will confirm this assertion. + +[Illustration: Figs. 212 and 213.--The “Knave of Clubs” in the Packs of +Cards of R. Passerel and R. Le Cornu. (Sixteenth Century. Bibl. Imp., +Paris.)] + +The cards that might be styled those of Charles VII., which appear to us +to convey some reminiscence of the _ballet des ardents_, have no +inscription but the name of the cardmaker. But in the other pack of the +same date the “knave of clubs” bears as a legend the word _Rolan_; the +“king of clubs,” _Sans Souci_; the “queen of clubs,” _Tromperie_; the +“king of diamonds,” _Corsube_; the “queen of diamonds,” _En toi te fie_; +the “king of spades,” _Apollin_, &c. This collection of names reveals to +us the threefold influence of the Saracenic origin of playing-cards, the +ideas conveyed at that period to the mind by the reading of the old +romances of chivalry, and the effect of contemporary events. In fact, in +the ancient epics, _Apollin_ (or Apollo) is a deity by whom the Saracens +were accustomed to swear; _Corsube_ is a knight of Cordova (_Corsuba_). +_Sans Souci_ is evidently one of those _sobriquets_ which squires +acquired the habit of adopting at the time they were proving themselves +worthy of the title of knight. Roland, the mighty Paladin who died at +Roncevaux fighting against the Saracens, seems to have been placed upon +the cards in order to oppose the memory of his glory to that of the +infidel kings. The queen “_En toi te fie_” might well allude to Joan of +Arc. The queen “_Tromperie_” recalls to mind Isabel of Bavaria, who was +an unfaithful wife and a cruel mother; and, moreover, had betrayed +France to England. All these ideas are doubtless mere suppositions, but +such as a critical examination of a more minute and extended character +would perhaps succeed in changing into unquestionable certainties. + +Next after the cards of the time of Charles VII. follow, as the most +ancient in point of date, two packs which certainly belong to the reign +of Louis XII. One of these packs does not bear any kind of legend; in +the other the “king of hearts” is called _Charles_; the “king of +diamonds,” _Cæsar_; the “king of clubs,” _Arthur_; the “king of spades,” +_David_; the “queen of hearts,” _Héleine_; the “queen of diamonds,” +_Judith_; the “queen of clubs,” _Rachel_; the “queen of spades,” +_Persabée_ (doubtless for Bathsheba). + +In a pack of cards belonging to the reign of Francis I., the “king of +clubs” becomes _Alexander_, and the name of _Judith_ is transferred to +the “queen of hearts;” and for the first time (at least in the specimens +which have been preserved) some of the “knaves” bear special names--the +“knave of hearts” is _La Hire_, and the “knave of diamonds” _Hector of +Trois_ (_sic_). + +A few years later, about the time of the battle of Pavia and of the +king’s captivity, the influence of Spanish and Italian fashions begins +to affect the legends on packs of cards. It is remarked that the “knave +of spades,” which presents nothing in the way of a legend but the name +of the cardmaker, is made to resemble Charles-Quint (Fig. 211). The +three other knaves bear the singular denominations of _Prien Roman_, +_Capita Fili_, and _Capitane Vallant_. The kings are: “hearts,” _Julius +Cæsar_; “diamonds,” _Charles_; “clubs,” _Hector_; “spades,” _David_. The +queens are: “hearts,” _Héleine_; “diamonds,” _Lucresse_; “clubs,” +_Pentaxlée_ (Penthesilea); “spades,” _Beciabée_ (Bathsheba). + +In the reign of Henry II., the names given to the personages come much +nearer to the arrangement observed in our present cards. _Cæsar_ is the +“king of diamonds;” _David_, the “king of spades;” _Alexander_, the +“king of clubs.” _Rachel_ is the “queen of diamonds;” _Argine_, of +“clubs;” _Pallas_, of “spades.” _Hogier_, _Hector of Troy_, and _La +Hire_, are the “knaves” of “spades,” “diamonds,” and “hearts,” +respectively. + +At the time of Henry III., who devoted himself much more to regulating +the fashions than to governing his kingdom, and was the first to grant +statutes to the association of cardmakers, the pack of cards became the +mirror of the extravagant fashions of this effeminate reign. The “kings” +have the pointed beard, the starched collar, the plumed hat, the +breeches puffing out round the loins, the slashed doublet, and the +tight-fitting hose. The “queens” have their hair drawn back and crisped, +the dress close round the body, and made _à vertugarde_ (in the form of +a hoop-petticoat). We see a _Dido_, an _Elizabeth_, and a _Clotilde_, +make their appearance in the respective characters of “queens” of +“diamonds,” “hearts,” and “spades.” Among the kings figure +_Constantine_, _Clovis_, _Augustus_, and _Solomon_. + +The valiant Béarnais[26] mounts the throne, and the cards still reflect +the aspect of his court. But soon _Astrea_ and a whole _cortége_ of +tender and gallant heroes begin to assume an influence over refined +minds, and we then find _Cyrus_ and _Semiramis_ as “king and queen” of +diamonds; _Roxana_ is the “queen of hearts” (Fig. 214), _Ninus_ the +“king of spades,” &c. + +In the regency of Marie de Medicis, in the reign of Louis XIII., or +rather of Richelieu, in the time of Anne of Austria and Louis XIV., +playing-cards continued to assume the character of the period, following +the whim of the court, or the fancy of the cardmaker. At a certain time +they began to take an Italian character. The “king of diamonds” was +called _Carel_; his queen, _Lucresi_; the “queen of spades,” _Barbera_; +the “queen of clubs,” _Penthamée_; the “knave of diamonds,” _capit. +Melu_. + +A vast field of investigation would lie before us if, in tracing out the +detailed history of these numerous variations, we were to endeavour to +distinguish and settle the different causes which gave rise to them. One +fact must certainly strike any one devoting himself to such inquiry; he +would see that, in contradistinction to the changes which have affected +the personages on the cards and their names, a continuous state of +stability has been the characteristic of the four suits in the French +cards or the piquet-pack, which were adopted from the very commencement, +and that no attempt has ever been made against their arrangement and +nature. _Cœur_ (hearts), _carreau_ (diamonds), _trèfle_ (clubs), and +_pique_ (spades)--these were the divisions established by La Hire or +Chevalier, and they are still faithfully maintained in the present day, +although at various times endeavours have been made to define their +symbolical signification. + +For a long time the opinion of Father Menestrier was the prevalent one; +that “hearts” were an emblem of the clergy or the choir (_chœur_); +“diamonds,” of the citizens, who had their rooms paved with square +tiles; “clubs,” of labourers; and “spades,” of military men. But +Menestrier was in egregious error. A much clearer view of the matter was +taken by Father Daniel, who, like all sensible interpreters, recognising +in cards a game of an essentially military character, asserted that +“hearts” denoted the courage of the commanders and soldiers; “clubs” +(_trèfle_--“trefoil”) the stores of forage; “spades” and “diamonds,” the +magazines of arms. This was a view which, as we think, comes much closer +to the real interpretation of the suits; and Bullet was still nearer the +mark when he recognised _offensive_ arms in “clubs” and “spades,” and +_defensive_ arms in “hearts” and “diamonds.” The first were the sword +and the lance; the second, the target and the shield. + +But in order to do full honour to French cards, we must not exclude from +our attention the _tarots_, which preceded our game of piquet, and +continued to be simultaneously used even in France. + +The Spanish and Italian cardmakers, who had been nearly always +established in France, made a large quantity of _tarots_ (Fig. 215); but +they made a certain concession to French politeness by substituting +“queens” for the “cavaliers” of their national game. We must remark +here, that even at the epoch of the conquests of Charles VIII. and Louis +XII., French cards with the four “queens” replacing the “cavaliers” +never succeeded in nationalising themselves in Italy, and still less in +Spain; on the contrary, the fact was that as regards this point of +fashion, the vanquished people obtained the advantage over their +conquerors, and the _tarots_ came into full favour among the victorious +soldiery. + +[Illustration: Fig. 214.--Roxana, Queen of Hearts. (Specimen of the +Cards of the time of Henry IV.)] + +[Illustration: Fig. 215.--Card of Italian _Tarots_, from the Pack of the +_minchiate_. (Collection of Playing-Cards, Bibl. Imp., Paris.)] + +The Spaniards must certainly have received the Oriental _naïb_ from the +Moors and Saracens a long time prior to the introduction of this game +into Europe at Viterbo; but we have no written proofs which certify to +the existence of cards among the Saracens of Spain. The first document +in which they are mentioned is the edict of John I., of the date of +1387, to which reference has been made. Certain _savants_ have +endeavoured to ascertain the signification of the four suits of the +Spanish _naypes_, and have fancied that they could distinguish in them a +special symbolism. In their view, the _dineros_, _copas_, _bastos_, and +_spadas_, denoted the four estates which composed the population: the +merchants, who have the money; the priests, who hold the chalice or cup; +the peasantry, who handle the staff; and the nobles, who wear the +sword. This explanation, although ingenious, does not appear to us to be +based on any very solid foundation. The signs or suits of the numeral +cards were fixed upon in the East, and Spain as well as Italy merely +adopted them without taking much trouble to penetrate into their +allegorical meaning. The Spaniards became so addicted to this game that +they soon preferred it to any other recreation; and we know that when +the companions of Christopher Columbus, who had just discovered America, +formed their first settlement at St. Domingo, they almost instantly set +to work to make playing-cards out of the leaves of trees. + +[Illustration: Figs. 216 and 217.--The “Three” and “Eight” of “Bells.” +German Cards of the Sixteenth Century. (Bibl. Imp. of Paris. +Print-Room.)] + +There can be no doubt that playing-cards very soon made their way from +Italy into Germany; but as they advanced towards the North they almost +immediately lost their Oriental characteristics and Saracenic name. +There is, in fact, no longer any etymological trace to be found in the +old German language of the words _naïb_, _naïbi_, or _naypes_. Cards +were called + +[Illustration: Figs. 218 and 219.--The “Two of Bells” and the “King of +Acorns,” taken from a Pack of Cards of the Sixteenth Century, designed +and engraved by a German Master. (Bibl. Imp. of Paris. Print-Room.)] + +_Briefe_, that is, letters; the game itself _Spielbriefe_, game of +letters; the earliest cardmakers were _Briefmaler_, painters of letters. +The four suits of the _Briefe_ were neither Italian nor French in +character; they bore the name of _Schellen_, “bells” (Figs. 216, 217, +218), or _roth_ (red), _grün_ (green), and _Eicheln_ (acorns) (Fig. +219). The Germans, in their love of symbolism, had comprehended the real +original signification of the game of cards, and although they +introduced many marked changes, they made it their study, at least in +principle, to preserve its military characteristics. Their suits +depicted, it is said, the triumphs or the honours of war--the crowns of +oak-leaves or ivy, the bells were the bright insignia of the German +nobility, and the purple was the recompense of their valiant warriors. +The Germans were careful not to admit ladies into the thoroughly warlike +company of kings, captains (_ober_), and officers (_unter_). The ace was +always the flag, the warlike emblem _par excellence_; in addition to +this, the oldest game was the _Landsknecht_, or lansquenet (Fig. 220), +the distinctive term of the soldier. + +We are speaking here only of the earliest German cards, for, after a +certain date, the essential form and emblematical rules of the pack +depended on nothing but the fancy and whim of the maker or the engraver. +The figures were but seldom designated by a proper name, but often bore +devices in German or Latin. Among the collections of ancient cards we +find one pack half German and half French, with the names of the Pagan +gods. There are also several sets of cards with five suits (of fourteen +cards each), among others those of “roses” and “pomegranates.” + +[Illustration: Fig. 220.--The “Two” of a Pack of German Lansquenet +Cards. (Bibl. Imp. of Paris.)] + +[Illustration: Fig. 221.--Card from a Game of “Logic,” invented by Th. +Murner, and copied from his “Chartiludium Logices.” (Cracow, 1507.)] + +The Germans were the first who entertained the idea of applying cards to +the instruction of youth; and, as it were, of moralising a game of +chance by making it express all the categories of scholastic science. +Thomas Murner, a Franciscan monk, and professor of philosophy, made in +1507 an attempt of this kind (Fig. 221.) He designed a pack of +fifty-two cards, divided into sixteen suits, corresponding to the same +number of scholastic treatises; each card is covered with so many +symbols that a description would resemble the setting forth of some +obscure riddle (_ténébreux logogriphe_). The German universities, which +were far from being dismayed at a little mysticism, were only the more +eager to study the arcana of grammar and logic while playing at cards. +Imitations of Murner’s cards were multiplied _ad infinitum_. + +A game and pack of cards attributed to the celebrated Martin Schœngauer, +or to one of his pupils, must also be dated in the fifteenth century. +The cards are distinguished by their form, number, and design; they are +round in shape, and much resemble Persian cards, are painted on ivory +and covered with arabesques, flowers, and birds. This pack, only a few +pieces of which now exist in some of the German collections, was +composed of fifty-two cards divided into four numeral series of nine +cards each, and with four figures in each series--the king, the queen, +the squire, and the knave. The suits or marks are the “Hare,” the +“Parrot,” the “Carnation,” and the “Columbine.” Each of the aces +represents the type of the suit, and they bear philosophical devices in +Latin. The four figures of the “Parrot” suit are of African character; +those of the “Hare” are Asiatic or Turkish; those of the “Carnation” and +the “Columbine” belong to Europe. The “kings” and “queens” are on +horseback; the “squires” and “knaves” are so similar that it is +difficult to distinguish them, with the exception of the knaves of +“Columbine” and “Carnation” (Figs. 222 to 227). + +The English also were in possession of playing-cards at an early date, +obtaining them through the medium of the trade which they carried on +with the Hanseatic towns and Holland; but they did not manufacture cards +before the end of the sixteenth century; for we know that in the reign +of Queen Elizabeth the Government retained in its own hands the monopoly +of playing-cards, “which were imported from abroad.” The English, while +adopting indiscriminately cards of a German, French, Italian, or Spanish +character, gave to the _valet_ the characteristic appellation of +“knave.”[27] + +[Illustration: Figs. 222 to 227.--German Round-shaped Cards, with the +Monogram T. W. + +1. “King of Parrots.” + +2. “Queen of Carnations.” + +3. “Knave of Columbine.” + +4. “Knave of Hares.” + +5. “Three of Parrots.” + +6. “Ace of Carnations.” + +(Bibl. Imp. of Paris.)] + +[Illustration: Fig. 228.--_La Damoiselle_, from a Pack of Cards engraved +by “The Master of 1466.” (Bibl. Imp. of Paris. Print-Room.)] + +Wood-engraving, which was invented at the commencement of the fifteenth +century, and perhaps even before, must have been applied at the very +first and almost simultaneously to the reproduction of sacred pictures +and the manufacture of playing-cards. Holland and Germany have contended +for the honour of having been the cradle of this invention. Taking +advantage of this, they have also even thought themselves warranted in +laying claim to the credit of the original manufacture of cards; + +[Illustration: Fig. 229.--The Knight, from a Pack of Cards engraved by +“The Master of 1466.” (Bibl. Imp. of Paris.)] + +whereas the fact is that all they can claim is to have been the first to +produce them by some more expeditious method of making. According to the +opinion of several _savants_, Laurent Coster of Haerlem was only an +engraver of wood-blocks for cards and pictures, before he became a +printer of books. It certainly is a fact that wood-engraving, which was +for a long time limited to a few studios in Holland and Upper Germany, +owed a large share of its progress to the trade in playing-cards--one +which was carried on with such activity that, as we read in an old +chronicle of the city of Ulm, about the year 1397, “they were in the +habit of sending playing-cards in bales to Italy, Sicily, and other +southern countries, to exchange for groceries and various merchandise.” + +A few years later, engraving on metal or copper-plate was employed in +producing playing-cards of a really artistic character, among which we +may mention those of “The Master of 1466” (Figs. 228 and 229), and by +his anonymous rivals. The pack of cards of this engraver exists only in +a small number of print-collections, and it is in every case incomplete. +As far as we can judge, it must have been composed of sixty cards, +consisting of forty numeral cards divided into five series, and twenty +picture-cards, being four to each series. The figures are the king, +queen, knight, and knave. The suits, or marks, present rather a strange +selection of wild men, ferocious quadrupeds, deer, birds of prey, and +various flowers. These objects are numerically grouped and tolerably +well arranged, so as to allow the numbers indicated to be distinguished +at first sight. + +Thus, as we have seen, playing-cards made their way through Arabia from +India to Europe, where they first arrived about the year 1370. Within a +few years they spread from the south to the north of the latter country; +but those who, under the influence of a passion for play, had so eagerly +welcomed them, were far indeed from suspecting that this new game +contained within itself the germ of two of the most beautiful inventions +ever devised by the human mind--those of engraving and printing. There +can be no doubt that playing-cards were in use for many a long year, ere +the public voice had proclaimed the almost simultaneous discovery of the +arts of engraving on wood and metal, and of printing. + +[Illustration: Fig. 230.--Coat of Arms of the Cardmakers of Paris.] + + + + +GLASS-PAINTING. + + Painting on Glass mentioned by Historians in the Third Century of + our Era.--Glazed Windows at Brioude in the Sixth Century.--Coloured + Glass at St. John Lateran and St. Peter’s in Rome.--Church-Windows + of the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries in France: Saint-Denis, + Sens, Poitiers, Chartres, Rheims, &c.--In the Fourteenth and + Fifteenth Centuries the Art was at its Zenith.--Jean Cousin.--The + Célestins of Paris; Saint-Gervais.--Robert Pinaigrier and his + Sons.--Bernard Palissy decorates the Chapel of the Castle of + Ecouen.--Foreign Art; Albert Dürer. + + +We have already established the fact that the art of manufacturing and +colouring glass was known to the most ancient nations; and, says +Champollion-Figeac, “if we study the various fragments of this fragile +substance that have been handed down to our time, if we take into +consideration the varied ornamentation with which they are covered, even +the human figures which some of them represent, it would be difficult to +assert that antiquity was unacquainted with the means of combining glass +with painting. If antiquity did not produce what are now called +painted-windows, the real cause doubtless was because the custom of +employing glass in windows did not then exist.” Some few specimens of it +have, however, been found in the windows of the houses exhumed at +Pompeii; but this must have been an exception, for the third century of +our era is the earliest date in which traces are found in history of +window-glass being used in buildings; and we must bring down our +researches as late as the times of St. John Chrysostom and St. Jerome +(the fourth century) in order to find any reliable affirmation as to its +adoption. + +In the sixth century Gregory of Tours relates that a soldier broke the +glass-window of a church at Brioude in order to enter it secretly and +commit robbery; and we know that when this prelate caused the +restoration of the Church of St. Martin of Tours, he took care to fill +its windows with glass “of varied colours.” About the same time +Fortunatus, the poet-bishop of Poitiers, highly extols the splendour of +the glass-window of a church in Paris, the name of which he does not +mention; but the learned investigations of Foncemagne with reference to +the first kings of France inform us that the church built at Paris by +Childebert I. in honour of the Holy Cross and St. Vincent, as well as +the churches of Lyons and Bourges, were closed in with glass-windows. Du +Cange, in his “Constantinople Chrétienne,” describes the glass-windows +of the basilica of St. Sophia, rebuilt by Justinian; and Paul, the +Silentiary,[28] dwells with enthusiasm on the marvellous effect produced +by the rays of the sun upon this assemblage of various coloured glasses. + +In the eighth century, the epoch at which the use of glass-windows was +becoming general, the basilica of St. John Lateran and the Church of St. +Peter at Rome possessed coloured glass-windows; and Charlemagne, who had +caused mosaics of coloured glass to be made in a large number of +churches, did not fail to avail himself of this kind of ornament in the +cathedral erected by him at Aix-la-Chapelle. + +Up to this time the only method of making glass was in small pieces, +generally round, and designated by the name of _cires_, a number of +which by means of a network of plaster, wooden frames, or strips of +lead, were used to fill up the windows. This material being, however, +very costly, it could only be introduced into edifices of great +importance. Added to this, it can scarcely be a source of wonder if, at +a time when all branches of art had relapsed into a sort of barbarism, +and glass was only exceptionally employed in ordinary purposes, no one +thought of decorating it with painted figures and ornaments. + +With regard to mosaic, either in marble or coloured glass, Martial, +Lucretius, and other writers of antiquity, mention it in their works. +Egypt had a knowledge of it even before Greece; the Romans were +accustomed to employ it in ornamenting the roofs and pavement of their +temples, and even their columns and streets. Some magnificent specimens +of these decorations have remained to our time, and they are considered +as inseparable from the architecture of the emperors. + +Some have desired to attribute the custom of employing coloured glass in +mosaics to the rarity of coloured marbles. Would it not be a more +probable hypothesis that the simultaneous use of marble and glass for +this purpose was the result of improvements in the art of making +mosaics? for glass that, by metallic mixtures, may be brought to a +variety of colours, is much more easily adapted to pictorial +combinations than marble, the tints of which are the result of the +caprices of nature. Seneca, alluding to the use of coloured glasses in +mosaic, complains of people not being able “to walk except on precious +stones;” this shows how prevalent the use of rich mosaics had become in +Rome. But this art must have singularly fallen into decay, for the few +examples of the kind we now possess, which date from the first centuries +of Christianity, are marked with a character of simplicity that fully +harmonises with the rudeness of the artists of those times. Among these +specimens must be mentioned a pavement discovered at Rheims, upon which +are represented the twelve signs of the zodiac, the seasons of the year, +and Abraham’s Sacrifice; another on which are depicted Theseus and the +labyrinth of Crete, in juxtaposition with David and Goliath. It is, +moreover, known that there existed in the Forum of Naples a portrait in +mosaic of Theodoric, king of the Goths, who had caused a representation +of the Baptism of Christ to be executed, in the church of Ravenna, by +the same process. Sidonius Apollinaris, describing the excessive luxury +of Consentius at Narbonne, speaks of arches and pavements ornamented +with mosaics. The churches of St. John Lateran, St. Clement, and St. +George in Velabro, at Rome, still display mosaics of this period. +Lastly, Charlemagne caused the greater part of the churches constructed +by him to be ornamented with mosaics. + +To return to glass-work, we find that in the time of Charles the Bald, +in 863, mention is made of two artisans, Ragenat and Balderic, who +became as it were the heads of the race of French glass-makers. We also +learn from the chronicle of St. Benignus of Dijon, that in 1052 there +existed in that church a “very ancient painted window,” representing St. +Paschasie, which was said to have been taken from the earlier church. We +have therefore a right to conclude that at this period the custom of +painting on glass had long been common. + +In the tenth century glass-makers must have acquired some degree of +importance, for the reigning Dukes of Normandy of that era established +certain privileges in their favour; but, says Champollion-Figeac, “as +all privilege was the prerogative of the order of nobility, they +contrived to give them to noble families whose fortunes were precarious. +Four Norman families obtained this distinction. But although it was +understood that in devoting themselves to the trade these titled +individuals incurred no degradation, it was never said, as is commonly +believed, that the profession of this art conferred nobility; on the +contrary, a proverb arose which long continued in use, namely, that ‘in +order to make a gentleman glass-maker, you must first take a +gentleman.’” + +Although painting on glass was from that time carried on with +considerable activity, in many cases it was still very far from being +accomplished by the processes which were destined to make it one of the +most remarkable productions of art. The application of the brush to +vitrifiable colours was not generally adopted. In the examples of this +period that remain to our days, we indeed find large _cives_ cast in +white glass, upon which characters were painted by the artist; but, as +the colour was not designed to be incorporated with the glass by the +action of fire, with a view to ensure the preservation of the painting, +another transparent but thick _cive_ was placed over the first and +closely soldered to it. + +While glass-painting was thus seeking to perfect its processes, mosaic +work gradually declined. Only a very small number of mosaics of the +tenth and eleventh centuries exist at the present day, and these, +moreover, are very incorrect in design, and entirely wanting in taste +and colour. + +In the twelfth century all the arts began to revive. The fear of the end +of the world, which had thrown mankind into a strange state of +perturbation, was dissipated. The Christian faith everywhere stirred up +the zeal of its disciples. Magnificent cathedrals with imposing arches +sprang up in various places, and the art of the glass-maker came to the +aid of architecture in order to diffuse over the interiors consecrated +to worship the light, both prismatic and harmonious, which affords the +calm, necessary for holy meditation. But though, in the painted windows +of this period, we are forced to admire the ingenious combinatian of +colours for the rose-work (rose-windows), the case is very different as +regards the drawing and colouring of the designs. The figures are +generally traced in rough, stiff lines on glass of a dull tint, which +absorbs all the expression of the heads; the entire drapery of the +costume is heavy; the figure is spoilt by the folds of + +[Illustration: Fig. 231.--St. Timothy the Martyr, Coloured Glass of the +end of the Eleventh Century, found in the Church of Neuwiller (Bas-Rhin) +by M. Bœswillwald. (From the “History of Glass-Painting,” by M. +Lasteyrie.)] + +its vestments as if it were enclosed in a long sheath. This is the +general character of the examples of that period as they are known to us +(Fig. 231). + +The painted windows which Suger made to adorn the abbey-church of St. +Denis, some of which exist in our days, date from the twelfth century. +The abbot made inquiries in every country, and gathered together at a +great expense the best artists he could find, in order to assist in this +decoration. The Adoration of the Magi, the Annunciation, the History of +Moses, and various allegories, are there represented in the chapel of +the Virgin and those of St. Osman and St. Hilary. Among the principal +pictures may be also observed a portrait of Suger himself at the feet of +the Virgin. The borders surrounding the subjects may be considered as +models of harmony and good arrangement of effect; but still the taste +shown in the selection and combination of colours is carried to the +highest point in the subjects themselves, the designs of which are very +excellent. + +In the Church of St. Maurice, at Angers, we find examples of a rather +earlier date--perhaps the most ancient specimens of painted windows in +France; these are the history of St. Catherine and that of the Virgin, +which, in truth, are not equal in merit, as regards execution and taste, +to the ancient windows of the Church of St. Denis. + +We still have to mention some fragments contained in the Church of St. +Serge, and the chapel of the Hospital, in the town of Angers; also a +glass-window in the Abbey of Fontevrault; another in the Church of St. +Peter, at Dreux, in which is represented Queen Anne of Brittany. We +will, in conclusion, mention one of the windows of the choir in the +Church of the Trinity, at Vendôme; it represents the Glorification of +the Virgin, who bears on her forehead an aureola, the shape of which, +called _amandaire_,[29] has furnished archæologists with a subject for +long discussions; some being desirous of proving that this aureola, +which does not appear to be depicted in the same way on any other +painted window, tends to show that the works of the Poitevine +glass-makers, to whom it is attributed, had been subject to the +influence of the Byzantine school; others assert that the almond-shaped +crown is a symbol exclusively reserved for the Virgin. Before we proceed +to the examples handed down to us from the twelfth century, we must +mention some remains of glass to be seen at Chartres, Mans, Sens, and +Bourges (Fig. 232), &c. We may also add, as an incident not without +interest, that a chapter of the order of the Cistercians, considering +the great expense to which the acquisition of painted windows led, +prohibited the use of them in churches under the rule of St. Bernard. + +[Illustration: Fig. 232.--Fragment of a Church-window, representing the +“Prodigal Son.” Thirteenth Century. (Presented to the Cathedral of +Bourges by the Guild of Tanners.)] + +“The architecture of the thirteenth century,” according to the judicious +remarks of Champollion-Figeac, “by its style of moulding, which is more +slender and graceful than the massive forms of Roman art, opened a +wider and more favourable field for artists in glass. The small pillars +then projected, and extended themselves with a novel elegance, and the +tapering and delicate spires of the steeples lost themselves in the +clouds. The windows occupied more space, and likewise had the appearance +of springing lightly and gracefully upwards. They were adorned with +symbolical ornaments, griffins, and other fantastic animals; leaves and +boughs cross and intertwine with one another, producing that varied +rose-work which is the admiration of modern glass-makers. The colours +are more skilfully combined and better blended than in the windows of +the preceding century; and although some of the figures are still +wanting in expression, and have not thrown off all the stiffness which +characterised them, the draperies, at least, are lighter and better +drawn.” Examples of the thirteenth century which have remained to our +time are very numerous. There is at Poitiers some painted glass composed +of small roses, and chiefly placed in one of the windows in the centre +of the church and in the “Calvary” of the apse; at Sens, the legend of +St. Thomas of Canterbury is represented in a number of small medallions, +called _verrières légendaires_; at Mans is glass representing the +corporations of trades; at Chartres, the painted glass in the cathedral, +a work both magnificent and extensive, contains no fewer than one +thousand three hundred and fifty subjects, distributed throughout one +hundred and forty-three windows. At Rheims, the painted glass is perhaps +less important, but it is remarkable both for the brilliancy of its +colours and also for its characteristic fitness to the style of the +edifice. Bourges, Tours, Angers, and Notre-Dame in Paris, present very +beautiful specimens. The Cathedral of Rouen possesses, to this day, a +window which bears the name of Clement of Chartres, _master glazier_, +the first artist of this kind who has left behind him any work bearing +his signature. We must, in conclusion, mention the Sainte-Chapelle, +Paris, which is unquestionably the highest representation of what the +art is capable of producing. The designs of the windows in this last +edifice are _legendary_, and although some few inaccuracies may be +noticed in the figures, the fault is redeemed by the studied elegance of +the ornamentation and the harmony of colours, which combine to render +them one of the most consistent and perfect works of painting on glass. + +In the thirteenth century “_grisaille_” first made its appearance; it +was quite a new style, and has been often since employed in the borders +and ornaments of painted windows. “_Grisaille_,”[30] the name of which +is to some extent sufficient to describe its aspect, was used +simultaneously with the mosaics of variegated glass, as we see in the +Church of St. Thomas, Strasbourg, in the Cathedral of Freybourg in +Brisgau, and in many churches of Bourges. + +The large number of paintings on glass belonging to the thirteenth +century, which may still be studied in various churches, has given rise +to the idea of classifying all these monuments, and arranging them under +certain schools, which have been designated by the names of +_Franco-Norman_, _Germanic_, &c. Some have even gone further, and +desired to recognise in the style peculiar to the artists of ancient +France a Norman style, a Poitevin style (the latter recognisable, it is +said, by the want of harmony in the colours), &c. We can hardly admit +these last distinctions, and are the less inclined to do so, as those +who propound them seem to base their theories rather on the defects than +the good qualities of the artists. Besides, at a period in which a +nobleman sometimes possessed several provinces very distant from each +other--as, for example, Anjou and Provence--it might so happen that the +artists he took with him to his different residences could scarcely +fail, by the union of their various works, to cause any provincial +influences to disappear, and would finally reduce the distinction +between what is called the Poitevin style, the Norman style, &c., to a +question of a more or less skilful manufacture, or of a more or less +advanced improvement. + +In the fourteenth century the artist in glass became separated from the +architect; although naturally subordinate to the designer of the +edifice, in which the windows were to be only an accessory ornament, he +wished to give effect to his own inspiration. The whole of the building +was subjected by him to the effect of his more learned and correct +drawing, and his purer and more striking colouring. It mattered little +to him should some part of the church have too much light, or not light +enough, if a flood of radiance deluged the apse or the choir, instead of +being gradually diffused everywhere, as in earlier buildings. He desired +his labour to recommend him, and his work to do him honour. + +The court-poets, Guillaume de Machaut and Eustache Deschamps, celebrate +in their poems several works in painted glass of their time, and even +give some details in verse on the mode of fabricating them. + +[Illustration: Fig. 233.--Legend of the Jew of the Rue des Billettes, +Paris, piercing the Holy Wafer with his Knife. (From a Window of the +Church of St. Alpin, at Châlons-sur-Marne. Fourteenth Century.)] + +In 1347 a royal ordinance was proclaimed in favour of the workmen of +Lyons. The custom existed at that time of adorning with painted windows +royal and lordly habitations. The artists produced their own designs, +adapting them to the use that was made, in private life, of the halls +for which they were intended. Some of these windows representing +familiar legends adorned even the churches (Fig. 233). + +Among the most important works of the fourteenth century, we must +mention in the first place the windows of the cathedrals of Mans, +Beauvais, Évreux (Fig. 234), and the rose-windows of St. Thomas at +Strasbourg. Next come the windows of the Church of St. Nazaire at +Carcassonne and of the Cathedral of Narbonne. There are, besides, in the +Church of St. John at Lyons, in Notre-Dame of Semur, in Aix in Provence, +at Bourges, and at Metz, church-windows in every respect worthy of +attention. + +[Illustration: Fig. 234.--Fragment of a Window presented to the +Cathedral of Evreux by the Bishop Guillaume de Cantiers. Fourteenth +Century.] + +The fifteenth century only continues the traditions of the preceding +one. The principal works dating from this epoch begin, according to the +order of merit, with the window of the Cathedral of Mans, which +represents Yolande[31] of Aragon, and Louis II., King of Naples and +Sicily, ancestors of the good King René; after them we shall place the +windows of the Sainte-Chapelle, Riom; St. Vincent, Rouen; the Cathedral +of Tours; and that of Bourges, representing a memorial of Jacques Cœur, +&c. + +The sixteenth century, although bringing with it, owing to religious +troubles, many ravages of new iconoclasts, has handed down to us a +variety of numerous and remarkable church-windows. We are, of course, +unable to mention them all; but it seems expedient--adopting the rule of +most archæologists--to divide them into three branches or schools, which +are actually formed by the different styles of the artists of that +epoch; the French school, the German school, and the Lorraine school +(Fig. 235), which partakes of the characteristics of the two preceding. + +[Illustration: Fig. 235.--Allegorical Window, representing the “Citadel +of Pallas.” (Lorraine work of the Sixteenth Century, preserved in the +Library at Strasbourg.)] + +At the head of the French school figures the celebrated Jean Cousin, who +decorated the chapel of Vincennes; he also made for the Célestins +monastery, Paris, a representation of Calvary; for St. Gervais, in +1587, the windows representing the “Martyrdom of St. Lawrence,” the +“Samaritan conversing with Christ,” and the “Paralytic.” In these works, +which belong to a high style of painting, the best method of +arrangement, vigorous drawing, and powerful colouring, seem to reflect +the work of Raphael. Windows in “_grisaille_,” made from the cartoons of +Jean Cousin, also decorated the Castle of Anet. + +Another artist, named Robert Pinaigrier, who, although inferior to +Cousin, was much more fertile in production, assisted by his sons Jean, +Nicholas, and Louis, and several of his pupils, executed a number of +windows for the churches of Paris, of which the greater part have +disappeared: Saint-Jacques la Boucherie, the Madeleine, Sainte-Croix en +la Cité, Saint Barthélemy, &c. Magnificent specimens of his work still +remain at Saint-Merry, Saint-Gervais, Saint-Etienne du Mont, and in the +Cathedral of Chartres. Pinaigrier’s works in the decorations of châteaux +and the mansions of the nobility are perhaps equally numerous. + +At this period several windows were made from the drawings of Raphael, +Leonardo da Vinci, and Parmigiano; it may also be remarked that two +patterns of the latter’s work were used by Bernard Palissy, who was a +glass-maker before he became an enameller, in forming windows in +“_grisaille_” for the chapel of the Château of Ecouen. For the same +place, following the style of Raphael, and from the drawings of Rosso, +called _Maître Roux_, Bernard Palissy executed thirty pictures on glass, +representing the history of Psyche, which are justly considered as +ranking among the most beautiful compositions of the epoch; but it is +not now known what has become of these valuable windows, which at the +Revolution were transported to the Museum of French Monuments. + +They were, it is said, executed under the direction of Leonard of +Limoges, who, like all the masters of that school (Fig. 236), applied to +painting on glass the processes of enamelling, and _vice versâ_. In the +collections of the Louvre and of several amateurs, there are still +examples of his composition, on which he employed the best +glass-painters of his time; for he could not himself work on all the +objects that proceeded from his studios, and which were almost +exclusively destined for the king’s palace. + +The French art of glass-working became cosmopolitan. It was introduced +into Spain and also into the Low Countries under the protection of +Charles V. and the Duke of Alba. It even appears to have crossed the +Alps; for we know that in 1512 a glass-painter of the name of Claude +adorned with his works the large windows of the Vatican; and Julius II. +summoned Guillaume of Marseilles to the Eternal City, the pontiff when +occupying the sees of Carpentras and Avignon having appreciated his +talent. We must not omit to mention, among the Flemish artists who +escaped this foreign influence, the name of Dirk of Haarlem (Fig. 237), +the most celebrated master in this art at the close of the fifteenth +century. + +[Illustration: Fig. 236.--St. Paul, an Enamel of Limoges, by Etienne +Mercier.] + +While French art was thus spreading over the continent, foreign art + +[Illustration: Fig. 237.--Flemish Window (Fifteenth Century), half +life-size. Painted in Monochrome, relieved with yellow, by Dirk of +Haarlem. (Collection of M. Benoni-Verhelst, Ghent.)] + +was being introduced into France. Albert Dürer employed his pencil in +painting twenty windows in the church of the Old Temple, in Paris, and +produced a collection of pictures characterised by vigorous drawing, and +warm and intense colouring. The celebrated German did not work +alone--other artists assisted him; and, notwithstanding the devastations +which took place during the Revolution, in many a church and mansion +traces of these skilful masters may still be found; their compositions, +which are generally as well arranged as they are executed, are marked +with a tinge of German simplicity very suitable to the pious nature of +the subjects they represent. + +In 1600, Nicholas Pinaigrier placed in the windows of the Castle of La +Briffe seven pictures in “_grisaille_,” copied from the designs of +Francis Floris, a Flemish master, who was born in 1520. At this same +period Van Haeck, Herreyn, John Dox, and Pelgrin Rösen, all belonging to +the school of Antwerp, and other artists who had decorated the windows +of most of the churches in Belgium, especially St. Gudule in Brussels, +influenced either directly or indirectly the glass-painters of the east +and north of France. Another group of artists, the Provençals, imitators +of the Italian style, or rather perhaps inspired by the same luminary, +the sun of Michael Angelo, trod a similar path to that which Jean +Cousin, Pinaigrier, and Palissy had followed with so much renown. The +chiefs of this school were Claude, and Guillaume of Marseilles, who, as +we have just mentioned, carried their talent and their works into Italy, +where they succeeded in educating some clever pupils. + +With regard to the school of Messin or Lorraine, it is principally +represented by a disciple of Michael Angelo, Valentin Bousch, the +Alsatian, who died in 1541 at Metz, where he had executed, since 1521, +an immense number of works. The windows of the churches of St. Barbe, +St. Nicolas du Port, Autrey, and Flavigny-sur-Moselle, are due to the +same school, in which Israel Henriet was also brought up; he became the +chief of a school exclusively belonging to Lorraine, at the time when +Charles III. had invited the arts to unite under the patronage of the +ducal throne. Thierry Alix, in a “Description inédite de la Lorraine,” +written in 1590, and mentioned by M. Bégin, speaks of “large plates of +glass of all colours,” made in his time in the mountains of Vosges, +where “all the herbs and other things necessary to painting” were found. +M. Bégin, after having quoted this curious statement, adds that the +windows which at that era were produced in the studios of Vosges, and +subsequently carried to all parts of Europe, constituted a very active +branch of commerce. + +“Nevertheless,” says Champollion-Figeac, “art was declining. Christian +art especially was disappearing, and had almost come to an end, when +Protestantism stepped in and gave it the last blow; this is proved by +the window in the cathedral church of Berne, in which the artist, +Frederic + + “FRANCIS I. AND ELEANOR HIS WIFE AT PRAYERS.” + + PART OF A WINDOW IN THE CHURCH OF ST. GUDULE IN BRUSSELS. FROM + “L’HISTOIRE DE LA PEINTURE SUR VERRE EN EUROPE.” + + This magnificent window was given to the Church of St. Gudule by + Francis I. and Eleanor of Spain, his wife, sister of Charles V., + and widow by her first marriage of Emmanuel the Great, King of + Portugal. + + The donors are represented kneeling, each one protected by his or + her patron saint; the king is attended by St. Francis of Assisi, + who is receiving in a vision the impress of the stigmata of Jesus + on the Cross; the queen is accompanied by St. Eleanor, who holds in + her hand the palm of the elect. This window is from a design by + Bernard van Orley. + + Francis I. and Eleanor expended on the window two hundred and + twenty-two crowns, or four hundred florins, an important sum in + those days (1515-47). + +[Illustration: FRANCIS I. AND ELEONORA AT THEIR DEVOTIONS. + +Portion of a Stained Glass Window in the Church of St. Gudule at +Brussels.] + +Walter, dared to launch his satire against doctrine itself, and to +ridicule transubstantiation by representing a pope shovelling four +evangelists into a mill, from which come forth a number of wafers; these +a bishop is receiving into a cup in order to distribute them to the +wondering people. Any edification of the masses by the powerful effect +of transparent images placed, so to speak, between the earth and heaven, +soon ceased to be possible, and glass-painting, henceforth alienated +from the special aim of its origin, was destined also to disappear.” + +[Illustration: Fig. 238.--Temptation of St. Mars, a Hermit of Auvergne, +by the Devil disguised as a Woman. Fragment of a Window of the +Sainte-Chapelle of Riom. Fifteenth Century. (From “Histoire de la +Peinture sur Verre,” by M. F. de Lasteyrie.)] + + + + +FRESCO-PAINTING. + + The Nature of Fresco.--Employed by the Ancients.--Paintings at + Pompeii.--Greek and Roman Schools.--Mural Paintings destroyed by + the Iconoclasts and Barbarians.--Revival of Fresco, in the Ninth + Century, in Italy.--Fresco-Painters since Guido of + Siena.--Principal Works of these Painters.--Successors of Raphael + and Michael Angelo.--Fresco in _Sgraffito_.--Mural Paintings in + France from the Twelfth Century.--Gothic Frescoes of Spain.--Mural + Paintings in the Low Countries, Germany, and Switzerland. + + +“Too frequently in conversational language and even in the writings of +grave authors,” says M. Ernest Breton, “the word _fresco_ is made +synonymous with mural painting in general. This confusion of terms has +sometimes caused the most fatal errors. The etymology of the word is the +best definition of the subject. The Italians give the name of paintings +_in fresco_ or _a fresco_, that is to say, _à frais_, or _sur le frais_, +to those works executed upon damp stucco into which the colour +penetrates to a certain depth. The ancient French authors, preserving +the difference existing between the Italian _fresco_ and the French +_frais_, wrote the word _fraisque_. At the present day Italian +orthography has prevailed, and with us this word has now more relation +to its etymology than its real signification.” + +Whatever may be the common acceptation of the word, we must, in order to +keep within the limits of our subject, here only take into consideration +real frescoes, or in other words, works of art executed upon a bare +wall, properly prepared for the purpose, with which they are as it were +incorporated; for in the roll of art all are excluded from the catalogue +of mural paintings, rightly so called, which, although applied to walls +either directly or by the aid of panels or fixed canvas, are produced +otherwise than with water-colours, and used in such a manner as to +penetrate the special kind of plaster with which the wall had been +previously covered. We will mention as a striking example of this the +famous “Lord’s Supper” of Leonardo da Vinci, which has many times been +called a fresco (it is well known to have been painted upon the wall of +the refectory of Santa Maria della Gratia, at Milan), but is nothing but +a painting in distemper[32] on a dry partition--a circumstance, +by-the-bye, which has not a little contributed to the deterioration of +this magnificent work. + +Fresco has long been considered the most ancient style of painting. +Vasari, who wrote in the middle of the sixteenth century, says in apt +terms that “the ancients generally practised painting _in fresco_, and +the first painters of the modern schools have only followed the antique +methods;” and, in our own day, Millin, in his “Dictionnaire des +Beaux-Arts,” asserts that the great paintings in the “Pœcile” of Athens +and the “Lesche” of Delphi, by Panænus and Polygnotus, spoken of by +Pausanias, were executed by this process; the same author also ranks +among frescoes the numerous paintings left by the Egyptians in their +temples and catacombs. “It was,” he remarks, “what the Romans called _in +udo pariete pingere_ (to paint on a damp wall); they say _in cretula +pingere_ (to paint on chalk) to designate water-colour painting on a dry +ground.” + +Some persons have considered the paintings found at Herculaneum and +Pompeii to be frescoes; nevertheless Winckelmann, who is an authority in +these matters, said, a hundred years ago, in speaking of those works, +“It is to be remarked that the greater part of these pictures were not +painted on damp lime, but upon a dry ground, which is rendered very +evident by several of the figures having scaled off in such a way as to +show distinctly the ground upon which they rest.” + +The whole mistake has arisen from taking the expression “_in udo +pariete_,” found in Pliny, in too literal a sense; the error, which +might at all events have been dissipated by an attentive examination of +the examples themselves, would not have lasted long if the passage from +Pliny had been compared with a statement of Vitruvius, which informs us +that they applied to fresh walls uniform tints of black, blue, yellow, +or red, which were destined to form the grounds of paintings, or even +allowed them to remain plain, like our present coloured walls. The +employment of this process may also be easily recognised in the +paintings of Pompeii, where this uniform colouring has sometimes +penetrated nearly an inch into the stucco of the wall. On this ground, +when it was perfectly dry, ornamental subjects were painted either in +distemper or encaustic. + +Thus, therefore, it is shown that the process of painting _in fresco_ +was unknown to the ancients, and was invented by artists of succeeding +times; but it would be difficult to assign any precise date to this +invention; for however far we go back, we do not find any authors who +fix the epoch at which the new method was for the first time followed. +We are, therefore, compelled to notice the age of some particular +example which shows that the discovery had then taken place, without +being able to determine the exact date of its commencement. + +Painting, which with the Greeks attained its greatest height in the +reign of Alexander, fell, says M. Breton, “with the power of Greece. In +losing its liberty, the country of the Fine Arts lost, too, the +perception of the beautiful.” At Rome, painting never reached the same +degree of perfection as it did in Greece; for a long time it was only +practised by men of the lowest rank and by slaves. A few patricians, +such as Amulius, Fabius _Pictor_ (painter), and Cornelius Pinus, were, +at the best, able to bring about only some slight revival. After the +twelve Cæsars, painting followed the movement of decadence which carried +away with it all the arts; like them, it received its death-blow in the +fourth century, on the day when Constantine, quitting Rome in order to +establish the seat of empire at Byzantium, took with him into his new +capital not only the best artists, but also a prodigious number of their +productions, and of those of the artists who preceded them. Several +other causes may also be mentioned as having led to the decline of art, +or to the destruction of examples which would now bear witness to its +power in remote ages. In the first place, there was the birth of +Christian Art, which rose on the ruins of Paganism; then, the invasion +of barbarians which took place in the fifth century; lastly, in the +eighth and ninth centuries, the fury of the Iconoclasts, or +Image-breakers, a sect at the head of which figured several emperors of +the East, from Leo the Isaurian, who reigned in 717, down to Michael +the Stammerer and Theophilus, who respectively ascended the imperial +throne in 820 and 829. + +Even among the ignorant masses, to whom we owe the loss of so many +_chefs-d’œuvre_, were some individuals who formed honourable exceptions, +not only by opposing the devastations, but also by manifesting a +laudable conservative instinct. Cassiodorus tells us that Theodoric, +king of the Goths, re-established the office of _centurio nitentium +rerum_ (guardian of beautiful objects), instituted by the emperor +Constantius; and we know that the Lombard kings who succeeded this +prince and reigned in Italy for 218 years, although less zealous in the +culture of the arts, did not fail to honour and protect them. In Paul +the Deacon[33] we read that, in the sixth century, queen Teudelinde, +wife of Autharis and afterwards of Agilulphus, caused the valorous deeds +of the first Lombard kings to be painted on the _basilica_ that she had +consecrated at Monza under the name of St. John. Other paintings of the +same epoch may still be seen at Pavia. The Church of St. Nazaire at +Verona possesses in its crypt paintings spoken of by Maffei, which have +been engraved by Ciampini and Frisi: these must date back to the sixth +and seventh centuries. Lastly, they have recently found in the +subterranean chapel of the _basilica_ of St. Clement, in Rome, some +admirable mural paintings, which archæologists refer to the same epoch. + +The Eastern artists, driven away by the persecutions of the Iconoclasts, +sought an asylum in Italy, where the Latin Church, obedient to the +prescriptions of the Council of Nice, seemed determined to multiply +sacred images as much as possible. The arrival of the Grecian artists in +the West was also singularly promoted by the commercial relations which +from that time were established between all points of the Mediterranean +shore and the maritime or mercantile towns of Italy--Pisa, Genoa, and +Venice. Thus was brought about the movement which, although taking place +on Italian soil, drew from an entirely Eastern source the inspiration of +the revival of the Fine Arts; thus was continued the so-called Byzantine +school, destined to be the foundation of all modern art. + +In 817 some Greek artists, by order of Pope Pascal I., executed under +the portico of the Church of St. Cecilia in Rome a series of frescoes, +the subjects of which were taken from the life of the saint. To the same +school we are indebted for the sitting figures of Christ and His mother +(Fig. 239), in the old Church of Santa-Maria Trans-Tiberia, in Rome; the +large Madonna painted on the walls of Santa-Maria della Scala, Milan, +which, at the time when this church was destroyed and replaced by the +theatre of La Scala, was taken away and carried to the Church of +Santa-Fidelia, where it still remains; a series of portraits of the +Popes after St. Leo, a collection of which a large portion perished in +the fire of St. Paul-extra-Muros, Rome (Fig. 240); and lastly, the +paintings in the vaults of the Cathedral of Aquila. + +[Illustration: Fig. 239.--Christ and His Mother. Fresco-Painting of the +Ninth Century, in the Apse of Santa-Maria Trans-Tiberia, Rome.] + +“The works of these earliest painters,” observes M. Breton, “seem to +mark the transition from painting to sculpture: they are long figures as +stiff as columns, single or arranged symmetrically, forming neither +groups nor compositions, without perspective or effects of light and +shade, and having nothing to express their meaning than a sort of legend +proceeding out of the mouths of the characters. These frescoes, which +are so weak when looked at in an artistic point of view, are remarkable +for their material execution, being extremely solid in their +workmanship. It is astonishing to see the wonderful preservation of some +pictures of saints that adorn the pilasters of St. Nicholas in Treviso +and the walls of the church in Fiesole, whereon are preserved the +frescoes of Fra Angelico.” + +Among the paintings remaining to our time, the first in which the +authors departed from the uniform style of the Byzantine masters are +those which adorn the interior of the ancient temple of Bacchus, now the +Church of St. Urban in the Campagna of Rome: there is nothing Grecian +either in the figures or draperies, and it is impossible not to +recognise in them an Italian pencil; the date, however, is 1011. Pesaro, +Aquila, Orvieto, and Fiesole, possess examples of the same epoch. + +[Illustration: Fig. 240.--Portrait of the Pope Sylvester I. +Fresco-Painting in Mosaic, on a gold ground, in the Basilica of St. +Paul-extra-Muros, Rome.] + +At last, in the thirteenth century, notwithstanding its fierce intestine +struggles, Italy, and especially Tuscany, witnessed the dawn of the sun +of the Fine Arts, which, after a long period of darkness, was to shine +with so much brilliancy over the whole world. Pisa and Siena, earliest +in the revival, gave birth respectively to Giunta and Guido +(Palmerucci), each of whom in his time acquired great renown; but the +only works of these artists which remain now, in the Cathedral of +Assisi, seem but to indicate a desire of progress without manifesting +any real advancement in art. + +[Illustration: Fig. 241.--The Apostles in the Garden of Gethsemane. +Fresco by Berna, at San-Geminiano. (Fourteenth Century.)] + +To Guido of Siena succeeds, but not immediately, the friend of +Petrarch, Simon Memmi, whose frescoes in the Campo Santo of Pisa +testify to his powerful genius, and denote the first remarkable stage of +art. + +In the collegiate church of San-Geminiano[34] may be still seen a fresco +by Berna (Fig. 241), an eminent master in the school of Siena, who died +in 1370. + +Passing, but not without mention, Margaritone and Bonaventura +Berlinghieri, who were only the timid harbingers of a great +individuality, the Florentine school places in the first rank of its +celebrities Cimabue (1240-1300), justly regarded by the artistic world +as the true restorer of painting. Cimabue pointed out the path; Giotto, +his pupil, trod it. He took nature for his guide, and has been surnamed +“nature’s pupil.” Real imitation was the object of his endeavour, and as +he found this system marvellously applied in the beautiful antique +marbles which had already inspired, in the preceding century, the +sculptors John and Nicolas of Pisa, he made an earnest study of these +ancient _chefs-d’œuvre_. The impulse was given, and the Campo Santo of +Pisa shows us its first results in “The Dream of Life.” + +For two centuries there was a slow but always progressive improvement, +owing to the industry of Buffamalco, Taddeo Gaddi, Orcagna, Spinello of +Lucca, and Masolino of Panicale. With the fifteenth century appeared Fra +Angelico of Fiesole (Figs. 242 and 246), and Benozzo Gozzoli; then +Masaccio, Pisanello, Mantegna, Zingaro, Pinturicchio, and lastly +Perugino, the Master of the divine Raphael. In the sixteenth century art +attained its culminating point. At this epoch Raphael and his pupils +painted the “Farnesina” and the “Stanze” and “Loggie” of the Vatican (it +is known that the two first pictures of the “Loggie” (Fig. 243) were +painted solely by the hand of Raphael); Michael Angelo alone executed +the immense expanse of the “Last Judgment,” and Paul Veronese painted +the ceilings of the palace of the Doges at Venice. Then Giulio Romano +covered with his works the walls of the Te palace at Mantua; Andrea del +Sarto, those of the “Annunziata” and “Dello Scalzo” at Florence. Daniel +of Volterra painted his famous “Descent from the Cross” for the Trinité +du Mont, Rome; at Parma, the Pencil of Correggio worked marvels on the +circle of the dome of the cathedral. Leonardo da Vinci, besides the +picture of the “Lord’s Supper,” which we before mentioned only to +exclude it from the + +[Illustration: “THE DREAM OF LIFE.” + +FRESCO-PAINTING, BY ORCAGNA, IN THE CLOISTER OF THE CAMPO SANTO OF PISA. +(FOURTEENTH CENTURY.) + +This fresco is by Andrea Cione, called Orcagna, a Florentine painter of +the fourteenth century, who executed for the Campo Santo of Pisa a +series of paintings which are still admired, representing the four +destinies of man:--“Death,” “Judgment,” “Hell,” and “Paradise.” Each of +these large compositions embraces several scenes; that which we give +belongs to the “Triumph of Death.” + +Petrarch had just given to the world the concluding notes of his +funereal song, and the wish of the painter seems to have been to call to +life, in his fresco, the strange vision of the poet. The happy of this +world are here represented gathered together under cool shades and upon +carpets of verdure; gay lords are murmuring magic words into the ears of +the young ladies of Florence. Even quiet falcons on the wrists of the +lords seem captivated by this delicious music. Everything appears to +invite forgetfulness of the miseries of life,--the richness of the +vestments, the beautiful sky of Italy, the perfumes, the love-songs.... +This is the “Dream of Life,” which “Death” is destined to dispel with +one sweep of his mighty wing.] + +[Illustration: THE DREAM OF LIFE. + +(After a Copy made for the Library of M Ambroise Firmin Didot.) From a +fresco Painting by Orcagna, in the Cloister of the Campo Santo of Pisa. +Fourteenth Century.] + +number of frescoes, endowed the monastery of St Onofrio at Rome with a +magnificent Madonna, and the palace of Caravaggio, near Bergamo, with + +[Illustration: Fig. 242.--Group of Saints, taken from the large Fresco +of “The Passion” in the Convent of St. Mark. Painted by Fra Angelico of +Fiesole.] + +a colossal Virgin. It was, in short, the age of splendid productions in +mural painting, that in which the great Buonarotti exclaimed +when engaged in enthusiastic labour on one of his sublime +conceptions--“Fresco is the only painting; painting in oils is only the +art of women and idle and unenergetic men.” And yet, at least as regards +improvements in the process of execution, fresco had hardly reached its +climax. + +In the seventeenth century the school of Bologna, after having for a +long time maintained a merely imitative style of art, shone forth with +independent light under the influence of the Carracci, who, summoned to +Rome, covered the walls of the Farnesian gallery with frescoes, to which +none others could be compared for brilliancy and powerful effect. As +much must be said of the works of their pupils: the “Martyrdom of St. +Sebastian,” in the Church of St. Mary of the Angels; the “Miracles of +St. Nil,” at Grotta-Ferrata, near Rome; the “Death of St. Cecilia,” at +Saint-Louis-des-Français, by Domenichino; “Aurora,” by Guercino, at the +Villa Ludovici; the “Chariot of the Sun,” by Guido, in the Rospigliosi +Palace, &c. + +[Illustration: Fig. 243.--First Picture of the Loggie of Raphael--“God +creating the Heaven and the Earth.”] + +Luca Giordano, a Neapolitan painter, founder of the gallery of the +Ricciardi Palace at Florence, and author of the frescoes in numerous +churches in Italy and Spain, must not be forgotten; and with him must +be mentioned Pietro da Cortona, of the Roman school, who especially +distinguished himself in the ceilings of the Barberini Palace, at Rome. + +We still have to mention the fertile painters of the Genoese and +Parmesan schools--Lanfranc, Carloni, and Francavilla; but the hour of +decadence had come when these artists appeared; they had more boldness +than talent, they aimed at the majestic, but only succeeded in attaining +to the gigantic; their pencils were skilful, but their soul lacked +fervour and conviction; in spite of their efforts, fresco-painting +declined under their hands, and since that time has only decayed and +gradually sunk into oblivion. + +We must not quit the classical ground of the Fine Arts without +mentioning a process of painting which is closely allied to fresco, and +bears the characteristic name of _sgraffito_ (literally, a scratch). +This style of painting, or rather of drawing (for the works had the +appearance of a large drawing in black crayon), was more generally used +for the exterior of buildings, and was produced by covering the wall +first with black stucco, then with a second layer of white, and +afterwards by removing with an iron instrument the second layer so as to +lay bare, in places, the black ground. The most important work executed +in this style is the ornamentation of the monastic house of the knights +of St. Stephen, at Pisa; this work is by Vasari, to whom also has been +attributed--but wrongfully--the invention of _sgraffito_, which was used +long before his time. + +Hitherto we have chiefly confined our remarks to Italy and Italian +artists; however, in the consideration of them we have nearly summed up +our brief history of fresco. If we would look to France for any +remarkable works of this kind, we must refer to the epochs in which +Italy sent Simon Memmi to decorate the palace of the popes at Avignon, +and Rosso and Primaticcio to adorn that of the kings at Fontainebleau. +Prior to this, all we meet with are, at the most, a few primitive, not +to say barbarous, subjects, painted here and there, in distemper, by +unknown artists, on the walls of churches or monasteries. Among these +conventional examples it is, however, only just to distinguish some +pictures of powerful effect, if not in execution, at least for the ideas +they are intended to convey; we would speak of the “Dance of Death,” or +“Dance of the Dead,” like that which existed at Paris in the Cemetery of +the Innocents, and another still to be seen in the Abbey of Chaise-Dieu, +in Auvergne; legends more than + +[Illustration: Fig. 244.--“Fraternity of the Cross-bowmen.” +(Fresco-Painting of the Fifteenth Century, in the ancient Chapel of St. +John and St. Paul, Ghent.)] + +pictures, and philosophical compositions rather than manifestations of +art. Spain, too, has no reason to be proud of her national productions; +for, with the exception of the Gothic frescoes still existing in the +Cathedral of Toledo, representing the combats between the Moors and the +Toledans (pictures specially worthy of the attention of archæologists), +the only frescoes of Spanish origin we can mention are the paintings of +a few ceilings in the Escurial and in a chapter-room in the Cathedral of +Toledo; all the other frescoes must be attributed to Italian artists. + +Whenever the northern artists, usually so cold and methodical in their +mode of operation, devoted themselves to mural painting, it seems to +have been necessary that they should enliven their temperament in the +sunny rays of a southern sky; for while in Holland and Belgium we notice +but few walls covered with decorative painting, we find a large number +of Italian churches and palaces which contain frescoes bearing the +signature of Flemish masters. + +[Illustration: Fig. 245.--“Death and the Jew.” An episode from the +“Dance of Death.” Painted in 1441, in the Cemetery of the Dominicans, +Basle. (Facsimile from the Engraving of M. Mérian.)] + +There was considerable excitement manifested a few years ago at the +discovery of the mural paintings in the ancient Chapel of St. John and +St. Paul, in Ghent (Fig. 244). These works are of the fifteenth +century, and although satisfactory enough as regards the design, they +derive more importance from the subjects which they represent than from +any merit of execution. + +In speaking of Germany, we should not omit to mention the ancient “Dance +of Death” (Fig. 245), at Basle, in the cemetery of the Dominicans, +painted in the middle of the fifteenth century; also another “Dance of +Death” much more famous, and the façades of several houses, painted at +Basle by Holbein. We must also indicate the paintings with which (in +1466) Israel de Meckenheim covered the walls of a chapel of St. Mary of +the Capitol, at Cologne; and the frescoes of St. Etienne and St. +Augustine, at Vienna. But it does not follow, from this limited +enumeration of works, that Germany either created or followed any +special school. + +[Illustration: Fig. 246.--Fra Angelico, of Fiesole.] + + + + +PAINTING ON WOOD, CANVAS, ETC. + + The Rise of Christian Painting.--The Byzantine School.--First + Revival in Italy.--Cimabue, Giotto, Fra Angelico.--Florentine + School: Leonardo da Vinci, Michael Angelo.--Roman School: Perugino, + Raphael.--Venetian School: Titian, Tintoretto, Veronese.--Lombard + School: Correggio, Parmigianino.--Spanish School.--German and + Flemish Schools: Stephan of Cologne, John of Bruges, Lucas van + Leyden, Albert Dürer, Lucas van Cranach, Holbein.--Painting in + France during the Middle Ages.--Italian Masters in France.--Jean + Cousin. + + +After its first weak manifestations in the dark shadows of the +Catacombs--the place of refuge to which the earliest believers had to +resort to celebrate their holy mysteries--Christian painting made its +first attempt to display itself in open day at the time when the new +faith found in Constantine the high protection of a crowned disciple. +But this art felt an instinctive repugnance to draw its inspirations +from works which had been created under the empire of decayed and +contemned creeds. In the completely spiritual worship of the true God, +it seemed but natural to seek for other types than those which had been +consecrated by the fancies of materialistic mythologies. + +The school of _idea_, which was substituted for the school of _form_, +desired to owe nothing to its frivolous predecessor. It would have +considered it a reproach to give even the semblance of permanence to +reprobated traditions, and it set itself to work to create an art +completely new in all its features. The rule it laid down, therefore, +was to regard as non-existent the _chefs-d’œuvre_ which recalled to mind +the days of moral error; rejecting the inspiration to be derived from +the magnificent relics of the past, it resolved to commence an era of +its own, and to exist on its own ideas. Hence that principle of +energetic simplicity which, although it may have hindered art from +elevating itself to the perfection we call classical, had at least this +advantage, that it sought by gradual development to imprint on +Christian art a stamp of individuality from which it was to derive both +its power and its glory. + +Thus, by the enthusiasm of faith, was called into existence that really +primitive School of Painting which has received the name of _Byzantine_; +because at the very time when it obtained the liberty of displaying +itself, Constantine, transferring the seat of empire to Byzantium, +necessarily took with him the body of artists of whom he was the +protector; because, too, as we have before observed, Byzantium +henceforth became for many centuries the sole focus whence light +radiated towards the West, which was now plunged in barbarism. We must, +therefore, go back to the Byzantine school, if we wish to trace to their +origin all the forms of European painting. + +“Allegory,” says M. Michiels, “was the first language of Christian +painting; not only did it express typically the Evangelical teachings, +but the Divine personages themselves were metamorphosed into symbols. +Sometimes, for instance, Christ appeared in the form of a young +shepherd, bearing on his shoulders and carrying back to the fold a +wandering sheep; sometimes He was represented as the Orpheus of the new +faith, charming and taming ferocious animals by the sound of His +lute.... He also was made to assume the form of the lamb without spot, +or of a phœnix spreading its wings, the conqueror of death and the +spirits of darkness. Thus was the transition softened down; thus did +they escape the raillery of Pagans who would have turned into ridicule +the heroic sufferings and the glorious humiliations of the Son of man. +But this timidity could not long continue.... The council held at +Constantinople in 692 commanded that allegory should be repudiated, and +that the objects of their veneration should be displayed to the faithful +without the veil hitherto employed. Now was exhibited to view a +spectacle new indeed to men; a Deity crowned with thorns, enduring the +outrages of a vile populace, or stretched upon a cross and pierced with +a lance, turning His sad glance to heaven and wrestling with His agony. +The Greeks and Latins were but slow in adopting this mode of +representation, and did so with regret.... But the perception of moral +dignity was destined to eclipse the vain pomp of Pagan grandeur. The +generous sufferings of sacrifice were to become the greatest of all +glories.” + +“Christian painting, when once established as an art on the banks of the +Bosphorus, assumed a certain immobility of character. Forms, attitudes, +groups, and vestments--all were regulated by ecclesiastical +prescription. There was, as it were, an inflexible text-book, to which +artists were bound to submit. Delicacy of colouring and nobility of +attitude were the only things to recall the beauty of ancient art. Even +in our days the Greek and Russian painters follow a similar plan, +drawing and arranging their figures in the same manner as their +ancestors of the time of Honorius and the Palæologi.” + +Even in the West the case was nearly the same, so long as the practice +of painting remained almost exclusively confined to artists coming from +Constantinople. Thus, in some celebrated manuscripts of the eighth and +ninth centuries we find compositions that give a very exact +representation of the state of the art in these remote times, though the +paintings themselves have been destroyed by the Iconoclasts. In fact, +during ten centuries it seemed that the Western races resisted any +expression of artistic individuality or invention. Throughout this long +period we find Greek painters the supreme arbiters of taste and +knowledge in the countries of Western Europe, forcing upon them their +own barren style, and teaching them their contracted perceptions. Art +among them seemed always to be but a mere instinct. Constant +immigrations took place which were continually leading them to every +point in Western Europe, but none of them ever brought anything novel in +art beyond what their predecessors had already introduced. If they took +root in a new country, the son repeated the works of his father. The +pupil took no means to enlarge his thoughts; he adopted as his model and +his ideal nothing but the work of his master, and the poor form of +tradition was continued without enthusiasm and without progress (Fig. +247). Genius is altogether wanting, or if its sacred spark sprung forth +from heaven, it was soon extinguished when it reached the earth for want +of a soul which could receive it, and be kindled by its fire. The Greek +masters doubtless affected some pride in the grandeur of their native +name, but they were none the less living proofs that the sources from +which flowed the inspiration of a Zeuxis, a Protogenes, or an Apelles, +had since those far-distant days been long dried up. The East had for +ever terminated its ancient character of artistic creation, and the most +it seemed destined to achieve during the Middle Ages was to preserve the +germ which the West was to bring again into active life. + +Italy, and more particularly Tuscany, may lay claim to the honour of + +[Illustration: Fig. 247.--“Baptism of King Clovis.” (Fragment of a +Painting on Canvas at Rheims. Fifteenth Century.)] + +having witnessed, about the end of the thirteenth and the beginning of +the fourteenth century, the dawn of the great revival of artistic light. +The names of Giunta of Pisa, Guido of Siena, and Duccio, had, however, +already commenced the glorious list of Italian artists, who were the +first to endeavour to modify the immutable Greek manner. Their attempts, +no doubt, seem but insignificant, looking at the immense progress +subsequently accomplished; but, however slight it may appear to be, the +first step made beyond the beaten path which has been trodden for +centuries is often evidence of the most courageous daring. + +The year 1240 witnessed the birth of Cimabue: as a young man, he became +enamoured of art by watching the labours of the Greek painters who had +been summoned to Florence to decorate the chapel of the Gondi. It was +purposed to make him a _savant_ and a lawyer; but he succeeded in +abandoning the pen in favour of the pencil, and, from the lessons of the +timid Byzantines, he soon became a master whose every thought was +henceforth devoted to the emancipation of an art that he found condemned +to a kind of immobility. Thanks to him, the expression of faces, which +up to that time had been entirely conventional in character, was +animated by a truer sentiment; the lines of drawing, which had been hard +and stiff, were broken up into well-ordered grace; the colouring, +hitherto dull and gloomy, assumed soft brilliancy and harmonious relief. +It is said that Cimabue’s _chef-d’œuvre_, the “Madonna” which is still +to be seen in the Church of Santa-Maria-Novella, was carried in +procession by the crowd to the place which it now occupies; the painter +was received with shouts, and, it is added, the joy of the people at the +sight of the picture was so great that the part of the city wherein +Cimabue’s studio was situated received, after this event, the name of +_Borgo Allegro_ (the Joyous Town). One day when Cimabue was in the +country, he noticed a young shepherd-boy who was amusing himself by +sketching on a rock the sheep he tended. The painter took charge of the +boy; he became his favourite pupil, and was the celebrated Giotto, who +happily persevered in the reform commenced by Cimabue. Giotto, the first +among the artists of his time, ventured to paint portraits, and +succeeded well in them. To him we owe our acquaintance with the real +features of his friend Dante; and we still admire, at least as +manifestations of an adventurous genius, the paintings he left in the +Church of Santa Clara at Naples, in the Cathedral of Assisi, and +especially in the Campo Santo at Pisa, where he painted in fresco the +history of Job. + +Giotto died in 1336, but he left behind him to continue his work, Taddeo +Gaddi, Giottino, Stefano, Andrea Orcagna, and Simon Memmi, who were +each destined to open out some new path in art. In the Campo Santo at +Pisa we may see how great was the power of the genius of these masters, +especially of Andrea Orcagna (1329-1389), who has there represented, +with an equal measure of beauty and of sombre and terrible energy, the +“Dream of Life,” facing the “Triumph of Death.” Taddeo Gaddi remained a +fervent disciple of his master, and continued his delicate accuracy of +design, and the living freshness of his colouring. Stefano succeeded him +in the boldness of his compositions, in his studious knowledge of the +nude, and of perspective effect which had been hitherto neglected. +Giottino inherited his serious inspirations. Memmi endeavoured to recall +his mystical and graceful sentiment. Orcagna, who was at once painter, +sculptor, architect, and poet, seemed to possess in turn all the +qualities which his fellow-disciples had shared among them, and could +represent with equal success the terrors of the infernal regions and the +visions of heaven. + +The progress of which these painters had constituted themselves the +apostles was not carried out without exciting some opposition. In +addition to the Greek masters, who naturally felt compelled to contend +with the innovators, certain individuals were found among the Italian +artists who energetically embraced the party of the past. We will only +mention one, Margaritone of Arezzo, who wore out his long life in a +useless devotion to a cause which was already lost; even his name we +should not have particularised, if it had not been that the art owed him +some gratitude for the service he rendered it, by substituting the use +of canvas prepared for painting instead of panels of wood, which had +hitherto been exclusively employed. + +The Florentine school (for thus we call the group of artists who trod in +the footsteps of Cimabue and Giotto) had for its representative, at the +beginning of the fifteenth century, Giovanni of Fiesole, surnamed _Fra +Angelico_, the personification of enthusiasm in artistic sublimity; +whose works, too, resemble so many hymns of adoration. Born in the year +1387, and inheriting great wealth, he was endowed with a contemplative +mind, and, ignorant of the talent which inspired him, he sought oblivion +from the world in the garb of a Dominican, little suspecting that glory +awaited him in the very depth of his humility. At first, as a kind of +pious recreation, he covered with miniatures several pages of +manuscripts; next, his companions in the cloister requested him to +paint a picture. He obeyed, feeling convinced that the inspiration which +stirred within him was a manifestation of the Divine spirit, and it was +with the most artless simplicity that he referred to this celestial +origin the _chef-d’œuvre_ which proceeded from his hands. His reputation +spread far and wide. At the invitation of the head of the Christian +Church, he repaired to Rome in order to paint one of the chapels of the +Vatican. And when the pontiff, full of enthusiasm at his talent, wished +to confer upon him as a reward the dignity of archbishop, Angelico +retired modestly to his cell in order to devote himself without +interruption to that art which was to him a continual prayer, and a +perpetual soaring up to that heavenly country on which he unceasingly +meditated with all the unutterable feelings of the elect. + +About the same era as the “seraphic monk,” who died full of years in +1455, appeared Tomaso Guidi, for whom a kind of unconsciousness of +everyday life had obtained the ironical _sobriquet_ of Masaccio (the +Stupid); who, however, astonished the world by his works to such extent +that it was said concerning them, “those of his predecessors were +_painted_, but his were _living_.” Masaccio was one of the first (and +this fact shows how slowly art may progress even in bold hands) to place +in his pictures firmly on the soles of their feet figures presenting a +full front, instead of making them stand upon their great-toes, as his +predecessors had done from a want of knowledge of the requisite +foreshortening. Masaccio died in 1443. + +Philippo Lippi, who devoted himself more specially to the study of +nature, both in the human physiognomy and also in the accessory details +of his works, marks as it were the last stage of the art, when it +approached the state of full vigour in which it was to manifest the +whole extent of its power. We are now at the end of the fifteenth +century, and the masters of the _great masters_ are in existence. It was +Andrea Verrochio who, at the sight of an angel which Leonardo da Vinci, +his pupil, had painted in one of his works, for ever abandoned his +pencil. It was Domenico Ghirlandajo who, jealous of the superior +qualities which he recognised in his pupil, the youthful Buonarotti, not +only endeavoured, but succeeded in diverting his talents, at least for a +time, to sculpture. It was Fra Bartolommeo (1469-1517) who was affected +with such profound grief at the death of his friend Savonarola, that he +embraced a monastic life. Baccio della Porta (such was the name of the +Brother) was a very great painter (Fig. 248); the vigour and + +[Illustration: Fig. 248.--“The Patriarch Job.” A Painting on Panel, by +Fra Bartolommeo. Fifteenth Century. + +(In the Gallery at Florence.)] + +harmony of colouring which he showed, especially in his last +productions, has sometimes caused them to be attributed to Raphael, with +whom he was for some time united in the bonds of friendship. But we must +not confine ourselves to characterising the works of one single group of +artists; for, although the revival took its rise on the banks of the +Arno, it spread far and wide beyond those limits. Added to this, Giotto, +when visiting Verona, Padua, and Rome, left in each place the still +resplendent traces of his presence. When Fra Angelico went to adorn the +Vatican, his genius spread around it a fruitful irradiation which +everywhere dimmed the ancient renown of the Byzantine painters who had +hitherto prevailed in the Italian cities. + +At Rome we find flourishing in succession Pietro Cavallini, whom Giotto +had instructed during the sojourn of the latter in the Eternal City; +Gentile da Fabriano, who drew his inspiration from Fra Angelico; and +Pietro della Francesca, who has been regarded as the originator of +perspective. We next meet with Pietro Vannucci, called Perugino, who was +born in 1446; it was owing to nothing but the force of his genius and +his character that he became one of the most celebrated masters of his +time. At the close of his career, Perugino had the honour of initiating +into the practice of his art Raphael Sanzio of Urbino, who was in his +own day, as he still is, the prince of painting. + +At Venice a body of pioneers, still more numerous and compact, prepared +the way for the new era, destined to be made illustrious by Titian, +Tintoretto, and Paul Veronese. We will mention also Gentile and Jacopo +Bellini; the former was incessantly absorbed in investigating the +theories of an art which he nevertheless exercised with all the +_abandon_ of an inspired genius; the latter constantly devoted himself +to the combination of power and grace; and, at the age of seventy-five +years, seemed to regain a second youth in following with happy boldness +the example of his pupil Giorgione.[35] This painter, who was born in +1477, and died in 1511, introduced all kinds of innovations in respect +to design and colouring, and was the master of Giovanni da Udine, +Sebastian del Piombo, Jacques Palma, and Pordenone, fellow-pupils and +sometimes rivals of the three great artists by whose works the Venetian +school was to mark its individuality. + +At Parma a local school was represented by Antonio Allegri, called +Correggio, born in 1494; and by Francesco Mazzuoli, called Parmigianino, +born in 1503. + +In other places, too, talents of a vigorous or of a graceful character +were developed, but we can only cast a comprehensive glance on this +memorable artistic epoch, and are unable to offer a detailed review of +the artists and their works. And what further luminaries of art could we +wish to embrace in our summary after having displayed in it, shining, so +to speak, at one and the same epoch, Leonardo da Vinci (Fig. 249), +Michael Angelo, Raphael, Titian, Tintoretto, Veronese, Correggio, and +Parmigianino? + +[Illustration: Fig. 249.--Portrait of Leonardo da Vinci, from a Venetian +Engraving of the Sixteenth Century.] + +Four principal schools compete with one another--the Florentine school, +the characteristics of which are truth of design, energy of colouring, +and grandeur of conception; the Roman school, which seeks its ideal in +the skilful and sober judgment of its lines, the dignity of its +compositions, propriety of expression and beauty of form; the Venetian +school, which occasionally neglected correctness of drawing, and devoted +itself more to the brilliancy and magical effect of colour; lastly, the +school of Parma, which is distinguished especially by its softness of +touch and by its knowledge of light and shade. All such estimations of +the different qualities of these various groups must not, however, be +looked upon as in any way absolute. + +As chiefs of the first school we have two men, each of whom presents to +us one of the richest organisations and the most widely extending genius +which human nature has, perhaps, ever produced; these were Leonardo da +Vinci and Michael Angelo, both of whom were sculptors as well as +painters; and also architects, musicians, and poets. We will first speak +of Leonardo da Vinci, whose style presents two very distinct epochs; the +first tending to vigour in the shadows, to a mistiness in reflected +lights, to a general effect produced by a certain oddness, or rather by +a strange representation of truth; a combination of qualities which, as +M. Michiels says, makes Leonardo the “most northerly of the Italian +painters” (Fig. 250). His second style, “clear, serene, and precise,” +transports us into a “completely southern sphere.” But some secret +influence drew the artist so forcibly towards his earlier manner, that +he returned to it at an advanced age in painting the famous portrait of +Mona Lisa, which adorns the gallery of the Louvre. We must not forget +the fact that we have to attribute to Pope Leo X. the great revival of +the arts, and especially of painting, in Italy at the commencement of +the sixteenth century. + +“In Michael Angelo,” still to quote the words of M. Michiels, “science, +power, grandeur, and all the more severe qualities are combined. No +vulgar artifice and no affectation. The painter was imbued with a +sublime ideal of majestic types from which nothing was able to divert +him. He felt as if there were existing in himself a whole population of +heroes, whom, by the aid of painting and sculpture, he endeavoured to +withdraw from their mental concealment, and to embody in incarnate +forms. His personages scarcely seem to belong to our race; they appear +to be creatures worthy of some more spacious world, to the proportions +of which their physical vigour and their moral energy would well +respond. The very women do not possess the grace of their sex; we might +fancy them valiant Amazons well capable of mastering a horse or of +crushing an enemy. This great man’s object was neither to charm nor to +please; his delight rather was to astonish and to strike with admiration +or terror; but it is this very excess of power which enabled him to win +the approbation of all.” + +[Illustration: Fig. 250.--The Holy Family, by Leonardo da Vinci, from +the Picture in the Museum at St. Petersburg.] + +Next we have Raphael, _il divino Sanzio_, as he was called by his +numerous admirers, whose genius was constantly attaining to grandeur by +means of simplicity, and to power by means of reserve. Michael Angelo +always seems as if he were only able to represent a limited portion of +his gigantic conceptions on the wall he covered with his designs; but it +was sufficient for Raphael to place some tranquil figure on a narrow +square of canvas, and we have before us the bright image of the most +perfect and delicious inspiration. He created for himself a heaven which +he peopled with the purest and most venerated types of the human race; +and a light, as from on high, beams with regal splendour on these +graceful visions. In Raphael, even more than in Leonardo da Vinci, it +seemed as if two artists of equal sublimity succeeded one another. At +first we have the charming dreamer who, in the fresh enthusiasm of his +early youth, creates Madonnas, artless daughters of the earth in whose +look and countenance a sacred light shines in all its ineffable purity; +next he is the master full of the deepest science, for whom the real +beauties of creation have no concealment; who, in representing nature, +succeeded in transforming to her the magnificent ideal of which his own +soul appears to have received the impression from association with the +divine regions. + +“The principal characteristic of Raphael,” still following the very just +remarks of M. Michiels, “is the universality of his fame. It becomes +almost painful to hear the vulgar crowd constantly repeating a magic +name, the true signification of which they do not understand.” As the +spoiled child of fortune, the creator of Virgins and “The +Transfiguration,” he is almost without detractors from his fame; and it +is impossible to reckon the number of his admirers. “One circumstance in +his life affords us an emblem of his destiny. Having sent to Palermo the +famous canvas of the ‘Spasimo,’[36] a tempest overwhelmed the ship which +carried it; but the waves seemed to respect the _chef-d’œuvre_. After +having drifted more than fifty leagues through the sea, the box which +enclosed the precious production floated gently on shore at the port of +Genoa. The picture was in no way injured. The Sicilian monks, for whom +it was intended, did not fail to claim it; and since that time, thanks +to the mercy of the waves, it attracts to the foot of Etna numerous +pilgrims to the shrine of genius.” + +At Venice, we first have Titian, the painter of Charles V. and Francis +I. “The genius of Titian,” says Alexander Lenoir, “is always great and +noble. No painter has ever produced flesh-colours so beautiful and +life-like. In Titian there is no apparent tone; the colouring of his +flesh is so well blended, that it seems as difficult to imitate as the +model itself. Add to his pictures their truth and expression of action, +and the elegance and richness of the drapery, and we shall have some +idea of the great works which he left behind him.” + +Next Jacques Robusti presents himself, who, from the profession of his +father was surnamed Tintoretto (the Dyer). He was at first a pupil of +Titian, who, it is said, from motives of jealousy, dismissed him from +his studio; but the fervour of uninterrupted labour was all that +Tintoretto required in order to mature the most productive talent. “The +drawing of Michael Angelo, and the colouring of Titian”--such was the +ambitious motto he wrote over the door of his humble _atelier_, and we +are almost justified in stating that he was enabled, by force of study +and labour, to fulfil his aspirations, if we look only at some of his +pieces executed before a certain fever of exuberant production had +seized upon and necessarily weakened his vigorous talents. To form some +estimate of the extent to which Tintoretto was impelled by this impulse +of creation, we may recollect that even Paul Veronese reproached him +with being unable to restrain himself--Veronese, the most indefatigable +of producers! + +With regard to the latter, his works are characterised not only by the +number of figures in them, but also by the striking brilliancy of the +_mise en scène_. Although he multiplies his actors, they are grouped in +perfect order; although he paints a multitude, he knows how to avoid a +crowd. Notice how a feeling of life profusely pervades the whole of his +vast pictures of important events; an idea of space is everywhere given; +everywhere light plays a powerful part, and imagination has full scope. +He is the painter _par excellence_ of feasts and ceremonies: at once +pompous and natural, his copiousness is only equalled by his dazzling +facility; and we are compelled to forgive the errors with which he +mingles on the same canvas the religious ideas of sacred subjects and +the profane splendour of modern times. + +What shall we say about Correggio? There is no methodical scale by which +to measure grace; and there is no formula laid down of delicious +softness. But if, at the Louvre, we examine his “Antiope asleep,” we +shall not soon forget the fascinating power of the old Allegri +(Correggio). + +From Correggio to Parmigianino the distance is of the kind that +admiration can easily fill up. It was said of the latter that he had +more the appearance of an angel than of a man; and the Romans of his +own day used to add that the spirit of Raphael had passed into his body. +In more than one instance his genius was kindled by the sun of +Correggio, and ripened in the studios of Michael Angelo and Raphael; but +in addition to this, his flexible and varied talent enabled him to find +a place by himself between these two masters. “St. Francis receiving the +Stigmata,” and “The Marriage of St. Catherine,” which he painted before +he had attained his eighteenth year, are still regarded as equal to the +_chefs-d’œuvre_ signed by Allegri. It is well known that a “St. +Margaret,” executed by Parmigianino fifteen years later for a church at +Bologna, was placed by Guido in the same rank as the “St. Cecilia” of +Raphael. + +By the side of, or after, these famous men, in whom the glory of Italian +painting seems to have brilliantly culminated, how many noble names +still remain to be cited; how many remarkable names are there still to +mention, even among those who, in following the glorious path opened out +for them by the great masters, began to show glimpses of the earliest +symptoms of decay, exhaustion, and lassitude! It does not form a part of +our plan to dwell upon the various phases of this decadence; but before +we glance at the last sparks of light which were shed forth, we must not +forget the fact that the Italian pleiades were not exclusively +privileged to illumine the artistic horizon. + +It is certainly the case that all over Europe the Byzantine tradition +had been the sole possessor of the throne of art since the earliest +centuries of the Middle Ages. In Germany as in Italy, in France as in +the countries bounding it on the north, we find nothing but the same +school displaying the dead level of its inflexibility. At various +epochs, however, certain feeble attempts at independence were here and +there manifested; but these aspirations were at first generally +isolated, and therefore transient in their character. Finally, however, +as if the hour of revival had been simultaneously agreed upon at all +points of the intellectual world, these desires for emancipation +manifested themselves in a corresponding effort to reject the former too +absolute form, and to substitute the element of life for the principle +of conventionality. + +In Spain a strange combat was waging on the soil itself, for the +possession of which two hostile races, two irreconcilable faiths, were +in fierce contention. The Mahometan built the Alhambra, the halls of +which were destined to be subsequently adorned by a Christian pencil. In +the paintings that enliven the arches of this marvellous edifice an art +is manifested which is both simple and grand in its character; but in +this one undertaking it appears to have exhausted the share of vitality +time had awarded to it; for immediately afterwards it seems to have died +away. If, however, any fresh masters of the art of painting appeared on +the Iberian soil, they had sought in Italy the flame of inspiration, or +some mighty art-pilgrim visited their country. We must come down to a +later epoch, from the consideration of which we are now precluded, in +order to meet with an Herrera, a Ribera, a Velasquez, or a Murillo, the +glory of whom, although comparatively late, may perhaps hold its own by +the side of the great Italian schools, but cannot pretend to eclipse +them. Among the predecessors of these real and distinct individualities, +we will, however, mention the following:--Alonzo Berruguete, born in +1480, at once painter, architect, and sculptor; he was a pupil of +Michael Angelo, in whose works he often took a share; Pedro Campagna, +born in 1503, who studied under the same master--his _chef-d’œuvre_ is +still admired in the Cathedral of Seville; Luis de Vargas, born in 1502, +who was able in many points to appropriate the secrets of Sanzio, from +whom he appeared to have received lessons; Morales, whose paintings are +still admired for the harmony of their lines and the delicacy of their +touch; Vicente Juanes, whose purity of design and sober vigour of +colouring obtained for him the title (certainly by some exaggeration of +praise) of the “Raphael of Valencia;” lastly, Fernandez Navarette, born +in 1526, who, perhaps less hyperbolically, was surnamed the “Spanish +Titian;” and Sanchez Coello, born about 1500, who, excelling in +portraits, has handed down the likenesses of some celebrated personages +of his time. + +In Germany and the Low Countries we find similar traces of the feeling +of regeneration actuating the minds of artists at a much earlier period. +The first name which presents itself to us beyond the Rhine is that +mentioned in the Chronicle of Limburg, of the date of 1380. “There was +then at Cologne,” says the chronicler, “a painter named Wilhelm. +According to the masters, he was the best in all the countries of +Germany; he has painted men of every description as if they were alive.” +We have nothing left of the works of this artist except some panels +without signature, which, in consideration of the date they bear, are +attributed to him; an examination shows that, considering the epoch at +which he lived, Wilhelm might justly be looked upon as a creative +genius. He was succeeded by his most talented pupil, _Maître_ Stephan. A +triptych of his work may be seen at the Cathedral of Cologne, +representing “The Adoration of the Magi,” “St. Gereon,” “St. Ursula,” +and “The Annunciation.” This work, which exhibits charming finish as +well as harmonious simplicity, is sufficient evidence that its author +was possessed of much natural ability as well as a certain extent of +knowledge; and if we make it our study to seek out the relics of the +artistic movement of the period, we can in no way feel surprise at +seeing that the influence of this early master made itself felt in a +very extended radius. + +But at this epoch, that is, at the commencement of the fifteenth +century, in a city of Flanders, a new luminary made its appearance, +which was destined to eclipse the brilliancy of the somewhat weak German +innovation. Two brothers, Hubert and John van Eyck, together with their +sister Margaret, established themselves in the “triumphant city of +Bruges,” as it is called by an historian; and very soon all the Flemish +and Rhenish regions resounded with the name of Van Eyck, their works +being the only representations which were admired and followed; and even +in those early days it was a title of glory to form a part of their +brilliant school. + +John, the younger of the two brothers, was the one to whom renown more +particularly attached (Fig. 251). He is reputed to have been the +inventor of oil-painting; but all he did was to improve the methods +employed. Nevertheless, tradition tells us that an Italian master, +Antonello of Messina, made a journey to Flanders, with the object of +finding out the secret of John Bruges (by which name Van Eyck is often +called); and that he subsequently circulated it throughout the Italian +schools. Be this as it may, John of Bruges, apart from any similarity in +manner (for it was by the force of his colouring, as much as by his new +theories of composition, that he succeeded in revolutionising the old +school of painting), may be considered as the Giotto of the North; but +we must add that the effects of his attempts were much more rapidly +decisive. At one leap, so to speak, the somewhat cold painting of the +Gothic school decked itself with a splendour which left but little for +the future Venetian school to achieve beyond it; with one flight of +genius, stiff and methodical conceptions became imbued with suppleness +and vital action. Finally, we have the first notable sign of the true +feeling of an art combining science and grace--a knowledge of anatomy +is shown in the life-like flesh and under the brilliant draperies. There +is, however, a considerable distance, which cannot fail to be remarked, +separating the two reformers of art whose names we have just brought +together. One, Giotto, desired to grasp the real in order to make it +conduce to the triumph of the ideal; while Van Eyck only accepted the +ideal because he had as yet been unable to apprehend the deepest secrets +of the real. All the other masters are but as the fruit yielded by the +school of the great Florentine, and by those which the descendants of +the Flemish masters were destined to produce. At Ghent, we still have as +an object of admiration, an altar-piece, a _chef-d’œuvre_ of Van Eyck; +it is an immense composition, some portions of which have been removed; +but at first it did not contain less than three hundred figures, +representing the “Adoration of the Paschal Lamb by the Virgins of the +Apocalypse.” + +[Illustration: Fig. 251.--“The Holy Virgin, St. George, and St. Donat.” +By John van Eyck. (Museum at Antwerp.)] + +John van Eyck resided for some time at the court of Portugal, whither he +had been sent by Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, to delineate + +[Illustration: “ST. CATHERINE AND ST. AGNES.” + +A PICTURE ATTRIBUTED TO MARGARET VAN EYCK. + +On the left of the picture is seen St. Catherine of Alexandria holding +in her hands the instruments of her punishment--the _wheel_, which is +broken into fragments, and the _sword_ which decapitated her; below her +is the head of the Emperor Maxmilian II., who ordered her martyrdom. + +On the right is St. Agnes, and a _lamb_, the emblem of her innocence and +gentleness. + +The _ring_ St. Agnes is presenting to St. Catherine denotes the bond +which unites the two virgin-martyrs, and attests that both are worthy to +be spouses of Jesus Christ.] + +[Illustration: ST. CATHERINE AND ST. AGNES. + +Painting attributed to Margaret Van Eyck. (M. Quedeville’s +Collection.)] + +the features of his _fiancée_, the Princess Elizabeth (1428). The +influence exercised by his labours is thought to have brought about that +tendency to brilliancy and realism which, after its first manifestation +in the earliest Spanish manner, gave way before the encroachments of +Italian genius, only to reappear in all its power in the great national +school. + +Among the best pupils that Van Eyck left behind him at Bruges, we must +not omit the name of Hugo van der Goes, whose works are rare. + +Roger van der Weyden, of whose paintings but few are now extant, was the +favourite pupil of John of Bruges, and the master of Hemling, whose +reputation was destined to equal, if not to surpass, that of the chief +of his school. “Hemling,” says M. Michiels, so eminent a judge on this +subject, “whose most ancient picture bears the date 1450, possesses more +sweetness and grace than the Van Eycks. His figures charm by an ideal +elegance; his expression never exceeds the limits of tranquil feeling +and agreeable emotion. Quite contrary to John van Eyck, he prefers the +slender and rich character of the Gothic (Fig. 252) to the heaviness and +scanty detail of Roman architecture. His colouring, although less +vigorous, is softer; the water, the woods, the sites, the grass, and the +distances of his pictures cause a dream-like feeling.” + +A kind of instinctive reaction was manifested in the pupil, but the +master was not altogether forgotten. We shall, however, find elsewhere +the effects of his direct influence; but in order not to have to return +to the school of Bruges, we will first mention Jerome Bosch, who, +contrary to his countryman Hemling, sought after opposition of effects +and singularities of invention; and next Erasmus, the great thinker and +writer, who was also a painter in his day;[37] lastly, Cornelius +Engelbrechtsen, the master of Lucas van Leyden, born in 1494. The latter +was as famous with the pencil as with the graving tool, and introduced +into all his works a powerful and sometimes strange originality which +caused him to be looked upon as the first painter of “_genre_.” Lucas +van Leyden must close our list of the artists who opened out the paths +which were destined to be followed, though with many a diversity of +method and of style, by Breughel, Teniers, Van Ostade, Porbus, and +Schellincks. At the head of these masters was subsequently to rise the +magnificent Rubens, and the energetic Rembrandt, the king of the +palette, the great chief of the school, who + +[Illustration: Fig 252.--“St. Ursula.” By Hemling.] + +towers loftily over all his pupils, Gerard Dow, Ferdinand Bol, Van +Eckhout, Govaert Flinck, &c., as well as over his imitators and +contemporaries--Abraham Bloemaert, Gerard Honthorst, Adrian Brauwer, +Seghers, &c. + +When the Van Eycks made their appearance, German art--which, under the +impulse of Stephan of Cologne, had appeared as if destined to direct the +movement--allowed itself to be led away and influenced by the Flemish +school, without, however, entirely divesting itself of the individual +characteristics which are, to some extent, inherent in the region +wherein it flourished. In Alsatia, we see the style peculiar to the +school of Bruges showing itself in Martin Schön (1460); in Suabia, it +had as its interpreter Frederick Herlen (1467); at Augsburg, it was old +Holbein; at Nuremberg, it was first Michael Wohlgemuth, and after him +Albert Dürer (1471), whose vigorous individuality did not fail to +reflect the temperament of the Van Eycks. + +“The works of Albert Dürer present a singular combination of the +fantastic and the real (Fig. 253). The principal tendencies peculiar to +the character of the northern mind are always to be found in them. The +thoughts of the artist are always transporting him into a world of +abstraction and chimeras; but the ever-present consciousness of the +difficulties of life under the cold northern sky always draws him back +to the details of existence. On the one hand, therefore, he seems to +love philosophical, and even supernatural subjects; but, on the other, +the minute details of his execution bind him down to earth. His models, +his action, his positions, the muscular development of his nude +subjects, the innumerable folds of his draperies, the expression which +he gives to joy, grief, and hatred, all seem to bear a manifest +character of exaggeration. Added to this, he is deficient in grace; a +rudeness entirely northern in its character closes the path to any of +the softer qualities of art. The panels of Albert Dürer all seem to have +a touch of the antique barbarism of the Germanic hordes. He himself was +in the habit of wearing his hair long, like the ancient German kings. +Upon the whole, however, his beautiful colouring, the skilful firmness +of his drawing, his grand characteristics, his depth of thought, the +poetry, often terrible, of his composition, place him in the first rank +of masters” (Michiels). + +While Albert Dürer was endeavouring to combine in his works every type +of the strangest character, Lucas van Cranach made it his study + +[Illustration: Fig. 253.--“Jesus Crowned with Thorns,” painted on Wood +by Albert Dürer; a Fac-simile traced from the original of the same size. +(In the Collection of M. de Quedeville.)] + +to represent with no less success pleasant legends or the most charming +realities. He is the painter of artless youths, aerially veiled, and of +sportive and enchanting virgins; and if some antique scene is created by +his delicate and original pencil, it seem, to be metamorphosed by a +happy facility into something that appears to have the character of a +German reminiscence (Fig. 254). + +[Illustration: Fig. 254.--“Princess Sibylla of Saxony,” by Lucas van +Cranach. (Suermondt Collection.)] + +Between these two masters, so equally endowed with power in their +respective lines of art, the great Holbein takes his place, as if +embodying the rather abrupt vigour of the one, and the sentimental +delicacy of the other. This painter’s artistic career was carried out +almost entirely in England, but the character of his genius belongs +unquestionably to the country where he left behind him his “Dance of +Death,” a piece of tragic raillery justly held to be the most wonderful +among all the creations of fancy. + +Albert Dürer, who died in 1528, and Lucas van Cranach, and Holbein, who +died in 1553,[38] were destined to create a race of painters, and a host +of successors were soon at work. But the movement, which was impeded by +troubles of a religious character, died away in the terrible convulsions +of the Thirty Years’ War, and was never again renewed. + +The era in which German art seemed all at once to decline was that +wherein the Italian school flourished in full splendour, and exercised +an unrivalled influence over every European country occupied by the +Latin races. France yielded all the more readily to this foreign +influence, because the Papal court at Avignon had already given an +asylum to Giotto in the first place, and afterwards to Simon Memmi; both +of whom, and especially the last, have left master-like traces of their +presence on French soil. + +As a matter of fact, although French painting, regarded in the light of +a national art, cannot boast of having spontaneously produced, as a +thing of home-growth, any of those essays of complete independence of +which Germany and Italy are so proud; the memorials of French art at +least bear witness that, during the long reign of Byzantine tradition, +it never ceased to struggle with some force under the yoke; at a time, +indeed, when Italy and Germany themselves seemed, on the contrary, to +bear the burden with the most submissive servitude. + +The tenth century, in becoming subject to the influence of a foolish but +heartfelt terror (the fear of the end of the world), marked a period of +fatal obstruction to every kind of effort, and progress died away; but +if we look beyond this we shall perceive that, from the earliest days of +the monarchy, painting was held in honour, and painters themselves +afforded proofs of power, if not of genius. We shall, for instance, find +that the basilica of St. Germain-des-Prés, built by Childebert I., had +its walls decorated with “elegant paintings.” We shall find Gondebaud, +the son of Clotaire, himself handling the pencil and “painting the +walls and roofs of oratories.” In the reign of Charlemagne, we discover +the texts which the bishops and priests were compelled to paint on “the +whole interior surface” of their churches, in order that the charm of +the colouring and of the compositions might aid the fervour of faith in +the congregations. But all this is but evidence recorded in the pages of +the ancient chronicles. We have other testimony derived from works still +existing, on which a judgment may be practically passed. Some frescoes +discovered at St. Savin, in the department of Vienne, and at +Nohant-Vicq, in the department of Indre, which must be attributed to the +eleventh and twelfth centuries, attest, in all their rude simplicity, +the efforts of a thoughtful art, and specially bear the stamp of a true +spirit of independence. + +The Sainte-Chapelle, in Paris, by its painted windows and the mural +paintings of its crypt, asserts the real vitality of an artistic +feeling, which only waited for the signal of a bolder spirit to rise to +loftier things. Moreover, if other examples are wanting, there are +manuscripts, on the ornamentation of which the most skilful painters +have concentrated their powers, that would suffice to point out the +tendencies and artistic standard of every succeeding age. (See the +article on MINIATURE-PAINTING.) However little we may consult history, +we scarcely ever fail to discover traces of certain groups of artists +whose names or works have survived. Thus, a series of paintings +preserved in the Cathedral of Amiens, as well as the “Sacre de Louis +XII.” and the “Vierge au Froment,” in the museum at Cluny, prove to us +the existence, at the end of the fifteenth century, of the school of +Picardy, which possessed skill in composition, combined with a feeling +for colour and a certain knowledge of handling. Thus, too, the +researches of the learned have traced out the laborious career of the +Clouet family, sung by Ronsard and others, but whose works are almost +entirely lost; thus, also, we find the names of Bourdichon, Perréal, +Foucquet, who worked for Louis XI. and Charles VIII., and that of the +peaceful King René of Provence, who thought it not beneath his dignity +to make himself the practical chief of a school whose nameless +productions are still scattered over the south of France. + +With the sixteenth century commenced the age of the great Italian +painters. In 1515, Francis I. persuaded Leonardo da Vinci to come to +France, and to afford the example of his wonderful genius. But the +illustrious creator of “La Gioconda” (the famous portrait of Mona +Lisa), burthened with years and worn out with work, visited France as if +only to draw his last breath (1519). Andrea del Sarto, the graceful +pupil of the severe Michael Angelo, came to France in 1517; but, after +having painted for his royal protector a few pictures, among which was +the magnificent “Charity” in the Louvre, he again repaired to the +Italian soil, to which his unhappy marriage recalled him to his doom. + +In 1520 Raphael died, at the age of only thirty-seven years. Giulio +Pippi (called _Giulio Romano_), Francis Penni (called _il Fattore_), and +Perino del Vaga, whom he named as his heirs and charged with the +completion of his unfinished works, did their best to replace the +illustrious dead. For a short time it might have been thought that the +inspiration of the master still remained with his pupils; but soon a +separation of this group of artists, who had found their principal power +in unity of thought, took place; and, fifteen or twenty years after the +tomb had closed on Raphael, the tradition of his school was nothing more +than a glorious ruin. + +Michael Angelo, who died in 1563, was destined to have a longer career; +but it was only to become a witness of the rapid decadence of the great +movement he had helped to call forth. After Daniele di Volterra, the +painter of the “Descent from the Cross,” which is classed among the +three most beautiful works that Rome possesses; after Vasari, who +possessed a double title to celebrity as a skilful painter and the +historian of the Italian schools; after Rosso, whose renown subsequently +suffered at the court of France; and Bronzino, who sought success in +taste and delicacy; the school of the great Buonarotti produced nothing +but works which seemed to wander from exaggeration to bad taste. The +dwarfs who attempted to walk in the footsteps of the giant were soon +exhausted, and only succeeded in rendering themselves ridiculous. + +The Venetian school, the great masters of which did not become extinct +before the end of the sixteenth century, had its period of decadence at +a later epoch; this will not come under our consideration. The Lombard +school, which, by the deaths of Correggio and Parmigianino, had been +left without its chiefs before the middle of this century (1534 and +1540), seemed for a moment as if it would disappear as it had risen. But +in Michael Angelo Caravaggio (Fig. 255) it met with a powerful master, +who was able for some time to arrest the progress of its decadence. + +[Illustration: Fig. 255.--“The Tribute Money.” Picture by Caravaggio +(Sixteenth Century), in the Florence Gallery.] + +We have as yet done little more than hint at the presence of Rosso, or +_Maître Roux_, at the court of France. He came in 1530, at the +invitation of Francis I., to decorate the Palace of Fontainebleau. “His +engraved work,” says M. Michiels, “shows him to be a feeble and +pretentious man, devoid both of taste and inspiration, who exhibited +laboured refinement in the place of vigour, mistaking want of proportion +for grandeur, and absence of truth for originality. Being nominated by +the king as Canon of the Sainte-Chapelle, he had as his assistants +Leonard, a Fleming, the Frenchmen Michel Samson and Louis Dubreuil, and +the Italians Lucca Penni, Bartolommeo Miniati, &c. But in 1531, +Primaticcio arrived from Mantua, and a contest arose henceforth between +them.... Le Rosso having ended his days by suicide, Primaticcio remained +master of the field. His most talented pupil decorated under his +direction the magnificent ball-room. Primaticcio painted with less +exaggeration and more delicacy and elegance than Rosso; but still he +formed one of that troop of awkward and affected copyists who +exaggerated the errors of Caravaggio.... His empire of forty years’ +duration, in the midst of a foreign population, was, however, an +undisturbed one. Henry II., Francis II., Charles IX., and Catherine de +Medicis, showed him no less favour than Francis I. He died in 1570, +loaded with honours and riches. + +“The number of French artists who allowed themselves to be influenced by +the Italian method was considerable. At last a man of more vigorous +character arose who would not permit false taste to rule him, and +adopted all the improvements of modern art, without following in the +footsteps of court favourites. His talents inaugurated a new period in +the history of French painting. We are speaking of Jean Cousin, who was +born at Soucy, about 1530; he adorned with his compositions both glass +and canvas, and was, in addition, a skilful sculptor. His famous picture +of the “Last Judgment,” in the Louvre, suggests a high opinion of him. +The colouring is harsh and monotonous, but the drawing of the figures +and the arrangement of the piece prove that he had the habit of thought +and also of reckoning on his own powers and of seeking out novel +dispositions, producing effects hitherto unknown.” + +The beautiful composition we introduce here (Fig. 256) is taken from M. +A. Firmin Didot’s “Notice sur Jean Cousin,” in which a large number of +other subjects are reproduced; some of them may have been + +[Illustration: Fig. 256.--Composition by Jean Cousin. First Sketch of +his “Last Judgment,” from a Wood-Engraving in the Romance of “Gérard +d’Euphrate.” Paris, 1549. (Cabinet of M. A. F. Didot.)] + +engraved by the painter himself. Like Albert Dürer and Holbein, Jean +Cousin did not disdain to apply his talents to the ornamentation of +books. + +Jean Cousin is generally looked upon as the real chief of the French +school. After him, and by his side, we must place the Janets,[39] who +although of Flemish origin, are actually French in their style and the +character of their pictures. The most celebrated of them, François +Clouet, portrayed, with a realism full of elegance and distinction, the +nobles and beautiful ladies of the court of Valois. + +[Illustration: Fig. 257.--Sketch of the Virgin of Alba. Chalk-drawing by +Raphael.] + +We should here close our remarks, were it not that we might be accused +of an important omission in this review of the principal schools. For +nothing has been said of the Bolognese school, whose origin, though not +its maturity, belongs to the epoch we have made our study. But the +material circumstances we now mention must be our justification: +although the school of Bologna gave signs of its existence in the +thirteenth century, and under the impulse of Guido, Ventura, and Ursone, +showed itself to be industrious, active, and numerous; and also in the +fourteenth century, under that of Jacopo d’Avanzo and Lippodi Dalmasio; +yet it died away, reviving only at the commencement of the sixteenth +century, again to become extinct after the death of the poetic +Raibolini, called _Francia_, without having produced any of those great +individualities to whose glory alone we are compelled to devote our +attention. + +We must, however, confess that this school, which suddenly retrieved its +position at a time when all other schools were in a state of complete +decadence, found three illustrious chiefs instead of one, and acquired +the singular glory of resuscitating, by a kind of potent eclecticism, +the _ensemble_ of the noblest traditions. But it was not till the latter +part of the sixteenth century that Bologna witnessed the opening by the +Carracci of that studio whence were destined to proceed Guido, Albano, +Domenichino, Guercino, Caravaggio, Pietro of Cortona and Luca +Giordano--a magnificent phalanx of men who, by their own works and the +force of their example, were to become the honour of an age into which +it does not form a portion of our task to follow them. + +[Illustration] + + + + +ENGRAVING. + + Origin of Wood-Engraving.--The St. Christopher of 1423.--“The + Virgin and Child Jesus.”--The earliest Masters of + Wood-Engraving.--Bernard Milnet.--Engraving in _Camaïeu_.--Origin + of Engraving on Metal.--The “Pax” of Maso Finiguerra.--The earliest + Engravers on Metal.--Niello Work.--_Le Maître_ of 1466.--_Le + Maître_ of 1486.--Martin Schöngauer, Israel van Mecken, Wenceslaus + of Olmutz, Albert Dürer, Marc Antonio, Lucas van Leyden.--Jean + Duret and the French School.--The Dutch School.--The Masters of + Engraving. + + +Almost all authors who have devoted themselves to investigate this +subject have asserted, but doubtless very erroneously, that engraving on +metal was naturally derived from engraving on wood. Nevertheless, any +one who gives but a slight consideration to the difference existing +between the two processes must be led to the belief that the two arts +must result from two distinct inventions. In wood-engraving, the +impression is, in fact, formed by the portions of the block which are in +relief; while in engraving on metal, the incised strokes give the lines +of the print. Now, no one who has any knowledge of professional matters +can for a moment doubt that, in spite of the similar appearance of the +productions, there is a radical difference in the starting-points and +modes of execution of these two methods. + +We certainly must consider it probable that the appearance of prints +produced by wood-engraving may have suggested the idea of seeking to +obtain a similar or better result by some other process; but that a +process should be assimilated, as if by affiliation, to another +diametrically opposed to it is a view we do not feel called upon to +accept without reservation. + +Be this as it may, certain authors look upon wood-engraving as having +been invented in Germany at the commencement of the fifteenth century. +Others have derived it from China, where it was in use in the year 1000 +of our era. Others, again, propound the opinion that the art of printing +stuffs by means of engraved blocks was employed in different parts of +Asia, to which it had been imported from ancient Egypt, at a period long +before it was first thought of in Europe. These hypotheses being +admitted, the whole question reduces itself into an inquiry as to the +way in which the art made its entrance into Western Europe in the first +half of the fifteenth century; this being the earliest date at which we +find engravings made in Germany, France, and the Low Countries. + +[Illustration: Fig. 258.--“The Virgin and Infant Jesus.” Fac-simile of a +Wood-Engraving of the Fifteenth Century. (Bibl. Imp., Paris.)] + +The most ancient _dated_ impression known of a cut engraved on wood is a +St. Christopher, without either mark or name of its author, bearing a +Latin inscription and the date of 1423. This specimen is so roughly +engraved, and in drawing is so faulty, that it is only natural to assume +it must be one of the earliest attempts at wood-engraving. There is, +however, an engraving in the Imperial Library, Paris, representing the +Virgin holding the Child Jesus seated in her arms (Fig. 258), which may +perhaps be considered an earlier specimen than the St. Christopher. The +back of the niche is a kind of mosaic, formed of diamond-shaped +quadrilaterals; the _aureolæ_ and ornaments of the niche are coloured a +yellowish brown. There is, however, one singularity in this engraving +which testifies to its great antiquity; it is printed on paper made of +cotton, and is unsized, and the impression sinks so deeply into it that +it may be seen nearly as well on the back of the print as on the front. +We must not omit to mention another engraving, preserved in the Royal +Library, Brussels; this is also a “Virgin with the Child Jesus,” +surrounded by four saints (Fig. 259). It is a composition of a somewhat +grand style, and does not agree very well with the date, MCCCCXVIII., +which is seen at the foot of the print. + +We must, doubtless, attribute to nearly the same time some specimens of +playing-cards,--these we have already mentioned when dealing specially +with this subject; and also a series of figures of the Twelve Apostles +with Latin legends, underneath which are the same number of phrases in +French, or rather in the ancient dialect of Picardy, reproducing the +whole text of the Decalogue; one of these xylographic plates may be seen +in the chapter on “PRINTING.” In these engravings each figure is +standing up, clothed in a long tunic, and covered with a wide mantle; +the ink, so to speak, is bistre, and the mantles are coloured, red and +green alternately. The Apostles all bear the symbolical sign which +distinguishes them, and are surrounded with a long fillet, whereon is +traced in Latin the sentence of the Creed attributed to each, and one of +the ten Commandments. St. Peter, for instance, has for his motto this +French sentence, “Gardeis Dieu le roy moult sain;” St. Andrew, “Ne +jurets point son nome en vain;” St. John, “Père et Mère tosjours +honoras;” St. James the Greater, “Les fiestes et dymeng, garderas,” &c. + +There are other engravings belonging to the middle of the fifteenth +century which make known the fact that the art of engraving was +practised by several artists in France; and that without doing any +injustice + +[Illustration: Fig. 259.--“The Virgin and Child.” A Wood-Engraving of +the Fifteenth Century(?). (Bibl. Roy., Brussels.)] + +to Germany we can attribute several anonymous works to French masters. +But we must in any case claim the very characteristic works of an +engraver named Bernard Milnet. In the engravings of this master there +are neither lines nor cross-hatching; the ground of the print is black; +the lights are + +[Illustration: Fig. 260.--“St. Catherine on her Knees.” Fac-simile of an +Engraving on Wood, by Bernard Milnet, called the “Master with the dotted +backgrounds.” (Bibl. Imp., Paris.)] + +formed by an infinite number of white dots varying in size according to +the requirement and taste of the artist. This engraver does not appear +to have had any imitators; and, to tell the truth, his mode of operation +must have presented many difficulties in execution. There are only six +known specimens of his work--a “Virgin with the Child Jesus,” “St. +Catherine Kneeling” (Fig. 260), the “Scourging of Christ,” a group of +“St. John, St. Paul, and St. Veronica,” a “St. George,” and a “St. +Bernard.” + +Although engravings of this time are now extremely rare, it does not +necessarily follow that they were equally scarce at the dates when they +were executed. M. Michiels, in his “Histoire de la Peinture en Flandre,” +says that, “according to ancient custom, on feast-days the Lazarists, +and others belonging to religious orders who were accustomed to nurse +the sick, carried in the streets a large wax candle ornamented with +mouldings and glass-trinkets, and distributed to the children +wood-engravings illuminated with brilliant colours, and representing +sacred subjects. There must, therefore, have been a considerable number +of these engravings.” + +In the sixteenth century wood-engraving, improved by the pupils of +Albert Dürer, and especially by John Burgkmair (Fig. 261), was very +extensively developed; and the art was then practised with a superiority +of style which left far behind the timid attempts of the preceding +century. + +The works of most of the wood-engravers of this period are anonymous; +nevertheless, the names of a few of these artists have survived. But it +is only by an error that, in the nomenclature of the latter, certain +painters and designers, such as Albert Dürer, Lucas van Leyden, and +Lucas van Cranach, have long been made to figure. There are +wood-engravings which do actually bear the signatures or monograms of +these masters; but the fact is, that the latter were often in the habit +of drawing their designs on the wood, as is frequently the practice with +artists in our own day; and the engraver (or rather the _formschneider_, +form-cutter, to employ the usual expression), in reproducing the +composition drawn with a pencil or pen, has copied also the signature +which the designer of the subject added. An error often committed by +writers may be thus easily set right. + +We must not quit the subject of wood-engraving without mentioning +engraving in _camaïeu_; a process of Italian origin, in which three or +four blocks, applying in succession to the print uniform tints of more +or less intense tones, ultimately produced engravings of a very +remarkable effect, imitating drawings with the stump or the pencil. At +the commencement of the sixteenth century several artists distinguished +themselves in this + +[Illustration: Fig. 261.--The Archdukes and High Barons of Germany +assisting, in State Costume, at the Coronation of the Emperor +Maximilian. A fragment taken from a large collection of Engravings, +entitled the “Triumph of Maximilian I.,” by J. Burgkmair. (Sixteenth +Century.)] + +mode of engraving, especially Ugo di Carpi, who worked at Modena about +the year 1518; Antonio Fantuzzi, a pupil of Francis Parmigianino, who +accompanied and assisted Primaticcio at Fontainebleau; Gualtier, and +Andrew Andreani; and lastly, Bartholomew Coriolano, of Bologna, who +would have been the last engraver in this style, were it not for Antonio +M. Zanetti, a celebrated Venetian amateur, who was still nearer to us in +point of date. Two or three Germans, John Ulrich in the sixteenth, and +Louis Buring[40] in the seventeenth, century, also made some engravings +in _camaïeu_, but only with two blocks: one giving the design of the +subject with the outline and cross-hatching, the other introducing a +colour, usually bistre, on which all the lights were taken out, so as to +leave the ground of the paper white. These specimens imitated a +pen-and-ink drawing on coloured paper, and finished with the brush or +pencil. + +We must now go back to the year 1452, which is generally fixed upon as +the date of the invention of engraving on metal (Fig. 262).[41] When +discussing the subject of “Goldsmith’s Work,” we mentioned, among the +pupils of the illustrious Ghiberti, Maso Finiguerra, and stated that +this artist had engraved on silver a “Pax” intended for the treasury of +the Church of St. John. Certain writers having recognised in a print now +in the Imperial Library of Paris, and also in another print in the +Library of the Arsenal, an exact impression of this engraving, were led +to attribute to the celebrated Florentine goldsmith the honour of an +invention in which he might perhaps have had no share at all. Possibly +this process of printing off an impression, which was a very natural +thing to do, had been actually practised by goldsmiths long before +Finiguerra; they wished, doubtless, to preserve a pattern of their +_niello-work_, or to see how it progressed in its various stages. The +proofs, thus taken off by hand, having been lost, Finiguerra may have +been considered the originator of a method which he only applied as a +matter of course to his goldsmith’s work. The two circumstances--that +the plate is made of silver and not of any common metal, and that it may +be classed among the numerous _nielli_, engraved plates of decorative +goldsmith’s work, which have been handed down to us and are of even +earlier dates--will alone suffice, in our opinion, to dispose of the + +[Illustration: Fig. 262.--The Prophet Isaiah, holding in his hand the +saw which was the instrument of his martyrdom. (Fac-simile from an +Engraving on Copper by an unknown Italian Master of the Fifteenth +Century.)] + +idea that this work was expressly executed in order to furnish +impressions on paper. It was nothing but chance that in this case +introduced the name of Finiguerra, which would not have become known in +this connection, if it had not been for the preservation of two ancient +impressions of his _niello-work_; while those taken from other and +perhaps older plates had been destroyed. Thus the date, or the asserted +date, of the invention of engraving on metal was fixed by the +ascertained date of the piece of goldsmith’s work. + +Be this as it may, the print of the “Pax,” or rather of the +“Assumption,” engraved by Finiguerra, does not fail, in the opinion of +all writers and amateurs, to bear the title of the earliest print from +metal; a title to which it has a perfect right, and in thus regarding it +we are induced to give a brief description of the subject represented in +the engraving. Jesus Christ, seated on a lofty throne and wearing a cap +similar to that of the Doges, places, with both his hands, a crown on +the head of the Virgin, who, with her hands crossed upon her breast, is +seated upon the same throne; St. Augustine and St. Ambrose are kneeling; +in the centre, below, and on the right, several saints are standing, +among whom we can distinguish St. Catherine and St. Agnes; on the left, +in the rear of St. Augustine, we see St. John the Baptist and other +saints; lastly, on both sides of the throne a number of angels are +blowing trumpets; and, above, are others holding a streamer, on which we +read: “ASSVMPTA. EST. MARIA. IN. CELVM. AVE. EXERCITVS. ANGELORVM;” +“Mary is taken up into Heaven. Hail, army of angels!” + +The first of the impressions of this _niello_ found its way into the +Royal Library with the Marolles Collection, bought by Louis XIV. in +1667: the other was discovered only in 1841, by M. Robert Dumesnil, who, +in the Library of the Arsenal, was turning over the leaves of a volume +containing engravings by Callot and Sebastian Le Clerc. This latter +impression, though taken on inferior paper, is nevertheless in a much +better state of preservation than the other; but the ink is of a greyer +hue, and one might readily fancy that, as M. Duchesne, the learned +writer, asserts, it was printed before the final completion of the +plate. + +In support of the opinion which we before indirectly expressed, that the +practice of taking impressions from engraved plates of metal might well +be a kind of fortuitous result of a mere professional tradition +incidental to the goldsmith’s art, we may remark that most of the +engravings which have been handed down to us as belonging to the era +fixed upon for the invention of engraving, are the work of Italian +goldsmith-engravers. More than four hundred specimens of this date have +been preserved; among the artists we must mention Amerighi, Michael +Angelo Bandinelli, and Philippo Brunelleschi, of Florence; Forzoni +Spinelli, of Arezzo; Furnio, Gesso, Rossi, and Raibolini, of Bologna; +Teucreo, of Siena; Caradosso and Arcioni, of Milan; Nicholas Rosex, of +Modena, of whose work we have three _nielli_ and more than sixty +engravings; Antonio Pollajuolo, who engraved a print called the “Fight +with Cutlasses,” representing ten naked men fighting; lastly, the most +skilful of the metal-chasing goldsmiths after Finiguerra, Peregrino of +Cesena, who has left his name and his mark on sixty-six _nielli_. + +[Illustration: Fig. 263.--Fac-simile of a _Niello_ executed on Ivory, +from the original design of Stradan, representing Columbus on board his +Ship, during his first Voyage to the West.] + +More special mention must be made of Bartholomew Baldini, better known +under the name of Baccio, to whom we owe, in addition to some large +engravings both of a sacred and of a mythological character, twenty +vignettes designed for the folio edition (1481) of Dante’s “Inferno;” of +Andrea Mantegna, a renowned painter, who himself engraved many of his +own compositions; and of John van der Straet, called _Stradan_ (Fig. +263), who executed at Florence many remarkable plates. + +We find in Germany an engraver who dates several of his works in the +year 1466, but on none of them has he left more than his initials, E. S. +This has not failed to tax the ingenuity of those who would establish +his individuality in some authentic way. Some have agreed to call him +Edward Schön or Stern, on account of the stars he frequently introduces +into the borders of the vestments of his figures; one asserts that he +was born in Bavaria, because in a specimen of his works is the figure of +a woman holding a shield emblazoned with the arms of that country; +another believes him to have been a Swiss, because he twice engraved the +“Pilgrimage of St. Mary of Einsiedeln,” the most celebrated in the +country. But those amateurs who, upon the whole, think more of the work +than the workman, are content to designate him as _the Master of 1466_. + +This engraver has left behind him three hundred examples, most of them +of small dimensions, among which, independently of sundry very curious +compositions, we must notice two important series, namely, an _Alphabet_ +composed of grotesque figures (Fig. 264), and a pack of _Numeral Cards_, +the greater part of which are in the Imperial Library. + +At almost the same epoch Holland also presents us with an anonymous +engraver, who might be called _the Master of 1486_, from the date on one +only of his engravings. The works of this artist, whose manner exhibits +a powerful and original style, are very rare in any collections not +belonging to the country in which he worked. The Cabinet of Engravings +at Amsterdam possesses seventy-six of them, while that of Vienna has but +two, that of Berlin one only, and that of Paris six, among which we may +remark “Samson sleeping on the knees of Delilah,” and “St. George,” on +foot, piercing with his sword the throat of the dragon which menaced the +life of the Queen of Lydia. + +We have still three comparatively celebrated engravers to mention before +reaching the epoch at which Marc Antonio Raimondi in Italy, Albert Dürer +in Germany, and Lucas van Leyden in Holland, all simultaneously +flourished. + +Martin Schöngauer, for some time designated by the name of Martin Schön, +who died at Colmar in 1488, was a good painter as well as a skilful +engraver. More than one hundred and twenty specimens of his work are +known, the most important of which are--“Christ bearing his Cross,” “The +Battle of the Christians” (waged against the infidels by the apostle +St. James), both very rare compositions of large size; the “Passion of +Jesus Christ,” the “Death of the Virgin,” and “St. Anthony tormented by +Demons,” one proof of which, it is said, was coloured by Michael Angelo. +We must add (and this circumstance shows again the kind of direct +relation which we have already noted as existing between engraving and +goldsmith’s work), that Martin Schöngauer also engraved a pastoral staff +and a censer, both of very beautiful workmanship. + +[Illustration: Fig. 264.--Fac-simile of the letter N from the “Grotesque +Alphabet,” engraved by the “Master of 1466.”] + +Israel van Mecken (or Meckenem), supposed to be a pupil of Francis van +Bocholt, as he worked at Bocholt previous to the year 1500, is, of all +German engravers of this epoch, the one whose works are most extensively +known. The Cabinet of Engravings in the Imperial Library, Paris, +possesses three volumes of his engravings, containing two hundred and +twenty-eight superb examples; among these we must especially notice a +composition engraved on two plates of the same height; “St. Gregory +perceiving the Man of Sorrows at the Moment of the Mass.” We must +confine ourselves to the mention, in addition, of his “St. Luke painting +the Portrait of the Virgin;” “St. Odile releasing from Purgatory, by his +prayers, the Soul of his Father, Duke Etichon;” “Herodias” (Fig. 265); +and “Lucretia killing herself in the presence of Collatinus and others,” +which last is the only subject this artist has taken from profane +history. + +We mention Wenceslaus of Olmutz, who was engaged in engraving from the +year 1481 to 1497, with the especial object of describing an allegorical +print due to his _burin_; it may serve to give a notion of the fantastic +tendency impressed on the ideas of the day by the religious dissensions +which arose at this epoch between several princes of Germany and the +court of Rome. This print, or rather this graphic satire, most of the +allusions in which are now lost to us, represents the monstrous figure +of a woman entirely naked, seen in profile and turning to the left, her +body covered with scales, with the head and mane of an ass; her right +leg terminates in a cloven foot, and the left in a bird’s claw; her +right arm is terminated by the paw of a lion, and the left by a woman’s +hand. The back of this fantastic being is covered with a hairy mask, and +in the place of a tail she has the neck of a chimera, with a deformed +head from which darts a serpent’s tongue. Above the engraving is +written, “_Roma Caput Mundi_” (“Rome the head of the world”). On the +left hand is a three-storied tower, upon which a flag adorned with the +keys of St. Peter is floating. On the château is written, “_Castelagno_” +(Castle of St. Angelo); in the foreground is a river, upon whose waves +is traced the word “_Tevere_” (the Tiber); lower still is the word +“_Ianrarii_” (January), below the date 1496: on the right, in the +background, is a square tower, upon which is written, “_Tore Di Nona_” +(Tower of the Nones); on the same side, in front, is a vase with two +handles, and in the centre of the lower part the letter W, the +monogrammatic signature of the engraver. Our interest in this plate is +increased by the date it bears; for, being engraved by means of + +[Illustration: Fig. 265.--“Herodias,” a Copper-plate Engraving, by +Israel van Mecken.] + +_aquafortis_, it proves that Albert Dürer is wrongfully regarded as the +inventor of this mode of engraving, more expeditious than with the +_burin_, as the oldest _aquafortis_ work of Albert Dürer is dated 1515, +that is to say, nineteen years later than that of Wenceslaus of Olmutz. + +We now come to three great artists who, at a period in which the art of +engraving had made the most remarkable progress, availed themselves of +it for producing works which eminently characterise each master +respectively. + +Albert Dürer, born at Nuremberg in 1471, was a vigorous painter, and was +not less remarkable for the productions of his _burin_ and +etching-needle. We do not intend to describe all his works, though all +are worthy of notice, but must content ourselves with mentioning “Adam +and Eve standing by the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil,” a small +plate of delicate workmanship and admirable perfectness of design; the +“Passion of Jesus Christ,” in a series of sixteen plates; “Christ +praying in the Garden of Gethsemane,” the first work executed by this +master by means of _aquafortis_, then a new method, which, being less +soft than the _burin_, gave rise to an idea not dispelled for some time, +that this print and several others were engraved on iron or tin; several +figures of the “Virgin with the Infant Jesus,” which are all remarkable +for expression and simplicity, and have received odd _sobriquets_ on +account of some accessory object which accompanies them (for instance, +the “Virgin with the pear, butterfly, ape,” &c.); the “Prodigal Son +keeping Swine,” a composition in which the painter himself is +represented; “St. Hubert praying before the Cross borne by a Stag” (Fig. +266), a very rare and beautiful plate; the “Chevalier and his Lady;” +lastly, the “Chevalier of Death,” a _chef-d’œuvre_, dated 1515, and +representing Francis of Sickingen, who was destined to be the firmest +supporter of Luther’s Reformation.[42] + +Marc Antonio Raimondi, born at Bologna about the year 1475, was first a +pupil of Francis Raibolini, and afterwards of Raphael,[43] whose style +he often + +[Illustration: Fig. 266.--“St. Hubert praying before the Cross borne by +a Stag.” Engraved by Albert Dürer.] + +followed, and in his compositions did his utmost to imitate his pure and +noble manner. Everything in his designs is ideally true, and all is +harmonious in the _ensemble_ of his works. Most of his engravings still +existing are very much sought after, and as any description we could +give would only convey but an imperfect idea of the excellence of these +works, the strongest testimony in favour of their merit will be to +mention the high prices given for certain prints by this master at the +public sale which took place in 1844. For example:--“Adam and Eve,” a +print after Raphael, 1,010 francs (£40); “God commanding Noah to build +the Ark,” from the same master, 700 francs (£28); the “Massacre of the +Innocents,” 1,200 francs (£48); “St. Paul preaching at Athens,” 2,500 +francs (£100); the “Lord’s Supper,” 2,900 francs (£116); the “Judgment +of Paris,” which is regarded as the _chef-d’œuvre_ of Marc Antonio, +3,350 francs (£134); three pendentives of the “Farnesina,” 1,620 francs +(£64 10s.), &c. Subsequently, these enormous prices have been even +exceeded. + +Lucas van Leyden, born in 1494, and, like Albert Dürer, a clever painter +as well as skilful engraver, has left about eighty plates, the most +remarkable of which are “David playing the Harp before Saul;” the +“Adoration of the Magi;” a large “Ecce Homo,” engraved by the artist at +the age of sixteen; a “Peasant and Peasant-woman with a Cow;” the “Monk +Sergius killed by Mahomet;” the “Seven Virtues;” a plate called the +“Little Milkmaid,” very rare; lastly, a “Poor Family travelling,” of +which only five proofs are known; they were bought for sixteen louis +d’or by the Abbot of Marolles, when he formed his cabinet of prints, +which became one of the richest additions to the Imperial Library. + +In a befitting rank below these famous artists we may class a French +engraver, Jean Duret, born at Langres in 1488, who was goldsmith to +Henri II., and executed several beautiful allegorical plates on the +intrigues of the king and Diana of Poitiers, as well as twenty-four +compositions taken from the Apocalypse; also Pierre Woeiriot (or +Voeiriot), an engraver and goldsmith of Lorraine, born in 1531, who +produced numerous fine works down to the end of the century; the most +famous of them, designated by the name of the “Bull of Phalaris” (Fig. +267), represents the tyrant of Agrigentum shutting up human victims +destined to be burnt alive in a brazen bull. + +There were at work in Italy at the same epoch Augustine of Musi + +[Illustration: Fig. 267.--“Phalaris, Tyrant of Agrigentum, causing +Victims destined to be burnt alive to be shut up in a Brazen Bull.” +Engraved by P. Woeiriot. (French School of the Sixteenth Century.)] + +(Agustino de Musis, called the Venetian), Giacomo Caraglio, the +Ghisis,[44] Eneas Vico; in Germany, Altdorfer (Fig. 268), George +Pencz,[45] Aldegrever, Jacque Binck, Bartel and Hans Sebald Beham (Fig. +269), who are designated under the collective name of the “Little +Masters;” in Holland, Thierry (Dirk) van Staren. + +[Illustration: Fig. 268.--“Repose of the Holy Family.” Engraved by A. +Altdorfer.] + +In the course of the sixteenth century engraving reached its culminating +point, and at that time Italy and Germany no longer took the lead in +this branch of art, for the most skilful and renowned masters then +belonged to Holland and France. + +Those of Holland were Henry Goltzius (or Goltz), born in 1558, and his +pupils Matham and the Mullers, whose vigorous gravers might remind one +of brilliant effects of colour without any loss of purity of design; the +two brothers, Boetius and Scheltius Bolswaert, so called from their +native town Bolswaert, born in 1580 and 1586 respectively; Paul Pontius +and Lucas Vorsterman, both born in 1590, whose engravings so well +represent the _chiaroscuro_ and colour of Van Dyck and Jordaens. + +In France was Jacques Callot, born in 1594, whose works were both +numerous and original, and enjoyed a somewhat popular celebrity; among +them the most worthy of remark are the “Temptation of St. Anthony,” the +“Fair of the Madonna d’Imprunette,” “The Garden” and the “Parterre,” +both scenes in Nancy; as well as several series, such as the “Miseries +of War,” &c. There were also Michael Lasne, born in 1596, who engraved a +number of historical portraits; and Etienne (Stephen) Baudet, who +reproduced eight large landscapes after Poussin. + +[Illustration: Fig. 269.--“Ferdinand I., Brother of Charles V.” Engraved +by Bart. Beham in 1531.] + +A separate notice is reserved for Jonas Suyderoef, born at Leyden in +1600, who, by combining the graver, the etching-needle, and aquafortis, +gave an exceptional character to his works. Among the two hundred +engravings by this master the most admired are the “Treaty of Munster,” +after Terburg; and the “Burgomasters of Amsterdam receiving the News of +the Arrival of Queen Mary of Medicis,” after De Keyser. + +We are now touching closely upon, even if we have not already exceeded, +the limits to which we are prescribed by the scope of our notices; but +as the history of engraving does not present, like that of so many other +arts, the spectacle of a grievous decadence after a period of +brilliancy, we cannot without regret come to a conclusion, when mention +might still be made of many distinguished names among the engravers of +every country. + +We should also scarcely be able to pass on to another subject without +having alluded to those men whose works belong, indeed, to the following +epoch, but the date of whose birth connects them with that we are +considering. We could not, in fact, assume to have treated of engraving +had we passed over in silence Van Dyck, Claude Lorraine, and Rembrandt +(Fig. 270), those greatest of masters who were equally celebrated for +painting and engraving. In truth, perhaps, we could not say anything of +them which would not be superfluous. + +Who is not acquainted with at least some few works by Van Dyck? This +celebrated pupil of Rubens has left in painting as many masterpieces as +canvases; and in engraving he knew how to give to his etching-needle so +much _verve_ and spirit, that his prints are perfect models to follow, +and have never been surpassed. Who is there that does not admire the +landscapes of Claude Lorraine, which are equally remarkable for the +light diffused over them, and the misty atmosphere that tempers its +brilliancy? We all know this master produced, as if for recreation, +certain engravings which for truth and melancholy (_mélancolic_) are +hardly surpassed by his marvellous paintings. And how can we speak of +Rembrandt without seeming to be commonplace? For his fertile and varied +talent no difficulty ever seemed to exist; a theme, the most simple and +common in appearance, becomes in his hands the basis of a masterly +conception; nature, to which he seemed to lend a new life, while seizing +upon its most striking realities, was for him an inexhaustible source of +powerful compositions. + +The mention of these artists on the threshold of an epoch into which we + +[Illustration: Fig. 270.--“Portrait of John Lutma, Goldsmith of +Groningen.” Designed and Engraved in aquafortis by Rembrandt.] + +are precluded from following them, must suffice to convey some idea of +the height that art had attained during this century. We will, however, +enumerate after them a few names among foreign engravers. The Flemish +artists, Nicolas Berghem and Paul Potter, both great animal-painters, +have left some prints in aquafortis for the possession of which amateurs +contend; Wenceslaus Hollar, the Englishman,[46] engraved “The Queen of +Sheba,” after Veronese; to Cornelius Visscher, a Dutchman, we owe the +famous “Seller of Ratsbane;” and to Stefano della Bella, of Florence, +the “View from the Pont-Neuf, Paris.” Rupert, the Prince-Palatine +(nephew of Charles I. of England), was the inventor of the mezzo-tinto, +or black style of engraving; and William Faithorne, an Englishman, +engraved several portraits after Van Dyck. France also presents to our +notice some justly celebrated names. The views of towns by Israel +Silvestre, of Nancy, are very beautiful; François de Poilly, of +Abbeville, reproduced several pictures by Raphael; Jean Pesne, of Rouen, +himself a painter, engraved especially after Poussin; Antoine Masson, of +Orleans, has left a print of the “Pilgrims of Emmaus,” after the picture +by Titian, which is regarded as a _chef-d’œuvre_. Lastly, Robert +Nanteuil, of Rheims, the famous portrait-painter, engraved Péréfixe, +Archbishop of Paris, four times; the Archbishop of Rheims five times; +Colbert six times; Michel Le Tellier, Chancellor of France, ten times; +Louis XIV. eleven times, and Cardinal Mazarin fourteen times. + +[Illustration: Fig. 271.--“The Holy Virgin.” Engraved by Aldegrever in +1527.] + + + + +SCULPTURE. + + Origin of Christian Sculpture.--Statues in Gold and + Silver.--Traditions of Antique Art.--Sculpture in + Ivory.--Iconoclasts.--Diptychs.--The highest Style of Sculpture + follows the Phases of Architecture.--Cathedrals and Monasteries + from the Year 1000.--Schools of Burgundy, Champagne, Normandy, + Lorraine, &c.--German, English, Spanish, and Italian + Schools.--Nicholas of Pisa and his Successors.--Position of French + Sculpture in the Thirteenth Century.--Florentine Sculpture and + Ghiberti.--French Sculptors from the Fifteenth to the Sixteenth + Century. + + +It is an indisputable fact that the epoch in which the Emperor +Constantine, by receiving baptism, effected the triumph of Christianity, +developed a kind of revival in the movement of the decorative arts, the +ideas of which were then exclusively directed to the exaltation of the +new faith. To construct numerous basilicas, to adorn them magnificently, +and by means of the chisel to embody in a material form the spiritualism +of the Gospel, were the objects of this pious monarch. Gold and silver +were the less spared, as marble was considered too common a substance in +which to represent the sacred personages of the divine hierarchy. At +Constantinople, in the basilica constructed by Constantine, there was +represented, on one side of the apse, a seated figure of our Saviour +surrounded by His twelve disciples; on the other side, Christ was +represented also sitting on a throne and accompanied by four angels, who +had precious stones of Alabanda, inlaid, to represent their eyes. All +these figures were life-size, and made of silver _repoussé_; each one +weighing from ninety to a hundred and ten pounds. In the same church, a +canopy representing the Apostles and cherubim in relief, of polished +silver, weighed more than two thousand pounds. But these splendours were +even eclipsed by those of the font of porphyry in which Constantine +received baptism from the hands of Bishop Sylvester. The part whence the +water flowed away was adorned with massive silver over an extent of five +feet, and for the purpose three thousand pounds of this precious metal +were employed. In the centre, columns of gold supported a lamp of the +same metal weighing fifty-two pounds, in which, during the feast of +Easter, two hundred pounds of perfumed oil were burnt. The water was +poured into the font through the image of a lamb of solid gold, weighing +thirty pounds. On the right was a life-size representation of our +Saviour, weighing a hundred and seventy pounds; on the left was a statue +of John the Baptist of the same size; while seven hinds of silver placed +around the font, and pouring water into the basin, harmonised in their +dimensions and materials with the other figures. + +[Illustration: Fig. 272.--Altar of Castor (a Gallo-Roman Sculpture), +discovered in 1711 under the Choir of Notre-Dame, Paris.] + +We would not assert that these works, pompously enumerated by +Anastasius, the Librarian, corresponded in purity and elevation of style +with the richness of the materials employed; for we know, on the +contrary, that in order to comply with the wishes of the powerful +emperor, artists were found who, by simple substitution of heads, +attributes, or inscriptions, converted without any scruple a Jupiter +into God the Father, or a Venus into a Virgin. The large cities were not +as yet depopulated of the innumerable crowd of statues which adorned +them; and it was only in provinces far from the metropolis that the +images of the false gods were buried under the fragments of their +overthrown temples (Figs. 272 and 273). + +In fact, before the art had adopted, or rather created, the system of +Christian symbolism, it was absolutely necessary to borrow the elements +of its existence from the glorious materials of the past, and even to +imitate the works of Pagan art. + +In Greece more than elsewhere--and by Greece we include +Constantinople--statuary preserved, under Constantino and his earliest +successors, a certain degree of power which we might call original. The +design still adhered to beautiful forms, and, in the arrangement of +subjects, the principles of the ancients were for a long time applied, +as if instinctively. Although artists no longer studied nature, they +were, at all events, surrounded by excellent models, which guided them +with somewhat imperious rule. + +[Illustration: Fig. 273.--Altar of Jupiter Ceraunus (Gallo-Roman +Sculpture), discovered in 1711, under the Choir of Notre-Dame, Paris.] + +We have already seen that, among the barbaric chiefs who invaded the +empire of the Cæsars and seated themselves on the Imperial throne of +Rome, were some who, at a certain period, professed to be, if not the +protectors of the Fine Arts, which had then sunk into torpor, at least +the preservers of the Greek and Roman monuments belonging to the noblest +epoch of Art. The statues were no longer broken down; the inscriptions +and bas-reliefs ceased to be mutilated; the triumphal arches (Fig. 274), +the palaces, and the theatres, were respected, or, rather, were left +standing. But a kind of deadness had come over the artistic world, and a +few sympathetic manifestations of this kind were not sufficient to +reanimate its enervated spirit; it was necessary that the period of +repose should be fully accomplished--a period which, in the views of +Providence, was perhaps a phase of profound contemplation or preparatory +development. + +Nevertheless, although the art which gives life to marble and bronze--a +high style of sculpture--was in a stationary or retrograde state, the +lower kind, which we may call domestic, preserved some degree of +activity. For instance, it was then the custom for great personages to +send as presents diptychs of ivory, on the outer face of which were +carved bas-reliefs recalling some memorable event. Monarchs, on their +accession, were in the habit of conferring diptychs of this kind on the +governors of provinces and bishops; and the latter, in order to testify +to the good understanding existing between the civil and religious +authorities, placed the diptych on the altar. A marriage, a baptism, or +any success, gave occasion for the presentation of diptychs. For two +centuries artists lived on nothing but this kind of work. It needed +events of some very extraordinary character to cause the production of +any monument of real sculpture. + +[Illustration: Fig. 274.--Restoration of a Roman Triumphal Arch, with +its Bas-reliefs.] + +In the sixth century the cathedrals of Rome, Trèves, Metz, Lyons, +Rhodez, Arles, Bourges, and the abbeys of St. Médard at Soissons, St. +Ouen at Rouen, and St. Martin at Tours, are mentioned as remarkable; and +yet the walls of these edifices were nothing but bare stone, without +either ornament or sculpture. “To become living stones,” says M. J. +Duseigneur, “they had to wait for another age. The whole of the +ornamentation was exclusively applied to the altar and the baptismal +font. The tombs even of great personages present the most primitive +simplicity.” (Fig. 275.) + +Ancient Gaul, in spite of its disasters, still retained, in certain +parts of its territory, men, or rather groups of men, in whose hearts +the cultivation of Art still remained a living principle. This was the +case in Provence, round the archbishops of Arles; in Austrasia (Metz), +near the throne of Brunehaut; in Burgundy, at the court of King Gontran. +Most of the works and even the names of these artists are now lost; but +history has recorded the movement, which was, as it were, a happy link +destined to abbreviate the solution of continuity in artistic tradition. + +[Illustration: Fig. 275.--A Stone Tomb, of one of the first Abbots of +St. Germain-des-Prés, Paris.] + +At the time when Greek art, in its degenerate state, had sunk down into +a department of mere goldsmith’s work, casting over Europe only a pale +and feeble light; when artists, in representing sacred or profane +subjects, contented themselves with simple medallions of bronze, gold, +or silver, which were generally inserted in a shrine, or suspended on +the walls; across the seas Byzantine art was springing into life; an art +which blended Hellenic reminiscences with Christian sentiment. + +In the eighth century, the epoch of the uprising of the Iconoclasts +against images of all kinds, Byzantine sculpture had acquired certain +well-marked characteristics: rigidness of outline, meagreness of form, +elongation of the proportions, combined with great profuseness of +costume; all was the expression of saddened resignation and costly +grandeur. The monumental statuary of this age has, however, almost +entirely disappeared, and we should be nearly destitute of any accurate +record as to the state of Art for a period of several centuries, were it +not for numerous diptychs which, to some extent, supply this want. Many +of these sacred diptychs were exquisitely wrought. Gori, in his “Trésor +des Diptyques,” written in Latin and published at Florence in 1759, +divides these monuments into four classes: diptychs intended to receive +the names of the newly baptised; those wherein were written the names of +the benefactors of the church, sovereigns, and popes; and those destined +to preserve the memory of the faithful who had died in the bosom of the +church (Fig. 276). Their outward surface generally represented some +scene taken from the Evangelists, in which Christ was especially +depicted as young and beardless, his head glorified with a nimbus +without a cross. The more these representations were condemned, the more +they who paid respect to them endeavoured to perpetuate their use. The +Greek artists, being unable to find a livelihood in their own country, +made their way into Italy in such numbers that the popes Paul I., Adrian +I., and Pascal I., erected monasteries to receive them. Owing to the +influence of this immigration, Art, which in the West was germinating in +an undecided state between a weak style of originality and an awkward +mode of imitation, was compelled to assume a character of its own, and +this necessarily was the Byzantine character; that is, a manner which +was firm, clear, and, in general, impressed with a certain imposing +nobility of style. This style attained all the more success by its being +illustrated by very eminent artists, whom Charlemagne patronised as +fully adequate to the magnificence of his ideas; and also because the +richness of ornament which this style combined with its work was likely +to render it pleasing to the populace. + +The royal palaces of Aix-la-Chapelle, Goddinga, Attiniacum, and +Theodonis Villa, and the monasteries of St. Arnulph, Trèves, St. Gall, +Salzbourg, and Prüm felt the salutary influence which Charlemagne +exercised on all kinds of Art. Prior to 1793, in these various +localities precious remains were still to be seen, reaching back to the +eighth century; they testified to the fact that, apart from Byzantine +influence, and bearing the impress of a simple Christian sentiment, +sculpture still clung, owing to Lombard ascendancy, to some of the grand +traditions of antiquity. + +This union of principles gave rise to a number of works bearing a +remarkable character. The foundation of the abbeys of St. Mihiel +(Lorraine), Isle-Barbe (near Lyons), of Ambernay and Romans; the +erection of several of the great monasteries in Alsace, Soissonnais, +Brittany, Normandy, Provence, Languedoc, and Aquitaine; the construction +of the + +[Illustration: Fig. 276.--Diptychs in Carved Ivory of the Eleventh +Century. (M. Rigollot’s Collection, Amiens.) + + The first compartment represents St. Remy, Bishop of Rheims, + healing a paralytic; the second, St. Remy healing a sick man by the + invocation of the sacrament on the altar; the third, St. Remy, + assisted by a holy bishop, baptising King Clovis in the presence of + Queen Clotilda, and receiving from the Holy Spirit the sacred + _ampulla_. +] + +important churches of Metz, Toul, Verdun, Rheims, Autun, &c.; the +restorations which took place at the abbeys of Bèze, St. Gall, St. +Benignus of Dijon, Remiremont, St. Arnulphe-lès-Metz, and Luxeuil, were +of sufficient importance to occupy an immense number of artists, +architects, and sculptors, who, like the monk Gundelandus, abbot of +Lauresheim, handled the compasses and the mallet with as much authority +as the crucifix. Nothing could equal the splendour of some of the +monasteries, which were perfect centres of genius and skill, in which +all the Fine Arts united were a mutual assistance to one another; +directed, perhaps, by a master who was himself inspired by a feeling for +elevated production (Fig. 277). + +Nevertheless, the smaller examples of sculpture and carving constituted +the principal work of the artists of the eighth century. In the +execution of any larger objects they were deterred by a dread of the +Iconoclasts, who still continued their course of destruction, neither +was it much less after the death of Charlemagne, owing to the civil wars +and invasions which, in every direction, put a stop to or ruined +architectural works. A shrine or an altar might perhaps be saved, but a +church-front or doorway could not be protected; and the hereditary +hatred with which princes pursued one another did not fail to be wreaked +on their effigies. At that time there were neither artists nor monks; +every one became a soldier, and the common peril gave some energy to our +alarmed ancestors. + +When these invasions had almost come to an end in Europe, the very +disasters they had caused assisted to some extent the progress both of +architecture and sculpture. In the first place there sprang up a +complete order of new buildings, originated by the need that arose for +fresh edifices for the purpose of public worship; the Church, having a +thousand disasters to repair, built or restored a number of monasteries +which assumed a decided character of individuality. The cathedrals of +Auxerre, Clermont, Toul, the Church of St. Paul at Verdun, the abbeys of +Montier-en-Der and of Gorze, of Munster, Cluny, Celles-sur-Cher, &c., +were specially adorned with the sculptural characteristics of this +epoch. Crucifixes in high relief were multiplied, the introduction of +which into monumental sculpture did not take place before the +pontificate of Leo III. In the arched recesses over doorways +representations of the good and the bad were placed opposite to one +another; the worship of the Virgin was celebrated in all kinds of +artistic productions; and, in short, sculpture was displayed everywhere +with an extraordinary amount of richness. Nothing escaped, so to speak, +its luxurious growth: _ambons_,[47] seats, arches, baptismal fonts, +columns, cornices, bell-turrets, and gargoyles--everything, in short, +testified that sculpture and stone were now in full harmony. Almost all +the figures were then represented as clothed in the Roman style, with a +short tunic, and the chlamys clasped upon the shoulder; this still +continued to be the court-costume, and consequently the only one +suitable to the representation of the exalted followers of Christianity. + +[Illustration: Fig. 277.--Bas-relief in the Abbey-Church of St. Denis; a +reproduction of the ancient Statue of Dagobert I., destroyed in the +Ninth Century.] + +It is worthy of remark that the monuments of this age are generally +wanting both in dates and the name of the sculptor. Not more than five +or six of the principal artists or directors of artistic works of the +period are mentioned by name in any historical records. Among them, +however, are Tutilon, a monk of Saint-Gall, who at once poet, sculptor, +and painter, ornamented with his works the churches of Mayence and Metz; +Hugues, Abbot of Montier-en-Der; Austée, Abbot of St. Arnulph, in the +diocese of Metz; Morard, who, with the co-operation of King Robert, +rebuilt, towards the end of the tenth century, the old church of St. +Germain-des-Prés, at Paris; lastly, Guillaume, Abbot of St. Benignus, at +Dijon, who took under his direction forty monasteries, and became chief +of a school of Art, as well as their head on religious matters. The +doorways of the churches of Avallon, Nantua, and Vermanton, executed at +this epoch, bear witness to the rigour of an improved taste; and it may +be well said that this abbot Guillaume, who for a long series of years +directed a number of artists, who also in their turn became chiefs of +schools, exercised as powerful an influence on French art as Nicholas of +Pisa on Tuscan art in the following century. + +But although it embraced within its influence a very extended sphere, +the school of Burgundy did not fail to find on the ancient Gallic soil +very skilful and industrious rivals. The districts of Messin, Lorraine, +Alsace, Champagne, Normandy, and the Ile-de-France, in short all the +various centres of the South, possessed numerous artists, each of whom +impressed on their works their own special character of individuality. + +While all this activity was prevailing in France, Italy had as yet taken +so insignificant a part in the revival of Art, that in 976 Peter +Orseolo, Doge of Venice, having formed the idea of rebuilding the +basilica of St. Mark, was compelled to summon from Constantinople both +architects and artists. + +A period of check to any progress took place in France, however, just as +in all the rest of Europe, when, at the approach of the year 1000, the +whole population became subject to an ideal dread that the end of the +world was at hand; but when this date was once passed, every school of +art set vigorously to work, and the most remarkable monuments of +Romanesque architecture sprang up throughout Europe in every direction. + +Then it was that the artists of Burgundy built and ornamented, among +other churches and monasteries, the Abbey of Cluny, the apse of which +consisted of a bold cupola, supported by six columns thirty-six feet in +height, of + +[Illustration: Fig. 278.--Tomb of Dagobert, executed by order of St. +Louis, in the Abbey-Church of St. Denis. It represents the King carried +away by Demons, after his death, towards the Infernal Bark, from which +he is rescued by Angels and the Fathers of the Church. (Thirteenth +Century.)] + +Cipolin and Pentelican marble, with captials, cornices, and friezes, +carved painted, and decorated with bronze. In Lorraine they worked at +the cathedrals of Toul and Verdun, and the abbey of St. Viton. In the +diocese of Metz Gontran and Adélard, celebrated abbots of St. Trudon, +covered Hasbaye with new buildings. “Adélard,” says a chronicler, +“superintended the construction of fourteen churches, and his outlay was +so great that the imperial treasury would scarcely have sufficed for +it.” In Alsace, the cathedral at Strasbourg and the two churches of +Colmar and Schelestadt simultaneously arose, and in Switzerland the +Cathedral of Basle. These magnificent edifices are still standing to +show the vigour and majestic simplicity with which the art of sculpture +was then able to embody its ideas; and, by lending its aid to +architecture, to manifest, so to speak, the faith which actuated it. It +was in this century that Fulbert, Bishop of Chartres, who was doubtless +a sculptor also, superintended the restoration of his church, the +splendour of which is still open to the admiration of all. Art, too, did +not less distinguish herself in the decoration of certain additions made +at that time to edifices already existing. The doorways of the churches +of Laon, Châteaudun, and St. Ayoult of Provins, grand works of the +earliest years of the twelfth century, yield the palm only to the +splendid external ornamentation of the Abbey of St. Denis, executed +between the years 1137 and 1180. The Abbot Suger, who was himself an +eminent artist, does not name any of the sculptors to whose care this +important task was committed. We are equally ignorant as to the +sculptors of the statues of Dagobert and of Queen Nanthilde, his wife; +and also as to the artists of a large golden crucifix, the foot of which +was enriched with bas-reliefs, and the figure of Christ, that presented, +says Suger, “an expression really divine.” The names of the sculptors of +the cathedral church of Paris are likewise concealed from our +admiration. One might suppose that a body of artists fired with the same +inspiration, and with a common sentiment both in thought and action, had +there assembled to design their works; some sculpturing in marble the +sarcophagus of Philip of France; some peopling the rood-loft and the +apse with tall figures and a long gallery of Biblical subjects; others +decorating the façade and exterior with statues, all of every +diversified character, but yet all appearing to unite in the expression +of the same feelings and the same faith (Fig. 279). + +In the twelfth century, the Burgundian artists continued their +marvellous + +[Illustration: Fig. 279.--External Bas-relief of Norte-Dame, in Paris, +representing Citizens relieving Poor Scholars. (The work of Jean de +Chelles. Date 1257.)] + +work. The tomb of Hugues, Abbot of Cluny; the doorway of the monastery +of St. Jean, that of the Church of St. Lazare at Autun; the nave and the +west front of Semur-en-Auxois, are all of this school, and of this +epoch. + +The school of Champagne raised to the memory of Count Henry I., in the +Church of St. Etienne, at Troyes, a tomb surrounded with forty-four +columns of gilded bronze, surmounted by a slab of silver on which were +placed, in a recumbent position, the statues of the Count and of one of +his sons; bas-reliefs, in bronze and silver, representing the Holy +Family, the celestial court, angels, and prophets, surrounded this +monument. The tomb of Count Henry was a triumph of sculpture in metal; +and, at that time, surpassed all other tombs in France, just as the +Cathedral of Rheims was destined, ere long, to excel all others. + +In Normandy we find the same enthusiasm, the same zeal, the same skill +in Art; and there, at least, we learn the names of some of the artists: +Otho, the builder of the Cathedral of Séez; Garnier, of Fécamp; +Anquetil, of Petit-Ville, &c. The masons and sculptors, too, formed at +this epoch a numerous and powerful corporation. + +In the South, Asquilinus, Abbot of Moissac, near Cahors, ornamented with +fine statues the cloister and front of his church, and affixed to the +sides of the apse a Crucifixion so skilfully carved, that it was +believed to have emanated from some divine hand (“ut non humano, sed +divino artificio facta”). In Auvergne, Provence, and Languedoc, many +other important works of sculpture were executed. But the chief +masterpiece of all, which combines the different styles of the southern +schools, is the famous Church of St. Trophimus of Arles, the front of +which, where the breadth and grace of the Greek style is allied with the +purest Christian simplicity, carries back the imagination to the +brightest epochs of the art. + +Towards the end of the eleventh and the commencement of the twelfth +century, the sculptors’ studios of the districts of Messin and Lorraine +were in full activity. Several magnificent churches having been +destroyed by fire, particularly that of Verdun, the whole population +assisted, either with money or labour, in the restoration of these +edifices. It was a perfect artistic crusade, in which several bishops +and abbots, who were clever artists as well as spiritual chiefs, took +the lead in the movement. + +In Alsace, art asserted its position in the magnificent Cathedral of +Strasbourg,[48] a kind of challenge thrown out to the artists on the +other side of the Rhine, who were unable, even at Cologne, to carry an +edifice to such an + +[Illustration: CLOVIS I. AND CLOTILDE HIS WIFE. + +Statues formerly at the Entrance of the Church of Notre Dame at Corbeil. +Twelfth Century.] + +enormous height, or to adorn it with such a diversified multitude of +statues. Although belonging more especially to the thirteenth century, +it may be taken as the starting-point of the prodigious works executed +by an association of freemasons, who have marked with their hieroglyphic +signatures the stones of this edifice, as of all others executed by them +in the valley of the Rhine, from Dusseldorf to the Alps. + +We are, however, led to believe that Germany also did not fail to be +subject to the influence of this artistic school, for among contemporary +monuments are several in a style which manifestly testifies to the +effects of the neighbouring country of Alsace. + +Flemish art of that time is exemplified by the Church of St. Gudule at +Brussels, the style of which is especially rich with decorations +borrowed from churches on the banks of the Rhine, the Moselle, the +Sarre, and the Upper Meuse. + +If we include in one comprehensive glance French, German, and Flemish +sculptural works, we shall recognise in all, notwithstanding the +predominance of any particular school, one original and special type. +The characteristics of this are elongated faces with a calm, +contemplative, and penitent expression; stiffness of attitude, and a +kind of ecstatic immobility, rather than any glow of animation; +draperies with small narrow folds and close-fitting, as if wetted; +pearled fringes or ribbons, set off with gems (Fig. 280). We see statues +of lofty proportions reared up; representations of various personages +are multiplied on the tombs; Greek art is disappearing and its learned +theories are giving way before Christian sentiment; thought is obtaining +the mastery over mere form; symbolism makes its appearance and becomes a +science. + +[Illustration: Fig. 280.--Statue said to be of Clovis I., formerly in +the porch of St. Germain-des-Prés, Paris. (Twelfth Century.)] + +But let us turn our eyes towards Italy. Venice had scarcely raised her +lofty dome ere Pisa aspired to have one also. Many a Tuscan ship, +launched upon the sea for conquests of a new kind, brought from Greece +an infinity of monuments, statues, bas-reliefs, capitals, friezes, and +various fragments; and the Tuscan people, the best organised race in +Europe for fully appreciating all the beauty of form, were called upon +to draw their inspiration from the relics of ancient works of Art. The +enthusiasm became general. In 1016, Buschetto, regarded as the first +architect of his time, undertook the building of the Cathedral of Pisa, +where ancient fragments are still conspicuous amid the works of more +modern creation: a kind of holographic testament the benefit of which +the followers of the art of Phidias have thus handed down to posterity. +The pupils of Buschetto, accepting the impulse of his masterly hand and +reproducing his ideas, soon spread all over the peninsula, and the +cathedrals of Amalfi, Pistoia, Siena, and Lucca arose, the Byzantine +character of which differed from the Lombard style presented by the +Cathedral of Milan. One might almost have fancied that the bosom of the +earth brought forth statues which, as if by enchantment, peopled every +pedestal; and that from heaven descended the ray which animated them +with their sublime expression. The art of casting in bronze, hitherto +almost unknown in Italy, became naturalised there as much as the art of +carving in stone. + +While in the West the Arts were making such a spring, in the East they +had relapsed into the lowest stage of debasement, at the period when +Byzantium was simultaneously threatened by the Bulgarians and the +Crusaders; although for a time they had appeared to revive, owing to the +zeal of Basil the Macedonian, Constantine VIII., and some of their +successors. Eastern sculpture disappeared when the Latins sacked the +ancient capital of the first Christian emperor (1204). + +At the approach of the thirteenth century, which was destined to be the +great age of Christian architecture and sculpture, artists no longer +looked, as they had hitherto done, towards Byzantium, they depended on +themselves; and although some hesitation might still be felt, they found +all round them models they could imitate, traditions they could follow, +and masters to whom they could listen. Christian art had now an +independent existence, and the various schools asserted their styles in +a way which became every day more clear, more powerful, and more +original. + +“The style of the head of Christ at Amiens” (Fig. 281), says M. +Viollet-le-Duc, writing on this subject, “fully deserves the attention +of + +[Illustration: Fig. 281.--“The _Beau Dieu d’Amiens_;” a Statue of Christ +in the Front of the Cathedral of Amiens. (Thirteenth Century.)] + +sculptors. This carving is treated in the same way as the Greek heads +called Eginetic. There is the same simplicity of model, the same purity +of outline, the same style of execution, at once broad and delicate. It +well represents the features of Christ as a man: a blending of sweetness +with firmness, a gravity devoid of sadness.” + +This is not the place to assert any minute comparisons between different +manners and styles; even the bare enumeration of the many monuments to +which this fervent age gave birth might prove wearisome. We call it a +“fervent age,” and fully are we justified, for, at a time when a whole +world of artist-sculptors of ornaments and figures were devoting +themselves to the most delicate and marvellous works of sculpture (Fig. +282), none seemed desirous of displaying his own personal distinction. +We find, for instance, numerous sculptors setting aside all claim to +individual merit, and carrying this self-denial so far that, instead of +their own names, they inscribed that of the Virgin Mary on the carvings +of the churches which they had enriched with their finest works: “Hoc +panthema pia cælaverat ipsa Maria.” + +In Germany, Christian art became specially enthroned in Saxony; and +Dresden, which has been justly styled the German Athens, can date back +her architecto-sculptural adornments to the tenth century. On the banks +of the Rhine, at Cologne, Coblentz, and Mayence, we find again the +school of Saint-Gall, which, having been planted in 971, under the +auspices of Notker, Bishop of Laodicea, left its stamp, during a period +of two centuries, in a series of remarkable works. + +England, as early as the seventh century, had called to her aid some of +the French “masters in stone” and best workmen, and she subsequently +continued to do so for the building and ornamentation of her finest +religious edifices. William of Sens, a very skilful artist (_artifex +subtilissimus_), proceeded, in 1176, to rebuild Canterbury Cathedral. +Norman and French artists also restored the abbeys of Croyland and +Wearmouth, and York Cathedral, already enriched with Byzantine and +French sculpture. + +Spain and Portugal, the soil of which had long been the theatre of an +inveterate conflict between two races embracing two irreconcilable +religions, were destined to inherit from these very struggles the +creation of a singularly characteristic style of art. In adopting the +Byzantine style, the Moors had deprived it of its character of simple +earnestness, and made it to harmonise with the tendencies of their +refined sensualism. Even when Christian art was able to exercise an +undivided rule, it could not fail to be influenced by the buildings +erected by the Moors; and the fact that this alliance of architectural +and sculptural styles succeeded in producing masterpieces is well +attested by the cathedrals of Cuenca, Vittoria, and some portions of +those of Seville, Barcelona, and Lugo in Galicia. + +[Illustration: Fig. 282.--Statues in the South Porch of Bourges +Cathedral. (Twelfth Century.)] + +Sicily and the kingdom of Naples followed the movement made in other +countries of Europe; but here, again, was felt the influence of various +foreign importations. Some of them were of Greek origin, coming from +Byzantium; some northern, from Normandy, and perhaps also from Germany; +most, however, from Spain, and especially from the important school of +Aragon. + +“Nicolas of Pisa,” says Emeric David, “was born towards the end of the +twelfth century, in a town then peopled with Greek masters and the +pupils of those masters, and full of Greek monuments of every age; a +town which might be called altogether Greek. He had the good sense to +disdain the productions of his own time and to devote himself to the +more elevated contemplation of the _chefs-d’œuvre_ of ancient Greece. +This proof of undoubted discernment, and a high degree of taste on his +part, could not but lead to very marked progress. But a premature study +of the antique is not so sure a guide to the desired end as the +contemplation of nature, to which Guido of Siena, his contemporary, and +a little later Cimabue and Giotto, taught perhaps by his errors, +assiduously applied themselves.” There can, however, be no doubt that +the first development of Christian sculpture in Italy must +unquestionably be referred to Nicolas of Pisa. He had, nevertheless, +some rivals who were well worthy of competing with him. Among these were +Fuccio, sculptor of the magnificent tomb of the Queen of Cyprus, in the +Church of San Francesco at Florence; and also Marchione of Arezzo, who +in 1216 carved his name over the doorway of the church of that town. +Giovanni of Pisa, son of Nicolas, who sculptured many beautiful works at +Arezzo, Pistoia, and Florence, and even surpassed himself in the Campo +Santo at Pisa, perhaps the most remarkable monument in Christian Europe, +has been placed by some far below his father in rank as a sculptor, on +account of an accusation made against him of having abandoned the Greek +style. But this renunciation was, in fact, a real trait of genius, and +actually constitutes his glory; for, by neglecting form to some extent, +he was enabled to carry religious idealism and power of expression to +its very highest limits. We must, therefore, consider Giovanni and +Margaritone, pupils of Nicolas; Andrea Ugolino, pupil of Giovanni; +Agnolo and Agostino of Siena; and the celebrated Giotto, who was at once +architect, sculptor, and painter, as real regenerators of the art. +Indeed, we might call these great artists the creators of Christian +sculpture in Italy--that art in which simultaneously shone forth +seriousness of composition, grace and ease of attitude, simplicity of +imitation, elevation of sentiment; in short, all the great harmonies of +a style which seemed to breathe forth a hymn of love and faith. + +Thanks to the studios of Agnolo and Agostino, Siena, a small town which +calls to mind the ancient Sicyone, so weak in a political point of view +and yet so learned and polished, was for some time the rival of Pisa, up +to the period when Florence absorbed the artistic splendour of the two +cities. Florence, as the home of the Arts, became the centre of +radiation, whence artists took their flight over the whole of Italy, and +from Italy spread among all the nations of Europe. + +Towards the end of the thirteenth century, the churches of Florence, on +which the fraternities combined their efforts, and some of the civil +buildings of this rich and flourishing city, were filled with statues. +The foundation of the municipal palace in 1282, and that of the +cathedral in 1298, made these two wonderful edifices real museums of +sculpture, in which, among the works of Eastern artists, those of +Giovanni of Arezzo and Giotto are distinguished. Agostino and Agnolo of +Pisa executed at that time some magnificent examples at Santa Maria in +Orvieto, San Francisco in Bologna, and in the subterranean Church of +Assisi, &c. Lastly, Andrea of Pisa, a contemporary of Giotto, as he died +only in 1345, extracted from antiquity all that Christian sculpture +could borrow from it; that is, he combined sublimity both of form and +expression. At Pisa, the chancel of Santa Maria a Ponte; at Florence, +the campanile and the high-altar of Santa Maria de’ Fiori, and a door of +San Giovanni; in the Cathedral of Pistoia, the tomb of Cino, are all of +them so many masterpieces; above which, however, the old Pisan master +proudly classed the works of his son Nino. This young artist, who carved +the monument of the Scaligers at Verona, became, in fact, the worthy +follower of the school which recognised Andrea as its chief. Jacopo +della Quercia and Niccolo Aretino enriched also with magnificent works +the towns of Siena, Lucca, Bologna, Arezzo, and Milan, as well as +Florence. But when, in 1424, the tomb closed over Jacopo della Quercia, +the lofty destinies of the art seemed to come to a termination, and soon +rapidly declined. In Venice, at the death of Filippo Calendario, which +occurred in 1355, Italian sculpture had already lost much of its +nobility and vigour of style. + +Italian sculpture (Fig. 283), as remarked by Emeric David, raised +itself to the height of the sublime by merely striving after a simple +and exact imitation of nature. It was by the same course of action that +French sculpture always emulated its Transalpine rival; but, in order to +attain the same end, the imitation followed a different path. In Italy, +Art raised itself to the ideal by an attentive study of Greek forms; +while on this side of the Alps, when sentiment required it, form was, if +not sacrificed, at least neglected. French art showed more respect for +the orthodoxy of Christian thought; she did not introduce into the +sanctuary of the Holy of Holies any of those profane and material ideas +that might have been inspired by the marbles of Greece. In spite of the +pointed architecture which everywhere prevailed, French sculpture, +replete with a certain eloquent unction, preserved for a considerable +period the Byzantine style in the appearance of the head and in the +delicacy of draperies; without, however, altogether renouncing its +individuality of character, and without ceasing to seek for models +peculiar to its own soil. + +[Illustration: Fig. 283.--Bas-relief on one of the Bronze Gates of St. +Peter’s at Rome, representing the Coronation of the Emperor Sigismund by +Pope Eugène IV., in 1433. (Sculpture of the Fifteenth Century.)] + +[Illustration: Fig. 284.--Statuette of St. Avit, in the Church of +Notre-Dame de Corbeil, demolished in 1820. + +(Eleventh Century.)] + +Unfortunately for the personal glory of the French sculptors, the +historians of the time have scarcely taken the trouble to record their +names. In order to discover but a few of them, learned men of modern +days have been compelled to undertake laborious researches; while many, +and those the most remarkable--worthy, no doubt, to be compared with the +greatest Italian artists--are and must remain ever unknown (Fig. 284). +The Italians were more fortunate; to them Vasari, their rival and +contemporary, has raised a lasting monument. In French art, the list of +the sculptors of so many masterpieces must come to a close when we have +mentioned Enguerrand, who, from 1201 to 1212, commenced the Cathedral +and the Church du Buc, at Rouen, and had for his successor Gautier de +Meulan; Robert de Coucy, chief of the body of artists who, in 1211, +caused the Cathedral of Rheims to rise loftily from the earth; Hugues +Libergier, who rebuilt the ancient basilica of St. Jovin; Robert de +Luzarches, the founder, in 1220, of the Cathedral of Amiens, continued +after his death by Thomas de Cormont and his son Regnault; Jean, Abbot +of St. Germain-des-Prés, who in 1212 undertook the Church of St. Cosme, +Paris; that of St. Julien le Pauvre being restored and adorned with +sculpture at the same date, from the designs of the abbot and the +“brethren” of Longpont (Fig. 285); Jean des Champs, who in 1248 worked +at the ancient Cathedral of Clermont; lastly, the two Jeans de +Montereau, who at one time as military architects, at another as +sculptors of sacred subjects, were at the command of St. Louis, and +produced some extraordinary works both of construction and sculpture. + +Alsace manifested no less enthusiasm than France for the new +architectural system, and sculpture was also subject to a similar +development. From Basle to Mayence, the slopes of the Vosges and the +long valley of the Rhine, became full of edifices enriched with +sculpture and peopled with statues. Erwin of Steinbach (who died in +1318), assisted by Sabina, his daughter, and William of Marbourg, were +the most renowned masters in these parts. + +[Illustration: Fig. 285.--Bas-relief formerly over the Doorway of St. +Julien le Pauvre, Paris, representing St. Julien and St. Basilissa, his +wife, conveying in their boat Jesus Christ under the figure of a Leper. + +(Thirteenth Century.)] + +The extraordinary advance that French sculpture made in this age was +assisted--if not as regards the higher style of work, which could do +without this help, at least in respect to the minor details of the +art--by the institution of the fraternities of the _Conception +Notre-Dame_. In many towns the sculptors of images and the painters, the +moulders, the _bahutiers_, or carvers in wood, horn, and ivory (Fig. +286), were all united under the same banner. In Germany and Belgium also +existed _hanses_, or guilds, which were in direct communication with +those of Alsace, and who accepted as guides French artists of known +ability; as, for instance, Volbert and Gérard, architect-sculptors, who +were simultaneously engaged in the construction of the Church of the +Holy Apostles, Cologne. + +[Illustration: Fig. 286.--Fragment of a small Reredos, in carved Bone +(Fourteenth Century). + +Presented by Jean, Duc de Berry, Brother of Charles V., to the church of +the ancient Abbey of Poissy. + +(Museum of the Louvre.)] + +With respect to the works commenced or finished in the fourteenth +century, the only difficulty is to make a choice among these wonderful +monuments of Art; which, however, must be looked upon as the last +manifestations of Christian art, properly so-called. We must, however, +point out the polychrome sculptures of Chartres, of St. Remy, Rheims; +St. Martin, Laon; St. Yved, Braisne; St. Jean des Vignes, Soissons; of +the Chartreux, Dijon. In this ducal city we find, in 1357, Guy le Maçon, +a celebrated + +[Illustration: Fig. 287.--“Le Bon Dieu,” in the old Chapel of the +Charnier des Innocents, Paris. + +(Fifteenth Century.)] + +sculptor; at Bourges, about the same date, Aguillon, of Droues; at +Montpellier, between 1331 and 1360, the two Alamans, John and Henry; at +Troyes, Denisot and Drouin of Mantes, &c. Beyond France, Matthias of +Arras, in 1343, laid the foundations of the Cathedral of Prague, which +was to be continued and finished by another French artist, Pierre of +Boulogne. Arrested as our attention must be by the statues and +bas-reliefs which were multiplied under the porches, in the niches (Fig. +287), and on all the tombs, we can cast but a very cursory glance on the +immense number of wood-carvings, figures in ivory, and movable pieces of +sculpture, executed by artists who may be divided into two very +distinct classes, the Norman and the Rhenish; all of other schools +appear to have been nothing but imitators of these. + +In 1400 the _Maître_ Pierre Pérat, architect of three cathedrals, who +was at once both civil engineer and sculptor, and one of the greatest +masters of whom France can boast, died at Metz, where he was interred +with all the honours due to his wonderful talents. Just at the same time +a memorable competition was opened at Florence. The object in view was +to finish the doors of the Baptistery of St. John. The formal +announcement of the competition, which was made all over Italy, did not +fail to call forth the most skilful artists. Seven of these were +selected, on account of their renown, to furnish designs: they consisted +of three Florentines--Filippo Brunelleschi, Donatello, and the +goldsmith, Lorenzo Ghiberti; Jacopo della Quercia of Siena; Nicolo +Lamberti d’Arezzo; Francesco da Valdambrina; and Simone da Colle, called +_de’ Bronzi_. To each of these competitors the republic granted one +year’s salary, on condition that, at the end of the period, each of them +should furnish a panel of wrought bronze of the same size as those of +which the doors of St. John were to be composed. On the day fixed for +the examination of the works, the most celebrated artists of Italy were +summoned. Thirty-four judges were selected, and before this tribunal the +seven models were exhibited, in the presence of the magistracy and the +public. After the judges had audibly discussed the respective merits of +the works, those of Ghiberti, Brunelleschi, and Donatello were +preferred. But to whom of the three was the palm to be awarded? They +hesitated. Then Brunelleschi and Donatello retired apart and exchanged a +few words; after which one of them, commencing to address the assembly, +said:--“Magistrates and citizens, we declare to you that in our own +judgment Ghiberti has surpassed us. Award him the preference, for our +country will thus acquire the greater glory. It is less discredit to us +to make known our opinion than to keep silence.” + +These doors, at which Ghiberti worked for forty years, with the +assistance of his father, his sons, and his pupils, are perhaps the +finest work we have in sculptured metal. + +At the date when Lorenzo Ghiberti, Donatello, Brunelleschi, and their +pupils were the representatives of Florentine sculpture, the French +school also produced its masters and its works of Art. Nicholas Flamel, +the famous + +[Illustration: Fig. 288.--“St. Eloi, Patron of Goldsmiths and Farriers.” +A Sculpture of the Fifteenth Century, in the Church of Notre-Dame +d’Armançon, at Semur, Burgundy.] + +writer (_écrivain_) of the parish of St. Jacques la Boucherie, +ornamented the churches and mortuary chapels of Paris with mystical and +alchemical (_alchimiques_) sculptures, of which he was the designer if +not the actual artist. Thury executed the tombs of Charles VI. and +Isabelle of Bavaria; Claux Sluter, author of the “Ruits de Moïse,” at +Dijon, assisted by James de la Barre, multiplied the works of monumental +sculpture in Burgundy (Fig. 288). In Alsace, under the impulse of King +René, himself an artist, the sculptor’s art produced examples bearing +the impress of a remarkable individuality. In the district of Messin, +Henry de Ranconval, his son Jehan, and Clausse, were distinguished. In +Touraine, Michael Columb executed the tomb of Francis II., Duke of +Brittany; Jehan Juste, that of the children of Charles VIII., as +introductory to the mausoleum of Louis XII., which he executed between +1518 and 1530, for the basilica of St. Denis; a German, Conrad of +Cologne, assisted by Laurent Wrine, master of the ordnance to the king, +cast in metal the effigy for the tomb of Louis XI. In Champagne appeared +Jean de Vitry, sculptor of the stalls of the Church of St. Claude +(Jura); in Berry, Jacquet Gendre, _master-mason_ and _figure-maker_ for +the Hôtel de Ville, Bourges, &c. + +At the end of the same century, Peter Brucy, of Brussels, exercised his +art at Toulouse; the inspiration of the Alsacian artists was developed +in the magnificent sculpture of Thann, Kaisersberg, and Dusenbach; while +Germany, achieving but a late independence, sheltered the faults of her +early genius under the illustrious names of Lucas Moser, Peter Vischer, +Schühlein, Michel Wohlgemuth, Albert Dürer (Fig. 289), &c. + +In sculptural works, as in every other branch of art, historical +sentiment and faith seemed to die out with the fifteenth century. +Mediæval art was subjected to protest; the desire seemed to be to +re-create beauty of form by going back to the antique; but the +emphatically Christian individuality was no longer reached, and this +pretended _renaissance_, in which even earnest minds were induced to +gratify themselves, only served to exhibit the feeble efforts of an +epoch that sought to reproduce the glories of a vanished age. In the +time of Charles VIII. and Louis XII., Lombarde-Venetian art, the +affected and ingenious imitation of the Greek style, was introduced into +France; it suited the common people, and pleased mediocre intellect. The +sculptors who came at that period to seek their fortunes at the court of +the French kings worked exclusively for the aristocracy, and vied with +one another in adorning, with an ardent infatuation for Italian art, the +royal and aristocratic palaces which were being built or restored in +every direction, such as the Châteaux of Amboise and Gaillon. But they +failed to do any injury to French artists, who still remained charged +with the works of sacred sculptures; and their style became but +slightly, if at all, influenced by this foreign immigration. Even +Benvenuto Cellini himself failed to exercise much effect on the vigorous +schools of Tours, Troyes, Metz, Dijon, and Angers; his reputation and +his works never passed, so to speak, beyond the limits of the court of +France, and the brilliant traces they + +[Illustration: Fig. 289.--“St. John the Baptist preaching in the +Desert.” Bas-relief in Carved Wood by Albert Dürer. + +(Brunswick Gallery.)] + +left behind them were confined to the school of Fontainebleau. Ere long, +some zealous artists from all the principal centres of the French +schools left their country and betook themselves to Italy; among these +were Bachelier of Languedoc, Simon and Ligier Richier of Lorraine, +Valentine Bousch of Alsace, and Jacques of Angoulême, who had the honour +of a victory over his master, Michael Angelo, in a competition of +statuary (many of the former artist’s works now exist in the Vatican); +Jean de Boulogne, and several others. Some of them, after they had +become celebrated on the other side of the Alps, returned to their +native country, bringing back to it their own native genius matured by +the lessons of the Italians. There was, therefore, always a French +school that preserved its individual characteristics, its generic good +qualities and defects, which are so well represented in the sculptures +of the Hôtel du Bourgtheroulde, Rouen (Fig. 290). + +[Illustration: Fig. 290.--Bas-relief of the Hôtel du Bourgtheroulde, +Rouen, representing a Scene in the Interview between Francis I. and +Henry VIII., on the Field of the Cloth of Gold.] + +Michael Angelo was born on the 6th of March, 1475, and died on the 17th +of February, 1564, without having shown any signs of decadence; greater, +possibly, by his genius than by his works, he is the personification of +the Renaissance. It would be, perhaps, irreverent to say that this age +was an age of decay; we might fear of desecrating the tomb of Buonarotti +if we laid to his charge that his grand boldness led ordinary talents +astray; and it is not a pleasant subject of thought that, influenced by +two currents of ideas--one coming from Italy, the other from +Germany--the art of the century operated to its own suicide. When the +very soil itself seemed to be shaken, and the Christian pedestal which +had formed both its grandeur and power overturned, what could be done +in the way of opposition to the downfall of Art by Jean Goujon, Jean +Cousin (Fig. 291), Germain Pilon, François Marchand, Pierre Bontemps, +those stars of French sculpture in the sixteenth century? + +[Illustration: Fig. 291.--Statue in Alabaster of Philip Chabot, Admiral +of France, by Jean Cousin. Formerly in the Church of the Célestins, +Paris, now in the Museum of the Louvre.] + +A final manifestation of the old religious feeling was, however, +apparent in the tombs of the Church of Brou, designed by Jean Perréal, +the great painter of Lyons, executed by Conrad Meyt, and carved by +Gourat and Michael Columb; also in the mausoleum of Francis II., carved +by Columb and his family; in the sepulchre of St. Mihiel (Fig. 292) by +Richier; of the _Saints de Solesme_, in the tombs of Langey du Bellay, +and of the Chancellor De Birague, by Germain Pilon, &c. But fashion and +the prevailing taste now required from artists nothing but profane and +voluptuous compositions, and they adopted this line of Art all the more +readily, seeing, as they did every day, most beautiful works of +Christian sculpture mutilated by a new tribe of Iconoclasts, the +Huguenots, who seldom showed mercy to the figured monuments in Catholic +churches. The stalls of the Cathedral of Amiens, by Jean Rupin, the +rood-loft by Jean Boudin, and a number of other works of the same kind, +testify to the irruption of the Greek style, its implantation in +religious art, and its hybrid association with pointed architecture. It +is, however, only due to our sculptors of the sixteenth century to say, +that when they sacrificed themselves to the requirements of their age +in imitating the masterpieces of Italy, they approached the natural +grace of Raphael much closer than + +[Illustration: Fig. 292.--“The Entombment,” by Richier, in the Church of +St. Mihiel (Meuse). (Sixteenth Century.)] + +Cellini, Primaticcio, or any of the other Italian artists who were +settled in France; that they combined in the best possible way the +mythological expression of the ancients with our modern ideas, and +that, thanks to them, France is enabled to point with pride to a natural +art, original and independent, which has been handed down to our days in +direct succession by Sarrazain, Puget, Girardon, and Coysevox. + +[Illustration: Figs. 293, 294.--Gargoyles on the Palace of Justice, +Rouen. (Fifteenth Century.)] + + + + +ARCHITECTURE. + + The Basilica the first Christian Church.--Modification of Ancient + Architecture.--Byzantine Style.--Formation of the Norman + Style.--Principal Norman Churches.--Age of the Transition from + Norman to Gothic.--Origin and Importance of the _Ogive_.--Principal + Edifices in the pure Gothic Style.--The Gothic Church, an Emblem of + the Religious Spirit in the Middle Ages.--Florid + Gothic.--Flamboyant Gothic.--Decadency.--Civil and Military + Architecture: Castles, Fortified Enclosures, Private Houses, Town + Halls.--Italian Renaissance: Pisa, Florence, Rome.--French + Renaissance: Mansions and Palaces. + + +When the Christian family, humble and persecuted, was beginning to form +itself into congregations; when it was forbidden to consecrate any +special edifice to the performance of the services of its religion--a +religion which opposed to the gorgeous ceremonies of polytheism the most +austere simplicity--any refuge might have seemed good enough which +offered to the faithful the means of assembling themselves together in +security; any retreat must have appeared sufficiently ornamented which +would recall to the disciples of the crucified Saviour the mournful +events preceding the glorification of that Divine sacrifice. But when +the religion proscribed one day found itself on the next the religion of +the State, things changed. + +Constantine, in the mighty ardour of his zeal, wished to see the worship +of the true God efface in pomp and in magnificence all the solemnities +of the heathen world. In expelling the idols from their temples, the +idea could not have suggested itself of using these buildings for the +new religion, because they were generally of excessively limited +dimensions, and the plan on which they were built would have but +indifferently answered the requirements of the Christian ceremonial. +What was necessary for these services was principally a spacious nave, +in which a large congregation could assemble to hear the same word, to +join in the same prayer, and to intone the same chants. The Christians +sought, therefore, among the edifices then in existence (Fig. 295), for +such as would best answer these purposes. The _basilicas_ presented +themselves; these buildings served at once as law-courts and places of +assembly for tradesmen and money-changers, and were generally composed +of one immense hall, with lateral galleries and tribunes adjoining it. +The name of _basilica_, derived from the Greek word _basileus_ (a king), +was given them, according to some writers, from the fact that formerly +the kings themselves used to administer justice within their walls; +according to others, because the basilica of Athens served as a tribunal +of the second archon, who bore the title of king; whence the edifice was +called _stoa basiliké_ (royal porch), a designation of which the Romans +preserved only the adjective, the substantive being understood. + +[Illustration: Fig. 295.--Basilica of Constantine, at Trèves, +transformed into a Fortress in the Middle Ages.] + +“The Christian basilica,” says M. Vaudoyer, in his learned treatise on +architecture in France, “was most certainly an imitation of the heathen +basilica; but it is of importance to observe that from one cause or +another the Christians, in the construction of their basilicas, very +soon substituted for the Grecian architecture of the ancient basilicas a +system of arches reposing directly on isolated columns, which served as +their supports; a perfectly new contrivance, of which there existed no +previous example. This new mode of construction, which has generally +been attributed to the want of skill in the builders of this period, or +to the nature of the materials they had at their disposal, was, however, +to become the fundamental principle of Christian art; a principle +characterised by the breaking up of the range of arches, and by the +abandonment of the system of rectilinear construction of the Greeks and +Romans. + +“Indeed, the arcade, which had become the dominant element of Roman +architecture, had nevertheless remained subject to the proportions of +the Greek orders, of which the entablature served as an indispensable +accompaniment; and from this medley of elements so diverse was produced +the mixed style which characterises the Greco-Roman architecture. But +the Christians, in separating or breaking up the arcade, in abandoning +the use of the ancient orders, and in making the column the real support +of the arch, laid the foundations of a new style, which led to the +exclusive employment of arches and vaults in Christian edifices. The +Church of St. Sophia at Constantinople, built by Justinian in the middle +of the sixth century, affords the most ancient example of this system of +construction by arches and vaults in a Christian church of large +dimensions.” + +Transported to the East, the Latin style there assumed a new character, +owing especially to the adoption and generalisation of the cupola, of +which there were some examples in Roman architecture, but only as an +accessory; whereas, in what is called Byzantine architecture, this form +became dominant, and, as it were, fundamental; thus, at all periods and +at each time that the architectural influence of the East made itself +felt in the West, we see the cupola introduced into buildings. The +Church of St. Vital at Ravenna affords, in its plan (Fig. 296) and in +its general appearance, an example of this influence, which is quite +Byzantine. + +Edifices of Latin architecture, properly so called, are rare, we might +almost say that they have all disappeared (Figs. 297 and 298); but if +some churches in Rome, whose foundation dates back to the fifth and +sixth centuries, can be considered as specimens of this first period of +Christian art, it is in the arrangement of the plan much more than in +the details of execution, which for a long subsequent time since have +been united with the work of later periods. + +In the days when Christianity was so triumphantly established as to have +no fear nor scruple to utilise, in the construction of its churches, the +ruins + +[Illustration: Fig. 296.--Church of St. Vital, at Ravenna. Byzantine +style. (Sixth Century.)] + +of the ancient temples, it generally happened that the architect, +conforming himself to new requirements, endeavoured, by a prudent return +towards the traditions of the past, to avoid those striking +incongruities which would have deprived of all their value the +magnificent materials he had at his disposal. Hence arose a style still +undecided; hence mixed creations, which it will suffice merely to +mention. Then we must not forget--to say nothing of the case in which, +as in the old Roman city, Christian basilicas might be built with the +marble of heathen sanctuaries--the monuments of this same Rome were +still the only models that presented themselves for imitation. Finally, +for this architecture which the Christian religion was to create as its +own, it was obvious there would be an infancy, an age of groping in the +dark and of uncertainty; and at length that there should be a separation +from the past, and a gradually experienced feeling of individual +strength. (Fig. 299.) + +This infancy lasted about five or six centuries; for it was only about +the year 1000 that the new style--which we see at first made up of +“recollections” and weak innovations--assumed an almost determinate +form. This is the period called Norman,[49] which, according to M. +Vaudoyer, has left us some monuments that are “the noblest, the +simplest, and the severest expression of the Christian temple.” + +[Illustration: Fig. 297.--The Church of St. Agnes, at Rome, Latin style +(Fifth Century). Restored and debased in the Seventeenth Century.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 298.--The Church of St. Martin, at Tours (Sixth +Century). Rebuilt or restored in the Eleventh Century.] + +“Three years after the year 1000, which was supposed was to be the last +year of the world,” says the monk Raoul Glaber, “churches were renewed +in nearly every part of the universe, especially in Italy and in Gaul, +although the greater number were still in a condition good enough to +require + +[Illustration: Fig. 299.--Remains of the Church of Mouen, in Normandy. +Architecture of the Fifth or Sixth Century.] + +no repairs.” “It was to this period, that is to say, the eleventh +century,” adds M. Vaudoyer, “must be assigned the greater number of the +ancient churches of France, grander and more magnificent than all those +of preceding centuries; it was then, also, the first associations of +builders were formed, whereof the abbots and the prelates themselves +formed a portion, and which were essentially composed of men bound by a +religious vow; the Arts were cultivated in the convents, the churches +were built under the direction of bishops; the monks co-operated in +works of all kinds.... The plan of the Western churches preserved the +primitive arrangement of the Latin basilica--that is, the elongated form +and the lateral galleries; the most important modifications were the +lengthening of the choir and of the galleries, or of the cross, a free +passage established round the apse (Fig. 300); and, lastly, the +combination of chapels, which grouped themselves around the sanctuary. +In the construction the isolated columns of the nave are sometimes +replaced by pillars, the spaces between which are filled up with +semicircular arches, + +[Illustration: Fig. 300.--Notre-Dame, Rouen, ogival style. (Thirteenth +Century.)] + +and a general system of vaulted roofs is substituted for the ceilings +and timber roofs of the ancient Latin basilicas.... The use of bells, +which was but sparingly adopted in the East, contributed to give to the +churches of the West a character and an appearance quite their own, and +which they owe particularly to those lofty towers that had become the +essential part of their façade.” + +The façade itself is generally of great simplicity. We enter the edifice +by one of three doors, above which runs, in most cases, a little gallery +formed of very small columns close to each other, supporting a range of +arcades; and these arcades are often ornamented with statues, as we find +in the church of Notre-Dame at Poitiers, which--together with the +churches of Notre-Dame des Doms, at Avignon; of St. Paul, at Issoire; of +St. Sernin, at Toulouse; of Notre-Dame du Port, at Clermont, &c.--may be +considered as one of the most complete specimens of Norman architecture. + +In churches of this style, as for instance those of St. Front, at +Périgueux; of Notre-Dame, at Puy en Velay; of St. Etienne, at Nevers, +are seen also some cupolas; but we must not forget that the Byzantine +architects, whose migrations towards the West were constantly taking +place at this period, could not fail to leave traces of their +wanderings, and we must acknowledge that, especially in our own country +(France), where Oriental influence was never more than partial, the +union of the two architectonic principles produced the happiest results. +The Cathedral of Angoulême, for example, is justly regarded as one of +the edifices in which Oriental taste harmonises the best with the Norman +style. + +At the beginning of this period, the bell-towers were of very little +importance; but gradually we find them rising higher and higher, and +attaining to great elevations. Some cathedrals on the borders of the +Rhine, and the Church of St. Etienne at Caen, are examples of the +extraordinary height to which these towers were built. In principle, we +may add, there was only one bell-tower (Fig. 301); but it generally +happened that two were given to churches built or restored after the +year 1000: St. Germain-des-Prés had three bell-towers--one over the +portal, and one at each side of the transept; certain churches had four +and even five bell-towers. + +Norman bell-towers are generally square, exhibiting, in stories, two or +three ranges of round-arched arcades, and terminating in a pyramidal +roof resting on an octagonal base. The Abbey of St. Germain d’Auxerre +possesses one of the most remarkable bell-towers of the Norman style; +then come, although built subsequently to the principal edifice, those +of the Abbaye aux Hommes, at Caen. + +[Illustration: Fig. 301.--Ancient Church of St. Paul-des-Champs, at +Paris, founded, in the Seventh Century, by St. Eloi. Restored and in +part rebuilt in the Thirteenth Century.] + +The sun’s rays penetrated into the Norman church first through the +_oculus_,[50] a vast round opening intended to admit light into the +nave, and situated above the façade, which generally rose in the form of +a gable above one or several rows of small columns on the exterior. A +series of lateral windows opened on the side-aisles of the edifice; +another was pierced on a level with the galleries; and a third between +the vaulted arches of the nave. + +The crypt, a sort of subterranean sanctuary, which generally contained +the tomb of some beatified saint, or of some martyr to whom the edifice +was dedicated, formed very often an integral part of the Norman church. +The architecture of the crypt, which had for its ideal object to recall +to the mind the period when the offices of the Christian religion were +performed in caverns and in catacombs, was generally of a massive and +imposing severity, well suited to express the sentiment which must have +presided over the earliest Christian buildings. + +The Norman style, that is to say, the primitive idea of Christian +architecture, freed from its remaining servility to the antique, seems +to have caught a glimpse of the definitive formula of Christian art. +Many a majestic monument already attested the austere power of this +style; and perhaps a final and masterly inspiration would have sufficed, +perfection being attained, to cause the researches of the _maîtres +d’œuvre_,[51] made as they felt their way forward, to cease of +themselves. Already, too, as a sign of maturity, Norman edifices, +instead of remaining in the somewhat too unadorned simplicity of the +first period, became gradually ornamented, till in time they resembled, +from their base to the summit, a delicate work of embroidery. It is to +this florid Norman style, which in France reigns especially to the south +of the Loire, that the charming façade of the Church of Notre-Dame de +Poitiers (Fig. 302) belongs, which we have already cited as a perfect +type of the Norman style itself; the façade of St. Trophimus, at Aries +(Figs. 303 and 304), an example in the general arrangement of which the +same character of original unity does not prevail; and that of the +Church of St. Gilles, which M. Mérimée cites as the most elegant +expression of the florid Norman. + +In short, let us repeat it, the Norman style, grandiose in its +austerity, still quiet and compact even in its richest phantasy, was on +the eve of _individualising_ for ever, perhaps, Christian architecture; +its rounded arches, uniting their full soft curves to the simple +profiles of columns, robust even in their lightness, seemed to +characterise at one and the same time the + +[Illustration: Fig. 302.--Notre-Dame la Grande of Poitiers (Twelfth +Century).] + +elevated calm of hope and the humble gravity of faith. But lo! the +_ogive_ sprang up; not, indeed, as certain authors have thought they +were right in affirming, from an outburst of spontaneous invention, for +we find the principle and the application of it not only in many +edifices of the Norman period, but even in the architectural +contrivances of the most remote times. And it happened that this simple +breaking up of the round arch, this “sharpness” of the arch, if we may +use the expression, which the Norman builders had skilfully utilised, +giving more of slenderness or graceful strength to vaults of great +extent, became the fundamental element of a style which, in less than a +century, was to shut the future to a tradition dating from six or eight +centuries, and which could with justice pride itself on the most +beautiful architectural conceptions. (Fig. 305.) + +[Illustration: Fig. 303.--Tympanum of the Portal of St. Trophimus, at +Arles (Twelfth Century).] + +From the twelfth to the thirteenth century the transition took place. +The Norman style, which is distinguished by its round arch, maintained +the struggle with the Gothic style, of which the ogive is the original +mark. In the churches of this period we find also, with regard to the +ground-plan of edifices, the choir assuming larger dimensions, +necessitated no doubt by increased ceremonials in the services. The +Latin cross, which was the ground-plan whereon up to this time the +greater number of sanctuaries were built, ceased to indicate as +precisely as heretofore its outlines; the nave was raised considerably +in height, the lateral chapels were multiplied, and often broke the +perspective of the side-aisles; bell-towers assumed greater importance, +and the placing of immense organs above the principal entrance gave rise +to a new system of elevated galleries in this part of the building. + +[Illustration: Fig. 304.--Details of the Portal of St. Trophimus, at +Arles. (Twelfth Century.)] + +The churches of St. Remy, Rheims; of the Abbey of St. Denis; of St. +Nicholas, Blois; the Abbey of Jumiéges; and the Cathedral of +Châlons-sur-Marne, are the principal examples of the architecture of the +mixed style. + +[Illustration: Fig. 305.--Cloister of the Abbey of Moissac, Guyenne. +(Twelfth Century.)] + +It should be remarked that for a long while, in the north of France, the +pointed arch had prevailed almost entirely over the round arch, at the +time when, in the south, Norman tradition, blended with the Byzantine, +still continued to inspire the builders. Nevertheless, the demarcation +cannot be rigorously established, for, at the time when edifices of the +purest Norman style showed themselves in our (French) northern counties +(as, for example, the Church of St. Germain-des-Prés, and the apse of + +[Illustration: DECORATION OF LA SAINTE CHAPELLE, PARIS. + +Thirteenth Century.] + +St. Martin-des-Champs, Paris), we find, at Toulouse, at Carcassonne, at +Montpellier, the most remarkable specimens of the Gothic style. At last +Gothic architecture gained the day. “Its principle,” says M. Vitet, “is +in emancipation, in liberty, in the spirit of association and commerce, +in sentiments quite indigenous and quite national: it is homely, and +more than that, it is French, English, Teutonic, &c. Norman +architecture, on the contrary, is sacerdotal.” + +And M. Vaudoyer adds: “The rounded arch is the determinate and +invariable form; the pointed arch is the free and indefinite form which +lends itself to unlimited modifications. If, then, the Pointed style has +no longer the austerity of the Norman, it is because it belongs to that +second phase of all civilisation, in which elegance and richness replace +the strength and the severity of primordial types.” + +It was, moreover, at this period that architecture, like all the other +arts, left the monasteries to pass into the hands of lay architects +organised into confraternities, who travelled from place to place, and +thus transmitted the traditional types; the result of this was that +buildings raised at very great distances from each other presented a +striking analogy, and often even a complete similitude to each other. + +There has been much discussion not only on the origin of the pointed +arch, but also as to the beauty and excellence of its form. According to +some it was suggested by the sight of many arches interlaced, and only +constituted one of those fantastical forms which an art in quest of +novelty adopts; others, among whom is M. Vaudoyer, attribute to it the +most remote origin, by making it result quite naturally in the first +attempts at building in stone,--“from a succession of courses of stone +so arranged that each overhung the other;” or else in wooden +constructions, “from the greater facility there was in forming with +beams a pointed rather than a perfectly rounded arch;” others consider +the adoption of the Pointed style, as we said above, as nothing but a +proof of the religious independence succeeding the rigid faith of +earlier days. A third opinion, again, is that of M. Michiels, who looks +on the Pointed style as in some sort an inevitable result of the +boldness of the Norman, and who considers the Gothic, of which it is the +characteristic, as “expressing the spirit of a period when religious +feeling had attained its most perfect maturity, and Catholic +civilisation produced its sweetest and most agreeable fruits.” + +[Illustration: Fig. 306.--Mayence Cathedral. Rhenish Norman. (Twelfth +and Thirteenth Centuries).] + +Whatever may be the merits of these different opinions, into the +discussion of which we need not enter, it is now generally assumed that +the Pointed style, properly so called, sprang up first within the limits +of the ancient Ile-de-France, whence it propagated itself by degrees +towards the southern and eastern provinces. + +M. Michiels, agreeing on this point with the celebrated architect +Lassus, points out that it would be as difficult to attribute the +creation of this style to Germany as to Spain. It was in the thirteenth +century that the finest Gothic buildings appeared in France; while in +Germany, except the churches built, as it were, on the French frontier, +we find nothing at that period but Norman churches (Fig. 306); and it is +reasonable to suppose that, if we owed the general adoption of the +pointed arch to Spain, the introduction of it would have been gradually +made through that part of the country situated beyond the Loire, where, +however, the Norman style continued to be in great favour when it was +almost entirely abandoned in the north of France. + +A century sufficed to bring the Pointed style to its highest perfection. +Notre-Dame (Fig. 307) and the Sainte-Chapelle, in Paris; Notre-Dame, +Chartres; the cathedrals of Amiens (Fig. 308), Sens, Bourges, Coutances, +in France; those of Strasbourg, Fribourg, Altenberg, and Cologne, in +Germany, the dates of whose construction succeed each other at intervals +from the first half of the twelfth to the middle of the thirteenth +century, are so many admirable specimens or types of this art, which we +may here call relatively new. + +To know to what marvellous variety of combinations and effects, by +merely modifying it in height and breadth from its original type, this +pointed arch, which, taken by itself, might appear the simplest of +forms, can attain, one must have passed some time in dividing into the +different parts of which it is composed, by an accurate examination of +its _tout ensemble_, such an edifice as Notre-Dame, Paris, or as the +Cathedral of Strasbourg; the first of which attracts attention by the +sustained boldness of its lines, strong as they are graceful; the +second, by its perfectly bold independence, seeming, as it does, to +taper away as by enchantment, in order to bear to a surprising height +the evidence of its incomprehensible temerity. + +We must rise in thought above the edifice to grasp the plan of its first +conception; we must, from below, study it on all sides to perceive + +[Illustration: Fig. 307.--Notre-Dame, Paris (Twelfth and Thirteenth +Centuries). + +View of the principal Façade before the restoration executed by Messrs. +Lassus and Viollet-le-Duc.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 308.--Interior of Amiens Cathedral. (Thirteenth +Century.)] + +with what art its various parts are arranged, grouped, placed at certain +intervals from each other; we must seek to discover the contrivance by +virtue of which the immense _évidage_ (sloping) of numerous buttresses, +the height of the towers, the retiring of the laterals, and the curve of +the apse are harmonised; we must enter the church and stand in its nave, +with its interminable delicate ribs--how many clusters of small columns +extend above the slender pillars!--we must contemplate the beautiful +fancies of the rose-windows, which by their many-coloured glass sober +down the glare of the light passing through them; we must gain the +summit of those towers, those spires, and from them command the dizzy +extent of aërial + +[Illustration: Fig. 309.--Capital of a Column in the Abbey of St. +Geneviève (destroyed), Paris. + +(Eleventh Century.)] + +[Illustration: Fig. 310.--Capital of a Column in the Church of St. +Julien the Poor (destroyed), Paris. + +(Twelfth Century.)] + +space, and the landscape stretching out around them below; we must +follow attentively with our eye the strikingly bold outlines which the +turrets, the ornamented gables, the _guivres_, the tops of the +bell-towers trace upon the sky. This done, we should yet have paid but a +brief tribute of attention to these prodigious edifices. What, then, if +we wished to devote sufficient time to the ornamentation of the details +(Figs. 309 to 312)? if we desired to obtain a tolerably exact idea of +the people from the statues which swarm from the porch to the pinnacle, +and of the _flora_ and _fauna_, real or ideal, that give movement to +every projection or animate every wall? if one counted on success in +finding out the key to all the crossings and intersections of the +lines, of the well-adjusted conceptions which, while they deceive the +eye, contribute to the majesty or the solidity of the whole? if, +finally, we were most careful not to lose any one of the multifarious +thoughts that have been fixed in the stones of the gigantic edifice? The +mind becomes confused; and certainly the effect produced by so much +imagination and so much enterprise, by so much skill and taste, +wonderfully elevates the soul, which searches with more love after the +Creator when it sees such a work proceeding from the hands of the +creature. + +[Illustration: Fig. 311.--Vestige of the Architecture of the Goths at +Toledo. (Seventh Century.)] + +[Illustration: Fig. 312.--Capital in the Church of the Célestins +(destroyed), Paris. (Fourteenth Century.)] + +When you approach the Gothic church, when you stand beneath its lofty +roof, it is as if a new country were receiving you, possessing you, +casting around you an atmosphere of subduing reverie in which you feel +your wretched servitude to worldly interests vanishing away, and you +become conscious of more solid, more important ties, springing up in +you. The Deity whom our finite nature can figure to ourselves seems in +fact to inhabit this immense building, to be willing to put himself in +direct communion with the humble Christian who approaches to bow down +before Him. There is nothing in it of the human dwelling-place--all +relating to our poor and miserable existence is here forgotten; He for +whom this residence was constructed is the Strong, the Great, the +Magnificent, and it is from a paternal condescension that He receives us +into His holy habitation, as weak, little, miserable. It is the ideal of +the faith which is realised; all the articles of the belief in which we +have been brought up are here embodied before our eyes; it is, lastly, +the chosen spot where the meeting of mortal nothingness and Divine +Majesty is quietly accomplished. + +The Christianity of the Middle Ages had then been able to find in the +Gothic style a tongue as tractable as it was energetic, as simple as it +was ingenious, which, for the pious excitement of souls, was to declare +to the senses all its ineffable poetry. But as the unbounded faith, of +which it was the faithful organ, was on the next dawn of its most ardent +aspirations about to decline, so this splendid style was almost as soon +to lose its vigour, and to exhaust itself in the unrestrained +manifestation of its power. + +Springing into existence with the warm enthusiasm of the first Crusades, +the Pointed style seems to follow in its different phases the decline of +faith in the time of these adventurous enterprises. It began by a +sincere outburst, and was produced by a bold, unshackled genius; then a +factitious or reflected ardour gave birth to elaborateness and +mannerism; then the fervent zeal and the artistic sentiment dwindled +away: this is the decadency. + +Gothic art raised itself in less than a century to its culminating +point; within two centuries more it was to reach the fatal point where +it would begin to decline. The thirteenth century saw it in all its +glory, with the edifices we have mentioned; in the fourteenth it had +become the Florid or _Rayonnant_ Gothic, which produced the churches of +St. Ouen at Rouen, and of St. Etienne at Metz. “Then,” says M. A. +Lefèvre, one of the latest historians of architecture, “no more walls; +everywhere open screen-work supported by slender arcades; no more +capitals, rows of foliage imitated directly from nature; no more +columns, lofty pillars ornamented with round or bevelled mouldings. As +yet, however, there was nothing weakly in its extreme elegance; slim and +delicate without being gaunt, the Florid style did not in the least +disfigure the churches of the thirteenth century, which it bounded and +decorated. + +“But after the _Rayonnant_ Gothic came the _Flamboyant_, which, always +under the pretext of lightness and grace, denaturalises the ornaments, +the forms, and even the proportions of the architectural members. It +effaces the horizontal lines which used to give two stories to the +windows of the nave, fills up the nave with irregular compartments, +_cœurs_, _soufflets_, and _flammes_; suppresses the angles of the +pillars and sharpens the mouldings; leaves even to the most massive +supports nothing but an undulating, vanishing, impalpable form, where +shadow cannot fix itself; changes the lancet-arches into braces, or into +flat-arched vaults more or less depressed, and the florid ornamentation +of the pinnacles into whimsical scrolls. It reserved all its riches for +accessory or exterior decorations, stalls, pulpits, hanging key-stones, +running friezes, rood-screens, and bell-towers. Visible decadency of the +whole corresponds with great progress in details.” (Fig. 313.) + +The churches of St. Wulfran, Abbeville; of Notre-Dame, Cléry-sur-Loire; +of St. Riquier; of Corbeil; and the cathedrals of Orleans and of Nantes, +may be cited as the principal specimens of the _Flamboyant_ style, and +as the last notable manifestations of an art which thenceforward +diverged more and more from its original inspiration. The middle of the +fifteenth century is generally fixed as the limit beyond which the +handsome Gothic buildings that still rose were no longer, in any degree, +the normal productions of their period, but were felicitous copies or +imitations of works already consecrated by the history of the art. + +A remark may here be made showing to what extent religious feeling +predominated in the Middle Ages; it is that at the very moment when the +Norman and Gothic architects were designing and producing so many +marvellous habitations for the Deity, they seemed to bestow scarcely any +attention on the construction of comfortable or luxurious dwellings for +man, even those destined for the most exalted personages of the State. +In proportion as this sentiment of original faith lost its intensity, +Art occupied itself more and more with princely and lordly habitations. +The middle class was the last favoured by this progress, and the feeling +of their position as citizens had taken the place of a zeal exclusively +pious; so we find the “town-halls” absorbing the splendour and elegance +of which private houses remained destitute; these being generally built +of wood and plaster, and in the heart of the towns, so close together +that they seemed to be disputing for light and air. + +[Illustration: Fig. 313.--Saloon of the Schools, Oxford. (Fourteenth +Century.)] + +Everywhere, during the Middle Ages, rose the church--the home of peace; +but everywhere also towered up at the same time the castle, that +characterised the permanent state of war in which feudal society lived, +delighted, and gloried. + +“The castles of the richest and most powerful nobles,” says M. Vaudoyer, +“consisted of irregular, uncomfortable buildings, pierced with a few +narrow windows, standing within one or two fortified enclosures, and +surrounded by moats. The donjon, a large high tower, generally occupied +the centre, and other towers, more or less numerous, flanked the walls, +and served for the defence of the place.” (Fig. 314). “These castles,” +adds M. Mérimée, “generally present the same characteristics as the +ancient _castellum_; but a certain ruggedness, a striking quaintness in +plan and execution, bear witness to a personal will, and that tendency +to isolation which is the instinctive sentiment of the feudal system.” + +[Illustration: Fig. 314.--Ancient Castle of Marcoussis, near +Rambouillet. (Thirteenth Century.)] + +In most of the buildings destined for the privileged classes, it seems +as if it were deemed unnecessary that care should be taken to secure +harmony of form. The decorative style of the period showed itself +chiefly in the interior of some of the principal apartments, the +habitable quarters of the lord of the castle and of his family. There +were vast fireplaces with enormous chimney-corners surmounted by +projecting mantelpieces; the vaulted roof was ornamented with pendents +of various devices, and with painted or carved escutcheons. Narrow +closets, contrived in the walls, served as sleeping places. The +embrasures of the windows pierced in the excessively thick walls formed +so many little chambers, raised a few steps above the floor of the room +to which they admitted light. Stone seats ran along each side of these +embrasures. Here the inmates of the tower generally sat when the cold +did not oblige them to draw near to the fireplaces. (Figs. 315 and 316.) + +[Illustration: Fig. 315.--Staircase of a Tower.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 316.--Pointed Window with Stone Seats. + +(Thirteenth Century.)] + +With the exception of these slight sacrifices made to the comforts of +life, everything in the castle was arranged, contrived, and disposed +with a view to strength and resistance; and yet it cannot be denied +that, unintentionally, the builders of these silent (_taciturnes_) +edifices have many a time--aided often, it is true, by the picturesque +sites which encircle their works--attained to a majesty of height and a +grandeur of form truly extraordinary. + +If the Norman church expresses with gentle severity, and the Gothic +church with sumptuous fancy, the important and sublime doctrines of the +Gospel, we must equally allow that the castle, in some sort, loudly +proclaims the stern and uncivilised notions of the feudal authority of +which it was at once the instrument and the symbol. + +[Illustration: Fig. 317.--The Castle of Coucy in its ancient state. + +(From a Miniature taken from a Manuscript of the Thirteenth Century.)] + +Placed, in most cases, on natural or artificial eminences, it is not +without a sort of eloquent boldness that the towers and the donjons +shoot into the air, succeed each other at intervals, command and support +each other. It is frequently not without a sort of fantastic grace that +the walls scale the rising ground, making an infinity of the strangest +bends, or coiling themselves about with the supple ease of a serpent. + +[Illustration: Fig. 318.--The Castle of Vincennes, as it was in the +Seventeenth Century.] + +Evidently, if the castle raises its gloomy head high into the air, it +has no other object in doing so than to secure to itself the advantages +of distance and height; but not the less on that account does it stand +out on the sky a grand object. The masses of its walls unsymmetrically +pierced with sombre loop-holes present an abrupt and naked appearance; +but the monotony of their lines is picturesquely broken by the +projection of overhanging turrets, by the corbels of the machicolated +arches, and by the embrasures of the battlements. + +A vast amount of civilisation still exists for him who recalls the past +in the multitude of ruins which were the witnesses of bloody feudal +divisions; and we must add to the system of isolated castles that often +commanded the most deserted valleys, the apparatus of strength and +defence of cities and towns--gates, ramparts, towers, citadels, &c., +immense works which, although inspired solely by the genius of strife +and dissension, did not fail nevertheless, in many instances, to combine +harmony and variety of detail with the general grandeur of the whole. + +[Illustration: Fig. 319.--Tour de Nesle, which occupied the site of the +Exchange on the banks of the Seine, Paris. + +(From an Engraving of the Seventeenth Century.)] + +We may cite, as examples of architecture purely feudal, the castles of +Coucy (Fig. 317), Vincennes (Fig. 318), Pierrefonds, the old Louvre, the +Bastille, the Tour de Nesle (Fig. 319), the Palais de Justice, +Plessis-les-Tours, &c.; and as specimens of the fortified town in the +Middle Ages, Avignon and the city of Carcassonne. Let us add that +Aigues-Mortes, in Provence; Narbonne, Thann (Haut-Rhin), Vendôme, +Villeneuve-le-Roi, Moulins, Moret (Fig. 320), Provins (Fig. 321), afford +yet again the most characteristic remains of analogous fortifications. + +[Illustration: Fig. 320.--Gate of Moret. (Twelfth Century.)] + +While the nobles, jealous and suspicious, sheltered themselves in the +shadow of their donjons built with many strategical contrivances and of +substantial materials; while the large and small towns were surrounded +with deep moats, high walls, impregnable towers, the most primitive +simplicity presided over the construction of private dwellings. Stone +hardly ever, and brick but seldom, figured among the number of the +materials employed. Sawed or squared timbers serving as ribs, mud or +clay filling up the interstices, were all that was at first required for +the erection of houses as small as they were comfortless, and following +each other in irregular lines along the narrow streets. The beams of +the corbels, it is true, began to be adorned with carvings and +paintings, the façades with panes (glass) of different colours; but we +must reach the last half of the fifteenth century before we see the +resources of architecture applied to the erection and ornamentation of +private houses. Moreover, faith was already growing weak; and no longer +was it possible to direct all the resources of an entire province to the +honour of the Deity by the erection of a church; the use of gunpowder, +by revolutionising the art of war, came to lessen, if it did not +annihilate, the vast strength of walls; the decline of feudalism itself +had commenced; and, lastly, the enfranchisement of corporations gave +rise to a perfectly new order of individuals who took their place in +history. We must refer to this period the house of Jacques Cœur, +Bourges; the Hôtel de Sens, Paris (Fig. 322); the Palais de Justice, +Rouen; and those town-halls in which the belfry was then considered as a +sort of palladium, in whose shade the sacred rights of the community +sheltered themselves. It is in our (French) northern towns--St. Quentin, +Arras, Noyon; and in the ancient cities of Belgium--Brussels (Fig. 323), +Louvain, Ypres, that these edifices assume the most sumptuous character. + +[Illustration: Fig. 321.--Gate of St. John, with Drawbridge, Provins. +(Fourteenth Century.)] + +In Germany, where for a time it reigned almost exclusively, Gothic art +established the cathedrals of Erfurt, of Cologne, Fribourg, and of +Vienna; then it died away in the growth of the _Flamboyant_ style. In +England, after having left some magnificent examples of pure +inspiration, it found its decline in the attenuated meagreness and the +complicated ornamentation of the style called _Perpendicular ogival_. If +it penetrated also into Spain, it was to contend with difficulty against +the mighty Moorish school, which had too many imposing _chefs-d’œuvre_ +in the past to surrender without resistance the country of its former +triumphs (Fig. 324). In Italy it clashed not only with the Latin and +Byzantine schools, but also with a style that, just beginning to form +itself, was soon to dispute with it the empire of taste, and to dethrone +it in that very land which had been its cradle. The cathedrals of +Assisi, of Siena, of Milan, are the splendid works in which its +influence triumphed over local traditions and over the _Renaissance_ +that was preparing to follow; yet we must not think that it succeeded +even there in rendering itself absolutely the master, as it had done on +the Rhenish or British territories. Sacrifices were made in its favour; +but these sacrifices did not amount to an entire immolation. + +[Illustration: Fig. 322.--Doorways of the Hôtel de Sens, at Paris; the +last remaining portion of the Hôtel Royal de + +Saint-Pol, built in the reign of Charles V. (Fourteenth Century.)] + +When we use the word _Renaissance_, we seem to be speaking of a return +to an age already gone by, of the resurrection of a period that had +passed away. It is not strictly in this sense that the word must be +understood in the present instance. + +[Illustration: Fig. 323.--Belfry of Brussels (Fifteenth Century), from +an engraving of the Seventeenth Century.] + +Inheriting from of old the artistic temperament of Greece, rather than +spontaneously creating of herself any style, Italy, among all the +nations of Europe, was the country which had most successfully resisted +the profound + +[Illustration: Fig. 324.--Interior of the Palace of the Alhambra, at +Granada.--(Thirteenth Century.)] + +darkness of barbarism, and the first on which the light of modern +civilisation shone. + +At the period of this new dawn of genius, Italy had only to ransack the +ruins its first magnificence had bequeathed it to find among them +examples it might follow; moreover, it was the time when the active +rivalry of its republics caused all the treasures of ancient Greece to +flow into it. But while it derived inspiration from these abundant +manifestations of another age, it never entertained the idea of +abandoning itself exclusively to a servile imitation; it had--and in +this consists its chief title to glory--while giving a peculiar +direction to the revivals of the antique, the good sense to remain under +the poetic influence of that simple and congenial art which had consoled +the world during the whole continuance of that protracted infancy of a +civilisation which was at last advancing with rapid strides towards +perfect manhood. + +From the twelfth century, Pisa gave an impetus to the art by building +its Duomo, its Baptistery, its Leaning Tower, and the cloisters of its +famous Campo Santo; so many admirable works forming an era in the +history of modern art, and in a brilliant manner opening the career on +which so many distinguished men were to enter, rivalling each other in +invention, in science, and in genius. In these monuments the union of +Oriental taste with the traditions of ages gone by created an +originality as grand as it was graceful. “It is,” as M. A. Lefèvre +points out, “the Antique without its nudity, the Byzantine without its +heaviness, the fervour of the Western Gothic without its ghastliness” +(_effroi_). + +In 1294 the magistrates of Florence passed the following decree, +charging the architect, Arnolfo di Cambio, to convert into a cathedral +the church, till then of little importance, of Santa Maria de’ +Fiori:--“Forasmuch,” they said, “as it is in the highest degree prudent +for a people of illustrious origin to proceed in their affairs in such +manner that their public works may cause their grandeur and wisdom to be +acknowledged, the order is given to Arnolfo, master-architect of our +town, to make plans for repairing the Church of Santa Maria with the +greatest and most lavish magnificence, so that the skill and prudence of +men may never invent, nor ever be able to undertake, anything more +important or more beautiful.” + +Arnolfo applied himself to his task, and conceived a plan which the +shortness of human life did not allow him to carry out; but Giotto +succeeded + +[Illustration: Fig. 325.--Interior of the Basilica of St. Peter’s, +Rome.] + +him, and to Giotto succeeded Orcagna, and to Orcagna, Brunelleschi, who +designed and almost completed that Duomo, of which Michael Angelo said +it would be difficult to equal, and impossible to surpass, it. + +Arnolfo, Giotto, Orcagna, Brunelleschi--does it not suffice to cite +these great names for us to form an idea of the movement going on at +this period? and which was soon to produce Alberti, Bramante, Michael +Angelo, Jacques della Porta, Baldassare Peruzzi, Antonio and Juliano de +Sangallo, Giocondo, Vignola, Serlio, and even Raphael, who, when he +liked, was as mighty an architect as he was a marvellous painter. It was +in Rome that these princes of the art congregated together, as the +splendours of St. Peter’s (Fig. 325), to mention only one of their grand +creations, still attest; so, it is from this city that henceforward +light and example are to come. + +In the style which this masterly phalanx created, the Latin rounded arch +regained all its ancient favour, and united itself to the ancient +orders, which became intermingled, or, at any rate, superposed. The +ogive was abandoned, but the columns to decorate their capitals, and the +entablatures to give more grace to their projections, borrowed a certain +fantastical style which yielded in nothing to the ogival; the Grecian +pediment reappeared, changing sometimes the upper lines of its triangle +into a depressed semicircle; lastly the cupola, that striking object +which was the characteristic feature of the Byzantine style, became the +dome, whose ample curve defied, in the daring heights whereto it rose, +the wonders of the Perpendicular Gothic. + +The Italian _Renaissance_ was now accomplished, the Gothic age at an +end. Rome and Florence sent in every direction their architects, who, as +they travelled far from these metropolises of the new style, were once +more subjected to certain territorial influences, but who knew how to +make the tradition of which they were the apostles triumphant. It was +then that France inaugurated in its turn a Renaissance peculiar to +herself; it was then that, under the reign of Charles VIII., after his +expedition into Italy, began, with the Château de Gaillon, a long +succession of edifices, which in many cases yielded neither in richness +nor in majesty to the works of the preceding period. Under Louis XII. +rose the Château de Blois, and the Hôtel de la Cour des Comptes, Paris, +a splendid building destroyed by fire in the eighteenth century. Under +Francis I., Chambord (Fig. 326), Fontainebleau, Madrid (near Paris), +magnificent royal “humours,” contended in + +[Illustration: Fig. 326.--Château de Chambord, with its Ancient Moat. +(Seventeenth Century.)] + +elegance and grace with the châteaux of Nantouillet, Chenonceaux, and +Azai-le-Rideau; and with the manor-house of Ango, near Dieppe, all +sumptuous, lordly mansions; the old Louvre, the palace of kings, the +cradle of monarchy, was regenerated under the care of Peter Lescot; the +Hôtel de Ville, Paris, still bears witness to the varied talent of +Dominique Cortona, who, as M. Vaudoyer said of him, “justly understood +that, in building for France, he should act in a perfectly different +manner to that in which he would have acted in Italy.” Under Henry II. +and Charles IX. this activity continued, and the architects who sought +their inspirations in Grecian and Roman antiquity, as much as in the +_souvenirs_ of the Italian Renaissance, delighted in loading all the +elegant and graceful buildings with ornaments, with bas-reliefs, and +with statues, which they seemed to carve in the stone, as delicately +wrought as a piece of goldsmith’s work. Philibert Delorme built for +Diana of Poitiers the Château d’Anet, that architectural jewel whose +portico, transported piece by piece at the time of the revolutionary +disorders, now decorates the court of the Ecole des Beaux-Arts; Jean +Bullant built Ecouen for the Constable Anne de Montmorency; and the +architect d’Anet undertook, by order of Catherine de Medicis, the +construction of the Palace of the Tuileries, which, by a sort of +exigency resulting from its particular destination, seemed typically to +characterise the style of the French Renaissance. + +[Illustration: Fig. 327.--Porte de Hal, Brussels. (Fourteenth Century.)] + +We must not burden with details this summary of one of the most +important branches of art. The history of architecture is among those +vast domains which demand either a short epitome or a thoroughly deep +investigation. The epitome being alone consistent with the plan of our +work, we must confine ourselves to its limits; but we may, perhaps, be +allowed to think that the few rapid pages thus devoted to the subject +have inspired the reader with the desire of penetrating farther into a +study which is capable of offering him so many agreeable surprises, so +many rational delights. + +[Illustration] + + + + +PARCHMENT AND PAPER. + + Parchment in Ancient Times.--Papyrus.--Preparation of Parchment and + Vellum in the Middle Ages.--Sale of Parchment at the Fair of + Lendit.--Privilege of the University of Paris on the Sale and + Purchase of Parchment.--Different Applications of + Parchment.--Cotton Paper imported from China.--Order of the Emperor + Frederick II. concerning Paper.--The Employment of Linen Paper + dating from the Twelfth Century.--Ancient Water-Marks on + Paper.--Paper Manufactories in France and other parts of Europe. + + +Although most authors who speak of parchment attribute the invention of +it, on the testimony of Pliny, to Eumenius, king of Pergamus +(doubtlessly from the etymology of the word by which it was designated, +viz., _Pergamena_), it seems to be proved, according to Peignot, that +the use of it is much more ancient, and that its origin is utterly lost. +Certainly, in many passages of the Old Testament we find a Hebrew Word, +in Latin _volumen_, which can only be understood to mean a roll formed +of prepared skin or of the leaves of papyrus, and it is consequently +evident that the Jews, from the time of Moses, wrote the tables of the +Law on rolls of parchment. + +Herodotus says that the Ionians called books _diphthera_ (διφθἑρα, a +prepared hide), because, at a time when the _biblos_ (βἱβλος, the inner +bark of the papyrus) was scarce, they wrote on skins of goats or of +sheep. Diodorus Siculus affirms that the ancient Persians wrote their +annals on skins, and we must suppose that Pliny’s assertion refers only +to some improvements the King of Pergamus had made in the art of +preparing a material that could supply the place of papyrus, which +Ptolemy Epiphanius would no longer allow to leave Egypt. The absolute +deficiency of papyrus raised into activity the fabrication of parchment, +and soon so large a quantity was seen to flow into Pergamus that this +town was considered as the cradle of the new trade, already so +flourishing. There were then books of two kinds, the one in rolls +composed of many leaves sewed together, on one side of which only was +there writing; the others, square-shaped, were written upon both sides. +The grammarian Crates, ambassador of Eumenius at Rome, passed as the +inventor of vellum. + +Ordinary parchment is the skin of a goat, sheep, or lamb, prepared in +lime, dressed, scraped, and rendered smooth by pumice-stone. Its +principal qualities are whiteness, thinness, and stiffness; but the work +of the currier must have been formerly very imperfect, for Hildebert, +Archbishop of Tours in the eleventh century, tells us that the writer, +before beginning his occupation, “was in the habit of clearing away from +the parchment, with the aid of a razor, the remains of fat and other +gross impurities, and then with pumice-stone to make the hair and +tendons disappear:” this almost amounts to affirming that the scribes +bought the hide undressed, and, by an elaborate preparation, made them +fit for proper use. Virgin parchment, which in its grain and colour +resembles vellum, was made of the skins of those lambs and goats which +had been clipped. Vellum, more polished, whiter, more transparent, is +made, as its name indicates, of the hide of the calf.[52] + +It is probable that with the Romans, papyrus, considering the facility +they had of procuring it for themselves, was more frequently used than +parchment, which, at first, was rare and costly. But parchment, more +durable and of greater resistance than papyrus, was reserved for the +transcription of the most important works. Cicero, who had many books on +parchment in his magnificent library, said that he had seen the “Iliad” +copied on a scroll of _pergamena_ which went into a nut-shell. Many of +Martial’s epigrams prove to us that in the time of this poet books of +such kind were still more numerous. Unfortunately, there remains to us +no writing on parchment dating from this distant period. The Virgil in +the Vatican, and the Terence at Florence, are of the fourth and fifth +century of our era. Admitting that time destroys all, and also that the +work of the rude tribes on many occasions assisted this natural cause of +destruction, we must not forget that at certain periods, to supply the +place of new parchment when it was scarce, a plan had been devised of +making the parchment rolls which had already been used for manuscripts +serve again + +[Illustration: Fig. 328.--Miniature of the Ninth Century, representing +an Evangelist who is transcribing with the _Calamus_, on Parchment, the +Sacred Text, of which he is receiving the revelation. + +(Bibl. de Bourgogne, Brussels.)] + +for a similar purpose, either by scraping and rubbing them with +pumice-stone, or by boiling them in water or soaking in lime. There is +no doubt but the scarceness and the dearness of parchment was the cause +of the loss of very many excellent works. Muratori cites, for example, a +manuscript of the Ambrosian Library, of which the writing, dating from +eight or nine centuries back, had been substituted for another of more +than a thousand years old; and Maffei informs us that the employment of +ancient parchment scraped and washed became so general, in the +fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, throughout Germany, that the +Emperors put a stop to this dangerous abuse by issuing an order to the +notaries to use nothing but parchment “quite new.” + +[Illustration: Fig. 329.--View of the Ancient Abbey of St. Denis and its +Dependencies.] + +Generally, the quality of parchment serves to determine the date of its +manufacture. The vellum of manuscripts till the middle of the eleventh +century is very white and thin; the parchment of the twelfth century is +thick, rough, and brownish, which often shows it has been scraped or +washed. The greater number of fine manuscripts are on + +[Illustration: Fig. 330.--Seal of the University of Paris (Fourteenth +Century), after one of the Dies preserved in the Collection of Medals in +the Imperial Library, Paris.] + +virgin parchment, which from its nature was suited to the delicacies of +calligraphy and illumination. Moreover, we see from a statute of the +University of Paris, dated 1291, that the parchment trade had attained +at that period to considerable development; so, as a protection against +the frauds and deceptions which might result from the great competition +of traders in it, and to insure a good article being furnished to +students and artists, a special privilege was granted to the university, +which, in the person of its rector, had not only the right of +inspection, but also the refusal of all parchment bought in Paris, no +matter whence it had come. Besides which, at the fair of Lendit, which +was held every year at Saint-Denis, on the domains of the abbey (Fig. +329), and at the fair of Saint-Lazare, the rector likewise caused the +parchment brought to them to be examined, and the merchants of Paris +could not purchase any till the king’s agents, those of the Bishop of +Paris, and the masters and scholars of the university, had provided +themselves with what they required (Fig. 330). Let us add that the +rector was paid a duty on all parchment sold, and the result of this +tax was the only source of income attached to the rectorship in the +seventeenth century. + +Although white parchment seems to be the best suited for writing, the +Middle Ages, following the example of antiquity, gave to the material +various tints, especially purple and yellow. The purple was chiefly +intended to receive characters of gold or silver. The Emperor +Maximinius, the younger, inherited from his mother the works of Homer +inscribed in gold on purple vellum; and parchment tinted in this way +was, during the first centuries, one of the prerogatives reserved for +princes and the great dignitaries of the Church. It is remarkable that +the barbarism of the seventh and eighth centuries did not diminish the +favour in which these luxurious manuscripts were held. Little by little, +however, the custom (of writing the entire work in gold or colours) +dwindled away. Scribes began by colouring a few pages only in each +volume, then some margins or frontispieces; and lastly this decoration +was restricted to the heads of chapters, or to words to which great +prominence was to be given, or to capital letters. The _rubricatores_ +(literally, writers in red), workmen who performed this operation, came +in time to be mere painters of letters or _rubrics_ (so called because +they were originally painted red), of whose assistance, however, the +first printers availed themselves to _rubric_ or colour the initials of +missals, Bibles, and law books. + +The dimensions or sizes of our books at the present day have their +origin in the sizes of the parchment in olden times. The entire skin of +the animal, cut square and folded in two, represented the “in-folio,” +which, moreover, varied in length and breadth; and we have every reason +to suppose that paper, from the day it was invented, followed the +ordinary sizes of the folded parchment. + +As to the dimensions of the parchment employed for diplomas, they varied +according to the time, the brevity of the matter, or the nature of its +employment. Among the ancients, who wrote only on one side of the +parchment, the skins were cut in bands joined together so as to form +_volumes_ or rolls, which were unrolled as their contents were read. +This custom was preserved for public and judicial acts for a long time +after the invention of the square book (_codex_) had caused the +_opisthographic_ writing to be adopted, by which is to be understood +writing on both sides of the page. In principle, only the final formulæ, +or the signatures, were written on the back of the document. By degrees +people adopted the practice of writing on the back as well as the front +of the page; but it was not till the sixteenth century that this custom +became general. + +[Illustration: Fig. 331.--Seal of the King of La Basoche. (This title +was suppressed, with all its prerogatives, by Henry III.)] + +Judicial acts, composed sometimes of many skins sewed together, came in +time to form rolls of twenty feet in length; to such extreme proportions +did they reach, though at first they were so small in size that their +limited dimensions are truly incredible; for in 1233 and 1252 we find +contracts of sales of two inches long by five inches wide, and in 1258 a +will written on a piece of parchment of two inches by three and a half. +It was by way of compensating for the great cost of parchment that +opisthographic writing was adopted and rolls were put aside; and the +name alone remains as applied to the _rolls_ of procedure. The size that +leaves should assume was also fixed, according to the different uses for +which they were intended. For instance, the leaves of parliamentary +documents were nine inches and a half long by seven and a half wide; +those of the council, ten by eight; those of finance and of private +contracts, twelve and a half by nine and a half; letters of pardon, +under the king’s hand, were to be on entire skins squared, two feet two +inches by one foot eight inches in diameter. + +[Illustration: Fig. 332.--The Paper-Maker, drawn and engraved in the +Sixteenth Century by J. Amman.] + +But while the use of parchment was still strictly employed in the +chancellor’s offices and the tribunals, where the _basoche_ (a +brotherhood of lawyers of all grades) considered it as one of their most +lucrative privileges (Fig. 331), it had for a long while ceased to be +used anywhere else. Paper, after having during many centuries competed +with parchment, at last almost entirely replaced it (Fig. 332); for if +less durable, it had the great advantage of costing much less. Formerly +nothing but the ancient papyrus of Egypt was known, and it was made use +of concurrently with parchment till there was brought into Europe, +towards the tenth century, cotton paper, which is generally believed to +be a Chinese invention, and which was at first called _Grecian +parchment_, because the Venetians, who introduced it into the West, had +found it in use in Greece. + +Actually, this paper was at first of a very inferior quality, coarse, +spongy, dull, and subject to the attacks of damp and worms; so much so +that the Emperor Frederick II. issued, in 1221, an order declaring null +and void all documents written on it, and fixing the term at two years +by which all were to be transcribed on parchment. + +The use and the knowledge of the process of manufacturing paper from +cotton soon led to the fabrication of paper from linen or rags. It is, +however, impossible to say when and where it was accomplished--the +assertions and the testimonies on this point are so contradictory. Some +think that the paper was brought from the East by the Spanish Saracens; +others say it came from China; these affirm it has been employed since +the tenth century; those, that we can only find specimens of it as far +back as the reign of St. Louis. + +[Illustration: Fig. 333.--Water-Marks on Paper, from the Fourteenth to +the Fifteenth Century.] + +At any rate, the most ancient writing on paper made of rags known at the +present day is a letter from Joinville to Louis X., dated 1315; we may, +moreover, mention with certainty, as written on linen paper, an +inventory of goods belonging to a certain Prior Henry, who died in 1340, +which is preserved at Canterbury, and many authentic writings, dating +back as far as 1335, preserved in the British Museum, London. The first +paper-manufactory established in England was, it is said, at Hertford, +which dates only from 1588; but important paper-manufactories existed in +France from the reign of Philippe de Valois, that is, from the middle of +the fourteenth century; particularly at Essonne and at Troyes. The paper +which came from these manufactories bore generally, in the paper itself, +different marks (Fig. 333) called water-marks, such as a bull’s head, a +cross, a serpent, a star, a crown, &c., according to the quality or +destination of the paper. Many other countries in Europe had also +flourishing paper-manufactories in the fourteenth century. From this +period we find, indeed, a large number of documents written on paper +made of rags, the use of which thus preceded by about a century the +invention of printing. + +[Illustration: Fig. 334.--Banner of the Paper-Makers of Paris.] + + + + +MANUSCRIPTS + + Manuscripts in Olden Times.--Their Form.--Materials of which they + were composed.--Their Destruction by the Goths.--Rare at the + Beginning of the Middle Ages.--The Catholic Church preserved and + multiplied them.--Copyists.--Transcription of + Diplomas.--Corporation of Scribes and + Booksellers.--Palæography.--Greek Writings.--Uncial and Cursive + Manuscripts.--Sclavonic Writings.--Latin Writers.--Tironian + Shorthand.--Lombardic + Characters.--Diplomatic.--Capetian.--Ludovicinian.--Gothic.--Runic.-- + Visigothic.--Anglo-Saxon.--Irish. + + +Let the reader refer to the chapters on PARCHMENT and BINDING, and he +will find a few remarks on the purely material part of manuscripts; we +may, then, here treat this question very summarily; and for that purpose +we shall avail ourselves of the remarkable work of J. J. +Champollion-Figeac. + +When writing was once invented, and had passed into general use in +civilised society, the choice of substances suited for its reception, +and to fix it in a durable manner, was very diversified, although +depending on the nature of the text to be written. + +People wrote on stone, on metals, on the bark and leaves of many kinds +of trees, on dried or baked clay, on wood, on ivory, wax, linen, the +hides of quadrupeds, on parchment, the best of these preparations; on +papyrus, which is the inner bark of a reed growing in the Nile; then on +paper made of cotton; and lastly, on paper made from hemp and flax, +called rag paper. The Roman world had adopted the use of papyrus, which +was a very important branch of commerce at Alexandria. We find proof of +this in the writers of antiquity: St. Jerome bears witness to it as far +as regards the fifth century of our era. The Latin and Greek emperors +gave their diplomas on papyrus. Popes traced their most ancient bulls +upon it. The charters of the kings of France of the first race were also +issued on papyrus. From the eighth century parchment contended with +papyrus; a little later cotton paper also became its competitor, and the +eleventh century is generally fixed on as the period when papyrus was +entirely superseded by the new materials appropriated to the +preservation of writing. + +For writing on papyrus the brush or reed was employed, with inks of +different colours; black ink was, however, most generally used. There +grew on the banks of the Nile, at the time when the reed furnished +papyrus, another sort of reed, stiffer and also more flexible, and +admirably suited for the manufacture of the _calamus_, an instrument +supplying the place of the pen, which was not adopted before the eighth +century. + +The size of manuscripts was in no way subject to fixed rules, there were +volumes of all dimensions; the most ancient on parchment are, in +general, longer than they are broad, or else are square; the writing +rests on a line traced with the dry point of the _calamus_, and +afterwards with black-lead; the parts making up a volume are composed of +an indeterminate number of leaves; a word or a figure, placed at the +bottom of the last page of each part and at the end of the volume, +serves as a _catchword_ from one fasciculus to another. + +The emperors of Constantinople used to sign in red ink the acts of their +sovereignty; their first secretary was the guardian of the vase +containing the cinnabar (vermilion), which the emperor alone might use. +Some diplomas of the kings of France of the second race are signed in +the same manner. In valuable manuscripts, great use was made of golden +ink, especially when the parchment was dyed purple; but red ink was +almost always employed for capital letters or for the titles of books, +and for a long time after the invention of printing the volumes still +had the _rubrics_ (_ruber_, red) painted or beautifully executed with +the pen. + +The greater number of rich manuscripts, even when they contained the +text of some ancient secular author, were destined to be presented to +the treasuries of churches and abbeys, and these offerings were not made +without great display: the book, whatever its contents might be, was +placed on the altar, and a solemn mass was celebrated on the occasion; +moreover, an inscription at the end of the work mentioned the homage +which had been paid for it to God and to the saints in paradise. + +We must not forget that in this time of almost universal ignorance, the +Church was the only depository of literature and science; she sought +after those heathen authors who could instruct her in eloquence that +might be employed in advancing the faith, almost as much as she sought +for sacred books; it was not rare even to see Christian zeal exalting +itself so far as to find prophets of the Messiah in writers very +anterior to the doctrines of Christ. Thus the best Greek and Latin +manuscripts of profane authors are the work of monks, as were the Bibles +and the writings of the Fathers of the Church. The rules of the most +ancient brotherhoods recommended the monks who could write and who +wished to please God to re-copy the manuscripts, and those who were +illiterate to learn to bind them. “The work of the copyist,” said the +learned Alcuin to his contemporaries, “is a meritorious work, which is +profitable to the soul, while the work of the ploughman is profitable +only to the belly.” + +At all periods of history we find mention made of certain celebrated +manuscripts. We will not go so far back as the Greek traditions relating +to the works of Homer, of which some copies were ornamented with a +richness that has, probably, never been surpassed. In the fifth century +St. Jerome possessed twenty-five parts of the works of Origen, which +Pamphilus the Martyr had copied with his own hand. St. Ambrose, St. +Fulgentius, Hincmar, Archbishop of Rheims, men as learned as they were +pious, applied themselves to reproducing with their own hands the best +ancient texts. A copyist by profession was called _scriba_, _scriptor_; +the place in which they generally worked was called _scriptorium_. The +capitularies against bad copyists were frequently renewed. “We ordain +that no scribe write incorrectly,” we find in the collection of Baluze. +We read in the same collection, in 789, “There shall be good Catholic +texts in all monasteries, so that prayers shall not be made to God in +faulty language.” In 805, “If the Gospels, the Psalter, or the Missal +are to be copied, only careful middle-aged men are to be employed; +verbal errors may otherwise be introduced into the faith.” There were, +moreover, _correctors_ who rectified the work of the copyists, and +attested the work, on the volumes, by the words _contuli_, _emendavi_ +(“I have collated, I have revised”). A copy of Origen’s works has been +mentioned, corrected by the hand of Charlemagne himself, to whom is also +attributed the introduction of full stops and commas. + +The same care presided over the preparation of royal charters and +diplomas; the referendaries or chancellors drew them up and +superintended their despatch; the principal officers of the crown +intervened, as guarantors or witnesses to them, and these acts were read +publicly before they were signed and sealed. Notaries and witnesses +guaranteed the authenticity of private charters. + +As long as printing did not exist in France, the corporation of scribes, +copyists of charters, and copyists of manuscripts, which counted among +them booksellers, was very numerous and very influential, since it was +composed of graduates of the university that patronised them and placed +them among the number of its indispensable agents. He who desired to +become a bookseller had to give proof of his instruction and of his +ability; he was obliged to take an oath “not to commit any deception, +fraud, or evil thing which might damage or prejudice the university, its +scholars and frequenters, nor to rob nor speak ill of them.” Besides +which he was compelled to deposit a sum of fifty francs (_livres +parisis_) as caution-money. + +The rules imposed on scribes and on booksellers were always very strict, +and this severity was only too justly occasioned by the abuses that +existed, and by the scandalous disorder of the people who exercised +these professions. In the year 1324 the university published this +order:--“There will be admitted only people of good conduct and morals, +sufficiently acquainted with the book trade, and previously approved by +the university. The bookseller may not take a clerk into his service +till that clerk has sworn, before the university, to exercise his +profession according to the ordinances. The bookseller must give to the +university a list of the works which he sells; he must not refuse to let +a manuscript to whomsoever may wish to make a copy of it, on payment of +the indemnity fixed by the university. He is forbidden to let out books +that have not been corrected, and those students who find an incorrect +copy are requested to denounce it publicly to the rector, so that the +bookseller who has let it out may be punished, and that the copy may be +corrected by _scholares_ (learned men or scholars). There shall be every +year four commissioners chosen to fix the price of books. One bookseller +shall not sell a work to another bookseller before he has exposed the +work for sale during four days. In any case the seller is obliged to +register the name of the purchaser, to describe him, and to state the +price for which the book was sold.” + +From century to century this legislation underwent variations, according +to the ideas of the times: and when the printing-press came, in the +middle of the fifteenth century, to change the face of the world, the +corporation of _scribes_ rose at first against the new art which was to +ruin them. “But at last,” says Champollion-Figeac, “they submitted, and +temporary measures were recommended to the public authorities for the +defence of an ancient order of things which could not long resist the +new.” + +Now let us go back to the first centuries of the Middle Ages, to resume +the question from a palæographic point of view. + +The languages and literature of modern Europe are all Greek or Latin, +Sclavonic or Gothic; these four great families of peoples and of +languages have existed in spite of the vicissitudes of politics. Such is +the basis whereon must be found all the researches by which we are to +establish the origin and nature of the writing peculiar to each +literature. + +The Greeks of Constantinople taught writing to the Sclavonic race, and +with it the Christian faith. The most ancient Greek writing (we speak of +the Christian era only) was the _capital_ writing, regular and +well-proportioned; as it became general it was simplified more and more. +After this sort of writing, examples of which are found only on stone or +bronze, we come to the writing called, although we do not know why, +_uncial_,[53] which, was the first step towards the Greek _cursive_ +(flowing). + +_Uncial_ writing was employed, in Greek manuscripts, up to the ninth +century; we may observe the transition from the _uncial_ to the +_half-uncial_, and from the _half-uncial_ to the _minuscule_.[54] In the +tenth century manuscripts in minuscule became very abundant--the +tachygrapher’s (ταχὑς, quick, and γρἁφω, I write), or the partisans of +quick writing, gained the day; the caligraphers (καλὁς, beautiful, and +γρἁφω I write) desired to follow their example. These employed a great +deal of time in painting the initials of running letters: the new +method, which produced more in the same space of time, easily got into +favour; the caligraphers abandoned the uncial and adopted the minuscule +characters connected together, which combined good forms with greater +facility of execution. Thenceforward, the uncial was no longer employed +except for the titles or headings of books. + +Among the fine specimens of this epoch which have been preserved, we may +mention, in the Imperial Library of Paris, a Book of the Gospels, called +Cardinal Mazarin’s, and the Commentaries of Gregory Nazianzus; at the +Laurentinean Library, Florence, are a Plutarch and a Book of the +Gospels, written with gold ink in large and massive minuscule cursive +characters; and lastly, a book of ecclesiastical offices, belonging also +to the Imperial Library in Paris, and which bears this superscription in +Greek:--“Pray for Euthymus, a poor monk, priest of the monastery of St. +Lazare. This volume was finished in the month of May, Convocation S, in +the year 6515,” a date which, according to the computation of the Greek +Church, corresponds to the month of May of the year 1007 of the +Christian era. + +To the twelfth century is assigned the beautiful Greek manuscript which +was afterwards given to Louis XIV. by Chrysanthes Noras, Patriarch of +Jerusalem; to the thirteenth century belongs another manuscript, in very +small cursive letters, ornamented with portraits, presented by the +Emperor Palæologos to St. Louis. It was only in the fourteenth century +that manuscripts half Latin and half Greek, appeared. Lastly came Ange +Végèce, of Corfu, who, towards the middle of the fifteenth century, made +for himself, as a Greek caligrapher, such a reputation that he gave, it +is said, rise to the proverb, “_Écrire comme un ange_.” + +The Greek alphabet, when it penetrated into the countries of the north +with the Christian religion and civilisation, underwent important +modifications. On the right bank of the Danube, in ancient Mœsia, +Ulphilas, the descendant of a Cappadocian family formerly taken prisoner +by the Goths, invented, in the fourth century, the alphabet bearing, on +that account, the name of _Mœso-Gothic_, and which is of Greek origin, +with a mixture of Latin characters and other peculiar signs. This +writing is heavy, without being elegant; differing, as if by an instinct +of nationality, from the types which it imitates. The Mœso-Gothic +manuscripts are, however, very rare; only two or three being known. + +The Sclavonic writing, which is also a daughter of Greece, has a history +nearly similar to that of the Mœso-Gothic. When the people of this +family were converted to Christianity, they were brought over to it by +Greek Christians, and the Patriarch Cyril, in the ninth century, became +their teacher; he taught them, how to write (which they never knew till +then), and it was the Greek alphabet they adopted, adding to it, +however, a few new signs, so that they might be able to express the +sounds peculiar to their language. Sclavonic manuscripts are positively +numerous in public libraries. We find them in Paris, Bologna, and Rome, +but above all in Germany, and in the country under the dominion of the +Muscovite. One of the most celebrated is that belonging to the town of +Rheims, and which is known by the name of “Texte du Sacre,” because a +tradition (an erroneous one, however) asserts that the kings of France, +at the time of their coronation at Rheims, took the oaths on this book, +which was said to be written by the hand of St. Procopius. The Sclavonic +manuscripts in general recommend themselves less by the elegance of +their execution than by the richness of their bindings. + +The actual Russian alphabet is but an abridgment of the alphabet called +the _Cyrilian_, reduced to forty-two signs by the Emperor Peter I.; so +that the Sclavonic nations knew two _Cyrilian_ alphabets, the ancient +Sclavonic for the liturgical writings, and the modern Sclavonic, or +Russian, in general use. Of the first no manuscripts exist earlier than +the eleventh century of our era. + +The manuscripts of the Latins are, without doubt, more numerous and more +varied, because the Latin Church is more extensive, and because Roman +civilisation spread itself over a larger number of European provinces. +At the head of the manuscripts of the Latin writing is placed a fragment +of papyrus, found in Egypt, on which is inscribed an imperial edict for +the annulment of a sale of property, agreed upon in consequence of some +violence committed by a certain man named Isidore; the date of this +document has been fixed as the third century. For the fourth century we +have the “Virgil,” with miniatures, which we mention elsewhere +(MINIATURES OF MANUSCRIPTS), and a “Terence,” both belonging to the +Vatican Library, and both written in capital letters; in the latter, +however, they are irregular, and called, on that account, _rustic +capitals_. + +To the same period we must refer the “Treatise on the Republic,” by +Cicero, which has but lately been found in a volume from which the +previous writing had been effaced, as was often the case (see PARCHMENT +AND PAPER), in order to make room for the new writing. For the fifth +century we have a second “Virgil,” with miniatures, which passed from +the library of the Abbey of St. Denis into that of the Vatican. The +“Prudence,” which the Imperial Library of Paris still possesses, is a +very fine manuscript of the sixth century, written, in rustic capitals, +quaint but elegant. + +Two other kinds of writing were, at the same period, in use among the +Latins; this same rustic capital, ceasing to be rectangular, and rounded +in its principal strokes, became the uncial; and for that very reason +being much more expeditious, was reserved especially for the copying of +works; while the cursive, although sometimes employed for manuscripts, +was used chiefly in letter-writing. Of the first of these two writings, +the uncial, we have two fine specimens of the sixth century in the +“Sermons” of St. Augustine, on papyrus (Fig. 336), and in a Psalter of +St. Germain-des-Prés, written in letters of silver on purple vellum, +both of which now belong to the Imperial Library, Paris. + +In the same century, we find a kind of writing called _half-uncial_, +which became more and more expeditious by the change made in certain of +its forms. There was then also a Gallican uncial, the form of which we +can see in the manuscript said to be by St. Prosper (Imperial Library, +Paris); and an uncial of Italy, among which figure the Bible of +Mont-Amiati, at Florence; the palimpsest[55] Homilies of the Vatican, +and the admirable Book of the Gospels at Notre-Dame, Paris (Fig. 337). + +The most ancient style of cursive writing, employed in charts and +diplomas, is to be seen in the deeds known by the name of _charters of +Ravenna_, from the name of the town in which they were first discovered. +We may consider as analogous to these the writing of the Acts of our +early kings, very difficult to read on account of the exaggerated manner +in which the thin strokes join the letters together, and by the +indefinite forms of the up and down strokes. We give a fragment (Fig. +338) taken from an original chart, on parchment, of Childebert III. We +see what the same writing had become in 784 by Fig. 339, copied from an +original capitulary of Charlemagne. + +To the same period belongs the employment, in ordinary use among +chancellors and notaries, of a writing completely tachygraphic; it is +composed of ciphers, one of which took the place of a syllable or a +word. This writing was called _Tironian_, because the invention of it is +attributed to Tiro, Cicero’s freed-man, who made use of it in +tachygraphing, or, as we should now say, stenographing (short-hand), the +speeches of the illustrious orator. Fig. 340 is taken from a psalter of +the eighth century, of which the text is transcribed with the +tachygraphic characters of that period. + +The name of _Visigothic_ is given to the writing of manuscripts executed +in the south of France and in Spain during the rule of the Goths and the +Visigoths; this writing, still rather Roman, is generally round and +embellished with fanciful strokes, which render it agreeable to the eye. + +We also find in Italy the _Lombardic_, in use for diplomas till the +twelfth century. + +The beautiful manuscripts on purple vellum are of the time of +Charlemagne, when luxury in the arts showed itself in all forms. There +is in the Imperial Library, Paris, a magnificent volume, which came from +the ancient domain of Soubise, that contains the Epistles and Gospels +for all the festivals of the year: the execution of this work is +perfect; the gigantic capital letters, of Anglo-Saxon form, are +coloured, and rendered still richer by being dotted with gold. + +A valuable manuscript of the “Tractus Temporum” of the Venerable Bede, a +manuscript posterior by more than two hundred years to the author, who +lived in the beginning of the eighth century, affords a specimen of one +of the varieties of minuscule writings, which in France was called the +_Lombardic writing of books_, because it was in use during the reign of +the Lombard kings beyond the Alps; it is more difficult to read than the +Roman, though similar in form, because the words are not separated. A +beautiful manuscript of “Horace” (Imperial Library, Paris), which +presents a mixture of the different kinds of Roman writing of the +period, is attributed to the same century. We have in Fig. 341 an +elegant ornamental capital, taken from a manuscript, “Commentaries of +St. Jerome,” also in the Imperial Library. We find specimens of writing +of Anglo-Saxon origin, capital letters, and running text, in many books +of the Gospel. + +The diplomatic writing of the tenth century is here represented by a +charter of the king, Hugh Capet, from which we borrow Fig. 342; it must +have been issued between 988 and 996. In this fragment, the first line +only is composed of characters very elongated, close together, mixed +with some capital letters and some singular forms. It bears witness to +the fact that the fine Merovingian writing had then singularly +degenerated. + +In the eleventh century the minuscule of manuscripts was characterised +by its angular forms, which caused it to receive the name of _Capetian_. +Then the Capetian, exaggerated in its tendency towards its strokes and +angles, became the _Ludovician_, which announces the thirteenth century, +and characterises the reign of St. Louis. + +[Illustration: Fig. 335.--Scribe or Copyist, in his Work-room, +surrounded by Open Manuscripts, and Writing at a Desk. + +(From a Miniature of the Fifteenth Century.)] + +However, manuscripts of the thirteenth century abound, and the history +of the writing of the period of St. Louis and of the three centuries +succeeding it, may be summed up in these words:--“The Capetian writing +called _Ludovician_, when it had come to differ still more from the +beautiful forms of the writings of Charlemagne’s time or the renovated +Roman, was more and more deformed, and these successive degradations +became so complicated that the writing, in the seventeenth century, +resulted in being perfectly illegible. Thus can be generalised all the +precepts relative to the state of writing, in the manuscripts and the +charters in France, for this period of three hundred years” (Fig. 343). + +It was, however, the era of the richest manuscripts, that in which was +brought to perfection the art of ornamenting them, when the pencil of +the miniature-painter and the pen of the caligrapher, conjointly, +produced some masterpieces (Fig. 344). This was also the time when the +corporation of writers became numerous and powerful (Fig. 335). One of +the most distinguished members of this society was that Nicholas Flamel, +about whom so many fabulous legends have been invented. We give, as a +specimen of his magnificent cursive writing (Fig. 345), the fac-simile +of one of the _ex libris_ inscriptions he placed at the beginning of all +the books belonging to Duke Jean de Berry, whose secretary and +_bookseller_ he was.[56] + +In other countries than France, in Germany especially, Gothic writing +was easily diffused. German manuscripts differ little from those of +France. We observe only that German writing continued to be very fine +till the middle of the thirteenth century, at which period it became +irregular, angular, and bristling with sharp points. + +That which has just been said of Germany in particular is naturally +applicable to East and West Flanders, and to the Low Countries. During +the fifteenth century, under the impulse given by the Dukes of Burgundy, +whose influence we have already mentioned, the most important +chronicles, the best histories then extant, were magnificently +transcribed in that beautiful Gothic minuscule, thick, massive and +angular, which was called _lettre de forme_; and we find it again in +some ancient editions of the end of the fifteenth century (Fig. 346), +and of the beginning of the sixteenth. + +In more northern countries the _Runic_ alphabet was made use of, to +which for a long while a marvellous origin was attributed, but which the +Benedictines justly regarded as an imitation, or rather as a corruption, +of the Latin alphabet. There exist in the _Runic_ language inscriptions +on stone and on wood, some manuscripts on vellum, and Irish books on +parchment and on paper. + +In the south, the writing seems constantly to have reflected the lively +and frank spirit of its inhabitants, among whom was perpetuated the +profound impress of the old Roman civilisation. The minuscule continued +as high as it was long, thin, and distinct; even when it was altered by +the influence of the Gothic, it was still beautiful, and, above all, +legible, as we may be convinced of by examining a fine manuscript +entitled “Specchio della Croce” (“Mirror of the Cross”), of the +thirteenth century; and a precious manuscript of Dante, of the +fourteenth century, both belonging to the Imperial Library, Paris. + +We may adopt for Spain the same opinions as for Italy. There was in +that country also writing of great merit, handed down from the Romans, +which received, as we have already said, the name of _Visigothic_. The +Visigothic writing of the eleventh and twelfth centuries, of the +eleventh especially, is a minuscule of the most graceful kind. But +Gothicism, by the _Capetian_ and the _Ludovician_ coming in as +intermediate agents, at last corrupted this elegant and delicate +writing, as we see in the collection of Spanish troubadours, formed by +order of John II., King of Castile and Leon, about 1440; a celebrated +manuscript in the Imperial Library, Paris. + +Into England, where the Anglo-Saxon type reigned supreme, the Norman +conquest introduced the French writing in charters and manuscripts. And +lastly, among the writings called national, we must again mention that +of Ireland, of which there are fine examples remaining; but upon +examination they prove to be nothing but a variety of the Anglo-Saxon. +It is said to have been in use since the sixth century; and we find that +in spite of divers conquests it continued to be employed till the +fifteenth century. It was even known and employed in France, although it +by no means recommends itself by its elegance, as is attested, among +other manuscripts, by that of the “Homilies of St. Augustine,” in the +Imperial Library, Paris, which is supposed to belong to the eighth +century. + +Here our summary review of palæographic examples at different periods of +the Middle Ages comes to an end. We might follow up our investigations +on this point, even after the time when the printing-press was invented, +since manuscripts are found of the reign of Louis XIV.; but they were +nothing but fanciful inutilities; each century, in order to show itself +in its true light, should follow the instincts and the inspirations +which belong to it. + +FAC-SIMILE OF MANUSCRIPTS. + +[Illustration: Fig. 336.--Writing of the Sixth Century, with Capital +Letters, from a Manuscript, on Papyrus, of the “Sermons of St. +Augustine.” + +(Imperial Library, Paris.) + +TEXT.--_Spes nostra e[st] non de isto tempore, neque de mundo est, neque +in ea felicita[te...._ + +TRANSLATION.--Our hope is not of this time, nor is it of the world, nor +in that felicity.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 337.--Title and Capital Letters of the Seventh +Century, from a Book of the Gospels of Notre-Dame, Paris. (Imperial +Library, Paris.) + +TEXT.--_Incipit præfatio._ + +TRANSLATION.--Here begins the Preface.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 338.--Writing of the end of the Seventh Century, +after a Diploma of Childebert III., for the Gift of a Villa to the Abbey +of St. Denis. (This Fac-simile gives only the half of the length of the +lines.) + +TEXT.-- + + _Childeberthus rex_ + _Se oportune beneficia ad loca sanctorum quod pro juvamen servorum...._ + _Et hoc nobis ad eterna retributione pertenire confidemus. Ideoque...._ + +[Illustration: Fig. 339.--Writing of the Eighth Century, from a +Capitulary of Charlemagne, addressed to Pope Adrian I. in 784. + +(Imperial Library, Paris.) + +TEXT.--_Primo Capitulo. Salutant vos dominus noster, filius vester, +Carolus rex [et filia vestra domna nostra Fastrada, filii et] filæ +domini nostri simul, et omnis domus sua._ + +_II. Salutant vos cuncti sacerdotes, episcopi et abbates, atque omnis +congregatio illorum [in Dei servicio constituta etiam, et universus] +populus Franconum._ + +TRANSLATION.--I. Our lord, your son, King Charles [and your daughter our +Lady Fastrada, salute thee, also the sons and] daughters of our Lord, +and all his house. + +II. All the priests, bishops, and abbots salute thee, as also the whole +congregation [of those who are established in the service of God, and +the whole] of the French people.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 340.--Tironian Writing of the Eighth Century, from a +Latin Psalter. (Imperial Library, Paris.) + +TEXT.--_Exsurge, Domine, in ira tua et exaltare in finibus inimicorum +meorum, et exsurge, Domine Deus meus, in precepto quod mandasti; et +sinagoga populorum circomdabit, te, et propter hanc in altum regredere._ + +TRANSLATION.--Arise, O Lord, in thine anger, lift up thyself because of +the rage of mine enemies: and awake for me to the judgment that thou +hast commanded. + +So shall the congregation of the people compass thee about: for their +sakes therefore return thou on high.--(Psalm vii. 6, 7.)] + +[Illustration: Fig. 341.--Writing of the Tenth Century, after a +Manuscript of the “Commentaries of St. Jerome.” + +(Imperial Library, Paris.) + +TEXT.--_Qui nolunt inter epistolas Pauli eam recipere quæ ad Filemonem +scribitur aiunt non semper apostolum nec omnia Christo in se loquente +dixisse. Quia neque_ ... + +TRANSLATION.--Those who are unwilling to receive among the epistles of +St. Paul that which is written to Philemon, deny that the Apostles spoke +everything and at all times under the inspiration of Christ. Because +neither ...] + +[Illustration: Fig. 342.--Diplomatic Writing of the Tenth Century, from +a Charter of Hugh Capet. (Archives of the Empire.) + +This Fac-simile gives only half the length of the lines. + +TEXT (completely restored.)--_In nomine sanctæ et individuæ Trinitatis, +Hugo gratia Dei Francorum rex. [Mos et consuetudo regum prædecessorum +nostrorum semper exstitit ut ecclesias Dei sublimarent et justis +petitioni]bus servorum Dei clementer faverent, et oppression[em eorum +benigne sublevarent, ut Deum propitium] haberent, eujus amore id +fecissent. Hujus rei grati[a, auditis clamoribus venerabilis Abbonis +abbatis] monasterii S. Mariæ, S. Petri et S. Benedicti Flori[acensis et +monachorum sub eo degentium, nostram] presentiam adeuntium, pro malis +consuetudi[nibus et assiduis rapinis_ ... + +TRANSLATION.--In the name of the holy and indivisible Trinity, Hugh, by +the grace of God, King of the Francs. + +The custom and habit of the kings our predecessors has always been to +honour the churches of God, and to show themselves mercifully favourable +to the just petitions of the servants of God, and to deliver them kindly +from oppression, so that God might be propitious to them, for the love +of whom they thus acted. For this cause, having heard the complaints of +the venerable Abbon, Abbot of the Monastery of Our Lady, St. Peter and +St. Benedict, of Fleury-sur-Loire, and those of the monks living under +his direction, and who came into our presence, on account of the bad +customs and continual rapines ...] + +[Illustration: Fig. 343.--Cursive Writing of the Fifteenth Century, +after an Original Letter, taken from “Recueil des Lettres de Rois.” + +(Imperial Library, Paris.) + +TEXT.--_Messeigneurs et freres, si tres humblement que faire puis a voz +bonnes graces me recommande. Messeigneurs, j’ay receu, voz lettres par +le present porteur: ensemble la requeste et arrest de la court par +icelle ensuivy. J’ay le tout communiqué a messeigneurs les generaulx de +Langue doil et Normandie, et nous avons souuant esté ensemble. Ilz +trouuent bien estrange, aussi font daultres, qui zelent le bien et +honneur de la chambre ausquelz pareillement_ ... + +TRANSLATION.--My lords and brothers, I commend myself as humbly as +possible to your good graces. My lords, I received your letters by the +bearer of this, together with the petition and the decree of the court +accompanying them. I communicated the whole to my lords the generals of +La Langue d’Oil and of Normandy, and we have often conferred together on +the matter. They think it very strange, as do others also, who are +zealous for the good and the honour of the chamber, to which equally +...] + +[Illustration: Fig. 344.--Writing of the Fourteenth Century, after a +Manuscript of “L’Histoire Romaine;” being a paraphrase of the text of +Valerius Maximus. (Imperial Library, Paris.) + +TEXT.--_Eadem, &c._--GLOSE. _Ceste histoire touche Titus Liuius ou quint +liure. Pourquoy il est assauoir que ou temps que les Gals auoient prise +Romme et assis le Capitole, si comme il est dit deuant, il y auoit +dedens le Capitole un jeune homme qui auoit non Gayus Fabius qui estoit +de la lignie des Fabiens. Et pour auoir la congnoissance de ceste lignie +est assauoir aussi que il y ot asses pres de Romme jadis une cite qui +estoit appelee Gabinia: laquele cite apres moult de inconueniens se +rendi a Romme par tel conuenant que il seroient citoiens de Romme._ + +TRANSLATION.--Eadem, &c.--GLOSE. Livy, in his fifth book, touches on +this history. We must know that at the time when the Gauls had taken +Rome and besieged the Capitol, as was said above, there was in the +Capitol a young man named Caius Fabius, and who was of the Fabian race; +and to know this race we must also know that there was formerly near +Rome a town called Gabinia; which town, after many vicissitudes, +surrendered to Rome, on the condition that all its inhabitants should be +considered as citizens of Rome.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 345.--Fac-simile of the Inscription _Ex libris_, +&c., in the beginning of a Manuscript executed by John Flamel, Scribe +and Librarian to the Duke de Berry, at the end of the Fourteenth +Century. + +(Imperial Library, Paris.) + +TEXT.--_Ceste Bible est a Monseigneur le Duc de Berry._ + +FLAMEL. + +TRANSLATION.--This Bible belongs to Monseigneur the Duke de Berry. + +FLAMEL. + +NOTE.--The Duke de Berry, John, brother of King Charles V., and uncle to +King Charles VI., was a great amateur of fine books. He spent very large +sums in having manuscripts copied and illuminated. The Imperial Library, +Paris, preserves a large number of the most valuable of them.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 346.--Writing of the Fifteenth Century, after the +First Page of a Breviary. (Royal Library, Brussels.) + +TEXT.--_Sabbato in aduentu Domini, ad vesperas, super psalmos antiphona, +Benedictus, psalmus, ipsum cum ceteris antiphonis et psalmis. Infra +capitulum._ + +_Ecce dies veniunt, dicit Dominus, et suscitabo Dauid germen._ + +TRANSLATION.--On Saturday in Advent, at vespers, before the psalms +chanted alternately, (comes) the hymn Benedictus, with the other +antiphons and psalms. After the lesson ... + +“Behold the days are coming, saith the Lord, and I will restore the seed +of David.”] + +[Illustration: Fig. 347.--Design of a Caligraphic Ornament taken from a +Charter of the University of Paris. + +(Fifteenth Century.)] + + + + +MINIATURES IN MANUSCRIPTS. + + Miniatures at the Beginning of the Middle Ages.--The two “Vatican” + Virgils.--Painting of Manuscripts under Charlemagne and Louis le + Débonnaire.--Tradition of Greek Art in Europe.--Decline of the + Miniature in the Tenth Century.--Origin of Gothic Art.--Fine + Manuscript of the time of St. Louis.--Clerical and Lay + Miniature-Painters.--Caricature and the Grotesque.--Miniatures in + Monochrome and in Grisaille.--Illuminators at the Court of France + and to the Dukes of Burgundy.--School of John Fouquet.--Italian + Miniature-Painters.--Giulo Clovio.--French School under Louis XII. + + +Contemporaneous, almost, with the idea which first caused oral +traditions, chronicles, speeches, and poetry to be collected together +under the form and name of _book_, is the art of ornamenting manuscripts +with miniatures. Our intention is not to go back to the sources--as +obscure as they are distant--of that art, but only to point out its +principal phases of improvement or of decay during the Middle Ages. + +The most ancient known miniatures date from the very commencement of +that period which is generally called the Middle Ages; that is to say, +from the third and fourth centuries. These paintings, of which there +exist but two or three specimens in the libraries of Europe, +nevertheless offer, in their correctness and masterly beauty, the great +characteristics of ancient Art. The most celebrated are those of the +“Virgil,” preserved in the Vatican Library (Fig. 348), a manuscript long +celebrated among learned men for the authenticity of its text. Another +“Virgil,” of the date of about a century later, and which, before its +presentation to the Pope, was one of the most beautiful ornaments of the +ancient library of the Abbey of St. Denis, in France, contains paintings +not less remarkable in respect of colour, but very inferior as far as +drawing and the style of the compositions are concerned. These two +incomparable examples are sufficient in themselves to show the state of +the painting of manuscripts at the beginning of the Middle Ages. + +[Illustration: Fig. 348.--Miniature taken from the “Virgil” in the +Library of the Vatican, Rome. + +(Third or Fourth Century.)] + +The sixth and seventh centuries have left us no books with miniatures; +the utmost we find at that period are some capital letters embellished +by caligraphy. In the eighth century, on the contrary, the ornaments +were multiplied, and some rather elegant paintings can be pointed out; +the fact is, under the reign of Charlemagne a movement of renovation +took place in the Arts as in literature: the Latin writing, which had +become illegible, was reformed, and the style of painting manuscripts +assumed something of the form of the fine antique examples still extant +at that period. (Fig. 350.) + +[Illustration: Fig. 349.--Painted Capital letters, taken from +Manuscripts of the Eighth or Ninth Century.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 350.--Border, taken from a Book of the Gospels of +the Eighth Century. (Library of Vienna).] + +If we would have an idea of the heaviness and the ungraceful character +of the writing and of the ornaments which accompanied it before the +period of Charlemagne, it will suffice to examine Fig. 349. “It was then +quite time,” says M. Aimé Champollion-Figeac, “that the salutary +influence exercised by the illustrious monarch made itself felt in the +Arts as well as in letters.” The first manuscripts which seem to bear +witness to this progress are first a sacramentary, said to be that of +Gellonius, the allegorical paintings of which are of great interest in +the history of Christian symbolism; and a Book of the Gospels, now in +the Louvre: the latter is said to have belonged to the great emperor +himself, and we reproduce one of the paintings from it (Fig. 351). We +may mention, as of the ninth century, many Books of the Gospels, in one +of which, given by Louis le Débonnaire to the Abbey St. Médard de +Soissons, the purest Byzantine style shows itself; then the Bible called +the “Metz” Bible, in which are paintings of large dimensions, remarkable +for the felicitous groupings of the figures and for the beauty of the +draperies. One of these miniatures excites an interest quite peculiar, +inasmuch as King David, who is represented in it, is but a copy of an +ancient Apollo, round whom the artist has personified Courage, Justice, +Prudence, &c. + +Let us mention still further two Bibles and a book of prayers, the last +containing a very fine portrait of the king, Charles the Bald, to whom +it belonged; and lastly, two books really worth attention, on account of +the delicacy and freedom of the outline drawings, for the attitudes of +the characters represented, and for the draperies, which resemble those +of ancient statues. These books are a “Terence,” preserved in the +Imperial Library, Paris, number 7,899 in the catalogue; and a +“Lectionary of the Cathedal of Metz,” from which the + +[Illustration: Fig. 351.--Miniature from the Book of the Gospels of +Charlemagne. + +(Manuscript in the Library of the Louvre.)] + +border (Fig. 352) is taken. While in France the art of painting +manuscripts had progressed so much as to produce some perfect models of +delicacy and taste, Germany had never got beyond the simplest +compositions, as we see in the “Paraphrase on the Gospels,” in Theotisc +(the old Teutonic language), belonging to the Library of Vienna. + +[Illustration: Fig. 352.--Border of a Lectionary in the Cathedral of +Metz. (Ninth Century.)] + +The artistic traditions of the ancients in the ninth century are +attested by the manuscripts of Christian Greece, whereof the Imperial +Library, Paris, possesses many magnificent specimens, at the head of +which we must place the “Commentaries of Gregory Nazianzus,” ornamented +with an infinite number of paintings, in which all the resources of +ancient art are applied to the representation of Christian subjects +(Fig. 353). The heads of the characters portrayed are admirably +expressive, and of the finest style; the colouring of the miniatures is +warm and soft; the costumes, the representations of buildings and of the +accessories, offer, moreover, very interesting subjects of study. +Unfortunately, these paintings were executed on a very crumbling +surface, which has in many places peeled off: it is sad to see one of +the most precious monuments of Greek and Christian Art in a deplorable +state of dilapidation. + +The masterpiece of the tenth century, which again is due to the artists +of Greece, is a “Psalter, with Commentaries,” belonging also to the +Imperial Library (number 139 among the Greek manuscripts), a work in +which the miniature-painter seems not to have been able to disengage +himself from the Pagan creeds in illustrating Biblical episodes. Two +celebrated manuscripts of the same time, but executed in France, and +preserved in the same collection, show, by the stiffness and +incorrectness of the drawing, that the impetus given by the genius of +Charlemagne had abated: these are the “Bible de Noailles,” and the +“Bible de St. Martial,” of Limoges (Fig. 355). + +To speak truly, if in France there was a decadency, the Anglo-Saxon and +Visigothic artists of this period + +[Illustration: Fig. 353.--Miniature of the Ninth Century, extracted from +the “Commentaries of Gregory Nazianzus,” representing the consecration +of a Bishop. (Large folio Manuscript in the Imperial Library, Paris.)] + +were also very inferior, to judge from a Latin Book of the Gospels of +the tenth century painted in England (Fig. 356); it, however, proves +that the art of ornamenting books had degenerated less than that of +drawing the human figure. Another manuscript with paintings, called +Visigothic, containing the Apocalypse of St. John, gives, in its +fantastic ornaments and animals, an example of the strange style adopted +by a certain school of miniature-painters. + +[Illustration: Fig. 354.--Fac-smile of a Miniature drawn with the pen, +taken from a Bible of the Eleventh Century. (Imperial Library, Paris.)] + +[Illustration: Fig. 355.--Border taken from the Bible of St. Martial of +Limoges. (Tenth Century.)] + +Germany now began to improve in the art of painting miniatures. It owed +this happy result to the emigration of Greek artists, who came to the +German court to take refuge from the troubles of the East. The progress +accomplished in this part of Europe shows itself in the drawing of the +figures of a German Book of the Gospels of the beginning of the eleventh +century, a work very superior to that of the Teutonic Book of the +Gospels just referred to. The border of which we give a fac-simile in +Fig. 357 shows also a certain degree of improvement; it is taken from a +Book of the Gospels of the same period, preserved in the Royal Library, +Munich. + +[Illustration: Fig. 356.--Border taken from a Book of the Gospels in +Latin, executed in England. (Tenth Century.)] + +[Illustration: Fig. 357.--Border taken from a Book of the Gospels of the +beginning of the Eleventh Century. In the Royal Library, Munich.] + +But in France, to foreign invasions and to misfortunes of all kinds, +which, since the death of Charlemagne, had afflicted the country, was +added the terror caused by the general expectation that the world was +coming to an end at the expiration of the first millennial. People were, +therefore, otherwise employed than in ornamenting books. Accordingly, +this epoch is one of the most barren in religious or other paintings. +Fig. 358 represents the last degree of abasement in this art. Nothing in +the world could be more barbarous, nor farther removed from all +sentiment of the beautiful, and even from the instinctive idea of +drawing. Ornamentation, however, remained sufficiently good, although +under very heavy forms, as the Sacramentary of Æthelgar, which is +preserved in the Library of Rouen, shows (Fig. 359). The decadency, +however, seems to have come to a stop in France towards the end of the +eleventh century, if we judge of the art from paintings, executed in +1060, and contained in a Latin manuscript, bearing the number 818, in +the Imperial Library. + +[Illustration: Fig. 358.--Miniature taken from a Missal of the Beginning +of the Eleventh Century. + +(Imperial Library, Paris, No. 821.)] + +In the manuscripts of the twelfth century, the influence of the Crusades +made itself already felt. At this period, the East regenerated in some +sort the West in all that concerned arts, sciences, and literature. Many +examples witness that the painting of manuscripts was not the last to +undergo this singular transformation. Everything the imagination could +invent of the most fantastic was particularly brought into play to give +to the Latin letters a peculiar character--imitated, moreover, from the +ornaments of Saracenic architecture. This practice was even applied to +public acts and documents, as Fig. 360 proves; it represents some of the +initial letters in the “Rouleau Mortuaire” of St. Vital. Callot, in his +“Temptation of St. Anthony,” has, we think, imagined nothing stranger +than the figure we give; a demon standing on the back of Cerberus forms +the vertical line in the letter T; while two other demons, whose feet +are in the mouth of the first, form the two lateral branches of the +letter. + +[Illustration: Fig. 359.--Border taken from the Sacramentary of +Æthelgar. (Rouen Library.)] + +In the thirteenth century, Saracenic or Gothic art universally +prevailed. Everywhere figures assumed gaunt, elongated forms; +coats-of-arms invaded the miniatures; but the colouring was of +marvellous purity and brightness; burnished gold, applied with the +greatest skill, stood out from blue or purple backgrounds which even in +our own day have lost nothing of their original freshness. + +[Illustration: Fig. 360.--Initial Letters extracted from the “Rouleau +Mortuaire” of St. Vital, Twelfth Century. + +(Imperial Archives of France.)] + +Among the most remarkable manuscripts of this century we must mention a +Psalter in five colours, containing the French, Hebrew, and Roman +versions, with some commentaries (Imperial Library, No. 1,132 _bis_). +One should analyse the greater number of subjects depicted in this +manuscript to understand all their importance; we will mention only that +among them are sieges of towns, Gothic fortresses, interiors of Italian +banking-houses, various musical instruments, &c. There is, perhaps, no +other manuscript which equals this in the richness, the beauty, and +multiplicity of its paintings: it contains ninety-nine large miniatures, +independently of ninety-six + +[Illustration: Fig. 361.--Facsimile of a Miniature of a Psalter, of the +Thirteenth Century, representing warlike, scientific, commercial, and +agricultural Works. (Imperial Library, Paris.)] + +medallions representing divers episodes suggested by the text of the +Psalms (Fig. 361). After this psalter we must place the Breviary of St. +Louis, or rather of Queen Blanche, formerly preserved in the Arsenal +Library, Paris, and now in the Musée des Souverains; a celebrated +manuscript which has, on folio 191, this inscription: “C’est le Psautier +monseigneur St. Loys, lequel fu à sa mère.”[57] But the volume is not +rich in large miniatures. We observe in it, however, a calendar +ornamented with small subjects very delicately executed, representing +the labours appropriate to each month, according to the seasons of the +year. The character of the paintings exhibits a style anterior to the +reign of Louis IX.; and it is supposed, indeed, that this book first +belonged to the mother of that king. + +We must now mention another Psalter, which was actually used by St. +Louis; as is proved not only by an inscription at the beginning of the +volume, but still further by the fleurs-de-lis of the king, the arms of +Blanche of Castile, his mother, and perhaps also _les pals de gueules_ +of Margaret of Provence, his wife. Nothing can equal the beautiful +preservation of the miniatures in this volume, which contains +seventy-eight subjects, with as many explanatory texts in French. The +heads of the characters, though almost microscopic, have nevertheless, +generally, a fine expression. + +[Illustration: Fig. 362.--A Border taken from a Gospel in Latin, of the +Thirteenth Century. + +(Imperial Library, Paris.)] + +The “Livre de Clergie,” which bears the date of 1260, merits far less +attention: so does the “Roman du Roi Artus,” No. 6,963, in the Imperial +Library, Paris, executed in 1276. But we must point out two of the most +beautiful examples of this period, a Book of the Gospels in Latin, No. +665 in the Supplement, Imperial Library, from which we have borrowed an +elegant border (Fig. 362), and the “Roman du Saint-Graal,” No. 6,769, +also in the Imperial Library. + +Italy was then at the head of civilisation in everything; it had +particularly inherited the grand traditions of painting which had gone +to sleep for ever in Greece only to wake up again in Europe. + +[Illustration: Fig. 363.--Facsimile of a Miniature of the Thirteenth +Century, representing a scene of an old Romance: the beautiful Josiane, +disguised as a female juggler, playing a Welsh air on the _Rote_ +(Fiddle), to make herself known to her friend Bewis. (Imperial Library, +Paris.)] + +Here we must introduce a remark, the result of a general examination of +the manuscripts bequeathed to us by the thirteenth century; namely, that +the miniatures in sacred books are much more beautifully and carefully +executed than those of the romances of chivalry and the chronicles of +the same period (Figs. 363 and 364). Must we attribute this superiority +to the power of religious inspiration? Must we suppose that in the +monasteries alone clever artists met with sufficient remuneration? +Before answering these questions, or rather as an answer to them, let us +remember that in those days religious institutions absorbed nearly all +the social intellectual movement, as well as the effective possession of +material riches, if not of territorial property. Solely occupied with +distant wars or intestine quarrels which impoverished them, the nobles +were altogether unable to become protectors of literature and Art. In +the abbeys and convents were lay-brethren who sometimes had taken no +vow, but whose fervent spirits, burning with poetical imagination, +sought in the monastic retreat redemption from their past sins: these +men of faith were happy to consecrate their whole existence to the +ornamentation of a single sacred book destined for the community which +gave them in exchange all the necessaries of life. + +[Illustration: Fig 364.--The Four Sons of Aymon on their good Steed, +Bayart. From a Miniature in the Romance of the “Four Sons of Aymon,” a +Manuscript of the Thirteenth Century. (Imperial Library, Paris.)] + +This explains the absence of the names of the miniature-painters in +ancient manuscripts, particularly in those which are written in Latin. +However, when romances and chronicles in the vulgar tongue began to come +into fashion, artists of great talent eagerly presented themselves to be +engaged by princes and nobles who wished to have this sort of books +ornamented; but the anonymous which these lay artists generally +preserved is explained by the circumstance that in most cases they were +considered only as artistic assistants in the lordly houses where they +were employed, and in which they fulfilled some other domestic duty; for +instance, Colard de Laon, the favourite painter of Louis of Orleans, was +also valet-de-chambre to this prince; Pietro Andrea, another artist, +doubtless an Italian, to judge from his Christian name, was +gentleman-usher; and we see this + +[Illustration: Fig. 365.--Miniature taken from the “Roman de Fauvel” +(Fifteenth Century), representing Fauvel, or the Fox, reprimanding a +Widow who has married again, and to whom is being given a Serenade of +Rough Music. + +(Imperial Library, Paris.)] + +same painter “sent from Blois to Tours, to procure certain matters for +the accouchment of Madame the Duchess;” or again, “from Blois to +Romorantin, to inquire after Madame d’Angoulesme, who was reported to be +very unwell.” + +Certain artists, however, who then took the modest name of illuminators, +lived entirely by their profession; working at _tableaux benoîts_ +(blessed pictures), or popular paintings, which were sold at the +church-doors. Others, again, were paid assistants of the recognised +painters to princes or nobles; and the anonymous was quite naturally +imposed upon them by their subordinate position, if not by the simple +modesty which was for a long time the accompaniment of talent. In the +fourteenth century the study of miniatures is peculiarly interesting, on +account of the scenes of public and private life, of manners and +customs, we find reproduced in them. Portraits after life, _d’après le +vif_, as they were called in those days, made their appearance; and +caricature, at all times so powerful in France, already began to show +itself with a daring which, occupying itself with the clergy, women, and +chivalry, stopped only before the prestige of royalty. + +The miniatures of a French manuscript, dated 1313 (Imperial Library, +Paris, No. 8,504, F. L.), deserve to be mentioned, especially on account +of the various subjects they represent; for, besides the ceremony of the +reception of the King of Navarre into the order of chivalry, we see in +it philosophers discussing, judges administering the law, various scenes +of conjugal life, singers accompanying themselves on divers instruments +of music, villagers engaged in the labours of country life, &c. We must +mention also a manuscript of the “Roman de Fauvel,” in which is +especially prominent the very original scene of a popular concert of +rough music, by masked performers, given, according to an old custom, to +a widow who had married a second time (Fig. 365). + +The period during which Charles V. occupied the throne of France is one +of those that produced the finest specimens of manuscript-painting. This +monarch, the founder of the Royal Library, was an admirer of illustrated +books, and had accumulated, at great cost, a large collection in the +great tower of the Louvre. A royal prince, whom we have already +mentioned as being excessively devoted to artistic luxuries, was the +rival of Charles V. in this respect: this was his brother, the Duke Jean +de Berry, who devoted enormous sums to the purchase and production of +manuscripts. + +[Illustration: Fig. 366.--Border taken from a Prayer-book belonging to +Louis of France, Duke of Anjou, King of Naples, of Sicily, and of +Jerusalem. (Fourteenth Century.)] + +[Illustration: Fig. 367.--Miniature taken from “Les Femmes Illustres,” +translated from Boccacio. (Imperial Library, Paris.)] + +Even under Charles VI. this impulse did not abate, and the art of +painting manuscripts was never in a more flourishing condition. The +border taken from the “Livre d’Heures,” or prayer-book, of the Duke +d’Anjou, uncle of the king (Fig. 366), is an example of this. We might +mention, as specimens of illustrated works of this period, the book of +the “Demandes et Réponses,” by Peter Salmon, a manuscript executed for +the king, and ornamented with exquisite miniatures, in which all the +characters are true historical portraits, beautifully finished. +Nevertheless, the masterpieces of the French school at this period show +themselves in the miniatures of two translations of Boccacio’s “De +Claris Mulieribus” (“Beautiful Women”) (Fig. 367). + +[Illustration: Fig. 368.--Miniature of the Psalter of John, Duke of +Berry, representing the Man of Sorrow, or Christ, showing the Sign of +the Cross. (Imperial Library, Paris.)] + +[Illustration: Fig. 369.--Border taken from the Bible called Clement +VII.’s. (Fourteenth Century.)] + +At that time two new styles appeared in the painting of manuscripts: +miniatures _en camaïeu_ (in one colour only), and miniatures _en +grisaille_ (in two colours, viz., a light colour shaded, generally with +brown). Of the first kind, we may instance “Les Petites Heures” of John, +Duke de Berry (Fig. 368), and “Les Miracles de Notre-Dame.” + +Germany did not in this respect rise to the height of France; but +miniature-painting in Italy progressed more and more towards perfection. +A remarkable specimen of Italian art of this period is the Bible called +Clement VII.’s (Fig. 369), which is preserved in the Imperial Library, +Paris. But there exists one more admirable still in the same +establishment, so rich in curiosities, of the manuscript of “The +Institution of the Order of the Holy Ghost,” an order of chivalry +founded at Naples in 1352, by Louis de Tarento, King of Naples, during a +feast on the day of Pentecost; it is in this superb manuscript, executed +by Italian or French artists, may, perhaps, be found the most exquisite +miniatures of that day (Fig. 370); especially remarkable are the +beautiful portraits in _camaïeu_ of King Louis and his wife, Jane I., +Queen of Naples. A valuable copy of the romance of “Lancelot du Lac,” of +the same date, recommends itself to the attention of connoisseurs by a +rare peculiarity: one can follow in it the successive operations of the +painter in miniature; thus are presented to us consecutively the +outline-drawing, then the first tints, generally uniform, executed by +the illuminator; next the surface on which the gold is to be applied; +then the real work of the miniature-painter in the heads, costumes, &c. + +[Illustration: Fig. 370.--Miniature from a Manuscript of the Fourteenth +Century, representing Louis de Tarento, second Husband of Queen Jane of +Naples, instituting the Order of the Holy Ghost. + +(Imperial Library, Paris.)] + +France, in spite of the great troubles which agitated her, and the wars +she had to maintain with foreign powers during the fifteenth century, +saw, nevertheless, the art of the painter improve very considerably. The +fine copy of Froissart in the Imperial Library, Paris (Fig. 371), might +alone suffice to prove the truth of this assertion. The name of John +Foucquet, painter to King Louis XI., deserves to be mentioned with +eulogy, as that of one of the artists who contributed most to the +progress of painting on manuscripts. Everything thenceforward announced +the Renaissance which was to take place in the sixteenth century; and if +we wish to follow the onward progress of art from the beginning of the +fifteenth century till the time + +[Illustration: CORONATION OF CHARLES V., KING OF FRANCE. + +Miniature from Froissart’s Chronicles in the National Library, Paris.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 371.--Border taken from “Froissart’s Chronicles,” a +French Manuscript of the Fifteenth Century. (Imperial Library, Paris.)] + +[Illustration: Fig. 372.--Border taken from an “Ovid.” An Italian +Manuscript of the Fifteenth Century. (Imperial Library, Paris.)] + +of Raphael, it is in the miniatures of manuscripts we shall find the +best evidences of it. Let us observe, by the way, that the Flemish +school of the Dukes of Burgundy exercised great influence over this +marvellous art for a period of more than a century. Spain was also +progressing; but it is to the Italian artists we must, from that time +forward, look for the most remarkable works. The Imperial Library of +Paris possesses many manuscripts which bear witness to the marked +improvement in miniature-painting at this period; among others an “Ovid” +of the fifteenth century (Fig. 372); but in order to see the highest +expression of the art, we must examine an incomparable copy of Dante’s +works, preserved in the Vatican, a manuscript proceeding from the hands +of Giulio Clovio (Fig. 373), an illustrious painter, pupil and imitator +of Raphael: his miniatures are remarkable for beauty. + +[Illustration: Fig. 373.--Miniature, painted by Giulio Clovio, of the +Sixteenth Century, taken from Dante’s “Paradise,” representing the Poet +and Beatrice transported to the Moon, the abode of Women devoted to +Chastity. (Manuscript in the Vatican Library, Rome.)] + +Lastly, in the reign of Louis XII., the complete regeneration of the +Arts was effected. We should, however, mention that at this period +there were two very distinct schools: one whose style still showed the +influence of ancient Gothic traditions, the other entirely dependent on +Italian taste. The Missal of Pope Paul V. emanated from this last school +(Fig. 374). + +[Illustration: Fig. 374.--Border taken from the Missal of Pope Paul V. +(An Italian Manuscript of the Sixteenth Century.)] + +This immense progress, which showed itself simultaneously in France and +in Italy by the production of many original works, seems to have +attained its climax in the execution of a justly celebrated manuscript, +known by the name of “Heures d’Anne de Bretagne” (Fig. 375). Among the +numerous pictures which decorate this book of prayers, many would not be +unworthy of Raphael’s pencil: the expression in the face of the Virgin +Mary is, with many others, remarkable for its sweetness; the heads of +the angels have something divine in them; and the ornaments which occupy +the margin of each page are composed of flowers, fruits, and insects, +represented with all the freshness and brilliancy of nature. This +inimitable masterpiece was, like a sort of sublime testament, to mark +the glorious boundary-line of an art which must necessarily degenerate +now that the printing-press was causing the numerous class of scribes +and illuminators of the Middle Ages to disappear. It has never revived +since, but at intervals; and then more to meet the requirements of fancy +than to be of any real use. + +A few manuscripts adorned with miniatures of the end of the sixteenth +century may still be mentioned, especially two “Livres d’Heures” +(prayer-books) painted in _grisaille_, which + +[Illustration: Fig. 375.--Miniature from the Prayer-book of Anne de +Bretagne, representing the Archangel St. Michael. + +(Musée des Souverains.)] + +belonged to Henry II., King of France (now in the Musée des Souverains), +and the “Livre d’Heures,” executed for the Margrave of Baden by a +painter of Lorraine or of Metz named Brentel (Fig. 376), who, however, +did nothing + +[Illustration: Fig. 376.--Miniature in the “Livre d’Heures” belonging to +the Margrave of Baden, representing the Portrait of the blessed Bernard +of Baden, who died in the odour of Sanctity, on July 15, 1458. + +(Imperial Library, Paris.)] + +but put together designs copied from the great masters of Italy and +Flanders. There were, nevertheless, good miniature-painters in France up +to the seventeenth century, to illustrate the manuscripts executed with +so much taste by the famous Jarry and the caligraphers of his school. +The last manifestation of the art shines forth, for example, in the +magnificent “Livre d’Heures” presented to Louis XIV. by the pensioners +of the Hôtel des Invalides, a remarkable work, but yet unworthy to +appear by the side of the “Livre d’Heures d’Anne de Bretagne,” which the +painter seems to have adopted as his model. + +[Illustration: Fig. 377.--Escutcheon of France, taken from some +Ornaments in the Manuscript of the “Institution of the Order of the Holy +Ghost.” (Fourteenth Century.)] + + + + +BOOKBINDING + + Primitive Binding of Books.--Bookbinding among the + Romans.--Bookbinding with Goldsmith’s Work from the Fifth + Century.--Chained Books.--Corporation of _Lieurs_, or + Bookbinders.--Books bound in Wood, with Metal Corners and + Clasps.--First Bindings in Leather, honeycombed (_waffled_?) and + gilt.--Description of some celebrated Bindings of the Fourteenth + and Fifteenth Centuries.--Sources of Modern Bookbinding.--John + Grollier.--President De Thou.--Kings and Queens of France + Bibliomaniacs.--Superiority of Bookbinding in France. + + +As soon as the ancients had made square books, more convenient to read +than the rolls, binding--that is to say, the art of reuniting the leaves +stitched or stuck (_ligati_) into a movable back, between two square +pieces of wood, ivory, metal, or leather--bookbinding was invented. This +primitive binding, which had no other object than that of preserving the +books, no other merit than than of solidity, was not long ere it became +associated with ornament, and thus put itself in relation with the +luxury of Greek and Roman civilisation. Not contented with placing on +each side of the volume a little tablet of cedar-wood or of oak, on +which was written the title of the book (for books were then laid flat +on the shelves of the library), a piece of leather was stretched over +the edge to preserve it from dust, if the book was valuable, and the +volume was tied up with a strap passed round it many times, and which +was subsequently replaced by clasps. In certain instances the volume was +enveloped in thick cloth, and even enclosed in a case of wood or +leather. Such was the state of bookbinding in ancient times. + +There were then, as now, good and bad bookbinders. Cicero, in his +letters to Atticus, asks for two of his slaves who were very clever +_ligatores librorum_ (bookbinders). Bookbinding, however, was not an art +very generally known, for square books, notwithstanding the convenience +of their shape, had not yet superseded rolls; but we see, in the Notices +of the Dignities of the Eastern Empire (“Notitia Dignitatum Imperii), +written towards 450, that this accessory art had already made immense +progress; since certain officers of the empire used to carry, in the +public ceremonies, large square books containing the administrative +instructions of the emperor: these books were bound, covered with green, +red, blue, or yellow leather, closed by means of leathern straps or by +hooks, and ornamented with little golden rods disposed horizontally, or +lozengewise, with the portrait of the sovereign painted or gilt on their +sides. From the fifth century goldsmiths and lapidaries +ornamented binding with great richness. And so we hear St. Jerome +exclaiming:--“Your books are covered with precious stones, and Christ +died naked before the gate of his temple!” “The Book of the Gospels,” in +Greek, given to the basilica of Monza by Theodelinda, queen of the +Lombards, about 600, has still one of these costly bindings. + +A specimen of Byzantine art, preserved in the Louvre, is a sort of small +plate, which is supposed to be one of the sides of the cover of a book; +on it we find executed in bas-relief the “Visit of the Holy Women to the +Tomb,” and several other scenes from the Gospels. In this example the +beauty of the figures, the taste which dictated the arrangement of the +draperies, and the finish in the execution, furnish us with evidence +that, in the industrial arts, the Greeks had maintained till the twelfth +century their pre-eminence over all the people of Europe. + +In those days the binding of ordinary books was executed without any +ornamentation, this being reserved for sacred books. If, in the +treasures of churches, abbeys, and palaces, a few manuscripts covered +with gold, silver, and precious stones were kept as relics, books in +common use were simply covered in boards or leather; but not without +much attention being given to the binding, which was merely intended to +preserve the volumes. Many documents bear witness to the great care and +precision with which, in certain monasteries, books were bound and +preserved. All sorts of skins were employed in covering them when they +had been once pressed and joined together between boards of hard wood +that would not readily decay: in the North, even the skins of seals and +of sharks were employed, but pig-skin seems to have been used in +preference to all others. + +[Illustration: PANEL OF A BOOK COVER. + +Bas-relief in Gold Repoussé. Ninth Century. (in the Louvre.)] + +It must be admitted that we, perhaps, owe to their rich bindings, which +were well calculated to tempt thieves, the destruction of a number of +valuable manuscripts when towns or monasteries were sacked; but, on the +other hand, the sumptuous bindings with which kings and nobles covered +Bibles, the Gospels, antiphonaries,[58] and missals, have certainly +preserved to us very many curious examples that, without them, would by +degrees have deteriorated, or would not have escaped all the chances of +destruction to which they were exposed. It is thus, for instance, that +the famous manuscript of Sens has descended to us, which contains “La +Messe des Fous,” set to music in the twelfth century; it is bound +between two pieces of ivory, with bas-relief carvings of the fourth +century, representing the festivals of Bacchus. All great public +collections show with pride some of these rare and venerable bindings, +decorated with gold, silver, or copper, engraved, chased, or inlaid with +precious stones or coloured glass, with cameos or antique ivories (Fig. +378). The greater number of rich books of the Gospels mentioned in +history date back as far as the period of Charlemagne, and among these +we must mention, above all, one given by the emperor himself to the +Abbey of St. Riquier, “covered with plates of silver, and ornamented +with gold and gems;” that of St. Maximinius of Treves, which came from +Ada, daughter of Pepin, sister of Charlemagne, and was ornamented with +an engraved agate representing Ada, the emperor, and his sons; and +lastly, one that was to be seen as late as 1727 in the convent of +Hautvillers, near Epernay, and which was bound in carved ivory. + +Sometimes these sumptuous volumes were enclosed in an envelope made of +rich stuff; or, in pursuance of an ancient custom, a casket not less +gorgeously decorated than the binding, contained it. The Prayer-book of +Charlemagne, now preserved in the Library of the Louvre, is known to +have been originally enclosed in a small casket of silver gilt, on which +were represented in relief the “Mysteries of the Passion.” + +These books, however, bound with goldsmith’s work, were not those that +were chained in churches and in certain libraries (Fig. 379), as some +volumes still in existence show, with the rings through which passed the +chain that fastened them to the desk. These _catenati_ (chained books) +were generally Bibles and missals, bound in wood and heavily ornamented +with metallic corners; which, while placed at the disposition of the +faithful and of the public in general, their owners wished to guarantee +against being stolen. + +[Illustration: Fig. 378.--Binding in Gold, adorned with precious Stones +which covered a “Book of the Gospels” of the Eleventh Century, +representing Jesus Crucified, with the Virgin and St. John at the Foot +of the Cross. + +(Musée du Louvre).] + +We must not forget to mention, among the most beautiful bindings of the +eleventh and twelfth centuries, the coverings of books in enamelled +copper (Fig. 380). The Museum of Cluny possesses two plates of incrusted +enamel of Limoges, which must have belonged to one of these bindings: +the first has for its subject the “Adoration of the Magi;” the other + +[Illustration: IVORY DIPTYCH OF THE LOWER EMPIRE. + +Serving as a Book Cover, “l’Office des fous.”. (In the Library of +Sens)] + +represents the monk Etienne de Muret, founder of the order of Grandmont +(in the twelfth century), conversing with St. Nicholas. The Cathedral of +Milan contains in its treasury the covering of a book still more ancient +and much richer, about fourteen inches long by twelve inches wide, and +profusely covered with incrusted enamel, mounted and ornamented with +polished, but uncut, precious stones of various colours. + +[Illustration: Fig. 379.--Library of the University of Leyden, in which +all the Books were chained, even in the Seventeenth Century.] + +But all these were only the work of enamellers, goldsmiths, +illuminators, and clasp-makers. The binders, or bookbinders properly so +called, fastened together the leaves of books, and placed them between +two boards, which they then covered with leather, skin, stuff, or +parchment; they added to these coverings sometimes leathern straps, +sometimes metal clasps, sometimes hooks, to keep the volume firmly +closed, and almost always nails, whose round and projecting heads +preserved the flat surface of the binding from being rubbed. + +In the year 1299, when the tax was imposed upon the inhabitants of Paris +for the exigencies of the king, it was ascertained that the number of +bookbinders then actually in the town amounted only to seventeen, who, +as well as the scribes and booksellers, were directly dependent on the + +[Illustration: Fig. 380.--Large Painted Initial Letter in a Manuscript +in the Royal Library, Brussels, showing the arrangement of the Binding, +in enamelled Metal, of a book of the Gospels. (Ninth or Tenth +Century.)] + +University, the authorities of which placed them under the surveillance +of four sworn bookbinders, who were considered the _agents_ of the +University. We must except, however, from this jurisdiction the +acknowledged bookbinder to the “Chambre des Comptes,” who, before he +could be appointed to this office, had to make an affirmation _that he +could neither read nor write_. + +In the musters, or processions, of the University of Paris, the +bookbinders came after the booksellers. To explain the relatively small +number of professed bookbinders, we must remember that at this period +the majority of scholars bound their own books, as divers passages of +ancient authors prove; while the monasteries, which were the principal +centres of bookmakers, had one or many members of their community whose +special function it was to bind the works written within their walls. +Tritheimius, Abbot of Spanheim at the end of the fifteenth century, does +not forget the bookbinders in the enumeration he makes of the different +employments of his monks:--“Let that one,” says he, “fasten the leaves +together, and bind the book with boards. You, prepare those boards; you, +dress the leather; you, the metal plates, which are to adorn the +binding.” These bindings are represented on the seal of the University +of Oxford (Fig. 381), and on the banners of some French corporation of +printers and booksellers (Figs. 382 and 386). + +The metal plates, the corners, the nails, the clasps with which these +volumes were then laden rendered them so heavy that, in order to enable +the reader to turn over the leaves with facility, they were placed on +one of those revolving desks having space for many open folios at the +same time, and which were capable of accommodating many readers +simultaneously. It is said that Petrarch had caused a volume containing +the “Epistles of Cicero,” transcribed by himself, to be bound so +massively, that as he was continually reading it, he often let it fall +and injured his leg; so badly once that he was threatened with +amputation. This manuscript in Petrarch’s handwriting is still to be +seen in the Laurentian Library at Florence; it is bound in wood, with +edges and clasps of copper. + +The Crusades, which introduced into Europe many luxurious customs, must +have had great influence on bookbinding, since the Arabs had for a long +while known the art of preparing, dyeing, stamping, and gilding the +skins they employed to make covers for books: these covers took the name +of _alæ_ (the wings), no doubt from the resemblance between them and +the wings of a bird of rich plumage. The Crusaders having brought back +from their expeditions specimens of Oriental binding, our European +workmen did not fail to turn their brilliant models to account. + +[Illustration: Fig. 381.--Seal of the University of Oxford, in which is +a Book bound with Corners and Clasps.] + +An entire revolution, moreover, which had taken place in the formation +of royal and princely libraries, was to produce a revolution in binding +also. Bibles, missals, reproductions of ancient authors, treatises on +theology, were no longer the only books in common use. The new language +had given rise to histories, romances, and poems, which were the delight +of a society becoming more and more polished every day. For the pleasure +of readers, the gallant of one sex and the fair of the other, books were +required more agreeable to the eye, and less rough to the touch, than +those used for the edification of monks or the instruction of scholars. +And first of all were substituted, for the purpose of manuscripts, sizes +more portable than the grave folio. Then fine and smooth vellum was used +for writing, and books were covered in velvet, silk, or woollen stuffs. +Moreover, paper, a recent invention, opened up a new era for libraries; +but two centuries were to elapse before pasteboard had entirely taken +the place of wooden covers. + +It is in the inventories, in the accounts, and in the archives of kings +and princes, we must look for the history of bookbinding in the +fourteenth and fifteenth centuries (Fig. 383). We shall limit ourselves +to giving a description of some costly bindings, taken from the +inventories of the magnificent libraries of the Dukes of Burgundy and of +Orleans, now partly destroyed, and partly scattered about among the +great public collections of France and other countries. + +[Illustration: Fig. 382.--Banner of the Corporation of +Printers-Booksellers of Angers.] + +Belonging to the Dukes of Burgundy, Philip the Bold, Jean sans Peur, and +Philip the Good, we see a small Book of the Gospels and of the “Heures +de la Croix” (a kind of prayer-book), with “a binding embellished with +gold and fifty-eight large pearls, in a case made of camlet, with one +large pearl and a cluster of small pearls;” the romance of the “Moralité +des Hommes sur le Ju (jeu) des Eschiers” (the game of chess), “covered +in silk, with white and red flowers, and silver-gilt nails, on a green +ground;” a Book of Orisons, “covered in red leather, with silver-gilt +nails;” a Psalter, “having two silver-gilt clasps, bound in blue, with a +golden eagle with two heads and red talons, to which is attached a +little silver-gilt instrument for turning over the leaves, with three +escutcheons of the same arms, covered with a red velvet _chemise_.”[59] + +[Illustration: Fig. 383.--Fragment of an engraved and stamped Binding in +an unknown Material (Fifteenth Century), representing the mystical Chase +of the Unicorn, which is taking refuge in the lap of the Virgin. + +(Public Library, Rouen.)] + +The _chemise_ was a sort of pocket in which certain valuable books were +enveloped. The “Heures de St. Louis” (St. Louis’s Prayer-book), now in +the Musée des Souverains, is still in its _chemise_ of red sandal-wood. + +Belonging to the Duke of Orleans, brother of Charles VI., we find +Végèce’s book, “On Chivalry,” “covered in red leather inlaid, which has +two little brass clasps;” the book of “Meliadus,” “covered in green +velvet, with two silver-gilt clasps, enamelled with the arms of his +Royal Highness;” the book of Boèce, “On Consolation,” “covered in +figured silk;” “The Golden Legend,” “covered in black velvet, without +clasps;” the “Heures de Notre-Dame,” “covered in white leather.” + +The same inventories give an account of the prices paid for some +bindings and their accessories. Thus, in 1386, Martin Lhuillier, a +bookseller at Paris, received from the Duke of Burgundy 16 francs +(equivalent to about 114 francs French money of the present time), “for +binding eight books, of which six were covered in grained leather;” on +Sept. 19, 1394, the Duke of Orleans paid to Peter Blondel, goldsmith, 12 +livres 15 sols, “for having _wrought_, besides the duke’s silver seal, +two clasps” for the book of Boèce; and on Jan. 15, 1398, to Émelot de +Rubert, an embroideress at Paris, 50 _sols tournois_, “for having cut +out and worked in gold and silk two covers of green Dampmas cloth, one +for the Breviary, the other for the Book of Hours of the aforesaid +nobleman, and for having made fifteen markers (_sinets_) and four pair +of silk and gold straps for the said books.” + +The old style of thick, heavy, in some sort armour-plated, binding, +could not exist long after the invention of printing, which, while +multiplying books, diminished their weight, reduced their size, and, +moreover, gave them a less intrinsic value. Wooden boards were replaced +by compressed cardboard, nails and clasps were gradually laid aside, and +stuffs of different kinds no longer used; only skin, leather, and +parchment were employed. This was the beginning of modern binding; but +bookbinders were as yet but mechanics working for the booksellers, who, +when they had on their premises a bookbinding-room (Fig. 384), assumed, +in their editions, the double title of _libraire-relieur_ +(bookseller-bookbinder) (Fig. 385). In 1578, Nicholas Eve still placed +on his books and his sign-board, “Bookseller to the University of Paris +and Bookbinder to the King.” No volume was sold unbound. + +From the end of the fifteenth century, although bookbinding was always +considered as an adjunct to the bookseller’s shop, certain amateurs who +had a taste for art required richer and more _recherché_ exteriors for +their books. Italy set us the example of beautiful bindings in morocco, +stamped and gilt; imitated, however, from those of the Koran and other +Arabian manuscripts, which Venetian navigators frequently brought back +with them from the East. The expedition of Charles VIII. and the wars of +Louis XII. introduced into France not only Italian bindings, but Italian +binders also. Without renouncing, however, at least for the _livres +d’heures_, the bindings ornamented with goldsmith’s work and gems, +France had very soon binders of her own, surpassing those who had been +to them as initiators or masters. Jean Grollier, of Lyons, loved books +too much not to wish to give them an exterior ornamentation worthy of +the wealth of knowledge they contained. Treasurer of War, and Intendant +of the Milanese before the battle of Pavia, he had begun to create a +library, which he subsequently transported into France, and did not +cease to enlarge and to enrich till his death, which happened in 1565. +His books were bound in morocco from the Levant, with such care and +taste that, under the supervision of this exacting amateur, bookbinding +seemed to have already attained perfection. + +[Illustration: Fig. 384.--Bookbinders’ Work-room, drawn and engraved in +the Sixteenth Century, by J. Amman.] + +Princes and ladies of the court prided themselves on their love of books +and the desire to acquire them; they founded libraries, and encouraged +the works and inventions of good bookbinders who produced masterpieces +of patience and ability in decorating the covers of books, either with +enamelled paintings, or with mosaics made of different pieces inlaid, or +with plain gildings stamped on the surface with small irons. It would be +impossible to enumerate the splendid bindings in all styles that the +French bookbinders of the sixteenth century have left us, and which have +never been surpassed since. The painter, the engraver, and even the +goldsmith, co-operated with the bookbinder in his art, by furnishing him +with designs for ornaments. We now see reappearing some plates obtained +from hot or cold dies, representing various subjects, and the designs +from which they were taken, reproduced from those that had been in +fashion towards the beginning of the sixteenth century, were often drawn +by distinguished artists, such as Jean Cousin, Stephen de Laulne, &c. + +[Illustration: Fig. 385.--Mark of William Eustace (1512), Bookseller and +Binder, Paris.] + +Nearly all the French kings, especially the Valois, were passionately +fond of splendid bindings. Catherine de Medicis was such a connoisseur +of finely-bound books, that authors and booksellers, who eagerly +presented her with copies of their works, tried to distinguish +themselves in the choice and beauty of the bindings which they had made +expressly for her. Henry III., who appreciated handsomely-bound books no +less than his mother, invented a very singular binding, when he had +instituted the Order of “Penitents;” this consisted of death’s heads and +cross bones, tears, crosses, and other instruments of the Passion, gilt +or stamped on black morocco leather, and having the following device, +“Spes mea Deus” (“God is my hope”), with or without the arms of France. + +It is impossible to associate these superb bindings with the usual and +common work executed at the booksellers’ shops, and under their +superintendence. Some booksellers of Paris and of Lyons, the houses of +Gryphe and Tournes, of Estienne and Vascosan, paid a little more +attention, however, than others of the fraternity, to the binding of +books which they sold to the reading public; they adopted patterns of +dun-coloured calf, in compartments; or white vellum, with fillets and +arabesques in gold, fine specimens of which are now very rare. + +At this period Italian bookbinding had reached the most complete state +of decadency, while in Germany and other parts of Europe the old massive +bindings,--bindings in wood, leather, and parchment, with fastenings of +iron or brass,--still held their ground. In France, however, the +binders, whom the booksellers kept in a state of obscurity and +servitude, had not even been able to form themselves into a guild or +fraternity. They might produce masterpieces of their art, but were not +allowed to append their names to their works; and we must come down as +far as the famous _Gascon_ (1641) before we can introduce the name of +any illustrious bookbinder. + +[Illustration: Fig. 386.--Banner of the Corporation of +Printers-Booksellers of Autun.] + + + + +PRINTING + + Who was the Inventor of Printing?--Movable Letters in Ancient + Times.--Block Printing.--Laurent Coster.--_Donati_ and + _Specula_.--Gutenberg’s Process.--Partnership of Gutenberg and + Faust.--Schoeffer.--The Mayence Bible.--The Psalter of 1457.--The + “Rationale” of 1459.--Gutenburg prints by himself.--The + “Catholicon” of 1460.--Printing at Cologne, Strasbourg, Venice, and + Paris.--Louis XI. and Nicholas Jenson.--German Printers at + Rome.--_Incunabula._--Colart Mansion.--Caxton.--Improvement of + Typographical Processes up to the Sixteenth Century. + + +Fifteen towns have laid claim to the honour of being the birthplace of +printing, and writers who have applied themselves to search out the +origin of this admirable invention, far from coming to any agreement on +the point in their endeavours to clear up the question, have only +confused it. Now, however, after many centuries of learned and earnest +controversy, there only remain three antagonistic propositions, with +three names of towns, four names of inventors, and three different +dates. The three places are Haarlem, Strasbourg, and Mayence; the four +inventors, Laurent Coster, Gutenberg, Faust, and Schoeffer; the three +dates which are assigned to the invention of printing are 1420, 1440, +1450. In our opinion these three propositions, which some try to combat +and destroy by opposing each to the other, ought, on the contrary, to be +blended into one, and combined chronologically in such a manner as to +represent the three principal periods of the discovery of printing. + +There is no doubt that printing existed in the germ in ancient times; +that it was known and made use of by the ancients. There were stamps and +seals bearing legends traced the wrong way, from which positive +impressions were obtained on papyrus or parchment, in wax, ink, or +colour. We are shown, in museums, plates of copper or of cedar-wood, +covered with characters carved or cut out in them, which seem to have +been intended for the purpose of printing, and which resemble the block +plates of the fifteenth century. + +[Illustration: Fig. 387.--Ancient Wood-block Print, cut in Flanders +before 1440, representing Jesus Christ after his Flagellation. +(Delbecq’s Collection, Ghent.)] + +Something very much like the process of printing in movable type is +described by Cicero in a passage in which he refutes the doctrine of +Epicurus on the creation of the world by atoms: “Why not believe, also, +that by throwing together, indiscriminately, innumerable forms of +letters of the alphabet, either in gold or in any other substance, one +can _print_ with these letters, on the ground, the _Annals_ of Ennius?” +The movable letters possessed by the ancients were carved in box-wood or +ivory; but they were only employed for teaching children to read, as +Quinctilian testifies in his “Oratorical Institutions,” and St. Jerome +in his “Epistles.” There was then only wanting a fortunate chance to +cause this carved alphabet to create the typographic art fifteen +centuries earlier than its actual birth. + +[Illustration: Fig. 388.--Fac-simile of an Engraving on Wood, by an +ancient Flemish Engraver (about 1438); which was inserted, after the +manner of a Miniature, in a Manuscript of the Fifteenth Century, +containing Prayers for the use of the People. (Delbecq’s Collection, +Ghent.)] + +“The art of taking impressions once discovered,” says M. Léon de +Laborde, “and applied to engraving in relief, gave rise to printing, +which was only the perfection to which a natural and rapid progression +of attempts and efforts would naturally lead.” “But it was only,” adds +M. Ambroise-Firmin Didot, “when the art of making paper--that art +familiar to the Chinese from the beginning of our era--spread in Europe +and became generally known, that the reproduction, by pressing, of +texts, figures, playing-cards, &c., first by the tabular process, +called _xylography_ (block-printing), then with movable types, became +easy, and was consequently to appear simultaneously in different +places.” + +[Illustration: Fig. 389.--Wood-block, cut in France, about 1440, +representing an Image of St. James the Great, with one of the +Commandments as a Text. (Imperial Library, Paris, Collection of +Prints.)] + +But, at the end of the fourteenth century, at Haarlem, in Holland, +wood-engraving had been discovered, and consequently _tabular +impression_, with which the Chinese, it is said, were already acquainted +three or four hundred years before the modern era. Perhaps it was some +Chinese book or pack of cards brought to Haarlem by a merchant or a +navigator, that revealed to the cardmakers and printsellers of the +industrious Netherlands a process of impressing more expeditious and +more economical. Xylography began on the day when a legend was engraved +on a wood-block; this legend, limited at first to a few lines, very soon +occupied a whole page; then this page was not long in becoming a volume +(Fig. 387 to 389). + +Here is an extract from the account given by Adrian Junius, in his Latin +work entitled “Batavia,” of the discovery of printing at Haarlem, +written in 1572:--“More than one hundred and thirty-two years ago there +lived at Haarlem, close to the royal palace, one John Laurent, surnamed +Coster (or governer), for this honourable post came to him by +inheritance, being handed down in his family from father to son. One +day, about 1420, as he was walking after dinner in a wood near the town, +he set to work and cut the bark of beech-trees into the shape of +letters, with which he traced, on paper, by pressing one after the +other upon it, a model composed of many lines for the instruction of his +children. Encouraged by this success, his genius took a higher flight, +and then, in concert with his son-in-law, Thomas Pierre, he invented a +species of ink more glutinous and tenacious than that employed in +writing, and he thus printed figures (_images_) to which he added his +wooden letters. I have myself seen many copies of this first attempt at +printing. The text is on one side only of the paper. The book printed +was written in the vulgar tongue, by an anonymous author, having as its +title ‘Speculum nostræ Salutis’ (‘The Mirror of our Salvation’). Later, +Laurent Coster changed his wooden types into leaden, then these into +pewter. Laurent’s new invention, encouraged by studious men, attracted +from all parts an immense concourse of purchasers. The love of the art +increased, the labours of his workshop increased also, and Laurent was +obliged to add hired workmen to the members of his family, to assist in +his operations. Among these workmen there was a certain John, whom I +suspect of being none other than Faust, who was treacherous and fatal to +his master. Initiated, under the seal of an oath, into all the secrets +of printing, and having become very expert in casting type, in setting +it up, and in the other processes of his trade, this John took advantage +of a Christmas evening, while every one was in church, to rifle his +master’s workshop and to carry off his typographical implements. He fled +with his booty to Amsterdam, thence to Cologne, and afterwards to +Mayence, where he established himself; and calculating upon safety here, +set up a printing-office. In that very same year, 1422, he printed with +the type which Laurent had employed at Haarlem, a grammar then in use, +called ‘Alexandri Galli Doctrinale,’ and a ‘Treatise of Peter the +Spaniard’ (‘Petri Hispani Tractatus’).” + +This account, which came, indeed, rather late, although the author +referred to the most respectable authorities in support of it, met at +first with nothing but incredulity and contempt. At this period the +right of Mayence to be considered the birthplace of printing could only +be seriously counterbalanced by the right Strasbourg had to be so +considered. The three names of Gutenberg, of Faust, and of Schœffer were +already consecrated by universal gratitude. Everywhere, then, except in +Holland, this new testimony was rejected; everywhere the new inventor, +whose claim had just been made for a share of the honour, was rejected +as an apocryphal or legendary being. But very soon, however, criticism, +raising itself above the influences of nationality, took up the +question, discussed the account given by Junius, examined that famous +“Speculum” which no one had yet pointed out, proved the existence of +xylographic impressions, sought for those which could be attributed to +Coster, and opposed to the Abbé Tritheim (or Trithemius), who had +written on the origin of printing from information furnished by Peter +Schœffer himself, the more disinterested testimony of the anonymous +chronicler of Cologne in 1465, who had learned from Ulric Zell, one of +Gutenberg’s workmen, and the first printer of Cologne in 1465, this +important peculiarity:--“Although the typographic art was invented at +Mayence,” says he, “nevertheless the first rough sketch of this art was +invented in Holland, and it is in imitation of the ‘Donatus’ (the Latin +syntax by Cœlius Donatus, a grammarian of the fourth century, a book +then in use in the schools of Europe), which long before that time was +printed there; it is in imitation of this, and on account of it, that +the said art began under the auspices of Gutenberg.” + +If Gutenberg imitated the “Donatus,” which was printed in Holland before +the time he himself printed at Mayence, Gutenberg was not the inventor +of printing. It was in 1450 that Gutenberg began to print at Mayence +(Fig. 390); but from as early a date as 1436 he had tried to print at +Strasbourg; and, before his first attempts, there had been printed in +Holland,--at Haarlem, and Dordrecht,--“Specula” and “Donati” on wooden +boards; a process known by the name of _xylography_ (engraving on wood), +while the attempts at _typography_ (printing with movable type) made by +Gutenberg entirely differed from the other; since the letters, engraved +at first on steel points (_poinçons_), and afterwards forced into a +copper matrix reproduced by means of casting in a metal more fusible +than copper the impress of the point on shanks (_tiges_) made of pewter +or lead, hardened by an alloy (Fig. 391). + +Now, a rather singular circumstance comes to corroborate what was said +by Adrian Junius. A Latin edition of the “Speculum,” an in-folio of +sixty-three leaves, with wood engravings in two compartments at the head +of each leaf, consists of a mixture of twenty xylographic leaves, and of +forty-one leaves printed with movable type, but very imperfect, and cast +in moulds which were probably made of baked earth: an edition of a +Dutch “Speculum,” in folio, has also two pages in a type smaller and +closer than the rest of the text. How are we to explain these anomalies? +On the one hand, a mixture of xylography and typography; on the other, a +combination of two different kinds of movable type. My hypothesis is, if +indeed the details given by Junius, open to suspicion as they are, be +correct, that the dishonest workman who, according to his own account, +stole the implements + +[Illustration: Fig. 390.--Fac-simile of a Page of the most ancient +Xylographie “Donatus” (Chapter on Prepositions), printed at Mayence, by +Fust and Gutenberg, about 1450.] + +employed in the workshop of Laurent Coster, and who must have acted with +a certain amount of precipitation, contented himself with carrying off +some forms of the “Speculum” just ready for the press. The type employed +for twenty or twenty-two pages was sufficient to serve as models for a +counterfeit edition, and also for a book of small extent, such as the +“Alexandri Galli Doctrinale,” and the “Petri Hispani Tractatus.” It is +probable that the Latin and Dutch editions of the “Speculum” were both +entirely composed, set up, and prepared for the text to be struck off, +when the thief took at hazard the twenty-two forms, which he determined +to turn to account, at any rate as a model for the counterfeit edition +he intended to publish. In cast-iron type, these forms could not have +weighed more than sixty pounds; in wooden type, not half as much; if we +add to these the composing-sticks, the pincers, the galleys, and other +indispensable elements of the trade, we shall find that the booty was +not beyond the strength of a man to carry easily on his shoulders. As +for the press, about that there could be no question, since the +impressions produced at Haarlem were made with a pad and by hand, as is +still the case with playing-cards and prints. + +[Illustration: Fig. 391.--Portrait of Gutenberg, from an Engraving of +the Sixteenth Century. + +(Imperial Library of Paris, Print Room.)] + +It remains now to discover who was this John who appropriated the secret +of printing, and took it from Haarlem to Mayence. Was it John Fust or +Faust, as Adrian Junius suspected? Was it John Gutenberg, as many Dutch +writers have alleged? or was it not rather John Gensfleisch the elder, a +relation of Gutenberg, as, from a very explicit passage of the learned +Joseph Wimpfeling, his contemporary, the latest defenders of the Haarlem +tradition think? The question is still undecided. + +The “Speculum,” however, is not the only book of the kind which + +[Illustration: Fig. 392.--Fac-simile of the Twenty-eighth Xylographic +Page of the “Biblia Pauperum;” representing, with Texts taken from the +Old Testament, David slaying Goliath, and Christ causing the Souls of +the Patriarchs and Prophets to come out of Purgatory.] + +had appeared in the Low Countries before the period assigned to the +discovery of printing in Holland. Some of these were evidently +xylographic, others show signs of having been printed with movable type +of wood, not of metal. All have engravings of the same character as +those of the “Speculum,” especially the “Biblia Pauperum” (“Poor Men’s +Bible”) (Fig. 392), the “Ars Moriendi” (“The Art of Dying”) (Fig. 393) +the “Ars Memorandi” (“The Art of Remembering”), which had a very wide +circulation. + +However this may be, Laurent Coster, notwithstanding the progress he had +made with his invention, was certainly ignorant of its importance. In +those days the only libraries were those belonging to convents and to a +few nobles of literary acquirements; private individuals, with the +exception of some learned men who were richer than their fellows, +possessed no books at all. The copyists and illuminators by profession +were employed exclusively in reproducing “Livres d’Heures” +(prayer-books), and school books: the first were sumptuous volumes, +objects of an industry quite exceptional; the second, destined for +children, were always simply executed, and composed of a few leaves of +strong paper or parchment. The pupils limited themselves to writing +passages of their lessons from the dictation of their teachers; to the +monks was assigned the task of transcribing, at full length, the sacred +and profane authors. Coster could not even have thought of reproducing +these works, the sale of which would have seemed to him impossible, and +he at first fell back upon the “Specula,” religious books which +addressed themselves to all the faithful, even to those who could not +read, by means of the stories or illustrations (_images_) of which these +books were composed; then he occupied himself with the “Donati,” which +he reprinted many times from xylographic plates, if not with movable +type, and for which he must have found a considerable demand. It was one +of these “Donati” that, falling under the eyes of Gutenberg, revealed to +him, according to the “Chronique de Cologne,” the secret of printing. + +This secret was kept faithfully for fifteen or twenty years by the +workmen employed in his printing-house, who were not initiated into the +mysteries of the new art till they had served a certain time of +probation and apprenticeship: a terrible oath bound together those whom +the master had considered worthy of entering into partnership with him; +for on the preservation of the secret depended the prosperity or the +ruin of the inventor and his coadjutors, since all printed books were +then sold as manuscripts. + +[Illustration: Fig. 393.--Fac-simile of the fifth Page of the first +Xylographic Edition of the “Ars Moriendi,” representing the Sinner on +his Death-bed surrounded by his Family. Two Demons are whispering into +his ear, “Think of thy treasure,” and “Distribute it to thy friends.”] + +But while the secret was so scrupulously maintained by the first Dutch +printer and his partners, a lawsuit was brought before the superior +court of Strasbourg which, though the motives for it were apparently but +of private interest, was nevertheless to give the public the key to the +mysterious trade of the typographer. This lawsuit,--the curious +documents relating to which were found only in 1760, in an old tower at +Strasbourg,--was brought against John Gensfleisch, called Gutenberg (who +was born at Mayence, but was exiled from his native town during the +political troubles, and had settled at Strasbourg since 1420), by George +and Nicholas Dritzehen, who, as heirs of the deceased Andrew Dritzehen, +their brother, and formerly Gutenberg’s partner, desired to be admitted +as his representatives into an association of whose object they were +ignorant, but from which they no doubt knew their brother expected to +derive some beneficial results. It was, in short, printing itself which +was on its trial at Strasbourg towards the end of the year 1439; that +is, more than fourteen years before the period at which printing is +known to have been first employed in Mayence. + +Here is a summary, as we find them in the documents relating to this +lawsuit, of the facts stated before the judge. Gutenberg, an ingenious +but a poor man, possessed _divers secrets_ for becoming rich. Andrew +Dritzehen came to him with a request that he would teach him _many +arts_. Gutenberg thereupon initiated him into the art of _polishing +stones_, and Andrew “derived great profit from this secret.” +Subsequently, with the object of carrying out _another art_ during the +pilgrimage of Aix-la-Chapelle,[60] Gutenberg agreed with Hans Riffen, +mayor of Lichtenau, to form a company, which Andrew Dritzehen and a man +named Andrew Heilman desired to join. Gutenberg consented to this on +condition that they would together purchase of him the right to a third +of the profits, for a sum of 160 florins, payable on the day of the +contract, and 80 florins payable at a later date. The agreement being +made, he taught them the _art_ which they were to exercise at the proper +period in Aix-la-Chapelle; but the pilgrimage was postponed to the +following year, and the partners required of Gutenberg that he should +not conceal from them any of the _arts and inventions_ of which he was +cognisant. New stipulations were entered upon whereby the partners +pledged themselves to pay an additional sum, and in which it was stated +that the _art_ should be carried on for the benefit of the four +partners during the space of five years; and that, in the event of one +of them dying, _all the implements of the art, and all the works already +produced_, should belong to the surviving partners; the heirs of the +deceased being entitled to receive no more than an indemnity of 100 +florins at the expiration of the said five years. + +Gutenberg accordingly offered to pay the heirs of his late partner the +stipulated sum; but they demanded of him an account of the capital +invested by Andrew Dritzehen, which, as they alleged, had been absorbed +in the speculation. They mentioned especially a certain account for +_lead_, for which their brother had made himself responsible. Without +denying this account, Gutenberg refused to satisfy their demands. + +Numerous witnesses gave evidence, and their depositions for and against +the object of the association show us a faithful picture of what must +have been the inner life of four partners exhausting themselves and +their money in efforts to realise a scheme the nature of which they were +very careful to conceal, but from which they expected to derive the most +splendid results. + +We find them working by night; we hear them answering those who +questioned them on the object of their work, that they were +“mirror-makers” (_spiegel-macher_); we find them borrowing money, +because they had in hand “something in which they could not invest too +much money.” Andrew Dritzehen, in whose care the _press_ was left, being +dead, Gutenberg’s first object was to send to the deceased’s house a man +he could trust, who was commissioned to unscrew the press, so that the +pieces (or _forms_), which were fixed closely together by it, might +become detached from each other, and then to place these forms in or on +the press “in such a manner that no one might be able to understand what +they were.” Gutenberg regrets that his servant did not bring him back +all the forms, many of which “were not to be found.” Lastly, we find +figuring among the witnesses a turner, a timber-merchant, and a +goldsmith who declared that he had worked during three years for +Gutenberg, and that he had gained more than 100 florins by preparing for +him “the things belonging to printing” (_das zu dem Trucken gehoret_). + +_Trucken_--printing! Thus the grand word was pronounced in the course of +the lawsuit, but certainly without producing the least effect on the +audience, who wondered what was this occult _art_ which Gutenberg and +his partners had carried on with so much trouble, and at such great +expense. However, it is quite certain that, with the exception of the +indiscretion, really very insignificant, of the goldsmith, Gutenberg’s +secret remained undiscovered, for it was supposed it had to do with the +_polishing of stones_ and the manufacture of _mirrors_. The judge, being +informed as to the good faith of Gutenberg, pronounced the offers he +made to the plaintiffs satisfactory, decided against the heirs of Andrew +Dritzehen, and the three other partners remained sole proprietors of +their process, and continued to carry it out. + +If we study with some attention the documents relating to this singular +trial at Strasbourg, and if we also notice, that our word _mirror_ is +the translation of the German word _spiegel_ and of the Latin word +_speculum_, it is impossible not to recognise all the processes, all the +implements made use of in printing, with the names they have not ceased +to bear, and which were given to them as soon as they were invented; the +forms, the screw (which is not the _printing_-press, for they printed in +those days with the _frotton_, or rubber, but the frame in which the +types were _pressed_), the lead, the work, the art, &c. We see Gutenberg +accompanied by a turner who made the screw for the press, the timber +merchant who had supplied the planks of box or of pear wood, the +goldsmith who had engraved or cast the type. Then we ascertain that +these “mirrors,” in the preparation of which the partners were occupied, +and which were to be sold at the pilgrimage of Aix-la-Chapelle, were no +other than the future copies of the “Speculum Humanæ Salvationis,” an +imitation more or less perfect of the famous book of illustrations of +which Holland had already published three or four editions, in Latin and +in Dutch. + +We know, on the other hand, that these “Mirrors” or “Specula” were, in +the earliest days of printing, so much in request, that in every place +the first printers rivalled each other in executing and publishing +different editions of the book with illustrations. Here, there was the +reprint of the “Speculum,” abridged by L. Coster; there, the “Speculum” +of Gutenberg, taken entirely from manuscripts; now it was the “Speculum +Vitæ Humanæ,” by Roderick, Bishop of Zamora; then the “Speculum +Conscienciæ,” of Arnold Gheyloven; then the “Speculum Sacerdotum,” or +again, the voluminous “Speculum” of Vincent de Beauvais, &c. + +It cannot now any longer be assumed that Gutenberg really made mirrors +or looking-glasses at Strasbourg, and that those pieces “laid in a +press,” those “forms which came to pieces,” that lead sold or wrought by +a goldsmith, were, as they wished it to be supposed, only intended to be +used “for printing ornaments on the frames of looking-glasses!” + +[Illustration: Fig. 394.--Interior of a Printing-office in the Sixteenth +Century, by J. Amman.] + +Would it not have been surprising that the pilgrims who were to visit +Aix-la-Chapelle on the occasion of the grand jubilee of 1440, should be +so anxious to buy ornamented mirrors? As to the art “_of polishing +stones_,” which Gutenberg had taught at first to Andrew Dritzehen, who +derived from it “_so much profit_,” having anything to do with printing +was, no doubt, also questionable; but we have not been able to solve the +enigma, and wait to clear up the difficulty till a new _incunable_ +(_incunabula_, “a cradle,” the word is applied to the first editions +ever printed) is discovered, the work of some Peter (πἑτρος “a stone”) +or other; as, for example, the Latin sermons of Hermann de Petra on the +Lord’s Prayer; for Gutenberg, when speaking of _polishing stones_, might +have enigmatically designated a book he was printing; just as his +partner, in answer to the judge, after having raised his hand on high +and sworn to give true evidence, could call himself _a maker of +mirrors_, without telling a falsehood, without committing perjury. The +secret of printing was to be religiously kept by those who knew it. + +In short, it results from all this that Gutenberg, “an ingenious man and +a man of invention,” having seen a xylographie “Donatus,” had +endeavoured to imitate it, and had succeeded in doing so, the secret +being confided to Andrew Dritzehen; that the other _arts_, which +Gutenberg at first kept to himself, but which he subsequently +communicated to his partners, consisted in the idea of substituting +movable type for tabular printing; a substitution that could only be +effected after numerous experiments had been made, and which were just +about to be crowned with success when Andrew Dritzehen died. We may then +consider it as nearly certain that printing was in some sort discovered +twice successively--the first time by Laurent Coster, whose small +printed books, or books in letterpress (_en moule_), attracted the +attention of Gutenberg; and the second time by Gutenberg, who raised the +art to a degree of perfection such as had never been attained by his +predecessor. + +It was after the Strasbourg lawsuit between the years 1440 or 1442, as +stated by many historians, that Gutenberg went to Holland, and there +became a workman in the establishment of Coster; this is asserted in +order that they might be able to accuse him of the theft which Junius +has laid to the account of a certain man whose name was John. Only--and +the coincidence is not, in this case, unworthy of remark--two unedited +chronicles of Strasbourg and the Alsatian Wimpfeling relate, almost at +the same time, a robbery of type and implements used in printing, but +mentioning Strasbourg instead of Haarlem, Gutenberg instead of Laurent +Coster, and naming the thief John Gensfieisch. But, according to the +Strasbourg tradition, this John Gensfieisch the elder, related to and +employed by Gutenberg, robbed him of his secret and his tools, after +having been his rival in the discovery of printing, and established +himself at Mayence, where, by a just visitation of Providence, he was +soon struck blind. It was then, adds the tradition, that in his +repentance he sent for his former master to come to Mayence, and gave up +to him the business he had founded. But this last part of the tradition +seems to savour too much of the moral deductions of a story; and as it +is very improbable, moreover, that two thefts of the same kind were +committed at the same period, and under the same circumstances, we are +inclined to believe that the John mentioned by Junius was, in fact, +Gutenberg’s relative, who went to Haarlem to perfect himself in the art +of printing, and robbed Coster; for there really existed at Mayence, at +the time mentioned, a John Gensfleisch, who might have printed, before +Gutenberg went to join him there, the two school books, “Doctrinale +Alexandri Galli,” and “Petri Hispani Tractatus.” This is rendered still +more probable from the fact that, after search had been long made for +these books, which were absolutely unknown when Junius mentioned them, +three fragments of the “Doctrinale,” printed on vellum with the type of +the Dutch “Speculum,” were at length found. + +However, Gutenberg had not succeeded with his printing at Strasbourg. +When he quitted the town, where he left such pupils as John Mentell and +Henry Eggestein, he removed to Mayence, and established himself in the +house of _Zum Jungen_. There he again printed, but he exhausted his +means in experiments, alternately taking up and laying aside the various +processes he had employed--xylography, movable types of wood, lead, and +cast iron. He used, for printing, a hand-press which he had made on the +same principle as a wine-press; he invented new tools; he began ten +works and could finish none. At last, his resources all gone, and +himself in a state of despair, he was just going to give up the art +altogether, when chance sent him a partner, John Fust or Faust, a rich +goldsmith of Mayence. + +This partnership took place in 1450. Fust, by a deed properly drawn up +by a notary, promised Gutenberg to advance him 800 gold florins +for the manufacture of implements and tools, and 300 for other +expenses--servants’ wages, rent, firing, parchment, paper, ink, &c. +Besides the “Specula” and “Donati” already in circulation, which +Gutenberg probably continued to print, the object of the partnership was +the printing of a Bible in folio of two columns, in large type, with +initial letters engraved on wood; an important work requiring a great +outlay. + +A caligrapher was attached to Gutenberg’s printing establishment, either +to trace on wood the characters to be engraved, or to _rubricate_ the +printed pages; in other words, to write in red ink, to paint with a +brush or to illuminate (_au frottou_) the initials, the capital letters, +and the headings of chapters. This caligrapher was probably Peter +Schœffer or Schoiffer, of Gernsheim, a small town in the diocese of +Darmstadt, a clerk of the diocese of Mayence, as he styles himself, and +perhaps a German student in the University of Paris; since a manuscript +copied by him, and preserved at Strasbourg, is terminated by an +inscription in which he testifies that he himself wrote it in the year +1449, in “the very glorious University of Paris.” Schœffer was not only +a literary man, but was also a man of ingenuity and prudence +(_ingeniosus et prudens_). Having entered Gutenberg’s establishment, on +whom Fust had forced him, in 1452, to take part in the new association +they were then forming, Schœffer invented an improved mould with which +he could cast separately all the letters of the alphabet in metal, +whereas up to this time they had been obliged to engrave the type with a +_burin_. He concealed his discovery from Gutenberg, who would naturally +have availed himself of it; but he confided the secret to Fust, who, +being very experienced in casting metals, carried out his idea. It was +evidently with this cast type, which resisted the action of the press, +that Schœffer composed and executed a “Donatus,” of which four leaves, +in parchment, were found at Treves in 1803, in the interior of an old +bookcover, and were deposited in the Imperial Library of Paris. An +inscription in this edition, printed in red, announces formally that +Peter Schœffer alone had executed it, with its type and its initial +letters, according to the “new art of the printer, without the help of +the pen.” + +That was certainly the first public disclosure of the existence of +printing, which up to this time had passed off its productions as the +work of caligraphers. It seems that Schœffer thus desired to mark the +date and to appropriate to himself the invention of Gutenberg. It is +certain that Fust, allured by the results Schœffer had obtained, +secretly entered into partnership with him, and, in order to get rid of +Gutenberg, profited by the power which his bond gave him over that +unfortunate individual. Gutenberg, summoned to dissolve the partnership +and to return the sums he had received, which he was quite incapable of +paying, was obliged, in order to satisfy the demands of his pitiless +creditor, to give up to him his printing establishment with all the +materials it contained; among them was included this same Bible, the +last leaves of which were, perhaps, in the press at the moment when they +robbed him of the fruits of his long-protracted labours. + +Gutenberg evicted, Peter Schœffer, and Fust, who had given Schœffer his +daughter in marriage, completed the great Bible, which was ready for +sale in the early months of 1456. This Bible, being passed off as a +manuscript, must have commanded a very high price. This accounts for the +non-appearance on it of any inscription to show by what means this +immense work had been executed; let us add that in any case we may well +suppose Schœffer and Fust were not willing to give to Gutenberg a share +of the glory which they dared not yet appropriate to themselves. + +[Illustration: Fig. 395.--Fac-simile of the Bible of 1456 (1 Samuel xix, +1-5), printed at Mayence by Gutenberg.] + +The Latin Bible, without date, which all bibliographers agree in +considering as that of Gutenberg, is a large in-folio of six hundred and +forty-one leaves, divided into two, or three, or even four volumes. It +is printed in double columns, of forty-two lines each in the full pages, +with the exception of the first ten, which consisted of only forty or +forty-one lines (Fig. 395). The characters are Gothic; the leaves are +all numbered, and have neither _signatures_ nor _catchwords_. Some +copies of it are on vellum, others on paper. The number of copies which +were printed of this Bible may be estimated at one hundred and fifty--a +considerable number for that period. The simultaneous publication of so +many Bibles, exactly alike, did not contribute less than the lawsuit of +Gutenberg and Fust to make known the discovery of printing. Besides +which, Fust and his new partner, although they had mutually agreed to +keep the secret as long as possible, were the first to reveal it, in +order to get all the credit of the invention for themselves, when public +rumour allowed them no longer to conceal it within their +printing-office. + +It was then they printed the “Psalmorum Codex” (Collection of Psalms), +the earliest book bearing their names, and which fixed, in a manner, for +the first time, a date for the new art they had so much improved. The +_colophon_, or inscription at the end of the “Psalmorum Codex,” +announces that the book was executed “without the help of the pen, by an +ingenious process, in the year of our Lord, 1457.” + +This magnificent Psalter, which went through three editions without any +considerable alterations being made in it in the space of thirty-three +years, is a large in-folio volume of one hundred and seventy-five +leaves, printed in red and black characters, imitated from those used in +the liturgical manuscripts of the fifteenth century. There exists, +however, of the rarest edition of this book but six or seven copies on +vellum (Fig. 396). + +From this period printing, instead of concealing itself, endeavoured, on +the contrary, to make itself generally known. But it does not as yet +seem to have occurred to any one that it could be applied to the +reproduction of other books than Bibles, psalters, and missals, because +these were the only books that commanded a quick and extensive sale. +Fust and Schœffer then undertook the printing of a voluminous work, +which served as a liturgical manual to the whole of Christendom, the +celebrated “Rationale Divinorum Officiorum” (“Manual of Divine +Offices”), by William Durand, Bishop of Mende, in the thirteenth +century. It suffices to glance over this “Rationale,” and to compare it +with the coarse “Specula” printed in Holland, to be convinced that in +the year 1459 printing had reached the highest degree of perfection. +This edition, dated from Mayence (_Moguntiæ_), was no longer intended +for a small number of buyers; it was addressed to the entire Catholic +world, and copies of it on vellum and on paper were disseminated so +rapidly over the whole of Europe as to cause the belief, thenceforward, +that printing was invented at Mayence. + +[Illustration: Fig. 396.--Fac-simile of a page of the Psalter of 1459, +second edition, or the second copy that was struck off. Printed at +Mayence, by J. Fust and P. Schœffer.] + +The fourth work printed by Fust and Schœffer, and dated 1460, is the +collection of the Constitutions of Pope Clement V., known by the name of +“Clementines”--a large in-folio in double columns, having superb initial +letters painted in gold and colours in the small number of copies still +extant. + +But Gutenberg, though deprived of his typographic apparatus, had not +renounced the art of which he considered himself, and with reason, the +principal inventor. He was, above all, anxious to prove himself as +capable as his former partners of producing books “without the help of +the pen.” He formed a new association, and fitted up a printing-office +which, we know by tradition, was actively at work till 1460, the year +wherein appeared the “Catholicon” (a kind of encyclopædia of the +thirteenth century), by John Balbi, of Genoa, the only important work +the printing of which can be attributed to Gutenberg (Fig. 397), and +which can bear comparison with the editions of Fust and Schœffer. +Gutenberg, who had imitated the Dutch “Donati” and “Specula,” doubtless +felt a repugnance at appropriating to himself the credit of an invention +he had only improved; accordingly, in the long and explicit anonymous +inscription placed at the end of the volume, he attributed to God alone +the glory of this divine invention, declaring that the “Catholicon” had +been printed without the assistance of reed, _stylus_, or pen, but by a +marvellous combination of points, matrices, and letters. + +[Illustration: Fig. 397.--Fac-simile of the “Catholicon” at 1460, +printed at Mayence by Gutenberg.] + +This undertaking brought to a happy termination, Gutenberg, no doubt +weary of the annoyances incident to business, transferred his +printing-office to his workmen, Henry and Nicholas Bechtermuncze, +Weigand Spyes, and Ulric Zell. Then, having retired near to Adolphus +II., elector and archbishop of Mayence, where he occupied the post of +gentleman of the ecclesiastical court of that prince, he contented +himself with the modest stipend attached to that office, and died at a +date not authentically determined, but which cannot be later than +February 24, 1468. His friend, Adam Gelth, erected in the Church of the +Récollets at Mayence, a monument to his memory, with an epitaph styling +him formally “the inventor of the typographic art.” + +Fust and Schœffer did not the less continue to print books with +indefatigable ardour. In 1462 they completed a new edition of the Bible, +much more perfect than that of 1456, and of which copies were probably +sold, as were those of the first edition, as manuscripts, especially in +countries where, as in France, printing did not already exist. It seems +that the appearance in Paris of this Bible, (called the Mayence Bible), +greatly excited the community of scribes and booksellers, who saw in the +new method of producing books, _without the aid of the pen_, “the +destruction of their trade.” They charged, it is said, the sellers of +these books with magic; but it is more probable the latter were +proceeded against, and condemned to fine and imprisonment, for having +omitted to procure from the University authority for the sale of their +Bible; such permission being then indispensable for the sale of every +kind of book. + +In the meantime the town of Mayence had been taken by assault and given +up to pillage (October 27, 1462). This event, in consequence of which +the printing-office of Fust and Schœffer remained shut up for two years, +resulted in the dissemination over the whole of Europe of printers and +the art of printing. Cologne, Hamburg, and Strasbourg appear to have +been the first towns in which the emigrants established themselves. + +When these printers left Mayence, and carried their art elsewhere, it +had never produced any book of classic literature; but it had proved by +important publications, such as the Bible and the “Catholicon,” that it +could create entire libraries, and thus propagate, _ad infinitum_, the +masterpieces of human genius. It was reserved for the printing-office of +Fust and Schœffer to set the example in that direction, and of printing +the first classical work. In 1465, Cicero’s treatise “De Officiis,” +issued from the press of these two faithful associates, and marked, as +we may say, the commencement of the printing of books for libraries, +and with so great success that in the following year a new edition of +the treatise was published, in quarto. + +At this period, Fust himself came to Paris, where he established a dépôt +of printed books, but left the management of the concern to one of his +own fellow-countrymen. This person dying soon afterwards, the books +found in his house, being the property of a foreigner, were sold by +right of forfeiture, for the king’s benefit. But upon the petition of +Peter Schœffer, backed up by the Elector of Mayence, the King, Louis +XI., granted to the petitioners a sum of 2,425 golden dollars, “in +consideration of the trouble and labour which the said petitioners had +taken for the said art and trade of printing, and of the benefit and +utility which resulted and may result from this art to the whole world, +as well by increasing knowledge as in other ways.” This memorable decree +of the King of France bears date April 21, 1475. + +We must mention, however, that about the year 1462, Louis XI., +inquisitive and uneasy at what he had heard of the invention of +Gutenberg, sent to Mayence Nicholas Jenson, a clever engraver, attached +to the mint at Tours, “to obtain secret information of the cutting of +the points and type, by means of which the rarest manuscripts could be +multiplied, and to carry off surreptitiously the invention and introduce +it into France.” Nicholas Jenson, after having succeeded in his mission, +did not return to France (it was never known why), but went to Venice +and established himself there as a printer. It would seem, however, that +Louis XI., not discouraged at the ill success of his attempt, +despatched, it is said, another envoy, less enterprising but more +conscientious than the first, to discover the secrets of printing. In +1469, three German printers, Ulric Gering, Martin Crantz, and Michael +Friburger, began to print in Paris, in a room of the Sorbonne, of which +their fellow-countryman, John Heylin, named De la Pierre, was then the +prior; in the following year they dedicated to the king, “their +protector,” one of their editions, revised by the learned William +Fichet; and in the space of four years they published about fifteen +works, quartos and folios, the majority being printed for the first +time. Then, when they were forced to leave the Sorbonne, because John de +la Pierre, who had returned to Germany, had no longer authority over the +institution, they set up in the Rue Saint-Jacques a new printing +establishment, whose sign-board was the “Soleil d’Or,” from which, +during the next five years, were issued twelve other important works. + +The Sorbonne then, like the University, was the cradle and the +foster-mother in Paris of the art of printing, which soon attained to a +nourishing condition, and produced, during the last twenty years of the +fourteenth[61] century, numerous fine books of history, poetry, +literature, and devotion, under the direction of the able and learned +Pierre Caron, Pasquier Bonhomme, Anthony Vérard, Simon Vostre (Fig. +398), &c. + +After the capture of Mayence, two workmen, who had been dismissed from +the establishment of Fust and Schœffer, Conrad Sweynheim and Arnold +Pannartz, carried beyond the Alps the secret that had been confided to +them under the guarantee of an oath. They remained for a time in the +Convent of Subiaco, near Rome, in which were some German monks, and +there they organised a printing apparatus, and printed many fine +editions of Lactantius, Cicero, St. Augustine, &c. They were soon +invited to Rome, and met with an asylum in the house of the illustrious +family of Massimi; but they found an opponent in the city in one of +their own workmen from the convent, who had come to Rome and engaged +himself as printer to the cardinal John of Torquemada. Henceforward +sprang up between the two printing establishments a rivalry which showed +itself in unparalleled zeal and activity on both sides. In ten years the +greater number of the writings of the ancient Latin authors, which had +been preserved in manuscripts more or less rare, passed through the +press. In 1476 there were in Rome more than twenty printers, who +employed about a hundred presses, and whose great object was to surpass +each other in the rapidity with which they produced their publications; +so that the day soon arrived when the most precious manuscripts retained +any value only because they contained what had not been already made +public by printing. Those of which printed editions already existed were +so universally disregarded, that we must refer to this period the +destruction of a large number. They were used, when written on +parchment, for binding the new books; and to this circumstance may be +attributed the loss of certain celebrated works which printing in nowise +tended to preserve from the knife of the binder. + +While printing was displaying such prodigious activity in Rome, it was + +[Illustration: Fig. 398.--Fac-simile of a page of a “Livre d’Heures” +printed in Paris, in 1512, by Simon Vostre.] + +not less active in Venice, where it seems to have been imported by that +Nicholas Jenson whom Louis XI. had sent to Gutenberg, and whom for a +long time even the Venetians looked on as the inventor of the art with +which he had clandestinely become acquainted at Mayence. From the + +[Illustration: Fig. 399.--The Mark of Gérard Lecu, Printer at Gouwe +(1482).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 400.--The Mark of Fust and Schœffer, Printers. +(Fifteenth Century.)] + +year 1469, however, Jenson had no longer the monopoly of printing in +Venice, where John de Spire had arrived, bringing also from Mayence all +the improvements Gutenberg and Schœffer had obtained. This art having +ceased to be a secret in the city of the Doges, great + +[Illustration: Fig. 401.--Mark of Arnold de Keyser, Printer at Ghent. + +(1480.)] + +competition arose among printers, who flocked to Venice, where they +found a market for their volumes which a thousand ships carried to all +parts of the world. At this period important and admirable publications +issued from the numerous rival printing establishments in Venice. +Christopher Waltdorfer, of Ratisbon, published in 1471 the first edition +of the “Decameron” of Boccaccio, of which a copy was sold for £2,080 at +the Roxburgh sale; John of Cologne published, in the same year, the +first dated edition of “Terence;” Adam of Amberg reprinted, from the +Roman editions, “Lactantius” and “Virgil,” &c. Finally, Venice already +possessed more than two hundred printers, when in 1494 the great Aldo +Manuzio made his appearance, the precursor of the Estiennes,[62] who +were the glory of French printing. From every part of Europe printing +spread itself and flourished (Figs. 399 to 411); the printers, however, +often neglected, perhaps intentionally, to date their + +[Illustration: Fig. 402.--Mark of Colard Mansion, Printer at Bruges. +(1477.)] + +[Illustration: Fig. 403.--Mark of Trechsel, Printer at Lyons. (1489.)] + +productions. In the course of 1469 there were only two towns, Venice and +Milan, that revealed, by their dated editions, the time at which +printing was first established within their walls; in 1470, five +towns--Nuremberg, Paris, Foligno, Treviso, and Verona; in 1471, eight +towns--Strasbourg, Spires, Treviso, Bologna, Ferrara, Naples, Pavia, and +Florence; in 1472, eight others--Cremona, Felizzano, Padua, Mantua, +Montreuil, Jesi, Munster, and Parma; in 1473, ten--Brescia, Messina, +Ulm, Bude, Lauingen, Mersebourg, Alost, Utrecht, Lyons, and St. Ursio, +near Vicenza; in 1474, thirteen towns, among which are Valentia (in +Spain) and London; in 1475, twelve towns, &c. Each year we find the art +gaining ground, and each year an increase in the number of books newly +edited, rendering science and literature popular by considerably +diminishing the price of books. Thus, for example, at the beginning of +the fifteenth century, the illustrious Poggio sold his fine manuscript +of “Livy,” to raise money enough to buy himself a villa near Florence; +Anthony of Palermo mortgaged his estate in order to be able to purchase +a manuscript of the same historical writer, valued at a hundred and +twenty-five dollars; yet a few years later the “Livy,” printed at Rome +by Sweynheim and Pannartz, in one folio volume on vellum, was worth only +five golden dollars. + +[Illustration: Fig. 404.--Mark of Simon Vostre, Printer at Paris, in +1531, living in the Rue Neuve Nostre-Dame, at the Sign of St. John the +Evangelist.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 405.--Mark of Galliot du Pré, Bookseller at Paris. +(1531.)] + +The largest number of the early editions resembled each other, for they +were generally printed in Gothic characters, or _lettres de +somme_--letters which bristled with points and angular appendices. These +characters, when printing was only just invented, had preserved in +Holland and in Germany their original form; and the celebrated printer +of Bruges, Colard Mansion, only improved on them in his valuable +publications, which were almost contemporaneous with Gutenberg’s +“Catholicon;” but they had already under-gone in France a semi +metamorphosis in getting rid of their angularities and their most +extravagant features. These _lettres de somme_ were then adopted under +the name of _bâtarde_ (bastard) or _ronde_ (round), in the first books +printed in France, and when Nicholas Jenson established himself in +Venice + +[Illustration: Fig. 406.--Mark of Philippe le Noir, Printer, Bookseller, +and Bookbinder, at Paris, 1536, living in the Rue St. Jacques, at the +sign of the “Rose Couronnée.”] + +[Illustration: Fig. 407.--Mark of Temporal, Printer at Lyons, 1550-1559, +with two devices; one in Latin, “And in the meanwhile time flieth, +flieth irreparably;” the other in Greek, “Mark, or know, Time.” (Observe +the play upon the words _tempus_, καιρὁς and Temporal.)] + +he used the _Roman_, which were only an elegant variety of the _lettres +de somme_ of France (Gothic characters). Aldo Manuzio, with the sole +object of insuring that Venice should not owe its national type to a +Frenchman, adopted the _Italic_ character, renewed from the writing +called cursive or _de chancellerie_ (of the chancellor’s office), which +was never generally used in printing, notwithstanding the fine editions +of Aldo. Hereafter the Ciceronean character was to come into use, so +called because it had been employed at Rome in the first edition of the +“Epistolæ Familiares” (Familiar Letters) of Cicero, in 1467. The +character called “St. Augustinian,” which appeared later, likewise owes +its name to the large edition of the works of St. Augustine, published +at Basle in 1506. Moreover, during this first period in which each +printer engraved, or caused to be engraved under his own directions, + +[Illustration: Fig. 408.--Mark of Robert Estienne, Printer at Paris, +1536. + +“Do not aspire to know high things.”] + +[Illustration: Fig. 409.--Mark of Gryphe, Printer at Lyons, 1529. + +“Virtue my Leader, Fortune my Companion.”] + +the characters he made use of, there was an infinite number of different +types. The _register_, a table indicative of the quires which composed +the book, was necessary to point out in what order these were to be +arranged + +[Illustration: Fig. 410.--Mark of Plantin, Printer, at Antwerp, 1557. + +“Christ the true Vine.”] + +[Illustration: Fig. 411.--Mark of J. Le Noble, Printer at Troyes. +(1595.)] + +and bound together. After the _register_ came _the catchwords_, which, +at the end of each quire or of each leaf, were destined to serve an +analogous purpose; and the _signatures_, indicating the place of quires +or of leaves by letters or figures; but signatures and catchwords +existed already in the manuscripts, and typographers had only to +reproduce them in their editions. There was at first a perfect identity +between the manuscripts and the books printed from them. The typographic +art seems to have considered it imperative to respect the abbreviations +with which the manuscripts were so encumbered as often to become +unintelligible; but, as it was not easy to transfer them precisely from +the manuscripts, they were soon expressed in such a way, and in so +complicated a manner, that in 1483 a special explanatory treatise had to +be published to render them intelligible. The punctuation was generally +very capriciously presented: here, it was nearly _nil_; there, it +admitted only of the full stop in various positions; the rests were +often indicated by oblique strokes; sometimes the full stop was round, +sometimes square, and we find also the star or asterisk employed as a +sign of punctuation. The new paragraphs, or breaks, are placed +indifferently in the same line with the rest of the text, projecting +beyond it or not reaching to it. + +[Illustration: Fig. 412.--Border from the “Livre d’Heures” of Anthony +Vérard (1488), representing the Assumption of the Virgin in the presence +of the Apostles and Holy Women, and at the bottom of the page two +Mystical Figures.] + +The book, on leaving the press, went, like its predecessor the +manuscript, first into the hands of the _corrector_, who revised the +text, rectifying wrong letters, and restoring those the press had left +in blank; then into the hands of the _rubricator_, who printed in red, +blue, or other colours, the initial letters, the capitals, and the new +paragraphs. The leaves, before the adoption of signatures, were numbered +by hand. + +At first, nearly all books were printed in folio and quarto sizes, the +result of folding the sheet of paper in two or in four respectively; but +the length and breadth of these sizes varied according to the +requirements of typography and the dimensions of the press. At the end +of the fifteenth century, however, the advantages of the octavo were +already appreciated, which soon became in France the sex-decimo, and in +Italy the duo-decimo. + +[Illustration: Fig. 413.--Border taken from the “Livre d’Heures” of +Geoffroi Tory (1525).] + +Paper and ink employed by the earliest printer seem to have required no +improvement as the art of printing progressed. + +[Illustration: Fig. 414--“Livre d’Heures,” by Guillaume Roville (1551), +a composition in the style of the school of Lyons, with Caryatides +representing female Saints semi-veiled.] + +The ink was black, bright, indelible, unalterable, penetrating deeply +into the paper, and composed, as already were the colours, of oil-paint. +The paper, which was certainly rather grey or yellow, and often coarse +and rough, had the advantage of being strong, durable, and was almost +fit, in virtue of these qualities, to replace parchment and vellum, both +of which materials were scarce and too expensive. Editors contented +themselves with having struck off on _membrane_ (a thin and white +vellum) a small number of copies of each edition; never exceeding three +hundred. These sumptuous copies, rubricated, illuminated, bound with +care, resembling in every respect the finest manuscripts, were generally +presented to kings, princes, and great personages, whose patronage or +assistance the printer sought. Nor was any expense spared to add to +typography all the ornaments which wood-engravings could confer upon it; +and from the year 1475, numerous illustrated editions, of which an +example was found in the first “Specula,” especially those printed in +Germany, were enriched with figures, portraits, heraldic escutcheons, +and a multitude of ornamented margins (Figs. 412 to 415). For more than +a century the painters and engravers worked hand in hand with the +printers and booksellers. + +[Illustration: Fig. 415.--Border employed by John of Tournes, in 1557, +ornamented with Antique Masks and Allegorical Personages bearing Baskets +containing Laurel Branches.] + +The taste for books spread over the whole of Europe; the number of +buyers and of amateurs was every day increasing. In the libraries of +princes, scholars, or monks, printed books were collected as formerly +were manuscripts. Henceforth printing found everywhere the same +protection, the same encouragements, the same rivalry. Typographers +sometimes travelled with their apparatus, opened a printing-office in a +small town, and then went on elsewhere after they had sold one edition. +Finally, such was the incredible activity of typography, from its origin +till 1500, that the number of editions published in Europe in the space +of half a century amounted to _sixteen thousand_. But the most +remarkable result of printing was the important part it played in the +movement of the sixteenth century, from which resulted the +transformation of the arts, of literature, and science; the discoveries +of Laurent Coster and of Gutenberg had cast a new light over the world, +and the press made its appearance to modify profoundly the conditions of +the intellectual life of peoples. + +[Illustration: Fig. 416.--Mark of Bonaventure and Abraham Elsevier, +Printers at Leyden, 1620.] + +LONDON: PRINTED BY VIRTUE AND CO., CITY ROAD. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[1] _Dorserets_, covers to backs of chairs, beds, &c. + +[2] Richard I., surnamed _Sans-peur_, third Duke of Normandy, +was natural son of William I., and grandson of Rollo. He died in +996.--[ED.] + +[3] Charles le Brun, a distinguished painter of the French school, +flourished during the seventeenth century. The son of a sculptor, who +placed him under Simon Vouet, the young artist made such progress +that at the age of fifteen he painted a remarkable picture, “Hercules +Destroying the Horses of Diomede,” which brought him at once into +public notice. Le Brun’s patron, the Chancellor Seguier, sent him to +Italy, with an introduction to Nicholas Poussin, whose pure and correct +taste, however, seems to have had little influence on the French +artist, who, though possessing an inventive and somewhat elevated +genius, often showed himself a mannerist.--[ED.] + +[4] “Historical Topography of Ancient Paris in the district of the +Louvre and Tuileries.” By Berty and Legrand. + +[5] Probably an abbreviation, or corruption, of +cap-mail.--[ED.] + +[6] Or _brassarts_--pieces to protect the upper part of the +arms.--[ED.] + +[7] This title is not chronologically correct. Henry of Bolingbroke +had been created Duke of Hereford nearly a year before his intended +combat with Norfolk, at Coventry, in 1398; when the king, Richard II., +interfered, and banished both nobles from the kingdom.--[ED.] + +[8] _Anglicè_, partisan--a kind of pike or lance.--[ED.] + +[9] _Martel-de-fer_--a weapon combining a hammer and pick; used by +cavalry in the Middle Ages, to damage and destroy armour. It was +generally hung at the saddle-bow.--[ED.] + +[10] _Tassets_--parts of the cuirass. + +[11] _Morion_--a kind of helmet, usually worn by +foot-soldiers.--[ED.] + +[12] So called, it may be presumed, from its form and +make.--[ED.] + +[13] Latin, _Luteus_--muddy.--[ED.] + +[14] Quincunx order is a method of arranging five objects, or pieces, +in the form of a square; one being in the centre, and one at each +corner.--[ED.] + +[15] _Limousine_--a term applied to enamelling, and derived, as some +writers assume, from Leonard Limousin, a famous artist in this kind of +work, resident at Limoges. It is, however, more probable it came from +the province Limousin, or Limosin, of which Limoges was the capital; +and that Leonard acquired the surname of Limousin from his place of +birth or residence; just as many of the old painters are best known by +theirs.--[ED.] + +[16] _Ogivale_--a term used by French architects to denote the Gothic +vault, with its ribs and cross-springers, &c. It is also employed +to denote the pointed arch.--GWILT’S _Encyclopædia of +Architecture_.--[ED.] + +[17] This is a literal rendering of the text of M. Labarte; but the +artists to whom allusion is made were only two, Niccola and Giovanni, +sculptors and architects of Pisa. According to Vasari, Niccola, father +of Giovanni (Jean or John), first worked under certain Greek sculptors +who were executing the figures and other sculptural ornaments of the +Duomo of Pisa and the Chapel of San Giovanni.--[ED.] + +[18] Andrea di Cione Orcagna.--[ED.] + +[19] _Autochthone_--relating to the aboriginal inhabitants +of a country: the use of the word here is not very intelligible.--[ED.] + +[20] _Gnomon_--literally the upright piece of wood or metal which +projects the shadow on the plane of the dial.--[ED.] + +[21] This clock, as many readers doubtless know, was removed +some years ago, when St. Dunstan’s Church, in Fleet Street, was +rebuilt.--[ED.] + +[22] The reader will notice a discrepancy between this description +of the _chorus_ and that given in a preceding paragraph. We have +retained both, mainly because it is now impossible to determine what +the instrument really was: no mention of it appears in any book we have +consulted.--[ED.] + +[23] _Nabulum_--a name evidently derived from the Hebrew word _nebel_, +generally translated in the Scriptures as a psaltery.--[ED.] + +[24] The Welsh or Scotch _Crwd_.--[TR.] + +[25] In German _Geige_, “fiddle.”--[TR.] + +[26] Henry IV., born at Pau, in the Béarn.--[ED.] + +[27] The English “knave” is only our old equivalent for the German +_knabe_, and had originally the same meaning of _servant_; it is also +nearly similar in sense to the French _valet_.--[TR.] + +[28] _Paul, the Silentiary_, is so named from holding in the court of +Justinian the office of chief of the Silentiarii, persons who had the +care of the palace. He wrote a poem on the rebuilding of St. Sophia, +at Constantinople, which was translated from Greek into Latin, and +published with notes, by Du Cange, of Paris, in 1670. It is this to +which M. Lecroix refers in the text.--[ED.] + +[29] _Amandaire_--almond-shaped. Strictly speaking, the aureola is the +nimbus of the whole body, as the nimbus is the aureola of the head. In +Fairholt’s “Dictionary of Terms in Art” is an engraving showing a saint +standing in the centre of an almond-shaped aureola--[ED.] + +[30] _Grisaille_--white and black.--[ED.] + +[31] Probably Alfonso is thus designate!.--[ED.] + +[32] This is obviously a misconception. Lanzi, alluding to the +picture, says, “Had Leonardo desired to follow the practice of his +age in painting in distemper, the art at this time would have been in +possession of this treasure. But being always fond of attempting new +methods, he painted this masterpiece upon a peculiar ground, formed of +distilled oils, which was the reason that it gradually detached itself +from the wall,” &c. And a later authority, Kugler, thus writes: “The +determination of Leonardo to execute the work in oil-colours instead of +fresco, in order to have the power of finishing the minutest details in +so great an undertaking, appears to have been unfortunate.” Distemper +differs from fresco in that it is painted on a dry, and not a damp, +wall; but in both the vehicle used is of an aqueous, and not an oily, +nature.--[ED.] + +[33] Deacon of the Church at Aquila, and afterwards attached to +the court of Charlemagne. Paul, who died about the year 799, was +distinguished as a poet and historian.--[ED.] + +[34] Or San-Gemignano, a small town between Florence and +Siena.--[ED.] + +[35] Giorgione studied under Giovanni Bellini, younger brother of +Gentile, and son of Jacopo. M. Lacroix does not even mention Giovanni +Bellini, though he is generally esteemed before his father and brother, +besides being the master of two of the greatest painters of the +Venetian school, Titian and Giorgione; who, however, soon cast aside +the antiquated style of their early instructor.--[ED.] + +[36] The famous picture, an altar-piece, representing “Christ bearing +his Cross,” known by the name of _Lo Spasimo di Sicilia_, from its +having been painted for the convent of Santa Maria della Spasimo at +Palermo, in Sicily. It is now in the Museum of Madrid.--[ED.] + +[37] We can find no authority to support this statement.--[ED.] + +[38] Holbein died of the plague which prevailed in London in +1554.--[ED.] + +[39] This name is generally written Jeannet, and, according to Wornum’s +“Epochs of Painting,” seems to have been applied indiscriminately +almost to the two painters, Jehannet or Jehan Clouet, father and +son. M. Lacroix appears also to include François under the same +general cognomen; which, indeed, appears to have been a species of +surname.--[ED.] + +[40] _Buziack_ is the name by which this old wood-engraver is generally +known.--[ED.] + +[41] The legend which accompanies this engraving is in old Italian; +it relates to the famous prophecy of Isaiah as to the birth of Christ +(Isaiah vii. 14). + +[42] We presume this plate to be that commonly known among collectors +of prints as “Death’s Horse;” it represents a knight on horseback +followed by Death. The best impressions of this plate are prior to the +date 1513. It is also called “The Christian Knight,” and “The Knight, +Death, and the Devil.”--[ED.] + +[43] That Marc Antonio studied painting under Raphael, as is here +implied, is more than doubtful, though he engraved a very large number +of his various compositions, and was highly esteemed by the great +master.--[ED.] + +[44] Giovanni B. B. Ghisi; Giorgio and Adams, his two sons; and Diana, +his daughter.--[ED.] + +[45] This engraver, generally known by the single name of +George, usually signed his plates with the surname Peins or +Pentz.--[ED.] + +[46] He was born at Prague, although most of his works were executed in +England.--[TR.] + +[47] Ambons--a kind of pulpit in the early Christian +churches.--[ED.] + +[48] Strasbourg spire is 468 feet in height, the highest in the world. +Amiens, the next, a mere _flèche_, is 422 feet.--[TR.] + +[49] M. Lacroix uses the word _Romane_ throughout, with reference +to this style of architecture: we have adopted _Norman_ as that +most commonly associated with it, and because it is a generic term +comprehending Romanesque, Lombardic, and even Byzantine.--[ED.] + +[50] _Oculus_ (eye).--This word is not known in the vocabulary of +English architects; but it is evidently intended to signify a circular +window.--[ED.] + +[51] Officers who had jurisdiction over, and were inspectors of, works +of masonry and carpentry. + +[52] The word is derived from _vellus_, which merely signifies the skin +of any beast, not of a calf only.--[ED.] + +[53] The word is derived from the Latin _uncialis_, and is applied to +letters of a round or hook-shaped form: such were used by the ancients +as numerals, or for words in abbreviated inscriptions.--[ED.] + +[54] _Minuscule._--Less or little. The term is evidently here intended +to distinguish small letters from capitals.--[ED.] + +[55] _Palimpsest_--a kind of parchment from which anything written +could easily be erased.--[ED.] + +[56] Librarian probably; though _libraire_ means only a bookseller, +_bibliothécaire_ being the French for a librarian.--[TR.] + +[57] _Translation_: “This is Monseigneur St. Louis’ Psalter, which +belonged to his mother.” + +[58] _Antiphonaries_--books containing the responses, &c., used in +Catholic church-services.--[ED.] + +[59] “Garni de deux fermaulx d’argent, dorez, armoiez d’azur à une +aigle d’or à deux testes, onglé de gueulles, auquel a ung tuyau +d’argent doré pour tourner les feuilles, à trois escussons desdites +armes, couvert d’une chemise de veluyau vermeil.” + +[60] Probably this “pilgrimage” refers to some one of the great +European Councils or Diets held in the city during the Middle Ages, as +were Congresses in later times.--[ED.] + +[61] _Sic_; but it should evidently be the fifteenth +century.--[ED.] + +[62] _Anglicè_, Stephens, by which name this illustrious family of +scholars and printers is most popularly known in England. They were ten +in number, who flourished between 1512 and about 1660. Anthony, the +last distinguished representative of the family, died in poverty at the +Hôtel Dieu, Paris, in 1674, at the age of eighty-two.--[ED.] + + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Arts in The Middle Ages and at the +Period of The Renaissance, by Paul Lacroix Jacob + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ARTS IN THE MIDDLE AGES *** + +***** This file should be named 59924-0.txt or 59924-0.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/5/9/9/2/59924/ + +Produced by Chuck Greif and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images available at The Internet Archive) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license + + +Title: The Arts in The Middle Ages and at the Period of The Renaissance + +Author: Paul Lacroix Jacob + +Translator: James Dafforne + +Release Date: July 15, 2019 [EBook #59924] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ARTS IN THE MIDDLE AGES *** + + + + +Produced by Chuck Greif and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images available at The Internet Archive) + + + + + + +</pre> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/cover_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/cover.jpg" alt="[Image of +the book's cover unavailable.]" /></a> +</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="" +style="border: 2px black solid;margin:auto auto;max-width:50%; +padding:1%;"> +<tr><td> + +<p class="c"><a href="#TABLE_OF_CONTENTS">Contents.</a></p> +<p class="c"><a href="#TABLE_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS">Table of Illustrations</a><br /> <span class="nonvis">(In certain versions of this etext [in certain browsers] +clicking on the image will bring up a larger version.)</span></p> +<p class="c">(etext transcriber's note)</p></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="c"><i>THE ARTS IN THE MIDDLE AGES,<br /><small> +AND AT THE PERIOD OF THE RENAISSANCE.</small></i> +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_i" id="page_i">{i}</a></span> </p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_ii" id="page_ii">{ii}</a></span> </p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="front" id="front"></a><a name="chrm_1" id="chrm_1"></a> +<a href="images/ill_001_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_001_sml.jpg" width="337" height="465" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<div class="caption"><p>THE ANNUNCIATION.</p> + +<p>Fac-simile of a Miniature from the “Hours” of Anne de Bretagne formerly +belonging to Catherine de Medicis</p> + +<p>(Library of M. A. Firmin Didot.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_iii" id="page_iii">{iii}</a></span></p> + +<h1> +THE ARTS<br /> + +<span class="red"><small><small><small>IN</small></small></small><br /> + +THE MIDDLE AGES,</span> +<br /><small><small><small> +AND AT THE PERIOD OF</small></small></small><br /> + +THE RENAISSANCE.</h1> + +<p class="c"><span class="red"><span class="smcap">By</span> PAUL LACROIX</span><br /><small> +(Bibliophile Jacob),<br /> +CURATOR OF THE IMPERIAL LIBRARY OF THE ARSENAL, PARIS.</small><br /> +<br /> +<br /><small><span class="eng"> +Illustrated with</span></small><br /><span class="red"> +NINETEEN CHROMOLITHOGRAPHIC PRINTS BY F. KELLERHOVEN</span><br /> +<br /><small> +AND UPWARDS OF</small><br /> +<br /> +<i>FOUR HUNDRED ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD</i>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +FOURTH THOUSAND.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +LONDON:<br /><span class="red"> +BICKERS AND SON, 1, LEICESTER SQUARE.</span><br /> + +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_iv" id="page_iv">{iv}</a></span> </p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_v" id="page_v">{v}</a></span> </p> + +<h2><a name="PREFACE_OF_THE_EDITOR" id="PREFACE_OF_THE_EDITOR"></a> +<a href="images/ill_002-a_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_002-a_sml.jpg" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<br /> +PREFACE OF THE EDITOR.</h2> + +<p class="nind"> +<a href="images/ill_002_lg.jpg"> +<span class="letra"><img src="images/ill_002_sml.jpg" +width="90" +alt="T" /></span></a>HE aim and scope of this work are so explicitly set forth in the +appended Preface by its Author as to require for the book no further +introduction. The position held by M. <span class="smcap">Lacroix</span> in the Imperial Library of +the Arsenal, Paris, is a sufficient guarantee of his qualifications for +undertaking a publication of this nature. How far his labours were +appreciated in France is evident from the fact that, when the first +edition made its appearance, it was exhausted within a few days.</p> + +<p>It may fairly be presumed that <span class="smcap">The Arts in the Middle Ages</span> will find +equal favour in England, where so much attention has of late years been +given to the subject in all its various ramifications; and where,—in +our National Museum, Kensington, especially,—we are accumulating so +extensive and valuable a collection of objects associated with the +epochs referred to by M. <span class="smcap">Lacroix</span>.</p> + +<p>In preparing these sheets for the press, my task has been little more +than to put an excellent and conscientious <i>literal</i> translation of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_vi" id="page_vi">{vi}</a></span>French text into language somewhat in harmony with the construction of +our own. In so doing, however, it has been my object to retain, as far +as practicable, the peculiar—sometimes the quaint—phraseology of the +original writing. A few notes are added when they appeared necessary by +way of explaining terms, &c., or to render them more intelligible to the +general reader. But some words are used by the Author for which no +English equivalent can be found: these have been allowed to stand +without note or comment.</p> + +<p class="r"> +JAMES DAFFORNE.<br /> +</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Brixton</span>, <i>February, 1870</i>.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_003_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_003_sml.jpg" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_vii" id="page_vii">{vii}</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="PREFACE_TO_THE_SECOND_FRENCH_EDITION" id="PREFACE_TO_THE_SECOND_FRENCH_EDITION"></a> +<a href="images/ill_004-a_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_004-a_sml.jpg" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<br /> +PREFACE TO THE SECOND FRENCH EDITION.</h2> + +<p class="nind"> +<a href="images/ill_004_lg.jpg"> +<span class="letra"><img src="images/ill_004_sml.jpg" +width="90" +alt="M" +/></span></a>ORE than twenty years ago we published, with the aid of our friend +Ferdinand Séré, whose loss we regret, and with the co-operation of other +learned men and of the most eminent writers and artists, an important +work, entitled “<span class="smcap">The Middle Ages and the Renaissance</span>.” That work, which +consists of no less than five large quarto volumes, treated in detail +the manners and customs, the sciences, literature, and the arts of those +two great epochs, a subject as vast as it is interesting and +instructive. Thanks to the learning it displays, to its literary merit +and its admirable execution, it had the rare good fortune to attract +immediately the attention of the public, and even now it maintains the +interest which marked its first appearance. It has taken its place in +the library of the amateur, not only in France but also among +foreigners; it has become celebrated.</p> + +<p>This exceptional result, especially as regards a publication of such +extent, induces us to believe that our work, thus known and appreciated +by the learned, may and ought henceforth to have still greater success +by addressing itself to a yet larger number of readers.</p> + +<p>With this conviction we now present to the public one of the principal +portions of that important work, and perhaps the most interesting, in a<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_viii" id="page_viii">{viii}</a></span> +form more simple, easier, and more pleasing; within the reach of youth +who desire to learn without weariness or irksomeness, of females +interested in grave authors, of the family that loves to assemble round +a book altogether instructive and attractive. We would speak of the +“<span class="smcap">Arts in the Middle Ages, and at the Period of the Renaissance</span>.” After +having reunited the scattered materials on this subject, we have ranged +them each in its own rank, taking care to discard all crudity of +learning and to preserve in our work the brilliant colouring in which it +was first clothed.</p> + +<p>All the Arts are interesting in themselves. Their productions awaken +attention and excite curiosity. But here it is not one Art only that is +treated of. We pass in review all the Arts, starting from the fourth +century to the second half of the sixteenth—Architecture raising +churches and abbeys, palaces and public memorials, strong fortresses and +the ramparts of cities; Sculpture adorning and perfecting other Arts by +its works in stone, marble, bronze, wood, and ivory; Painting, +commencing with mosaic and enamels, contributing to the decoration of +buildings jointly with stained glass and frescoes, embellishing and +illuminating manuscripts before it arrived at its highest point of +perfection, with the Art of Giotto and Raphael, of Hemling and Albert +Dürer; Engraving on wood and metal, with which is associated the work of +the medallist and the goldsmith; and after attempting to touch upon +Playing-cards and Niello-work, we suddenly evoke that sublime invention +destined to change the face of the world—Printing. Such are, in brief, +some of the principal features of this splendid picture. One can imagine +what an infinity, what variety and richness, of details it should +contain.</p> + +<p>Our subject presents, at the same time, another kind of interest more +elevated and not less alluring. Here each Art appears in its different +phases and in its diversified progress. It is a history, not alone of +the Arts, but of the epoch itself in which they were developed; for the +Arts, regarded in their generality, are the truest expression of +society. They speak to us of tastes, of ideas, of character: they +exhibit us in their works. Of all an age can leave to the future +concerning itself, that which repre<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_ix" id="page_ix">{ix}</a></span>sents it most vividly is Art: the +Arts of an epoch revivify it, and bring it back before our eyes.</p> + +<p>It is this which forms our book. Yet, we must remark, here its interest +is redoubled, for we retrace not only a single era, but two eras very +distinct from each other. In the first, that of the Middle Ages, which +followed the invasion of the Northmen, society was in a great measure +formed of new and barbarous elements, which Christianity laboured to +break up and fashion. In the second epoch, on the contrary, society was +organised and firmly established; it enjoyed peace, and reaped its +fruits. The Arts followed the same phases. At first rude and informal, +they rose slowly and by degrees, like society, out of chaos. At length +they nourished in perfect freedom, and progressed with all the energy of +which the human mind is capable. Hence the successive advances whose +history presents a marvellous interest.</p> + +<p>During the Middle Ages, Art generally followed the inspirations of that +Christian spirit which presided at the formation of this new world. It +arose to reproduce in an admirable manner the religious ideal. Only +towards the end of that period it searched out for beauty of form, and +began to find it when the Renaissance made its appearance: the +Renaissance, that is, the intellectual revolution, which, in the +fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, restored among modern nations the +sceptre to Literature and the Arts of antiquity. Then, with the +Renaissance, the Arts changed their direction, and especially the +principal Arts, those by which the genius of man expresses most forcibly +his ideas and his feelings. Thus, in the Middle Ages, a new style of +architecture is created that rapidly attained the highest degree of +perfection, the <i>ogival</i> (later Gothic or flamboyant), of which we see +the <i>chefs-d’œuvre</i> in our cathedrals: at the Renaissance, this was +replaced by architecture derived from that of the Greeks and Romans, +which also produced admirable works, but almost always less in harmony +with the dignity and splendour of worship. In the Middle Ages, Painting +chiefly applied itself to represent the <i>beau idéal</i> of the religious +mind reflecting itself in the countenance; at the Renaissance, it is the +beauty of the physical form, so perfectly expressed<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_x" id="page_x">{x}</a></span> by the ancients. +Sculpture, which comes nearer to Painting, followed at the same time all +similar phases, drawing the art of Engraving with it. Do not the +diversified changes through which the Arts passed, as retraced in this +book during two epochs, present to the intelligent reader a succession +of facts of the highest interest and a history most instructive?</p> + +<p>Our work is the only existing one on this great and magnificent subject, +of which the materials are scattered through a multitude of volumes. +Thus for the success of this undertaking it became necessary to unite +with us in our task men most distinguished by their learning and +talents: we are permitted to cite the names of MM. Ernest Breton, Aimé +Champollion, Champollion-Figeac, Pierre Dubois, Duchesne, Ferdinand +Denis, Jacquemart, Arch. Juvinal, Jules Labarte, Lassus, Louandre, +Prosper Mérimée, Alfred Michiels, Gabriel Peignot, Riocreux, De Saulcy, +Jean Designeur, le Marquis de Varennes. After such a list we record our +own name only to acknowledge that we have gone over and recast these +various works, and presented them in a form which gives them more unity, +but owes to them all the interest and all the charm it may offer.</p> + +<p>The numerous illustrations that adorn the work will engage the eye, +while the text will speak to the intelligence. The designs in +chromolithography are executed by M. Kellerhoven, who for several years +has made the art one of a high order, worthy to shine among the finest +works of our greatest painters, as is proved by his “Chefs-d’œuvre of +the Great Masters,” “Lives of the Saints,” and “Legend of St. Ursula.”</p> + +<p>No one is ignorant of the attention given in these days to archæology. +Information about objects of antiquity is necessary to every instructed +person. It ought to be studied so far as to enable us to appreciate, or +at least to recognise, the examples of olden time in Architecture, +Painting, &c., that present themselves to our notice. Thus it has become +for the young of each sex indispensable to good education. The perusal +of this book will be for such an attractive introduction to that +knowledge which for too long a time was the exclusive domain of the +learned.</p> + +<p class="r"> +PAUL LACROIX<br /> +(Bibliophile Jacob).<br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_xi" id="page_xi">{xi}</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="TABLE_OF_CONTENTS" id="TABLE_OF_CONTENTS"></a> +<a href="images/ill_005_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_005_sml.jpg" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a><br /> +TABLE OF CONTENTS.</h2> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="" +style="margin:auto auto;max-width:75%;"> + +<tr><td class="cnt" colspan="2"> </td><td class="rt"><small>Page</small></td></tr> +<tr><th colspan="2"><a href="#FURNITURE">FURNITURE: HOUSEHOLD AND ECCLESIASTICAL</a></th><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_1">1</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="cnt">Simplicity of Furniture among the Gauls and Franks.—Introduction of costly taste in +articles of Furniture of the Seventh Century.—Arm-chair of Dagobert.—Round Table +of King Artus.—Influence of the Crusades.—Regal Banquet in the time of Charles V.—Benches.—Sideboards.—Dinner +Services.—Goblets.—Brassware.—Casks.—Lighting.—Beds.—Carved-wood +Furniture.—Locksmith’s Work.—Glass and Mirrors.—Room +of a Feudal Seigneur.—Costliness of Furniture used for Ecclesiastical Purposes.—Altars.—Censers.—Shrines +and Reliquaries.—Gratings and Iron-mountings.</td></tr> + +<tr><th colspan="2"><a href="#TAPESTRY">TAPESTRY</a></th><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_37">37</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="cnt">Scriptural Origin of Tapestry.—Needlework Embroidery in Ancient Greek and Roman +Times.—Attalic Carpets.—Manufacture of Carpets in Cloisters.—Manufactory at +Poitiers in the Twelfth Century.—Bayeux Tapestry, named “De la Reine Mathilde.”—Arras +Carpets.—Inventory of the Tapestries of Charles V.; enormous Value of these +Embroidered Hangings.—Manufactory at Fontainebleau, under Francis I.—The +Manufacture of the Hôpital de la Trinité, at Paris.—The Tapestry Workers, Dubourg +and Laurent, in the reign of Henry IV.—Factories of Savonnerie and Gobelins.</td></tr> + +<tr><th colspan="2"><a href="#CERAMIC_ART">CERAMIC ART</a></th><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_53">53</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="cnt">Pottery Workshops in the Gallo-Romano Period.—Ceramic Art disappears for several +Centuries in Gaul: is again found in the Tenth and Eleventh Centuries.—Probable +Influence of Arabian Art in Spain.—Origin of Majolica.—Luca della Robbia and his +Successors.—Enamelled Tiles in France, dating from the Twelfth Century.—The +Italian Manufactories of Faenza, Rimini, Pesaro, &c.—Beauvais Pottery.—Invention +and Works of Bernard Palissy; his History; his <i>Chefs-d’œuvre</i>.—The <i>Faïence</i> of +Thouars, called “Henri II.”</td></tr> + +<tr><th colspan="2"><a href="#ARMS_AND_ARMOUR">ARMS AND ARMOUR</a></th><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_75">75</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="cnt">Arms of the Time of Charlemagne.—Arms of the Normans at the Time of the Conquest +of England.—Progress of Armoury under the Influence of the Crusades.—The Coat of +Mail.—The Crossbow.—The Hauberk and the Hoqueton.—The Helmet, the Hat of +Iron, the Cervelière, the Greaves, and the Gauntlet; the Breastplate and the Cuish.—The +Casque with Vizor.—Plain Armour and Ribbed Armour.—The Salade Helmet.—Costliness +of Armour.—Invention of Gunpowder.—Bombards.—Hand-Cannons.—The +Culverin, the Falconet.—The Arquebus with Metal-holder, with Match, and with +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_xii" id="page_xii">{xii}</a></span>Wheel.—The Gun and the Pistol.</td></tr> + +<tr><th colspan="2"><a href="#CARRIAGES_AND_SADDLERY">CARRIAGES AND SADDLERY</a></th><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_107">107</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="cnt">Horsemanship among the Ancients.—The Riding-horse and the Carriage-horse.—Chariots +armed with Scythes.—Vehicles of the Romans, the Gauls, and the Franks: +Carruca, the Petoritum, the Cisium, the Plastrum, the Basterna, the Carpentum.—Different +kinds of Saddle-horses in the Days of Chivalry.—The Spur a distinctive +Sign of Nobility: its Origin.—The Saddle, its Origin and its Modifications.—The +Tilter.—Carriages.—The Mules of Magistrates.—Corporations of Saddlers and Harness-makers, +Lorimers, Coachmakers, Chapuiseurs, Blazonniers, and Saddle-coverers.</td></tr> + +<tr><th colspan="2"><a href="#GOLD_AND_SILVER_WORK">GOLD AND SILVER WORK</a></th><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_123">123</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="cnt">Its Antiquity.—The Trésor de Guarrazar.—The Merovingian and Carlovingian Periods.—Ecclesiastical +Jewellery.—Pre-eminence of the Byzantine Goldsmiths.—Progress of +the Art consequent on the Crusades.—The Gold and Enamels of Limoges.—Jewellery +ceases to be restricted to Purposes of Religion.—Transparent Enamels.—Jean of Pisa, +Agnolo of Siena, Ghiberti.—Great Painters and Sculptors from the Goldsmiths’ +Workshops.—Benvenuto Cellini.—The Goldsmiths of Paris.</td></tr> + +<tr><th colspan="2"><a href="#HOROLOGY">HOROLOGY</a></th><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_169">169</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="cnt">Modes of measuring Time among the Ancients.—The Gnomon.—The Water-Clock.—The +Hour-Glass.—The Water-Clock, improved by the Persians and by the Italians.—Gerbert +invents the Escapement and the moving Weights.—The Striking-bell.—Maistre +Jehan des Orloges.—Jacquemart of Dijon.—The first Clock in Paris.—Earliest +portable Timepiece.—Invention of the spiral Spring.—First appearance of Watches.—The +Watches, or “Eggs,” of Nuremberg.—Invention of the Fusee.—Corporation of +Clockmakers.—Noted Clocks at Jena, Strasburg, Lyons, &c.—Charles-Quint and +Jannellus.—The Pendulum.</td></tr> + +<tr><th colspan="2"><a href="#MUSICAL_INSTRUMENTS">MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS</a></th><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_187">187</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="cnt">Music in the Middle Ages.—Musical Instruments from the Fourth to the Thirteenth +Century.—Wind Instruments: the Single and Double Flute, the Pandean Pipes, the +Reed-pipe.—The Hautboy, the Flageolet, Trumpets, Horns, <i>Olifants</i>, the Hydraulic +Organ, the Bellows-Organ.—Instruments of Percussion: the Bell, the Hand-bell, +Cymbals, the Timbrel, the Triangle, the <i>Bombulum</i>, Drums.—Stringed Instruments: +the Lyre, the Cithern, the Harp, the Psaltery, the <i>Nable</i>, the <i>Chorus</i>, the <i>Organistrum</i>, +the Lute and the Guitar, the <i>Crout</i>, the <i>Rote</i>, the Viola, the <i>Gigue</i>, the Monochord.</td></tr> + +<tr><th colspan="2"><a href="#PLAYING-CARDS">PLAYING-CARDS</a></th><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_223">223</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="cnt">Supposed Date of their Invention.—Existed in India in the Twelfth Century.—Their +connection with the Game of Chess.—Brought into Europe after the Crusades.—First +Mention of a Game with Cards in 1379.—Cards well known in the Fifteenth Century +in Spain, Germany, and France, under the name of <i>Tarots</i>.—Cards called <i>Charles the +Sixth’s</i> must have been <i>Tarots</i>.—Ancient Cards, French, Italian, and German.—Cards +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_xiii" id="page_xiii">{xiii}</a></span>contributing to the Invention of Wood-Engraving and Printing.</td></tr> + +<tr><th colspan="2"><a href="#GLASS-PAINTING">GLASS-PAINTING</a></th><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_251">251</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="cnt">Painting on Glass mentioned by Historians in the Third Century of our Era.—Glazed +Windows at Brioude in the Sixth Century.—Coloured Glass at St. John Lateran and +St. Peter’s in Rome.—Church-Windows of the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries in +France: Saint-Denis, Sens, Poitiers, Chartres, Rheims, &c.—In the Fourteenth and +Fifteenth Centuries the Art was at its Zenith.—Jean Cousin.—The Célestins of Paris: +Saint-Gervais.—Robert Pinaigrier and his Sons.—Bernard Palissy decorates the +Chapel of the Castle of Ecouen.—Foreign Art: Albert Dürer.</td></tr> + +<tr><th colspan="2"><a href="#FRESCO-PAINTING">FRESCO-PAINTING</a></th><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_269">269</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="cnt">The Nature of Fresco.—Employed by the Ancients.—Paintings at Pompeii.—Greek and +Roman Schools.—Mural Paintings destroyed by the Iconoclasts and Barbarians.—Revival +of Fresco, in the Ninth Century, in Italy.—Fresco-Painters since Guido of +Siena.—Principal Works of these Painters.—Successors of Raphael and Michael +Angelo.—Fresco in <i>Sgraffito</i>.—Mural Paintings in France from the Twelfth Century.—Gothic +Frescoes of Spain.—Mural Paintings in the Low Countries, Germany, and +Switzerland.</td></tr> + +<tr><th colspan="2"><a href="#PAINTING_ON_WOOD_CANVAS">PAINTING ON WOOD, CANVAS, <span class="smcap">Etc.</span></a></th><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_283">283</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="cnt">The Rise of Christian Painting.—The Byzantine School.—First Revival in Italy.—Cimabue, +Giotto, Fra Angelico.—Florentine School: Leonardo da Vinci, Michael +Angelo.—Roman School: Perugino, Raphael.—Venetian School: Titian, Tintoretto, +Veronese.—Lombard School: Correggio, Parmigianino.—Spanish School.—German +and Flemish Schools: Stephen of Cologne, John of Bruges, Lucas van Leyden, +Albert Dürer, Lucas van Cranach, Holbein.—Painting in France during the Middle +Ages.—Italian Masters in France.—Jean Cousin.</td></tr> + +<tr><th colspan="2"><a href="#ENGRAVING">ENGRAVING</a></th><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_315">315</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="cnt">Origin of Wood-Engraving.—The St. Christopher of 1423.—“The Virgin and Child +Jesus.”—The earliest Masters of Wood-Engraving.—Bernard Milnet.—Engraving in +<i>Camaïeu</i>.—Origin of Engraving on Metal.—The “Pax” of Maso Finiguerra.—The +earliest Engravers on Metal.—Niello Work.—<i>Le Maître</i> of 1466.—<i>Le Maître</i> of 1486. +Martin Schöngauer, Israel van Mecken, Wenceslaus of Olmutz, Albert Dürer, Marc +Antonio, Lucas van Leyden.—Jean Duret and the French School.—The Dutch +School.—The Masters of Engraving.</td></tr> + +<tr><th colspan="2"><a href="#SCULPTURE">SCULPTURE</a></th><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_339">339</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="cnt">Origin of Christian Sculpture.—Statues in Gold and Silver.—Traditions of Antique Art.—Sculpture +in Ivory.—Iconoclasts.—Diptychs.—The highest Style of Sculpture +follows the Phases of Architecture.—Cathedrals and Monasteries from the year 1000.—Schools +of Burgundy, Champagne, Normandy, Lorraine, &c.—German, English, +Spanish, and Italian Schools.—Nicholas of Pisa and his Successors.—Position of +French Sculpture in the Thirteenth Century.—Florentine Sculpture and Ghiberti.—French +Sculptors from the Fifteenth to the Sixteenth Century.</td></tr> + +<tr><th colspan="2"><a href="#ARCHITECTURE">ARCHITECTURE</a></th><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_373">373</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="cnt">The Basilica the first Christian Church.—Modification of Ancient Architecture.—Byzantine +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_xiv" id="page_xiv">{xiv}</a></span>Style.—Formation of the Norman Style.—Principal Norman Churches.—Age +of the Transition from Norman to Gothic.—Origin and Importance of the <i>Ogive</i>.—Principal +Edifices in the pure Gothic Style.—The Gothic Church, an Emblem of +the Religious Spirit in the Middle Ages.—Florid Gothic.—Flamboyant Gothic.—Decadency.—Civil +and Military Architecture: Castles, Fortified Enclosures, Private +Houses, Town-Halls.—Italian Renaissance: Pisa, Florence, Rome.—French Renaissance: +Mansions and Palaces.</td></tr> + +<tr><th colspan="2"><a href="#PARCHMENT_AND_PAPER">PARCHMENT AND PAPER</a></th><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_413">413</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="cnt">Parchment in Ancient Times.—Papyrus.—Preparation of Parchment and Vellum in the +Middle Ages.—Sale of Parchment at the Fair of Lendit.—Privilege of the University +of Paris on the Sale and Purchase of Parchment.—Different Applications of Parchment.—Cotton +Paper imported from China.—Order of the Emperor Frederick II. +concerning Paper.—The Employment of Linen Paper, dating from the Twelfth +Century.—Ancient Water-Marks on Paper.—Paper Manufactories in France and +other parts of Europe.</td></tr> + +<tr><th colspan="2"><a href="#MANUSCRIPTS">MANUSCRIPTS</a></th><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_423">423</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="cnt">Manuscripts in Olden Times.—Their Form.—Materials of which they were composed.—Their +Destruction by the Goths.—Rare at the Beginning of the Middle Ages.—The +Catholic Church preserved and multiplied them.—Copyists.—Transcription of +Diplomas.—Corporation of Scribes and Booksellers.—Palæography.—Greek Writings.—Uncial +and Cursive Manuscripts.—Sclavonic Writings.—Latin Writers.—Tironian +Shorthand.—Lombardic Characters.—Diplomatic.—Capetian.—Ludovicinian.—Gothic.—Runic.—Visigothic.—Anglo-Saxon.—Irish.</td></tr> + +<tr><th colspan="2"><a href="#MINIATURES_IN_MANUSCRIPTS">MINIATURES IN MANUSCRIPTS</a></th><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_443">443</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="cnt">Miniatures at the Beginning of the Middle Ages.—The two “Vatican” Virgils.—Painting +of Manuscripts under Charlemagne and Louis le Débonnaire.—Tradition of Greek Art +in Europe.—Decline of the Miniature in the Tenth Century.—Origin of Gothic Art.—Fine +Manuscript of the time of St. Louis.—Clerical and Lay Miniature-Painters.—Caricature +and the Grotesque.—Miniatures in Monochrome and in Grisaille.—Illuminators +at the Court of France and to the Dukes of Burgundy.—School of John Fouquet.—Italian +Miniature-Painters.—Giulio Clovio.—French School under Louis XII.</td></tr> + +<tr><th colspan="2"><a href="#BOOKBINDING">BOOKBINDING</a></th><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_471">471</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="cnt">Primitive Binding of Books.—Bookbinding among the Romans.—Bookbinding with +Goldsmith’s Work from the Fifth Century.—Chained Books.—Corporation of <i>Lieurs</i>, +or Bookbinders.—Books bound in Wood, with Metal Corners and Clasps.—First +Bindings in Leather, honeycombed (<i>waffled?</i>) and gilt.—Description of some celebrated +Bindings of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries.—Sources of Modern Bookbinding.—John +Grollier.—President de Thou.—Kings and Queens of France Bibliomaniacs.—Superiority +of Bookbinding in France.</td></tr> + +<tr><th colspan="2"><a href="#PRINTING">PRINTING</a></th><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_485">485</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="cnt">Who was the Inventor of Printing?—Movable Letters in ancient Times.—Block +Printing.—Laurent Coster.—<i>Donati</i> and <i>Specula</i>.—Gutenberg’s Process.—Partnership +of Gutenberg and Faust.—Schœffer.—The Mayence Bible.—The Psalter of +1457.—The “Rationale” of 1459.—Gutenberg prints by himself.—The “Catholicon” +of 1460.—Printing at Cologne, Strasbourg, Venice, and Paris.—Louis XI. and +Nicholas Jenson.—German Printers at Rome.—<i>Incunabula.</i>—Colard Mansion.—Caxton.—Improvement +of Typographical Processes up to the Sixteenth Century.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_xv" id="page_xv">{xv}</a></span> </p> + +<h2><a name="TABLE_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS" id="TABLE_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS"></a><a href="images/ill_006_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_006_sml.jpg" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a><br /> +TABLE OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</h2> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" summary="" +style="margin:auto auto;max-width:65%;"> + +<tr><th class="centh" colspan="3">I. CHROMOLITHOGRAPHS.</th></tr> + +<tr><td><small>Plate</small></td><td></td> +<td class="rt"><small>To face page</small></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="rt"><a href="#chrm_1">1.</a></td><td>The Annunciation. Fac-simile of Miniature taken from the “Hours” of Anne de Bretagne, formerly belonging to Catherine de Medicis</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#front">Frontispiece</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="rt"><a href="#chrm_2">2.</a></td><td>Distaff and Bedposts of the Sixteenth Century</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_20">20</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="rt"><a href="#chrm_3">3.</a></td><td>Adoration of the Magi. Bernese Tapestry of the Fifteenth Century</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_46">46</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="rt"><a href="#chrm_4">4.</a></td><td>Paris in the Fifteenth Century. Beauvais Tapestry</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_50">50</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="rt"><a href="#chrm_5">5.</a></td><td>Encaustic Tiles</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_58">58</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="rt"><a href="#chrm_6">6.</a></td><td>Biberon of Henri Deux Faience</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_64">64</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="rt"><a href="#chrm_7">7.</a></td><td>Casque, Morion, and Helmets</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_82">82</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="rt"><a href="#chrm_8">8.</a></td><td>Entrance of Queen Isabella of Bavaria into Paris. From Froissart’s “Chronicles”</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_118">118</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="rt"><a href="#chrm_9">9.</a></td><td>Jewelled Crosses of the Visigoths, found at Guarrazar. Seventh Century</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_124">124</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="rt"><a href="#chrm_10">10.</a></td><td>Drageoir, or Table Ornament. German work</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_154">154</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="rt"><a href="#chrm_11">11.</a></td><td>Clock of Damaskeened Iron of the Fifteenth Century; and Watches of the Sixteenth Century</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_180">180</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="rt"><a href="#chrm_12">12.</a></td><td>Francis I. and Eleanor his Wife at their Devotions. Sixteenth Century</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_266">266</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="rt"><a href="#chrm_13">13.</a></td><td>The Dream of Life, a Fresco by Orcagna</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_276">276</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="rt"><a href="#chrm_14">14.</a></td><td>St. Catherine and St. Agnes, by Margaret van Eyck</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_300">300</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="rt"><a href="#chrm_15">15.</a></td><td>Clovis the First and Clotilde his Wife</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_352">352</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="rt"><a href="#chrm_16">16.</a></td><td>Decoration of La Sainte-Chapelle, Paris</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_386">386</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="rt"><a href="#chrm_17">17.</a></td><td>Coronation of Charles the Fifth of France. From Froissart’s “Chronicles”</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_464">464</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="rt"><a href="#chrm_18">18.</a></td><td>Panel of a Book-cover of the Ninth Century</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_472">472</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="rt"><a href="#chrm_19">19.</a></td><td>Diptych of Ivory</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_474">474</a></td></tr> +</table> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><th class="centh" colspan="2">II. ENGRAVINGS.</th></tr> + +<tr><td> </td><td class="rt"><small>Page</small></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Abbey of St. Denis</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_416">416</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Alhambra, Interior of the</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_405">405</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Alphabet, Specimen of Grotesque</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_327">327</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Altar-cloth of the Fifteenth Century</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_30">30</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> Cross ascribed to St. Eloi</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_137">137</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> of Gold</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_130">130</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> Tray and Chalice</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_31">31</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Arch, Restoration of a Norman</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_343">343</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Archer of Normandy</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_79">79</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Archers of the Fifteenth Century, France</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_88">88</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Arles, Sculptures on St. Trophimus</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_384">384</a>, <a href="#page_385">385</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Armour, Convex, of the Fifteenth Century</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_84">84</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> Knights in complete</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_89">89</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> Lion</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_90">90</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> of the Duc d’Alençon</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_92">92</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> Plain, of the Fifteenth Century</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_83">83</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Arms of the Cardmakers of Paris</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_250">250</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> Goldsmiths of Paris</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_160">160</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Arquebus with Wheel and Match</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_103">103</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Arquebusier</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_102">102</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Atelier of Etienne Delaulne</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_158">158</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Bagpiper, Thirteenth Century</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_199">199</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Banner of Paper-makers of Paris</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_422">422</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> Printers-Booksellers of Angers</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_479">479</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> Printers-Booksellers of Autun</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_484">484</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> Saddlers of Tonnerre</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_121">121</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> Sword-cutlers of Angers</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_105">105</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> Tapestry Workers of Lyons</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_51">51</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Banners of Corporations</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_161">161</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Banquet in the Fifteenth Century</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_12">12</a><span class="pagenum">{xvi}</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Basilica of Constantine, at Trèves</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_374">374</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Basilica of St. Peter’s, Rome, Interior of</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_407">407</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Bas-relief in carved wood</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_34">34</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Battle-axe and Pistol, Sixteenth Century</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_104">104</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Bed furnished with Canopy and Curtains</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_19">19</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Belfry of Brussels</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_404">404</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Bell in a Tower of Siena, Twelfth Century</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_206">206</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Bells of the Ninth Century, Chime of</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_208">208</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Bolt of the Sixteenth Century, with Initial</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_23">23</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Bombards on fixed and rolling carriages</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_96">96</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Bookbinders’ Work-room</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_482">482</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Bookbinding for the Gospels</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_474">474</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> in an Unknown Material</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_480">480</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> in Gold, with precious Stones</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_474">474</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td>Borders:—</td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Bible, called Clement VII.’s</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_463">463</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Bible of St. Martial of Limoges</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_450">450</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Book of the Gospels, Eighth Century</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_446">446</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Book of the Gospels, Eleventh Century</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_451">451</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Book of the Gospels in Latin</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_451">451</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Employed by John of Tournes</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_519">519</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Froissart’s “Chronicles”</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_465">465</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Gospel in Latin</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_456">456</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Lectionary in Metz Cathedral</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_448">448</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">“Livre d’Heures” of Anthony Vérard</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_516">516</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">“Livre d’Heures” of Geoffroi Tory</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_517">517</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Lyons School</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_518">518</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Missal of Pope Paul V.</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_467">467</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">“Ovid,” Fifteenth Century</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_465">465</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Prayer-book of Louis of France</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_461">461</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Sacramentary of St. Æthelgar</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_453">453</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Bracelet, Gallic</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_124">124</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Brooch, chased, enamelled, &c.</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_167">167</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Cabinet in damaskeened Iron, inlaid</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_22">22</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> for Jewels</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_21">21</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Cameo-setting of the time of Charles V.</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_140">140</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Cannon, Earliest Models of</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_98">98</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> Hand</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_99">99</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Caparison of the Horse of Isabel the Catholic</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_117">117</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Capital of a Column, St. Geneviève, Paris</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_392">392</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> <span class="ditto">“</span> St. Julien, Paris</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_392">392</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> <span class="ditto">“</span> The Célestins, Paris</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_393">393</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Carruca, or Pleasure-carriage</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_108">108</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Cart drawn by Oxen, Fifteenth Century</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_109">109</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Castle of Marcoussis, near Rambouillet</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_397">397</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> Coucy, in its ancient state</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_399">399</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> Vincennes, Seventeenth Century</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_399">399</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Cathedral of Amiens, Interior of</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_391">391</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> Mayence</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_388">388</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Censer of the Eleventh Century</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_32">32</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Chains</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_165">165</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Chair called the “Fauteuil de Dagobert”</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_3">3</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> of Christine de Pisan</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_9">9</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> of Louise de Savoie</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_10">10</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> of Louis IX.</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_7">7</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> of the Ninth or Tenth Century</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_4">4</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Chalice of the Fourth or Fifth Century</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_31">31</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> said to be of St. Remy</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_135">135</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Château de Chambord</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_409">409</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Chess-Players</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_225">225</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Chest shaped like a Bed, and Chair</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_20">20</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td><i>Choron</i>, Ninth Century</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_211">211</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td><i>Chorus</i> with Single Bell-end with Holes</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_199">199</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Church of Mouen, Remains of the</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_378">378</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> St. Agnes, Rome</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_377">377</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> St. Martin, Tours</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_377">377</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> St. Paul-des-Champs, Paris</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_381">381</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> St. Trophimus, Arles, Portal</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_384">384</a>, <a href="#page_385">385</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> St. Vital, Ravenna</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_376">376</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Clock, Astronomical, of Strasburg Cathedral</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_184">184</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> of Jena, in Germany</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_183">183</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> Portable, of the time of the Valois</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_178">178</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> with Wheels and Weights</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_177">177</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Clockmaker, The</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_170">170</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Cloister of the Abbey of Moissac, Guyenne</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_386">386</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Coffee-pot of German Ware</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_72">72</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Concert; a Bas-relief (Normandy)</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_193">193</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> and Musical Instruments</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_194">194</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Cooper’s Workshop, Sixteenth Century</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_16">16</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Crossbow Men protected by Shield-bearers</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_85">85</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Cross, Gold-chased</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_163">163</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><i>Crout</i>, Three-stringed, Ninth Century</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_217">217</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Crown of Suintila, King of the Visigoths</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_125">125</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Crozier, Abbot’s, enamelled</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_138">138</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> Bishop’s</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_138">138</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Cup, Italian Ware</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_62">62</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> of Lapis-lazuli, mounted in Gold</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_152">152</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Diadem of Charlemagne</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_127">127</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Diptych in Ivory</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_345">345</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Dish, Ornament of a</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_74">74</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Doorways of the Hôtel de Sens, Paris</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_403">403</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Dragonneau, Double-barreled</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_101">101</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Drinking-cup of Agate</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_134">134</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Dwelling-room of a Seigneur of the Fourteenth Century</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_26">26</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Enamelled Border of a Dish</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_63">63</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> Dish, by Bernard Palissy</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_71">71</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> Terra-cotta</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_57">57</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Engine for hurling Stones</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_95">95</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Engraving:—</td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Columbus on board his Ship</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_325">325</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Ferdinand I.</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_335">335</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Herodias</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_329">329</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Letter N, Grotesque Alphabet</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_327">327</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Lutma, of Groningen</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_337">337</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Isaiah with Instrument of his Martyrdom</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_323">323</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Maximilian, Coronation of</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_321">321</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Phalaris, Tyrant of Agrigentum</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_333">333</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Repose of the Holy Family</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_334">334</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">St. Catherine on her Knees</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_319">319</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">St. Hubert praying before the Cross borne by a Stag</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_331">331</a><span class="pagenum">{xvii}</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">The Holy Virgin</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_338">338</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">The Prophet Isaiah</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_323">323</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">The Virgin and Child</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_318">318</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">The Virgin and Infant Jesus</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_316">316</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Ensign of the Collar of the Goldsmiths of Ghent</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_144">144</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Escutcheon in Silver-gilt</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_145">145</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Escutcheon of France, Fourteenth Century</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_470">470</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Ewer in Limoges Enamel</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_157">157</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Fac-simile of a Bible of 1456</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_503">503</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> “Catholicon” of 1460</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_506">506</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> Engraving on Wood</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_487">487</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> Inscription <i>Ex libris</i></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_441">441</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> Miniature drawn with a pen</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_450">450</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> Miniature of a Psalter</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_455">455</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> Miniature, Thirteenth Century</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_457">457</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> Page of a “Livre d’Heures”</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_510">510</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> Page of a Psalter of 1459</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_505">505</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> Page of the “Ars Moriendi”</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_495">495</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> Page of the most ancient Xylographic “Donatus”</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_491">491</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> Xylographic Page of the “Biblia Pauperum”</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_493">493</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Fiddle, Angel playing on the</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_220">220</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Flute, Double</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_197">197</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Fresco-Painting:—</td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Christ and his Mother</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_273">273</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Creation, The</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_278">278</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Death and the Jew</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_281">281</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Disciples in Gethsemane</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_275">275</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Fra Angelico, of Fiesole</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_282">282</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Fraternity of Cross-bowmen</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_280">280</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Group of Saints</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_277">277</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Pope Sylvester I.</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_274">274</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Gargoyles in the Palais de Justice, Rouen</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_372">372</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Gate of Moret</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_401">401</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> St. John, Provins</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_402">402</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Glass-Painting:—</td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Citadel of Pallas</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_262">262</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Flemish Window</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_265">265</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Legend of the Jew piercing the Holy Wafer</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_260">260</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">St. Paul, an Enamel</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_264">264</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">St. Timothy the Martyr</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_255">255</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Temptation of St. Mars</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_267">267</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">The Prodigal Son</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_257">257</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Window, Evreux Cathedral</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_261">261</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Goblet, by Bernard Palissy</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_69">69</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Goldsmiths of Paris carrying a Shrine</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_162">162</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Goldsmiths’ Stamps:—</td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Chartres</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_159">159</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Lyons</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_159">159</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Melun</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_159">159</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Orleans</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_159">159</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Gutenburg, Portrait of</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_492">492</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Harp, Fifteen-stringed, Twelfth Century</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_214">214</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> Minstrel’s, Fifteenth Century</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_216">216</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> Triangular Saxon, Ninth Century</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_214">214</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Harper of the Fifteenth Century</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_215">215</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Harpers of the Twelfth Century</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_215">215</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Helmet of Don Jaime el Conquistador</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_80">80</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> of Hughes, Vidame of Châlons</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_82">82</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Henry VIII. in the Camp of the Field of the Cloth of Gold</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_119">119</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Horn, or <i>Olifant</i>, Fourteenth Century</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_201">201</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> Shepherd’s, Eighth Century</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_201">201</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Hour-glass of the Sixteenth Century</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_173">173</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Hour-glass, Top of</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_186">186</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Initial Letter, Ninth Century</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_476">476</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Initial Letters from Manuscripts</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_445">445</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Initial Letters extracted from the “Rouleau Mortuaire” of St. Vital</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_454">454</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Jacquemart of Notre-Dame at Dijon</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_176">176</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Key of the Thirteenth Century</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_23">23</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">King William, as represented on his Seal</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_77">77</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Knight armed and mounted for War</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_114">114</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> entering the Lists</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_111">111</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> in his Hauberk</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_81">81</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Knights, Combat of</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_89">89</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Lament composed shortly after the Death of Charlemagne</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_188">188</a>, <a href="#page_189">189</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Lamps of the Nineteenth Century</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_17">17</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Lancer of William the Conqueror’s Army</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_77">77</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Library of the University of Leyden</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_475">475</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Lute, Five-stringed, Thirteenth Century</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_216">216</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Lyre, Ancient</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_209">209</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> of the North</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_209">209</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Mangonneau of the Fifteenth Century</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_97">97</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td>Miniatures:—</td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Anne de Bretagne’s Prayer-book</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_468">468</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Book of the Gospels of Charlemagne</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_447">447</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Consecration of a Bishop</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_449">449</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Dante’s “Paradiso”</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_466">466</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Evangelist, An, transcribing</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_415">415</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Four Sons of Aymon</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_458">458</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Les Femmes Illustres</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_461">461</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Margrave of Baden’s “Livre d’Heures”</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_469">469</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Miniature of the Thirteenth Century</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_457">457</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Missal of the Eleventh Century</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_452">452</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Order of the Holy Ghost, Instituting the</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_464">464</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Psalter of John, Duke of Berry</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_462">462</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Psalter of the Thirteenth Century</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_455">455</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">“Roman de Fauvel,” from the</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_459">459</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">“Virgil,” in the Vatican, Rome</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_444">444</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Mirror for Hand or Pocket</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_25">25</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Monochord played with a Bow</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_221">221</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Musician sounding Military Trumpet</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_202">202</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Musicians playing on the Flute, &c.</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_198">198</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> <span class="ditto">“</span> Violin</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_219">219</a><span class="pagenum">{xviii}</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><i>Nabulum</i>, Ninth Century</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_211">211</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Notre-Dame la Grande of Poitiers</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_383">383</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> Paris</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_390">390</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> Rouen</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_379">379</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Organ, Great, of the Twelfth Century</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_204">204</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> Pneumatic, of the Fourth Century</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_203">203</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> Portable, of the Fifteenth Century</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_205">205</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> with single Key-board</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_205">205</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td><i>Organistrum</i>, Ninth Century</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_213">213</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Oxford, Saloon of the Schools</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_396">396</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Painting on Wood, Canvas, &c.:—</td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Baptism of King Clovis</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_286">286</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Christ crowned with Thorns</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_304">304</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Portrait of Leonardo da Vinci</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_292">292</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Princess Sibylla of Saxony</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_305">305</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">St. Ursula</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_302">302</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Sketch of the Virgin of Alba</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_312">312</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">The Holy Family</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_294">294</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">The Holy Virgin, St. George, and St. Donat</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_300">300</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">The Last Judgment</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_311">311</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">The Patriarch Job</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_290">290</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">The Tribute Money</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_309">309</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Paper-maker, The</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_420">420</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Pendant, adorned with Diamonds, &c.</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_164">164</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> after a Design by Benvenuto Cellini</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_150">150</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Playing-Cards:—</td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Ancient French</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_236">236</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Buffoon, from a Pack of <i>Tarots</i></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_230">230</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Charles VI. on his Throne</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_233">233</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Engravings, Coloured, analogous to Playing-Cards</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_227">227</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">From a Game of “Logic”</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_245">245</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">German Round-shaped</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_247">247</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Italian Tarots</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_242">242</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Justice</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_231">231</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">King of Acorns</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_244">244</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Knave of Clubs</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_238">238</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Knight from a Pack engraved by “The Master of 1466”</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_249">249</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd"><i>La Damoiselle</i></td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_248">248</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Moon, The</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_231">231</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Roxana, Queen of Hearts</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_242">242</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Specimen of the Sixteenth Century</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_236">236</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Three and Eight of Bells</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_243">243</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Two of a Pack of German Lansquenet</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_245">245</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Two of Bells</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_244">244</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Porte de Hal, Brussels</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_410">410</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Pottery Figures, Fragments of</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_68">68</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> Ornamentation on</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_67">67</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Printers’ Marks, Arnold de Keyser, Ghent</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_511">511</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> <span class="ditto">“</span> Bonaventure and Elsevier, Leyden</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_520">520</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> <span class="ditto">“</span> Colard Mansion, Bruges</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_512">512</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> <span class="ditto">“</span> Eustace, W.</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_483">483</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> <span class="ditto">“</span> Fust and Schœffer</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_511">511</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> <span class="ditto">“</span> Galliot du Pré, Paris</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_513">513</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> <span class="ditto">“</span> Gérard Leeu, Gouwe</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_511">511</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> <span class="ditto">“</span> Gryphe, Lyons</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_515">515</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> <span class="ditto">“</span> J. Le Noble, Troyes</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_515">515</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> <span class="ditto">“</span> Philippe le Noir, &c., Paris</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_514">514</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> <span class="ditto">“</span> Plantin, Antwerp</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_515">515</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> <span class="ditto">“</span> Robert Estienne, Paris</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_515">515</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> <span class="ditto">“</span> Vostre, Simon, Paris</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_513">513</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> <span class="ditto">“</span> Temporal, Lyons</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_514">514</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> <span class="ditto">“</span> Trechsel, Lyons</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_512">512</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Printing-office, Interior of a</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_499">499</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td><i>Psalterion</i>, Performer on the</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_212">212</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td>“ Twelfth Century</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_211">211</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Psaltery, Buckle-shaped</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_211">211</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> to produce a prolonged Sound</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_210">210</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Reredos in Carved Bone</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_363">363</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Rebec of the Sixteenth Century</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_221">221</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Reading-desk of the Fifteenth Century</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_33">33</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Reliquary, Byzantine</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_129">129</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> Silver-gilt</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_143">143</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Rings</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_165">165</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td><i>Rote</i>, David playing on a</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_218">218</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Saddle-cloth, Sixteenth Century</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_118">118</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Salt-cellar, Enamelled</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_155">155</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> Interior base of</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_156">156</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td><i>Sambute</i>, or Sackbut, of the Ninth Century</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_202">202</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Sansterre, as represented on his Seal</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_79">79</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td><i>Saufang</i>, of St. Cecilia’s at Cologne, The</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_206">206</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Scent-box in Chased Gold</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_142">142</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Scribe or Copyist in his Work-room</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_432">432</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td>Sculpture:—</td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Altar of Castor</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_340">340</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Altar of Jupiter Ceraunus</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_341">341</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Bas-relief of Dagobert I.</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_347">347</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Citizens relieving Poor Scholars</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_351">351</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Coronation of the Emperor Sigismund</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_360">360</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Fragment of a Reredos in Bone</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_363">363</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Francis I. and Henry VIII. on the Field of the Cloth of Gold</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_369">369</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Gargoyles on the Palace of Justice, Rouen</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_372">372</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Roman Triumphal Arch</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_342">342</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">“Le Bon Dieu,” Paris</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_364">364</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">St. Eloi</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_366">366</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">St. John the Baptist preaching</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_368">368</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">St. Julien and his Wife conveying Jesus Christ in their boat</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_362">362</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Statue of Philip Chabot</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_370">370</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Statue of Dagobert I.</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_347">347</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Statue said to be of Clovis I.</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_353">353</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Statues on Bourges Cathedral</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_357">357</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Statuette of St. Avit</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_361">361</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Stone Tomb</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_343">343</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">The “<i>Beau Dieu d’Amiens</i>”</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_355">355</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">The Entombment</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_371">371</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top" class="indd">Tomb of Dagobert</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_349">349</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Seal of the Goldsmiths of Paris</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_159">159</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> King of La Basoche</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_419">419</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Seal of the University of Oxford</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_478">478</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> University of Paris</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_417">417</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Seals</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_166">166</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Seats, Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_8">8</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Sedan Chair of Charles V.</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_120">120</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Shrine in Copper-gilt</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_132">132</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Shrine in Limoges</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_131">131</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"> <span class="ditto">“</span> of the Fifteenth Century</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_147">147</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Soldiers, Gallo-Romano</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_76">76</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Spurs, German and Italian</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_113">113</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Staircase of a Tower</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_398">398</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Stall of the Fifteenth Century</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_33">33</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Stalls in St. Benoît-sur-Loire</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_35">35</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Sword of Charlemagne</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_126">126</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Syrinx, Seven-tubed</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_197">197</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Table of King Artus of Brittany</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_5">5</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td>Tapestry:—</td></tr> +<tr><td class="indd">Construction of Boats for the Conqueror</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_44">44</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="indd">Hunting Scene</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_49">49</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="indd">Marriage of Louis XII. and Anne of Brittany</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_46">46</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="indd">Mounted Men of Duke William’s army</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_45">45</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="indd">The Weaver</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_50">50</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td><i>Tintinnabulum</i>, or Hand-bell</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_206">206</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Toledo, Gothic Architecture at</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_393">393</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Tour de Nesle, Paris</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_400">400</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Tournament Helmet, screwed on the Breastplate</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_82">82</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Tournament Saddles, ornamented with Paintings</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_116">116</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Tree of Jesse. From a Miniature</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_195">195</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Triangle of the Ninth Century</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_222">222</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Trumpet, Curved, Eleventh Century</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_200">200</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"> <span class="ditto">“</span> Straight, with Stand</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_200">200</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Tympanum of the Thirteenth Century</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_208">208</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Vase of Rock-crystal, mounted in Silver-gilt</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_152">152</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Vases of ancient shape</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_54">54</a>, <a href="#page_55">55</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td><i>Vielle</i>, Juggler playing on a</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_220">220</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> Oval</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_220">220</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> Player on the</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_220">220</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Watches of the Valois Epoch</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_181">181</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Water-jug, Four-handled</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_72">72</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Water-marks on Paper</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_421">421</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Window with Stone Seats</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_398">398</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Wood-block cut in France, about 1440</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_488">488</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> Print cut in Flanders</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_486">486</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top">Writing Caligraphic Ornament</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_442">442</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> Cursive, of the Fifteenth Century</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_439">439</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> Diplomatic, of the Tenth Century</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_438">438</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> of the Eighth Century</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_436">436</a>, <a href="#page_437">437</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> of the Fifteenth Century</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_442">442</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> of the Fourteenth Century</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_440">440</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> of the Seventh Century</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_435">435</a>, <a href="#page_436">436</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> of the Sixth Century</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_435">435</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> of the Tenth Century</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_437">437</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> Tironian, of the Eighth Century</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_437">437</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td valign="top"><span class="ditto">“</span> Title and Capital Letters of the Seventh Century</td><td class="rt" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_435">435</a></td></tr> + +</table> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_007_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_007_sml.jpg" width="67" height="92" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_xx" id="page_xx">{xx}</a></span> </p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_1" id="page_1">{1}</a></span> </p> + +<h1>THE ARTS IN THE MIDDLE AGES,<br /> +<small><small>AND AT THE PERIOD OF</small></small><br /> +<small>THE RENAISSANCE.</small></h1> + +<h2><a name="FURNITURE" id="FURNITURE"></a>FURNITURE:<br /><br /> +<small>ORDINARY HOUSEHOLD, AND APPERTAINING TO ECCLESIASTICAL PURPOSES.</small></h2> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Simplicity of Furniture among the Gauls and Franks.—Introduction +of costly taste in articles of Furniture of the Seventh +Century.—Arm-chair of Dagobert.—Round Table of King +Artus.—Influence of the Crusades.—Regal Banquet in the time of +Charles V.—Benches.—Sideboards.—Dinner +Services.—Goblets.—Brassware.—Casks.—Lighting.—Beds.—Carved +Wood Furniture.—Locksmith’s Work.—Glass and Mirrors.—Room of a +Feudal Seigneur.—Costliness of Furniture used for Ecclesiastical +Purposes.—Altars.—Censers.—Shrines and Reliquaries.—Gratings +and Iron-mountings.</p></div> + +<p class="nind"><a href="images/ill_008_lg.jpg"> +<span class="letra"> +<img src="images/ill_008_sml.jpg" +width="90" +alt="W" /></span></a>E shall be readily believed when we assert that the furniture used by +our remote ancestors, the Gauls, was of the most rude simplicity. A +people essentially addicted to war and hunting,—at the best, +agriculturists,—having for their temples the forests, for their +dwellings huts formed out of turf and thatched with straw and branches, +would naturally be indifferent to the form and description of their +furniture.</p> + +<p>Then succeeded the Roman Conquest. Originally, and long subsequent to +the formation of their warlike republic, the Romans had also lived in +contempt of display, and even in ignorance of the conveniences of life. +But when they had subjugated Gaul, and had carried their victorious arms +to the confines of the world, they by degrees appropriated whatever the +manners and habits of the conquered nations disclosed to them of refined +luxury, material progress, and ingenious devices for comfort. Thus, the +Romans brought with them into Gaul what they elsewhere had acquired.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_2" id="page_2">{2}</a></span> +Again, when, in their turn, the semi-barbarous hordes of Germany and of +the Northern steppes invaded the Roman empire, these new conquerors did +not fail to accommodate themselves instinctively to the social condition +of the vanquished.</p> + +<p>This, briefly stated, is an explanation—we admit, rather concise—of +the transition connecting the characteristics of the society of olden +days with those of modern society.</p> + +<p>Society in the Middle Ages—that social epoch which may be compared to +the state of a decrepid and worn-out old man, who, after a long, dull +torpor awakes to new life, like an active and vigorous child—society in +the Middle Ages inherited much from preceding times, though, to a +certain extent, they were disconnected. It transformed, perhaps; and it +perfected, rather than invented; but it displayed in its works a genius +so peculiar that we generally recognise in it a real creation.</p> + +<p>Proposing rapidly to pursue our archæological and literary course +through a twofold period of birth and revival, we cannot indulge the +belief that we shall succeed in exhibiting our sketches in a light the +best adapted to their effect. However, we will make the attempt, and, +the frame being given, will do our best to fill in the picture.</p> + +<p>If we visit any royal or princely abode of the Merovingian period, we +observe that the display of wealth consists much less in the elegance or +in the originality of the forms devised for articles of furniture, than +in the profusion of precious materials employed in their fabrication and +embellishment. The time had gone by when the earliest tribes of Gauls +and of Northmen, who came to occupy the West, had for their seats and +beds only trusses of straw, rush mats, and bundles of branches; and for +their tables slabs of stone or piles of turf. From the fifth century of +the Christian era, we already find the Franks and the Goths resting +their muscular forms on the long soft seat which the Romans had adopted +from the East, and which have become our sofas or our couches; changing +only their names. In front of them were arranged low horse-shoe tables, +at which the centre seat was reserved for the most dignified or +illustrious of the guests. Couches at the table, suited only to the +effeminacy induced by warm climates, were soon abandoned by the Gauls; +benches and stools were adopted by these most active and vigorous men; +meals were no longer eaten reclining, but sitting: while the thrones of +kings, and the chairs of state for nobles, were of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_3" id="page_3">{3}</a></span> richest +sumptuousness. Thus, for instance, we find St. Eloi, the celebrated +worker in metals, manufacturing and embellishing two state-chairs of +gold for Clotaire, and a throne of gold for Dagobert. The chair ascribed +to St. Eloi, and known as the Fauteuil de Dagobert (<a href="#fig_1">Fig. 1</a>), is an +antique consular chair, which originally was only a folding one; the +Abbé Suger, in the twelfth century, added to it the back and arms. +Artistic display was equally lavished on the manufacture of tables. +Historians tell us that St. Remy, a contemporary of Clovis, had a silver +table decorated all over with sacred subjects. The poet Fortunat, Bishop +of Poitiers, describes a table of the same metal, which had a border +representing a vine with bunches of grapes.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_009_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_009_sml.jpg" width="265" height="298" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_1" id="fig_1"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 1.—The Curule Chair called the “Fauteuil de +Dagobert,” in gilt bronze, now in the Musée des Souverains.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Coming to the reign of Charlemagne, we find, in a passage in the +writings of Eginhard, his minister and historian, that, in addition to a +golden table which this great monarch possessed, he had three others of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_4" id="page_4">{4}</a></span> +chased silver; one decorated with designs representing the city of Rome, +another Constantinople, and the third “all countries of the universe.”</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_010_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_010_sml.jpg" width="217" height="242" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_2" id="fig_2"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 2.—Chair of the Ninth or Tenth Century, taken from +a Miniature of that period (MS. de la Bibl. Imp. de Paris).</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The chairs or seats of the Romanesque period (<a href="#fig_2">Fig. 2</a>) exhibit an attempt +to revive in the interior of the buildings, where they were used, the +architectural style of contemporary monuments. They were large and +massive, and were raised on clusters of columns expanding at the back in +three semicircular rows. The anonymous monk of Saint-Gall, in his +chronicle written in the ninth century, alludes to a grand banquet, at +which the host was seated on cushions of feathers. Legrand d’Aussy tells +us, in his “Histoire de la Vie Privée des Français,” that at a later +date—referring to the reign of Louis le Gros, in the beginning of the +twelfth century—the guests were seated, at ordinary family repasts, on +simple stools; but if the party was more of a ceremonious than intimate +character, the table was surrounded with benches, or <i>bancs</i>, whence the +term banquet is derived. The form of table was commonly long and +straight, but on occasions of state it was semicircular, or like a +horse-shoe in form, recalling the Romanesque round table of King Artus +of Brittany (<a href="#fig_3">Fig. 3</a>).<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_5" id="page_5">{5}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_011_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_011_sml.jpg" width="345" height="356" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_3" id="fig_3"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 3.—Round Table of King Artus of Brittany, from a +Miniature of the Fourteenth Century (MS. de la Bibl. Imp. de Paris).</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The Crusades, bringing together men of all the countries of Europe with +the people of the East, made those of the West acquainted with luxuries +and customs which, on returning from their chivalrous expeditions, they +did not fail to imitate. We find feasts at which they ate sitting +cross-legged on the ground, or stretched out on carpets in the Oriental +fashion, as represented and described in miniatures contained in the +manuscripts of that period. The Sire de Joinville, the friend and +historian of Louis IX., informs us that this saintly king was in the +habit of sitting on a carpet, surrounded by his barons, and in that +manner he dispensed justice; but at the same time the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_6" id="page_6">{6}</a></span> practice of using +large <i>chaires</i>, or arm-chairs, continued, for there still is to be seen +a throne in massive wood belonging to that period, and called <i>le banc +de Monseigneur St. Louis</i>, embellished with carvings representing +fanciful and legendary birds and animals. It is unnecessary to add that +the lower orders did not aspire to so much refinement. In their abodes +the seats in use were settles, chests, or at best benches, the supports +of which were, to a slight extent, carved.</p> + +<p>This was the period when the practice commenced of covering seats with +woollen stuffs, or with silk figured on frames, or embroidered by hand, +displaying ciphers, emblems, or armorial bearings. From the East was +introduced the custom of hangings for rooms, composed of glazed leather, +stamped and gilt. These skins of the goat or sheep were called <i>or +basané</i>, because plain gilt; or embossed leather, in gold colour, was +made from them. <i>Or basané</i> was also used to conceal the bare look of +arm-chairs. Towards the fourteenth century, tables of precious metals +disappeared, in consequence of fashion ruling in favour of the stuffs +which covered them; tapestry, tissues of gold, and velvets thenceforth +formed the table-cloths. On great occasions, the place of the principal +guests was distinguished by a canopy, more or less rich, erected above +their seats, as represented in the account of the sumptuous feast given +by King Charles V. to the Emperor Charles of Luxemburg, in the great +hall of the palace. M. Fréguier thus describes the banquet from +contemporary documents in the “Histoire de l’Administration de la Police +de Paris:”—</p> + +<p>“The dinner was served on a marble table. The Archbishop of Rheims, who +had officiated that day, first took his place at table. The Emperor then +sat down, then the King of France, and the King of Bohemia, the son of +the Emperor. Above the seat of each of the three princes was a separate +canopy of gold cloth, embroidered all over with fleurs-de-lis. These +three canopies were surmounted by a larger one, also of cloth of gold, +which covered the whole extent of the table, and was suspended behind +the guests. After the King of Bohemia, three bishops took their place, +but far removed from him, and near the end of the table. Under the +nearest canopy the Dauphin was seated, at a separate table, with several +princes or nobles of the Court of France, or of the Emperor. The hall +was adorned with three buffets, or dressers, covered with gold and +silver plate; these three dressers, as well as the two large canopies, +were protected by a railing, to prevent the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_7" id="page_7">{7}</a></span> intrusion of the crowds of +people who had been permitted to witness the magnificence of the +display. Finally, there were to be seen five other canopies, under which +were assembled princes and barons round private tables; also numerous +other tables.”</p> + +<p>It is noteworthy that from the time of St. Louis these same chairs and +seats, carved, covered with the richest stuffs, inlaid with precious +stones, and engraved with the armorial bearings of great houses, issued +for the most part from the workshops of Parisian artisans. Those +artisans, carpenters, manufacturers of coffers and carved chests, and +furniture-makers, were so celebrated for works of this description, that +in inventories and appraisements of furniture great care was taken to +specify that such and such articles among them were of Parisian +manufacture; <i>ex operagio Parisiensi</i> (<a href="#fig_4">Fig. 4</a>).</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_012_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_012_sml.jpg" width="170" height="220" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_4" id="fig_4"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 4.—Louis IX. represented in his Regal Chair, +tapestried in fleurs-de-lis, from a Miniature of the Fourteenth Century. +(MS. de la Bibl. Imp. de Paris.).</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The following extract, from an invoice of Etienne La Fontaine, the royal +silversmith, affords, in terms which require no comment, an idea of the +costliness lavished on the manufacture of an arm-chair, then called +<i>faudesteuil</i>, intended for the King of France, in 1352:—</p> + +<p>“For making a fauteuil of silver and of crystal decorated with precious +stones, delivered to the said seigneur, of which the said seigneur +ordered the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_8" id="page_8">{8}</a></span> said goldsmith to make the framework, who ornamented it +with several crystals, illuminated pieces, many designs, pearls, and +other stones.... <small>VII</small>ᶜ <small>LXXIIII</small>ᵐ (774 louis).</p> + +<p>“For illuminated pieces placed under the crystals of the said fauteuil, +of which there are 40 of the armorial bearings of France, 61 of the +prophets holding scrolls, 112 half-length figures of animals on gold +ground, and 4 large representations of the judgments of Solomon.... +<small>VI</small>ˣˣᵐ (620 louis).</p> + +<p>“For twelve crystals for the said fauteuil, of which five are hollow to +hold the bâtons, six flat, and one round,” &c.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_013_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_013_sml.jpg" width="256" height="125" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_5" id="fig_5"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 5.—Seats from Miniatures of the Fourteenth and +Fifteenth Centuries.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>It was only towards the commencement of the fifteenth century that +chairs stuffed with straw or rushes first appeared; they folded in the +form of the letter X (<a href="#fig_5">Fig. 5</a>); the seats and arms being stuffed. In the +sixteenth century chairs with backs (<i>chaires</i> or <i>chayeres à +dorseret</i>), in carved oak or chestnut, painted and gilt, fell into +disuse, even in the royal castles, as being too heavy and inconvenient, +and on account of their enormous size (<a href="#fig_6">Figs. 6</a> and <a href="#fig_7">7</a>).</p> + +<p>The dresser, which has just been described as used at the grand feast of +Charles V., and which moreover has been retained, altered to a sideboard +with shelves, almost to our time, was an article manufactured much less +for use than for show. It was upon this dresser,—the introduction of +which does not appear to go further back than the twelfth century, and +the name whereof sufficiently describes its purpose,—that there was +displayed, in the vast halls of manorial residences, not only all the +valuable plate required for the table, but many other objects of +goldsmith’s work which played no part in the banquet—vases of all +sorts, statuettes, figures in high relief, jewels,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_9" id="page_9">{9}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_014_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_014_sml.jpg" width="251" height="328" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_6" id="fig_6"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 6.—Christine de Pizan, contemporary with Charles V. +and Charles VI., seated on a Chair in carved wood with back and canopy, +and tapestry of worsted or figured silk. The box or chest which formed +the writing-table contained books. (Miniature from a MS. in the Bibl. of +Burgundy-Bruxelles, Fifteenth Century.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p class="nind">and even reliquaries. In palaces and mansions, the dressers were of +gold, silver, or copper gilt; as were previously the tables. Persons of +inferior rank had only wooden tables, but they were scrupulous in +covering them with tapestry, embroidered cloth, and fine table-cloths. +At one time the display of wealth on the dressers in ecclesiastical +establishments attained to such a point, that we are reminded, among +other censures levelled against that fashionable exhibition of vanity, +of the expostulations of Martial d’Auvergne, author of the historical +poem, “Les Vigiles de Charles VII.,” addressed to the bishops on the +subject. One item significant enough is mentioned in ancient documents; +it is the tribute of half-a-dozen small bouquets, which<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_10" id="page_10">{10}</a></span> the inhabitants +of Chaillot were bound to tender annually to the Abbey of Saint-German +des Prés, to decorate the dressers of Messire the Abbot.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_015_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_015_sml.jpg" width="267" height="437" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_7" id="fig_7"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 7.—Louise de Savoie, Duchess of Angoulême, mother +of Francis I., seated in a high-backed Chair of carved wood. (Miniature +from a MS. in the Imp. Bibl. of Paris.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>More plain, but also more useful, were the <i>abace</i> and the <i>crédence</i>, +other kinds of sideboards which generally stood at a little distance +from the table;<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_11" id="page_11">{11}</a></span> on one of these were placed the dishes and plates for +removes, on the other the goblets, glasses, and cups. It may be added +that the <i>crédence</i>, before it was introduced in the dining-halls, had +from very remote times been used in churches, where it was placed near +the altar to receive the sacred vessels during the sacrifice of mass.</p> + +<p>Posidonius, the Stoic philosopher, who wrote about a hundred years +before the Christian era, tells us that, at the feasts of the Gauls, a +slave used to bring to table an earthenware, or a silver, jug filled +with wine, from which every guest quaffed in turn, and allayed his +thirst. We thus see the practice of using goblets of silver, as well as +of earthenware, established among the Gauls at a period we consider +primitive. In truth, those vessels of silver were probably not the +productions of local industry, but the spoil which those martial tribes +had acquired in their wars against more civilised nations. With regard +to the vases of baked clay, the majority of those frequently exhumed +from burial-grounds prove how coarse they were, though they seem to have +been made with the help of the potter’s wheel, as among the Romans. +However that may be, we think it best to omit the consideration of the +question in this place, and to resume it in the chapter on the Ceramic +Art. But we must not forget to notice the custom which prevailed among +the earliest inhabitants of our country, of offering to those most +renowned for their valour beverages in a horn of the <i>urus</i>, which was +either gilt or ornamented with bands of gold or silver. The <i>urus</i> was a +species of ox, now extinct, that existed in a wild state in the forests +with which Gaul was then partly covered. This horn goblet long continued +to be the emblem of the highest warlike dignity among the nations who +succeeded the Gauls. William of Poitiers relates, in his “Histoire de +Guillaume le Conquérant,” that towards the end of the eleventh century, +this Duke of Normandy still drank out of the horn of a bull, when he +held his full court at Fécamp.</p> + +<p>Our ancient kings, whose tables were made of the most precious metals, +failed not also to display rare magnificence in the plate that stood on +those superb tables. Chroniclers relate, for example, that Chilperic, +“on the pretext of doing honour to the people whom he governed, had a +dish made of solid gold, ornamented all over with precious stones, and +weighing fifty pounds;” and again, that Lothaire one day distributed +among his soldiers the fragments of an enormous silver basin, on which +was designed “the world, with the courses of the stars and the planets.” +In the absence of any<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_12" id="page_12">{12}</a></span> authentic documents, it must be presumed that, in +contrast to this regal style, or rather far removed therefrom, the rest +of the nation scarcely used any other utensils but those of earthenware, +or wood; or else of iron or copper.</p> + +<p>Advancing in the course of centuries, and till the period when the +progress of the ceramic art enabled its productions at length to rank +among articles of luxury, we find gold and silver always preferred for +dinner services; but marble, rock crystal, and glass appeared in turn, +artistically worked in a thousand elegant or singular forms, as cups, +ewers, large tumblers, goblets, &c. (Fig 8).</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_016_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_016_sml.jpg" width="349" height="214" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_8" id="fig_8"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 8.—A State Banquet in the Fifteenth Century, with +the service of dishes brought in and handed round to the sound of +musical instruments. (Miniature from a MS. in the Imp. Lib. in Paris.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>To the goblet, especially, seem to belong all honorary privileges in the +etiquette of the table; for the goblet, a sort of large chalice on a +thin stem, was more particularly regarded as an object of distinction by +the guests, on account of the supposed antiquity of its origin. Thus we +see represented among the presents given to the Abbey of St. Denis by +the Emperor Charles the Bald, a goblet which is alleged to have belonged +to Solomon, “which goblet was so marvellously wrought, that never +(<i>oncques</i>) was there in all the kingdoms of the world a work so +delicate (<i>subtile</i>).”</p> + +<p>The goldsmiths, sculptors, and workers in copper had recourse to all +the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_13" id="page_13">{13}</a></span> devices of art and imagination to embellish goblets, ewers, and +salt-cellars. We find allusions, in the recitals of chroniclers, the +romances of chivalry, and especially in old invoices and inventories, to +ewers representing men, roses, and dolphins; to goblets covered with +flowers and animals; to salt-cellars in the form of dragons, &c.</p> + +<p>Several large pieces of gold plate, discontinued at a later period, +glittered then at grand banquets. Especially may be noted the portable +fountains raised in the middle of the table, and from which, during the +repast, flowed several sorts of beverages. Philip the Good, Duke of +Burgundy, had one in the form of a fortress with towers, from the summit +of which the figure of a woman poured out hippocras (spiced wine) from +her bosom, and that of a child, which sprinkled perfumed water.</p> + +<p>There were also plate-holders, well described by Du Cange as large +dishes made to contain vessels, cups, knives; comfit-boxes, which have +been replaced by our modern <i>bonbonnières</i>, and which formerly were +valuable caskets chased and damaskeened; and lastly, almsboxes, a +description of metal-urns, richly chased; these were placed before the +guests in order that, according to an ancient custom, each might place +therein some portions of meat, to be subsequently distributed to the +poor.</p> + +<p>If we glance at the other minor objects which completed the +table-service—knives, spoons, forks, bottle-stands, plate-mats, &c.—we +shall see that they no less indicate refinement and luxury. Forks, that +now seem to us so indispensable, are mentioned for the first time in +1379, in an inventory of Charles V. They had only two prongs, or rather +two long sharp points. As for knives, which, with spoons, had to supply +the place of forks for the guests to eat with, their antiquity is +undoubted. Posidonius, whom we have already quoted, says, when speaking +of the Celts:—“They eat in a very slovenly manner, and seize with their +hands, like lions with their claws, whole quarters of meat, which they +tear in pieces with their teeth. If they find a tough morsel, they cut +it with a small knife which they always carry in a sheath at their +side.” Of what were these knives made? Our author does not tell us; but +we may assume that they were of flint or of polished stone, like the +hatchets and arrow-heads so frequently found where these ancient people +dwelt, and which bear testimony to their industry.</p> + +<p>In the thirteenth century mention is made of knives, under the name of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_14" id="page_14">{14}</a></span> +<i>mensaculæ</i> and <i>artavi</i>, which a little later were known by the word +<i>kenivet</i>, from which evidently is derived <i>canif</i>. To complete this +connection, we may remark that it is to be gathered, from a passage by +the same author, that the blades of some knives of that period were made +to slide into the handle by means of a spring, like our pocket-knives.</p> + +<p>Spoons, which necessarily were used by all nations as soon as dishes +more or less liquid were introduced, are described from the date of +almost our earliest history. Accordingly, we see, in the “Life of St. +Radegonde,” that that princess, who was constantly engaged in charitable +acts, used a spoon for feeding the blind and the helpless whom she took +under her care.</p> + +<p>At a very remote period we find in use <i>turquoises</i>, or nut-crackers. +Cruet-stands were, excepting in form, very similar to stands for two +bottles; for they are thus described:—“A kind of double-necked bottle +in divisions, in which to place two sorts of liquors without mixing +them.” The plate-mats were our <i>dessous de plat</i>, made of wicker, wood, +tin, or other metal.</p> + +<p>The manufacture of the greater number of these articles, if intended for +persons of rank, did not fail to engage the industry of artisans and the +talent of artists. Spoons, forks, nut-crackers, cruet-stands, +sauce-boats, &c., furnished inexhaustible subjects for embellishment and +chasing; knife-handles, made of ivory, cedar-wood, gold, or silver, were +also fashioned in the most varied forms. Until ceramic art introduced +plates more or less costly, they naturally enough followed the shape of +dishes, which in fact they are, on a small scale. But if the dishes were +of enormous size, the plates were always very small.</p> + +<p>If from the dining-room we pass to the kitchen, so as to form some idea +of culinary utensils, we must admit that, anterior to the thirteenth +century, the most circumstantial documents are all but silent on the +subject. Nevertheless, some of the ancient poets and early romancers +allude to those huge mechanical spits on which, at one and the same +time, large joints of different kinds, entire sheep, or long rows of +poultry and game, could be roasted. Moreover, we know that in palaces, +and in the mansions of the nobility, copper cooking-utensils possessed +real importance, because the care and maintenance of the copper-ware was +entrusted to a person who bore the title of <i>maignen</i>, a name still +given to the itinerant tinker. We also find that from the twelfth +century there existed the corporation of braziers (<i>dinans</i>), who +executed historical designs, in relievo, by the use of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_15" id="page_15">{15}</a></span> the hammer in +beating out and embossing copper,—designs that would bear comparison +with the most elaborate works produced by the goldsmith’s art. Some of +these artisans obtained such reputation that their names have descended +to us. Jean d’Outremeuse, Jean Delamare, Gautier de Coux, Lambert +Patras, were among those who conferred honour on the art of brazier’s +work (<i>dinanderie</i>).</p> + +<p>From the kitchen to the cellar the distance is usually but short. Our +forefathers, who were large consumers, and in their way had a delicate +appreciation, of the juice of the vine, understood how to store the +barrels which contained their wines in deep and spacious vaults. The +cooper’s art, when almost unknown in Italy and Spain, had existed for a +long time in France, as is attested by a passage taken from the +“Mémoires de l’Académie des Inscriptions:”—“We see by the text of the +Salic law that, when an estate changed hands, the new proprietor gave, +in the first place, a feast, and the guests were bound to eat, in the +presence of witnesses, a plate of boiled minced meat. It is remarked in +the ‘Glossaire de Du Cange’ that, among the Saxons and Flemings, the +word <i>boden</i> means a round table; because the peasantry used the bottom +of a barrel as a table. Tacitus says that for the first meal of the day +the Germans had each their own table; that is to say, apparently a full +or empty barrel placed on end.”</p> + +<p>A statute of Charlemagne alludes to <i>bons barils</i> (<i>bonos barridos</i>). +These barrels were made by skilled coopers (<a href="#fig_9">Fig. 9</a>), who gave all their +care to form of staves, hooped either with wood or iron, the casks +destined to hold the produce of the vintage. According to an old custom, +still in vogue in the south of France, the inside of the wine-skin used +to be painted with tar, in order to give a flavour to the wine; to us +this would perhaps be nauseous, but at that time it was held in high +favour. In alluding to wine-skins, or sewn skins coated with pitch, we +may remark that they date from the earliest historic times. They are +still employed in countries where wine is carried on pack-animals, and +they were much used for journeys. If a traveller was going into a +country where he expected to find nothing to drink, he would fasten a +wine-skin on the crupper of his horse’s saddle, or, at least, would +sling a small leather wine-skin across his shoulder. Etymologists even +maintain that from the name of these light wine-skins, <i>outres légères</i>, +was derived the old French word <i>bouteille</i>; that, first having been +designated <i>bouchiaux</i>, and <i>boutiaux</i>, they finally were named +<i>bouties</i> and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_16" id="page_16">{16}</a></span> <i>boutilles</i>. When, in the thirteenth century, the Bishop +of Amiens was setting out for the wars, the tanners of his episcopal +town were bound to supply him with two leathern <i>bouchiaux</i>—one holding +a hogshead, the other twenty-four <i>setiers</i>.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_017_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_017_sml.jpg" width="180" height="225" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_9" id="fig_9"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 9.—A Cooper’s Workshop, drawn and engraved, in the +Sixteenth Century, by J. Amman.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Some archæologists maintain that, when there had been a very abundant +vintage, the wine was stored in brick-built cisterns, such as are still +made in Normandy for cider; or that they were cut out of the solid rock, +as we see them sometimes in the south of France; but it is more probable +that these ancient cisterns, which are perhaps of an earlier date than +the Middle Ages, were more especially intended for the process of +fermentation—that is to say, for making wine, and not for storing it; +which, indeed, under such unfavourable circumstances, would have been +next to impossible.</p> + +<p>What light did our ancestors use? History tells us that at first they +used lamps with stands, and hanging lamps, in imitation of the Romans; +which, however, must not lead us to the conclusion that, even in the +remotest times of our annals, the use of fat and wax for such purposes +was absolutely unknown. This fact is the less doubtful because, from the +time when trade corporations were formed, we find the makers of candles +and wax-chandlers<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_17" id="page_17">{17}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="fig_10" id="fig_10"></a><a name="fig_11" id="fig_11"></a> +<a href="images/ill_018_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_018_sml.jpg" width="251" height="235" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<div class="caption"><p>Figs. 10 and 11.—Hanging Lamps of the Ninth Century, +from Miniatures in the Bible of Charles the Bald (Bibl. Imp. de Paris).</p></div> +</div> + +<p class="nind">of Paris governed by certain statutes. As for the lamps, which, as in +ancient times, were on stands placed for this purpose in the houses, or +were suspended by light chains (<a href="#fig_10">Figs. 10</a> and <a href="#fig_11">11</a>), they were made in +accordance with the means of those for whom they were intended, and were +of baked earth, iron, brass, and gold or silver, all more or less +ornamented. Lamps and candlesticks are not unfrequently mentioned in the +inventories of the Middle Ages. In the fifteenth and sixteenth +centuries, German artisans made torch-holders, flambeaux, and +chandeliers in copper, wrought and embellished with representations of +all kinds of natural or fantastic objects; and in those days these works +of art were much in request. The use of lamps was all but general in the +early days of the monarchy; but as the somewhat dim and smoky flame +which they furnished did not give sufficient brilliancy to the +entertainments and solemn assemblies held in the evening, it became an +established custom to add to these lamps the light of resinous torches, +which serfs held in their hands. The tragic episode of the Ballet des +Ardents, as told by Froissart—which we shall hereafter relate in the +chapter on Playing Cards—shows that this custom, which we already see<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_18" id="page_18">{18}</a></span> +alluded to in Grégoire de Tours, our earliest historian, was in fashion +until the reign of Charles VI.</p> + +<p>In subjugating the East, the Romans assumed and brought back with them +extreme notions of luxury and indolence. Previously their bedsteads were +of planks, covered with straw, moss, or dried leaves. They borrowed from +Asia those large carved bedsteads, gilt and plated with ivory, whereon +were piled cushions of wool and feathers, with counterpanes of the most +beautiful furs and of the richest materials.</p> + +<p>These customs, like many others, were handed down from the Romans to the +Gauls, and from the Gauls to the Franks. With the exception of +bed-linen, which came into use much later, we find, from the time of our +earliest kings, the various sleeping appliances nearly as they are +now—the pillow (<i>auriculare</i>), the foot-coverlet (<i>lorale</i>), the +counterpane (<i>culcita</i>), &c. No mention, however, is made of curtains +(or <i>courtines</i>).</p> + +<p>At a later period, while still retaining their primitive furniture, +bedsteads vary in their shapes and dimensions: those of the poor and of +the monks are narrow and homely; among kings and nobles they, in process +of time, became veritable examples of the joiner’s work, and only to be +reached by the aid of stools, or even steps (<a href="#fig_12">Fig. 12</a>). The guest at a +château could not receive any greater honour than to occupy the same bed +as the lord of the manor; and the dogs by whom the seigneurs—all great +sportsmen—were constantly surrounded had the privilege of reposing +where their masters slept. Hence we recognise the object of these +gigantic bedsteads, which were sometimes twelve feet in width. If we are +to believe the chronicles, the pillows were perfumed with essences and +odoriferous waters; this we can understand to have been by no means a +useless precaution. We see, in the sixteenth century, Francis I. +testifying his great regard for Admiral Bonnivet by occasionally +admitting him to share his bed.</p> + +<p>Having completed our review of furniture, properly so called, we have +now to treat of that which may be termed highly artistic articles of +furniture—that is, those on which the workers in wood exercised their +highest talents—elevated seats of honour, chairs and arm-chairs, +benches and trestles; all of which were frequently ornamented with +figures in relief, very elaborately sculptured with a knife (<i>canivet</i>); +the <i>bahuts</i>, a kind of chest with either a flat or convex top, resting +on feet, and opening on the upper side, whereon were placed stuffed +leather cushions (<a href="#fig_13">Fig. 13</a>); tubs, buffets,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_19" id="page_19">{19}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_019_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_019_sml.jpg" width="311" height="362" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_12" id="fig_12"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 12.—Bed furnished with Canopy and Curtains, from a +Miniature at the end of the Fourteenth Century. (MS. de la Bibl. Imp. de +Paris.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p class="nind">presses, coffers both large and small, chess-boards, dice-tables, +comb-boxes, which have been superseded by our dressing-cases, &c. Many +specimens of these various kinds of furniture have descended to our +time; and they prove to what a degree of perfection and of elaborate +finish the art of cabinet-making and of inlaying had attained in the +Middle Ages. Elegance and originality of design in inlaid metals, +jasper, mother-of-pearl, ivory; carving, various kinds of veneering, and +of stained woods, are all found combined in this description of +furniture; some of which was ornamented<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_20" id="page_20">{20}</a></span> with extreme delicacy of taste +(Plate I.), and still remains inimitable, if not in all the details of +execution, at least in rich and harmonious effect.</p> + +<p>At the time of the Renaissance, cabinets with numerous drawers and in +several compartments were introduced: these were known in Germany by the +name of artistic cabinets (<i>armoires artistiques</i>): the sole object of +the maker was to combine in one piece of furniture, under the pretext of +utility, all the fascination and gorgeous caprices of decorative art.</p> + +<p>To the Germans must be awarded the merit of having been the first to +distinguish themselves in the manufacture of these magnificent cabinets, +or presses; but they soon found rivals in both the French (<a href="#fig_14">Fig. 14</a>) and +Italians (<a href="#fig_15">Fig. 15</a>), who proved themselves equally skilful and ingenious +in the execution of this kind of manufacture.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 265px;"><a name="fig_13" id="fig_13"></a> +<a href="images/ill_020_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_020_sml.jpg" width="265" height="419" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<div class="caption"> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Fig. 13.—Chest shaped like a Bed, standing in front of a +Fireplace, and a Chair with cushions, in carved wood, from +Miniatures of the Fifteenth Century. (Bibl. Roy. de Bruxelles.)</p></div> +</div> +</div> + +<p>The art of working in iron, which can legitimately rank as one of the +most notable industries of the Middle Ages, soon came to lend its aid to +that of cabinet-making, both in embellishing and giving solidity to its +<i>chefs-d’œuvre</i>. The ornamentation of cabinets and coffers was +remarkable for the good taste and the high finish displayed in them.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="chrm_2" id="chrm_2"></a> +<a href="images/ill_021_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_021_sml.jpg" width="414" height="627" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<div class="caption"><p>DISTAFF OF WOOD, Turned and Carved. Sixteenth Century. +Size of the Original.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_21" id="page_21">{21}</a></span></p> + +<p>In the hands of skilful artisans, of unknown artists dating from the +twelfth to the sixteenth century, iron seemed to assume great +ductility—indeed, we might say unprecedented submission. Observe, in +the gratings of courtyards, in the iron-work of gates, how those lines +are interlaced, how attractive are those designs, how those wrought +stems are delicately lengthened out, at once strong but light, and +finally how they expand with natural grace into leaves, fruits, and +symbolic figures.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_022_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_022_sml.jpg" width="301" height="311" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_14" id="fig_14"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 14.—Small Cabinet for Jewels, in carved wood, after +the style of Jean Goujon, from the Château d’Ecouen, and which formerly +belonged to the Montmorency family. (In the Collection of M. Double.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Moreover, the workers in metal did not confine themselves to the +application of iron on articles already prepared and manufactured by +other artisans; they had also to originate and execute, to ornament +caskets and reliquaries: but their special art was to manufacture bolts +(<a href="#fig_16">Fig. 16</a>), locks, and keys;<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_22" id="page_22">{22}</a></span> examples of this kind of ancient work will +always be admired. “Locks,” says M. Jules Labarte, “were at that time +carried to such a degree of perfection, that they were considered as +veritable objects of art; they were carried from place to place, as +would have been done with any other valuable article of furniture. +Nothing could be more artistic than the figures in high relief, the +armorial bearings, the letterings, the ornaments and the engravings +which embellished that portion of the key which the fingers grasp (Fig. +17), and for which we have substituted a common ring.”</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_023_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_023_sml.jpg" width="288" height="202" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_15" id="fig_15"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 15.—Cabinet in Damaskeened Iron, inlaid with gold +and silver. An Italian work of the Sixteenth Century.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Glass and glazing claim particular notice. It may be said that glass was +known in the remotest ages, for Phœnicia and ancient Egypt were, in the +time of Moses, renowned for their innumerable productions in vitrified +sand. In Rome they cast, cut, and engraved glass—they even worked it +with the hammer, if we are to believe Suetonius, who relates that a +certain artist had discovered the secret of making glass malleable. This +industrial art, which extended and improved under the emperors, found +its way to Byzantium, where it flourished during several centuries; +until Venice, claiming as she then did a prominent position in the +history of the arts, imported the process of the Byzantine method of +making glass, and in her turn excelled in this manufacture. Although +articles in glass and crystal, painted, enamelled,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_23" id="page_23">{23}</a></span> and engraved, are +frequently alluded to in historical and poetical narratives, and also in +the inventories of the Middle Ages, we know they were all the result of +Greek or Venetian manufacture. In this art France especially seems to +have been somewhat late in taking her first artistic step; such</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_024_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_024_sml.jpg" width="289" height="328" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> + +<a name="fig_16" id="fig_16"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 16.—Bolt of the Sixteenth Century, with Initial of +Henry II.</p> + +<p>(In the Castle of Chenonceaux.)</p> + +<p><a name="fig_17" id="fig_17"></a>Fig. 17.—Key of the Thirteenth Century, with two Figures +of Chimeras, back to back.</p> + +<p>(Soltykoff Collection.)</p> +</div></div> + +<p class="nind">objects as were manufactured for the use of the rich never passed beyond +the limits of the rudest art. We should, however, observe that France +must have long been acquainted with the art of glazing, for in the +middle of the seventh century we find St. Benoît—called Biscop, who +built so many churches and convents in England—coming to France in +search of workmen for the purpose of glazing the church and the +cloisters of his abbey at<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_24" id="page_24">{24}</a></span> Canterbury. And it is also mentioned in the +chronicles of the Venerable Bede, that the French taught their art to +the English glaziers.</p> + +<p>Towards the fourteenth century the windows of even the commonest houses +were generally glazed; at that date glass manufactories were found in +operation everywhere; and although they may not have rivalled in a +remarkable degree their predecessors of the Merovingian period, they +nevertheless made in large quantities all kinds of articles ordinarily +in use, as we can judge by the terms of a charter, dated 1338, by which +one Guionnet, in order to have the privilege of establishing a glass +factory in the forest of Chambarant, was bound to furnish as an annual +due to his seigneur, Humbert, Dauphin of Viennois, one hundred dozen +glasses in the shape of a bell, twelve dozen small shallow glasses, +twenty dozen goblets, twelve dozen amphoræ, twenty dozen lamps, six +dozen candlesticks, one dozen large cups, one large stand (or <i>nef</i>), +six dozen dishes without borders, twelve dozen jars, &c.</p> + +<p>We have alluded to Venice and the celebrity she attained in the art of +working glass. It was especially for the manufacture of mirrors and +looking-glasses that this large and industrious city made herself +renowned over all the world. If we are to believe Pliny, the Romans +purchased their glass mirrors at Sidon, in Phœnicia, where, in the +remotest ages, they had been invented. At this time were these mirrors +silvered? We must believe that they were, for a plate of glass, without +quicksilvering, could never be anything than glass more or less +transparent, and would permit of the light passing through, without +reflecting objects. But Pliny asserts nothing of the kind; and, +moreover, as the practice of using mirrors of polished metal, which was +taken from the Romans, was for a long time maintained among modern +nations, we may conclude either that the invention of glass mirrors was +not a great success, or that the secret of making them was lost. In the +thirteenth century an English monk wrote a treatise on optics, in which +allusion is made to mirrors lined with lead. Nevertheless, mirrors of +silver continued in use among the rich, and of iron and polished steel +by the poorer classes, till the time when glass became less expensive, +and Venetian looking-glasses were introduced, or cleverly imitated, in +all European countries; metal mirrors, which easily became dim, and did +not give the natural colour to reflected objects, were then +discontinued. At the same time, the elegant shape of the ancient +hand-mirrors was retained, the workers in gold and silver still +continuing to encircle them with most<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_25" id="page_25">{25}</a></span> graceful designs; the only +difference being that the surface of polished steel or silver was +replaced by a thick and bright piece of Venetian glass, sometimes +ornamented with reflected designs produced in the coating of quicksilver +(<a href="#fig_18">Fig. 18</a>).</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_025_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_025_sml.jpg" width="286" height="372" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_18" id="fig_18"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 18.—Hand or Pocket Mirror in gold or chased silver, +from an Engraving by Etienne Delaune, a celebrated French goldsmith and +engraver (Sixteenth Century).</p></div> +</div> + +<p>From all these details, the reader will have the gratification of +ascertaining at a glance the general effect of furniture in use for +domestic purposes; and thus, after the analysis, he will have its +opposite. Fig. 19, a reproduction, taken from the “Dictionnaire du +Mobilier Français,” by M. Viollet-le-Duc,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_26" id="page_26">{26}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_026_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_026_sml.jpg" width="566" height="343" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_19" id="fig_19"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 19.—Dwelling room of a Seigneur of the Fourteenth +Century.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_27" id="page_27">{27}</a></span></p> + +<p class="nind">represents a dwelling-room of a rich nobleman in the fourteenth century. +What we now designate as a bedroom, and which was then called simply +<i>cambre</i> or <i>chambre</i>, contained, besides the bed—which was very +large—a variety of other furniture in use for the ordinary requirements +of daily life; for the time that was not given to business, to out-door +amusements, to state receptions, and to meals, was passed, both by +nobles and citizens, in this room. In the fourteenth century +requirements for comfort had developed themselves in a remarkable degree +in France. To be convinced of this, we have only to glance at the +inventories, to read the romances and narratives of the day, and to +study with some little care the mansions and houses erected in the reign +of Charles V. A huge chimney admitted many persons to the fireside. Near +the hearth was placed the <i>chaire</i> (seat of honour) of the master or of +the mistress. The bed, which usually stood in a corner, surrounded by +thick curtains, was effectually screened, and formed what was then +called a <i>clotet</i>; that is, a sort of small room enclosed by tapestry. +Near the windows were <i>bancals</i>, or benches with backs covered with +drapery, on which persons could sit and talk, read, or work, while +enjoying the view. A dresser was ranged along one side of the room, and +on its shelves were placed pieces of valuable plate, dishes for comfits, +and flower-vases. Small stools, arm-chairs, and, especially, numerous +cushions were placed here and there in the room. Flemish carpets, and +those which were called <i>sarrasinois</i>, covered the floor; this was +composed of enamelled tiles; or, in the northern provinces, of thick +squares of polished oak. These large, lofty, wainscoted rooms always +communicated with private staircases, through dressing-rooms and +wardrobes in which were located the domestics in immediate attendance.</p> + +<p>Let us now pass from domestic furniture to that used for ecclesiastical +purposes. We now leave the palaces of kings, the mansions of nobles, and +the dwellings of the rich, and enter the buildings consecrated to +worship.</p> + +<p>We know that in the early ages of Christianity religious ceremonies were +characterised by the greatest simplicity, and that the buildings in +which the faithful were wont to assemble were for the most part devoid +of any kind of decoration. By degrees, however, rich display entered +into churches, and pomp accompanied the exercise of religious worship, +especially at the period when Constantine the Great put an end to the +era of persecutions<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_28" id="page_28">{28}</a></span> and proclaimed himself the protector of the new +faith. It is related that among the rich presents which this emperor +distributed throughout the Christian temples in Rome, were a golden +cross weighing two hundred pounds, patens of the same metal, lamps +representing animals, &c. At a later period, in the seventh century, St. +Eloi, who was a celebrated goldsmith before he became Bishop of Noyon, +gave his whole mind and talents to the manufacture of church ornaments. +He enlisted from among the monks of the various monasteries that were +subject to his episcopal authority, all those whom he fancied had an +aptitude for these works of art; he instructed and directed them +himself, and made them excellent artists; he transformed entire +monasteries into gold and silver-smiths’ workshops; and numerous +remarkable works increased the splendour of the Merovingian basilicas; +such, for example, were the shrine of St. Martin of Tours, and the tomb +of St. Denis, the marble roof of which was profusely ornamented with +gold and precious stones. “The bounty of Charlemagne,” says M. Charles +Louandre, “added new riches to the immense wealth already accumulated in +the churches. Mosaics, sculpture, the rarest kinds of marble, were +lavished on those basilicas for which the emperor evinced partiality; +but all these treasures were dispersed by the Norman invasions. From the +ninth to the eleventh centuries it would seem that, with the exception +of a few shrines and crosses, objects employed for ecclesiastical +purposes were not enriched by the addition of anything note-worthy; at +any rate, the works of that period and those of anterior date have not +been handed down to us, if we except some rare fragments. The reason is, +that, independently of the constant causes of destruction, the furniture +of churches was renewed towards the end of the eleventh century, when +the edifices themselves were rebuilt; and it is only from the date of +this mystical Renaissance that we begin to find in the texts precise +indications, and in museums or temples perfectly preserved monuments.”</p> + +<p>Ecclesiastical appendages include altars, altar-screens, the pulpit, +monstrances, chalices, incense-burners, candlesticks or lamps, shrines, +reliquaries, basins for containing holy water, and some other objects of +lesser relative importance, as crosses, bells, and banner-poles. To +these we may add votive offerings, which were generally either of gold +or silver.</p> + +<p>In the infancy of religious worship the altar took two distinct shapes; +sometimes the form of a table, with a top of stone, wood, or metal +sup<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_29" id="page_29">{29}</a></span>ported by legs or by columns; sometimes it resembled an ancient +tomb, or a long coffer, narrowed at the base, and surmounted by a +similar covering, which invariably formed the upper portion, or the +table, of the altar.</p> + +<p>In addition to altars, more or less monumental, which were fixtures in +the churches, and which, from the earliest period, were placed under +<i>ciboria</i> (a kind of dais or canopy supported by columns), small +portable altars were employed, in order to meet the requirements of the +service. They were intended to accompany the bishops, or the ordinary +clergy, who had to preach the faith in countries where no churches +existed. These altars, which were alluded to when the Christian religion +had made but slight progress, were no longer seen after it became +general; but we again find them at the time of the Crusades, when pious +pilgrims, who journeyed from place to place preaching the Gospel, were +obliged to say mass in fields and public places, where the faithful +assembled to hear them, and to “take up the cross.” M. Jules Labarte +gives the following summary description of a portable altar of the +twelfth century:—“It consists of a slab of lumachella marble, set in a +box of gilt copper, 36 centimètres in height by 27 in width, and 3 in +thickness. The top of the box is cut in such a manner as to leave +uncovered the stone on which the chalice was placed during the +celebration of mass.”</p> + +<p>Throughout all the periods of the Middle Ages, the ardent faith of which +seemed to consider sufficient honour could never be rendered to the real +presence of God in the holy sacrifice, the ornamentation of the altar +was everywhere looked upon as an object of the most extraordinary pomp +and of the most elevated artistic taste. Among the marvels of this kind +we must name, as occupying a leading place, the gold altar of St. +Ambrose, in Milan, which dates from 835, and those of the cathedrals of +Basle and Pistoia, which belong to the eleventh and twelfth centuries. +These gold altars, wrought with the hammer, were chased and sometimes +enamelled, and in addition to remarkably well executed designs in carved +work, taken from religious books, they usually also had on them +portraits of the donors.</p> + +<p>The altars and tabernacles were executed with an equal amount of art and +costliness; and from the earliest period of the fabrication or the +importation of carpets, embroideries, and gold and silver fabrics, we +see them employed for the purpose of covering, adorning, and of +rendering more<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_30" id="page_30">{30}</a></span> striking and imposing the altar and its accessories, to +which the name of chancel was given (<a href="#fig_20">Fig. 20</a>).</p> + +<p>The chalice and the altar-vessels, which date from the very cradle of +Christian worship, since without these sacred vases the fundamental +services of the religion of Jesus Christ could not have been performed, +perhaps owe it to this exceptional fact that they are not spoken of +before the eleventh century (<a href="#fig_21">Fig. 21</a>). In truth, nowhere do we find an +indication of their ordinary shape, nor of the mode of their manufacture +in early times; but it is reasonable to suppose that the chalice +originally was identical, as it was in times approaching nearer to our +own, with the goblet of the ancients; or perhaps, to define it more +particularly, was the well-known <i>hanap</i> (drinking-cup), the earliest +type of which tradition endeavours to trace to so early a date. At a +later period, and until the time when the artists of the Renaissance +period were called upon to remodel sacred ornaments, and they +transformed them into marvels of art on which were lavished all the +resources of casting, chasing, and glyptic, we observe that chalices +continued to be manufactured with the greatest care, adorned with +exquisite elegance, and enriched with all the brilliancy that art can +give them.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_027_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_027_sml.jpg" width="336" height="181" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_20" id="fig_20"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 20.—An Altar-cloth embroidered in silver on a black +ground, representing the procession of a friar of the Abbey of St. +Victor. Fifteenth Century (copied from the original belonging to N. +Achille Jubinal).</p></div> +</div> + +<p>All that can be said regarding the chalice applies equally to the +monstrances and the pyxes employed to contain and to exhibit the +consecrated<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_31" id="page_31">{31}</a></span> wafers, as also to the censers, which originated in the +Jewish form of worship, and which, in accordance with the successive +epochs of Christianity, affected different mystical and symbolic shapes +(<a href="#fig_22">Fig. 22</a>). Of these M. Didron gives the following description:—“They +were first formed of two open-work spheroids, in cast and chased copper, +ornamented with figures of animals and inscriptions.” Originally they +were suspended by three chains, which, according to tradition, signified +“the union of the body, the soul, and the divinity in Christ.” At +another period the censers represented, in miniature, churches and +chapels with pointed arches. Again, at the Renaissance, they took the +form of that now in use.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_028_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_028_sml.jpg" width="309" height="184" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_21" id="fig_21"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 21.—An Altar-Tray and Chalice, in enamelled gold, +supposed to be of the Fourth or Fifth Century, found at Gourdon, near +Chalon-sur-Saône, in 1846. (Cabinet des Antiques, Bibl. Imp. de Paris.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>From the first, the lighting of churches was, to a certain extent, +carried out on much the same principle as that employed in princely +abodes and important mansions. Fixed or movable lamps were used; also +wax candles in chandeliers, for the ornamentation of which pious donors +and pious artisans, the former paying the latter, vied with each other +in skill and liberality. We may here observe that even in the early days +of Christianity, numerous candlesticks were generally employed both by +day and by night. The candlesticks on the altar represented the apostles +surrounding Christ; thus their number ought to be twelve. Placed around +the dead, they sig<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_32" id="page_32">{32}</a></span>nified that the Christian finds light beyond the +grave. To the faithful they typified the day which shines brightly in +celestial Jerusalem.</p> + +<p>The worship of relics, established in the early days of the Church, +subsequently led to the introduction of shrines and reliquaries, a kind +of portable tomb which the disciples of the Gospel devoted to the +memory, and in honour, of martyrs and confessors of the faith. Thus from +the first, in collecting these holy relics, to which the faithful +attached every kind of miraculous powers, they dedicated what, according +to ecclesiastical writers, had been the temple of the living God, a +gorgeous sanctuary, worthy of so many virtues and miracles. Hence the +introduction of shrines into churches, and reliquaries into private +houses.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_029_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_029_sml.jpg" width="172" height="224" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_22" id="fig_22"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 22.—Censer of the Eleventh Century, recalling the +shape of the Temple of Jerusalem, in copper repoussé. (Formerly in Metz +Cathedral, now at Trèves.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Owing to the care bestowed on some of these by St. Eloi, from the +seventh century, they had become real marvels of intrinsic richness and +artistic finish. Nevertheless we are unacquainted with the shape which, +in accordance with the Christian liturgy, was originally given to the +shrines and reliquaries, although the Latin word <i>capsa</i>, from which the +word <i>châsse</i> (shrine) is derived, conveys the idea of a kind of box or +coffer. Indeed this shape was retained for a long time by the whole of +Christendom; but the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_33" id="page_33">{33}</a></span> majority of shrines in gold and silver work which +do not date further back than the eleventh or twelfth century represent +tombs, chapels, and even cathedrals. This symbolic shape continued in +use to the time of the Renaissance, but with successive modifications +suggested by the architectural style of each period. We thus see there +was no precious material or delicate workmanship which was not employed +to contribute in making the shrines and reliquaries more magnificent. +Gold, silver, rare marbles, precious stones, were lavished on their +construction; the chaser and enameller embellished with figures and +emblems, with incidents taken from Holy Writ and from the lives of +saints, the shrines in which are deposited their remains.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="fig_23" id="fig_23"></a><a name="fig_24" id="fig_24"></a> +<a href="images/ill_030_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_030_sml.jpg" width="272" height="296" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<div class="caption"><p>Figs. 23 and 24.—Stall and Reading-desk in carved wood, +from the Church of Aosta (Fifteenth Century).</p></div> +</div> + +<p>We know that in the early days of Christianity the rite of baptism was +performed by immersion in rivers or in fountains, but at a period nearer +to our own time, basins or vessels of various dimensions were placed in +a small detached edifice, by the side of the church; into these the +neophytes were<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_34" id="page_34">{34}</a></span> plunged when receiving the first sacrament. These +baptistries disappeared as soon as the practice of sprinkling holy water +on the forehead of the catechumen was definitely substituted for that of +immersion. Baptismal fonts then became what they now are, that is, a +kind of small erection above the level of the floor—piscinas, shells +(<i>vasques</i>), or basins, recalling to our minds, though on a reduced +scale, the primitive baptistries. They were placed inside the church, +either near the entrance, or in one of the side-chapels. At various +periods they were made of stone, marble, or bronze; and were ornamented +with subjects relating to the rite of baptism. It was the same with the +holy-water basins, which, according to ancient custom, were placed at +the entrance to the church, and generally assumed the form of a shell, +or of a large amphora, when not made simply of a hollowed stone to +recall the ancient baptismal vessels.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_031_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_031_sml.jpg" width="245" height="183" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_25" id="fig_25"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 25.—Bas-relief in carved wood, representing a +Domestic Scene, from the Stalls called “Miséricordes,” in the Choir of +the Cathedral of Rouen (Fifteenth Century).</p> +</div> +</div> + +<p>We must not overlook the altar and procession-crosses, which, as being +typical of the divine emblem of the Christian faith, could not fail to +become real objects of art even from the time of the catacombs. It would +be needless repetition to enumerate here the different materials used in +the manufacture of crosses, the various shapes that were given to them, +according to the purpose for which they were intended, and the subjects +and figures they represented. The sculptor, the modeller, the chaser, +the enameller, and even the painter, were associated with the goldsmith +in producing most<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_35" id="page_35">{35}</a></span> exquisite works of this kind. The art of the +wood-carver and that of the worker in iron, which we have seen executing +such marvels for household furniture, could not fail to find scope in +the manufacture of objects used for religious purposes. It was +especially in making pulpits, ornamental screens, wainscoting, and +stalls, that the art of the wood-carver became renowned; he was no +longer simply an artisan, but became an artist of the highest order. In +the ornamentation of railings of choirs and tombs, the iron-work on +doors, of bolts, locks, and keys, the remarkable talent of the +locksmiths of the Middle Ages was displayed. Let us here remark, that in +the early days of worship the pulpit was simply a kind of stool on which +the preacher stood in order that his congregation might see him. By +degrees the pulpit was raised on supports or columns; and later again, +but only towards the end of the fifteenth century, we find it fixed at a +great height against one of the central pillars of the church, and +usually magnificently carved, as was also the dais, and the +sounding-board by which it was surmounted.</p> + +<p>To form an idea of the degree of perfection attained in wood-carving +from the thirteenth to the fourteenth century, we ought to inspect the +stalls of St. Justine, at Padua, those of the cathedrals of Milan and +Ulm, the church of Aosta (<a href="#fig_23">Figs. 23</a> and <a href="#fig_24">24</a>), &c., and the stalls of the +churches of Rodez, Albi, Amiens, Toulouse, and Rouen (<a href="#fig_25">Fig. 25</a>). And if +we would examine a very ancient example of the art attained by workers +in iron, we have but to notice the hinges, dating from the thirteenth +century, which stretch, in arabesque designs, over the panels of the +western door of Notre-Dame, Paris.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_032_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_032_sml.jpg" width="196" height="120" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_26" id="fig_26"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 26.—Design on the Stalls in the Church of St. +Benoît-sur-Loire.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_36" id="page_36">{36}</a></span> </p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_37" id="page_37">{37}</a></span> </p> + +<h2><a name="TAPESTRY" id="TAPESTRY"></a>TAPESTRY.</h2> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Scriptural Origin of Tapestry.—Needlework Embroidery in Ancient +Greek and Roman Times.—Altalic Carpets.—Manufacture of Carpets in +Cloisters.—Manufactory at Poitiers in the Twelfth Century.—Bayeux +Tapestry, named “De la Reine Mathilde.”—Arras Carpets.—Inventory +of the Tapestries of Charles V.; enormous Value of these +Embroidered Hangings.—Manufactory at Fontainebleau, under Francis +I.—The Manufacture of the Hôpital de la Trinité, at Paris.—The +Tapestry Workers, Dubourg and Laurent, in the reign of Henry +IV.—Factories of Savonnerie and Gobelins.</p></div> + +<p class="nind"><a href="images/ill_033_lg.jpg"> +<span class="letra"> +<img src="images/ill_033_sml.jpg" +width="90" +alt="I" /></span></a>F there is an art which bears brilliant testimony to the industry and +ingenuity of mankind in the remotest ages, undoubtedly it is that of +weaving, or of embroidering tapestry; for, however far back we trace the +annals of nations, we find this art flourishing and producing marvels of +workmanship.</p> + +<p>Let us first open the Bible, the oldest of all historical documents; we +read therein of woven fabrics, not only worked on the loom, but also +made by hand, that is, richly embroidered in needlework on linen or +canvas. These magnificent fabrics, which were laboriously and minutely +executed, represented all kinds of designs in relief and in colours; +they were used as decorations for the holy temple, and as ornamental +garments for the priests who performed the religious ceremonies. +Indubitable proof of this is the description, in the book of Exodus, of +the curtains surrounding the tabernacle. Some of these embroideries, in +the manufacture of which gold and silver thread, combined with dyed +wools and silk, was used, were named <i>opus plumarii</i> (work in imitation +of bird’s plumage); others—such, for example, as the veil of the Holy +of Holies, which represented cherubim in the act of adoration—were +called <i>opus artificis</i> (work of the artisan), because they were made by +the weaver on the loom; and, with the aid of numerous shuttles, the woof +of wools and silks of various hues was introduced.</p> + +<p>In the traditions of the magnificent city of Babylon we also find +figured<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_38" id="page_38">{38}</a></span> tapestry delineating the mysteries of religion, and handing +down to us the recollection of historical incidents. “The palace of the +kings of Babylon,” says Philostratus, in the “Life of Apollonius of +Tyana,” “was ornamented with tapestries in gold and silver tissues, +which recorded the Grecian fables of Andromeda, of Orpheus, &c.” The +Greek poet Apollonius of Rhodes, who wrote a century before our era, +relates in his poem of “The Argonauts” that the women of Babylon +excelled in the execution of these gorgeous textures. The famous +tapestries which were sold in the time of Metellus Scipio for 800,000 +sesterces (about 165,000 francs), and a hundred years later were +purchased for the exorbitant sum of two million sesterces (about 412,000 +francs) by Nero, to place on his festive couches, were of Babylonian +workmanship.</p> + +<p>Ancient Egypt, which would seem to have been the early cradle of an +advanced civilisation, was also renowned for this marvellous art, the +invention of which the Greeks attributed to Minerva, and to which +allusion is frequently made in their mythology. Penelope’s web, whereon +were delineated the exploits of Ulysses, has remained the most +celebrated among them all. It was on a similar web that Philomela, in +her prison, illustrated in embroidery the narrative of her misfortunes, +after Tereus had cut out her tongue, to prevent her telling her sister +Progne the outrage she had suffered at his hands.</p> + +<p>Throughout the poems of Homer we find embroidery of this kind either +mentioned, or described as made with the needle or loom, and intended +for decorative drapery, or as garments for men and women. During the +siege of Troy, Helen embroidered, upon a fine tissue, the sanguinary +combats of the heroes who were destroying each other for her sake. The +cloak of Ulysses represents a dog pulling down a fawn, &c.</p> + +<p>The custom of embroidering such scenes as combats and hunting-incidents +seems to have lasted during a long time. According to Herodotus, certain +races bordering on the Caspian Sea were accustomed to have figures of +animals, flowers, and landscapes delineated on their garments. This +custom is mentioned among the pagans by Philostratus, and among +Christians by Clement of Alexandria. Pliny, the naturalist, who lived in +the first century of our era, also alludes to it on several occasions in +his works. Three hundred years later, Amasius, Bishop of Amasia, +deplores the folly which “set a great value on this art of weaving, a +vain and useless art, which by<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_39" id="page_39">{39}</a></span> the combination of the warp and woof +imitates painting.” “When persons thus dressed appear in the street,” +adds the pious bishop, “the passers-by look at them as walking pictures, +and the children point at them with their finger. We see lions, +panthers, bears, rocks, woods, hunters; the religiously inclined have +Christ, his disciples, and his miracles figured on their garments. Here +we see the wedding of Cana, and the pitchers of water turned into wine; +there we have the paralytic carrying his bed, or the sinner at the feet +of Jesus, or Lazarus being raised from the dead.”</p> + +<p>We have only to look into the works of the writers of the time of +Augustus to learn that the halls in the houses of the wealthy were +always hung with tapestry; and that the tables, or rather the beds, upon +which the guests were seated, were covered with carpets.</p> + +<p>The Attalian carpets, which were thus named because they came from the +inheritance bequeathed to the Roman people by Attalus, King of Pergamos, +were indescribably magnificent. Cicero, who was a connoisseur in such +matters, speaks of them with enthusiasm in his works.</p> + +<p>Under Theodosius I., that is to say, at the time of the decline of the +great empire which was soon to break up and be separated, and at last to +merge into new nationalities, a contemporaneous historian shows us “the +youth of Rome engaged in making tapestry-work.”</p> + +<p>In the early period of French history, this ingenious and delicate work +would seem to have been mainly carried on by women, and especially by +those of the highest rank. At any rate it is a fact that rich tapestries +were in common use, both in private houses and for ecclesiastical +purposes, as early as the sixth century; for Gregory of Tours does not +fail to tell us of the embroidered hangings, and also of the tapestry, +in most of the ceremonies which he describes. When King Clovis renounced +paganism and asked to be baptised, “this intelligence was the greatest +joy to the bishop; he orders the sacred fonts to be prepared; the +streets overhung with painted cloths; the churches ornamented with +hangings.” When the abbey-church of St. Denis had to be consecrated, +“its walls are covered with tapestry embroidered in gold and ornamented +with pearls.” These tapestries were for a long time preserved in the +abbey-treasury. Subsequently, this same treasury received, as a present +from Queen Adelaide, the wife of Hugh Capet, “a chasuble, a valance, as +also some hangings, worked by her own hand;” and Doublet, the historian +of this ancient abbey, states that Queen Bertha<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_40" id="page_40">{40}</a></span> (the same whom the old +French proverb makes an indefatigable worker with her needle) +embroidered on canvas a series of historical subjects, depicting the +glorious deeds of the family.</p> + +<p>Nevertheless, there is no written authority for asserting that in France +the manufacture of tapestries and hangings worked on the loom can be +traced beyond the ninth century; but at this period, and a little later, +we find some documents which are as precise as they are curious—proving +that this industry, the principal object of which, at that period, was +the ornamentation of churches, had to a certain extent obtained a +footing, and was flourishing in religious establishments. The ancient +chronicles of Auxerre relate that St. Anthelm, the bishop of that city, +who died in 828, caused to be made, under his own directions, numerous +rich carpets for the choir of his church.</p> + +<p>One hundred years later we find a regular manufactory established at the +monastery of St. Florent, at Saumur. “In the time of the abbot Robert +III.,” says the historian of this monastery, “the vestry (<i>fabrique</i>) of +the cloister was further enriched by magnificent paintings and pieces of +sculpture, accompanied by legends in verse. The above-mentioned abbot, +who was passionately devoted to similar works, sought for and purchased +a considerable quantity of magnificent ornaments, such as large +<i>dorserets</i><a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> in wool, curtains, canopies, hangings, bench-covers, and +other ornaments, embroidered with various devices. Among other objects, +he caused to be made two pieces of tapestry of large size and of +admirable quality, representing elephants; and these two pieces were +joined together with a rare kind of silk, by hired workers in tapestry. +He also ordered two <i>dorserets</i> in wool to be manufactured. It happened +that, during the time one of these was being completed, the +above-mentioned abbot went to France. The ecclesiastic left in charge +took advantage of his absence to forbid the artisans to work the woof +according to the customary method. ‘Well,’ said they, ‘in the absence of +our good abbot we will not discontinue our employment; but as you thwart +us we shall make quite a different kind of fabric.’ And this now admits +of proof. They made several square carpets, representing silver lions +upon a field of <i>gules</i> (red), with a white border covered with scarlet +animals and birds. This unique piece of workmanship was looked upon as a +perfect specimen of this kind of fabric, until the time of the abbot +William, when<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_41" id="page_41">{41}</a></span> it was considered the most remarkable piece of tapestry +belonging to the monastery. In fact, on the occasions of great +solemnities the abbot had the elephant tapestry displayed, and one of +the priors showed that on which were the lions.”</p> + +<p>From the ninth or tenth century there was also a manufactory at +Poitiers; and its fabrics, on which figured kings, emperors, and saints, +were of European celebrity, as appears to be attested, among other +documents, by a remarkable correspondence which took place, in 1025, +between an Italian bishop, named Léon, and William IV., Count of Poitou. +To understand rightly this correspondence, it must be borne in mind that +at the time Poitou was as famous for its mules as for tapestry. In one +of his letters, the bishop begs the count to send him a mule and a piece +of tapestry, both equally marvellous (<i>mirabiles</i>), and for which he has +been asking six years. He promises to pay whatever they may cost. The +count, who must have had a facetious disposition, replied, “I cannot, at +present, send you what you ask, because for a mule to merit the epithet +of marvellous, he would require to have horns, and three tails, or five +legs—and this I should not be able to find in our country. I shall +therefore content myself with sending you one of the best I can procure. +As to the tapestry, I have forgotten the dimensions you desire. Let me +have these particulars again, and it will then soon be sent to you.”</p> + +<p>But this costly industry was not limited to the French provinces. In the +“Chronique des Ducs de Normandie,” written by Dudon, in the eleventh +century, it is stated that the English were clever workers in this art; +and when designating some magnificent embroidery, or rich tapestry, it +was described as of English work (<i>opus Anglicanum</i>). Moreover, the same +chronicle relates that the wife of Richard I.,<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> the Duchess Gonnor, +assisted by her embroiderers, made hangings of linen and of silk, +embellished with images and figures representing the Virgin Mary and the +Saints, to decorate the church of Notre Dame, Rouen.</p> + +<p>The East, also, which from the earliest times had been renowned for the +art of producing beautiful embroidered fabrics, became still more famous +during the Middle Ages for those of wool and silk, embroidered with +silver and gold. It was from the East were brought the rich stuffs +covered all<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_42" id="page_42">{42}</a></span> over with emblazonments, and with figures of animals, and +probably also embroidered in open-work: these fabrics were called +<i>étoffes sculptées</i>, or <i>pleines d’yeux</i>.</p> + +<p>The librarian Anastasius, in his book the “Lives of the Popes,” which +undoubtedly was written before the eleventh century, gives, when +describing church decorations, some curious and circumstantial details +regarding the subject we are now discussing. According to him, as early +as the time of Charlemagne (eighth century), Pope Leo III. “had a veil +made of purple worked in gold, on which was the history of the Nativity +and of Simon, having in the centre the Annunciation of the Virgin.” This +was to ornament the principal altar of the Holy Mother of God, at Rome. +He also ordered for the altar of the church of St. Laurence, “a veil of +silk worked in gold, having on it the histories of the Passion of our +Saviour and of the Resurrection.” He placed on the altar of St. Peter’s +“a veil of purple of a remarkable size, worked in gold and ornamented +with precious stones; on one side was seen our Saviour giving St. Peter +the power to bind and to loose, on the other the Passion of St. Peter +and St. Paul.” In the same book, several other pieces of tapestry are +described in such terms that it seems difficult to realise the richness +and the beauty of finish of these artistically-worked fabrics, which for +the most part came from Asia or Egypt. It was only in the twelfth +century, after the return from the first crusades had enabled Western +nations to admire and to appropriate to themselves luxuries quite new to +them, that the custom of using tapestry, while becoming far more general +in churches, found its way also into private dwellings. If, in the +cloisters, the monks, in order to find employment, lavished their utmost +care on the weaving of wool and of silk, there was the more reason why +this occupation should prove pleasing to the noble <i>châtelaines</i> who +were confined to their feudal castles. It was then, when surrounded by +their tire-women, as in earlier times were the Roman matrons by their +slaves, that these fair dames, while listening to the reading of tales +of chivalry which deeply interested them, or inspired by a profound +faith, gave themselves to the task of reproducing with the needle either +the pious legends of the saints or the glorious exploits of warriors. +The bare walls, when thus draped with touching incidents or warlike +memorials, assumed a peculiar eloquence which doubtless inspired the +mind with grand visions, and aroused noble sentiments in the heart.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_43" id="page_43">{43}</a></span></p> + +<p>Among the finest specimens of this kind is one which, owing to its +really exquisite character, has escaped what would have seemed +inevitable destruction. We allude to the famous Bayeux tapestry called +“<i>de la Reine Mathilde</i>” (of the wife of William the Conqueror). This +work represents the conquest of England by the Normans. If we are to +accept the ancient traditions to which it owes its name, it must date +from the last half of the eleventh century.</p> + +<p>In these days we may be permitted to doubt, in consequence of the many +discussions that have taken place among the learned, if this embroidery +is as ancient as was at one time supposed. And although we first find it +alluded to in an inventory (prepared in 1476) of the treasury of Bayeux +Cathedral, we may venture, with a certain degree of confidence, to +believe that it was made in the twelfth century by Englishwomen, who at +that time were particularly famous for their needlework; an opinion +confirmed by more than one author contemporaneous with William and +Matilda.</p> + +<p>This tapestry, which is 19 inches in height, by nearly 212 feet in +length, is a piece of brown linen, on which are embroidered with the +needle, in wool of different colours (and these seem to have lost none +of their early freshness), a series of seventy-two groups or subjects, +with legends in Latin interspersed with Saxon, embracing the whole +history of the Conquest, as related by the chroniclers of the period +(<a href="#fig_27">Figs. 27</a> and <a href="#fig_28">28</a>).</p> + +<p>At the first glance, this embroidery may seem to be but a rudely +executed grouping of figures and animals; nevertheless there is +character throughout, and the original outline, discoverable beneath the +intersections of the wool, is not wanting in a certain accuracy that +brings to our mind the vigorous simplicity of the Byzantine style. The +decoration of the double border, between which is delineated a drama +wherein 530 figures are introduced, is the same as those of the +paintings in manuscripts of the Middle Ages. And, in short, failing any +exact proof, if we are determined not to deprive this immense work of +its traditional antiquity, it might, with much probability, be +attributed to a female embroiderer of Queen Matilda, named Leviet, whose +skill has rescued her name from oblivion. It may also be well to observe +that at the time it is first alluded to in history, this tapestry is +found belonging to the very church in which Matilda desired to be +buried.</p> + +<p>We have already seen (in the chapter on Furniture) that towards the +twelfth and thirteenth centuries, under the influence of Eastern habits +and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_44" id="page_44">{44}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_034_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_034_sml.jpg" width="323" height="426" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_27" id="fig_27"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 27.—A piece of the Bayeux Tapestry, representing +the construction of Boats for William (with Border).</p></div> +</div> + +<p class="nind">customs, the practice of sitting on carpets was established at the court +of our kings. From this date rich tapestries were frequently used for +making tents for campaigning or for hunting. They were displayed on +festive occasions; as, for instance, when princes were entering a town, +the object being to hide the bare walls. The dining-halls were hung with +magnificent tapestries,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_45" id="page_45">{45}</a></span> giving additional splendour to the interludes +(<i>entremets</i>, or <i>intermèdes</i>) performed during the repast. The +champions in the lists saw glittering around them, suspended from the +galleries, fabrics on which heroic deeds were embroidered. Lastly, the +caparison of the charger (the war-horse’s garb of honour) displayed its +brilliant emblazonings to the eyes of admiring crowds.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_035_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_035_sml.jpg" width="358" height="298" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_28" id="fig_28"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 28.—A portion of the Bayeux Tapestry, representing +two mounted men of Duke William’s army armed from head to foot, and in +the act of fighting.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>It was moreover the custom that the tapestries made for noblemen should +bear their respective armorial devices, the object being, no doubt, that +it might be known to whom they belonged when used on the occasion of the +entry of royal and other distinguished personages in solemn processions; +and also at jousts and tournaments.</p> + +<p>In the fourteenth century the manufactories of Flanders, which were of +considerable reputation even about the twelfth century, made great +advance, and the success of the Arras tapestries became so general that +the most<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_46" id="page_46">{46}</a></span> handsome hangings were called Arras tapestry, although the +greater part of them did not come from that city. It may here be noticed +that the term <i>Arrazi</i> is, in Italy, still synonymous with valuable +tapestry (<a href="#fig_29">Fig. 29</a>).</p> + +<p>These fabrics were generally worked in wool, and sometimes in flax and +linen: but at the same period Florence and Venice, which had imported +this industry from the East, wove tapestries wherein gold and silk were +blended.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_036_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_036_sml.jpg" width="338" height="290" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_29" id="fig_29"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 29.—Marriage of Louis XII. and Anne of Brittany. +Tapestry in wool and silk, with a mixture of gold and silver thread. +Made in Flanders the end of the Fifteenth Century. (Lent by M. Achille +Jubinal.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>An inventory, dated 21st January, 1379, contained in a manuscript now in +the “Bibliothèque Impériale,”—in which are enumerated “all the jewels +in gold and silver, all the rooms with embroidery and tapestries +belonging to Charles V.,”—gives us an idea not only of the multiplicity +of hangings and tapestries that appertained to the personal property of +royalty, especially at the Hôtel Saint-Pol, but it also shows us the +variety</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="chrm_3" id="chrm_3"></a> +<a href="images/ill_037_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_037_sml.jpg" width="386" height="390" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<div class="caption"><p>THE ADORATION OF THE MAGI.</p> + +<p>Tapestry of Berne of the fifteenth Century</p> + +<p>(Communicated by M. Achille Jubinal.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_47" id="page_47">{47}</a></span></p> + +<p class="nind">of subjects therein represented. A few of these pieces of tapestry are +still preserved, but among some which have been destroyed or lost we may +mention those representing the Passion of our Saviour, the Life of St. +Denis, the Life of St. Theseus, and that entitled Goodness and +Beauty—all these were of large dimensions. Then again, the tapestry of +the Seven Mortal Sins, two pieces of the Nine Bold Knights, that of the +ladies hunting and flying (<i>qui volent</i>), in other words, hawking; that +of the Wild Men; two of Godfrey de Bouillon; a white tapestry for a +chapel, in the centre of which was seen “a compass with a rose,” +emblazoned with the arms of France and of Dauphiny, this was three yards +square; one large handsome piece of tapestry, “the king has bought, +which is worked with gold, representing the Seven Sciences and St. +Augustin;” the tapestry of Judith (the queen who subsequently appears on +playing-cards); a large piece of Arras cloth, representing the Battles +of Judas Maccabæeus and Antiochus; another of “the Battle of the Duke of +Aquitaine and of Florence;” a piece of tapestry “whereon are worked the +twelve months of the year;” another of “the Fountain of Jouvent” +(Jouvence), a large piece of tapestry “covered with azure fleurs-de-lys, +which said fleurs-de-lys are mingled with other small yellow +fleurs-de-lys, having in the centre a lion, and, at the four corners, +beasts holding banners, &c.”—in fact, the list is endless. We must +still, however, add to these figured tapestries those with armorial +bearings, made for the most part with “Arras thread,” and bearing the +arms of France and Behaigne (the latter being those of the queen, +daughter of the King of Bohemia). There was also a piece of tapestry +“worked with towers, fallow bucks and does, to put over the king’s +boat.” The tapestry called <i>velus</i>, or velvet, which now we call +<i>moquettes</i>, was as commonly seen as any other kind. There were also to +be noticed the <i>Salles d’Angleterre</i>, or the tapestries from that +country, which, as we have said, had previously acquired a great +celebrity in that art. Among these one was “<i>ynde</i> (blue), with trees +and wild men, with wild animals, and castles;” others were vermilion, +embroidered with azure, having vignette borders, and in the centre +lions, eagles, and leopards.</p> + +<p>In addition to these, Charles V. possessed at his castle of Melun many +“silken fabrics and tapestries.” At the Louvre one could but admire, +among other magnificent pieces of tapestry, “a very lovely green room, +ornamented with silk covered with leaves; and representing in the centre +a lion, which<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_48" id="page_48">{48}</a></span> two queens were in the act of crowning, and a fountain +wherein swans were disporting themselves.”</p> + +<p>Yet we must not be led away with the idea that it was only the royal +palaces which presented such sumptuousness; for it would be easy to +enumerate many instances similar to those we have given, by looking over +the inventories of the personal property of nobles, or those of the +treasuries of certain churches and abbeys. In one place the tapestries +represent religious subjects taken from the Bible, the Gospels, or the +legends of the saints; in another the subjects are either historical or +relating to chivalry, more especially battles or hunting scenes (Fig. +30).</p> + +<p>We are thus justified in asserting that the luxury of tapestry was +general among the higher classes. An expensive taste it was; because not +only does an examination of these marvellous works show us that they +could have been purchased only at a very high price, but in old +documents we find more than one certain confirmation of this fact. For +example, Amaury de Goire, a worker in tapestry, received in 1348, from +the Duke of Normandy and Guienne, 492 livres, 3 sous, 9 deniers, for “a +woollen cloth,” on which were represented scenes from the Old and New +Testaments. In 1368, Huchon Barthélmy, money-changer, received 900 +golden francs for a piece of “worked tapestry, representing La Quête de +St. Graal (the search for the blood of Christ); and in 1391, the +tapestry exhibiting the history of Theseus, to which we have already +alluded, was purchased by Charles V. for 1,200 livres; all these sums, +considering the period, were really exorbitant.</p> + +<p>The sixteenth century, remarkable for the progress and the excellence to +which the arts of every kind had attained, gave a renewed impulse to +that of tapestry. A manufactory was established by Francis I., at +Fontainebleau, where the tapestry was woven in one entire piece, instead +of being made up, as had been the practice, of separate pieces matched +and sewn together. In this new fabric gold and silver threads were mixed +with silk and wool.</p> + +<p>When Francis sent for the Primate from Italy, he commissioned him to +procure designs for several pieces of tapestry, to be made in the +workshops of Fontainebleau. But, while liberally rewarding the Italian +or Flemish artists and artisans collected in the dependencies of his +château, the king still continued to employ Parisian tapestry-workers; +proof of which is to be found in a receipt of the sieurs Miolard and +Pasquier, who give an<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_49" id="page_49">{49}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_038_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_038_sml.jpg" width="330" height="478" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_30" id="fig_30"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 30.—Tapestry representing a Hunting Scene, from the +Château d’Effiat. (In the possession of M. Achille Jubinal.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_50" id="page_50">{50}</a></span></p> + +<p class="nind">acknowledgment of having been paid 410 <i>livres tournois</i>, “to begin the +purchase of materials and other requisites for a piece of silk tapestry, +which the said seigneur had ordered them to make for his coronation, +according to the patterns which the said seigneur has had prepared for +this purpose, and on which must be represented a Leda, with certain +nymphs, satyrs, &c.”</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_039_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_039_sml.jpg" width="175" height="224" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_31" id="fig_31"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 31.—The Weaver. Drawn and Engraved by J. Amman.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Henry II. did even more than maintain the establishment at +Fontainebleau; in addition he instituted, in compliance with the request +of the guardians of the Hôpital de la Trinité, a manufactory of tapestry +in Paris, in which the children belonging to the hospital were employed +in dyeing wool and silk, and in weaving them in the loom with a high and +low warp.</p> + +<p>The new manufactory, whether on account of the excellence of its +productions, or from influential patronage, obtained so many privileges +that the public peace was on several occasions seriously disturbed by +the jealousy of the guild of tapestry-workers; an ancient and numerous +corporation still possessing great authority and influence.</p> + +<p>The manufactory of the Hôpital de la Trinité continued to flourish +during the reign of Henry III.; and Sauval, in his “Histoire des +Antiquités de</p> + +<div class="blockquott"><p class="c">PLAN OF PARIS IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY,</p> + +<p class="c">WITH THIS LEGEND:</p> + +<div class="poetry"> +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0"><i>Mil cinq cents ans quarante et neuf passez</i><br /></span> +<span class="i0"><i>Du déluge: Paris le noble roy</i><br /></span> +<span class="i0"><i>Dix-huitième: fonda en grand arroy</i><br /></span> +<span class="i0"><i>Ville et cité de Paris belle assez</i><br /></span> +<span class="i0"><i>Devant que Rome eust des gens amassez</i><br /></span> +<span class="i0"><i>Six cent cinquante et huit ans comme croy.</i><br /></span> +</div></div> +</div> + +<p class="c">TRANSLATION.</p> + +<p>One thousand five hundred and forty-nine years after the Deluge, +the noble King Paris, the eighteenth of his name, founded with +great pomp the fine town and city of Paris, anterior to the +foundation of Rome, which took place, as I think, 658 (?) years +before Jesus Christ.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="chrm_4" id="chrm_4"></a> +<a href="images/ill_040_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_040_sml.jpg" width="481" height="402" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<div class="caption"><p>PLAN OF PARIS IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY.</p> + +<p>Beauvais Tapestry (Communicated by M. Achille Jubinal.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_51" id="page_51">{51}</a></span></p> + +<p>Paris,” informs us that in the following reign it reached its highest +point of prosperity. In 1594, Dubourg made in these workshops, from the +designs of Lerembert, the beautiful tapestries which, to a date very +near our own, decorated the Church of Saint-Merry. Henry IV., says +Sauval, hearing this work much spoken of, desired to see it, and was so +pleased therewith that he resolved to restore the manufactories in +Paris, “which the disorder of preceding reigns had abolished.” He +therefore established Laurent, a celebrated tapestry-worker, in the +<i>maison professe</i> of the Jesuits, which had remained closed since the +trial of Jean Chastel. He allowed one crown a day, and one hundred +francs a year, as wages to this skilful artist; his apprentices +receiving ten sous a day, and his fellow-workmen twenty-five, thirty, +and even forty sous, according to their skill. At a later period Dubourg +and Laurent, who had entered into partnership, were both installed in +the galleries of the Louvre. Henry IV., following the example of Francis +I., brought from Italy skilled workers in gold and in silk. These he +lodged in the Hôtel de la Maque, Rue de la Tisseranderie: the special +works they made were hangings in fine cloth of gold and silver +(<i>frisé</i>).</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_041_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_041_sml.jpg" width="116" height="130" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_32" id="fig_32"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 32.—Banner of the Tapestry Workers of Lyons.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Subsequently to the sixteenth century, the tapestries fabricated at the +manufactories of the Savonnerie, the Gobelins, and at Beauvais, &c., +although more perfect as regards the weaving, and therefore presenting +greater regularity of design and a better comprehension of colour and +perspective, unfortunately lost the original simplicity which +characterized them in olden times. Approaching the reign of Louis XIV., +under the influence of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_52" id="page_52">{52}</a></span> school of Le Brun,<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> they affected an +imitation of Greek and Roman forms, which seem out of place in France. +Handsome countenances are the result, out accompanied by meaningless +figures; the frankness of truth gives place to staid coldness, the ideal +usurps the place of nature, conventionality that of spontaneity. We find +them ingenious, pretty, and even beautiful productions, but wanting +character, the real soul of works of art.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_042_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_042_sml.jpg" width="116" height="136" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_53" id="page_53">{53}</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="CERAMIC_ART" id="CERAMIC_ART"></a>CERAMIC ART.</h2> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Pottery Workshops in the Gallo-Romano Period.—Ceramic Art +disappears for several Centuries in Gaul: is again found in the +Tenth and Eleventh Centuries.—Probable Influence of Arabian Art in +Spain.—Origin of Majolica.—Luca della Robbia and his +Successors.—Enamelled Tiles in France, dating from the Twelfth +Century.—The Italian Manufactories of Faenza, Rimini, Pesaro, +&c.—Beauvais Pottery.—Invention and Works of Bernard Palissy; his +History; his <i>Chefs-d’œuvre</i>.—The <i>Faïence</i> of Thouars, called +“Henri II.”</p></div> + +<p class="nind"><a href="images/ill_043_lg.jpg"> +<span class="letra"> +<img src="images/ill_043_sml.jpg" +width="90" +alt="W" /></span></a>E can assuredly say, with M. Jacquemart, that “the history of the +ceramic art of the Middle Ages is shrouded by a veil which probably will +always remain impenetrable. Notwithstanding the constant investigations +of local societies, and the numerous documents that have been brought to +light, nothing has transpired to remove the doubts of the archæologist +regarding the places where the manufacture of pottery had its birth +among us.”</p> + +<p>Nevertheless, it is certain that at the Gallo-Romano period—that is to +say, when the Romans, having made themselves masters of that country, +had introduced their customs and their industry—Gaul possessed numerous +and considerable pottery workshops, which produced vessels and vases of +all kinds. Maintaining the ancient forms and processes of manufacture, +these factories continued to furnish, till about the sixth century, +amphoræ, basins, cups on stems, dishes, plates, and bottles. They were +made, with the aid of the potter’s wheel, of grey, yellow, or brown +clay. Some of the finest quality were covered with a brilliant varnish, +resembling red sealing-wax both in colour and appearance; and these +articles were often ornamented with much care and delicacy. We find +vases surrounded with garlands of leaves, cups embellished with figures +of men and animals; these are so many proofs that this was a manufacture +to which the influence of art was by no means unknown.</p> + +<p>Yet it is also evident that this industry—one of a sufficiently +elevated kind—nearly disappeared about the period of the invasions and +wars amidst the tumult of which French monarchy had its birth; and +there<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_54" id="page_54">{54}</a></span> remained but the simple art that provided for ordinary +requirements an assemblage of articles rude and devoid of character.</p> + +<p>It must be remembered, however, that the ceramic art which had +flourished in the West merely migrated, instead of becoming extinct; and +it found, like so many other arts, a new country in that Byzantium +destined to be the sanctuary of ancient magnificence. Whatever may be +the reason, ceramic art disappeared from the soil of France during a +long period; and it is still a question what was the real origin of its +revival. Did it revive of itself, or was it under the influence of +example? Did it owe its resuscitation to any immigration of artisans, or +to the importation of some process of manufacture? These questions still +remain unanswered.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_044_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_044_sml.jpg" width="285" height="198" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_33" id="fig_33"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 33.—Vases of ancient shape, represented in the +decorative sculpture of the Church of St. Benoît, Paris. (Twelfth +Century.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The ceramic art, which perhaps we somewhat wrongly style modern, is +characterized by the use of enamel, or overlaying articles with a glaze +having a metallic basis; this the fire of the oven vitrifies; it is a +process of which the ancients were entirely ignorant.</p> + +<p>But, in searching the tombs that belonged to the ancient abbey of +Jumièges (in Normandy), and which date from the year 1120, there have +been found fragments of pottery of a fine but porous clay, covered with +a glazing somewhat similar to that now used.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_55" id="page_55">{55}</a></span></p> + +<p>Moreover, we read in a chronicle of the ancient province of Alsace, that +in the year 1283 “died a potter of Schelestadt, who was the first to +cover earthen vessels with glass.”</p> + +<p>But we also know that at the time when these isolated attempts were +being carried out in France, the Persians and Armenians had long before +discovered the art of making magnificent enamelled ware for covering the +exterior of their monuments; and that the Arabs settled in Spain +produced wonderful examples of painted and enamelled earthenware, with +which they decorated and furnished those palaces whose grand ruins are +still to us like the fairy visions of a dream or of enchantment. The +vases of the Alhambra, types of an art as original as it was singularly +ingenious, claim, and doubtless will always claim, the admiration of +minds that can appreciate the beautiful in whatever form it may present +itself.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_045_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_045_sml.jpg" width="284" height="109" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_34" id="fig_34"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 34.—Vases of ancient form, represented in the +decorative sculptures of the Church of St. Benoît, Paris. (Twelfth +Century.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>And now, are we to suppose that the intercourse between nations and the +transactions of commerce must necessarily have made western Europe +acquainted with the enamelled dishes of Asia, or the <i>chefs-d’œuvre</i> of +the African race in Spain? Or, on the other hand, shall we say that it +was by a spontaneous effort of invention that our forefathers opened up +the road to a new domain of art? In the one case we have the opinion, +deservedly respected, of Scaliger, who affirms the fact, apparently very +significant, that during the Middle Ages there existed in the Balearic +Islands manufactories of pottery of Arab origin; our learned author even +adds, that in accordance with the most probable etymology, the name of +<i>Majolica</i>, which was first given to Italian ware (the earliest in the +European revival of the ceramic art), was derived from <i>Majorca</i>, the +largest, as we know, of the Balearic<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_56" id="page_56">{56}</a></span> Islands, in which locality the +principal manufactory of these pottery wares was situated. But, on the +other hand, a comparative examination of Arab and Italian wares excludes +all idea not only of affiliation, but even of imitation or reminiscence +between them.</p> + +<p>In the face of such contradictory coincidence, if we may say so, it +would be as difficult as it would be rash to pronounce an opinion; we +consider it better, while disregarding problematical indications, to +boldly face a train of facts now determined by historical proof.</p> + +<p>“At the commencement of the fifteenth century”—we cannot do better than +borrow from M. Jacquemart a passage which he himself took from the +Italian work by Passeri, on Majolica (Pesaro, 1838, in 8vo.)—“Luca +della Robbia, the son of Simone di Marro, apprenticed himself to a +Florentine goldsmith, Leonardo, the son of Giovanni; but disliking the +confinement of a laboratory, he soon became a pupil of the sculptor +Lorenzo Ghiberti, who made the gates of the Baptistry at Florence. His +rapid progress under so able a master placed him in a position, when he +could not have been more than fifteen years old, to undertake the task +of ornamenting a chapel for Sigismond Malatesta, at Rimini. Two years +later, Pietro di Medici, who was having an organ erected in Santa-Maria +dei Fiori, at Florence, directed Luca to execute some marble sculptures +in that church. The fame which he gained by these works drew everybody’s +attention to the young sculptor. Orders reached him in such numbers that +he clearly saw the impossibility of executing them in marble or in +bronze; added to this, he bore with impatience the restraint imposed by +working with such rigid materials, of which the laborious handling +trammelled the flights of his imagination. Soft and plastic clay was a +material far better suited to his readiness of conception. At the same +time, Luca dreamt of the future, and of glory; and thus having in view +the object of executing works which, though less perishable, might be +rapidly executed, he devoted all his efforts to discover a coating which +would give to clay the polish and the hardness of marble. After many +trials, a varnish made of tin (<i>étain</i>), which was white, opaque, and of +a resisting nature, furnished him with the result he hoped for. The art +of producing fine earthenware was discovered, which first received the +name of vitrified clay (<i>terra invetriata</i>).</p> + +<p>“Luca’s enamel was a most perfect white; he first used it alone for +figures, in semi-relief, which were raised on a blue background. At a +later<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_57" id="page_57">{57}</a></span> period he ventured to colour his figures, and Pietro di Medici +was one of the first who encouraged this kind of work for the decoration +of palaces. The fame of this novel art spread with rapidity; all the +churches were anxious to possess some specimen of the master, so that +Luca was soon compelled to associate with himself his two brothers +Ottaviano and Agostino, in order to keep pace with the requirements of +the public. He endeavoured, nevertheless, to extend the application of +his discovery by painting flowers and groups of figures on a smooth +surface; but in the year 1430 death cut short his remarkable career, and +stayed, in the hands of the inventor, the progress of <i>enamelled +pottery</i> (<a href="#fig_35">Fig. 35</a>).</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_046_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_046_sml.jpg" width="328" height="328" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_35" id="fig_35"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 35.—Enamelled Terra-cotta, by Luca della Robbia.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>“The family of Luca, however, made public the secret of his discovery.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_58" id="page_58">{58}</a></span> +His two nephews, Luca and Andrea, produced some figures and designs of +singular merit in terra-cotta. Luca ornamented the floor of the Loggia +of Raphael. Girolumo, a relative of Luca, come to France, where he +decorated the château of Madrid, in the neighbourhood of Paris. Two +females, Lisabetta and Speranza, added to the renown of the family Della +Robbia.”</p> + +<p>Such is the history of the revival, or rather of the creation, of +ceramic art in Italy, as briefly recorded by a man thoroughly acquainted +with the subject. An ancient author, and, moreover, a competent writer, +instances some monuments of an earlier date; among others a tomb at +Bologna, in which were tiles covered with a green and yellow varnish, +and vessels (<i>écuelles</i>) of the same kind inserted in the façades or +porticoes of the churches of Pesaro and the abbey of Pomposa. But to the +honour of Luca della Robbia it may be remarked, that these specimens of +an earlier industry differed essentially from his productions; because +the glazing that covered them, the basis of which was lead, was so +transparent, that through it could be seen either the clay or the +colours underneath; whereas the enamel discovered by Luca, the basis of +which was tin, had, on the contrary, for its essential character, an +opacity which may be termed intense. Let us observe, moreover, that in +order to embellish his productions with paintings, Luca was accustomed +to apply colours to the first and general coating, which became fixed by +a subsequent process of baking.</p> + +<p>It is by recognising the distinction we have just laid down between +these two processes, that the productions of Italian ceramic art are +ordinarily classified: the <i>demi-majolica</i>, with transparent glaze, +somewhat like the Spanish-Arabian pottery, and also, perhaps, like +Asiatic tiles; then the <i>majolica</i>, by which we understand fine +earthenware, where the clay is covered with a coating of opaque varnish, +distinguishing the invention due to Luca della Robbia.</p> + +<p>Having given priority of invention to Luca della Robbia, it is as well, +nevertheless, here to state, that from the eleventh and twelfth +centuries there existed in France a kind of ceramic art employed +especially in the manufacture of varnished pottery-tiles. Many, of baked +clay, have been found with drawings and designs in black or brown on a +white or yellow ground (Plate IV.). At a later period these tiles, of +which we see such brilliant specimens in the small pictures in +manuscripts, especially in those</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="chrm_5" id="chrm_5"></a> +<a href="images/ill_047_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_047_sml.jpg" width="409" height="606" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<div class="caption"><p>PAVING TILES OF THE FOURTEENTH AND FIFTEENTH +CENTURIES.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_59" id="page_59">{59}</a></span></p> + +<p class="nind">of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, were embellished with +designs, emblems, armorial bearings, and scrolls. As already stated, in +the passage from the author whom we have taken as our guide, the impulse +which Luca della Robbia gave to ceramic art extended itself with +rapidity in every direction; and if any other reason were wanting, +beyond the intrinsic value of this art, to account for its development, +we should say that the circumstances in the midst of which Luca made his +discovery were eminently favourable to its advancement.</p> + +<p>Luxurious display was, at that time, prominent among the classes who +aspired to ostentation. When writing of furniture, we saw to what a +pitch of splendid profusion kings, princes, and nobles carried the mania +for displaying their wealth. We particularly pointed out sideboards in +the dining-rooms, covered with plate and all kinds of objects, which +were only placed there to dazzle the eyes. The custom of these displays +having been introduced, it could nevertheless be only indulged in by +those in possession of considerable fortunes, and therefore it will be +readily understood how quickly fashion affected the productions of +ceramic art; which, in addition to being recognised as works of art, +were singularly well suited, both in character and by their comparative +cheapness, to the spirit of ostentation which had taken possession of +people of inferior rank. It was sufficient that some piece of majolica +should have found a place on the sideboard of a prince amidst the gold +and the silver which hitherto had alone enjoyed this privilege, for the +lower ranks of the <i>bourgeoisie</i> and the <i>tiers-état</i> to adopt the +fashion, in their dining-rooms, of decorating them either with majolica +alone, or associated with plate.</p> + +<p>And admitting this fact, that the productions of ceramic art were thus +allowed to find admittance, and, as it were, in some measure an equally +distinguished position, amidst plate and objects of precious metals, it +resulted that this new industry, supported by the best artists, soon +became remarkable for works which were at the same time most beautiful +and original.</p> + +<p>As something new in history, we find simple pieces of pottery—to give +them their generic name—passing as valuable offerings among the great, +and employed on very many occasions to denote ardent admiration in the +world of courtly gallantry. It is thus we have handed down to us, +principally on cups by renowned masters, portraits of the beauties who +in those times adorned the ranks of the nobility: the Dianas, the +Francescas, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_60" id="page_60">{60}</a></span> Lucias, the Proserpines, whom their admirers caused to +be portrayed in order to offer them their own likenesses.</p> + +<p>It was at Florence, about the year 1410, that Luca della Robbia first +introduced his invention; but as soon as the process became known, the +greater part of the towns of Italy, especially those of Tuscany, +established manufactories, among which a remarkable rivalry soon arose: +Pesaro, Gubbio, Urbino, Faenza, Rimini, Bologna, Ravenna, Ferrara, Citta +Castellana, Bassano, Venice, emulated each other, and almost all +succeeded in giving, as it were, an individual character to their +productions.</p> + +<p>Pesaro—the place were the earliest workshops of ornamental pottery in +Italy were seated, and the processes of which (derived from Luca della +Robbia) seem to have blended with the ancient Spanish, or +<i>Majorquaises</i>—presents to us a design of a rather harsh and stiff +character. “The outlines of figures,” adds M. Jacquemart, “are drawn in +manganese black, the flesh is the colour of the enamel, and the drapery +alone is of uniform tint.”</p> + +<p>It was at Pesaro that the celebrated Lanfranco flourished. The ceramic +museum of Sèvres has two of his pieces: it was he who invented the +method of applying gold to earthenware, at a time when the early +processes of ornamenting this manufacture had ceased to be employed, and +had given place to delicate paintings, which, although no longer +executed by the most renowned artists of Italy, were nevertheless the +work of intelligent pupils who had received the benefit of their +teaching and example.</p> + +<p>The manufactory at Gubbio had for its founder Giorgio Andreoli, who, +both as a sculptor and an artist in majolica, executed works as +remarkable in form as in effect. “The palette of mineral colours adopted +by Andreoli was the most perfect of the period; and coppery yellows, +ruby reds, are frequently used in his works.” There are still extant +some works signed by this <i>master</i> (a title officially conferred on him +by a patent of nobility); one is a slab in the Sèvres collection, and +another a tablet representing the Holy Family.</p> + +<p>Urbino—of which the dukes, especially Guidobaldo II., signalized +themselves as the most zealous patrons of ceramic art—became famous +through the works of Francesco Xanto, who executed historical subjects +on enamelled clay. Xanto had as a successor Orazio Fontana, who has been +named “the Raphael of Majolica,” and who produced, among other +magnificent objects, some vases which, when subsequently seen by +Christina<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_61" id="page_61">{61}</a></span> of Sweden, so impressed her by their beauty that she offered +to exchange for them silver vases of equal size.</p> + +<p>It was at the manufactory of Deruta that imaginative subjects on +majolica were first introduced; Bassano was famous for its landscapes +with ruins; Venice became celebrated for delicate ware with <i>repoussé</i> +reliefs; Faenza is still proud of her Guido Salvaggio; Florence of her +Flaminio Fontana, &c.</p> + +<p>Majolica attained to its highest point of brilliancy under the Duke of +Urbino whom we have already named, Guidobaldo II., who was ever ready to +make any sacrifice in order that this art might be introduced into the +manufactories under his patronage. He even obtained from Raphael and +Giulio Romano some original drawings to serve as examples; and this +feeling having once been inculcated, we soon find artists of renown, +such as Batista Franco and Raphael del Colle, tendering their services +for the ornamentation of majolica. Thus the productions of this period +are distinguishable among all others for harmony of composition and +accurate drawing, qualities which render them specially noteworthy (Fig. +36). Then, almost immediately, followed the decline of this art. While +flourishing more and more until the middle of the sixteenth century, the +art of making majolica had fallen, at the termination of that epoch, +into a kind of degenerate industry, swayed by the caprice of fashion, +and thereby reduced to mannerism.</p> + +<p>Nearly at the commencement of the renovation of ceramic art, Italian +artisans had established themselves in various places, which then became +so many artistic centres. Eastern Europe had for its earliest +instructors three brothers, Giovanni, Tiseo, and Lazio, who settled at +Corfu. Flanders was indebted for the knowledge of these processes to +Guido of Savino, who took up his abode at Antwerp. And about the year +1520 we find a manufactory at Nuremberg, of which the ware, though +materially differing in character from Italian majolica, may still very +probably have been derived from Italy.</p> + +<p>We may add that letters of the King of France mention that from 1456 +there were certain revenues derivable from the “Beauvais Potteries;” and +in the twenty-seventh chapter of the first book of “Pantagruel,” +published in 1535, Rabelais places among the various articles composing +the trophy of Panurge, “a saucer, a salt-cellar of clay, and a Beauvais +goblet;” which proves, as M. de Sommerard remarks, “that as early as +this date, there were manufactured in this city vessels of clay +sufficiently good in quality<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_62" id="page_62">{62}</a></span> to be placed on the table with silver and +pewter utensils;” but it does not naturally follow that France had not +long to wait for the man of genius who would soon leave her nothing to +covet from Italy.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_048_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_048_sml.jpg" width="346" height="274" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_36" id="fig_36"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 36.—Cup, Italian Ware. In the Collection of Baron +Alph. Rothschild. Taken from MM. Carle Delange and C. Borneman’s work.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>About the year 1510, in a small village in Périgord, a child was born +who, after receiving the rudiments of education, was obliged while still +quite young to try to gain a livelihood by his own industry. This +child’s name was Bernard Palissy. He first learnt the trade of a +glazier, or rather of a glass-fitter and painter. This trade, while it +initiated him into the principles of drawing, and gave him a certain +insight into chemical manipulations, at the same time aroused in him a +taste for art and the study of natural sciences. While “painting figures +in order to gain his daily bread,” as he himself tells us in one of the +works he has left behind him, and which gives us the highest opinion of +his simple yet energetic nature, he applied himself to the study of the +true principles of art in the works of the great Italian painters—the +only artists then in repute. Owing to various<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_63" id="page_63">{63}</a></span> circumstances the trade +of glazier proving unprofitable, he at once began the study of geometry, +and soon obtained credit, in the part of the country wherein he dwelt, +as “a clever draughtsman of plans.” Such comparatively mechanical labour +as this could not long suffice for the active vigour of a mind thirsting +after progress and discovery. Moreover, Palissy, while employed on his +calling as a land-surveyor, had never ceased to give close observation +to the structure and composition of geological strata. With the purpose +of dispelling the doubts in his mind, and also with the object of +obtaining substantial confirmation regarding the system he had already +originated, he began to travel. The result of his journeyings was the +inauguration of a theory which, after having long been contemptuously +rejected by the learned, was nevertheless destined to form the +foundation of principles which are now considered as the basis of modern +geological science.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_049_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_049_sml.jpg" width="276" height="181" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_37" id="fig_37"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 37.—A figured Border of an Enamelled Dish, by +Bernard Palissy.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>But if the certain knowledge which Palissy thought he had acquired as to +the early convulsions of the globe had succeeded in satisfying his own +mind, the glazier-surveyor (who was now a married man with a family) +still remained in straitened circumstances, and was obliged to find some +means of avoiding actual want. We must refer to what he himself says +more than a quarter of a century later, and when success had completely +crowned his efforts, to learn what were his recollections of his early +and hazardous experiments in a new channel. “Know,” says he,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_64" id="page_64">{64}</a></span> in his +expressive language, “that it is twenty-five years since an earthen +vessel was shown to me; it was turned, enamelled, and of such exquisite +beauty, that from that very moment I began to argue with myself, while +remembering observations made derisively to me by some persons when I +was painting figures. And seeing that they were beginning to give up the +use of these objects in the country where I lived, and that glazing also +was not in great demand, I set myself to think that had I but discovered +the art of making enamel, I might make earthen vessels and other +articles of beautiful appearance; for God had given me the capacity to +understand a little about ceramic painting, and from that instant, +without in the least regarding my utter ignorance of siliceous +substances, I set myself to discover enamels like a man groping in the +dark.”</p> + +<p>It has been much disputed, but we may as well say at once to no purpose, +how to assign with certainty a particular locality whence came this +object which inspired Palissy; but whatever may have been its origin, it +seems to us to be a question of little moment, because at the time when +Palissy must have seen it, the Italian manufactories, and even those +which were afterwards established in various localities, had succeeded +in disseminating their wares far and wide; and, besides this, the works +of Palissy, which we still see, bear testimony to a style that was +peculiarly his own, and in some measure original.</p> + +<p>However this may have been, here we have him seeking out and grinding +all kinds of substances, mixing them, and coating with them pieces of +ware which he first subjected to the action of an ordinary potter’s +oven, afterwards to the more powerful heat employed by glass-makers. +Then we see him building an oven in his own house—taking into his +service a working potter, to whom, on one occasion, when he has no money +for the payment of wages, he is obliged to give his own clothes; again +we find him turning, single-handed, a mill for grinding his materials +which ordinarily required “two powerful men” to work it; then again, +wounding his hands in repairing the oven that the fire cracked, and the +bricks and mortar of which had become “liquified and vitrified;” so that +he is obliged for several days “to eat his soup with his fingers tied up +in rags;” pushing the conscientiousness and zeal of an experimentalist +so far as to fall down in a state of insensibility on finding that the +whole contents of an oven, on which he had been relying, proved to have +numerous defects. In despite</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="chrm_6" id="chrm_6"></a> +<a href="images/ill_050_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_050_sml.jpg" width="387" height="581" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<div class="caption"><p>BIBERON OF HENRI II WARE.</p> + +<p>Or Oiron fayence. (Pourtales’ Collection.) Now in the possession of J. +Malcolm, Esq.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_65" id="page_65">{65}</a></span></p> + +<p class="nind">of his poverty we see him destroying pieces of work that he considered +were not quite perfect, though a fair price was offered him for them, +merely because “they might bring discredit on him and loss of +reputation;” and finally, we see him breaking up and putting into the +fire, for want of other fuel, the flooring of his house and the +furniture of his humble abode.</p> + +<p>The magnificent discovery, brought about by the single initiative of an +individual who had said that he would succeed, and who heroically +endured all kinds of misery, privations, and humiliations, in order to +attain his object, was the labour of not less than fifteen years.</p> + +<p>“To console me,” relates Palissy, “even those from whom I had a right to +expect help laughed at me” (he here alludes to his family—his wife, and +children—who had not the same unbounded faith as himself in the +ultimate success of his labours); “they paraded the town exclaiming that +I was burning the woodwork of my house; thus was my credit injured, and +I was looked upon as a fool. Others said I was attempting to make base +coin. I went about quite humiliated, ashamed of myself. I owed money in +several quarters, and generally had two children out at nurse, and not +able to pay the cost. All ridiculed me, saying: ‘He deserves to starve, +because he has given up his trade.’</p> + +<p>“Struggling on in this way, at the end of ten years I became so thin +that my legs and arms had no roundness of shape left about them; my legs +were all of a size (<i>toutes d’une venue</i>); so that as soon as I began to +walk, the garters with which I fastened my stockings used at once to +slip down, stockings and all, on to my heels.... For many years, having +nothing wherewith to cover my ovens, I was exposed all night long to the +winds and the rains, without receiving any help or consolation, except +from the screech-owls hooting on one side and the dogs howling on the +other.... Sometimes I found myself, with all my garments wet through +from the rain, going to bed at midnight, or at dawn of day; and when +proceeding in this condition to bed, I went reeling along without a +light, and stumbling from side to side, like a man drunk with wine; I +was overcome by previous sorrow, the more so because after +long-continued work I saw my labour lost. And on entering my chamber I +found a fresh persecution awaiting me—the complaints of my wife—worse +than the first, and which now makes me wonder how it was I did not die +of grief.... I have been in such anguish that many and many a time I +fancied I was at death’s door.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_66" id="page_66">{66}</a></span>”</p> + +<p>At last, despite all these obstacles, disappointments, physical and +mental suffering, the determined experimentalist succeeded in his +anticipations, and gave to the world those works he called <i>rustics</i>, +and which were so original and so beautiful that they had but to be seen +in order to invite attention, and to gain for him all the praise, as +well as the profit, he received.</p> + +<p>We have just intimated it was at Saintes that Palissy, when in search of +immortal fame, underwent his rude apprenticeship. A short time after he +had attained these definite results, religious questions having caused +some disturbances in Saintonge, the Constable de Montmorency, who had +been sent to suppress the Huguenot rising, had an opportunity of seeing +Palissy’s works: he requested that he should be presented to him, and at +once declared himself his friendly protector. And we must take this word +protector in its widest sense, for the potter, who had zealously +embraced the doctrines of the Reformation, and who subsequently +preferred to be imprisoned for life rather than abjure his faith (if he +did not die in the Bastille, at least he was imprisoned there at the +time of the Massacre of St. Bartholomew), indeed required protection, as +much for the exercise of liberty of conscience as for carrying on his +artistic labours. After Montmorency had commissioned him to execute some +considerable works, which also gained him the patronage of several +important personages, he obtained for him the favour of royalty. Palissy +was summoned to Paris, and received the title of “inventeur des +rustiques figulines du roi et de la reine-mère”—Henri II. and Catherine +de Médicis. He was lodged in the Tuileries; and was not long there +before he became renowned, not only for his ceramic productions, but +also for his scientific knowledge.</p> + +<p>In the recent building operations at the Tuileries, on digging a trench +in the garden, the workshop of Bernard Palissy was discovered; being +recognised by fragments and various pieces of enamelled pottery with +figures in relievo. Among these was found a large fragment of the dish +of Palissy, known under the name of the Baptismal Dish, on account of +the subject represented thereon. In July, 1865, while excavating in the +part of the palace where the “Salle des Etats” has been built, the +workmen discovered, below the level of the surface soil, two ovens for +baking pottery, in a tolerably good state of preservation. One contained +pieces of those muffles (<i>gazettes</i>) Palissy is said to have invented, +and which were employed in baking delicate pieces of work—imprints of +various kinds of ornaments, and figures in alto<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_67" id="page_67">{67}</a></span>relievo: two of these +are described by Palissy himself in the “Devis d’une grotte pour la +royne, mère du roy” (“device of a grotto for the queen, the king’s +mother”), and which he thus indicates in the following sentence:—“I +should wish to make certain figures from nature, following her so +closely, even to the small hair in the beard and eyebrows, as to make +them the natural size.” These peculiarities are to be seen in the +fragments of the moulds which have been discovered. In the same page +Palissy says, “Also there would be another, composed completely of +sea-shells of different kinds; that is to say, the two eyes of two +shells, the nose, mouth, and chin, forehead and cheeks, all made out of +sea-shells, as well as even the remainder of the body.” This was found +in fragments, as also a hand moulded from nature, and holding a sword of +ancient make (<a href="#fig_39">Fig. 39</a>). Among the fragments moulded from the naked and +the draped form, is the one which we give (<a href="#fig_40">Fig. 40</a>); it is thus +described by Palissy:—“Also for the sake of astonishing mankind, I +wished to make three or four (figures) draped, and with their hair +dressed in quaint ways, whose dresses and head-dresses shall be of +divers linen, cloths, or striped materials so natural that no man would +think but it was the object itself which the workman had wished to +imitate.”<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_051_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_051_sml.jpg" width="271" height="183" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_38" id="fig_38"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 38.—Ornamentation on Pottery by Bernard Palissy.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>We thus see how Palissy, called “Maître Bernard des Thuilleries,” +deserved the esteem of the sovereigns who desired he should be near +them.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_68" id="page_68">{68}</a></span></p> + +<p>M. Jacquemart says of Palissy ware:—“It is remarkable in more ways than +one—for its white paste with a shade of yellowish grey, for its +hardness, and its infusibility, equalling that of fine earthenware or +pipe-clay. These give it a special character, that distinguishes it from +Italian productions, the clay of which is of a dirty and dusky red. The +enamel has great brilliancy; it is hard, and is not unfrequently wavy +(<i>tresaille</i>). The colours vary a little, but they are bright—pure +yellow, yellow ochre, indigo blue, grey blue, emerald green produced +from copper, yellow green, violet brown, and manganese violet. As for +the white, it is somewhat dull, and cannot be compared with Luca della +Robbia ware; wherefore the most persevering researches of Palissy, who +invented all the processes which he employed in his work, aimed at the +attainment of greater brilliancy. The under part of Palissy ware is +never of a uniform tone of colour; it is spotted or tinted with blue, +yellow, and violet brown.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="fig_39" id="fig_39"></a><a name="fig_40" id="fig_40"></a> +<a href="images/ill_052_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_052_sml.jpg" width="302" height="248" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<div class="caption"><p>Figs. 39 and 40.—Fragments of Figures on which the +moulds have been found in one of Palissy’s Ovens at the Tuileries.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>“It would be exceedingly difficult, not to say impossible, to enumerate +the various shapes he was able to give to his enamelled ware. Combining +in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_69" id="page_69">{69}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_053_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_053_sml.jpg" width="341" height="343" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_41" id="fig_41"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 41.—Goblet, by Bernard Palissy. (Museum of the +Louvre.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p class="nind">himself all the artistic talent of his day, he was at the same time a +skilful designer and an intelligent modeller; and thus he discovered a +thousand resources for the display of elegance and richness; sometimes +in the multiplicity of relievos and in the outline of his vases, +sometimes in the mere application of colour.... In many of his +productions, particularly dishes and bowls, are seen natural objects +represented with astonishing truthfulness as to form and colour; nearly +all these are modelled from nature, and grouped with perfect taste; from +the lower surface, rippled by streams of water in which fish of the +river Seine are swimming, coiled reptiles rise<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_70" id="page_70">{70}</a></span> gracefully from among +fossil shells (we must remember that Palissy was a geologist), found in +the tertiary strata of Paris; on the <i>marli</i> (the sloping edge of the +dish), amidst delicate ferns arranged in masses, lizards, crayfish, and +large-bodied frogs climb and jump (<a href="#fig_42">Fig. 42</a>). The accuracy of their +movements, the truth of tones produced by a limited variety of +colours—all indicate a close observer. We must not, however, form our +opinion of Palissy from these <i>rustic</i> works alone, but also from his +vases, where he introduced all the ornamental richness of those times, +and on which he took a pleasure in developing all his fertility of +composition and his knowledge as a designer.... On this point Palissy +followed the same law to which all artists of the sixteenth century were +subject—he was a worker in precious metals. By their graceful +originality, their fringed (<i>frangées</i>) borders, their figured +accessories, these vases put us in mind of metal. How could it have been +otherwise? Was not Benvenuto Cellini at that time, we will not say the +object of all imitations, for this would be an insult to the skilful +artists of that period, but at all events the ideal towards which the +inspirations of others were directed? As regards the human figure, +Palissy’s constant endeavour was to approach the Italian type; and as +doubtless the school of Fontainebleau furnished him with most of his +models, in the greater part of his figures we trace that graceful +<i>elongation</i> of form, that elegant simplicity, which, in the works of +Jean Goujon, fall into mannerism (<a href="#fig_43">Figs. 43</a> and <a href="#fig_44">44</a>).</p> + +<p>“Palissy did not limit himself to the production of small and +moderate-sized vases for ornamenting sideboards, buffets, tables, and +brackets; he raised pottery to the most gigantic proportions in his +<i>rustiques figulines</i>, intended as ornaments for gardens, grottoes, +fountains, and the halls of stately mansions. The castles of Nesle and +of Chaulnes, of Reux and of Ecouen, and the garden of the Tuileries, +contained some remarkable specimens. All have perished with the +devastation of the buildings in which they stood; a single fragment of a +capital, preserved in the Museum of Sèvres, proves the truthfulness of +the writers of the sixteenth century regarding the monumental creations +of the potter of Saintes.</p> + +<p>“After the death of Palissy, in 1589, the art which he had created +insensibly declined, until soon it almost completely disappeared in +France.”</p> + +<p>This latter remark has reference to the style which was peculiarly of +Palissy’s own invention, and not to the production of ceramic works +generally; though the art failed not to give evidence of a certain +vitality,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_71" id="page_71">{71}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_054_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_054_sml.jpg" width="419" height="314" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_42" id="fig_42"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 42.—Enamelled Dish, by Bernard Palissy. (Museum of +the Louvre.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p class="nind">it employed as guides or models the fanciful examples of Italian ware, +in preference to the really masterly specimens of the French artist. +Among the different centres of manufacture which, at that period, were +deserving of notoriety, we must specially name Nevers, whence came +numerous examples characterised by subjects taken from biblical +narratives, as well as from<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_72" id="page_72">{72}</a></span> Roman and contemporaneous times; Rouen, +where the manufacture probably was not of an earlier date than the +beginning of the seventeenth century, and which evidently had to provide +its full supply of dishes for the table when, owing to the heavy +expenses of war, the courtiers, following the example of Louis XIV., +sent their plate to the mint, and “<i>se mirent en faïence</i>,” “took to +earthenware,” as Saint-Simon says. Lastly we have Montreuil-sur-Mer, +which, if we are to credit the specimens collected in the district by M. +Boucher de Perthes, one of our most learned antiquarians, possessed a +manufactory that produced some remarkable “open-work” vases.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_055_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_055_sml.jpg" width="323" height="217" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_43" id="fig_43"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 43.—Four-handled Water-jug. German ware of the +Sixteenth Century.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_44" id="fig_44"></a>Fig. 44.—Egg-shaped Coffee-pot. German ware of the +Sixteenth Century.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Let us also mention the Dutch pottery, called <i>Delft ware</i>, which, in +the beginning of the seventeenth century, began to find a place on all +sideboards and dressers. According to M. Brongniart, these came from a +manufactory founded prior, perhaps, to the sixteenth century. We also +instance the fine earthenware, in relievo, manufactured with undoubted +ability in Germany, especially in the town of Nuremberg. In the Louvre +and in the Cluny Museums may be seen magnificent specimens of enamelled +slabs and vases of architectural forms, ornamented with figures. +Majolica was<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_73" id="page_73">{73}</a></span> equally esteemed on the banks of the Rhine. Many specimens +are found, dating from the latest years of the sixteenth century, in +which identity of form or similarity of <i>sigles</i> (earths or clays) to +primitive works had led to their being, at first, classified among +Italian majolica. However, the majority of these examples, ornamented +with escutcheons and arabesques, combined generally with Latin or German +inscriptions, bear on the reverse a cipher in Gothic letters, leaving no +doubt as to the artist’s country.</p> + +<p>Now a word on a question we ought not to pass in silence, though it yet +remains unanswered, and doubtless will never be explained.</p> + +<p>Why is this name of <i>faïence</i> commonly given in France, almost from the +revival of the ceramic art, to the productions of the new industry? Some +say, “because Faenza was the first among Italian manufactories that +introduced, generally, painted and ornamented potteries into France, +where it acquired great reputation.” Others discover in France itself, a +small town called Faïence, near Fréjus, in Provence, “where the +manufacture of enamelled clays was in full activity before there was any +evidence of it elsewhere;” and thus it gave its name to the pottery +called <i>majolica</i> by the Italians: this would be nothing less than to +deprive Luca della Robbia of the merit, if not of the invention, at +least of priority. Unfortunately for this last opinion, those who state +it cannot bring in support of their assertion any certain details of the +nature of the productions ascribed to that locality, and which by their +very celebrity ought to have been safe from destruction. Thus it is +evident there is here a point of dispute regarding which it is difficult +to form a decisive opinion.</p> + +<p>Though, in a certain measure, lying out of the province to which our +observations have hitherto been limited, we have still to notice a small +group of productions which are known by connoisseurs under the title of +<i>faïences fines d’Henri II.</i>; of these there are not more than forty +authenticated specimens. The locality of this manufacture, which seems, +so to speak, to have been isolated—for the ware is unlike any +contemporaneous productions—is quite unknown. “We only know,” says M. +Jacquemart, “that most of the examples came from the south-west of +France, from Saumur, from Tours, and especially from Thouars. As to the +date, it is indelibly inscribed on the vases, some having the salamander +of Francis I., others the arms of France with three crescents +interlaced, the emblem adopted by Henri II. They consist of cups, ewers, +drinking-vases, oval<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_74" id="page_74">{74}</a></span> sugar-basins, salt-cellars, and candlesticks. The +form is ornate and pure, and is relieved by elegant mouldings. On the +clay—a yellowish white, and covered with a crystallized varnish, the +basis of which is lead, and consequently is transparent—wind bands of +yellow ochre bordered with dark brown, and interlaced with all the +inventive richness which characterized the period; small designs in +green, violet, black, and occasionally in red, enhance this decoration.”</p> + +<p>Much search has been made, but, as yet, without any reliable result, for +the name of the artist to whom might be attributed the creation of these +works, and of the individual style they denote.</p> + +<p>However this may be, if England claims the first application of +pipe-clay to fine earthenware, the French can, by showing her the +<i>faïence d’Henry II.</i>, prove that, two hundred years before, an unknown +artist in France was setting an example in that art in which England now +prides herself.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_056_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_056_sml.jpg" width="258" height="165" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_45" id="fig_45"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 45.—Ornament of a Dish, Italian ware. (Collection +of M. le Baron Alph. de Rothschild.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_75" id="page_75">{75}</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="ARMS_AND_ARMOUR" id="ARMS_AND_ARMOUR"></a>ARMS AND ARMOUR.</h2> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Arms of the Time of Charlemagne.—Arms of the Normans at the Time +of the Conquest of England.—Progress of Armoury under the +Influence of the Crusades.—The Coat of Mail.—The Crossbow.—The +Hauberk and the Hoqueton.—The Helmet, the Hat of Iron, the +Cervelière, the Greaves, and the Gauntlet; the Breastplate and the +Cuish.—The Casque with Vizor.—Plain Armour and Ribbed +Armour.—The Salade Helmet.—Costliness of Armour.—Invention of +Gunpowder.—Bombards.—Hand-Cannons.—The Culverin, the +Falconet.—The Arquebus with Metal-holder, with Match, and with +Wheel.—The Gun and the Pistol.</p></div> + +<p class="nind"><a href="images/ill_057_lg.jpg"> +<span class="letra"> +<img src="images/ill_057_sml.jpg" +width="90" +alt="T" /></span></a>HE most ancient and authentic document that presents to us a just and +almost perfect idea of the arms in use towards the end of the eleventh +century, is the celebrated tapestry of Bayeux, of which we have already +spoken.</p> + +<p>It is sufficient to examine with some attention that complex and +illustrated narrative of the conquest of England in 1066, to learn what +was the general aspect of war at that period. But any one who has at all +studied the ancient historians and the annals of our earliest career as +a people, will not fail to recognise, as so many constituent parts +combining to form the equipment of war, most of those weapons that were +adopted among various races, the contests and the union of which was to +give birth to modern nations.</p> + +<p>If we can rely on the testimony of some miniatures in manuscripts of the +time of Charlemagne, Roman customs are constantly recalled in the +costume and arms of the warriors of the eighth and ninth centuries (Fig. +46), “but with the modifications necessarily resulting from +contemporaneous corrupt taste,” as observed by M. de Saulcy, whom, it +may be remarked, we follow step by step, as it were, in the labours +which he has conscientiously devoted to the history of warlike arms; +“for at that time the helmets, the bucklers, and the swords had assumed +forms very unlike the models whereof they were supposed to be an +imitation. One can readily imagine<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_76" id="page_76">{76}</a></span> that costume had become subjected to +the same sort of change as language, corrupted as this was by the +admixture of German manners with those of the nations subjected to +Rome.”</p> + +<p>In the middle of the ninth century the Normans disembarking, possessed +themselves of Neustria, and introduced among the French nation, with +which they at first contended, and at length concluded a peace, an +entire series of defensive arms entirely novel in form, if not in their +nature. It is then, according to certain learned men, that warriors are +seen, in illustrated manuscripts, attired in dresses furnished with +small rings or iron scales, wearing pointed helmets, and using shields +cut horizontally above, and terminating at the base in a point more or +less sharp.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_058_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_058_sml.jpg" width="336" height="213" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_46" id="fig_46"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 46.—Gallo-Romano Soldiers. Fac-simile of Miniatures +in the MS. of Prudentius. (Imp. Library of Paris.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>In the Bayeux tapestry we see the army of William that fought the battle +of Hastings composed of three different bodies of troops: the archers, +light infantry, armed with arrows and darts; foot-soldiers, or Heavy +infantry, using weightier arms, and clad in iron mail; and cavalry, in +the midst of which figures the Duke William (<a href="#fig_47">Fig. 47</a>).</p> + +<p>The costume exhibits little variety; only two sorts of accoutrements are +observable; one very plain, worn by men who have no helmet, is evidently +that of an inferior soldier; the other, covered with iron rings, not +inter<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_77" id="page_77">{77}</a></span>laced, extends from the shoulders to the knees, and belongs only +to warriors whose head-dress is a narrow, conical helmet, more or less +sharply pointed, extending behind (<i>en couvre nuque</i>) to cover the nape +of the neck (<a href="#fig_48">Fig. 48</a>), and in front provided with a metal protector for +the face, called the <i>nasal</i>.</p> + +<p>Among the horsemen thus encased in iron, are some who have boots and +stirrups, others are without them, and even wear no spurs. Their shields +are convex, secured to the arm by a leather strap, generally circular at +top, and terminating in a point below. Some, however, are polygonal and +convex, and in the centre show a rather long point.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_059_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_059_sml.jpg" width="326" height="240" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_47" id="fig_47"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 47.—King William, as represented on his seal +preserved in England.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_48" id="fig_48"></a>Fig. 48.—Lancer of William’s Army.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Offensive arms consist of swords, axes, lances, javelins, and arrows. +The swords are long, of uniform width nearly to the extremity which +comes abruptly to a point, and have heavy, strong hilts. The axes +exhibit no remarkable peculiarity. The spears terminate in an iron +point, probably sharpened, and equal in length to one-sixth of the +handle. We see also clubs, maces, and, finally, pronged staves (<i>bâtons +fourchus</i>), doubtless the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_78" id="page_78">{78}</a></span> earliest form of the weapon; these last were +subsequently called <i>bisaguë</i>, and, with maces and clubs, were +ordinarily used by serfs and peasants; the sword and the spear being +reserved for freemen.</p> + +<p>The sling is not to be found in the hands of any warrior; but it is +remarkable that, in the border of the Bayeux tapestry, it is used by a +peasant aiming at a bird; from which it may be inferred that the sling +had become a mere weapon for field-sport. Moreover, this was also the +case with the bow among the French; which was again held in honour after +the advent of the Normans, especially since the latter could ascribe to +it their success at the battle of Hastings, where Harold, the opponent +of William, was killed by an arrow. Nevertheless, the statutes of the +Conqueror, who himself excelled with the bow, did not include that +weapon among those of the nobility.</p> + +<p>From the conquest of the Normans to the Crusades, we scarcely find +anything worth notice, except the adoption of a very murderous implement +of war, which acquired the name of the flail, or armed whip (<i>fléau</i>, or +<i>fouet d’armes</i>); it was formed of iron balls studded with points, and +was attached to the end of a strong staff by small chains. But we come +to a period when the events which occurred in Asia had a considerable +influence on the arms and the military costume of Europe. The first and +principal of the importations due to those distant expeditions was that +of the coat of mail, then in common use among the Arabs, and which has +since been discovered in the sculptures of the period of the Sassanidæ, +a royal race that ruled over Persia from the third to the seventh +century.</p> + +<p>It is not affirmed that prior to the first crusade we had no knowledge +of iron chain-work, of which the Orientals made defensive helmets; but +we imitated it only in a heavy and clumsy manner. This armour, which was +of ponderous weight, and, besides, was far from rendering invulnerable +those who were burdened with it, had not displaced the <i>haubergeons</i>, +the <i>jacques de fer</i>, the <i>brigandines</i>, the <i>armures à macles</i> (Fig. +49), (such were the names given to the cuirasses of leather and of cloth +covered with metal plates); but when such defensive armour came to be +better known, with all its original good qualities; and when we had +learned to make it according to the Oriental method, there was no +further delay in adopting that network of iron (<i>tricot</i>) at once +flexible, light, and, in some degree, impenetrable. However, since the +manufacture of ancient armour was more simple, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_79" id="page_79">{79}</a></span> consequently less +costly, it was not altogether abandoned. It is only so late as the time +of Philip Augustus and Louis IX. (the thirteenth century) that the use +of coats of mail became general; to this some knights attached mail +hose, to protect the thighs, legs, and feet (<a href="#fig_50">Fig. 50</a>).</p> + +<p>In the reign of Louis le Gros (twelfth century) we see the first attempt +at a movable vizor adapted to the conical helmet of the Normans; and to +the same period must be referred the invention of the crossbow: or, it +may rather be said that a stock, or <i>arbrier</i>, was added to the bow, +which afforded greater facility for stretching the string, and also +aided in directing the arrow. This new weapon, after being exclusively +used in the chase, appeared in warfare; but, in 1139, Pope Innocent II., +confirming the decisions of the Council of Lateran, which had condemned +it as too destructive, prohibited its use. The crossbow was not restored +to military equipments until the third crusade, under Richard Cœur de +Lion, who, having permitted his men to resume the weapon, was +subsequently assumed to have invented it.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_060_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_060_sml.jpg" width="238" height="180" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_49" id="fig_49"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 49.—Norman Archer.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_50" id="fig_50"></a>Fig. 50.—Jean Sansterre, as represented on his Seal. +Reproduced by Meyrick.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>During the first crusade, barons and knights wore a hauberk of links of +iron or steel. Every warrior had a helmet—silver-plated for royalty, of +steel for nobles, and of iron for the private soldiers. The crusaders +used the lance, the sword, a kind of dagger called <i>miséricorde</i>, the +club and the battle-axe, the sling and the bow.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_80" id="page_80">{80}</a></span></p> + +<p>In the windows which Suger, minister of Louis VII., caused to be painted +for the church of the abbey of Saint-Denis, and which represented the +principal events of the second crusade, we see the chiefs of the +crusaders still clothed in hauberks of links, or <i>macles</i> (plates of +iron); the helmet is conical and without the nose-piece (<i>nasal</i>); and, +lastly, the buckler, formed like a scutcheon, covers the breast, +generally suspended from the neck by a leather thong.</p> + +<p>Towards the middle of the twelfth century, the iron breastplate is said +to have been introduced; it was placed over the chest to support the +hauberk, the direct pressure of which being found detrimental to health. +But no description of it is to be met with in the romances of chivalry, +that furnish the best documentary evidence regarding the armour of the +twelfth and thirteenth centuries.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_061_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_061_sml.jpg" width="178" height="164" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_51" id="fig_51"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 51.—Helmet of Don Jaime el Conquistador (Armeria +Real, Madrid.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Under Philip Augustus, who, as we know, was one of the leaders of the +third crusade, the conical helmet assumed a cylindrical form; to this +was occasionally added a vizor called <i>ventail</i>, intended to protect the +face. Richard I., King of England, is represented on his seal with this +kind of helmet; level with the eyes and also at the height of the mouth +are two horizontal slits, which admit of seeing and breathing. Still the +use of the conical helmet without vizor or nose-piece was retained even +to the thirteenth century in Spain, as is proved by that worn by Jaime +I., King of Aragon (<a href="#fig_51">Fig. 51</a>), which is preserved in the Armeria Real, +Madrid. It is of polished<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_81" id="page_81">{81}</a></span> steel, is surmounted by a dragon’s head, and +portions of it are richly ornamented.</p> + +<p>Thus in the third crusade the use of the “coat-of-arms” became +general,—a sort of overcoat, if we may so term it, of cloth or of silk +stuff, and the purpose of which, at first, was only to mitigate the +insupportable effect of the rays of an Eastern sun on metal armour. This +new garment soon served, moreover, when made of various colours, to +distinguish different nations marching under the standard of the Cross +(<a href="#fig_52">Fig. 52</a>). It became really a dress of military splendour, was made of +the richest stuffs, and embroidered in gold or silver with excessive +refinement.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_062_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_062_sml.jpg" width="360" height="319" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_52" id="fig_52"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 52.—Knight in his Hauberk (after Meyrick).</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The slingers, who had never been otherwise recruited than from the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_82" id="page_82">{82}</a></span> +lower orders, disappeared from the French armies after the reign of St. +Louis. As for the archers, those of England wore at that time, over the +hauberk, a leather jacket, adopted subsequently by the French archers, +and called <i>jacque d’Anglois</i>. An old author, in fact, thus mentions +it:—</p> + +<div class="poetry"> +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">“C’étoit un pourpoint de chamois;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Farci de bourre sus et sous;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Un grand vilain jacque d’Anglois,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Qui lui pendoit jusqu’aux genoux.”<br /></span> +</div></div> +</div> + +<p>The <i>jacque</i> having become the fashion in France was soon recognised in +every kind of material more or less costly; it continued in use until +the end of the fourteenth century; Charles VI. wore one of black velvet +during a journey he made in Brittany.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_063_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_063_sml.jpg" width="293" height="150" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_53" id="fig_53"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 53.—Helmet of Hughes, Vidame of Chalons. (End of +Thirteenth Century.)</p> + +<p><a name="fig_54" id="fig_54"></a>Fig. 54.—Tournament Helmet, screwed on the Breastplate. +(End of Fifteenth Century.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The casque, or helmet, from that time enclosing the head entirely, +assumed, under St. Louis, the form of two truncated cones “réunis par +leurs grandes bases.” In addition to the helmet there was also worn at +that time the <i>chapel de fer</i>, which at first was only a simple cap +underneath the hood of the hauberk; but when, curtailing the hood, a +brim was added to the cap, it thus became a hat almost of the form of +the felts now in use. To protect the neck there was also attached to the +rim of the hat a tippet of mail, falling on the shoulders, and called +<i>camail</i>.<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> The iron cap then took</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="chrm_7" id="chrm_7"></a> +<a href="images/ill_064_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_064_sml.jpg" width="397" height="587" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<div class="caption"><p>CASQUE, MORION, AND HELMETS.</p> + +<p>With and without vizors, from the Armeria Real at Madrid.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_83" id="page_83">{83}</a></span></p> + +<p class="nind">the name of <i>coiffre</i> or <i>cervelière</i>, and later it became a kind of +reversed pot concealing the entire head, and kept in position by its +weight only (<a href="#fig_53">Fig. 53</a>).</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_065_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_065_sml.jpg" width="185" height="288" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_55" id="fig_55"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 55.—Plain Armour of the Fifteenth Century, about +1460. (Museum of Artillery, Paris.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Again; there had for some time been manifested a movement which +gradually caused the knights to be entirely cased in iron. A king of +Scotland, contemporary with Philip Augustus, is represented on his seal +with a plate of armour intended to protect the elbow. The knee-cap +followed. Under Philip the Bold, successor of St. Louis, the iron +<i>grévières</i> (greaves), or half leg-pieces, protecting the front of the +legs, were adopted. In the reign of Philip the Fair we have the first +example of an iron gauntlet with its fingers separate and jointed: +previously it was merely an inflexible piece covering the back of the +hand. About the same time the <i>cervelière</i>, either flat or spherical, +became pointed at the top, and took the name of <i>bassinet</i>; but this +bassinet was unlike the casque which, in the following century,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_84" id="page_84">{84}</a></span> +retained that name and was made completely closed. The exact period of +the transition from mailed armour to that of plain iron or steel, called +also plate-armour, dates from the first thirty years of the fifteenth +century (<a href="#fig_55">Fig. 55</a>).</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_066_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_066_sml.jpg" width="201" height="354" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_56" id="fig_56"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 56.—Convex Armour of the Fifteenth Century, said to +be that of Maximilian. (Museum of Artillery, Paris.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The annals of Florence contain a statute of 1315, requiring every +horseman serving in a campaign to have a helmet, a breastplate, +gauntlets, cuishes, and leg-pieces, all of iron; but in France and +England the whole of these pieces were not adopted until somewhat later. +In the reigns of Philip V. and Charles IV. we see the ventail of the +helmet with a grating,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_85" id="page_85">{85}</a></span> and the vizor opening with a hinge. The +bassinet, lighter than the helmet, was at first worn by the knight when +no hostile encounter was anticipated; but subsequently, and at an early +date, the vizor was added to the bassinet, as well as to the casque; and +then it became as much used as the helmet, which, towards the end of the +fourteenth century, was abandoned.</p> + +<p>About the same period some portions of iron horse-armour began to make +their appearance. We find entered in the inventory of the armour of +Louis X., a <i>chanfrein</i> (a plate of iron fastened on the horse’s +forehead).</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_067_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_067_sml.jpg" width="205" height="261" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_57" id="fig_57"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 57.—Crossbow Men protected by Shield-bearers. +Fifteenth Century. After a Miniature from the Chronicles of Froissart. +(MS. Bibl. Imp. de Paris.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The crossbow, for some time prohibited by ecclesiastical authority, was +the weapon most in use at the period spoken of; as having the double +advantage of being drawn with more power than the ordinary bow, and of +throwing its arrows to a longer distance with greater precision. +Historians say that at Crécy, in 1346, there were fifteen thousand +crossbow men in the French army. The Genoese were considered the most +skilful in Europe; and next,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_86" id="page_86">{86}</a></span> those of Paris. A manuscript in the +British Museum shows them wearing iron helmets, <i>brassières</i>,<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> and +leg-pieces; and for body-covering, jackets with long, hanging sleeves. +While the bowmen had both hands occupied in discharging their arrows, +shield-bearers were employed to protect them by means of large bucklers +(<a href="#fig_57">Fig. 57</a>).</p> + +<p>In the year 1338 the use of firearms is for the first time noted in +France. But we think it right to reserve all we have to say of these +modern offensive weapons until our history of the ancient system of +armour is finished. Considering the early imperfections of firearms, the +old system must have long continued, especially among combatants of +noble degree—for they affected contempt for the new warlike equipments, +by means of which personal valour became in a manner useless and could +no longer ensure victory in battle.</p> + +<p>Under John the Good, that is, in the middle of the fourteenth century, +plain armour was generally adopted; the long coat of mail, heavier and +less convenient, was entirely abandoned; but chain-armour still covered +certain parts of the body not yet protected by iron plates. The +<i>bassinet</i>, then very pointed, was furnished with mail, covering the +neck and a portion of the shoulders. The upper part of the arm was +protected by a half-armlet, called the <i>épaulette</i>, but the lower part +was provided with mail.</p> + +<p>Ornaments began to be introduced in armour in the reign of Charles V.; +until that time it had a simple and plain appearance. For instance, the +<i>camail</i> of the <i>bassinet</i> is embroidered on the shoulders with gold and +silver, and the point surmounting it is decorated with an imitation of +foliage—an ornament which, according to the “Chronicle of Du Gueslin,” +had the disadvantage of presenting a kind of handle to an opponent. The +cuirass, to which it was then deemed sufficient to impart a bright +polish, or to paint in ordinary colours, sometimes bright, sometimes +dark, began to be engraved and chased towards the end of the following +reign.</p> + +<p>In the time of Charles VI. there was introduced, for the first time, +four or five flexible plates, called <i>faldes</i>, which protected the lower +part of the stomach without impeding the movements of the body. A little +later, <i>tassettes</i> were added; they were attached to the top of the +thigh to guard the hips and the groin. It appears that at this period +the artisans of Milan,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_87" id="page_87">{87}</a></span> were especially renowned for the manufacture of +armour; for Froissart relates that Henry IV., King of England, when Earl +of Derby,<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> and preparing to enter the lists with the Duke of Norfolk, +requested armour from Galeas, Duke of Milan, who sent it with four +Milanese armourers. The swords and spears made at Toulouse and at +Bordeaux were also held in great repute; so also were the double-handed +swords in use from the middle of the thirteenth century, and +manufactured at Lubeck, in Germany. The steel helmets of Montauban were +also much in request.</p> + +<p>Towards the commencement of the fifteenth century, engines of war, +distinct from those in which powder was used, had attained a remarkable +degree of perfection. When John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy, marched +upon Paris, in 1411, there was with his army a considerable number of +machines called <i>ribaudequins</i>, a species of gigantic crossbow drawn by +a horse, and which with enormous strength threw javelins to a great +distance.</p> + +<p>Under Charles VII., the breastplate of the cuirass was composed of two +parts: one covered the breast; the other, reaching to the hips, +protected the stomach, and was attached to the former by clasps and +leather straps. Generally the breastplate was convex.</p> + +<p>Taught by the disastrous defeat of Agincourt,—where ten thousand men, +of whom eight thousand were of the nobility, had fallen, owing to the +precision and the celerity of the fire of the English archers,—Charles +VII. instituted in France the <i>franc archer</i> (<a href="#fig_58">Fig. 58</a>), who wore the +<i>salade</i> and the jacket or <i>brigandine</i>, and carried the dagger, the +sword, the bow, the quiver or crossbow <i>garnie</i>. These archers were +exempt from all taxes or imposts; their equipments were declared not +distrainable for debts, and during war they received pay at the rate of +four livres a month.</p> + +<p>The <i>salade</i>, a part of armour which has remained particularly +celebrated, and the name of which has been applied subsequently to +helmets of divers forms, is pre-eminently the helmet of the epoch of +Charles VII. At first it was a head-dress for war, composed of a simple +cap (<i>timbre</i>), that covered the top of the head, with a pendent piece +of metal of greater or less length at the back, which sometimes was made +for protecting the neck, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_88" id="page_88">{88}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_068_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_068_sml.jpg" width="296" height="411" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_58" id="fig_58"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 58.—Franc Archers (Fifteenth Century), from the +Painted Hangings of the Town of Rheims.</p></div> +</div> + +<p class="nind">sometimes to guard a portion of the shoulders. Towards the end of the +fifteenth century there was added to the salade a small vizor, that was +gradually lengthened downwards to near the upper lip, and in which a +narrow opening was then made for the sight. In the reign of Louis XII. +the salade received a chin-piece, the lower part of which was a +<i>gorget</i>, that surrounded and protected the neck. The top of the cuirass +had a cord,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_89" id="page_89">{89}</a></span> to which was attached the salade; and this helmet, so +different to the primitive salade, continued to bear the same name (Fig. +59).</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_069_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_069_sml.jpg" width="302" height="265" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_59" id="fig_59"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 59.—Knights in complete Armour, with the <i>Salade</i>. +(End of Fifteenth Century.) A Single Combat, taken from “The Triumph of +Maximilian,” by Burgmayer, after a drawing by Albert Dürer.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The <i>brigandine</i>, recalling the early armour abandoned for the coat of +mail, was composed of small plates of steel or iron arranged on a strong +piece of leather, and stitched or fixed with wire, in the form of the +scales of a fish. A decree of Peter II., Duke of Brittany, issued in +1450, ordered the nobles to equip themselves as archers, or in +brigandine, if they knew how to use arrows; but otherwise, to be +provided with <i>guisarmes</i>, with good salades, and leg-armour; each noble +was to be attended by one <i>coustillier</i>, and to have two good horses. +The <i>guisarme</i> was a sort of two-edged and pointed javelin. The +<i>coustillier</i> was a foot-soldier, or a horseman, whose duty it was to +act as a servant to the nobleman, and to carry the <i>coustille</i>, a long, +slender sword, triangular or square, apparently resembling the foil in +our fencing-rooms.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_90" id="page_90">{90}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_070_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_070_sml.jpg" width="228" height="388" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_60" id="fig_60"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 60.—Armour ornamented with Lions, supposed to be +that of Louis XII. (Museum of Artillery, Paris.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>About this period French noblemen displayed much magnificence in the +adornment of the <i>chanfrein</i> of their horses. For instance, we know that +at the siege of Harfleur, in 1449, the charger of the Count de Saint-Pol +had on its head a massive gold chanfrein, of the most delicate work, +valued at not less than twenty thousand crowns. In the same year, at the +siege of Bayonne, the Count de Foix entered the conquered city mounted +on a horse whose chanfrein of polished steel was enriched with gold and +precious stones to the value of fifteen thousand gold crowns.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_91" id="page_91">{91}</a></span></p> + +<p>Half a century later—that is, in the reign of Charles VIII. and that of +Louis XII.—chargers wore, besides the chanfrein, the <i>manefaire</i>, +protecting the neck, the <i>poitrail</i>, the <i>croupière</i>, the <i>flancois</i>, +which respectively covered the chest, the back, and the flanks of the +horse; and to these was added another piece of armour placed under the +tail.</p> + +<p>Of the date of Louis XII., we still see embossed suits of armour +ornamented with fluting, sometimes blended with beautiful engraved work +executed in the metal by the use of aquafortis, or subjects in relievo +produced by embossing: ornamentation of this nature elevated the +equipments of the warrior to real works of art (<a href="#fig_60">Fig. 60</a>).</p> + +<p>Louis XII. was the first to admit Greek mercenaries into his army. These +were named <i>stradiots</i>; they tendered their military services equally to +both Turks and Christians. The armour of these troops consisted of a +cuirass with sleeves and gauntlets in mail, and over this a jacket; on +their head a vizorless helmet was worn. The stradiots were armed with a +large sword, called a <i>braquemart</i>, much resembling the Turkish sword, +but with a cross-handle; the sword and its scabbard were ornamented with +Grecian devices. They carried in addition several small arms at the +saddle-bow, and also a <i>zagaye</i>, a very long lance, tipped at both +extremities with iron.</p> + +<p>At this period also was introduced the <i>pertuisane</i>,<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> the blade of +which, wider than that of the lance, formed a crescent immediately above +the handle.</p> + +<p>There were at that time two kinds of cross-bows—one for discharging +bolts, the other for bullets. The bow was slung by means of a +<i>moulinet</i>, a kind of hand-winch.</p> + +<p>Embossed and fluted armour was not the only kind used in France and in +Italy at the end of the fifteenth and the commencement of the following +century. The monuments in the former country of the time of Louis XII., +and on the other side of the Alps, show how prevalent was a peculiar +description of plain armour, whereof the cuirass, which was longer than +that of the embossed armour, had a rib or raised line in the middle. +This rib, which completely altered the character of the cuirass, in that +it served to turn aside the thrust of the lance, became increasingly +distinctive as the seventeenth century drew near.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_92" id="page_92">{92}</a></span></p><p>In the reign of Francis I. embossed and ribbed armour were equally</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_071_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_071_sml.jpg" width="292" height="449" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_61" id="fig_61"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 61.—Damaskeened Armour of the end of the Sixteenth +Century. (Portrait of François, Duc d’Alençon, from Montfaucon’s “La +Monarchie Françoise.”)</p></div> +</div> + +<p class="nind">used (<a href="#fig_61">Fig. 61</a>). In the Museum of Artillery, in Paris, is preserved the +armour which that king wore at the battle of Pavia. The body is longer +than in the cuirass of the preceding century, the rib in the centre is +more<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_93" id="page_93">{93}</a></span> raised, the gusset of the shoulder-piece is made of several +movable plates, and of large size. The <i>casque</i>, a generic name given +since those times to all descriptions of head-armour, assumed a +comfortable and elegant shape, which was maintained as long as the use +of armour continued.</p> + +<p>Another cuirass of the same date, still longer in the body, was made to +turn up towards the lower extremity, and then took an inward bend to fit +the hip. It was made with movable plates overlapping from below; this +allowed the wearer to stoop, which it was almost impossible to do when +the breast-piece and the back-piece were in one. Sometimes these plates +were only three or four in number over the stomach, and the others over +the breast were only represented, not genuine plates.</p> + +<p>The armour called <i>à éclisse</i>, or <i>à écrevisse</i>, worn at a certain +period by the halberdiers, must not be passed over; it received this +name because the cuirass was made of horizontal plates (<i>éclisses</i>), +three or four inches in width, which, though they covered the entire +body, did not in any way impede its movements.</p> + +<p>We must, however, refer to a peculiarity in this armour which prevented +its general adoption; it was that as the movement or “play” of the +<i>éclisses</i> made it convenient to wear, so from this flexibility it was +found that the plates frequently became disconnected, and thus left a +part of the body defenceless. In making the <i>éclisses</i> to overlap from +below, regard was had to the usual direction of a sword-cut or +dagger-thrust, which usually came from below; but there was all the more +danger from blows of the <i>martel</i><a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> and battle-axe, the stroke of which +weapon was directed downwards.</p> + +<p>Bronzed armour came in about the middle of the sixteenth century, and +was somewhat commonly worn in 1558; it was introduced on account of its +being far more easily kept clean than polished steel. For the same +reason black armour was tried, but the engravings and chasings, the +gildings and damaskeenings were more effective on the greenish ground; +consequently black varnish was given up in favour of bronze. At the end +of the sixteenth century, and during the long civil wars which desolated +France, armour took a variety of shapes, and as regards ornamentation at +least, there was generally to be seen a strange medley of the style of +the previous century<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_94" id="page_94">{94}</a></span> with that of the period (<a href="#fig_61">Fig. 61</a>). However, the +decline of the use of armour, which became in a measure inevitable, was +at hand.</p> + +<p>De la Noue, an eminent Huguenot officer of the time of Charles IX., +says, in his “Discours Militaires”—“The penetrating power of pikes and +arquebuses has very naturally led to the adoption of armour stronger and +more capable of great resistance than formerly. It is now so heavy that +one is laden with anvils rather than protected by armour. Our +men-at-arms and light cavalry in Henry II.’s time presented a much finer +appearance, with their helmets, their brassarts, tassets,<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> and the +morion,<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> carrying the lance with a flag; their armour was not so +heavy but that a strong man was able to support its weight for +twenty-four hours; but those of the present day are so ponderous that a +young knight of thirty has his shoulders quite crippled.”</p> + +<p>Thus, in endeavouring to make the resistance of armour keep pace with +the improvement in new warlike engines, they rendered it useless; +because the weight was intolerable, especially in warm weather, during +long marches, or in lengthened combats. Having vainly tried to make +suits of armour invulnerable, men began to leave off wearing such +portions as were of minor importance, which by degrees were entirely +discontinued. Under Louis XIII. we see armour undergoing further +modifications, but of fashion rather than of utility: finally, there is +every reason to think that the magnificent armour presented by the +Republic of Venice to Louis XIV., in 1668, and which is now to be seen +in the Museum of Artillery in Paris, was one of the latest sets made in +Europe.</p> + +<p>Let us now retrace our steps to examine a series of arms, the gradual +adoption of which was destined to completely change the art of warfare.</p> + +<p>It is now the almost universal opinion that the invention of +gunpowder,—assumed to have been discovered in 1256, or at all events +its application to artillery, which first dates from 1280,—is due to +Berthold Schwartz, an Augustin friar, born at Fribourg. Some writers, +however, make these dates a century later, and affirm that powder and +cannons were first known from 1330 to 1380. Nevertheless, the employment +of artillery only became general during the wars of Charles-Quint and of +Francis I., that is, towards 1530, or two centuries after its +invention.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_95" id="page_95">{95}</a></span></p> + +<p>But perhaps in place of giving, as we have done, the unconditional +acceptation to the word <i>artillery</i> which it now has, we ought perhaps +to have said artillery used with gunpowder; for long before the +invention of gunpowder the word <i>artillery</i> was employed when speaking +of all machines or engines of war (<a href="#fig_62">Fig. 62</a>). Thus in the middle of the +thirteenth century we find among the <i>personnel</i> of the <i>artillery</i> a +grand master of the crossbow men, masters of the engines, of the +cannoniers (the word <i>cannon</i> was even then applied to the tube forming +one of the principal portions of an engine for hurling projectiles), and +in 1291 we see Philip the Fair appointing a grand master of the +artillery of the Louvre.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_072_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_072_sml.jpg" width="287" height="239" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_62" id="fig_62"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 62.—Engine for hurling Stones; taken from a +Miniature of the Chevalier au Cygne. (Bibl. Imp. de Paris, No. 340, S. +E.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>In order to follow methodically the progress of the manufacture of arms +such as we shall call novel, we will, in the first place, treat +separately of the engines of large calibre which were first employed, +and then of portable arms.</p> + +<p>The earliest allusion to cannons in France is found in 1338, in an +account of the treasurer of war, wherein we read:—“To Henri de +Vaumechon, for<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_96" id="page_96">{96}</a></span> buying powder and other necessaries for cannons,” which +had been used at the siege of Puy-Guilhem, in Périgord.</p> + +<p>In Froissart, we next find that, in 1340, the inhabitants of Quesnoy, +when repelling the attack of the French, made use of bombards and cannon +which hurled huge bolts at the besiegers. But the statement of Villani, +that the English were indebted to the employment of artillery for the +victory of Crécy, in 1346, must be treated as a pure invention, because +it is certain that the firearms which may have been in use at that time +were in no way suited to field warfare; and that they were only employed +with the older engines in the attack and defence of fortresses. Not only +did their cumbrous weight and the rude construction of their carriages +render them extremely difficult of transport, but, intended as they were +to be employed as catapults, they were generally constructed for hurling +heavy projectiles, by causing these to describe a curved line, like +modern shells; and their shape is, in fact, much more like that of our +mortars than of cannon (<a href="#fig_63">Fig. 63</a>).</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_073_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_073_sml.jpg" width="361" height="182" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_63" id="fig_63"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 63.—Bombards on fixed and rolling carriages. (From +the MSS. 851 and 852, Bibl. Imp. de Paris.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>“It would seem,” says M. de Saulcy, “that, in loading them, hollow +cylinders (<i>manchons</i>), or movable chambers, were used, in which the +charge was previously laid; and these fitted, by means of a wedge, into +the body of the piece. Sometimes these cylinders were at the side, and +formed a right angle with the axis of the piece, but usually they fitted +into the breech, of which they formed a prolongation.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_97" id="page_97">{97}</a></span>”</p> + +<p>The name <i>bombards</i>, which we have just used, and which is derived, as +we may conclude, from the Greek <i>bombos</i> (noise), was the first employed +for designating cannon; but these engines were so imperfect in +principle, and so feeble in power, that catapults, which had played so +signal a part in sieges during the Middle Ages, were used in preference +when very heavy projectiles had to be hurled (<a href="#fig_64">Fig. 64</a>).</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_074_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_074_sml.jpg" width="339" height="249" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_64" id="fig_64"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 64.—Mangonneau; an Engine of War of the Fifteenth +Century. (Miniature in the MS. 7,239, Bibl. Imp. of Paris.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Originally the piece rested, as it were, fixedly on a massive support; +but soon the means of sighting had to be considered; thus we see +depicted in early manuscripts pieces that could be moved up and down by +means of trunnions; or which were elevated or depressed for firing by a +sort of tail or long projection behind the tube; at other times the +muzzle of the cannon is sustained by a fork more or less buried in the +ground. This bombard, attached to a platform on wheels, received the +denomination of <i>cerbotana ambulatoria</i>; this last word conveying the +idea of the movability of the engine.</p> + +<p>We have seen that projectiles were of stone, but there is no doubt that<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_98" id="page_98">{98}</a></span> +from the fourteenth century they were also made of metal; that was +nothing new, for ancient engines of war, including the sling, threw +leaden balls and masses of red-hot iron. No doubt it was with the object +of giving the largest size possible to projectiles of artillery by means +of powder that stone was used; which, in the state of the art at that +time, was much better adapted than metal for large balls.</p> + +<p>Christine of Pisa, who wrote in the time of Charles VI. the “Livre des +Faits d’Armes et de Chevalrie,” has left us a collection of very +interesting details of the condition of artillery used with powder, +which, as early as the fifteenth century, had become much more extended +than would be easily believed; moreover, in the descriptions this author +gives of armaments, or of narratives of battles, we almost always still +see catapults, the large cross-bows, &c., appearing by the side of +cannon; a certain proof that the use of powder found its equivalent in +more than one instance in the ancient means of the propulsion of +projectiles.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_075_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_075_sml.jpg" width="340" height="91" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_65" id="fig_65"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 65.—Earliest Models of Cannon. In the Tower of +London.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Valturio, an Italian writer, whose treatise on military art was first +printed in 1472, has described and drawn all the engines of war then in +use. Cannons are not forgotten. We observe that the greater number of +these pieces have no longer any box forming a movable chamber; this +implies an important advance in the art of making them; but, on the +other hand, these cannons, bound with cords to a block of wood, or +resting on platforms, must have been very difficult to move.</p> + +<p>At this period pieces of the largest calibre, which projected enormous +balls of stone, were more commonly called <i>bombards</i>; mortars, the very +short cannons throwing heated projectiles; cannons, pieces of medium +calibre carrying iron projectiles (<a href="#fig_65">Fig. 65</a>); culverins, the long pieces +loaded with leaden balls, which, as well as the powder, were rammed in +with an iron rod;<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_99" id="page_99">{99}</a></span> hand-cannons, or <i>bâtons à feu</i> (<a href="#fig_66">Fig. 66</a>), were in a +manner portable, for if they were handled by one man, it was never +without his having recourse to another for firing them.</p> + +<p>This last-named term, <i>bâtons à feu</i>, like that of <i>cannon</i>, existed +before the invention of gunpowder. As swords and lances had often been +designated under the generic name of <i>bâtons</i>, it followed that the name +which implied arms in general should also be applied to the earliest +portable firearms. In ancient royal ordinances we even see the term +<i>gros bâtons</i> used to designate large pieces of artillery.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_076_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_076_sml.jpg" width="335" height="277" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_66" id="fig_66"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 66.—Hand Cannon (or <i>Bâton à feu</i>), taken from a +piece of Tapestry belonging to the Church of Notre Dame de Nantilly, +Saumur.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>According to M. de Saulcy, the most important improvement ever made in +artillery is certainly that which consisted in placing a gun with +trunnions on a carriage <i>à flasques</i>—upright beams of wood, between +which the gun can oscillate, and united by cross-pieces; this carriage +was mounted on wheels, and admitted of the gun being inclined by the +simple use of a wedge of wood<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_100" id="page_100">{100}</a></span> placed under the breech. But, strangely +enough, it is most difficult to state precisely the date of this +improvement. Nevertheless, circumstances tend to the belief that it was +between 1476 and 1494—that is, during the reigns of Louis XI. and of +Charles VIII.—that they succeeded in making pieces of all calibres +carrying iron shot, and also in solidly fixing the trunnions, which not +only supported the weight, but also resisted the recoil of the cannon. +The carriages for these guns were mounted on wheels. From this period +the art of fortifying towns underwent a complete revolution, which +suddenly changed the whole system.</p> + +<p>When, in 1494, Charles VIII. entered Italy to conquer the kingdom of +Naples, the French artillery produced universal admiration. The Italians +had only iron guns, drawn by bullocks in rear of the army, and more for +appearance than for use. After the first discharge it was some hours +before the gun was ready for a second. The French had lighter cannon of +bronze, drawn by horses, and moved with so much order that their +transport hardly delayed the march of the army; they planted their +batteries with incredible promptitude, considering the period, and the +rounds were as quickly delivered as they were well aimed. Cotemporaneous +Italian writers say that the French used almost exclusively iron shot, +and that the guns, both of large and small calibre, were admirably +balanced on their carriages.</p> + +<p>Yet no single specimen, or even a drawing, of this remarkable artillery +has been handed down to us. The Museum of Artillery does, indeed, +possess one small piece, on which, between the trunnions and the breech, +is this inscription:—“Presented by Charles VIII. to Bartemi, Lord of +Pins, captain of the bands of artillery, in 1490.” This cannon presents +nothing remarkable in its construction, for we already recognise the +form, one that has scarcely varied since then, and which, it seems, was +definitely adopted under Louis XII. and Francis I. Of this period we +still have two magnificent bronze cannons. They were found at Algiers in +1830; the porcupine, the salamander, and the fleur-de-lys that ornament +them, made their origin known.</p> + +<p>Artillery, which in the reign of Charles VIII. had become an important +arm, and had, besides, the prestige of success in Italy, became a +subject to which particular attention was given in succeeding reigns. +But, we again say, the true principles of manufacture and mounting were +already well<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_101" id="page_101">{101}</a></span> ascertained, and only improvements in matters of detail +remained to be discovered.</p> + +<p>The Armoury Real of Madrid contains a curious <i>dragonneau</i>,<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> cast at +Liège in 1503, which figured in the siege of Santander in 1511 (Fig. +67). The carriage, consisting of a single piece of carved oak, is by its +delicacy and finish worthy of sustaining this masterpiece of +bronze-work, which presents a double interest, first as regards art, and +then on account of the rapid advance already made in firearms; for this +<i>dragonneau</i> has a double barrel, and is loaded at the breech.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_077_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_077_sml.jpg" width="345" height="190" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_67" id="fig_67"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 67.—Double-barrelled Dragonneau. Armoury Real of +Madrid.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Having arrived at this point, let us again retrace our steps, in order +to note, and rapidly follow from its origin, the progress of firearms.</p> + +<p>The earliest of these used in the middle of the fourteenth century were +called hand-cannon, and were merely formed of an iron tube pierced with +a vent, without stock or lock.</p> + +<p>A manuscript of that period represents a warrior who, standing on one of +those little movable towers then forming part of the siege <i>matériel</i>, +is shooting a stone with a gun of this description. The piece is resting +on the parapet. By the side a sling is placed with its stone—a +circumstance which<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_102" id="page_102">{102}</a></span> indicates the relative power of the hand-cannon, as +no doubt each engine was to be used alternately. In another place is a +horseman holding a small gun with a prolongation; the muzzle is +supported by a prong fixed on the pommel of the saddle. Thus it was +impossible for him to take aim, and he applied the fire with his hand.</p> + +<p>A little later, to prevent the effect of the recoil, there was added +below the barrel, a little short of the centre, a sort of hook, intended +to serve the purpose of checking the piece. When fired, it was supported +on a fork or on a wall; hence the name of <i>arquebuse à croc</i>, which took +the place of that of <i>canon à main</i>.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_078_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_078_sml.jpg" width="179" height="225" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_68" id="fig_68"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 68.—Arquebusier. Drawn and Engraved by J. Amman.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The <i>arquebuse à croc</i> sometimes weighed from fifty to sixty pounds, +measured from five to six feet in length, and in principle was chiefly +adapted for firing from a wall; it was lightened a little that it might +be used by foot-soldiers, who, however, never fired it without a fixed +or a movable rest.</p> + +<p>The inconvenience of applying fire with the hand, which, moreover, +prevented the right direction of the missile, was soon partially +superseded by adapting to the barrel a stock to fire from the shoulder, +and a lock for a match, called a <i>serpentin</i>, which had only to be let +down to ignite the powder<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_103" id="page_103">{103}</a></span> at the touch-hole. This was the matchlock +arquebus still used by certain Eastern nations in our time, and which +secured victory to the Spaniards at the battle of Pavia.</p> + +<p>Although the matchlock arquebus, which was made lighter, and was then +called <i>mousquet</i>, continued to be the usual arm of infantry until the +time of Louis XIII., many serious objections to the use of the +<i>serpentin</i> continued. It compelled the soldier always to have a lighted +match, or some means of striking a light. Besides, for nearly each shot +it was necessary so to regulate the match that the end of it, which was +placed in the head of the <i>serpentin</i> (lock), should come exactly into +the priming-pan; then the priming-pan had to be opened; these operations +were, so to speak, impossible for mounted men, who at the same time had +to manage their horses.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_079_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_079_sml.jpg" width="281" height="143" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_69" id="fig_69"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 69.—Arquebus with Wheel and Match.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>About 1517 the Germans invented the screw-plate called <i>à +rouet</i>,—wheel-lock (<a href="#fig_69">Fig. 69</a>).</p> + +<p>To the Spaniards is due the merit of the improvement that followed, the +type of which is still in a measure perpetuated in our percussion guns; +which, in their turn, have just been replaced by the needle-gun. The +Spanish screw-plate, often called the <i>miquelet</i> screw-plate, had on the +outside a spring, which pressed, at the extremity of its movable limb, +on one of the catches of the hammer; when the gun was cocked the other +catch pressed against a pin which projected from the inside and +traversed the screw-plate; this pin could be removed, and then the +spring acted on the hammer,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_104" id="page_104">{104}</a></span> which was no longer held back; the flint +(for at that time a flint was fitted to the gun) struck upon a ribbed +plate of steel forming part of the cover of the priming-pan, the action +of the flint on the plate produced the fire.</p> + +<p>Among the arms in use during the sixteenth century was one called +<i>petrinal</i> or <i>poitrinal</i> (petronel), on account of the bent stock, +which rested on the chest. This short and heavy arquebus, which could +only throw balls, but of a very large size, to a short distance, was +usually suspended from the shoulder by a strap or a broad cross-belt.</p> + +<p>Light troops were armed with these guns, and took the name of +<i>carabins</i>; from this the weapon was next called <i>carabine</i>—a +designation which since then has received quite another meaning.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"> +<a href="images/ill_080_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_080_sml.jpg" width="150" height="518" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_70" id="fig_70"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 70.—Battle-axe and Pistol of the 16th Century. +(Museum of Artillery, Paris.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Then followed the <i>pistoles</i> and the <i>pistolets</i>, thus named, it is +said, because they were invented at Pistoia; but, with other +etymologists, we can also believe that they owed the name to the fact of +their bore being of equal diameter with that of the <i>pistole</i>, a coin of +the time. The earliest pistols were made with wheels (<i>à rouet</i>), and +the barrel did not measure more than a foot in length. Subsequently they +varied in shape and in use; some were made which fired several shots in +succession, and in other cases they attempted to combine a pistol with +the dagger or the battle-axe. (<a href="#fig_70">Fig. 70</a>, &c.) This is a notably fine +specimen.</p> + +<p>We must not forget to note, in what may be called <i>les armes de luxe</i>, +the joint application of the match-holder and the wheel to +highly-finished arms, this combination being available.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_105" id="page_105">{105}</a></span></p> + +<p>The screw-plate <i>à miquelet</i>, improved by French experiments, led to the +mechanism called flint-lock (<i>fusil</i>). There were also then pistols and +arquebuses with flint-locks, as formerly there had been pistols and +arquebuses with wheels. Subsequently the explanatory became the absolute +term, and the entire weapon was known as <i>fusil</i>.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_081_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_081_sml.jpg" width="117" height="133" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_71" id="fig_71"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 71.—Banner of the Sword-cutlers of Angers.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_106" id="page_106">{106}</a></span> </p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_107" id="page_107">{107}</a></span> </p> + +<h2><a name="CARRIAGES_AND_SADDLERY" id="CARRIAGES_AND_SADDLERY"></a>CARRIAGES AND SADDLERY.</h2> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Horsemanship among the Ancients.—The Riding-horse and the +Carriage-horse.—Chariots armed with Scythes.—Vehicles of the +Romans, the Gauls, and the Franks: the Carruca, the Petoritum, the +Cisium, the Plaustrum, the Basterna, the Carpentum.—Different +kinds of Saddle-horses in the Days of Chivalry.—The Spur a +distinctive Sign of Nobility: its Origin.—The Saddle, its Origin +and its Modifications.—The Tilter.—Carriages.—The Mules of +Magistrates.—Corporations of Saddlers and Harness-makers, +Lorimers, Coachmakers, Chapuiseurs, Blazonniers, and +Saddle-coverers.</p></div> + +<p class="nind"><a href="images/ill_082_lg.jpg"> +<span class="letra"> +<img src="images/ill_082_sml.jpg" +width="90" +alt="T" /></span></a>HE horse has been described by Buffon as “the noblest conquest made by +man.” Historians, both, sacred and profane, inform us that the conquest +dates from the most remote ages. In the Book of Job we have this +magnificent description:—“Then the Lord said, Hast thou given the horse +strength? hast thou clothed his neck with thunder? Canst thou make him +afraid as a grasshopper? the glory of his nostrils is terrible. He +paweth in the valley, and rejoiceth in his strength: he goeth on to meet +the armed men. He mocketh at fear, and is not affrighted; neither +turneth he back from the sword. The quiver rattleth against him, the +glittering spear and the shield. He swalloweth the ground with +fierceness and rage; neither believeth he that it is the sound of the +trumpet. He saith among the trumpets, Ha, ha; and he smelleth the battle +afar off.” The sacred writer is here referring expressly to the fiery +animal trained for war, and obedient to the master who has trained him.</p> + +<p>Xenophon, in his “Treatise on Horsemanship” and his “Instructor of +Cavalry,” and Diodorus in his “Histories,” are among the Greeks who +adduce the most numerous testimonies to the honour in which equestrian +exercises were held. Among the Latins, Virgil, in reference to the +funereal games celebrated by Acestes in honour of Anchises, tells us +that the Roman youth were taught equestrian art as practised by the +Trojans. The horse and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_108" id="page_108">{108}</a></span> chariot races, which took place at the solemn +games in Greece, have always been justly celebrated; as were those which +continued in Rome and in all the great cities of the Roman world until +the fifth or sixth century.</p> + +<p>We are disposed to believe that the use of the saddle-horse and the +carriage-horse was introduced about the same time. But it seems that +chariots were rarely mounted by any but chiefs, who fought from that +ambulatory elevation while squires managed the horses.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_083_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_083_sml.jpg" width="380" height="363" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_72" id="fig_72"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 72.—The Carruca, or Pleasure-Carriage, drawn by a +Pair of Horses, dating from the Fifth to the Tenth Century. (Taken from +a MS. of the Ninth Century, in the Royal Library at Brussels.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_109" id="page_109">{109}</a></span></p><p>To Cyrus the Great is ascribed the first idea of arming chariots with +scythes, which cut to pieces in every direction those who opposed the +progress of the vehicle, or who were thrown down by the violence of the +shock. The same war-carriages were found among the Gauls; for a king +named Bituitus, having been taken prisoner by the Romans, appeared in +his chariot armed with scythes in the triumphal procession of the +general who had conquered him.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_084_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_084_sml.jpg" width="197" height="208" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_73" id="fig_73"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 73.—Cart drawn by Oxen, end of the Fifteenth +Century. (Taken from the “Chroniques de Hainault,” MS. in the Royal +Library at Brussels.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Riding on horseback was not only practised, but was carried to the +highest degree of perfection, among the nations of antiquity; and the +use of chariots was, in former times, almost general in war and on +certain state occasions. The Romans, and in imitation of them the Gauls +who prided themselves on being skilful carriage-builders, had several +sorts of wheeled vehicles. Those adopted by the Romans and the Gauls, +but discountenanced by the Franks, who preferred to ride on horseback, +were the <i>carruca</i>, or <i>carruque</i>, with two wheels and a pair of horses +(<a href="#fig_72">Fig. 72</a>), richly ornamented with gold, silver, and ivory; the +<i>pilentum</i>, a four-wheel carriage with a cloth canopy; the <i>petoritum</i>, +an open carriage suitable for rapid travelling; the <i>cisium</i>, a +basket-carriage drawn by mules, and used for long journeys; and finally, +various carts—the <i>plaustrum</i>, the <i>serracum</i>, the <i>benne</i>, the +<i>camuli</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_110" id="page_110">{110}</a></span> (trucks), &c. These last, which were chiefly employed as +field-carts, continued in use even after pleasure-carriages had entirely +disappeared. There remained, however, independent of mule-litters, the +<i>basterna</i> and <i>carpentum</i>, state-carriages of the Merovingian period, +but only queens and ladies of high rank, who were unequal to long +journeys on horseback, indulged in such means of locomotion, while +men—even kings and high personages—would have blushed to be conveyed +like “holy relics,” as picturesquely expressed by one of Charlemagne’s +courtiers; but certainly not at the period of the “lazy kings,” when, as +Boileau has well said,—</p> + +<div class="poetry"> +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">“In Paris, four oxen, in pace soft and slow,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Drew the indolent monarch, when airing he’d go.”<br /></span> +</div></div> +</div> + +<p>“Chivalry,” wrote M. le Marquis de Varenne, “the exercises of which were +the image of war, rendered horsemanship a new art always indispensable +in the education of the nobility; and <i>chevalier</i> soon became synonymous +with a man of good birth.” “The Book of Facts,” by the “Bon Chevalier +Messire Jean le Maingre, called <i>Baucicaut</i>, Marshal of France,” written +in the beginning of the fifteenth century, enumerates the exercises +which a youth aspiring to the title of a gentleman had to +undergo:—“They endeavoured to leap (<i>sailler</i>) upon a charger, fully +armed; <i>item</i>, leaped, without placing the foot in the stirrup, on a +charger in all its armour; <i>item</i>, leaped from the ground a-straddle on +to the shoulders of a tall man on a large horse, seizing the man by the +sleeve with one hand, without other assistance; <i>item</i>, placing one hand +on the saddle-bow of a large charger, and the other near the ears, +taking him by the mane, and from the level ground jumping to the other +side (<i>côté</i>) of the charger.”</p> + +<p>The Chevalier Bayard, while yet page to the Duke of Savoy, and only +seventeen years of age, performed, as his historian relates, wonders in +the meadows of Ainay, at Lyons, before King Charles VIII., “in leaping +on his charger,” and by his management of it creating a favourable +impression of his merits. This will suffice to show the estimation in +which horsemanship was held. No one was regarded as a valiant knight +until he had proved his prowess in jousts and tournaments (<a href="#fig_74">Fig. 74</a>) in +the rank of squire. Although his functions were essentially those of +serving, a squire, who ranked higher than a page, was to the knight +rather an auxiliary and a companion than a servant. It was his duty to +carry the arms of the knight, to take charge of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_111" id="page_111">{111}</a></span> his table, his house, +and his horses. On the field of battle he remained in his rear, ready to +defend him, to lift him up if he were overthrown, and to provide him, +when necessary, with another horse or other arms. He guarded the +prisoners captured by the knight, and occasionally fought for him at his +side.</p> + +<p>The principal sign distinguishing knights from squires consisted in the +material of which their spurs were made—of gold for the former, of +silver for the latter. It is well known that, at the disastrous battle +of Courtray, the Flemings collected after the action, from the slain, +four thousand pairs of gold spurs; consequently, four thousand knights +of the army of Philip the Fair had fallen.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_085_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_085_sml.jpg" width="340" height="274" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_74" id="fig_74"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 74.—A Knight entering the Lists. (From a Miniature +in the “Tournois du Roi René.”)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>In order to <i>win his spurs</i> (of gold)—an expression become +proverbial—it was indispensable that one who aspired to the honour +should perform some valiant deed, proving him worthy of being “dubbed,” +or armed as a knight. The ceremony of admission commenced by presenting +the spurs; and who<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_112" id="page_112">{112}</a></span>soever conferred the order of chivalry, were he king +or prince, condescended to put on and fasten the spurs for the +recipient. In pursuance of the same principle, when a knight, having +committed a fault or any cowardly act, had incurred blame or correction, +it was by deprivation of, or by changing his spurs, that his degradation +commenced. For a slight offence a herald substituted silver spurs for +those of gold, which lowered a knight to the grade of squire. But in a +case of “forfeiture,” as it was termed, an executioner or a cook cut off +the straps of his spurs, or they were struck off on a dunghill with an +axe: infamy was the future portion of him who had been subjected to that +public disgrace.</p> + +<p>The privilege of wearing spurs was regarded as a mark of independence +and authority; so that when a noble tendered faith and homage to his +sovereign, he was obliged to take off his spurs in token of vassalage. +In 816, ere chivalry had been instituted, an assembly of lords and +bishops prohibited ecclesiastics from adopting the profane fashion of +wearing spurs then prevailing among the higher classes of the clergy.</p> + +<p>The use of the spur appears to date from the most ancient times. The +origin of the word has been much disputed. From the time of Louis le +Débonnaire it was called <i>spuors</i>, which has become <i>sporen</i> in Germany, +<i>sperane</i> in Italian, <i>spur</i> in English, <i>éperon</i> in French. The Latins +called it <i>calcar</i> (which originally signified cock’s spur), doubtless +from the form first given to the spur. That form has strangely varied +during centuries. The oldest known shape is that of the spur found in +the tomb of Queen Brunehaut, who died in 613, and which is simply like a +skewer. This seems to have long continued to be the form; but, from the +commencement of the thirteenth to the end of the sixteenth century, the +spur is seen in the form of a rose, or of a star with a turning rowel, +and was mostly fashioned in a very rich and delicate manner. At the +period when horses were clad in steel or leather, the spurs were +necessarily very long, in order to reach the animal’s flanks (<a href="#fig_75">Figs. 75</a> +and <a href="#fig_76">76</a>). The spurs of Godfrey of Bouillon, which have been preserved +(their authenticity is more or less questionable), are in that style. In +the reign of Charles VII. the young nobles wore, rather for show than +for use, spurs the rowel of which was as large as the hand, and fixed at +the end of a metal stem half a foot long.</p> + +<p>If, therefore, from time immemorial every mounted horse “felt the spur,” +there was at least a period when every sort of spur could not be<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_113" id="page_113">{113}</a></span> +indiscriminately applied to the flanks of each individual of the equine +race. “There are,” says Brunetto Latini, a writer of the thirteenth +century, in his “Treasury of all Things”—a sort of encyclopædia of the +age—“there are horses of several kinds: chargers, or tall horses, for +the combat, whence the expression, ‘mounting the high horse;’ others, +for gentle exercise, use palfreys, which were also called amblers and +hackneys; others employ pack-horses, <i>courtants</i> (cropped horses), to +carry a load (<i>somme</i>).” <i>Somme</i> here signifies a burden, and this, +which we now call baggage, consisted of spare arms and hauberk, which a +knight was careful to take with him when he went to the wars. Mares and +<i>bât</i>-horses (horses carrying the <i>bât</i>, or load) were reserved for +agriculture and other field-purposes; and it was clearly on that account +that a knight was not allowed to ride them. To make a knight ride upon a +mare was, like the loss of his spurs, one of the most degrading +punishments that could be inflicted on him, and thenceforth “any one who +regarded his own honour would no more have touched that disgraced knight +than a shaven idiot (leper).”</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_086-a_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_086-a_sml.jpg" width="340" height="131" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_75" id="fig_75"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 75.—German Spur.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_086-b_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_086-b_sml.jpg" width="340" height="112" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_76" id="fig_76"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 76.—Italian Spur.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_114" id="page_114">{114}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="fig_77" id="fig_77"></a> +<a href="images/ill_087_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_087_sml.jpg" width="362" height="402" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<div class="caption"><p>Fig. 77.—A Knight armed and mounted for War. (Museum of +Artillery, Paris.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The horses of French knights were without ears or mane; those of the +Germans without tails. According to Carrion-Nisas, the armour of the +horse, and the style in which it was caparisoned, were the cause of +these mutilations. We have elsewhere remarked that if the men were cased +in steel their horses were not less heavily cuirassed (<a href="#fig_77">Fig. 77</a>). The +entire armour and appointments of a horse were called the harness;<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_115" id="page_115">{115}</a></span> the +plates of steel or leather (for leather also was often used) were called +<i>bardes</i>. We find enumerated, not only the articles of which the harness +consisted—<i>chanfrein</i>, <i>nasal</i>, <i>flancois</i>, &c.—but examples are cited +to denote the sumptuousness of this equipment of the horse. We need not, +however, dwell longer here on this subject, that refers more properly to +the manufacture of arms; but a few words must be said regarding the +saddle, which is, if we may use the expression, an implement of +horsemanship, and not a part of the armour.</p> + +<p>The use of saddles seems to have been unknown in early times, and never +to have been introduced among certain nations which, by the way, were +most famous in the art of training the horse and making him serviceable. +The Thessalonians and the Numidians rode on the bare back, without +saddle or stirrups; seated firmly on the horse simply by the pressure of +the knees and the calf of the legs; a position which is still that of +the boldest riders in the East and in Africa. Hippocrates has ascribed +the common and severe diseases of the hips and legs which afflicted the +Scythians to the rider’s want of support on horseback. Galen makes the +same remark regarding the Roman legions, who only introduced the use of +a saddle about the year 340 of the Christian era. The Gauls and Franks +used neither saddles nor stirrups; but when steel armour was adopted, it +would have been impossible for knights to preserve an equilibrium +without the aid of a saddle, or to sustain the slightest shock to which +they were exposed, as armour rendered them in a manner rigid, or with +little flexibility on their large horses.</p> + +<p>They therefore had recourse to a high, or rather a deep, saddle, closely +adhering to the thighs and loins, with large stirrups serving as +supports to the feet. The several parts of the armour being splendidly +ornamented, it followed that the saddles, which also were exposed to +view, were no more neglected than other ornaments of the animal. +Engraved and chased, they were also gilt and painted, and thus, with the +shield, helped to distinguish, by the “devices” they bore, the armed +warrior completely cased in his steel covering (<a href="#fig_78">Figs. 78 to 81</a>).</p> + +<p>As to stirrups, of which there certainly is no trace among the Greeks or +the Romans, it may be said they were coeval with the invention of +saddles. They made their appearance in the earliest days of the +Merovingian dynasty; and if we accept the German etymology which the +learned have offered<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_116" id="page_116">{116}</a></span> (<i>streben</i>, to support one’s self), the name and +the object was introduced by the Franks into Gaul. However that may be, +they were no longer dispensed with, especially in war, and when the +weight of armour rendered their use necessary. They were of course very +large, very massive, and very clumsy in the days of chivalry. When they +diminished in size and weight they were wrought with more care, and +became objects of art, charged with ingenious ornaments, and embellished +with engraving, chasing, and gilding.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="fig_78" id="fig_78"></a><a name="fig_79" id="fig_79"></a> +<a href="images/ill_088_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_088_sml.jpg" width="355" height="325" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<div class="caption"><p>Figs. 78 and 79.—Tournament Saddles, ornamented with +Paintings, taken from the Armoury Real, Madrid. Sixteenth Century. +(Communicated by M. Ach. Jubinal.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>In accordance with the opinion held by M. de la Varenne, we have already +ascribed the disuse of private carriages to the contempt with which the +Franks regarded a mode of conveyance deemed by them to be effeminate. +But, following the same author, we must observe that a reason might +also<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_117" id="page_117">{117}</a></span> be discovered in the wretched condition into which, after the +decline of the Romans, those magnificent roads formed by them in all +their conquered provinces had fallen. In towns, moreover, the streets, +narrow, crooked, and with no regular direction, were very frequently so +many holes and quagmires. Philip Augustus I. had some of the streets of +Paris paved in that <i>lutèce</i><a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> which already, at the time of the Roman +conquest, had deserved the significant epithet of <i>miry</i>. The princes +and the nobles who, as Molière humorously makes Mascarilla say, feared +“to leave the impression of their shoes in mud,” and could not without +difficulty drive about the towns in carriages, consequently had recourse +to the horse or the mule. The ladies made use of them also; but very +frequently, if not carried in litters, they rode on a pillion behind the +horseman.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_089_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_089_sml.jpg" width="325" height="199" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_80" id="fig_80"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 80.—The Caparison of the Horse of Isabel the +Catholic. (Communicated by M. Ach. Jubinal.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>In the thirteenth century chariots reappeared; but the fashion did not +long prevail, for Philip the Fair discouraged them, in one of the +clauses of his sumptuary ordinance of 1294, by declaring that “no +citizen may have a chariot.”</p> + +<p>The litter continued to be held in repute for processions; but queens +frequently rode on horseback. Isabel of Bavaria rode on a beautiful<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_118" id="page_118">{118}</a></span> +palfrey, with her ladies and her maids also on horseback, on the +occasion of her entering Paris to espouse Charles VI. And when Mary of +England, who went to be married to Louis XII., made her entry into +Abbeville, she also, as Robert de la Marck relates, was mounted on a +palfrey, as were most of her ladies, “and the remainder in chariots; and +the king, riding a large, prancing bay horse, came to receive his bride, +with all the gentlemen of his household and of his guard on horseback.” +The meeting of Henry VIII. and Francis I. in the camp of the Field of +the Cloth of Gold, presented the most beautiful display that had ever +been seen of caparisoned horses, decorated and furnished with +unprecedented richness (<a href="#fig_82">Fig. 82</a>).</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_090_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_090_sml.jpg" width="281" height="283" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_81" id="fig_81"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 81.—Saddle-cloth. Sixteenth Century.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Charles V., in consequence of frequent attacks of gout, was soon +compelled to renounce riding. When he went into the country, or on a +journey, he was generally followed by a litter and a chair. Mules bore +the litter, in which he could recline, while bearers carried the chair, +which was</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="chrm_8" id="chrm_8"></a> +<a href="images/ill_091_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_091_sml.jpg" width="486" height="417" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<div class="caption"><p>ENTRANCE OF THE QUEEN ISABEAU OF BAVARIA INTO PARIS.</p> + +<p>From a Miniature in Froissart’s Chronicles, National Library, Paris.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_119" id="page_119">{119}</a></span></p> + +<p class="nind">provided with a movable back; its four uprights could be fitted with a +sort of canopy of canvas or leather.</p> + +<p>In 1457 the ambassadors of Ladislaus V., King of Hungary, presented to +Marie of Anjou, Queen of France, a chariot which excited the admiration +of the whole court and the inhabitants of Paris, “because,” as the +historian of the times says, “it was <i>branlant</i> (suspended), and very +rich.”</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_092_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_092_sml.jpg" width="295" height="221" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_82" id="fig_82"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 82.—Henry VIII. in the Camp of the Field of the +Cloth of Gold (1520). From the Bas-reliefs of the Hôtel of the Bourg +Herolde at Rouen.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>It is difficult to reconcile the inference to be drawn from the +ordinance of Philip the Fair with the assertion of many historians, that +coaches first appeared in France only in the time of Francis I. The +point is still doubtful. Nevertheless, one may suppose historians to +mean that coaches, instead of being the only vehicles employed in Paris +in the time of Francis I., were but chariots of a grander and more +gorgeous description than any seen before that time. But we know for +certain that, during the Middle Ages, the horse and the mule were +generally ridden by everybody, by citizens and by nobles, by women and +by men. The horse-blocks fixed in the streets—too narrow evidently, if +not for one carriage, at least for two to pass each other—and the rings +fastened on<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_120" id="page_120">{120}</a></span> doors sufficiently denote that it was so. The mule was +especially ridden by sedate men, such as magistrates and doctors, who +had to “amble” through the towns. “To take care of the mule,” a +proverbial expression signifying to wait impatiently, is derived from +the custom of lawyers’ servants remaining in the court of the Palace to +take charge of the riding-horses or mules belonging to their masters.</p> + +<p>According to Sauval, the two first coaches seen in Paris, and which +called forth the wonder of the people, belonged, one to Queen Claude, +the first wife of Francis I.; and the other to Diana of Poitiers, his +mistress.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_093_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_093_sml.jpg" width="212" height="235" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_83" id="fig_83"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 83.—Sedan-chair of Charles V. (Armoury Real, +Madrid.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The fashion was soon followed; so much so, that even where the sumptuary +laws were still regarded as efficient, we find parliament entreating +Charles IX. to prohibit the circulation of coaches (<i>coches</i>) through +the town. The magistrates continued, until the commencement of the +seventeenth century, to attend at the courts of justice on their mules. +Christopher of Thou, father of the celebrated historian, and first +President of Parliament, was the first who came thither in his carriage; +but only because he suffered from gout, for his wife continued to ride +on horseback, seated pillion-fashion behind a servant.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_121" id="page_121">{121}</a></span></p> + +<p>Henry IV. had only one carriage. “I shall be unable to go and see you,” +he one day wrote to Sully, “for my wife uses my coach (<i>coche</i>).” These +coaches were neither elegant nor convenient. For doors they were +provided with leathern aprons, which were drawn or opened for entrance +or exit, with similar curtains to protect against the rain or the sun.</p> + +<p>Marshal Bassompierre, in the time of Louis XIII., had a glass coach made +for him, which was regarded as a real marvel: it originated the impulse +which has led to the productive era of modern coach-building.</p> + +<p>Formerly there were in Paris, as appears from numerous documents, +several corporations representing the saddler’s trade. First came the +<i>selliers-bourreliers</i>, and the <i>selliers-lormiers-carrossiers</i>. The +privileges of the first secured to them specially the manufacture of +saddles and harness (collars and other articles for draught). The second +made also carriages, bridles, reins, &c. Another very ancient +corporation was that of the <i>lormiers-éperonniers</i>—“artisans,” says the +Glossary of Jean de Garlande, “whom the military nobles greatly +patronised, because they manufactured silvered and gilt spurs, metal +breastplates for their horses, and well-executed bits.” There were also +<i>chapuissiers</i>, who made saddle-bows and pack-frames for the beasts of +burden, which were mostly manufactured of alder-wood.</p> + +<p>The <i>blazenniers</i> and <i>cuireurs</i> then covered with leather the packs and +the saddles prepared by the <i>chapuissiers</i>; and, finally, +saddle-painters were employed to ornament them, either in compliance +with fashion, which has always been omnipotent in France, or according +to the laws of heraldry, when intended for men of rank for purposes of +state or war.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_094_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_094_sml.jpg" width="116" height="129" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_84" id="fig_84"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 84.—Banner of the Corporation of the Saddlers of +Tonnerre.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_122" id="page_122">{122}</a></span> </p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_123" id="page_123">{123}</a></span> </p> + +<h2><a name="GOLD_AND_SILVER_WORK" id="GOLD_AND_SILVER_WORK"></a>GOLD AND SILVER WORK.</h2> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Its Antiquity.—The Trésor de Guarrazar.—The Merovingian and +Carlovingian Periods.—Ecclesiastical Jewellery.—Pre-eminence of +the Byzantine Goldsmiths.—Progress of the Art consequent on the +Crusades.—The Gold and Enamels of Limoges.—Jewellery ceases to be +restricted to Purposes of Religion.—Transparent Enamels.—Jean of +Pisa, Agnolo of Sienna, Ghiberti.—Great Painters and Sculptors +from the Goldsmiths’ Workshops.—Benvenuto Cellini.—The Goldsmiths +of Paris.</p></div> + +<p class="nind"><a href="images/ill_095_lg.jpg"> +<span class="letra"> +<img src="images/ill_095_sml.jpg" +width="90" +alt="I" /></span></a>N the remarks upon furniture, we were compelled to trespass on the +domain which we now again approach; for, having to trace the history of +secular and religious luxury, we cannot but frequently encounter the +goldsmiths and their splendid works. It will thus happen more than once +that we shall have to indicate briefly certain important facts already +described, in some details, in preceding chapters.</p> + +<p>It is known that in old times, even the most remote, the goldsmith’s art +flourished. There is scarcely any ancient narrative which does not +allude to jewels; and every day the discovery of precious objects, found +in ruins and in tombs, still attests the high state of perfection the +art of gold and silver work had attained among races long since extinct.</p> + +<p>The Gauls, when under Roman dominion, applied themselves successfully to +the business of the gold-worker. We may again say that the triumph of +the Christian religion, under Constantine the Great, while encouraging +the interior decoration of places of worship, added a fresh impulse to +the development of this beautiful art.</p> + +<p>The popes succeeding St. Sylvester (who had stimulated the liberality of +Constantine) continued to accumulate, in the churches at Rome, the most +costly and massive articles of gold-work. Symmachus (498 to 514) alone, +according to a calculation made by Seroux d’Agincourt, enriched the +treasures of the basilicas to the amount of 130 pounds weight of gold, +and 1,700 of silver, forming the material of objects most finely +wrought.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_124" id="page_124">{124}</a></span> It was from the very court of the Greek emperors that the +examples of this magnificence were derived; for we hear St. John +Chrysostom exclaiming, “All our admiration is at present reserved for +the goldsmiths and the weavers;” and it is well known that in +consequence of his bold indiscretion in rebuking the extravagance of the +Empress Eudoxia, this eloquent Father of the Church expiated in exile +and persecutions his ardent zeal and his sincerity.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_096_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_096_sml.jpg" width="156" height="117" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_85" id="fig_85"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 85.—Gallic Bracelet, from a Cabinet of Antiquities. +(Imp. Library, Paris.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The brilliant specimens of the gold-work of the Visigoths, which, in +1858, were exhumed in the field of Guarrazar, near Toledo, and which +have been obtained for the Cluny Museum, throw a new light on the +monuments of that period. Far from indicating any original style, they +afford further proof that the barbarians who came from the North became +subjected, in the arts, to Byzantine influence. The most remarkable, not +only in its dimensions and extreme richness, but in the peculiarity of +its ornaments, is a votive crown, intended to be hung, according to the +custom of those times, in a sacred place—that of Recesvinthe, who +reigned over the Goths of Spain from 653 to 672. It is composed of a +large fillet, jointed, and formed of a double plate of the finest gold. +Thirty uncut sapphires and as many pearls, regularly alternating, +arranged in three rows and in quincunxes,<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> are seen on its exterior +circle. Chased ornaments occupy the spaces between the stones. The +votive crown of King Suintila, which we here reproduce (<a href="#fig_86">Fig. 86</a>), is +fully as rich, and about thirty years older.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="chrm_9" id="chrm_9"></a> +<a href="images/ill_097_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_097_sml.jpg" width="376" height="554" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<div class="caption"><p>GOLD CROSSES OF A KING OF THE GOTHS.</p> + +<p>Found at Guarrazar. Seventh Century. (Museum of the Hotel Cluny) (Taken +from the work of M. Ferdinand de Lasteyrie.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_125" id="page_125">{125}</a></span></p> + +<p>It is of massive gold, ornamented with sapphires and pearls arranged in +rose-pattern, and set off by two borders similarly set with delicate +stones. But the originality of this precious gem consists in the letters +hanging as pendants from its lower border. These letters, open-worked, +are filled with small pieces of red glass set in gold; their combination +presents the following inscription:—“<i>Suintilanus Rex offeret</i>” +(offering of the King Suintila). Each of them is suspended from the +fillet by a chain with double links, sustaining a pendant of violet +sapphire, pear-shaped. Finally, the crown is suspended by four chains +attached to a circular top of rock-crystal.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 151px;"> +<a href="images/ill_098_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_098_sml.jpg" width="151" height="408" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_86" id="fig_86"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 86.—Votive Crown of Suintila, King of the Visigoths +from 621 to 631. (Armoury Real, Madrid.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>“Five of the crowns so fortunately discovered at Guarrazar,” says M. de +Lasteyrie, “have crosses. These, attached by a chain to the same +circular top, were evidently intended to remain suspended across the +circle of the crown.” The cross belonging to the crown of Recesvinthe is +by far the richest; eight large pearls and six sapphires, all mounted in +open-work, adorn the front. The four other crosses are of the form which +in heraldry is called <i>croix patée</i>; but they differ in size and in the +ornaments with which they are enriched.</p> + +<p>We have already stated that the kings and grandees of the Merovingian +period displayed in their plate and in some of their state-furniture a +richness of gold-work the profuseness of which was ordinarily opposed to +good taste. We have seen at his work the celebrated Saint Eloi, +bishop-goldsmith; and we have mentioned not only his remarkable +productions, but also the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_126" id="page_126">{126}</a></span> enduring influence he exercised over a whole +historical period of art. Finally, we have observed that +Charlemagne—whose object seems to have been not only to imitate +Constantine, but to surpass him—endowed the churches magnificently with +works of art, without prejudice to the numberless splendours which his +palaces contained.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_099_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_099_sml.jpg" width="293" height="386" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_87" id="fig_87"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 87.—The Sword of Charlemagne. Preserved in the +Imperial Treasury at Vienna.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>According to a tradition, the loss of most of the beautiful objects of +gold-work belonging to that monarch may have been owing to the +circumstance that they were disposed around him in the sepulchral +chamber where<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_127" id="page_127">{127}</a></span> the body was deposited after death; and the emperors of +Germany, his successors, may not have scrupled to appropriate those +riches, of which some rare specimens, particularly his diadem and sword, +are still preserved in the Museum of Vienna (<a href="#fig_87">Figs. 87</a> and <a href="#fig_88">88</a>).</p> + +<p>Ecclesiastical display, notably extinct during the period of trouble and +suffering through which the Church passed in the seventh and eighth +centuries, and to which the power of Charlemagne was to put an end, +manifested itself in an extraordinary degree from that time. For +example, it was calculated that under Leo III., who occupied the +pontifical chair from 795 to 816, the weight of the plate which the Pope +gave to enrich the churches, amounted to not less than 1,075 pounds of +gold and 24,744 pounds of silver!</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_100_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_100_sml.jpg" width="256" height="252" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_88" id="fig_88"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 88.—Diadem of Charlemagne. Preserved in the +Imperial Treasury at Vienna.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>To that period belongs the famous gold altar of the basilica of St. +Ambrose of Milan, executed in 835, by order of Archbishop Angilbert, by +Volvinius; and which, notwithstanding its immense intrinsic value, has +come down to our time. “The four sides of this monument,” says M.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_128" id="page_128">{128}</a></span> +Labarte, “are of extreme richness. The front, entirely of gold, is +divided into three panels by a border of enamel. The centre panel +represents a cross of four equal projections, formed by fillets of +ornaments in enamel, alternating with precious stones uncut but +polished. Christ is seated in the centre of the cross. The symbols of +the Evangelists occupy its branches. Three of the Apostles are placed in +each angle. All these figures are in relief. The right and left panels +contain each six bas-reliefs, the subjects of which are taken from the +life of Christ; they are encircled by borders of enamels and precious +stones alternately disposed. The two sides, in silver relieved with +gold, exhibit very rich crosses, treated in the same style as the +borders. The back, which is also of silver relieved with gold, is +likewise divided in three large panels; that in the centre contains four +medallions, and each of the others six bas-reliefs, of which the life of +St. Ambrose supplied the subjects. In one of the medallions of the +centre panel is seen St. Ambrose receiving the gold altar from the hands +of Archbishop Angilbert; in the other, St. Ambrose is giving his +benediction to Volvinius, the master goldsmith (<i>magister faber</i>), as he +is designated in the inscription transmitting to us the name of the +author of this work, of which no description can give an exact idea.”</p> + +<p>It was not Italy alone which possessed skilful goldsmiths, and +encouraged them. We have in particular, among other enlightened and +active supporters of ecclesiastical gold-work, a succession of the +bishops of Auxerre, to whom must be added Hincmar, bishop of Rheims, who +caused a splendid shrine to be made for the relics of the illustrious +patron of his church. It was cased in plates of silver, and statues of +twelve bishops adorned its borders.</p> + +<p>But, notwithstanding all its artistic magnificence, the jewellery of the +West could only appear to be the reflex of the wonders produced at the +same epoch by the goldsmiths of the East, or the Byzantines, to adopt a +term generally sanctioned.</p> + +<p>One of the most curious specimens of Byzantine art, preserved in Russia, +is a gold reliquary lined with a plate of silver, in the centre of which +is an embossed representation of the Crucifixion. Above the head, on a +gilt nimbus, is an inscription in Greek, “Jesus Christ, King of Glory.” +This treasure, remarkable for its extreme finish, is covered with a +mosaic of precious stones of different colours, in partitions of gold; +the cross being quartered<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_129" id="page_129">{129}</a></span> in enamel, with silver filigree. At the back +the names of the archimandrite Nicolos are engraved. It is a work of the +tenth century, and was found in the Iberian monastery on Mount Athos.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_101_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_101_sml.jpg" width="238" height="326" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_89" id="fig_89"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 89.—Byzantine Reliquary, in Enamel, brought from +Mount Athos. Tenth Century. (Collection of M. Sebastianof.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>If rare specimens only of jewellery have come down to us of a date prior +to the eleventh century, this may be accounted for not merely by their +intrinsic value having indicated them to the uncivilised as fit objects +of plunder during the invasions which took place after the reign of +Charlemagne, but also, as we have elsewhere remarked, by the +re-introduction of church furniture, which was in some measure a +necessary result of renovated architecture. It was right to adapt the +style of plate to that of the edifice<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_130" id="page_130">{130}</a></span> it was to adorn. The forms which +were then employed for various objects of church-service showed the +influence of the severe style derived from the original Byzantine type; +the latter, moreover, explained itself by the repute, especially in +metallurgy, enjoyed by the city of Constantine, to which the East +generally had recourse when taking in hand any work of importance.</p> + +<p>The <i>German</i> school particularly would acquire a Byzantine character, +owing to the marriage of the Emperor Otho II. with the Greek princess +Theophania (972)—an alliance which naturally bound the two empires in +closer ties, and attracted a considerable number of artists and artisans +to Germany from the East. Of the works of that period still in +existence, one of the most remarkable is the rich gold cover of the book +of the Gospels, now in the Royal Library, Munich; on which are executed, +in the embossed style, various bas-reliefs of great delicacy, and +designed with the purity at that time distinguishing the Greek school.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_102_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_102_sml.jpg" width="321" height="212" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_90" id="fig_90"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 90.—Altar of Gold, presented to the ancient +Cathedral of Basle by the Emperor Henry II., now in the Cluny Museum.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The Emperor Henry II. was therefore welcomed (<i>bien-venu</i>), and, if one +may say so, well served by the condition of art in Germany, when, +elevated to the throne in 1002, and inspired by ardent piety, he sought, +by princely liberality to the churches, to surpass even Constantine and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_131" id="page_131">{131}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_103_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_103_sml.jpg" width="280" height="303" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_91" id="fig_91"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 91.—Enamelled Shrine, in Limoges Work of the +Twelfth Century. (Museum of Cluny.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Charlemagne. It is to Henry that the Cathedral of Basle owes the +decorations of the altar, to which none can be compared for richness, +except that of Milan; yet without recalling it by its style, which has +lost every trace of the antique, and is a clearly-pronounced type of the +art which the Middle Ages were to create as their own. It is right to +mention also the crown of the sainted emperor, and that of his wife, now +preserved in the Treasury of the King of Bavaria; both are in six +jointed parts, making a circle; the former bears figures of winged +angels; the other, stalks with four leaves designed with correctness and +grace, and executed in a manner which evinces the greatest dexterity. +“Moreover,” says M. Labarte, “the taste for jewellery was then generally +diffused throughout Germany; and many prelates followed the example set +by the emperor. Willigis, the first Archbishop of Mayence, may be cited; +he endowed his church with<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_132" id="page_132">{132}</a></span> a crucifix weighing 600 pounds, the several +parts of which were adjusted with such art that each could be detached +at the joints; and Bernward, Bishop of Hildesheim, who, like St. Eloi, +was himself a celebrated goldsmith, and to whom is ascribed a crucifix +enriched with precious stones and filigrees, and two magnificent +candelabra, which still constitute a portion of the treasures of the +church whereof he was the pastor.”</p> + +<p>About the same period—that is, in the early days of the eleventh +century—a monk of Dreux, named Odorain, who had made himself famous in +France by his works in precious metals, executed a large number of +objects for King Robert, intended for the churches the monarch had +founded.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_104_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_104_sml.jpg" width="140" height="180" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_92" id="fig_92"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 92.—Shrine in Copper Gilt. (End of the Twelfth +Century.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>It has been remarked in the preceding chapter, that the Crusades gave a +great impulse to the goldsmith’s art in Europe, in consequence of the +great demand for shrines and reliquaries intended for the reception of +the venerated remains of saints which the soldiers of the faith brought +back from their distant expeditions (<a href="#fig_91">Figs. 91</a> and <a href="#fig_92">92</a>). The offerings of +consecrated vessels and of altar-fronts were also multiplied. The Holy +Scriptures received cases and coverings which were so many splendid +works entrusted to the goldsmiths. To speak truly, had it not been for +the essentially religious direction which, at that period, certain +departments of luxury acquired by the Crusaders in the East had taken, +we might perhaps have seen the arts, that only in the West recommenced +a<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_133" id="page_133">{133}</a></span> real existence, become extinguished, and in a manner perish in the +first burst of their revival.</p> + +<p>It is chiefly to the minister of Louis le Gros, Suger, Abbot of +Saint-Denis, who died in 1152, that the honour of this consecration of +arts is due, for he distinctively proclaimed himself their protector; he +endeavoured to render legitimate their position in the State, by +opposing their pious aims to the too exclusive censures of St. Bernard +and his disciples.</p> + +<p>Conjointly with the powerful abbot, there is deserving of special +mention a simple monk, Theophilus, an eminent artist who wrote in Latin +a description of the Industrial Arts of his time (<i>Diversarum Artium +Schedula</i>), and devoted seventy-nine chapters of his book to that of the +goldsmith. This valuable treatise shows us, in the most unmistakable +manner, that the goldsmiths of the twelfth century must have possessed a +comprehensiveness of knowledge and manipulation, the mere enumeration of +which surprises us the more now that we see industry everywhere tending +to an almost infinite division of labour. At that time the goldsmith was +required to be at once modeller, sculptor, smelter, enameller, +jewel-mounter, and inlay-worker. He had to cast his own models in wax, +as well as to labour with his hammer or embellish with his graver: he +had to make the chalice, the vases, and the pyx, for the metropolitan +churches, on which were lavished all the resources of art; and to +produce, by the ordinary process of punching, the open-work or the +designs of copper intended to ornament the books of the poor (<i>libri +pauperum</i>), &c.</p> + +<p>The treasury of the Abbey of Saint-Denis still possessed, at the time of +the Revolution, several <i>chefs-d’œuvre</i> produced by the artists whose +processes are described by Theophilus; especially the rich mounting of a +cup of Oriental agate, bearing the name of Suger, which it is believed +he used for the service of mass; and the mounting of an ancient sardonyx +vase, known as the cup of the Ptolemies, which Charles the Simple had +given to the abbey. Having been deposited, in 1793, in the Cabinet of +Medals, Paris, the mounting of the cup of the Ptolemies and the chalice +of Suger remained there until they were stolen in 1804.</p> + +<p>Among the examples of that period still existing, and which, +conditionally, every one is permitted to inspect, we may distinguish, +with M. Labarte,—in addition to “the great crown of lights” suspended +under the cupola in the cathedral of Aix-la-Chapelle, and the +magnificent shrine in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_134" id="page_134">{134}</a></span> which Frederick I. collected the bones of +Charlemagne,—in the Museum of the Louvre, a vase of rock-crystal +mounted in gold and embellished with gems, presented to Louis VII. by +his wife Eleanora; in the Cluny Museum, several candelabra; in the +Imperial Library in Paris, the covering of a Latin manuscript, numbered +622; a cup of agate onyx (<a href="#fig_93">Fig. 93</a>), bordered with a belt of precious +stones raised on a groundwork of filigree; and the beautiful gold +chalice of St. Remy (<a href="#fig_94">Fig. 94</a>), which, after having appeared in the +Cabinet of Antiquities, was restored in 1861 to the treasury of the +church of Notre-Dame, Rheims.</p> + +<p>Severe forms and an elevated style were the characteristics of the +jewelled works of the eleventh and twelfth centuries; and, for the +principal elements of accessory embellishment, we most frequently see +pearls, precious stones, with enamelled divisions which, according to +the minute description of Theophilus, are only delicate mosaics whose +various coloured segments are separated by plates of gold.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_105_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_105_sml.jpg" width="322" height="182" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_93" id="fig_93"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 93.—A Drinking Cup, called Gondole, of Agate; from +the Treasury of the Abbey of Saint-Denis. (Cabinet of Antiquities, Imp. +Library, Paris.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>In the days of St. Louis, a period of active and generous piety, there +was (an assertion which may appear hazardous after what we have said of +the zeal of preceding centuries) a remarkable accession to the number +and the splendour of the gifts and offerings of jewellery to the +churches. For instance, it was then that Bonnard, Parisian goldsmith, +assisted by the ablest artisans, devoted two years to the manufacture of +the shrine of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_135" id="page_135">{135}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_106_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_106_sml.jpg" width="336" height="361" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_94" id="fig_94"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 94.—Chalice, said to be of St. Remy. (Treasury of +the Cathedral of Rheims.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>St. Geneviève, on which he expended one hundred and ninety-three marks +of silver and seven and a half marks of gold; the mark weighing eight +ounces. The shrine, consecrated in 1212, was in the form of a little +church, with statuettes and bas-reliefs enriched with precious stones. +It was deposited in the French mint in 1793; but the spoil realised only +twenty-three thousand eight hundred and thirty livres. Half a century +earlier, the most celebrated German goldsmiths were engaged during +seventeen years upon the famous reliquary in silver gilt, called the +“Great Relics,” which the cathedral at Aix-la-Chapelle still possesses; +it was fabricated from the gifts<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_136" id="page_136">{136}</a></span> deposited in that space of time by the +faithful in the poors’-box of the porch; an edict of the Emperor +Barbarossa having appropriated all the offerings to that object, “so +long as it remained unfinished.”</p> + +<p>Moreover, that period, which may be regarded as denoting the zenith of +the goldsmith’s art for sacred purposes, is also that wherein occurred +the important transition which was to introduce into domestic life the +same lavishness so long devoted only to objects applicable to +ecclesiastical use. But, before entering upon that new phase, we ought +to mention, not without much commendation, the enamelled gold-work of +Limoges, which was greatly celebrated for several centuries. From the +Gallo-Romano period Limoges had acquired a reputation for the works of +its goldsmiths. St. Eloi, the great goldsmith in the time of the +Merovingian kings (<a href="#fig_95">Fig. 95</a>), was originally from that country, and he +was working under Alban, a goldsmith, and master of the mint at Limoges, +when his reputation led to his being called to the court of Clotaire II. +The ancient Roman colony had retained its industrial speciality, and +during the Middle Ages was remarkable for the production of works of a +peculiar character, which are supposed to have been fabricated there +prior to the third century, if we may judge from a passage in +Philostratus, a Greek writer of that period.</p> + +<p>This work consisted of a mixed style, inasmuch as the material forming +the ground of the work is copper; and, moreover, the principal effects +are due not less to the skill of the enameller than to the talent of the +worker in metal. The process of fabrication is very simple—that is, in +the way of description—yet the execution must have been extremely +protracted and minute.</p> + +<p>“After having prepared and polished a plate of copper,” says M. Labarte, +whose account we transfer to our own pages, “the artist marked on it all +the parts which were to rise to the surface of the metal, in order to +produce the outlines of the drawing or of the figure he wanted to +represent; then, with gravers and scrapers, he dug deeply in the copper +all the space which the various metals were to cover. In the hollows +thus <i>champlevés</i> (a word sometimes used to signify the mode of +producing this kind of work), he placed the material to be vitrified, +which was afterwards melted in a furnace. When the enamelled piece was +cold, he polished it by various means, so as to bring to the surface of +the enamel all the lines of the drawing produced by the copper. Gilding +was afterwards applied to the parts<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_137" id="page_137">{137}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_107_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_107_sml.jpg" width="296" height="440" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_95" id="fig_95"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 95.—Cross of an Altar, ascribed to St. Eloi.</p></div> +</div> + +<p class="nind">of the metal thus preserved. Until the twelfth century, only the +outlines of the drawing ordinarily rose to the surface of the enamel, +and the tints of the flesh, as well as the dresses, were produced by +coloured enamel; in the thirteenth century enamel was no longer used but +to colour the ground-<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_138" id="page_138">{138}</a></span>work. The figures were entirely preserved on the +plate of copper, and the outlines of the drawing were then shown by a +delicate engraving on the metal.”</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_108_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_108_sml.jpg" width="325" height="319" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_96" id="fig_96"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 96.—An Abbot’s Enamelled Crozier, made at Limoges. +(Thirteenth Century.)</p> + +<p><a name="fig_97" id="fig_97"></a>Fig. 97.—A Bishop’s Crozier, which appears to be of +Italian manufacture. (Fourteenth Century. Cathedral of Metz.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Between the enamels partitioned (<i>cloisonnés</i>) and the enamels +<i>champlevés</i> the difference, as we can see, is only the first +arrangement of the divisions to receive the several vitrifiable +compositions. Making allowances for the influence of fashion, these two +styles of analogous works were held in almost equal estimation. +Nevertheless, it seems that the preference ought to be assigned to the +goldsmith’s art in Limoges, which, at a time when there was manifested a +demand for private reliquaries and collective offerings to the churches, +had this advantage over the other, that it was<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_139" id="page_139">{139}</a></span> much less costly, and +consequently more accessible to all classes (<a href="#fig_96">Fig. 96</a>). In the present +day there is scarcely a museum, or even a private collection, that does +not contain some specimen of the ancient Limousine<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> industry.</p> + +<p>With the fourteenth century the splendour of the goldsmith’s art ceases +to display, as its exclusive object, ecclesiastical decoration and +embellishment; but it suddenly became so developed among the laity that +King John (of France) desiring, or pretending to desire, to restore it +to the exclusive line it had till then retained, prohibited by an +ordinance, in 1356, the goldsmiths from “<i>working</i> (fabricating) gold or +silver plate, vases, or silver jewellery, of more than one mark of gold +or silver, excepting for the churches.”</p> + +<p>But it is possible to issue ordinances in order to show the advantage of +evading them, and to benefit exclusively by the exception. This is what +appears to have then occurred; for, in the inventory of the treasury of +Charles V., son and successor of the king who signed the sumptuary edict +of 1356, the value of the various objects of the goldsmith’s art is +estimated at not less than nineteen millions. This document, in which +the greater number of the articles are described to the minutest detail, +would suffice in itself to exhibit a truthful historical view of the art +at that period; and, at all events, it affords a striking idea of the +artistic progress made in that direction, and of the extravagance to +which the trade was subservient.</p> + +<p>When considering the subject of furniture in domestic life, we indicated +the names and the uses of several articles which were displayed on the +tables or sideboards—plateholders, ewers, urns, goblets, &c.; we also +adverted to the numerous and capricious forms they assumed—flowers, +animals, grotesque images; we need not, therefore, recur to the matter; +but we ought not to overlook the jewellery, of all sorts—insignia, or +ornaments of the head-dress, gems, clasps, chains and necklaces, antique +cameos (<a href="#fig_98">Fig. 98</a>), which appear in the treasury of the King of France.</p> + +<p>In treating of ecclesiastical furniture we, moreover, observed that the +goldsmith’s art, although devoting itself to secular ornaments, +nevertheless<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_140" id="page_140">{140}</a></span> continued to work marvels in the production of objects for +ecclesiastical use; it would be mere repetition to support this +assertion by other examples.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_109_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_109_sml.jpg" width="221" height="347" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_98" id="fig_98"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 98.—An Ancient Cameo-setting of the time of Charles +V. (Cab. of Ant., Bibl. Imp., Paris.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>But, dismissing those two questions, let a contemporary poet raise a +third, which deserves a place here. Eustache Deschamps, who died in +1422, equerry and usher-at-arms to Charles V. and Charles VI., +enumerates the jewels and gems which the female nobility of the time +aspired to possess. “It was indispensable,” he says—</p> + +<div class="poetry"> +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">“Aux matrones,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Nobles palais et riches trônes;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Et à celles qui se marient<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Qui moult tôt (bientôt) leurs pensers varient,<br /></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_141" id="page_141">{141}</a></span><span class="i0">Elles veulent tenir d’usaige ...<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Vestements d’or, de draps de soye,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Couronne, chapel et courroye<br /></span> +<span class="i0">De fin or, espingle d’argent ...<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Puis couvrechiefs à or batus,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">A pierres et perles dessus ...<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Encor vois-je que leurs maris,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Quand ils reviennent de Paris,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">De Reims, de Rouen et de Troyes,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Leur rapportent gants et courroyes ...<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Tasses d’argent ou gobelets ...<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Bourse de pierreries,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Coulteaux à imagineries,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Espingliers (étuis) taillés à émaux.”<br /></span> +</div></div> +</div> + +<p>They desired, moreover, and said that they ought to have given to them—</p> + +<div class="poetry"> +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">“Pigne (peigne) et miroir d’ivoire ...<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Et l’estui qui soit noble et gent (riche et beau),<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Pendu à chaines d’argent;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Heures (livres de piété) me fault de Notre-Dame,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Qui soient de soutil (delicat) ouvraige,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">D’or et d’azur, riches et cointes (jolies),<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Bien ordonnés et bien pointes (peintes),<br /></span> +<span class="i0">De fin drap d’or très-bien couvertes,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Et quand elles seront ouvertes,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Deux fermaux (agrafes) d’or qui fermeront.”<br /></span> +</div></div> +</div> + +<p>We thus see that, according to the above programme, the jewel-box of a +princess, or of a lady of rank, must have been really splendid. +Unfortunately for us, the specimens of these female ornaments of the +fourteenth and fifteenth centuries are still more rare in collections +than objects of massive plate; and one is almost left to imagine their +appearance and their richness from the entries in inventories, that +chief source of information regarding the times of which the memorials +have disappeared.</p> + +<p>It is there we see the costliness of the <i>fermails</i>, or clasps of cloaks +and copes, called also <i>pectoraux</i>, because they fastened the garments +across the breast; girdles, chaplets (head-dresses), portable +reliquaries, and other “little jewels (<a href="#fig_99">Fig. 99</a>) <i>pendants et à pendre</i>,” +the fashion of which we have restored under the name of <i>breloques</i>, and +which represent every variety of object more or less whimsical. We see, +for instance, gold clasps representing a peacock, a fleur-de-lis, two +hands “clasped.” This one is embellished with six sapphires, sixty +pearls, and other large gems; that one with eighteen rubies, and four +emeralds. From a girdle of Charles V.,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_142" id="page_142">{142}</a></span> which is made “of scarlet silk +adorned with eight gold mountings,” are suspended “a knife, scissors, +and a pen-knife,” ornamented in gold; the trinkets (pendants) represent +“a man on horseback, a cock holding a mirror in the form of a trefoil,” +or “a stag of pearls with enamelled horns;” or, again, a man mounted on +a double-headed serpent, “playing on a Saracenic horn” (of Saracen +origin). Finally, we remark that in reliquaries a fashion long +established was maintained, which consisted of forming them of a +statuette representing a saint (<a href="#fig_100">Fig. 100</a>), or of a subject that +comprised his image, and to which were attached, by a small chain, +relics inlaid in a little tabernacle of gold or silver, preciously +wrought.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_110_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_110_sml.jpg" width="157" height="158" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_99" id="fig_99"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 99.—Scent-box in Chased Gold. (A French Work of the +Fifteenth Century.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>But now the fifteenth century opens out, and with it a period of tumult. +France suddenly beheld that impulse to industry paralyzed, which, to +prosper, requires a condition of affairs very different from sanguinary +civil dissensions and foreign invasion. Not only were the workshops +closed, but princes and nobles were more than once constrained to +appropriate the gorgeous decorations of their tables and their +collections of gems, to pay and arm warriors under their command, or +even to redeem themselves from captivity.</p> + +<p>At that time the goldsmith’s art flourished in the neighbouring country +of Flanders, then quietly submissive to the powerful house of Burgundy, +which, with equal taste and liberality, encouraged the art, which had +installed itself in the principal cities. This was also an epoch of +magnificent productions<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_143" id="page_143">{143}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_111_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_111_sml.jpg" width="207" height="454" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_100" id="fig_100"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 100.—Reliquary, Silver-gilt, surmounted by a +Statuette of the Virgin with the Infant Jesus, representing Jeanne +d’Evreux, Queen of France. (Museum of Sovereigns, in the Louvre.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p class="nind">in that country, but not more than one or two examples remain; these are +attributed to Corneille de Bonte, who worked at Ghent, and was<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_144" id="page_144">{144}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_112_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_112_sml.jpg" width="188" height="236" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_101" id="fig_101"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 101.—The Ensign of the Collar of the Goldsmiths of +Ghent. (Fifteenth Century.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p class="nind">generally considered the most skilful goldsmith of his time (<a href="#fig_101">Figs. 101</a> +and <a href="#fig_102">102</a>). However that may be, the style of the goldsmith’s art of the +fifteenth century continued, as in the two or three preceding centuries, +conformable to the contemporaneous style of architecture. For instance, +the shrine of Saint-Germain-des-Près, which was of that period, had the +form of a small ogivale<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> church; and some specimens still existing in +Berlin are of the Gothic character, the prevailing style of the edifices +of those times. But an influence was making itself felt that was not +long in entirely modifying the general aspect of the productions of the +trade we are considering. That transformation must have been promoted by +Italy; in the midst of which, in spite of intestine troubles and serious +contentions with other nations, a luxury and opulence prevailed. Genoa, +Venice, Florence, Rome, had long been so many centres where the Fine +Arts struggled for pre-eminence and inspiration. Among the majority of +the wealthy merchants who had<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_145" id="page_145">{145}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_113_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_113_sml.jpg" width="265" height="414" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_102" id="fig_102"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 102.—Escutcheon in Silver-gilt, executed by +Corneille de Bonte, in the Fifteenth Century. (Museum of the Hôtel de +Ville, Ghent.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p class="nind">become patricians of those gorgeous republics were found so many +Mæcenases, under whose patronage flourished great artists whom popes and +princes emulously countenanced. “From the moment,” says M. Labarte, +“when the Nicolases, the Jeans of Pisa, and the Giottos, throwing off +the Byzantine yoke, caused Art to emerge from languor and supineness, +that of the gold<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_146" id="page_146">{146}</a></span>smith could no longer find favour in Italy but by +maintaining itself on a level with the progress of sculpture, whose +daughter it was.<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> When we know that the great Donatello,—Philip +Brunelleschi, the bold architect of the dome of Florence,—Ghiberti, the +author of the marvellous doors of the Baptistery, had goldsmiths for +their earliest masters, we may judge what artists the Italian goldsmiths +of that period must have been.” The first in date is the celebrated Jean +of Pisa, son of Nicolas, who, brought from Arezzo in 1286, to sculpture +the marble table of the high-altar, and a group of the Virgin between +St. Gregory and St. Donato, desired to pay tribute to the taste of the +time by ornamenting the altar with those fine chasings on silver +coloured with enamels to which we give the name of translucid enamels in +relief; and also by designing a clasp or jewel with which he decorated +the breast of the Virgin. Both chasings and clasp are now lost.</p> + +<p>To Jean (Giovanni) of Pisa succeeded his pupils Agostino and Agnolo of +Siena.</p> + +<p>In 1316 Andrea of Ognibene executed, for the Cathedral of Pistoia, an +altar-front, which has come down to us, and must have been followed by +more important works. Then come Pietro and Paulo of Arezzo, Ugolino of +Siena, and finally Master Cione,<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> the author of the two silver +bas-reliefs still to be seen on the altar of the Baptistery of Florence. +Master Cione, whose school was numerous, had for his principal pupils +Forzane of Arezzo and Leonardo of Florence, who worked on the two most +noted monuments of the goldsmith’s art which time and depredations have +respected—the altar of Saint-Jacques at Pistoia, and that same altar of +the Baptistery to which the bas-reliefs of Cione were afterwards +adapted. During more than a hundred and fifty years the ornamentation of +these two altars, of which no description can give an idea, was, if we +may so say, the arena wherein all the most famous goldsmiths met.</p> + +<p>At the end of the fourteenth century Luca della Robbia, who, as we have +seen, distinguished himself in ceramic art, and afterwards Brunelleschi, +no less great as an architect than as a sculptor, came forth from the +studio<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_147" id="page_147">{147}</a></span> of a goldsmith. At the same period shone Baccioforte and Mazzano +of Placentia, Arditi the Florentine, and Bartoluccio, master of the +famous sculptor Ghiberti, to whom we owe those doors of the Baptistery, +which Michael Angelo pronounced worthy of being placed at the entrance +to Paradise.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_114_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_114_sml.jpg" width="280" height="450" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_103" id="fig_103"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 103.—Shrine of the Fifteenth Century. (Collection +of Prince Soltykoff.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>It is well known that the execution of these doors was, in 1400, +submitted to competition; and it may be said, in honour of the +goldsmith’s art, that Ghiberti, vying with the most celebrated +competitors—for among them were Donatello and Brunelleschi—owed his +triumph, perhaps, to the simple fact that he had treated, as it were by +habit, his model with all the delicacy of the goldsmith’s art. And it +must be added, and to the praise of the great artist, that although<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_148" id="page_148">{148}</a></span> in +great reputation for sculptured works of the highest importance, he +adhered faithfully all his life to his first profession, and considered +it not derogatory even to manufacture jewellery. Thus, for example, in +1428 he mounted as a signet for Jean de Medicis, a cornelian said to +have belonged to the treasury of Nero, and he set it as a winged-dragon +emerging from a cluster of ivy leaves; in 1429, for Pope Martin V., a +button of the cope, and a mitre; and in 1439, for Pope Eugene IV., a +golden mitre, embellished with five and a half pounds weight of precious +stones,—its front representing Christ surrounded by numerous cherubs, +and at the back the Virgin in the midst of the four Evangelists.</p> + +<p>During the forty years employed in the execution of the doors of the +Baptistery, Ghiberti continued to derive assistance from several +goldsmiths, who, so guided, could not fail in their turn to become +skilful masters.</p> + +<p>The list would be long of goldsmiths who, by the single force of their +talents, or under the direction of renowned sculptors, competed during +two centuries in the production of the marvellous works with which the +churches of Italy are still crowded; and in fact it would be only a +monotonous detail, the interest of which can scarcely be enhanced by any +description we could give of their works. Nevertheless, we may cite the +most illustrious of them: for instance, Andrea Verrochio, in whose +studio Perugino and Leonardo da Vinci passed their time; Domenichino +Ghirlandajo, so called because when a goldsmith he had invented an +ornament in the form of garlands, of which the ladies of Florence were +passionately fond; he afterwards relinquished the hammer and the graver +for the painter’s pencil; Maso Finiguerra, who, reputed to be the +cleverest niello-worker of his time, engraved a <i>pax</i>, or paten, still +preserved in the cabinet of bronzes in Florence; it is acknowledged to +be the plate of the first engraving printed,—the Imperial Library of +Paris possesses the only early proof of it.</p> + +<p>In 1500 was born Benvenuto Cellini, who was to be the embodiment of the +genius of the goldsmith’s art, and who raised it to the zenith of its +power. “Cellini, a Florentine citizen, now a sculptor,” as his +contemporary Vasari relates, “had no equal in the goldsmith’s art when +devoting himself to it in his youth, and was perhaps for many years +without a rival, as well as in the execution of small figures in full +relief and in bas-relief, and all works of that nature. He mounted +precious stones so skilfully, and decked them in such marvellous +settings, with small figures so perfect, and some<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_149" id="page_149">{149}</a></span>times so original and +with such fanciful taste, that one could not imagine anything better; +nor can we adequately praise the medals which, when he was young, he +engraved with incredible care in gold and silver. At Rome he executed, +for Pope Clement VII., a fastening for the cope, in which he represented +with admirable workmanship the Eternal Father. He also mounted with rare +talent a diamond, cut to a point, and surrounded by several young +children carved in gold. Clement VII. having ordered a gold chalice with +its cup supported by the theological attributes, Benvenuto executed the +work in a surprising manner. Of all the artists who, in his own time, +tried their hands at engraving medals of the Pope, no one succeeded +better, as those well know who possess them or have seen them. Also to +him was entrusted the execution of the coins of Rome; and finer pieces +were never struck. After the death of Clement VII., Benvenuto returned +to Florence, where he engraved the head of Duke Alexander on the coins, +which are so beautiful that to this day several specimens are preserved +as precious antique medals; and rightly so, for in them Benvenuto +surpassed himself. At length he devoted himself to sculpture and to the +art of casting statues. He executed in France, where he was in the +service of Francis I., many works in bronze, silver, and in gold. +Returning to his native country, he was employed by the Duke Cosmo de +Medicis, who at once required of him several works in jewellery, and +afterwards some sculptures.”</p> + +<p>Thus, Benvenuto is at the same time goldsmith (<a href="#fig_104">Fig. 104</a>), engraver in +medals, and sculptor, and he excels in these three branches of the art, +as the productions which have survived him attest. Nevertheless, +unfortunately, the greater part of his works in the goldsmith’s art have +been destroyed, or are now confounded with those of his contemporaries, +upon whom Italian taste, combined with his original genius, had +exercised a powerful influence. In France there remains of his works +only a magnificent salt-cellar, which he executed for Francis I.; in +Florence is preserved the mounting of a cup in lapis-lazuli, +representing three anchors in gold enamelled, heightened by diamonds; +also the cover, in gold enamelled, of another cup of rock-crystal. But, +besides the bronze bust of Cosmo I., we may still admire, with the group +of Perseus and Medusa, which ranks among grand sculptures, the reduced +form, or rather the model of that group, which in size approaches +goldsmith’s work; and the bronze pedestal, decorated with statuettes, on +which Perseus is placed; works that enable us to see of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_150" id="page_150">{150}</a></span> what Cellini +was capable as a goldsmith. And, let us repeat, the influence which he +exercised over his contemporaries was immense, as well in Florence as in +Rome, as well in France as in Germany; and, had his work been thought +utterly worthless, he would remain not less justly celebrated for giving +an impulse to his time by imprinting on the art which he professed a +movement as fertile as it was bold.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_115_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_115_sml.jpg" width="241" height="349" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_104" id="fig_104"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 104.—A Pendant, after a design by Benvenuto +Cellini. Sixteenth Century. (Cabinet of Antiquities, Bibl. Imp., +Paris.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Moreover, in imitation of the monk Theophilus, his predecessor of the +twelfth century, Benvenuto Cellini, after having given practical +example, desired that the theories he had found prevailing, and those +which were due to his faculty for originating, should be preserved for +posterity. A<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_151" id="page_151">{151}</a></span> treatise (“Trattato intorno alle otto principali Arti dell +‘Orificeria”), in which he describes and teaches all the best processes +of working in gold, remains one of the most valuable works on the +subject; and even in our days goldsmiths who wish to refer back to the +true sources of their art do not neglect to consult it.</p> + +<p>The artistic style of the celebrated Florentine goldsmith is that of a +period when, by an earnest return to antiquity, the mythological element +was introduced everywhere, even in the Christian sanctuaries. The +character, which we may call autochthone,<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> of the pious and severe +Middle Ages, ceased to influence the production of plastic works, when +the models were taken from the glorious remains of idolatrous Greece and +Rome. The art which the religion of Christ had awakened and upheld +suddenly became again Pagan, and Cellini proved himself one of the +enthusiasts of the ancient temples raised in honour of the gods and +goddesses of Paganism; that is to say, under the impulse given by him, +and in imitation of him, the phalanx of artists, of which he is in a +manner the chief, could not fail to go far on the new road by which he +had travelled among the first.</p> + +<p>When Cellini came to France he found, as he himself says in his book, +that the work consisted “more than elsewhere in <i>grosserie</i>” (the +<i>grosserie</i> comprised the church plate, vessels, and silver images), +“and that the works there executed with the hammer had attained a degree +of perfection nowhere else to be met with.”</p> + +<p>The inventory of the plate and jewels of Henry II., among which were +many by Benvenuto Cellini—the inventory prepared at Fontainebleau in +1560—shows us that, after the departure of the Florentine artist, the +French goldsmiths continued to deserve that eulogium; and to comprehend +of what they were capable in the time of Charles IX., it is sufficient +to recall the description, preserved in the archives of Paris, of a +piece of plate which the city had caused to be made to offer as a +present to the king on the occasion of his entry into his capital in +1571.</p> + +<p>“It was,” says that document, “a large pedestal, supported on four +dolphins, and having seated on it Cybele, mother of the gods, +representing the mother of the king, accompanied by the gods Neptune and +Pluto, and the goddess Juno, as Messeigneurs the brothers, and Madame +the sister, of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_152" id="page_152">{152}</a></span> king. This Cybele was contemplating Jupiter, who +represented our king, and was raised on two columns, the one of gold, +the other of silver, having his device inscribed—‘Pietate et Justitia.’ +Upon this was a large imperial crown, on one side held in the beak of an +eagle perched on the croup of a horse on which Jupiter was mounted; and +on the other side supported by the sceptre he held—thus being, as it +were, deified. At the four corners of the pedestal were the figures of +four kings, his predecessors, all of the same name—that is, Charles the +Great, Charles V., Charles VII., and Charles VIII., who in their time +fulfilled their missions, and their reigns were happy, as we hope will +be that of our king. In the frieze of that pedestal were the battles and +the victories, of all kinds, in which he was engaged; the whole made of +fine silver, gilt with ducat gold, chased, engraved, and in workmanship +so executed that the style surpassed the material.”</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="fig_106" id="fig_106"></a> +<a href="images/ill_116_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_116_sml.jpg" width="269" height="178" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_105" id="fig_105"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 105.—Cup of Lapis-lazuli, mounted in Gold enriched +with Rubies, and a Figure in Gold enamelled. (Italian Work of the 16th +Century.)</p> + +<p>Fig. 106.—Vase of Rock-crystal, mounted in Silver-gilt +and enamelled. (Italian Work of the 16th Century.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>That rare piece was the work of Jean Regnard, a Parisian goldsmith; and +the period when such works were produced was precisely that during which +religious wars were about to cause the annihilation of a great number of +the <i>chefs-d’œuvre</i>, ancient and modern, of the goldsmith’s art. The new +iconoclasts, the Huguenots, shattered and melted down, wherever they +triumphed, the sacred vessels, the shrines, the reliquaries. Then were +lost the most precious gold-wrought memorials of the times of St. Eloi, +of Charlemagne, of Suger, and of St. Louis.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_153" id="page_153">{153}</a></span></p> + +<p>At the same period Germany, where the influence of the Italian school +had made itself felt less directly, but which could not escape from its +impulse, possessed also, especially at Nuremburg and Augsburg, +goldsmiths’ workshops of high character; these furnished the empire, and +even foreign countries, with remarkable works. A new career opened to +the German goldsmiths when the cabinet-makers of their country had +invented those <i>cabinets</i>, whereof we have already said something +(<i>vide</i> <span class="smcap">Furniture</span>), and in the intricate decoration of which appear +statuettes, silver bas-reliefs, and inlay-work of gold and precious +stones.</p> + +<p>The <i>treasuries</i> and the museums of Germany have succeeded in preserving +many rich objects of that period; but one of the most rare collections +of the kind is that in Berlin, where, in substitution for the originals +in silver which have been melted down, are gathered a great number of +beautiful bas-reliefs in lead, and several vases in tin,—copies of +pieces of plate supposed to be of the sixteenth and seventeenth +centuries. And on this point it may be remarked that the high price of +the material, together with the sumptuary laws, not always admitting of +the possession of gold or silver vases by the citizens, it sometimes +happened that the goldsmiths manufactured a table-service of tin, on +which they bestowed so much pains that these articles were transferred +from the sideboards of citizens to those of princes. The inventory of +the Count d’Angoulême, father of Francis I., alludes to a considerable +table-service of tin. Indeed, several goldsmiths devoted themselves +exclusively to this description of work; and, to this day, the tins of +François Briot, who flourished in the time of Henry II., are regarded as +the most perfect specimens of plate of the sixteenth century.</p> + +<p>However that may be, after Cellini, and until the reign of Louis XIV., +the goldsmith’s art did but follow faithfully in the footsteps of the +Italian master. Elevated by the impulse of the Renaissance, the art +succeeded in maintaining itself in that high position without, however, +any striking individuality discovering itself, until, in a century not +less illustrious than the sixteenth, new masters appeared and imparted +to it additional lustre and magnificence. These are named Ballin, +Delaunay, Julien Defontaine, Labarre, Vincent Petit, Roussel, goldsmiths +and jewellers of Louis XIV., who retained them in his pay, and lodged +them in the Louvre. It was for that prince they produced an imposing +collection of admirable works, for which Le Brun often furnished the +designs, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_154" id="page_154">{154}</a></span> under an inspiration altogether French, abandoned the +graceful, though rather <i>fluette</i> forms of the Renaissance, and gave to +them a character more diffuse and grand. Then, for a short time, every +article of royal furniture proceeded from the hands of the goldsmith. +But, alas! once more the majority of these marvels must disappear, as +happened to so many others. Even the monarch who had ordered them +despatched his acquisitions to the crucibles of the mint, when, the war +having exhausted the public treasury, he found himself compelled, at +least for example’s sake, to sacrifice his silver plate and to deck his +table with earthenware.</p> + +<p>Having finished this sketch of the goldsmith’s art in general, it may +not be inappropriate to add a brief notice of the more special history +of the French goldsmiths, of which the wealthy corporation may be +considered not only as the most ancient, but as the model of all those +that were formed among us in the Middle Ages. But first, since we have +already referred to the exceptional part taken by the goldsmiths of +Limoges in the industrial movement of that period, we cannot proceed +further without noting another description of works, which, although +derived from the oldest examples, nevertheless gave, and with justice, a +kind of new lustre to the ancient city where the first goldsmiths of +France had distinguished themselves.</p> + +<p>“Towards the end of the fourteenth century,” says M. Labarte, “the taste +for gold and silver articles having led to the disuse of plate of +enamelled copper, the Limousine enamellers endeavoured to discover a new +mode of applying enamel to the reproduction of graphic subjects. Their +researches led them to dispense with the chaser for delineating the +outlines of designs; the metal was entirely concealed under the enamel, +which, spread by the brush, formed altogether both the drawing and the +colouring. The first attempts at this novel painting on copper were +necessarily very imperfect; but the processes gradually improved, until +at length, in 1540, they attained perfection. Prior to that period, the +enamels of Limoges were almost exclusively devoted to the reproduction +of sacred subjects, of which the German school furnished the designs. +But the arrival of Italian artists at the court of Francis I., and the +publication of engravings of the works of Raphael and other great +masters of Italy, gave a new direction to the school of Limoges, which +adopted the style of that of Italy. Il Rosso and Primaticcio painted +cartoons for the Limousine enamellers; and then</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="chrm_10" id="chrm_10"></a> +<a href="images/ill_117_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_117_sml.jpg" width="375" height="580" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<div class="caption"><p>DRAGEOIR, OR TABLE ORNAMENT</p> + +<p>Of Enamelled and Gilt Copper. German, latter part of Sixteenth +Century.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_155" id="page_155">{155}</a></span></p> + +<p class="nind">they who had previously worked only on plates intended to be set in +diptychs, on caskets, created a new species of goldsmith’s art. Basins, +ewers, cups, salt-cellars, vases, and utensils of all sorts, +manufactured with thin sheet-copper in the most elegant forms were +decorated with their rich and brilliant paintings.”</p> + +<p>In the highest rank of artists who have rendered this attractive work +illustrious we must place Léonard (Limousin), painter to Francis I., who +was the first director of the royal manufacture of enamels founded by +that king at Limoges. Then followed Pierre Raymond (<a href="#fig_107">Figs. 107 to 110</a>), +whose works date from 1534 to 1578, the Penicauds, Courteys, Martial +Raymond, Mercier, and Jean Limousin, enameller to Anne of Austria.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="fig_107" id="fig_107"></a> +<a name="fig_108" id="fig_108"></a> +<a href="images/ill_118_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_118_sml.jpg" width="284" height="179" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<div class="caption"><p>Figs. 107 and 108.—Faces of an Hexagonal Enamelled +Salt-cellar, representing the Labours of Hercules. Executed at Limoges, +for Francis I., by Pierre Raymond.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>With the remark that, at the end of the sixteenth century, Venice, +doubtless imitating Limoges, also manufactured pieces of plate in +enamelled copper, we return to our national goldsmiths.</p> + +<p>This celebrated corporation could, without much trouble, be traced back +in Gaul to the epoch of the Roman occupation; but it is unnecessary to +search for its origin beyond St. Eloi, who is still its patron, after +having been its founder and protector. Eloi, become prime-minister to +Dagobert I.—thanks in some measure to his merits as a goldsmith, which +distinguished him above all, and gained him the honour of royal +friendship—continued to work no less at his forge as a simple artisan. +“He made for the king,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_156" id="page_156">{156}</a></span>” says the chronicle, “a great number of gold +vases enriched with precious stones, and he worked incessantly, seated +with his servant Thillon, a Saxon by birth, at his side, who followed +the lessons of his master.”</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_119_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_119_sml.jpg" width="234" height="256" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_109" id="fig_109"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 109.—Interior base of a Salt-cellar, executed at +Limoges; with a Portrait of Francis I.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>This extract seems to indicate that already the goldsmith’s art was +organised as a corporation, and that it comprised three ranks of +artisans—the masters, the journeymen, and the apprentices. Besides, it +is clear that St. Eloi founded two distinct corporations of +goldsmiths—one for secular, the other for religious works, in order +that the objects sacred to worship should not be manufactured by the +same hands that executed those designed for profane uses or worldly +state. The seat of the former in Paris was first the Cité, near the very +abode of St. Eloi long known as the <i>maison au fèvre</i>, and surrounding +the monastery of St. Martial. Within the jurisdiction of that monastery +was the space comprised between the streets of La Barillerie, of La +Calandre, Aux Fèves, and of La Vieille Draperie, under the denomination +of “St. Eloi’s Enclosure.” A raging fire destroyed the entire quarter +inhabited by the goldsmiths, excepting the monastery; and the lay +gold<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_157" id="page_157">{157}</a></span>smiths went forth and established themselves as a colony, still +under the auspices of their patron saint, in the shadow of the Church of +St. Paul des Champs, which he had caused to be constructed on the right +bank of the Seine. The assemblage of forges and shops of these artisans +soon formed a sort of suburb, which was called <i>Clôture</i>, or <i>Culture +St. Eloi</i>. Subsequently some of the goldsmiths returned to the Cité; but +they remained on the Grand-Pont, and returned no more to the streets, +where the cobblers had established themselves. Moreover, the monastery +of St. Martial had become, under the administration of its first abbess, +St. Anne, a branch of the goldsmith’s school which the “Seigneur Eloi” +had established in 631 in the Abbey of Solignac, in the environs of +Limoges. That abbey, whose first abbot, Thillon or Théau—a pupil, or, +as the chronicle expresses it, a servant of St. Eloi—was also a skilful +goldsmith, preserved during several centuries the traditions of its +founder, and furnished not only models, but also skilful workmen, to all +the monastic ateliers of Christendom which exclusively manufactured for +the churches jewelled and enamelled plate.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_120_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_120_sml.jpg" width="98" height="174" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_110" id="fig_110"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 110.—Ewer in Enamel, of Limoges, by Pierre +Raymond.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>However, the goldsmiths of Paris engaged in secular works continued to +maintain themselves as a corporation; and their privileges, which they +ascribed to the special regard of Dagobert for St. Eloi, were +recognised, it is said, in 768 by a royal charter, and confirmed in 846 +in a capitulary of Charles the Bald. These goldsmiths worked in gold and +silver only for kings and nobles, whom the strictness of the sumptuary +laws did not reach.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_158" id="page_158">{158}</a></span> The Dictionary of Jean de Garlande informs us that, +in the eleventh century, there were in Paris four classes of workmen in +the goldsmith’s trade—those who coined money (<i>nummularii</i>), the +clasp-makers (<i>firmacularii</i>), the manufacturers of drinking-goblets +(<i>cipharii</i>), and the goldsmiths, properly so called (<i>aurifabri</i>). The +ateliers and the shop-windows of these last were on the Pont-au-Change +(<a href="#fig_111">Fig. 111</a>), in competition with the money-changers, who for the most +part were Lombards or Italians. From that epoch a rivalry commenced +between these two trade guilds, which only ceased on the complete +downfall of the money-changers.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_121_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_121_sml.jpg" width="334" height="245" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_111" id="fig_111"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 111.—Interior of the Atelier of Etienne Delaulne, a +celebrated goldsmith of Paris, in the Sixteenth Century. Designed and +engraved by himself.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>When Etienne Boileau, Provost of Paris in the reign of Louis IX., wrote +in obedience to the legislative designs of the king, his famous “Livre +des Métiers,” to establish the existence of guilds on permanent +foundations, he had scarcely more to do than to transcribe the statutes +of the goldsmiths almost the same as those instituted by St. Eloi, with +the modifications consequent on the new order of things. By the terms of +the ordinances drawn up by Louis, the goldsmiths of Paris were exempt +from the watch, and from all other feudal services; they elected, every +three years, two or three <i>anciens</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_159" id="page_159">{159}</a></span> (seniors) “for the protection of +the trade,” and these <i>anciens</i> exercised permanent vigilance over the +works of their colleagues, and over the quality of the gold and silver +material used by them. An apprentice was not admitted as a master until +after ten years’ apprenticeship; and no master could have more than one +apprentice, in addition to those belonging to his own family. The +corporation, so far as concerned the fraternity with respect to works +for charitable and devotional purposes, had a seal (<a href="#fig_116">Fig. 116</a>) which +placed it under the patronage of St. Eloi; but, with regard to its +industrial association, it imprinted on manufactured articles a <i>seing</i>, +or stamp, which guaranteed the value of the metal. The corporation soon +obtained, from Philip of Valois, a coat-of-arms, which conferred on it a +sort of professional nobility; and acquired, owing to the distinguished +protection extended to it by that king, a position which nevertheless it +did not succeed in preserving in the united constitution of the six +mercantile bodies; for, although it laid claim to the first rank on +account of its antiquity, it was forced, notwithstanding the undeniable +superiority of its works, to be contented with the second, and even to +descend to the third rank.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_122_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_122_sml.jpg" width="308" height="163" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<div class="caption"> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td><p><a name="fig_112" id="fig_112"></a>Fig. 112.—Stamp of Lyons.</p></td><td> </td><td><p><a name="fig_113" id="fig_113"></a>Fig. 113.—Stamp of Chartres.</p></td></tr> +<tr><td><p><a name="fig_114" id="fig_114"></a>Fig. 114.—Stamp of Melun.</p></td><td><p><a name="fig_115" id="fig_115"></a>Fig. 115.—Stamp of Orléans.</p></td><td><p><a name="fig_116" id="fig_116"></a>Fig. 116.—Ancient Corporate Seal of the Goldsmiths of +Paris.</p></td></tr> +</table> +</div></div> + +<p>The goldsmiths, at the time of the compilation of the code of +professions by Etienne Boileau, were already separated, voluntarily or +otherwise, from several trades which had long appeared in their train; +the <i>cristalliers</i>, or lapidaries; the gold and silver beaters; the +embroiderers in <i>orfroi</i> (gold-fringe); the <i>patenôtriers</i> +(bead-stringers) in precious stones lived under their own regulations; +the <i>monétaires</i> (bullion-dealers) remained under the control of the +king and his mint; the <i>hanapiers</i> (drinking-cup makers), the +<i>fermailleurs</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_160" id="page_160">{160}</a></span> (makers of clasps), the pewterers, boxmakers, inferior +artisans and others who worked in common metals, had no longer any +connection with the goldsmiths of Paris. But in the provinces, in towns +where the masters of a trade were insufficient to constitute a community +or fraternity having its chiefs and its own administration, it was +indispensable to reunite under the same banner the trades between which +there was the most agreement, or rather the least contrariety. Thus, in +certain localities in France and the Low Countries, the goldsmiths, +proud as they might be of the nobility of their origin, sometimes found +themselves united as equals with the</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_123_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_123_sml.jpg" width="310" height="230" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_117" id="fig_117"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 117.—Arms of the Corporation of Goldsmiths of +Paris, with this device: “Vases Sacrés et Couronnes, voilà notre +Œuvre.”</p></div> +</div> + +<p class="nind">pewterers, the mercers, the braziers, and even the grocers; and thus it +came to pass that they combined on their banners of fleurs-de-lis the +proper arms of each of these several trades. Thus, for instance, we see +the banner of the goldsmiths of Castellane (<a href="#fig_118">Fig. 118</a>) united with the +retail mercers and tailors—it shows a pair of scissors, scales, and an +ell measure; at Chauny (<a href="#fig_119">Fig. 119</a>), a ladder, a hammer, and a vase, +indicate that the goldsmiths had for compeers the pewterers and the +slaters; at Guise (<a href="#fig_120">Fig. 120</a>), the association of farriers, coppersmiths, +and locksmiths, is allied with the goldsmiths by a horse-shoe, a mallet, +and a key; the brewers of Harfleur<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_161" id="page_161">{161}</a></span> (<a href="#fig_121">Fig. 121</a>) quartered in their arms +four barrels between the bars of the cross <i>gules</i> charged with a goblet +of gold, which was the emblem of their associates the goldsmiths; at +Maringues (<a href="#fig_122">Fig. 122</a>), the gold cup on a field <i>gules</i> surmounts the +grocer’s candles.</p> + +<p>These banners were displayed only on great public ceremonies, in solemn +processions, receptions, marriages, the obsequies of kings, queens, +princes, and princesses. Exempted from military service, the goldsmiths, +unlike other trade corporations, had not the opportunity of +distinguishing themselves in the militia of the communes. They, +nevertheless, occupied the first place in the state processions of +trades, and frequently filled posts of honour. Thus in Paris they had +the custody of the gold and silver plate when the good city entertained +some illustrious guest at a banquet; they carried the canopy above the +head of the king on his joyful accession; or, crowned with roses, walked +bearing on their shoulders the venerated shrine of St. Geneviève (Fig. +123).</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="fig_119" id="fig_119"></a><a name="fig_120" id="fig_120"></a> +<a href="images/ill_124_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_124-a_sml.jpg" width="307" height="99" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_118" id="fig_118"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 118. +Fig. 119. +Fig. 120.</p> +</div> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="fig_122" id="fig_122"></a> +<a href="images/ill_124_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_124-b_sml.jpg" width="306" height="96" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_121" id="fig_121"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 121. +Fig. 122.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>In the wealthy cities of Belgium, where the corporations were queens +(<i>reines</i>), the goldsmiths, by virtue of their privileges, dictated the +law and swayed the people. No doubt in France they were far from +enjoying the same political influence; nevertheless, one of them was +that provost of merchants, Etienne Marcel, who, from 1356 to 1358, +played so bold a part<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_162" id="page_162">{162}</a></span> during the regency of the Dauphin Charles. But it +was especially in periods of peace and prosperity that the goldsmith’s +art in Paris shone in all its splendour; then its banners incessantly +waved in the breeze for the festivals and processions of its numerous +and wealthy brotherhoods to the churches of Notre-Dame, St. Martial, St. +Paul, and St. Denis of Montmartre.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_125_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_125_sml.jpg" width="331" height="296" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_123" id="fig_123"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 123.—The Corporation of the Goldsmiths of Paris +carrying the Shrine of St. Geneviève. (From an engraving of the +Seventeenth Century.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>In 1337 the number of the wardens of the goldsmith’s guild in Paris had +increased from three to six. They had their names engraved and their +marks stamped on tablets of copper, which were preserved as archives in +the town-hall. Every French goldsmith, admitted a master after the +production of his principal work, left the impression of his sign +manual, or private mark, on similar tablets of copper deposited in the +office of the guild; while the stamp of the community itself was +required to be engraved at the mint to authorise its being used. Every +corporation thus had its mark,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_163" id="page_163">{163}</a></span> which the wardens set on the articles +after having assayed and weighed the metal. These marks, at least in the +later centuries, represented in general the special arms or emblems of +the cities; for Lyons, it is a lion; for Melun, an eel; for Chartres, a +partridge; for Orleans, the head of Joan of Arc, &c. (<a href="#fig_112">Figs. 112 to 115</a>).</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_126_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_126_sml.jpg" width="145" height="165" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_124" id="fig_124"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 124.—Gold Cross, chased. (A French Work of the +Seventeenth Century.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The goldsmiths of France manifested, and with reason, a jealousy of +their privileges, it being more indispensable for them than for any +other artisans to inspire that confidence without which the trade would +have been lost; for their works were required to bear as authentic and +legal a value as that of money. Therefore, it may be understood that +they exercised keen vigilance over all gold or silver objects which were +in any way under their warranty: hence the frequent visits of the sworn +masters to the ateliers and shops of the goldsmiths; hence the perpetual +lawsuits against all instances of negligence or fraud; hence those +quarrels with other trades which arrogated to themselves the right of +working in precious metals without having qualified for it. Confiscation +of goods, the whip, the pillory, were penalties inflicted on goldsmiths +in contraband trade who altered the standard, concealed copper beneath +the gold, or substituted false for precious stones.</p> + +<p>It, indeed, seems remarkable that while for the most part other trades +were subject to the control of the goldsmiths, the latter were +responsible only to themselves for the aggressions which they constantly +committed within<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_164" id="page_164">{164}</a></span> the domain of rival industries. Whenever the object to +be manufactured was of gold, it belonged to the goldsmith’s trade. The +goldsmith made, by turns, spurs as the spur-maker; armour and arms, as +the armourer; girdles and clasps, as the belt-maker and the clasp-maker. +However, there is reason to believe that in the fabrication of these +various objects, the goldsmith had recourse to the assistance of special +artisans, who could scarcely fail to derive all possible advantage from +such fortuitous association. Thus, when the gold-wrought sword which +Dunois carried when Charles VII. entered Lyons in 1449, mounted in +diamonds and rubies, and valued at more than fifteen thousand crowns, +was to be made, the work of the goldsmiths probably consisted only of +the fashioning and chasing the hilt, while the sword-cutler had to forge +and temper the blade. In the same manner, when it was required to work a +jewelled robe, such as Marie de Medicis wore at the baptism of her son +in 1606, the robe being covered with thirty-two thousand precious stones +and three thousand diamonds, the goldsmith had only to mount the stones +and furnish the design for fixing them on the gold or silk tissue.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_127_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_127_sml.jpg" width="144" height="180" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_125" id="fig_125"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 125.—Pendant, adorned with Diamonds and Precious +Stones. (Seventeenth Century.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Long before Benvenuto and other skilful Italian goldsmiths were summoned +by Francis I. to his court, the French goldsmiths had proved that they +needed only a little encouragement to range themselves on a level with +foreign artists. But that patronage having failed them, they left the +country and established themselves elsewhere; thus at the court of +Flanders,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_165" id="page_165">{165}</a></span> Antoine of Bordeaux, Margerie of Avignon, and Jean of Rouen, +distinguished themselves. It is true that in the reign of Louis XII., +whose exchequer had been exhausted in the Italian expeditions, gold and +silver had become so scarce in France, that the king was obliged to +prohibit the manufacture of all sorts of large plate (<i>grosserie</i>). But +the discovery of America having brought with it an abundance of the +precious metals, Louis XII. recalled his ordinance in 1510; and +thenceforth the corporations of goldsmiths were seen to increase and +prosper, as luxuriousness, diffused by the example of the great, +descended to the lower ranks of society. Silver plate soon displaced +that of tin; and before long personal display had attained such a +height, “that the wife of a merchant wore on her person more jewels than +were seen on the image of the Virgin.” The number of the goldsmiths then +became so great that in the city of Rouen alone there were in 1563 <i>two +hundred and sixty-five</i> masters having the right of stamp!</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_128-a_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_128-a_sml.jpg" width="320" height="111" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<div class="caption"><p>Figs. 126 to 131.—Chains.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_128-b_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_128-b_sml.jpg" width="296" height="87" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<div class="caption"><p>Figs. 132 to 136.—Rings.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>To sum up this chapter. Until the middle of the fourteenth century it is +the religious art which prevails; the goldsmiths are engaged only in +executing shrines, reliquaries, and church ornaments. At the end of that +century, and during the one following, they manufactured gold and +silver<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_166" id="page_166">{166}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_129_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_129_sml.jpg" width="323" height="73" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<div class="caption"><p>Figs. 137 to 141.—Seals.</p></div> +</div> + +<p class="nind">plate, enriching with their works the treasuries of kings and nobles, +and imparting brilliant display to the adornment of dress. In the +sixteenth and seventeenth centuries the goldsmiths applied themselves +more to chasing, enamelling, and inlay-work. Everywhere are to be seen +marvellous trinkets—necklaces, rings, buckles, chains, seals (<a href="#fig_124">Figs. 124 +to 142</a>). The weight of metal is no longer the principal merit; the skill +of the workman is especially appreciated, and the goldsmith executes in +gold, in silver, and in precious stones, the beautiful productions of +painters and engravers. Nevertheless, the demand for delicate objects +had the disadvantage of requiring much solder and alloy, which +deteriorated the standard of metal. Then a desperate struggle commenced +between the goldsmiths and the mint—a struggle which was prosecuted +through a maze of legal proceedings, petitions, and ordinances, until +the middle of the reign of Louis XV. At the same time the Italian and +German goldsmiths making an irruption into France and introducing +materials of a low standard, the old professional integrity became +suspected and was soon disregarded. At the end of the sixteenth century +very little plate was ornamented: there is a return to massive plate, +the weight and standard of which could be easily verified. Gold is +scarcely any longer employed, except for jewels; and silver in a +thousand forms creeps into the manufacture of furniture. After +<i>cabinets</i>, covered and ornamented with carving in silver, came the +articles of silver furniture invented by Claude Ballin. But the mass of +precious metal withdrawn from circulation was soon returned to it, and +the fashion passed away. The goldsmiths found themselves reduced to +manufacture only objects of small size; and for the most part they +limited themselves to works of jewellery, which subjected them to less +annoyance from the mint. Besides, the art of the lapidary had almost +changed its character, as well as the trade in precious stones. Pierre +de Montarsy, jeweller to the king, effected a kind<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_167" id="page_167">{167}</a></span> of revolution in his +art, which the travels of Chardin, of Bernier, and of Tavernier, in the +East had, so to say, enlarged. The cutting and mounting of precious +stones has not since been excelled. It may be said that Montarsy was the +first jeweller, as Ballin was the last goldsmith.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_130_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_130_sml.jpg" width="301" height="183" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_142" id="fig_142"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 142.—Chased and Enamelled Brooch, embellished with +Pearls and Diamonds. (Seventeenth Century.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_168" id="page_168">{168}</a></span> </p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_169" id="page_169">{169}</a></span> </p> + +<h2><a name="HOROLOGY" id="HOROLOGY"></a>HOROLOGY.</h2> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Modes of measuring Time among the Ancients.—The Gnomon.—The +Water-Clock.—The Hour-Glass.—The Water-Clock, improved by the +Persians and by the Italians.—Gerbert invents the Escapement and +the moving Weights.—The Striking-bell.—Maistre Jehan des +Orloges.—Jacquemart of Dijon.—The first Clock in Paris.—Earliest +portable Timepiece.—Invention of the spiral Spring.—First +appearance of Watches.—The Watches, or “Eggs,” of +Nuremberg.—Invention of the Fusee.—Corporation of +Clockmakers.—Noted Clocks at Jena, Strasburg, Lyons, +&c.—Charles-Quint and Jannellus.—The Pendulum.</p></div> + +<p class="nind"><a href="images/ill_131_lg.jpg"> +<span class="letra"> +<img src="images/ill_131_sml.jpg" +width="90" +alt="A" /></span></a>MONG the ancients there were three instruments for measuring time—the +<i>gnomon</i>, or sun-dial, which is only, as we know, a table whereon lines +are so arranged as successively to meet the shadow cast by a gnomon,<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> +thus indicating the hour of the day according to the height or +inclination of the sun; the water-clock (<i>clepsydra</i>), which had for its +principle the measured percolation of a certain quantity of water; and +the hour-glass, wherein the liquid is exchanged for sand. It would be +difficult to determine which of these three chronometric modes can lay +claim to priority. There is this to be said that, according to the +Bible, in the eighth century before Christ, Ahaz, King of Judah, caused +a sun-dial to be constructed at Jerusalem; again, Herodotus says +Anaximander introduced the sun-dial into Greece, whence it passed on to +the other parts of the then civilised world; and that, in the year 293 +before our era, the celebrated Papirius Cursor, to the astonishment of +his fellow-citizens, had a sun-dial traced near the temple of Jupiter +Quirinus.</p> + +<p>According to the description given by Athena (Athenæus?), the +water-clock was formed of an earthenware or metal vessel filled with +water, and then suspended over a reservoir whereon lines were marked +indicating<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_170" id="page_170">{170}</a></span> the hours, as the water which escaped drop by drop from the +upper vessel came to the level. We find this instrument employed by most +ancient nations, and in many countries it remained in use until the +tenth century of the Christian era.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_132_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_132_sml.jpg" width="172" height="224" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_143" id="fig_143"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 143.—The Clockmaker. Designed and Engraved by J. +Amman.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>In one of his dialogues Plato declares that the philosophers are far +more fortunate than the orators—“these being the slaves of a miserable +water-clock; whereas the others are at liberty to make their discourse +as long as they please.” To explain this passage, we must remember that +it was the practice in the Athenian courts of justice, as subsequently +in those of Rome, to measure the time allowed to the advocates for +pleading by means of a water-clock. Three equal portions of water were +put into it—one for the prosecutor, one for the defendant, and the +third for the judge. A man was charged with the special duty of giving +timely notice to each of the three speakers that his portion was nearly +run out. If, on some unusual occasion, the time for one or other of the +parties was doubled, it was called “adding water-clock to water-clock;” +and when witnesses were giving evidence, or the text of some law was +being read out, the percolation of the water was stopped: this was +called <i>aquam sustinere</i> (to retain the water).<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_171" id="page_171">{171}</a></span></p> + +<p>The hour-glass, which is still in use to a considerable extent for +measuring short intervals of time, had great analogy with the +water-clock, but was never susceptible of such regularity. In fact, at +different periods important improvements were applied to the +water-clock. Vitruvius tells us that, about one hundred years before our +era, Ctesibius, a mechanician of Alexandria, added several cogged-wheels +to the water-clock, one of which moved a hand, showing the hour on a +dial. This must have been, so far as historical documents admit of +proof, the first step towards purely mechanical horology.</p> + +<p>In order, then, to find an authentic date in the history of horology, we +must go to the eighth century, when water-clocks, still further +improved, were either made or imported into France; among others, one +which Pope Paul I. sent to Pepin le Bref. We must, however, believe that +these instruments can have attracted but little attention, or that they +were speedily forgotten; for, one hundred years later, there appeared a +water-clock at the court of Charlemagne, a present from the famous +caliph Aroun-al-Raschid, regarded, indeed almost celebrated, as a +notable event. Of this Eginhard has left us an elaborate description. It +was, he says, in brass, damaskeened with gold, and marked the hours on a +dial. At the end of each hour an equal number of small iron balls fell +on a bell, and made it sound as many times as the hour indicated by the +needle. Twelve windows immediately opened, out of which were seen to +proceed the same number of horsemen armed <i>cap-à-pie</i>, who, after +performing divers evolutions, withdrew into the interior of the +mechanism, and then the windows closed.</p> + +<p>Shortly afterwards Pacificus, Archbishop of Verona, constructed one far +superior to all that had preceded it; for, besides giving the hours, it +indicated the date of the month, the days of the week, the phases of the +moon, &c. But still it was only an improved water-clock. Before horology +could really assume an historical date, it was necessary that for motive +power weights should be substituted for water, and that the escapement +should be invented; yet it was only in the beginning of the tenth +century that these important discoveries were made.</p> + +<p>“In the reign of Hugh Capet,” says M. Dubois, “there lived in France a +man of great talent and reputation named Gerbert. He was born in the +mountains of Auvergne, and had passed his childhood in tending flocks +near Aurillac. One day some monks of the order of St. Benedict met him +in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_172" id="page_172">{172}</a></span> fields: they conversed with him, and finding him precociously +intelligent, took him into their convent of St. Gérauld. There Gerbert +soon acquired a taste for monastic life. Eager for knowledge, and +devoting all his spare moments to study, he became the most learned of +the community. After he had taken vows, a desire to add to his +scientific attainments led him to set out for Spain. During several +years he assiduously frequented the universities of the Iberian +peninsula. He soon found himself too learned for Spain; for, in spite of +his truly sincere piety, ignorant fanatics accused him of sorcery. As +that accusation might have involved him in deplorable consequences, he +preferred not to await the result; and hastily quitting the town of +Salamanca, which was his ordinary residence, he came to Paris, where he +very soon made himself powerful friends and protectors. At length, after +having successively been monk, superior of the convent of Bobbio, in +Italy, Archbishop of Rheims, tutor to Robert I., King of France, and to +Otho III., Emperor of Germany, who appointed him to the see of Ravenna, +Gerbert rose to the pontifical throne under the name of Sylvester II.: +he died in 1003. This great man did honour to his country and to his +age. He was acquainted with nearly all the dead and living languages; he +was a mechanician, astronomer, physician, geometrician, algebraist, &c. +He introduced the Arab numerals into France. In the seclusion of his +monastic cell, as in his archiepiscopal palace, his favourite relaxation +was the study of mechanics. He was skilled in making sun-dials, +water-clocks, hour-glasses, and hydraulic organs. It was he who first +applied weight as a motive power to horology; and, in all probability, +he is the inventor of that admirable mechanism called escapement—the +most beautiful, as well as the most essential, of all the inventions +which have been made in horology.”</p> + +<p>This is not the place to give a description of these two mechanisms, +which can hardly be explained except with the assistance of purely +technical drawings, but it may be remarked that weights are still the +sole motive power of large clocks, and the escapement alluded to has +been alone employed throughout the world until the end of the +seventeenth century. Notwithstanding the importance of these two +inventions, little use was made of them during the eleventh, twelfth, +and thirteenth centuries. The water-clock and hour-glass (<a href="#fig_144">Fig. 144</a>) +continued exclusively in use. Some were ornamented and engraved with +much taste; and they contributed to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_173" id="page_173">{173}</a></span> decoration of apartments, as at +present do our bronzes and clocks more or less costly.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_133_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_133_sml.jpg" width="191" height="365" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_144" id="fig_144"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 144.—An Hour-glass of the Sixteenth +Century,—French Work.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>History does not inform us who was the inventor of the striking +machinery; but it is at least averred that it existed at the +commencement of the twelfth century. The first mention of it is found in +the “Usages de l’Ordre de Cîteaux,” compiled about 1120. It is there +prescribed to the sacristan so to regulate the clock, that it “sounds +and awakens him before matins;” in another chapter the monk is ordered +to prolong the lecture until “the clock strikes.” At first, in the +monasteries, the monks took it in turn to watch, and warn the community +of the hours for prayer; and, in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_174" id="page_174">{174}</a></span> towns, there were night watchmen, +who, moreover, were maintained in many places to announce in the streets +the hour denoted by the clocks, the water-clocks, or the hour-glasses.</p> + +<p>The machinery for striking once invented, we do not find that horology +had attained to any perfection before the end of the thirteenth century; +but, in the commencement of the following it received its impulse, and +the art from that time continued to progress.</p> + +<p>To give an idea of what was effected at that time, we will borrow a +passage from the earliest writings in which horology is mentioned; that +is, from an unpublished book by Philip de Maizières, entitled “Le Songe +du Vieil Pélerin:”—“It is known that in Italy there is at present +(about 1350) a man generally celebrated in philosophy, in medicine, and +in astronomy; in his station, by common report, singular and grave, +excelling in the above three sciences, and of the city of Padua. His +surname is lost, and he is called ‘Maistre Jehan des Orloges,’ residing +at present with the Comte de Vertus; and, for the treble sciences, he +has for yearly wages and perquisites two thousand florins, or +thereabouts. This Maistre Jean des Orloges has made an instrument, by +some called a <i>sphere</i> or clock, of the movement of the heavens, in +which instrument are all the motions of the signs (zodiacal), and of the +planets, with their circles and epicycles, and multiplied differences, +wheels (<i>roes</i>) without number, with all their parts, and each planet in +the said sphere, distinctly. On any given night, we see clearly in what +sign and degree are the planets and the stars of the heavens; and this +sphere is so cunningly made, that notwithstanding the multitude of +wheels, which cannot well be numbered without taking the machinery to +pieces, their entire mechanism is governed by one single counterpoise, +so marvellous that the grave astronomers from distant regions come with +great reverence to visit the said Maistre Jean and the work of his +hands; and all the great clerks of astronomy, of philosophy, and of +medicine, declare that there is no recollection of a man, either in +written document or otherwise, who in this world has made so ingenious +or so important an instrument of the heavenly movements as the said +clock.... Maistre Jean made the said clock with his own hands, all of +brass and of copper, without the assistance of any other person, and did +nothing else during sixteen entire years, if the writer of the book, who +had a great friendship for the said Maistre Jean, has been rightly +informed.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_175" id="page_175">{175}</a></span>”</p> + +<p>It is known, on the other hand, that the famous clockmaker, whose real +name Maizières assumes to be lost, was called Jaques de Dondis; and +that, in spite of the assertion of the writer, he had only to arrange +the clock, the parts of which had been executed by an excellent workman +named Antoine. However this may be, placed at the top of one of the +towers of the palace of Padua, the clock of Jaques de Dondis, or of +“Maistre Jean des Orloges,” excited general admiration, and several +princes of Europe being desirous to have similar clocks, many workmen +tried to imitate it. In fact, churches or monasteries were soon able to +pride themselves on possessing similar <i>chefs-d’œuvre</i>.</p> + +<p>Among the most remarkable clocks of that period, we must refer to that +of which Froissart speaks, and which was carried away from the town of +Courtray by Philip the Bold after the battle of Rosbecque in 1382. “The +Duke of Burgundy,” says our author, “caused to be carried away from the +market-place a clock that struck the hours, one of the finest which +could be found on either side the sea; and he conveyed it piece by piece +in carts, and the bell also. Which clock was brought and carted into the +town of Dijon, in Burgundy, was there deposited and put up, and there +strikes the twenty-four hours between day and night.”</p> + +<p>It is the celebrated clock of Dijon which then as now was surmounted by +two automata of iron, a man and a woman, striking the hours on the bell. +The origin of the name of <i>Jacquemart</i> given to these figures has been +much disputed. Ménage believes that the word is derived from the Latin +<i>jaccomarchiardus</i> (coat of mail—attire of war); and he reminds us +that, in the Middle Ages, it was the custom to station, on the summit of +the towers, men (soldiers wearing the <i>jacque</i>) to give warning of the +approach of the enemy, of fires, &c. Ménage adds that, when more +efficient watchers occasioned the discontinuance of these nocturnal +sentinels, it was probably considered desirable to preserve the +remembrance of them by putting in the place they had occupied iron +figures which struck the hours. Other writers trace the name even to the +inventor of this description of clocks, who, according to them, lived in +the fourteenth century, and was called Jacques Marck. Finally, Gabriel +Peignot, who has written a dissertation on the <i>jacquemart</i> of Dijon, +asserts that in 1422 a person named Jacquemart, clockmaker and +locksmith, residing in the town of Lille, received twenty-two livres +from the Duke of Burgundy, for repairing<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_176" id="page_176">{176}</a></span> the clock of Dijon; and from +that he concludes, seeing how short the distance is from Lille to +Courtray, whence the clock of Dijon had been taken, that this Jacquemart +might well be the son or the grandson of the clockmaker who had +constructed it about 1360; consequently the name of the <i>jacquemart</i> of +Dijon is derived from that of its maker, old Jacquemart, the clockmaker +of Lille (<a href="#fig_145">Fig. 145</a>).</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_134_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_134_sml.jpg" width="160" height="377" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_145" id="fig_145"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 145.—Jacquemart of Notre-Dame at Dijon, made at +Courtray in the Fourteenth Century.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Giving to each of these opinions its due weight, we confine ourselves to +stating that, from the end of the fourteenth century to the beginning +of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_177" id="page_177">{177}</a></span> the fifteenth, numerous churches in Germany, Italy, and France +already had <i>jacquemarts</i>.</p> + +<p>The first clock possessed by Paris was that in the turret of the Palais +de Justice. Charles V. had it constructed in 1370 by a German artisan, +Henri de Vic. It contained a weight for moving power, an oscillating +piece for regulator, and an escapement. It was adorned with carvings by +Germain Pilon, and was destroyed in the eighteenth century.</p> + +<p>In 1389, the clockmaker Jean Jouvence made one for the Castle of +Montargis. Those of Sens and of Auxerre, as well as that of Lund in +Sweden, date from the same period. In the last, every hour two cavaliers +met and gave each other as many blows as the hours to be struck: then a +door opened, and the Virgin Mary appeared sitting on a throne, with the +Infant Jesus in her arms, receiving the visit of the Magi followed by +their retinue; the Magi prostrating themselves and tendering their +presents. During the ceremony two trumpets sounded: then all vanished, +to re-appear the following hour.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_135_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_135_sml.jpg" width="122" height="241" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_146" id="fig_146"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 146.—Clock with Wheels and Weights. Fifteenth +Century. (Cabinet of Antiquities, Bibl. Imp., Paris.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Until the end of the thirteenth century, clocks were destined +exclusively<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_178" id="page_178">{178}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_136_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_136_sml.jpg" width="285" height="424" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_147" id="fig_147"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 147.—A portable Clock of the time of the Valois.</p></div> +</div> + +<p class="nind">to public buildings; or they at least affected, if we may say so, a +monumental character which precluded their admission into private +houses. The first clocks with weights and the flywheel made for private +use appeared in France, in Italy, and in Germany, about the commencement +of the fourteenth <span class="pagenum"><a name="page_179" id="page_179">{179}</a></span>century; but naturally they were at first so costly +that only nobles and wealthy persons could obtain them. But an impulse +was given which led to the manufacture of these objects more +economically. In fact, it was not long before portable clocks were seen +in the most unpretentious abodes. This of course did not prevent the +production of expensive examples, either as regards ornamentation or +carving, or in placing the clock on costly pedestals or cases, within +which were suspended the weights (<a href="#fig_146">Fig. 146</a>).</p> + +<p>The fifteenth century has distinctly left its mark on the progress of +horology. In 1401 the Cathedral of Seville was enriched with a +magnificent clock which struck the hours. In 1404, Lazare, a Servian by +birth, constructed a similar one for Moscow. That of Lubeck, which was +embellished with the figures of the twelve Apostles, dates from 1405. It +is proper to notice also the famous clock which Jean-Galeas Visconti had +made for Pavia; and more especially that of St. Marc of Venice, which +was not executed until 1495.</p> + +<p>The spiral spring was invented in the time of Charles VII.: a band of +very fine steel, rolled up into a small drum or barrel, produced, in +unrolling, the effect of the weights on the primitive movements. To the +possibility of enclosing that moving power in a confined space is due +the facility of manufacturing very small clocks. In fact, one finds in +certain collections, clocks of the time of Louis XI., remarkable not +only for the artistic richness of their decoration, but still more so +for the small space they occupy, although they are generally of very +complicated mechanism; some marking the date of the month, striking the +hour, and serving also as alarm-clocks.</p> + +<p>It is difficult, if not impossible, to determine the exact date of the +invention of watches. But, in truth, we ought perhaps to regard the +watch, especially after the invention of the spiral spring, as only the +last step taken towards a portable form of clock. It is however true, +according to the statements found in Pancirole and Du Verdier by the +authors of the “Encyclopædia of Sciences,” that at the end of the +fifteenth century watches were made no larger than an almond. Even the +names Myrmécides and Carovagius are cited as those of two celebrated +artisans in such work. It was said that the latter made an alarm-watch +which not only sounded the hour required, but even struck a light to +ignite a candle. Besides, we know for certain that, in the time of Louis +XI., there were watches very small yet perfectly manufactured; and it is +proved that, in 1500, at Nurem<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_180" id="page_180">{180}</a></span>berg, Peter Hele made them of the form of +an egg, and consequently the watches of that country were long known as +<i>Nuremberg eggs</i>.</p> + +<p>We learn, moreover, from history that in 1542, a watch which struck the +hours, set in a ring, was offered to Guidobaldo of Rovere; and that in +1575, Parker, Archbishop of Canterbury, bequeathed to his brother +Richard a cane of Indian wood having a watch placed in its head; and, +finally, that Henry VIII. of England wore a very small watch requiring +to be wound up only every eighth day.</p> + +<p>It is not inappropriate here to remark that the time kept by these +little machines was not regular until an ingenious workman, whose name +has not come down to us, invented the fusee, a kind of truncated cone; +to the base of this was attached a small piece of catgut which, spirally +rolling itself up to the top, became fastened to the barrel that +enclosed the spring. The advantage of this arrangement is, that owing to +the conical form of the fusee, the traction of the spring acting as it +relaxes on a greater radius of the cone, it results in establishing +equilibrium of power between the first and the last movements of the +spring. Subsequently a clockmaker named Gruet substituted jointed +(<i>articulées</i>) chains for catgut; the latter having the great +disadvantage of being hygrometric and varying in tension with the state +of the atmosphere.</p> + +<p>The use of watches spread rapidly in France. In the reigns of the +Valois, a large number were made of very diminutive size, to which the +clockmakers gave all sorts of forms, especially those of an acorn, an +almond, a Latin cross, a shell (<a href="#page_148">Figs. 148 to 150</a>). They were engraved, +chased, enamelled; the hand which marked the hour was very frequently of +delicate workmanship, and sometimes ornamented with precious stones. +Some of these watches set in motion symbolic figures, as well as Time, +Apollo, Diana, the Virgin, the Apostles, and the saints.</p> + +<p>It may be conceived that all these complicated works required numerous +craftsmen. It was therefore considered proper to unite these artisans in +a community. The statutes which they had received from Louis XI. in 1483 +were confirmed by Francis I. They contained a succession of laws, +intended to protect at the same time the interests of members of the +corporation and the dignity of their profession.</p> + +<p>No one was admitted as master but on proof of having served eight years +of apprenticeship, and after having produced a <i>chef-d’œuvre</i> in the</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="chrm_11" id="chrm_11"></a> +<a href="images/ill_137_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_137_sml.jpg" width="358" height="555" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<div class="caption"><p>CLOCK OF DAMASCENED IRON AND WATCHES Of the Fifteenth and +Sixteenth Centuries.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_181" id="page_181">{181}</a></span></p> + +<p class="nind">house, or under the supervision, of one of the inspectors of the +corporation. The visiting inspectors, elected by all the members, as +well as by the trustees and the syndics, were authorised when +introducing themselves into the workshops, to look after the proper +construction of watches and clocks; and if it happened that they found +such as did not appear to be made according to the rules of art, they +could not only seize and destroy them, but also impose a fine on the +maker for the benefit of the corporation. The statutes also gave +exclusive right to the accredited masters to trade, directly or +otherwise, with all the stock, new or second-hand, finished or +unfinished.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_138_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_138_sml.jpg" width="354" height="310" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<div class="caption"><p>Figs. 148 to 150.—Watches of the Valois Epoch. +(Sixteenth Century.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>“Under the influence of these wise institutions,” M. Dubois remarks, +“the master-clockmakers had no fear of the competition of persons not<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_182" id="page_182">{182}</a></span> +belonging to the corporation. If they were affected by the artistic +superiority of some of their colleagues, it was with the laudable desire +to contend with them for the first places. The work of one day, superior +to that of the preceding, was surpassed by that of the day following. It +was by this incessant competition of intelligence and knowledge, by this +legitimate and invigorating rivalry of all the members of the same +industrious community, that science itself attained by degrees the +zenith of the excellent and the sublime of the beautiful. The ambition +of workmen was to rise to the mastership, and they attained that only by +force of labour and assiduous efforts. The ambition of the masters was +to acquire the honours of the syndicate—that consular magistracy the +most honourable of all, for it was the result of election, and the +recompense of services rendered to art and to the community.”</p> + +<p>Having thus reached the middle of the sixteenth century, and not wishing +to exceed the compass assigned to this sketch, we may limit ourselves to +the mention of some of the remarkable works produced during a century by +an art that had already manifested itself with a power never to be +diminished.</p> + +<p>The clock which Henry II. had constructed for the château of Anet has +long been regarded as very curious. Every time the hand denotes the +hour, a stag appears from the inside of the clock, and darts away +followed by a pack of hounds; but soon the pack and the stag stop, and +the latter, by means of very ingenious mechanism, strikes the hours with +one of his feet.</p> + +<p>The clock of Jena (<a href="#fig_151">Fig. 151</a>), which is still in existence, is not less +famous. Above the dial is a bronze head presumed to represent a buffoon +of Ernest, Elector of Saxony, who died in 1486. When the hour is about +to strike, the head—so remarkably ugly as to have given the clock the +name of the <i>monstrous head</i>—opens its very large mouth. A figure +representing an old pilgrim offers it a golden apple on the end of a +stick; but just when poor Hans (so was the fool called) is about to +close his mouth to masticate and swallow the apple, the pilgrim suddenly +withdraws it. On the left of the head is an angel singing (the arms of +the city of Jena), holding in one hand a book, which he raises towards +his eyes whenever the hours strike, and with the other he rings a +hand-bell.</p> + +<p>The town of Niort, in Poitou, possessed also an extraordinary clock, +ornamented with a great number of allegorical figures—the work of +Bouhain,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_183" id="page_183">{183}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_139_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_139_sml.jpg" width="198" height="319" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_151" id="fig_151"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 151.—Clock of Jena, in Germany. (Fifteenth +Century.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p class="nind">in 1570. A much more famous clock was that of Strasburg (<a href="#fig_152">Fig. 152</a>), +constructed in 1573, and which was long considered to be the greatest of +all wonders. It was entirely restored in 1842 by M. Schwilgué. Angelo +Rocca, in his “Commentarium de Campanis,” gives a description of it. Its +most important feature was a moving sphere, whereon were represented the +planets and the constellations, and which completed its rotation in +three hundred and sixty-five days. On two sides of the dial and below it +the principal festivals of the year and the solemnities of the Church +were represented by allegorical figures. Other dials, distributed +symmetrically on the façade of the tower in which the clock is situated, +marked the days of the week, the date of the month, the signs of the +zodiac, the phases of the moon, the rising and setting of the sun, &c. +Every hour two angels<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_184" id="page_184">{184}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_140_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_140_sml.jpg" width="364" height="578" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_152" id="fig_152"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 152.—Astronomical Clock of the Cathedral at +Strasburg, constructed in 1573.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_185" id="page_185">{185}</a></span></p> + +<p class="nind">sounded the trumpet. When the concert was finished, the bell tolled; +then immediately a cock, perched on the summit, spread his wings +noisily, and made his crowing to be heard. The striking machinery, by +means of movable trap-doors, cylinders, and springs concealed in the +interior of the clock, set in motion a considerable number of automata, +executed with much skill. Angelo Rocca adds that the completion of this +<i>chef-d’œuvre</i> was attributed to Nicolas Copernicus; and that when this +able mechanician had finished his work, the sheriffs and consuls of the +city had his eyes put out in order to render it impossible for him to +execute a similar clock for any other city. This last statement is the +more deserving to rank among mere legends from the fact that, +independent of existing proof of the clock being made by Conrad +Dasypodius, it would be very difficult to prove that Copernicus ever +visited Alsace, or had his eyes put out.</p> + +<p>A similar tradition is attached to the history of another clock still in +existence, and which was not less celebrated than that of Strasburg. We +refer to that of the Church of St. John at Lyons, made in 1598 by +Nicholas Lippius, a clockmaker of Basle; repaired and enlarged +subsequently by Nourisson, an artisan of Lyons. Only the horary +mechanism now acts; but the clock is not on that account neglected by +visitors, to whom the worthy attendants still repeat, in perfect faith, +that Lippius was put to death as soon as he had finished his +<i>chef-d’œuvre</i>. To show the improbability of this pretended penalty it +is sufficient to remark, with M. Dubois, that even in the sixteenth +century persons were not killed for the crime of making <i>chefs-d’œuvre</i>; +and there is, besides, proof that Lippius died in peace, and honoured, +in his native country.</p> + +<p>To these famous clocks must be added those of St. Lambert at Liège, of +Nuremberg, of Augsburg, and of Basle; that of Medina del Campo, in +Spain, and those which, in the reign of Charles I., or during the +Protectorship of Cromwell, were manufactured and placed in England, at +St. Dunstan’s in London,<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> and in the Cathedral of Canterbury, in +Edinburgh, and in Glasgow, &c.</p> + +<p>Before concluding, and to do justice to a century to which we have +assigned a period of decline, we are bound to acknowledge that some +years before the death of Cardinal Richelieu—that is to say, from 1630 +to 1640<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_186" id="page_186">{186}</a></span>—artists of ability made praiseworthy efforts to create a new +era in horology. But the improvements they had in view were directed +much more to the processes of the construction of the several parts +composing the clockwork of watches and clocks than to the beauty and +ingenuity of the workmanship. This was progress of a purely professional +character, in order to create a more ready and inexpensive supply; a +progress which we may regard as services rendered by art to trade. The +period of great constructions and delicate marvels was past. Ornamental +<i>Jacquemarts</i> were no longer placed in belfries. Mechanical +<i>chefs-d’œuvre</i> were no longer set in frail gems. The time was still far +off when, laying down the sceptre of that empire on which “the sun never +sets,” the conqueror of Francis I., retiring to a cloister, employed +himself in the construction of the most complicated clockwork. Charles +V. had as assistant, if not as teacher, in his work the learned +mathematician, Jannellus Turianus, whom he had induced to join him in +his retreat. It is said that he enjoyed nothing so much as seeing the +monks of Saint-Just standing amazed before his alarum watches and +automaton clocks; but it is also stated that he manifested the greatest +despair when obliged to admit it was as impossible to establish perfect +concord among clocks as among men.</p> + +<p>In truth, Galileo had not yet arrived to observe and formulate the laws +of the pendulum, which Huygens was happily to apply to the movements of +horology.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_141_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_141_sml.jpg" width="153" height="163" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_153" id="fig_153"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 153.—Top of an Hour-Glass, engraved and gilt. (A +French Work of the Sixteenth Century.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_187" id="page_187">{187}</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="MUSICAL_INSTRUMENTS" id="MUSICAL_INSTRUMENTS"></a>MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.</h2> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Music in the Middle Ages.—Musical Instruments from the Fourth to +the Thirteenth Century.—Wind Instruments: the Single and Double +Flute, the Pandean Pipes, the Reed-pipe, the Hautboy, the +Flageolet, Trumpets, Horns, <i>Olifants</i>, the Hydraulic Organ, the +Bellows-Organ.—Instruments of Percussion: the Bell, the Hand-bell, +Cymbals, the Timbrel, the Triangle, the <i>Bombulum</i>, +Drums.—Stringed Instruments: the Lyre, the Cithern, the Harp, the +Psaltery, the <i>Nable</i>, the <i>Chorus</i>, the <i>Organistrum</i>, the Lute +and the Guitar, the <i>Crout</i>, the <i>Rote</i>, the Viola, the <i>Gigue</i>, +the Monochord.</p></div> + +<p class="nind"><a href="images/ill_142_lg.jpg"> +<span class="letra"> +<img src="images/ill_142_sml.jpg" +width="90" +alt="T" /></span></a>HE history of Music in the Middle Ages would commence about the fourth +century of our era. In the sixth century, Isidore of Seville, in his +“Sentiments sur la Musique,” writes as follows:—“Music is a modulation +of the voice, and also an accordance of several sounds and their +simultaneous union.”</p> + +<p>About 384, St. Ambrose, who built the Cathedral of Milan, regulated the +mode in which psalms, hymns, and anthems should be performed, by +selecting from Greek chants those melodies he considered best adapted to +the Latin Church.</p> + +<p>In 590, Gregory the Great, in order to remedy the disorder which had +crept into ecclesiastical singing, collected all that remained of the +ancient Greek melodies, with those of St. Ambrose and others, and formed +the antiphonary which is called the <i>Centonien</i>, because it is composed +of chants of his selection. Henceforward, ecclesiastical chanting +obtained the name of <i>Gregorian</i>; it was adopted into the whole of the +Western Church, and maintained its position almost unaltered down to the +middle of the eleventh century.</p> + +<p>It is thought that originally the music of the antiphonary was noted in +accordance with Greek and Roman usage—a notation known as the +<i>Boethian</i>, from the name of Boethius the philosopher, by whom we are +informed that in his time (that is, about the end of the fifth century) +the notation was composed of the first fifteen letters of the alphabet.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_188" id="page_188">{188}</a></span></p> + +<p>The sounds of the octave were represented—the major by <i>capital</i> +letters, the minor by <i>small</i> letters, as follows:—</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="2" summary=""> +<tr><td>Major mode</td><td>A</td><td>B</td><td>C</td><td>D</td><td>E</td><td>F</td><td>G</td></tr> +<tr><td>Minor mode</td><td>a</td><td>b</td><td>c</td><td>d</td><td>e</td><td>f</td><td>g</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Some fragments of music of the eleventh century are still preserved, in +which the notation is represented by letters having above them the signs +of another kind of notation called <i>neumes</i> (<a href="#fig_154">Fig. 154</a>).</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_143-a_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_143-a_sml.jpg" width="333" height="262" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_154" id="fig_154"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 154.—Lament composed shortly after the Death of +Charlemagne, probably about 814 or 815, and attributed to Colomban, +Abbot of Saint-Tron. (MS. de la Bibl. Imp., No. 1,154.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p><i>Musical Notation expressed in Modern Signs, the Text and Translation of +the Lament on Charlemagne.</i></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_143-b_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_143-b_sml.jpg" width="334" height="80" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_189" id="page_189">{189}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_144_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_144_sml.jpg" width="337" height="264" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +</div> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="" +style="text-align:left;font-size:90%;"> +<tr valign="top"><td> +A solis ortu usque ad occidua<br /> +Littora maris, planctus pulsat pectora;<br /> +Ultra marina agmina tristitia<br /> + Tetigit ingens cum errore nimio.<br /> + Heu! me dolens, plango.</td><td> + +From the East to the Western shores,<br /> +sorrow agitates every heart; and inland,<br /> +this vast grief saddens armies.<br /> + Alas! in my grief, I, too, weep.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr valign="top"><td> +Franci, Romani, atque cuncti creduli,<br /> +Luctu punguntor et magna molestia,<br /> +Infantes, senes, gloriosi principes;<br /> + Nam clangit orbis detrimentum Karoli. <br /> + Heu! mihi misero!</td><td> + +French, Romans, and all believers are<br /> +plunged into mourning and profound<br /> +grief: children, old men, and illustrious<br /> +princes; for the whole world deplores the<br /> +loss of Charlemagne.<br /> + Alas! miserable me!</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>About the fourth century the <i>neumes</i> were in use in the Greek Church; +they are spoken of by St. Gregory of Nazianzus. Certain modifications in +them were introduced by the Lombards and Saxons.</p> + +<p>“They were specially in use from the eighth to the twelfth century,” +says M. Coussemaker, in his learned work, “Histoire de l’Harmonie au +Moyen Age,” “and consisted of two sorts of signs: some formed like +commas, dots, or small inclined or horizontal strokes, which represented +isolated sounds; others in the shape of hooks, and strokes variously +twisted and joined, expressing groups of sound composed of various +intervals.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_190" id="page_190">{190}</a></span></p> + +<p>“These commas, dots, and inclined or horizontal strokes were the origin +of the long notes, the breve and the semibreve, and afterwards of the +square notation still in use in the <i>plain-chant</i> of the Church. The +hook-shaped signs and the variously twisted and joined strokes gave rise +to the ligatures and connections of notes.</p> + +<p>“From the eighth to the end of the twelfth century—that is, during one +of the brightest periods of musical liturgy—the <i>neumes</i> were the +notation exclusively adopted over the whole of Europe, both in +ecclesiastical singing and also in secular music. From the end of the +eleventh century, this system of notation was established in France, +Italy, Germany, England, and Spain.”</p> + +<p>The chief modification to which the notation of music was subject at the +end of the eleventh century is due to the monk Guido, of Arezzo. In +order to facilitate the reading of the <i>neumes</i>, he invented placing +them on lines, and these lines he distinguished by colours. The second, +that of the <i>fa</i>, was red; the fourth, that of the <i>ut</i>, was green; the +first and the third are only traced on the vellum with a pen. In order +that the seven notes should be better impressed upon the memory, he gave +as an example the three first lines of the Hymn of St. John the Baptist, +in which the syllables <i>ut, re, mi, fa, sol, la</i>, corresponded to the +signs of the gamut:—</p> + +<div class="poetry"> +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">“<i>Ut</i> queant laxis <i>Re</i>sonare fibris<br /></span> +<span class="i0"><i>Mi</i>ra gestorum <i>Fa</i>muli tuorum,<br /></span> +<span class="i0"><i>Sol</i>ve polluti <i>La</i>bii reatum,<br /></span> +<span class="i4">Sancte Joannes.”<br /></span> +</div></div> +</div> + +<p>The choristers, in singing this hymn, slightly raised the intonation of +each of the italicised syllables, which were soon adopted for indicating +six of the notes of the gamut. To supply the seventh, which was not +named in this system, the barbarous theory of <i>muances</i> (divisions) was +introduced, and it was not until the seventeenth century the term <i>si</i> +was applied in France.</p> + +<p>But after the commencement of the tenth century many individuals, and +especially poets, had invented rhythmical songs, which were entirely +different from those of the Church. “Harmony formed by successions of +various intervals,” as we are told by the author whom we have before +quoted, “obtained in the eleventh century the name of <i>discantus</i>, in +old French <i>déchant</i>. Francon de Cologne is the most ancient author who<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_191" id="page_191">{191}</a></span> +makes use of this word. During the whole course of the eleventh century +the composition of melody was independent of harmony, and henceforth the +composition of music was divided into two very distinct parts. The +people, and poets and persons in high life, constructed the melody and +the words; but being ignorant of the science of music, they resorted to +a professional musician to have their inspirations written down. The +first were very justly called <i>trouvères</i> (<i>trobadori</i>), the others the +<i>déchanteurs</i>, or harmonisers. Harmony was then only adapted for two +voices—a combination of fifths, and of movements in unison.</p> + +<p>“In the twelfth century, the construction of melody continued to be in +the hands of poets. The <i>déchanteurs</i> or harmonisers were the +professional musicians. Popular songs became very numerous. Troubadours +multiplied all over Europe, and the greatest lords deemed it an honour +to cultivate both poetry and music. Germany had her ‘master-singers,’ +who were in request at every court. In France, the Châtelain de Coucy, +the King of Navarre, the Comte de Béthune, the Comte d’Anjou, and a +hundred others acquired a brilliant reputation by songs, of which they +composed both the words and the melody. The most celebrated of these +<i>trouvères</i> was Adam de la Halle, who flourished in 1260.”</p> + +<p>In the fourteenth century, the name of <i>counterpoint</i> was substituted +for that of <i>déchant</i>; and in 1364, at the coronation of Charles V. at +Rheims, a mass was sung which was written in four parts, composed by +Guillaume de Machault, poet and musician.</p> + +<p>Among the ancients the number of musical instruments was considerable, +but their names were even still more numerous, because derived from the +shape, the material, the nature and character of the instruments, all of +which varied infinitely, according to the whim of the maker or the +musician. Added to this, every country had its national instruments; and +as each in its own language designated them by descriptive names, the +same instrument appeared under ten different denominations, and a +similar name was applied to ten instruments. However, having nothing but +monumental representation to guide us, and in the absence of the +instruments themselves, an almost inextricable confusion arises.</p> + +<p>The Romans carried back to their own country, as the results of +conquest, specimens of most of the musical instruments they found in use +in the countries subdued by them. Thus Greece supplied Rome with<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_192" id="page_192">{192}</a></span> nearly +all the soft instruments of the class of lyres and flutes. Germany and +the northern provinces, being inhabited by warlike races, gave to their +conquerors the taste for loud-sounding instruments, such as trumpets and +drums. Asia, and Judæa especially, which had multiplied various kinds of +metal-instruments for use in their religious ceremonies, were the means +of naturalising in Roman music deep-toned instruments of the class of +bells and tom-toms (a kind of drum). Egypt introduced into Italy the +timbrel along with the worship of Isis. Byzantium had no sooner invented +the first pneumatic organs than the new religion of Christ took +possession of them for exclusive consecration to its service, both in +the East and in the West.</p> + +<p>All the musical instruments of the known world had therefore taken +refuge, as it were, in the capital of the Roman empire; but their fate +was only to disappear and sink into oblivion after they had played their +part in the last pomps of that falling empire, and in the final +festivals of the ancient mythology. In a letter in which he specially +treats of “various kinds of musical instruments,” St. Jerome, who lived +from 331 to 420, speaks of those which were in use in his time for the +requirements of religion, war, ceremonial, and art. He mentions, in the +first place, the organ, and describes it as composed of fifteen brazen +pipes, two air-reservoirs of elephant’s skin, and twelve large sets of +bellows, “to imitate the voice of thunder.” He next specifies, under the +generic name of <i>tuba</i>, several kinds of trumpets: that which called the +people together, that which directed the march of troops, that which +proclaimed the victory, that which sounded the charge against the enemy, +that which announced the closing of the gates, &c. One of these +trumpets, the shape of which is rather difficult to gather from his +description, had three brazen bells, and <i>roared through four +air-conduits</i>. Another instrument, the <i>bombulum</i>, which must have made +a frightful uproar, was, as far as we can conjecture from the text of +the pious writer, a kind of peal of bells attached to a hollow metallic +column which, by the assistance of twelve pipes, reverberated the sounds +of twenty-four bells that were set in motion by one another. Next come +the <i>cithara</i> of the Hebrews, in the shape of a triangle, furnished with +twenty-four strings; the sackbut, of Chaldæan origin, a trumpet formed +of several movable tubes of wood, fitting one into the other; the +psaltery, a small harp provided with ten strings; and lastly, the +<i>tympanum</i>, also called the <i>chorus</i>, a hand-drum to which were fixed +two metal flute-tubes.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_193" id="page_193">{193}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_145_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_145_sml.jpg" width="351" height="365" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_155" id="fig_155"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 155.—Concert; a Bas-relief, taken from a Capital in +Saint-Georges de Boscherville, Normandy. (A Work of the Eleventh +Century.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>A nomenclature of a similar kind, applying to the ninth century, exists +in a history of Charlemagne, in Latin verse, by Aymeric de Peyrac. This +shows as that, during the lapse of four centuries, the number of +instruments had been nearly doubled, and that the musical influence of +Charlemagne’s reign had made itself felt in the revival and improvement +of several instruments which had been formerly abandoned. This curious +metrical composition enumerates all the stringed, wind, and pulsatile +instruments which celebrated the praise of the great emperor, the +protector and restorer of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_194" id="page_194">{194}</a></span> music. The number of instruments specified +are twenty-four in number, among which we find nearly all those +mentioned by St. Jerome.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_146_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_146_sml.jpg" width="252" height="186" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_156" id="fig_156"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 156.—Concert and Musical Instruments. From a +Miniature in a Manuscript of the Thirteenth Century.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The names, therefore, of musical instruments had passed through seven or +eight centuries without undergoing any kind of change than that +naturally resulting from variations in the language. But the instruments +themselves, during this long interval of time, had been often modified +to such extent that the primitive denomination not unfrequently appeared +to contradict the musical characteristics of the instrument to which it +still continued to be attached. Thus, the <i>chorus</i>, which had been a +four-stringed harp, and from its name seems to indicate a collection of +instruments, had become a wind-instrument.<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> So also the psaltery, +which was originally touched by a <i>plectrum</i> (stick) or with the +fingers, now only gave forth its notes under the influence of a bow; an +instrument that had had twenty strings now only retained eight; another, +the name of which seemed to refer to a square shape, was rounded; those +primitively made of wood were now constructed of metal. There is reason +to believe that, generally speaking, these changes were made not so much +with the view of any musical improvement, properly so called, as with an +idea of gratifying the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_195" id="page_195">{195}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_147_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_147_sml.jpg" width="352" height="376" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_157" id="fig_157"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 157.—The Tree of Jesse. The ancestors of Jesus +Christ are represented with Musical Instruments, and as forming a +Celestial Concert. (Fac-simile from a Miniature in a Manuscript Breviary +of the Fifteenth Century. Royal Library, Brussels.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p class="nind">fancy of the eye (<a href="#fig_155">Figs. 155 to 157</a>). Scarcely any fixed rules for the +construction of musical instruments existed before the sixteenth +century, when learned musicians applied mathematical principles to the +theory of manufacture. Down to 1589 musical instruments were made in +Paris by workmen who were organ-makers, lute-makers, or even +coppersmiths, under the inspection and guarantee of the community of +musicians; but at this epoch the makers of musical instruments were +united in a trade<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_196" id="page_196">{196}</a></span> corporation, and obtained, through the goodwill of +Henry III., certain privileges and special statutes.</p> + +<p>As musical instruments have always been divided into three particular +classes,—stringed, pulsatile, and wind instruments,—we shall adopt +this natural division in passing under review the various kinds in use +during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. We shall not, however, +pretend to be always able to point out the precise musical value of +these instruments, for in several instances we have no knowledge of +them, except from representations more or less truthful.</p> + +<p>The class of wind instruments comprised flutes, trumpets, and organs; +each of these was, however, subdivided into several very distinct kinds. +In the division of flutes alone, for instance, we find the straight +flute, the double flute, the side-mouthed or German flute, the Pandean +pipes, the <i>chorus</i>, the <i>calamus</i>, the bagpipes (<i>muse</i> or <i>mousette</i>), +the <i>doucine</i> or hautboy, the <i>flaïos</i> or flageolet, &c.</p> + +<p>The flute is the most ancient of musical instruments; even in the Middle +Ages no orchestra was considered complete which did not contain an +entire order of flutes, differing both in shape and tone. In principle, +the simple flute, or <i>flûte à bec</i>, consisted of a straight pipe of hard +and sounding wood, made in one piece, and pierced with four or six +holes. But the number of holes being successively increased to eleven, +and the pipe being enlarged to a length of seven or eight feet, the +result was that the fingers were unable to act simultaneously upon all +the openings; thus, in order to close the two holes farthest from the +mouthpiece, keys were attached to the body of the flute which the +instrumentalist acted on with his foot.</p> + +<p>The simple flute, of greater or less length, is seen on the figured +monuments of every epoch. The double flute, which was equally in use, +had, as its name indicates, two pipes, generally of unequal lengths; the +<i>left-hand</i> tube, which was the shortest and therefore called the +<i>feminine</i>, produced shrill sounds, while the <i>right-hand</i>, or +<i>masculine</i>, gave the low notes. Whether these two tubes were united or +were separate, this flute had always two distinct mouths,—although they +were often very close together—on which the musician played +alternately. The double flute (<a href="#fig_158">Fig. 158</a>) was the instrument employed in +the eleventh century by the <i>jongleurs</i> or jugglers as an +accompaniment.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_197" id="page_197">{197}</a></span></p> + +<p>The side-mouthed flute, which was at first very little used, owed its +celebrity in the sixteenth century to the improvements it received from +the Germans, hence it acquired the name of the <i>German flute</i> (Fig. +160).</p> + +<p>The <i>syrinx</i> was nothing but the ancient Pandean pipes, composed +generally of seven tubes of wood or metal, gradually decreasing in +length; they were closed at the bottom, and at the top took the form of +a horizontal plane, which was touched by the lip of the musician as it +passed along (<a href="#fig_159">Fig. 159</a>). In the eleventh and twelfth centuries, the +syrinx, which must have produced very shrill and discordant music, was +generally made in the shape of a semicircle, and contained nine tubes in +a metallic case pierced with the same number of holes.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_148_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_148_sml.jpg" width="261" height="180" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_158" id="fig_158"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 158.—Double Flute, Fourteenth Century. (From +Willemin’s “French Monuments.”)</p> + +<p><a name="fig_159" id="fig_159"></a>Fig. 159.—Seven-tubed <i>Syrinx</i>, Ninth or Tenth Century. +(Angers MS.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The <i>chorus</i>, which in the time of St. Jerome was composed of a skin and +two tubes, one forming the mouth, the other the bell-end (<a href="#fig_161">Fig. 161</a>), +must have presented a very great similarity to the modern bagpipes. In +the ninth century its shape had changed but little, except that we +sometimes find two bell-ends, and the membranous air-reservoir is in +some examples replaced by a kind of case made of metal or resonant wood +(<i>bois sonore</i>). Subsequently this instrument was transformed into a +simple dulcimer.</p> + +<p>The <i>calamus</i>, called the <i>chalemelle</i> or <i>chalemie</i>, which derived its +origin from the <i>calamus</i> or reed-pipe of the ancients, became in the +sixteenth century a treble to the hautboy, the <i>bombarde</i> being its +counter-bass and tenor, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_198" id="page_198">{198}</a></span> the bass being executed on the <i>cromorne</i>. +There was, however, quite a group of hautboys. The <i>douçaine</i> or +<i>doucine</i>, a soft flute, the great hautboy of Poitou played the parts of +tenor or of fifth. The length of the hautboy having been found +inconvenient, it was divided into pieces united in a movable cluster +(<i>faisceau</i>) known by the name of <i>fagot</i>. This instrument was +afterwards called <i>courtaut</i> in France, and <i>sourdeline</i> or <i>sampogne</i> +in Italy, where it had become a kind of bagpipe, like the <i>muse</i> or +<i>estive</i>. The <i>muse de blé</i> was a simple reed-pipe, but the <i>muse +d’Aussay</i> (or <i>d’Ausçois</i>, district of Auch) was certainty a hautboy. +With regard to the bagpipes, properly so called, they generally bore the +name of <i>chevrette</i>, <i>chevrie</i>, or <i>chièvre</i>, on account of the skin of +which the bag was made. They were also designated by the names of +<i>pythaule</i> and <i>cornemuse</i>, drone-pipe (<a href="#fig_162">Fig. 162</a>).</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_149_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_149_sml.jpg" width="173" height="221" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_160" id="fig_160"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 160.—German Musicians playing on the Flute and +Goat’s Horn. (Drawn and Engraved by J. Amman.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The <i>flaïos de saus</i>, or reed-flutes, were nothing but mere whistles, +such as village children are still in the habit of making in the spring; +but there were, says an ancient author, more than twenty kinds, “as many +loud as soft,” which were coupled by pairs in an orchestra. The +<i>fistule</i>, the <i>souffle</i>, the <i>pipe</i>, and the <i>fretiau</i> or <i>galoubet</i>, +were all small flageolets played on by<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_199" id="page_199">{199}</a></span> the left hand while the right +marked the time on a tambourine or with the cymbals. The <i>pandorium</i>, +which has been classed among the flutes without its shape and character +of tone being rightly determined, must have presented, at least at its +origin, some similarity of sound to the stringed instrument called +<i>pandore</i> (<i>pandora</i>).</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_150_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_150_sml.jpg" width="301" height="237" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_161" id="fig_161"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 161.—<i>Chorus</i> with single Bell-end with Holes. +(Ninth Century, MS. of Saint-Blaise.)</p> + +<p><a name="fig_162" id="fig_162"></a>Fig. 162.—Bagpiper, Thirteenth Century. (Sculpture on +the Musicians’ Hall at Rheims.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Trumpets formed a much more numerous class than the flutes. In Latin +they were called <i>tuba</i>, <i>lituus</i>, <i>buccina</i>, <i>taurea</i>, <i>cornu</i>, +<i>claro</i>, <i>salpinx</i>, &c.; in French, <i>trompe</i>, <i>corne</i>, <i>olifant</i>, +<i>cornet</i>, <i>buisine</i>, <i>sambute</i>, &c. In most cases, however, they derived +their name either from their shape, the sound which they produced, the +material whereof they were made, or the use for which they were +specially intended. Thus, among military trumpets of copper or brass, +the names of some (<i>claro</i>, <i>clarasius</i>) indicating the piercing sound +which they produced; the names of others seem rather to refer to the +appearance of their bell-ends (<a href="#fig_164">Fig. 164</a>), which imitated the head of a +bird, a horn, a serpent, &c. Some of these trumpets were so long and +heavy that a foot or stand was required to support them, while the +performer took the end in his mouth and blew through it with full power +of breath (<a href="#fig_163">Fig. 163</a>.)<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_200" id="page_200">{200}</a></span></p> + +<p>The shepherds’ horns, made of wood rimmed with brass, were a heavy and +powerful kind of speaking-trumpet, which in the eighth century the Welsh +herdsmen and those of the <i>landes</i> of Cornouaille always carried with +them (<a href="#fig_165">Fig. 165</a>.) When the barons or knights desired to convey any +signals rendered necessary either in war or hunting, they were in the +habit of using horns of a much more portable character, which were +suspended at their girdles; they used them, also, as drinking vessels +when occasion required. At first these instruments were generally made +of nothing but buffalo’s or goat’s horns; but when the fashion arose of +working delicately in ivory, they took the name of <i>olifant</i>, an +appellation destined to become famous in the old romances of chivalry, +in which the <i>olifant</i> played a very important part (<a href="#fig_166">Fig. 166</a>). To cite +only one example among a thousand, Roland, when overwhelmed by numbers +in the valley of Ronceveaux, sounded the <i>olifant</i> in order to call +Charlemagne’s army to his aid.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_151_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_151_sml.jpg" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_163" id="fig_163"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 163.—Straight Trumpet with Stand. (Eleventh +Century. Cotton MS., British Museum.)</p> + +<p><a name="fig_164" id="fig_164"></a>Fig. 164.—Curved Trumpet. (Eleventh Century. Cotton MS., +British Museum.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>In the fourteenth century +according to a passage in a manuscript in the +Library of Berne, quoted by M. Jubinal, there were in bodies of troops +<i>corneurs</i>, <i>trompeurs</i>, and <i>buisineurs</i>, who played under certain +special circumstances. The <i>trompes</i> sounded for the movements of the +knights, or<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_201" id="page_201">{201}</a></span> men-at-arms; the <i>cornes</i> for the movements of the banners +or the foot-soldiers, and the <i>buisines</i>, or clarions, when the entire +camp (<i>ost</i>) was to march. The heralds-at-arms, whose duty it was to +make the announcements or proclamations in the public ways, were in the +habit of using either long trumpets, called <i>à potence</i>, on account of +the forked stick whereon they were supported, or trumpets <i>à tortilles</i> +(serpentine), the name of which sufficiently indicates their shape. +Added to this, the sound of the trumpet or horn accompanied or +signalised the principal acts of the citizens both in public and private +life. During the meals of great men, the water, the wine, and the bread, +were heralded by sound of trumpet. In towns this instrument announced +the opening and closing of the gates, the opening and closing of the +markets, and the time of curfew, till the time when the horn and the +copper trumpet were superseded in this function by the bells in +church-towers.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_152_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_152_sml.jpg" width="304" height="205" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_165" id="fig_165"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 165.—Shepherd’s Horn. Eighth Century. (MS., British +Museum.)</p> + +<p><a name="fig_166" id="fig_166"></a>Fig. 166.—Horn, or <i>Olifant</i>, Fourteenth Century. (From +Willemin’s “French Monuments.”)</p> +</div> +</div> + +<p>Polybius and Ammianus Marcellinus tell us that the ancient Gauls and +Germans had a great passion for large, hoarse-sounding trumpets. At the +time of Charlemagne, and still more in the days of the Crusades, the +intercourse that took place between the men of the West and the African +and Asiatic races introduced among the former the use of musical +instruments of a harsh and piercing tone. Then it was that the +Saracen-horns, made of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_202" id="page_202">{202}</a></span> +copper, replaced the wooden or horn trumpets. At +the same period sackbuts, or <i>sambutes</i> (<a href="#fig_167">Fig. 167</a>), made their +appearance in Italy: in those of the ninth century, we find the +principle of the modern trombone. About the same epoch the Germans +introduced great improvements into the trumpet</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_153-a_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_153-a_sml.jpg" width="161" height="80" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_167" id="fig_167"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 167.—<i>Sambute</i>, or Sackbut, of the Ninth Century. +(Boulogne MS.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p class="nind">by adapting to it the +system of holes, which up to that time had been the characteristic of +flutes (<a href="#fig_168">Fig. 168</a>).</p> + +<p>But among all the wind instruments of the Middle Ages, the organ was the +one most imposing in its nature, and destined to the most</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_153-b_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_153-b_sml.jpg" width="180" height="232" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_168" id="fig_168"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 168.—German Musician sounding the Military Trumpet. +Drawn and Engraved by J. Amman.</p></div> +</div> + +<p class="nind">glorious +career. The only instrument of this kind known by the ancients was the +water-organ, in which a key-board of twenty-six keys corresponded to the +same number of pipes; and the air, acted upon by the pressure of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_203" id="page_203">{203}</a></span> water, +produced most varied sounds. Nero, it is said, spent a whole day +examining and admiring the mechanism of an instrument of this kind.</p> + +<p>The water-organ, although described and commended by Vitruvius, was not +much in use in the Middle Ages. Eginhard speaks of one constructed, in +826, by a Venetian priest; and the last of which mention is made existed +at Malmesbury in the twelfth century. But this latter might be regarded +more in the light of a steam-organ; for, like the warning whistles of +our locomotives, it was worked by the effects of the steam of boiling +water rushing into brass pipes.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_154_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_154_sml.jpg" width="347" height="83" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_169" id="fig_169"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 169.—Pneumatic Organ of the Fourth Century. +(Sculpture of that date at Constantinople.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The water-organ was, in very early times, superseded by the pneumatic or +wind-organ (<a href="#fig_169">Fig. 169</a>), the description of which given by St. Jerome +agrees with the representations on the obelisk erected at Constantinople +in the time of Theodosius the Great. We must, however, fix a date as +late as the eighth century for the introduction of this instrument into +the West, or at least into France. In 757, Constantine Copronymus, +Emperor of the East, sent to King Pépin a number of presents, among +which was an organ that excited the admiration of the court. +Charlemagne, who received a similar present from the same monarch, had +several organs made from this model. These were provided, according to +the statement of the monk of Saint-Gall, with “brazen pipes which were +acted on by bellows made of bull’s hide, and imitated the roaring of +thunder, the accents of the lyre, and the clang of cymbals.” These +primitive organs, notwithstanding the power and richness of their +musical resources, were of dimensions which rendered them quite +portable. It was, in fact, only in consequence of its almost exclusive +application to the solemnities of Catholic worship that the organ became +developed on an almost gigantic scale. In 951, there existed in +Winchester Cathedral an organ which was divided into two parts, each +provided with its apparatus of bellows, its key-board, and its +organist.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_204" id="page_204">{204}</a></span> Twelve bellows above, and fourteen below, were worked by +seventy strong men, and the air was distributed by means of forty valves +into four hundred pipes, arranged in groups or choirs of ten, each group +corresponding with one of the twenty-four keys of each key-board (Fig. +170).</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_155_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_155_sml.jpg" width="306" height="183" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_170" id="fig_170"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 170.—Great Organ, with Bellows and double +Key-board, of the Twelfth Century. (MS. at Cambridge.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>In the ninth century, the German organ-makers acquired great renown. The +monk Gerbert, who, as we have already remarked, became pope under the +name of Sylvester II., and co-operated so efficiently in the progress of +the horological art, established in the monastery of which he was abbot +a workshop for the manufacture of organs. We must add, that all the +musical treatises written from the ninth to the twelfth century entered +into very considerable details concerning the arrangement and working of +this instrument. Nevertheless, the admission of the organ into churches +did not fail to meet with earnest opponents among the bishops and +priests of the day. But while some complained of the thunder and +rumbling of the organs, others appealed to the examples of king David +and the prophet Elisha. Finally, in the thirteenth century, the right of +placing organs in all churches was no longer disputed, and the only +question was, who could build the most powerful and most magnificent +instruments. At Milan was an organ the pipes of which were of silver; at +Venice some were made of pure gold. The number of these pipes was varied +and multiplied to an infinite extent, according to the effects the +instrument was required to produce. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_205" id="page_205">{205}</a></span> mechanism was, generally +speaking, rather complicated, and the working of the bellows very +laborious. In large organs the key-board was made up of key-plates five +or six inches wide, which the organist, his hands defended by thickly +padded gloves, had to strike with his clenched fist in order to bring +out the notes (<a href="#fig_171">Fig. 171</a>).</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_156-a_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_156-a_sml.jpg" width="178" height="187" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_171" id="fig_171"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 171.—Organ with single Key-board of the Fourteenth +Century. (Miniature from a Latin Psalter, No. 175, Bibl. Imp., Paris.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The organ, which, as we have seen, was at first of a portable nature, in +some cases resumed its original dimensions (<a href="#fig_172">Fig. 172</a>). It was then +sometimes called simply <i>portatif</i> (hand-organ), and sometimes <i>régale</i> +or <i>positif</i> (choir-organ). Raphael, in one of his famous pictures, +represents St. Cecilia singing sacred hymns, and accompanying herself on +a choir-organ.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_156-b_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_156-b_sml.jpg" width="94" height="115" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_172" id="fig_172"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 172.—Portable Organ of the Fifteenth Century. +(Miniature in Vincent de Beauvais’ “Miroir Historial,” MS. in the Bibl. +Imp., Paris.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_206" id="page_206">{206}</a></span></p> + +<p>The class of pulsatile instruments was formed of bells, cymbals, and +drums.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_157_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_157_sml.jpg" width="309" height="175" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_173" id="fig_173"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 173.—<i>Tintinnabulum</i> or Hand-Bell of the Ninth +Century. (Boulogne MS.)</p> + +<p><a name="fig_174" id="fig_174"></a>Fig. 174.—The <i>Saufang</i> of St. Cecilia’s at Cologne. +(Sixth Century.)</p> + +<p><a name="fig_175" id="fig_175"></a>Fig. 175.—Bell in a Tower of Siena. (Twelfth Century.)</p> +</div> +</div> + +<p>There can be no doubt that the ancients were acquainted with large +bells, hand-bells, and strung-bells (<i>grelots</i>). But we must ascribe to +the requirements of Christian worship the first introduction of the +bell, properly so called, formed of cast-metal (<i>campana</i> or <i>nola</i>, the +first having been made, it is said, at Nola), which was employed from +the first in summoning the faithful to the public services. In the first +instance the bell was merely held in the hand and shaken by some monk or +ecclesiastic who stood in front of the church-door, or mounted a raised +platform for the purpose. This <i>tintinnabulum</i> (<a href="#fig_173">Fig. 173</a>), or portable +bell, subsequently passed into the hands of the public criers, the +societies of ringers, and those who rang knells for the dead, at a time +when most of the churches were provided with <i>campaniles</i> or +bell-towers, wherein were hung the parish bells, which daily assumed +dimensions of increasing importance. These great bells, of which the +<i>Saufang</i> of Cologne (sixth century) is an example (<a href="#fig_174">Fig. 174</a>), were at +first made of wrought-iron plates laid one over the other, and riveted +together. But in the eighth century they began to cast bells of copper +and even of silver. One of the most ancient still existing is that in +the tower of Bisdomini at Siena (<a href="#fig_175">Fig. 175</a>). It bears the date of 1159, +and is<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_207" id="page_207">{207}</a></span> formed in the shape of a cask, being rather more than a yard +high: the sound it produces is very sharp. The combination of several +bells of various sizes naturally produced the peal or chime; this at +first consisted of an arch of wood or iron whereon were suspended the +bells, which the player struck with a small hammer (<a href="#fig_176">Fig. 176</a>). The +number and classification of the bells becoming subsequently rather more +complicated, the hand of the chimer was superseded by a mechanical +arrangement. This was the origin of those peals of bells for which there +was such a demand in the Middle Ages, and of which certain towns are +still so proud.</p> + +<p>The designations of <i>cymbalum</i> and <i>flagellum</i> were, in the first +instance, applied to small hand-chimes; but there were also regular +cymbals (<i>cymbala</i> or <i>acetabula</i>), spherical or hollowed plates of +silver, brass, or copper. Some of these were shaken at the ends of the +fingers, or fastened to the knees or feet, so as to be put in motion by +the movement of the body. These small cymbals, or <i>crotales</i>, were a +kind of rattle (<i>grelots</i>), causing the dancers to make a noise in their +performance, as do the Spanish castanets, which in the sixteenth century +were called in France <i>maronnettes</i>, and were the same as the +<i>cliquettes</i>, or snappers, used by lepers in former days. Small +strung-bells became so much the fashion at a certain epoch that not only +was the harness of horses adorned with them, but they were suspended to +the clothes both of men and women, who at the slightest movement made a +ringing, tinkling noise, sounding like so many perambulating chimes.</p> + +<p>The use of pulsatile instruments producing a metallic sound increased +greatly in Europe, especially after the return from the Crusades. But +even before this date the Egyptian timbrel was used in religious and +festival music; this instrument was composed of a circle whereon rings +were hung, which tinkled as they struck together when the timbrel was +shaken. The Oriental triangle was also used on these occasions; this was +almost the same then as it is at the present day.</p> + +<p>The drum has always been a hollow case covered with a stretched skin, +but the shape and size of this instrument have caused great variations +in its name, and also in the way in which it was used. In the Middle +Ages it was called <i>taborellus</i>, <i>tabornum</i>, and <i>tympanum</i>. It +generally made its appearance in festal music, and especially in +processions; but it was not until the fourteenth century that it began +to take a place in military bands, at least in France; the Arabians, +however, have used it from the earliest<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_208" id="page_208">{208}</a></span> ages. In the thirteenth century +the <i>taburel</i> was a kind of tambourine, played on with only a +drum-stick; in the <i>tabornum</i> we may recognise the military drum of the +present day; and the <i>tympanum</i> was equivalent to our tambourine. +Sometimes, as seen in a sculpture in the Musicians’ Hall at Rheims, this +instrument was attached to the right shoulder of the performer, who +played upon it by striking it with his head, while at the same time he +blew through two metal flutes communicating with the inside of the drum +(<a href="#fig_177">Fig. 177</a>).</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_158_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_158_sml.jpg" width="307" height="249" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_176" id="fig_176"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 176.—Chime of Bells of the Ninth Century. (MS. de +Saint-Blaise.)</p> + +<p><a name="fig_177" id="fig_177"></a>Fig. 177.—<i>Tympanum</i> of the Thirteenth Century. +(Sculpture on the Musicians’ Hall, Rheims.)</p> +</div> +</div> + +<p>We have now to speak of stringed instruments, the whole of which may be +divided into three principal classes: those played on by the fingers, +those that are struck, and those which are rubbed (<i>frottées</i>) by means +of some appliance.</p> + +<p>As a matter of fact, there are some stringed instruments which may be +said to belong to all three of these classes, as all three modes of +playing upon them has been adopted either simultaneously or in +succession.</p> + +<p>The most ancient are doubtless those that are played on by the fingers, +first among which, in right of its antiquity, we must name the lyre; +from<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_209" id="page_209">{209}</a></span> this have sprung the cithern, the harp, the psaltery, the +<i>nabulon</i>, &c. In the Middle Ages, however, considerable confusion arose +from the fact that these original names were at the time often diverted +from their real acceptation.</p> + +<p>The lyre, the stringed instrument <i>par excellence</i> of the Greeks and +Romans, preserved its primitive form as late as the tenth century. The +strings were generally of twisted gut, but sometimes also of brass wire, +and varied in number from three to eight. The sounding-box, which was +always placed at the lower part of the instrument, was more often made +of wood than of either metal or tortoise-shell (<a href="#fig_178">Fig. 178</a>).</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_159_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_159_sml.jpg" width="292" height="159" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_178" id="fig_178"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 178.—Ancient Lyre. (Angers MS.)</p> + +<p><a name="fig_179" id="fig_179"></a>Fig. 179.—Lyre of the North. (Ninth Century.)</p> +</div> +</div> + +<p>The lyre was held upon the knees, and the performer touched or rubbed +the strings with one hand, either with the fingers or by means of a +<i>plectrum</i>. The lyre specified as “Northern” (<a href="#fig_179">Fig. 179</a>), was certainly +the origin of the violin, to the shape of which it even then bore some +resemblance; it was fastened at the top, and had a <i>cordier</i> at the end +of the sounding-board, as well as a bridge in the centre of the face of +the instrument.</p> + +<p>The lyre was superseded by the psaltery and the cithern. The psaltery, +which never was furnished with fewer than ten, or more than twenty, +strings, differed essentially from the lyre and the cithern by the +sounding-board being placed at the top of the instrument. Psalteries +were made of a round, square, oblong, or buckler-shaped form (<a href="#fig_181">Fig. 181</a>); +and sometimes the sounding-box was lengthened so as to rest upon the +shoulder of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_210" id="page_210">{210}</a></span> musician (<a href="#fig_180">Fig. 180</a>). The psaltery disappeared in the +tenth century and gave place to the cithern (<i>cithara</i>), a name which +had been at first applied to all kinds of stringed instruments. The +shape of the cithern, which in the days of St. Jerome resembled a Greek +<i>delta</i> (Δ), varied in different countries, as is proved by the +epithets—<i>barbarica</i>, <i>Teutonica</i>, <i>Anglica</i>, which we find at +different times coupled with its generic name. In other places, in +consequence of these local transformations, it became the <i>nabulum</i>, the +<i>chorus</i>, and the <i>salterion</i> or <i>psalterion</i> (which latter must not be +confounded with the psaltery, a primary derivative of the lyre).</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_160_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_160_sml.jpg" width="197" height="295" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_180" id="fig_180"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 180.—Psaltery to produce a prolonged sound. Ninth +Century. (MS. in the Bibl. Imp., Paris.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The <i>nabulum</i><a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> (<a href="#fig_182">Fig. 182</a>) was made either in the shape of a triangle +with truncated corners, or of a semicircle joined at the two +extremities; its<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_211" id="page_211">{211}</a></span> sounding-board occupied the whole of the rounded part, +and left but a very limited space for the twelve strings. The <i>chorus</i> +or <i>choron</i>, the imperfect representation of which in the manuscripts of +the ninth and tenth centuries calls to mind the appearance of a long +semicircular window or of a Gothic capital <span class="eng">N</span>, generally had one of its +sides prolonged, on which the performer leaned so as to hold the +instrument in the same way as a harp (<a href="#fig_183">Fig. 183</a>).</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_161-a_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_161-a_sml.jpg" width="302" height="140" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_181" id="fig_181"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 181.—Buckler-shaped Psaltery with many Strings. +(Ninth Century. Boulogne MS.)</p> + +<p><a name="fig_182" id="fig_182"></a>Fig. 182.—<i>Nabulum.</i> Ninth Century. (MS. d’Angers.)</p> +</div> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_161-b_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_161-b_sml.jpg" width="241" height="162" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_183" id="fig_183"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 183.—<i>Choron.</i> Ninth Century. (Boulogne MS.)</p> + +<p><a name="fig_184" id="fig_184"></a>Fig. 184.—<i>Psalterion.</i> Twelfth Century.</p> +</div> +</div> + +<p>The <i>psalterion</i>, which was in use all over Europe after the twelfth +century, and is thought to have originated in the East, where it was +found by the Crusaders, was at first composed of a flat box of sounding +wood, with two<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_212" id="page_212">{212}</a></span> oblique sides; it assumed the shape of a triangle +truncated at its top, with twelve or sixteen metallic strings either of +gold or silver, which were played upon by means of a small bow of wood, +ivory, or horn (<a href="#fig_184">Fig. 184</a>); subsequently the strings were made more +slender, the number being increased to as many as twenty-two; the three +angles of the sounding-box were cut off, and holes were made, sometimes +one only in the middle, sometimes one at each angle, and sometimes as +many as five, symmetrically arranged. The performer placed the +instrument against his chest, and held it so as to touch the strings +either with the fingers of the two hands, or with a pen or <i>plectrum</i> +(<a href="#fig_185">Fig. 185</a>). This instrument, which in the representations of poets and +painters never failed to figure in celestial concerts, produced tones of +incomparable softness. The old romances of chivalry exhausted all the +phrases of admiration in describing the <i>psalterion</i>. But the highest +eulogium which can be passed on this instrument is that it formed the +starting-point of the harpsichord, or of the stringed instruments struck +or played on by means of mechanism.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_162_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_162_sml.jpg" width="160" height="262" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_185" id="fig_185"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 185.—Performer on the <i>Psalterion</i>. Fourteenth +Century. (MS. No. 703 in the Bibl. Imp. of Paris.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_213" id="page_213">{213}</a></span></p> + +<p>It is, in fact, thought that a kind of harpsichord with four octaves, +which in the fourteenth century was called <i>dulcimer</i> or <i>dulcemelos</i>, +and is but imperfectly described, was nothing else than a <i>psalterion</i>, +with a sounding apparatus that assumed the proportions of a large box, +to which also a key-board had been adapted. This instrument, when it had +but three octaves, was called <i>clavicord</i> or <i>manicordion</i>, and in the +sixteenth century produced forty-two to fifty tones or semi-tones: one +string expressed several notes, and this was effected by means of plates +of metal which, serving as a movable bridge to each string, either +increased or diminished the intensity of its vibration. The grand-pianos +of the present day unquestionably have their key-boards placed in the +same position as they were in the <i>dulcimer</i> and <i>clavicorde</i>. The +earliest improvements in metallic stringed instruments constructed with +a key-board are due to the Italians; these improvements soon had the +effect of throwing the <i>psalterion</i> into oblivion.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_163_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_163_sml.jpg" width="325" height="92" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_186" id="fig_186"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 186.—<i>Organistrum.</i> Ninth Century. (MS. de +Saint-Blaise.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>In the ninth century a stringed instrument was in use the mechanism of +which, although not very perfect, evidently tended to an imitation of +the key-board applied to organs: this was the <i>organistrum</i> (<a href="#fig_186">Fig. 186</a>), +an enormous guitar pierced with two sound holes, and provided with three +strings set in vibration by a small winch; eight movable screws, rising +or falling at will along the finger-board, formed so many keys which +served to vary the tones. In the first instance two persons performed on +the <i>organistrum</i>—one turning the winch while the other touched the +keys. When its size was decreased it became the <i>vielle</i> (hurdy-gurdy) +properly so called, which could be managed by one musician. It was at +first called <i>rubelle</i>, <i>rebel</i>, and <i>symphonie</i>; subsequently this last +name was corrupted into <i>chifonie</i> and <i>sifonie</i>, and we may remark that +even now in certain districts of central<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_214" id="page_214">{214}</a></span> France the <i>vielle</i> still +bears the popular name of <i>chinforgne</i>. The <i>chifonie</i> never found a +place in musical concerts, and fell almost immediately into the hands of +the mendicants, who solicited alms accompanied by the doleful and +somewhat discordant notes of this instrument, and thence obtaining the +name of <i>chifoniens</i>.</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding all the efforts which were made to substitute wheels and +key-boards for the action of the fingers on the strings of instruments, +still those that were played on by the hand only, such as harps and +lutes, did not fail to maintain the preference among skilful musicians.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_164_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_164_sml.jpg" width="234" height="117" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_187" id="fig_187"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 187.—Triangular Saxon Harp of the Ninth Century. +(Bible of Charles le Chauve.)</p> + +<p><a name="fig_188" id="fig_188"></a>Fig. 188.—Fifteen-stringed Harp of the Twelfth Century. +(MS. in the Bibl. Imp., Paris.)</p> +</div> +</div> + +<p>The harp was certainly Saxon in its origin, although some have imagined +they could discover traces of it in Greek, Roman, and even Egyptian +antiquities. This instrument was at first nothing but a triangular +cithern (<a href="#fig_187">Fig. 187</a>), in which the sounding-board occupied the whole of +one side from top to bottom, instead of being limited to the lower +angle, as in the primitive <i>cithara</i>, or confined to the upper part as +in the psaltery. The English harp (<i>cithara Anglica</i>) of the ninth +century differed but little from the modern instrument; the simplicity +and good judgment shown in its shape bear witness to the perfection it +had already attained (<a href="#fig_188">Fig. 188</a>). The number of strings and the shape of +this instrument varied constantly from time to time. The sounding-box +was sometimes made square, sometimes elongated, and sometimes round. The +arms were sometimes straight and sometimes curved; the upper side was +often lengthened so as to represent an animal’s head (<a href="#fig_189">Fig. 189</a>) and the +lower angle, on which the instrument rested on the ground, terminated in +a griffin’s claw. According to the miniatures in manuscripts, the harp +was of a size that the top of it<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_215" id="page_215">{215}</a></span> did not extend higher than the head of +the performer, who played upon it in a sitting posture (<a href="#fig_190">Fig. 190</a>). There +were, however, harps of a lighter character, which the musician bore +suspended from his neck by a strap, and played upon while standing up. +This portable harp was the one that may <i>par excellence</i> be called +noble, and was the instrument on which the <i>trouvères</i> accompanied their +voices when reciting ballads and metrical tales (<a href="#fig_191">Fig. 191</a>). In the +romances of chivalry harpers are constantly introduced, and their harps +are ever tuned to some lay of love or war; we find this taking place as +well in the north as in the south. “The harp,” says Guillaume de +Machaut—</p> + +<div class="poetry"> +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i8">“tous instruments passe,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Quand sagement bien en joue et compasse.”<br /></span> +</div></div> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_165_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_165_sml.jpg" width="281" height="239" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_189" id="fig_189"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 189.—Harpers of the Twelfth Century, from a +Miniature in a Bible. (MS. in the Bibl. Imp., Paris.)</p> + +<p><a name="fig_190" id="fig_190"></a>Fig. 190.—Harp-player of the Fifteenth Century. From an +Enamelled Dish found near Soissons, and preserved in the Bibl. Imp., +Paris.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>In the sixteenth century, however, it began to fall into disfavour; it +was supplanted by the lute (<a href="#fig_192">Fig. 192</a>), an instrument much used in the +thirteenth century, and by the guitar, which was brought into fashion in +France from Spain and Italy, and formed the delight both of the court<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_216" id="page_216">{216}</a></span> +and private circles. At that time every great lord, imitating kings and +princesses, wished to have his lute or guitar player, and the poet +Bonaventure des Périers, <i>valet de chambre</i> of Marguerite de Navarre, +composed for her “La Manière de bien et justement entoucher les Lucs et +Guiternes.” The lute and the guitar, which for about two centuries were +in high favour in what was called “chamber music,” have since the +above-named epoch scarcely been altered in shape. With certain +modifications, however, they gave rise to the <i>theorbo</i> and the +<i>mandolin</i>, which never attained more than a transient or local favour.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_166_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_166_sml.jpg" width="242" height="173" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_191" id="fig_191"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 191.—Minstrel’s Harp, of the Fifteenth Century. +(MS. in the <i>Miroir Historial</i> of Vincent de Beauvais.)</p> + +<p><a name="fig_192" id="fig_192"></a>Fig. 192.—Five-stringed Lute. Thirteenth Century. (MS. +in the Bibl. Imp., Paris.)</p> +</div> +</div> + +<p>Stringed instruments that were played on by means of bows were not known +before the fifth century, and belonged to the northern races; they did +not become prevalent in Europe generally until after the Norman +invasion. At first they were but roughly made and rendered indifferent +service to musical art; but from the twelfth to the sixteenth century, +these instruments were subject to many changes both in form and name, +and were brought to perfection according as the execution of musicians +also improved. The most ancient of these instruments is the <i>crout</i> +(<a href="#fig_193">Fig. 193</a>), which must have produced the <i>rote</i>, so dear to the +minstrels and the <i>trouvères</i> of the thirteenth century. The <i>crout</i>, +which is the instrument placed by tradition in the hands of the +Armorican, Breton, and Scotch bards,<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> was<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_217" id="page_217">{217}</a></span> composed of an oblong +sounding-box, more or less hollowed out at the two sides, with a handle +fixed in the body of the instrument, in which were made two openings +that allowed the performer to hold it by the left hand and at the same +time to touch the strings; these, as a matter of principle, were only +three in number. Subsequently it had four strings, and then six—two of +which were played open (<i>à vide</i>). The musician played on it with a +straight or convex bow, provided with a single thread either of iron +wire or of twisted hair. Except in England, where the <i>crout</i> was +national, it did not last beyond the eleventh century. It was replaced +by the <i>rote</i>, which was not, as its name (apparently derived from +<i>rota</i>, a wheel) would seem to intimate, a <i>vielle</i> or <i>symphonie</i>. It +would be useless to seek for the derivation of the name of <i>rota</i>, +except in the word <i>crotta</i>, the Latin form of the term <i>crout</i>.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_167_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_167_sml.jpg" width="158" height="292" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_193" id="fig_193"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 193.—Three-stringed <i>Crout</i> of the Ninth Century. +From a Miniature.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_218" id="page_218">{218}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_168_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_168_sml.jpg" width="178" height="278" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_194" id="fig_194"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 194.—King David playing on a <i>Rote</i>. From a Painted +Window of the Thirteenth Century. (Chapel of the Virgin, Cathedral of +Troyes.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>In the earliest <i>rotes</i> (<a href="#fig_194">Fig. 194</a>), those made in the thirteenth +century, there is an evident intention of combining the two modes of +playing on the strings—rubbing with a bow and touching with the +fingers. The box, which was not hollowed out and rounded at the two +ends, was much deeper at the lower end, where the strings commenced, +than higher up, near the pegs, where these strings are sounded open +under the action of the finger, which reaches them through an aperture; +the bow acting on them near the string-bridge in front of the +sounding-holes. It must have been difficult to touch with the bow one +string alone, but it should be remarked that the harmonic ideal of this +instrument consisted in forming accords by consonances of thirds, +fifths, and eighths. The <i>rote</i> was soon developed into a new +instrument, assuming the form that our violoncellos have almost exactly +retained. The box was increased in size, the handle was lengthened +beyond the body of the instrument, the number of strings was reduced to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_219" id="page_219">{219}</a></span> +three or four, stretched over a bridge, and the sounding-holes were made +in the shape of a crescent. From this time the <i>rote</i> acquired a special +character it had not lost even in the sixteenth century, when it became +the bass-viol. This was its true destination. The size of the instrument +dictated the manner in which it was held, either on the knees or on the +ground between the legs (<a href="#fig_195">Fig. 195</a>).</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_169_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_169_sml.jpg" width="169" height="224" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_195" id="fig_195"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 195.—German Musicians playing on the Violin and +Bass-Viol. Drawn and Engraved by J. Amman.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The <i>vielle</i> or <i>viole</i>, which had no affinity except in shape with the +<i>vielle</i> (hurdy-gurdy) of the present day, was at first a small <i>rote</i> +held by the performer against his chin or his breast, in much the same +way as the violin is now used (<a href="#fig_196">Fig. 196</a>). The box, which was at first +conical and convex, became gradually oval in shape, and the handle +remained short and wide. It was, perhaps, this handle which terminated +in a kind of ornamental scroll in the shape of a violet (<i>viola</i>), that +originated the name of the instrument. The <i>viole</i>, just as the <i>rote</i>, +formed the accompaniment <i>obligato</i> of certain songs; and among the +jugglers who played upon it good performers were rare (Figs. <a href="#fig_197">197</a>, <a href="#fig_198">198</a>). +Improvements in the <i>vielle</i> came for the most part from Italy, where +the co-operation of a number of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_220" id="page_220">{220}</a></span> skilful lute-players was the means of +gradually forming the violin. Even before the famous Dnifloprugar, born +in the Italian Tyrol, had hit upon the model of his admirable violins, +the handle of the <i>vielle</i> had been lengthened,</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_170-a_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_170-a_sml.jpg" width="258" height="133" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_196" id="fig_196"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 196.—Oval <i>Vielle</i> with Three Strings, of the +Thirteenth Century. (Sculpture on the Cathedral of Amiens.)</p> + +<p><a name="fig_197" id="fig_197"></a>Fig. 197.—Juggler playing on a <i>Vielle</i>, hollowed out at +the Sides. Fifteenth Century. (“Heures du Roi René,” MS. No. 159 in the +Bibl. Imp. of the Arsenal, Paris.)</p> +</div> +</div> + +<p class="nind">its sides hollowed out, and its strings had received a more extended +field of action by removing the stringer (<i>cordier</i>) from the centre of +the sounding-board</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_170-b_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_170-b_sml.jpg" width="252" height="181" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_198" id="fig_198"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 198.—Player on the <i>Vielle</i>. Thirteenth Century. +(Taken from an Enamelled Dish at Soissons.)</p> + +<p><a name="fig_199" id="fig_199"></a>Fig. 199.—Angel Playing on a Three-stringed Fiddle. +Thirteenth Century. (Sculpture in the Cathedral of Amiens.)</p> +</div> +</div> + +<p>Henceforth the play of the board became more free and easy, the +performer was able to touch every string singly, and was in a position +to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_221" id="page_221">{221}</a></span> substitute effects more characteristic instead of the former +monotonous consonances.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_171_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_171_sml.jpg" width="308" height="228" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_200" id="fig_200"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 200.—Rebec, of the Sixteenth Century. From +Willemin.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_201" id="fig_201"></a>Fig. 201.—Long Monochord played on with a Bow. Fifteenth +Century. (MS. of Froissart, in the Bibl. Imp., Paris.)</p> +</div> +</div> + +<p>England was the birthplace of the <i>crout</i>; France invented the <i>rote</i>, +and Italy the <i>viole</i>; Germany originated the <i>gigue</i>,<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> the name of +which may perhaps be derived from the similarity presented by the shape +of the instrument to the thigh of a kid. The <i>gigue</i> was provided with +three strings (<a href="#fig_199">Fig. 199</a>), and its special distinction from the <i>viole</i> +was, that instead of the handle being as it were independent of the body +of the instrument, it was a kind of prolongation of the sounding-board. +The <i>gigue</i>, which bore a considerable resemblance to the modern +mandolin, was an instrument on which the Germans were accustomed to work +wonders in the way of performance; according, at least, to the statement +of Adenès, the <i>trouvère</i>, who speaks with admiration of the +“<i>gigueours</i> of Germany.” The <i>gigue</i>, however, entirely disappeared, at +least in France, in the fifteenth century; but its name still remained +as the designation of a joyous dance, which for a considerable period +was enlivened by the sound of this instrument.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_222" id="page_222">{222}</a></span></p> + +<p>Among the musical instruments of this class in the Middle Ages, we have +still to mention the rebec (<a href="#fig_200">Fig. 200</a>), which was so often quoted by the +authors of the day, and yet is so little known, although it figured in +the court concerts in the time of Rabelais, who specifies it by the term +<i>aulique</i>, in contrast to the rustic <i>cornemuse</i> (bagpipes).</p> + +<p>We must, in conclusion, speak of the monochord (<i>monocordium</i>), which is +always mentioned by the authors of the Middle Ages with feelings of +pleasure, although it appears to have been nothing more than the most +simple and primitive expression of all the other stringed instruments +(<a href="#fig_201">Fig. 201</a>). It was composed of a narrow oblong box, on each end of the +front-board were fixed two immovable bridges supporting a metallic +string stretched from one to the other, and corresponding to a scale of +notes traced out on the instrument. A movable bridge, which was shifted +up and down between the string and the scale, produced whatever notes +the performer wished to bring out. In the eighth century there was a +kind of violin or mandolin furnished with a single metallic string +played on with a metallic bow. Later still, we find a kind of harp +formed of a long sounding-box traversed by a single string, over which +the musician moved a small bow handled with a sudden and rapid movement.</p> + +<p>The instruments we have named do not, however, embrace all those in use +in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. There certainly were others +which, in spite of the most intelligent investigations, and the most +judicious deductions, are now known to us only by name. As regards, for +instance, the nature and appearance of the <i>éles</i> or <i>celes</i>, the +<i>échaqueil</i> or <i>échequier</i>, the <i>enmorache</i>, and the <i>micamon</i>, we are +left to the vaguest conjectures.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_172_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_172_sml.jpg" width="96" height="88" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_202" id="fig_202"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 202.—Triangle of the Ninth Century. (MS. of +Saint-Emmeran.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_223" id="page_223">{223}</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="PLAYING-CARDS" id="PLAYING-CARDS"></a>PLAYING-CARDS.</h2> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Supposed Date of their Invention.—Existed in India in the Twelfth +Century.—Their connection with the Game of Chess.—Brought into +Europe after the Crusades.—First Mention of a Game with Cards in +1379.—Cards well known in the Fifteenth Century in Spain, Germany, +and France, under the name of <i>Tarots</i>.—Cards called <i>Charles the +Sixth’s</i> must have been <i>Tarots</i>.—Ancient Cards, French, Italian, +and German.—Cards contributing to the Invention of Wood-Engraving +and Printing.</p></div> + +<p class="nind"><a href="images/ill_173_lg.jpg"> +<span class="letra"> +<img src="images/ill_173_sml.jpg" +width="90" +alt="T" /></span></a>HE origin of playing-cards has for many years past formed a special +subject of investigation among scholars and antiquarians. For, however +trifling the matter may appear in itself, this curious point is +connected with two of the most important inventions of modern +times—engraving and printing.</p> + +<p>We must not, however, take upon ourselves to assert too positively that +all the profound researches, persevering study, and ingenious deductions +which have been applied to the subject have entirely succeeded in +elucidating the question. Nevertheless, a certain degree of light has +been thrown upon it, by which we shall endeavour to profit.</p> + +<p>The question is, at what date are we to fix the invention of +playing-cards, and to whom are we to attribute it? In order to solve +these queries, they must be divided; for, although the introduction of +playing-cards into Europe may not date back beyond the fourteenth +century, and the invention of our game of piquet may not have been prior +to the reign of Charles VII., it is at least asserted—(1st), that +playing-cards existed in India in the twelfth century; (2nd), that the +ancients played at games in which certain figures and numbers were +represented on dice or tablets; (3rd), that in comparatively recent +times the game of chess and the game of cards presented striking +affinities, proving the common origin of these two games—one connected +with painting, the other with sculpture.</p> + +<p>If we are to believe Herodotus, the Lydians, in order to beguile the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_224" id="page_224">{224}</a></span> +sufferings of hunger during a long and cruel famine, invented nearly +every game, especially that of dice. Later authors ascribe the honour of +these inventions to the Greeks, when irritated at the tedious delays of +the siege of Troy. Cicero even mentions by name Pyrrhus and Palamedes as +the originators of the “games in use in camps” (<i>ludos castrenses</i>). +What were these games? Some say, chess; others, dice or knuckle-bones.</p> + +<p>Certain very ancient specimens prove unquestionably that the Indian +cards were nothing but a transformation of the game of chess; for the +principal pieces in this game are reproduced on the cards, but in such a +way that eight players instead of two could take part in it. In the game +of chess there were only two armies of pawns, each having at its head a +king, a vizier (who was afterwards turned into a “queen”), a knight, an +elephant (which became a “bishop”), and a dromedary (afterwards a +“castle”). There can be no doubt that the course and arrangement of +these games were very different; but in both may be found an original +affinity in the fact that they recalled to mind the terrible game of +war, in which each adversary had to attack by means of stratagems, +combinations, and vigilance.</p> + +<p>We have now learned from certain authority (Abel de Rémusat, <i>Journal +Asiatique</i>, September, 1822) that playing-cards, proceeding from India +and China, were, like the game of chess (<a href="#fig_203">Fig. 203</a>), in the hands of the +Arabians and the Saracens at the commencement of the twelfth century. It +is therefore almost certain they must have been brought into Europe +after the Crusades, with the arts, traditions, and customs which the men +of the West then derived from their Oriental antagonists. There is, +however, every reason to believe that the use of cards spread but +slowly; for at an epoch when the civil and ecclesiastical authorities +were constantly issuing ordinances against games of chance, we do not +find that cards were ever the subject of legal proceedings, like dice +and chess.</p> + +<p>The first formal mention made of playing-cards is found in a manuscript +chronicle of Nicolas de Covelluzzo, preserved in the archives of +Viterbo. “In the year 1379,” says the chronicler, “there was introduced +at Viterbo the game of cards, which comes from the country of the +Saracens, and is called by the latter <i>naïb</i>.” There is, in fact, a +German book, the “Jeu d’Or,” printed at Augsbourg in 1472, which +testifies to the fact that cards existed in Germany in the year 1300. +But, in the first place, this evidence is not contemporary with the fact +alleged; and, besides,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_225" id="page_225">{225}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_174_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_174_sml.jpg" width="337" height="281" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_203" id="fig_203"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 203.—Chess-Players. Fac-simile of a Miniature of +the Thirteenth Century. (MS. 7,266, Bibl. Imp., Paris.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p class="nind">we may well suppose that the vanity of the Germans, which had attributed +to themselves the discovery of printing, desired, with about as much +reason, to appropriate also the invention of cards—that is, of +wood-engraving. We shall, therefore, act judiciously in paying but +little attention to this doubtful assertion, and hold to the account +given by the chronicler of Viterbo. But the latter, unfortunately, +furnishes us with no details as to the nature of these cards. Was the +game similar to that which is still extant in India? Or was it one +peculiar to the Arabs? These are questions which must remain unsolved. +The only facts presented to our notice are, that in 1379 cards made +their appearance in Europe, brought from Arabia, or the country of the +Saracens, and that their original name is given. The Italians for a long +time gave to cards the name of <i>naïbi</i>. In Spain they are still called +<i>naypes</i>. If it be understood that the word <i>naïb</i> in Arabic signifies +“captain,” we shall see that the game in question was one of a<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_226" id="page_226">{226}</a></span> military +character, like that of chess, and we shall be led to recognise in these +primitive cards the <i>tarots</i> which were for a long time current in the +south of Europe.</p> + +<p>In 1387, John I., King of Castile, issued an ordinance prohibiting to +play with dice, <i>naypes</i>, or at chess.</p> + +<p>In the archives of the Audit Office, in Paris, there formerly existed an +account of the treasurer, Poupart, who states that, in 1392, he had +“paid to Jacquemin Gringonneur, painter, for three packs of cards in +gold and various colours, ornamented with numerous devices, to lay +before the lord the king (Charles VI.) for his amusement, 50 sols of +Paris.” This game, which seemed at first intended only for the amusement +of the king in his mental derangement, subsequently spread so much among +the people, that the provost of Paris, in an ordinance of January 22, +1397, issued a prohibition “to persons engaged in trade from playing at +tennis, bowls, dice, <i>cards</i>, and skittles, except on feast-days.” We +must remark that, twenty-eight years previously, Charles V., in a +celebrated ordinance which enumerates all the games of chance, did not +mention cards.</p> + +<p>The “Red Book” of the town of Ulm, a manuscript register preserved in +the archives of that town, contains an ordinance dated in 1397, in which +is conveyed a prohibition of games with cards.</p> + +<p>These facts are the only authenticated evidence which can be brought +forward with a view of fixing the approximate period of the introduction +of cards into Europe. Some authors have certainly imagined they were in +a position to determine an earlier epoch, but they have gone upon data +the value of which has since been destroyed by more thorough +investigation.</p> + +<p>In the fifteenth century there are evident traces both of the existence +and popularity of cards in Italy, Spain, Germany, and France. Their +names, colours, and emblems, their number and forms, were indeed +constantly changing, according to the country in which they were used +and the fancy of the players. But whether called <i>tarots</i> or “French +cards,” they were in fact nothing but modifications of the primitive +Oriental cards, and an imitation more or less faithful of the ancient +game of chess.</p> + +<p>Reckoning from the fifteenth century, we meet with cards in every +enumeration of games of chance; we find them also proscribed and +condemned in ecclesiastical and royal ordinances. The clergy, too, +raised their voices against them; but these measures did not prevent the +trade in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_227" id="page_227">{227}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="fig_204" id="fig_204"></a><a name="fig_205" id="fig_205"></a> +<a href="images/ill_175_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_175_sml.jpg" width="357" height="414" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<div class="caption"><p>Figs. 204 and 205.—Jean Dunois, King Alexander, Julius +Cæsar, King Arthur, Charles the Great, and Godefroi de Bouillon. From +ancient coloured Wood-Engravings; prints analogous to the first +Playing-Cards of the Fifteenth Century. (Bibl. Imp., Paris, Department +of Manuscripts.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p class="nind">them from increasing, nor great attention to their improved manufacture. +Poets and romance-writers vied with each other in speaking of them; they +appeared in the miniatures in manuscripts, and also in the first +attempts at engraving on wood and copper (<a href="#fig_204">Figs. 204</a> and <a href="#fig_205">205</a>). And, +notwithstanding<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_228" id="page_228">{228}</a></span> the fragile nature of the cards themselves, some have +been preserved which belong to the earliest years of the fifteenth +century.</p> + +<p>As we have already seen, cards had, in principle, been classed among the +number of childish games; but it may be safely asserted that this could +not have long been the case, else how could we explain the legal +strictures and the ecclesiastical anathemas of which they were the +subject?</p> + +<p>St. Bernard, for example, speaking on the 5th of March, 1423, to the +crowd assembled in front of a church at Siena, inveighed with so much +energy, and fulminated with so much persuasion, against games of chance, +that all who heard ran at once and fetched their dice, chess, and +<i>cards</i>, and burnt them on the very spot. But, adds the chronicle, there +was a card-maker who, being ruined by the sermon of the saint, went to +seek him, and with a flood of tears said to him: “Father, I am a maker +of cards, and I have no other trade by which to live. By preventing me +from following my trade, you condemn me to die of hunger.” “If painting +is all you are capable of,” replied the preacher, “paint this picture.” +And he showed him an image of a radiating sun, in the centre of which +shone the monogram of Christ—I. H. S. The artisan followed his advice, +and soon made his fortune by painting this representation, which was +adopted by St. Bernard as his device.</p> + +<p>Although in every direction similar censures were directed against +cards, they nevertheless did not fail to come much into fashion, +especially in Italy; and to have a considerable sale. Thus, in 1441, we +find the master card-makers at Venice “who formed a rather numerous +association,” claiming and obtaining from the senate a kind of +prohibitory order against “the large quantity of <i>painted</i> and <i>printed</i> +cards which were made out of Venice and were introduced into the town, +to the great detriment of their art.” It is important to notice that +mention is made here of <i>printed</i> as well as of painted cards. The fact +is, that at this date, not only did all the cities in Italy make their +own cards, but, in consequence of the invention of wood-engraving, +Germany and Holland exported a large quantity of them. We must also +point out that documents of the same date appear to establish a +distinction between the primitive <i>naïbi</i> and cards properly so called, +without, however, affording any detailed characteristics of either. It +is, however, known that prior to the year 1419, one François Fibbia, a +noble of Pisa who died in exile at Bologna, obtained from the +“reformers” of this<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_229" id="page_229">{229}</a></span> city, on the score of his being the inventor of the +game of <i>tarrochino</i>, the right of placing his escutcheon of arms on the +“queen <i>de bâton</i>,” and that of his wife’s arms on the “queen <i>de +denier</i>.” <i>Bâtons</i>, <i>deniers</i>, with <i>coupes</i> and <i>épées</i>, were then the +suits of the Italian cards, as <i>carreau</i> (diamond), <i>trèfle</i> (club), +<i>cœur</i> (heart), and <i>pique</i> (spade), were those of the French cards.</p> + +<p>No original specimen has been preserved of the <i>tarots</i> (<i>tarrochi</i>, +<i>tarrochini</i>) or Italian cards of this epoch; but we possess a pack +engraved about 1460, which is known to be an exact copy of them. Added +to this, Raphael Maffei, who lived at the end of the fifteenth century, +has left in his “Commentaries” a description of <i>tarots</i>, which were, he +says, “a new invention,”—in comparison, doubtless, with the origin of +playing-cards. From these two documents—though they present some +differences—we may gather that the pack of <i>tarots</i> was then composed +of four or five series or suits, each of ten cards, bearing consecutive +numbers, and presenting so many <i>deniers</i>, <i>bâtons</i>, <i>coupes</i>, and +<i>épées</i>, equal in number to that of the card. To these series we must +add a whole assortment of figures, representing the <i>King</i>, the <i>Queen</i>, +the <i>Knight</i>, the <i>Foot-traveller</i>, the <i>World</i>, <i>Justice</i>, an <i>Angel</i>, +the <i>Sun</i>, the <i>Devil</i>, a <i>Castle</i>, <i>Death</i>, a <i>Gibbet</i>, the <i>Pope</i>, +<i>Love</i>, a <i>Buffoon</i> (<a href="#fig_206">Fig. 206</a>), &c.</p> + +<p>It is evident that <i>tarots</i> were current in France long before the +invention of the game of piquet, which is unquestionably of French +origin; and among these <i>tarots</i> we must class the cards that are called +those of Charles VI. (<a href="#fig_207">Figs. 207</a> and <a href="#fig_208">208</a>), and are now preserved in the +Print-Room of the Bibliothèque Impériale in Paris; these may be +considered as the oldest to be found in any collection, either public or +private. The Abbé de Longuerue states that he saw the pack with all its +cards complete; but only seventeen have been preserved to our day. These +cards are painted with delicacy, like the miniatures in manuscripts, on +a gilt ground, filled with dots forming a perforated ornamentation; they +are also surrounded by a silvered border in which a similar dotting +depicts a spirally twisted ribbon. This dotting is doubtless the <i>tare</i>, +a kind of goffering produced by small holes pricked out and arranged in +compartments, to which the <i>tarots</i> owe their names, and of which our +present cards still retain a kind of reminiscence, in their backs being +covered with arabesques or dotted over in black or various colours. +These cards were about seven inches long and three and a half inches +wide, and were painted in distemper<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_230" id="page_230">{230}</a></span> on cardboard ·039 inch thick. The +composition of them is ingenious and to some extent skilful, the drawing +correct and full of character, and the colouring or illumination +brilliant.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_176_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_176_sml.jpg" width="131" height="296" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_206" id="fig_206"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 206.—The Buffoon, a Card from a Pack of <i>Tarots</i>. +Fifteenth Century.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Among the subjects they represent are some which deserve all the more +attention, because they can hardly fail to recall to mind a conception +somewhat similar to that of the “Dance of Death,” that terrible +“morality” which, dating from this epoch, was destined to increase more +and more in popularity. Thus, for instance, by the side of the +<i>Emperor</i>, who is covered with silver armour and holds the globe and the +sceptre, a <i>Hermit</i> makes his appearance as an old man muffled in a cowl +and holding up an hour-glass, an emblem of the rapidity of time. Then we +have the <i>Pope</i>, who, with the tiara on his head, sits between two +cardinals; but <i>Death</i> is also there, mounted on a grey horse with a +rough<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_231" id="page_231">{231}</a></span> and shaggy coat, and sweeping down with his scythe kings, popes, +bishops, and other great men of the earth. If we see <i>Love</i>, represented +by three couples of lovers who embrace as they converse, while two +cupids dart at them their arrows from a cloud above; we also see a +<i>Gibbet</i>, on which hangs a gambler suspended by one foot, and still +holding in his hand a bag of money. An <i>Esquire</i>, clothed in gold and +scarlet, rides gallantly along, proudly waving his sword; a <i>Chariot</i> +bears in triumph an officer in full armour; a <i>Fool</i> places his cap and +bells under his arm that he may count upon his fingers. Finally, the +last trumpets are waking up the dead, who come out of their graves to +appear at the Last Judgment.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="fig_207" id="fig_207"></a> +<a href="images/ill_177_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_177_sml.jpg" width="335" height="295" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<div class="caption"><p class="nind">s: Fig. 207.—The Moon.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_208" id="fig_208"></a>Fig. 208.—Justice.</p> + +<p>(Cards taken from the Pack, said to be of Charles VI., preserved in the +Bibl. Imp., Paris.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Most of these allegorical subjects have been retained in the <i>tarots</i>, +which include, independent of the sixteen figures of our piquet-pack, +twenty-two<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_232" id="page_232">{232}</a></span> cards, representing the <i>Emperor</i>, the <i>Lover</i>, the +<i>Chariot</i>, the <i>Hermit</i>, the <i>Gibbet</i>, <i>Death</i>, the <i>House of God</i>, the +<i>End of the World</i>, &c.</p> + +<p>We should scarcely be justified in imagining that these <i>tarots</i>, +presenting as they did a picture of life so gloomily philosophical, +regarded from a Christian point of view, could have enjoyed any great +favour in the centre of a frivolous and corrupt court, devoted to little +else but <i>fêtes</i>, masquerades, and singing; this, too, at a time when +the State, a prey to every kind of intrigue, was falling into ruin, and +the voice of insurrection was surging up among a people burdened by +taxes, and decimated by pestilence and famine. On the other hand these +<i>tarots</i> might well please the imagination of certain good people who, +having been deprived of their property in some of the disturbances +incidental to these times, could not fail to accept as a consolation +such emblematical representations of life and death. Artists of every +kind tried their best to reproduce them in all forms; and as these +designs found a place even in the ornaments of the female sex, it was +scarcely probable that playing-cards would form an exception.</p> + +<p>We are in possession of the remains of two ancient packs of cards, +produced by means of engraved plates; they were discovered, like most +cards of this date which have come to light, in the bindings of books of +the fifteenth century. These cards, which belong to the reign of Charles +VII., are essentially French in their character. We find in them the +king, the queen, and the knave of each suit, as in our present pack of +piquet cards. In one of these ancient packs we notice, however, traces +of the Saracenic origin of the <i>naïbi</i>; the Mussulman “crescent” being +substituted for the “diamond,” while the “club” is depicted in the +Arabian or Moorish fashion; that is, with four similar branches. There +is also another peculiarity; the “king of hearts” is represented by a +kind of savage, or hairy ape, leaning upon a knotty stick. The “queen” +of the same suit is likewise covered with hair, and holds a torch in her +hand. The “knave of clubs,” who is well fitted to serve as an escort to +the “king” and “queen of hearts,” is also covered with hair, and carries +a knotty stick on his shoulder. We may, besides, notice the legs of a +fourth hairy personage among those which have been separated from their +bodies by the knife of the bookbinder. But, with the exception of these, +all the other personages are clothed according to the fashion or the +etiquette which prevailed at the court of Charles VII. The “queen of +crescents” is represented in a costume similar to that of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_233" id="page_233">{233}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_178_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_178_sml.jpg" width="311" height="424" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_209" id="fig_209"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 209.—Charles VI. on his Throne, from a Miniature in +the MS. of the Kings of France. (Bibl. Imp., Paris.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Mary of Anjou, the wife of the king; or in that of Gérarde Grassinel, +his mistress. The representations of the kings, the hairy one excepted, +are identical with those we have of Charles VII. himself, or the nobles +of his suite. Their costume was a velvet hat surmounted by the crown +ornamented with fleurs-de-lis; a robe open in front and lined with +ermine or <i>menu vair</i>,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_234" id="page_234">{234}</a></span> a tight doublet, and close stockings. The +“knaves” are copied from the pages and sergeants-at-arms of the period; +one wears the plumed flat cap and long cloak; another, on the contrary, +is clad in a short dress, and stands erect in his close-fitting doublet +and tightly drawn breeches. The latter displays, written on a streamer +which he is unrolling, the name of the card-maker, “F. Clerc.” These are +certainly cards of French invention, or, at any rate, of French +manufacture; but what explanation are we to give of the presence of the +savage “king” and “queen,” and the “hairy knave,” among the kings, +queens, and knaves all dressed according to the fashion of the time of +Charles VII.? We may, perhaps, find a satisfactory reply by referring to +the chronicles of the preceding reign.</p> + +<p>On the 29th of January, 1392, there was a grand <i>fête</i> at the mansion of +Queen Blanche in honour of the marriage of a Chevalier de Vermandois +with one of the queen’s ladies. The king, Charles VI., had only just +recovered from his mental malady. One of his favourites, Hugonin de +Janzay, projected an entertainment in which the king and five lords were +to take a part. “It was,” says Juvénal des Ursins, “a masquerade of wild +men chained together, and all shaggy; their dress was made to fit close +to their body, and was rendered rough by flax and tow fastened on by +resinous pitch, greased so as to shine the better.” Froissart, who was +an eye-witness of this <i>fête</i>, says that the six actors in the <i>ballet</i> +entered the hall yelling and shaking their chains. As it was not known +who these maskers were, the Duke of Orleans, brother of the king, +wishing to find out, took a lighted torch from the hands of his servant, +and held it so close to one of these strange personages that “the heat +of the fire caught the flax.” The king was fortunately separated from +his companions, who were all burned, with the exception of one only, who +threw himself into a tub full of water. Although Charles VI. escaped +from this peril, he was deeply affected by the thought of the danger to +which he had been exposed, and the result was a relapse into his former +insanity.</p> + +<p>This fearful <i>ballet des ardents</i> left such an impression on the minds +of people generally, that seventy years afterwards a German engraver +made it the subject of a print. Should we, then, be venturing on an +inadmissible hypothesis if we attribute to a cardmaker of this epoch the +idea of introducing the same subject in a pack of cards? which, as is +abundantly proved, was modified according to the whim of the artist. In +order to justify the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_235" id="page_235">{235}</a></span> costume of a female savage and the torch, which +are given to the “queen of hearts,” we must not forget that Isabel of +Bavaria, consort of Charles VI., is accused of having assisted in +devising this fatal masquerade, which was intended to get rid of the +king; and of having taken as her accomplice the Duke of Orleans, her +brother-in-law, who is said to have purposely set fire to the clothing +of these pretended wild men, among whom was the king.</p> + +<p>The second pack, or fragment of a pack, which is dated back to this +epoch, presents a similarity to our present cards of a yet more striking +nature, at least in the characters and costumes of the figures; although +the names and devices of the personages still are suggestive of their +Saracenic origin. We must remark, under this head, that for several +centuries the names coupled with the different personages were +incessantly varying. In this pack we find “kings,” “queens,” and +“knaves” of clubs, hearts, spades, and diamonds; the Saracenic crescent +has disappeared. The “kings” are all holding sceptres, and the “queens” +carry flowers. Everything in the representations is not only in harmony +with the fashions of the period, but in addition to this, there are no +violations either of the laws of heraldry or of the usages of chivalry.</p> + +<p>According to tradition, this pack, the true piquet-pack, which +superseded the Italian <i>tarots</i> and the cards of Charles VI., and soon +became generally used in France, was the invention of Etienne Vignoles, +called La Hire, one of the bravest and most active soldiers of that +period. The tradition has a right to our respect, for the mere +examination of this piquet-pack proves that it must have been the work +of some accomplished <i>chevalier</i>, or at least of a mind profoundly +imbued with the manners and customs of chivalry. But, without any wish +to exclude La Hire, who, as the historians say, “always had his helmet +on his head and his lance in his hand, ready to attack the English, and +never rested until he died of his wounds,” we are led rather to ascribe +the honour of this ingenious invention to one of his contemporaries, +Etienne Chevalier, secretary and treasurer to the king, who was +distinguished by his skill in designing. Jacques Cœur, whose commercial +relations with the East brought upon him the accusation of having “sent +arms to the Saracens,” might well have become the importer of Asiatic +cards into France, and Chevalier might then have amused himself by +applying devices to them or, as was then said, by <i>moralising</i> or +symbolising them. In India it<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_236" id="page_236">{236}</a></span> had been the game of the vizier and of +war; the royal treasurer turned it into a pack having reference to the +knight and chivalry. In the first place he placed on it his own armorial +bearings, the unicorn, which figures in several ancient packs of cards. +He did not forget the allusive arms of Jacques Cœur, and substituted +“hearts” for the <i>coupes</i>. He made the “clubs” imitate the heraldic +flower of Agnes Sorel; and also changed the <i>deniers</i> into diamonds, or +arrow-heads (<a href="#fig_210">Fig. 210</a>), and the <i>épées</i> into spades, to do honour to the +two brothers Jean and Gaspard Bureau, grand-masters of artillery in +France.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_179_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_179_sml.jpg" width="331" height="277" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_210" id="fig_210"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 210.—Ancient French Card of the Fifteenth Century. +(Bibl. Imp., Paris.)</p> + +<p><a name="fig_211" id="fig_211"></a>Fig. 211.—Specimen of a Pack of Cards of the Sixteenth +Century. (Bibl. Imp., Paris.)</p> +</div> +</div> + +<p>Etienne Chevalier, as the most skilful designer of emblems of the +period, was eminently capable of substituting, in playing-cards, ladies +or queens for the Oriental “viziers” or Italian “knights” which, on the +<i>tarots</i>, figured alone among the “kings” and “knaves.” We must, +however, repeat that we have no intention of depriving La Hire of the +honour of the inven<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_237" id="page_237">{237}</a></span>tion, and only hazard a supposition in addition to +the opinion generally received.</p> + +<p>These cards, which bear all the characteristics of the reign of Charles +VII., must be looked upon as the first attempts at wood-engraving, and +at printing by means of engraved blocks. They were probably executed +between 1420 and 1440, that is to say, prior to most of the known +xylographic productions. Playing-cards, therefore, served as a kind of +introduction or prelude to printing from engraved blocks, an invention +which considerably preceded the printing from movable characters.</p> + +<p>When, however, we observe that so early as the middle of the fifteenth +century playing-cards were spread all over Europe, it is but natural to +imagine that some economical plan of manufacture had been discovered and +employed. Thus, as we have already mentioned, Jacquemin Gringonneur, in +1392, was paid fifty-six sols of Paris, that is about £7 1<i>s.</i> 8<i>d.</i> of +our present money, for three packs of <i>tarots</i>, painted for the King of +France. One single pack of <i>tarots</i>, admirably painted, about the year +1415, by Marziano, secretary to the Duke of Milan, cost one thousand +five hundred golden crowns (about £625); but in 1454, a pack of cards +intended for the Dauphin of France cost no more than five <i>sous of +Tours</i> (about eleven or twelve shillings). In the interval between 1392 +and 1454 means had been discovered of making playing-cards at a cheap +rate, and of converting them into an object of trade; mercers were +accustomed to sell them together with the “pins,” which then took the +place of copper and silver counters; hence the French proverb, “Tirer +son épingle du jeu” (to get out of a scrape).</p> + +<p>Although the use of playing-cards continued to extend more and more, we +must not imagine that they had ceased to be the subject of prohibitory +and condemnatory ordinances on the part of the civil and ecclesiastical +authorities. On the contrary, a long list might be made of the decrees +launched against cards themselves and those that used them. Princes and +lords, as a matter of right, felt themselves above these prohibitions; +the lower orders and the dissolute did not fail to infringe them. It was +nevertheless the case, that in the face of these constantly-renewed +prohibitions, the manufacture of playing-cards could only be developed, +or rather perhaps be carried on, in some indirect mode. Thus, we find +the business at first was concealed, as it were, under that of a +stationer or illuminator. Not until December, 1581—that is, in the +reign of Henry III.—do we find<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_238" id="page_238">{238}</a></span> the first regulation fixing the +statutes of the “master-cardmakers.” These statutes, confirmed by +letters patent in 1584 and 1613, remained in force down to the (French) +Revolution. In the confirmation of corporate privileges granted at the +latter date, it is laid down as a rule that henceforth master-cardmakers +should be bound to place their names, surnames, signs, and devices on +the “knave of clubs” (Figs. <a href="#page_212">212</a>, <a href="#page_213">213</a>) of every pack of cards. This +prescription appears to have done nothing more than legalise an old +custom—a fact which may be proved by an examination of the curious +collection of ancient cards in the Print-Room of the Bibliothèque +Impériale. We have already stated that for a period of many years the +names given to the various personages in the pack varied constantly, +according to the fancy of the cardmaker; a mere glance at the collection +just mentioned will confirm this assertion.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_180_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_180_sml.jpg" width="327" height="250" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<div class="caption"><p>Figs. 212 and 213.—The “Knave of Clubs” in the Packs of +Cards of R. Passerel and R. Le Cornu. (Sixteenth Century. Bibl. Imp., +Paris.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The cards that might be styled those of Charles VII., which appear to us +to convey some reminiscence of the <i>ballet des ardents</i>, have no +inscription but the name of the cardmaker. But in the other pack of the +same date<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_239" id="page_239">{239}</a></span> the “knave of clubs” bears as a legend the word <i>Rolan</i>; the +“king of clubs,” <i>Sans Souci</i>; the “queen of clubs,” <i>Tromperie</i>; the +“king of diamonds,” <i>Corsube</i>; the “queen of diamonds,” <i>En toi te fie</i>; +the “king of spades,” <i>Apollin</i>, &c. This collection of names reveals to +us the threefold influence of the Saracenic origin of playing-cards, the +ideas conveyed at that period to the mind by the reading of the old +romances of chivalry, and the effect of contemporary events. In fact, in +the ancient epics, <i>Apollin</i> (or Apollo) is a deity by whom the Saracens +were accustomed to swear; <i>Corsube</i> is a knight of Cordova (<i>Corsuba</i>). +<i>Sans Souci</i> is evidently one of those <i>sobriquets</i> which squires +acquired the habit of adopting at the time they were proving themselves +worthy of the title of knight. Roland, the mighty Paladin who died at +Roncevaux fighting against the Saracens, seems to have been placed upon +the cards in order to oppose the memory of his glory to that of the +infidel kings. The queen “<i>En toi te fie</i>” might well allude to Joan of +Arc. The queen “<i>Tromperie</i>” recalls to mind Isabel of Bavaria, who was +an unfaithful wife and a cruel mother; and, moreover, had betrayed +France to England. All these ideas are doubtless mere suppositions, but +such as a critical examination of a more minute and extended character +would perhaps succeed in changing into unquestionable certainties.</p> + +<p>Next after the cards of the time of Charles VII. follow, as the most +ancient in point of date, two packs which certainly belong to the reign +of Louis XII. One of these packs does not bear any kind of legend; in +the other the “king of hearts” is called <i>Charles</i>; the “king of +diamonds,” <i>Cæsar</i>; the “king of clubs,” <i>Arthur</i>; the “king of spades,” +<i>David</i>; the “queen of hearts,” <i>Héleine</i>; the “queen of diamonds,” +<i>Judith</i>; the “queen of clubs,” <i>Rachel</i>; the “queen of spades,” +<i>Persabée</i> (doubtless for Bathsheba).</p> + +<p>In a pack of cards belonging to the reign of Francis I., the “king of +clubs” becomes <i>Alexander</i>, and the name of <i>Judith</i> is transferred to +the “queen of hearts;” and for the first time (at least in the specimens +which have been preserved) some of the “knaves” bear special names—the +“knave of hearts” is <i>La Hire</i>, and the “knave of diamonds” <i>Hector of +Trois</i> (<i>sic</i>).</p> + +<p>A few years later, about the time of the battle of Pavia and of the +king’s captivity, the influence of Spanish and Italian fashions begins +to affect the legends on packs of cards. It is remarked that the “knave +of spades,” which presents nothing in the way of a legend but the name +of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_240" id="page_240">{240}</a></span> the cardmaker, is made to resemble Charles-Quint (<a href="#fig_211">Fig. 211</a>). The +three other knaves bear the singular denominations of <i>Prien Roman</i>, +<i>Capita Fili</i>, and <i>Capitane Vallant</i>. The kings are: “hearts,” <i>Julius +Cæsar</i>; “diamonds,” <i>Charles</i>; “clubs,” <i>Hector</i>; “spades,” <i>David</i>. The +queens are: “hearts,” <i>Héleine</i>; “diamonds,” <i>Lucresse</i>; “clubs,” +<i>Pentaxlée</i> (Penthesilea); “spades,” <i>Beciabée</i> (Bathsheba).</p> + +<p>In the reign of Henry II., the names given to the personages come much +nearer to the arrangement observed in our present cards. <i>Cæsar</i> is the +“king of diamonds;” <i>David</i>, the “king of spades;” <i>Alexander</i>, the +“king of clubs.” <i>Rachel</i> is the “queen of diamonds;” <i>Argine</i>, of +“clubs;” <i>Pallas</i>, of “spades.” <i>Hogier</i>, <i>Hector of Troy</i>, and <i>La +Hire</i>, are the “knaves” of “spades,” “diamonds,” and “hearts,” +respectively.</p> + +<p>At the time of Henry III., who devoted himself much more to regulating +the fashions than to governing his kingdom, and was the first to grant +statutes to the association of cardmakers, the pack of cards became the +mirror of the extravagant fashions of this effeminate reign. The “kings” +have the pointed beard, the starched collar, the plumed hat, the +breeches puffing out round the loins, the slashed doublet, and the +tight-fitting hose. The “queens” have their hair drawn back and crisped, +the dress close round the body, and made <i>à vertugarde</i> (in the form of +a hoop-petticoat). We see a <i>Dido</i>, an <i>Elizabeth</i>, and a <i>Clotilde</i>, +make their appearance in the respective characters of “queens” of +“diamonds,” “hearts,” and “spades.” Among the kings figure +<i>Constantine</i>, <i>Clovis</i>, <i>Augustus</i>, and <i>Solomon</i>.</p> + +<p>The valiant Béarnais<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> mounts the throne, and the cards still reflect +the aspect of his court. But soon <i>Astrea</i> and a whole <i>cortége</i> of +tender and gallant heroes begin to assume an influence over refined +minds, and we then find <i>Cyrus</i> and <i>Semiramis</i> as “king and queen” of +diamonds; <i>Roxana</i> is the “queen of hearts” (<a href="#fig_214">Fig. 214</a>), <i>Ninus</i> the +“king of spades,” &c.</p> + +<p>In the regency of Marie de Medicis, in the reign of Louis XIII., or +rather of Richelieu, in the time of Anne of Austria and Louis XIV., +playing-cards continued to assume the character of the period, following +the whim of the court, or the fancy of the cardmaker. At a certain time +they began to take an Italian character. The “king of diamonds” was +called <i>Carel</i>; his queen, <i>Lucresi</i>; the “queen of spades,” <i>Barbera</i>; +the “queen of clubs,” <i>Penthamée</i>; the “knave of diamonds,” <i>capit. +Melu</i>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_241" id="page_241">{241}</a></span></p> + +<p>A vast field of investigation would lie before us if, in tracing out the +detailed history of these numerous variations, we were to endeavour to +distinguish and settle the different causes which gave rise to them. One +fact must certainly strike any one devoting himself to such inquiry; he +would see that, in contradistinction to the changes which have affected +the personages on the cards and their names, a continuous state of +stability has been the characteristic of the four suits in the French +cards or the piquet-pack, which were adopted from the very commencement, +and that no attempt has ever been made against their arrangement and +nature. <i>Cœur</i> (hearts), <i>carreau</i> (diamonds), <i>trèfle</i> (clubs), and +<i>pique</i> (spades)—these were the divisions established by La Hire or +Chevalier, and they are still faithfully maintained in the present day, +although at various times endeavours have been made to define their +symbolical signification.</p> + +<p>For a long time the opinion of Father Menestrier was the prevalent one; +that “hearts” were an emblem of the clergy or the choir (<i>chœur</i>); +“diamonds,” of the citizens, who had their rooms paved with square +tiles; “clubs,” of labourers; and “spades,” of military men. But +Menestrier was in egregious error. A much clearer view of the matter was +taken by Father Daniel, who, like all sensible interpreters, recognising +in cards a game of an essentially military character, asserted that +“hearts” denoted the courage of the commanders and soldiers; “clubs” +(<i>trèfle</i>—“trefoil”) the stores of forage; “spades” and “diamonds,” the +magazines of arms. This was a view which, as we think, comes much closer +to the real interpretation of the suits; and Bullet was still nearer the +mark when he recognised <i>offensive</i> arms in “clubs” and “spades,” and +<i>defensive</i> arms in “hearts” and “diamonds.” The first were the sword +and the lance; the second, the target and the shield.</p> + +<p>But in order to do full honour to French cards, we must not exclude from +our attention the <i>tarots</i>, which preceded our game of piquet, and +continued to be simultaneously used even in France.</p> + +<p>The Spanish and Italian cardmakers, who had been nearly always +established in France, made a large quantity of <i>tarots</i> (<a href="#fig_215">Fig. 215</a>); but +they made a certain concession to French politeness by substituting +“queens” for the “cavaliers” of their national game. We must remark +here, that even at the epoch of the conquests of Charles VIII. and Louis +XII., French cards with the four “queens” replacing the “cavaliers” +never succeeded in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_242" id="page_242">{242}</a></span> nationalising themselves in Italy, and still less in +Spain; on the contrary, the fact was that as regards this point of +fashion, the vanquished people obtained the advantage over their +conquerors, and the <i>tarots</i> came into full favour among the victorious +soldiery.</p> + +<p>The Spaniards must certainly have received the Oriental <i>naïb</i> from the +Moors and Saracens a long time prior to the introduction of this game +into Europe at Viterbo; but we have no written proofs which certify to +the existence of cards among the Saracens of Spain. The first document</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_181_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_181_sml.jpg" width="328" height="258" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_214" id="fig_214"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 214.—Roxana, Queen of Hearts. (Specimen of the +Cards of the time of Henry IV.)</p> + +<p><a name="fig_215" id="fig_215"></a>Fig. 215.—Card of Italian <i>Tarots</i>, from the Pack of the +<i>minchiate</i>. (Collection of Playing-Cards, Bibl. Imp., Paris.)</p> +</div> +</div> + +<p class="nind">in which they are mentioned is the edict of John I., of the date of +1387, to which reference has been made. Certain <i>savants</i> have +endeavoured to ascertain the signification of the four suits of the +Spanish <i>naypes</i>, and have fancied that they could distinguish in them a +special symbolism. In their view, the <i>dineros</i>, <i>copas</i>, <i>bastos</i>, and +<i>spadas</i>, denoted the four estates which composed the population: the +merchants, who have the money; the priests, who hold the chalice or cup; +the peasantry, who handle the staff; and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_243" id="page_243">{243}</a></span> nobles, who wear the +sword. This explanation, although ingenious, does not appear to us to be +based on any very solid foundation. The signs or suits of the numeral +cards were fixed upon in the East, and Spain as well as Italy merely +adopted them without taking much trouble to penetrate into their +allegorical meaning. The Spaniards became so addicted to this game that +they soon preferred it to any other recreation; and we know that when +the companions of Christopher Columbus, who had just discovered America, +formed their first settlement at St. Domingo, they almost instantly set +to work to make playing-cards out of the leaves of trees.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_182_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_182_sml.jpg" width="350" height="271" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<div class="caption"><p>Figs. 216 and 217.—The “Three” and “Eight” of “Bells.” +German Cards of the Sixteenth Century. (Bibl. Imp. of Paris. +Print-Room.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>There can be no doubt that playing-cards very soon made their way from +Italy into Germany; but as they advanced towards the North they almost +immediately lost their Oriental characteristics and Saracenic name. +There is, in fact, no longer any etymological trace to be found in the +old German language of the words <i>naïb</i>, <i>naïbi</i>, or <i>naypes</i>. Cards +were called<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_244" id="page_244">{244}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_183_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_183_sml.jpg" width="352" height="267" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<div class="caption"><p>Figs. 218 and 219.—The “Two of Bells” and the “King of +Acorns,” taken from a Pack of Cards of the Sixteenth Century, designed +and engraved by a German Master. (Bibl. Imp. of Paris. Print-Room.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p><i>Briefe</i>, that is, letters; the game itself <i>Spielbriefe</i>, game of +letters; the earliest cardmakers were <i>Briefmaler</i>, painters of letters. +The four suits of the <i>Briefe</i> were neither Italian nor French in +character; they bore the name of <i>Schellen</i>, “bells” (Figs. <a href="#page_216">216</a>, <a href="#page_217">217</a>, +<a href=" ">218</a>), or <i>roth</i> (red), <i>grün</i> (green), and <i>Eicheln</i> (acorns) (Fig. +219). The Germans, in their love of symbolism, had comprehended the real +original signification of the game of cards, and although they +introduced many marked changes, they made it their study, at least in +principle, to preserve its military characteristics. Their suits +depicted, it is said, the triumphs or the honours of war—the crowns of +oak-leaves or ivy, the bells were the bright insignia of the German +nobility, and the purple was the recompense of their valiant warriors. +The Germans were careful not to admit ladies into the thoroughly warlike +company of kings, captains (<i>ober</i>), and officers (<i>unter</i>). The ace was +always the flag, the warlike emblem <i>par excellence</i>; in addition to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_245" id="page_245">{245}</a></span> +this, the oldest game was the <i>Landsknecht</i>, or lansquenet (<a href="#fig_220">Fig. 220</a>), +the distinctive term of the soldier.</p> + +<p>We are speaking here only of the earliest German cards, for, after a +certain date, the essential form and emblematical rules of the pack +depended on nothing but the fancy and whim of the maker or the engraver. +The figures were but seldom designated by a proper name, but often bore +devices in German or Latin. Among the collections of ancient cards we +find one pack half German and half French, with the names of the Pagan +gods. There are also several sets of cards with five suits (of fourteen +cards each), among others those of “roses” and “pomegranates.”</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="fig_221" id="fig_221"></a> +<a href="images/ill_184_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_184_sml.jpg" width="347" height="265" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_220" id="fig_220"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 220.—The “Two” of a Pack of German Lansquenet +Cards. (Bibl. Imp. of Paris.)</p> + +<p>Fig. 221.—Card from a Game of “Logic,” invented by Th. +Murner, and copied from his “Chartiludium Logices.” (Cracow, 1507.)</p> +</div> +</div> + +<p>The Germans were the first who entertained the idea of applying cards to +the instruction of youth; and, as it were, of moralising a game of +chance by making it express all the categories of scholastic science. +Thomas Murner, a Franciscan monk, and professor of philosophy, made in +1507 an<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_246" id="page_246">{246}</a></span> attempt of this kind (<a href="#fig_221">Fig. 221</a>.) He designed a pack of +fifty-two cards, divided into sixteen suits, corresponding to the same +number of scholastic treatises; each card is covered with so many +symbols that a description would resemble the setting forth of some +obscure riddle (<i>ténébreux logogriphe</i>). The German universities, which +were far from being dismayed at a little mysticism, were only the more +eager to study the arcana of grammar and logic while playing at cards. +Imitations of Murner’s cards were multiplied <i>ad infinitum</i>.</p> + +<p>A game and pack of cards attributed to the celebrated Martin Schœngauer, +or to one of his pupils, must also be dated in the fifteenth century. +The cards are distinguished by their form, number, and design; they are +round in shape, and much resemble Persian cards, are painted on ivory +and covered with arabesques, flowers, and birds. This pack, only a few +pieces of which now exist in some of the German collections, was +composed of fifty-two cards divided into four numeral series of nine +cards each, and with four figures in each series—the king, the queen, +the squire, and the knave. The suits or marks are the “Hare,” the +“Parrot,” the “Carnation,” and the “Columbine.” Each of the aces +represents the type of the suit, and they bear philosophical devices in +Latin. The four figures of the “Parrot” suit are of African character; +those of the “Hare” are Asiatic or Turkish; those of the “Carnation” and +the “Columbine” belong to Europe. The “kings” and “queens” are on +horseback; the “squires” and “knaves” are so similar that it is +difficult to distinguish them, with the exception of the knaves of +“Columbine” and “Carnation” (<a href="#fig_222">Figs. 222 to 227</a>).</p> + +<p>The English also were in possession of playing-cards at an early date, +obtaining them through the medium of the trade which they carried on +with the Hanseatic towns and Holland; but they did not manufacture cards +before the end of the sixteenth century; for we know that in the reign +of Queen Elizabeth the Government retained in its own hands the monopoly +of playing-cards, “which were imported from abroad.” The English, while +adopting indiscriminately cards of a German, French, Italian, or Spanish +character, gave to the <i>valet</i> the characteristic appellation of +“knave.”<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_247" id="page_247">{247}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="fig_222" id="fig_222"></a> +<a href="images/ill_185_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_185_sml.jpg" width="345" height="530" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<div class="caption"><p>Figs. 222 to 227.—German Round-shaped Cards, with the +Monogram T. W.</p> + +<p>1. “King of Parrots.” + +2. “Queen of Carnations.” + +3. “Knave of Columbine.” + +4. “Knave of Hares.”<br /> + +5. “Three of Parrots.” + +6. “Ace of Carnations.”</p> + +<p>(Bibl. Imp. of Paris.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_248" id="page_248">{248}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_186_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_186_sml.jpg" width="250" height="377" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_228" id="fig_228"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 228.—<i>La Damoiselle</i>, from a Pack of Cards engraved +by “The Master of 1466.” (Bibl. Imp. of Paris. Print-Room.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Wood-engraving, which was invented at the commencement of the fifteenth +century, and perhaps even before, must have been applied at the very +first and almost simultaneously to the reproduction of sacred pictures +and the manufacture of playing-cards. Holland and Germany have contended +for the honour of having been the cradle of this invention. Taking +advantage of this, they have also even thought themselves warranted in +laying claim to the credit of the original manufacture of cards;<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_249" id="page_249">{249}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_187_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_187_sml.jpg" width="254" height="374" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_229" id="fig_229"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 229.—The Knight, from a Pack of Cards engraved by +“The Master of 1466.” (Bibl. Imp. of Paris.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p class="nind">whereas the fact is that all they can claim is to have been the first to +produce them by some more expeditious method of making. According to the +opinion of several <i>savants</i>, Laurent Coster of Haerlem was only an +engraver of wood-blocks for cards and pictures, before he became a +printer of books. It certainly is a fact that wood-engraving, which was +for a long time limited to a few studios in Holland and Upper Germany, +owed a large share of its progress to the trade in playing-cards—one +which was carried on with such activity that, as we read in an old +chronicle of the city of Ulm,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_250" id="page_250">{250}</a></span> about the year 1397, “they were in the +habit of sending playing-cards in bales to Italy, Sicily, and other +southern countries, to exchange for groceries and various merchandise.”</p> + +<p>A few years later, engraving on metal or copper-plate was employed in +producing playing-cards of a really artistic character, among which we +may mention those of “The Master of 1466” (<a href="#fig_228">Figs. 228</a> and <a href="#fig_229">229</a>), and by +his anonymous rivals. The pack of cards of this engraver exists only in +a small number of print-collections, and it is in every case incomplete. +As far as we can judge, it must have been composed of sixty cards, +consisting of forty numeral cards divided into five series, and twenty +picture-cards, being four to each series. The figures are the king, +queen, knight, and knave. The suits, or marks, present rather a strange +selection of wild men, ferocious quadrupeds, deer, birds of prey, and +various flowers. These objects are numerically grouped and tolerably +well arranged, so as to allow the numbers indicated to be distinguished +at first sight.</p> + +<p>Thus, as we have seen, playing-cards made their way through Arabia from +India to Europe, where they first arrived about the year 1370. Within a +few years they spread from the south to the north of the latter country; +but those who, under the influence of a passion for play, had so eagerly +welcomed them, were far indeed from suspecting that this new game +contained within itself the germ of two of the most beautiful inventions +ever devised by the human mind—those of engraving and printing. There +can be no doubt that playing-cards were in use for many a long year, ere +the public voice had proclaimed the almost simultaneous discovery of the +arts of engraving on wood and metal, and of printing.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_188_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_188_sml.jpg" width="115" height="127" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_230" id="fig_230"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 230.—Coat of Arms of the Cardmakers of Paris.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_251" id="page_251">{251}</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="GLASS-PAINTING" id="GLASS-PAINTING"></a>GLASS-PAINTING.</h2> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Painting on Glass mentioned by Historians in the Third Century of +our Era.—Glazed Windows at Brioude in the Sixth Century.—Coloured +Glass at St. John Lateran and St. Peter’s in Rome.—Church-Windows +of the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries in France: Saint-Denis, +Sens, Poitiers, Chartres, Rheims, &c.—In the Fourteenth and +Fifteenth Centuries the Art was at its Zenith.—Jean Cousin.—The +Célestins of Paris; Saint-Gervais.—Robert Pinaigrier and his +Sons.—Bernard Palissy decorates the Chapel of the Castle of +Ecouen.—Foreign Art; Albert Dürer.</p></div> + +<p class="nind"><a href="images/ill_189_lg.jpg"> +<span class="letra"> +<img src="images/ill_189_sml.jpg" +width="90" +alt="W" /></span></a>E have already established the fact that the art of manufacturing and +colouring glass was known to the most ancient nations; and, says +Champollion-Figeac, “if we study the various fragments of this fragile +substance that have been handed down to our time, if we take into +consideration the varied ornamentation with which they are covered, even +the human figures which some of them represent, it would be difficult to +assert that antiquity was unacquainted with the means of combining glass +with painting. If antiquity did not produce what are now called +painted-windows, the real cause doubtless was because the custom of +employing glass in windows did not then exist.” Some few specimens of it +have, however, been found in the windows of the houses exhumed at +Pompeii; but this must have been an exception, for the third century of +our era is the earliest date in which traces are found in history of +window-glass being used in buildings; and we must bring down our +researches as late as the times of St. John Chrysostom and St. Jerome +(the fourth century) in order to find any reliable affirmation as to its +adoption.</p> + +<p>In the sixth century Gregory of Tours relates that a soldier broke the +glass-window of a church at Brioude in order to enter it secretly and +commit robbery; and we know that when this prelate caused the +restoration<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_252" id="page_252">{252}</a></span> of the Church of St. Martin of Tours, he took care to fill +its windows with glass “of varied colours.” About the same time +Fortunatus, the poet-bishop of Poitiers, highly extols the splendour of +the glass-window of a church in Paris, the name of which he does not +mention; but the learned investigations of Foncemagne with reference to +the first kings of France inform us that the church built at Paris by +Childebert I. in honour of the Holy Cross and St. Vincent, as well as +the churches of Lyons and Bourges, were closed in with glass-windows. Du +Cange, in his “Constantinople Chrétienne,” describes the glass-windows +of the basilica of St. Sophia, rebuilt by Justinian; and Paul, the +Silentiary,<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> dwells with enthusiasm on the marvellous effect produced +by the rays of the sun upon this assemblage of various coloured glasses.</p> + +<p>In the eighth century, the epoch at which the use of glass-windows was +becoming general, the basilica of St. John Lateran and the Church of St. +Peter at Rome possessed coloured glass-windows; and Charlemagne, who had +caused mosaics of coloured glass to be made in a large number of +churches, did not fail to avail himself of this kind of ornament in the +cathedral erected by him at Aix-la-Chapelle.</p> + +<p>Up to this time the only method of making glass was in small pieces, +generally round, and designated by the name of <i>cires</i>, a number of +which by means of a network of plaster, wooden frames, or strips of +lead, were used to fill up the windows. This material being, however, +very costly, it could only be introduced into edifices of great +importance. Added to this, it can scarcely be a source of wonder if, at +a time when all branches of art had relapsed into a sort of barbarism, +and glass was only exceptionally employed in ordinary purposes, no one +thought of decorating it with painted figures and ornaments.</p> + +<p>With regard to mosaic, either in marble or coloured glass, Martial, +Lucretius, and other writers of antiquity, mention it in their works. +Egypt had a knowledge of it even before Greece; the Romans were +accustomed to employ it in ornamenting the roofs and pavement of their +temples, and even their columns and streets. Some magnificent specimens +of these<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_253" id="page_253">{253}</a></span> decorations have remained to our time, and they are considered +as inseparable from the architecture of the emperors.</p> + +<p>Some have desired to attribute the custom of employing coloured glass in +mosaics to the rarity of coloured marbles. Would it not be a more +probable hypothesis that the simultaneous use of marble and glass for +this purpose was the result of improvements in the art of making +mosaics? for glass that, by metallic mixtures, may be brought to a +variety of colours, is much more easily adapted to pictorial +combinations than marble, the tints of which are the result of the +caprices of nature. Seneca, alluding to the use of coloured glasses in +mosaic, complains of people not being able “to walk except on precious +stones;” this shows how prevalent the use of rich mosaics had become in +Rome. But this art must have singularly fallen into decay, for the few +examples of the kind we now possess, which date from the first centuries +of Christianity, are marked with a character of simplicity that fully +harmonises with the rudeness of the artists of those times. Among these +specimens must be mentioned a pavement discovered at Rheims, upon which +are represented the twelve signs of the zodiac, the seasons of the year, +and Abraham’s Sacrifice; another on which are depicted Theseus and the +labyrinth of Crete, in juxtaposition with David and Goliath. It is, +moreover, known that there existed in the Forum of Naples a portrait in +mosaic of Theodoric, king of the Goths, who had caused a representation +of the Baptism of Christ to be executed, in the church of Ravenna, by +the same process. Sidonius Apollinaris, describing the excessive luxury +of Consentius at Narbonne, speaks of arches and pavements ornamented +with mosaics. The churches of St. John Lateran, St. Clement, and St. +George in Velabro, at Rome, still display mosaics of this period. +Lastly, Charlemagne caused the greater part of the churches constructed +by him to be ornamented with mosaics.</p> + +<p>To return to glass-work, we find that in the time of Charles the Bald, +in 863, mention is made of two artisans, Ragenat and Balderic, who +became as it were the heads of the race of French glass-makers. We also +learn from the chronicle of St. Benignus of Dijon, that in 1052 there +existed in that church a “very ancient painted window,” representing St. +Paschasie, which was said to have been taken from the earlier church. We +have therefore a right to conclude that at this period the custom of +painting on glass had long been common.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_254" id="page_254">{254}</a></span></p> + +<p>In the tenth century glass-makers must have acquired some degree of +importance, for the reigning Dukes of Normandy of that era established +certain privileges in their favour; but, says Champollion-Figeac, “as +all privilege was the prerogative of the order of nobility, they +contrived to give them to noble families whose fortunes were precarious. +Four Norman families obtained this distinction. But although it was +understood that in devoting themselves to the trade these titled +individuals incurred no degradation, it was never said, as is commonly +believed, that the profession of this art conferred nobility; on the +contrary, a proverb arose which long continued in use, namely, that ‘in +order to make a gentleman glass-maker, you must first take a +gentleman.’<span class="lftspc">”</span></p> + +<p>Although painting on glass was from that time carried on with +considerable activity, in many cases it was still very far from being +accomplished by the processes which were destined to make it one of the +most remarkable productions of art. The application of the brush to +vitrifiable colours was not generally adopted. In the examples of this +period that remain to our days, we indeed find large <i>cives</i> cast in +white glass, upon which characters were painted by the artist; but, as +the colour was not designed to be incorporated with the glass by the +action of fire, with a view to ensure the preservation of the painting, +another transparent but thick <i>cive</i> was placed over the first and +closely soldered to it.</p> + +<p>While glass-painting was thus seeking to perfect its processes, mosaic +work gradually declined. Only a very small number of mosaics of the +tenth and eleventh centuries exist at the present day, and these, +moreover, are very incorrect in design, and entirely wanting in taste +and colour.</p> + +<p>In the twelfth century all the arts began to revive. The fear of the end +of the world, which had thrown mankind into a strange state of +perturbation, was dissipated. The Christian faith everywhere stirred up +the zeal of its disciples. Magnificent cathedrals with imposing arches +sprang up in various places, and the art of the glass-maker came to the +aid of architecture in order to diffuse over the interiors consecrated +to worship the light, both prismatic and harmonious, which affords the +calm, necessary for holy meditation. But though, in the painted windows +of this period, we are forced to admire the ingenious combinatian of +colours for the rose-work (rose-windows), the case is very different as +regards the drawing and colouring of the designs. The figures are +generally traced in rough, stiff lines on<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_255" id="page_255">{255}</a></span> glass of a dull tint, which +absorbs all the expression of the heads; the entire drapery of the +costume is heavy; the figure is spoilt by the folds of</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_190_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_190_sml.jpg" width="343" height="423" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_231" id="fig_231"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 231.—St. Timothy the Martyr, Coloured Glass of the +end of the Eleventh Century, found in the Church of Neuwiller (Bas-Rhin) +by M. Bœswillwald. (From the “History of Glass-Painting,” by M. +Lasteyrie.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p class="nind">its vestments as if it were enclosed in a long sheath. This is the +general character of the examples of that period as they are known to us +(<a href="#fig_231">Fig. 231</a>)<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_256" id="page_256">{256}</a></span>.</p> + +<p>The painted windows which Suger made to adorn the abbey-church of St. +Denis, some of which exist in our days, date from the twelfth century. +The abbot made inquiries in every country, and gathered together at a +great expense the best artists he could find, in order to assist in this +decoration. The Adoration of the Magi, the Annunciation, the History of +Moses, and various allegories, are there represented in the chapel of +the Virgin and those of St. Osman and St. Hilary. Among the principal +pictures may be also observed a portrait of Suger himself at the feet of +the Virgin. The borders surrounding the subjects may be considered as +models of harmony and good arrangement of effect; but still the taste +shown in the selection and combination of colours is carried to the +highest point in the subjects themselves, the designs of which are very +excellent.</p> + +<p>In the Church of St. Maurice, at Angers, we find examples of a rather +earlier date—perhaps the most ancient specimens of painted windows in +France; these are the history of St. Catherine and that of the Virgin, +which, in truth, are not equal in merit, as regards execution and taste, +to the ancient windows of the Church of St. Denis.</p> + +<p>We still have to mention some fragments contained in the Church of St. +Serge, and the chapel of the Hospital, in the town of Angers; also a +glass-window in the Abbey of Fontevrault; another in the Church of St. +Peter, at Dreux, in which is represented Queen Anne of Brittany. We +will, in conclusion, mention one of the windows of the choir in the +Church of the Trinity, at Vendôme; it represents the Glorification of +the Virgin, who bears on her forehead an aureola, the shape of which, +called <i>amandaire</i>,<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> has furnished archæologists with a subject for +long discussions; some being desirous of proving that this aureola, +which does not appear to be depicted in the same way on any other +painted window, tends to show that the works of the Poitevine +glass-makers, to whom it is attributed, had been subject to the +influence of the Byzantine school; others assert that the almond-shaped +crown is a symbol exclusively reserved for the Virgin. Before we proceed +to the examples handed down to us from the twelfth century, we must +mention some remains of glass to be seen at Chartres, Mans, Sens, and +Bourges (<a href="#fig_232">Fig. 232</a>), &c. We may also add, as an incident<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_257" id="page_257">{257}</a></span> not without +interest, that a chapter of the order of the Cistercians, considering +the great expense to which the acquisition of painted windows led, +prohibited the use of them in churches under the rule of St. Bernard.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_191_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_191_sml.jpg" width="292" height="407" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_232" id="fig_232"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 232.—Fragment of a Church-window, representing the +“Prodigal Son.” Thirteenth Century. (Presented to the Cathedral of +Bourges by the Guild of Tanners.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>“The architecture of the thirteenth century,” according to the judicious +remarks of Champollion-Figeac, “by its style of moulding, which is more +slender and graceful than the massive forms of Roman art, opened a +wider<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_258" id="page_258">{258}</a></span> and more favourable field for artists in glass. The small pillars +then projected, and extended themselves with a novel elegance, and the +tapering and delicate spires of the steeples lost themselves in the +clouds. The windows occupied more space, and likewise had the appearance +of springing lightly and gracefully upwards. They were adorned with +symbolical ornaments, griffins, and other fantastic animals; leaves and +boughs cross and intertwine with one another, producing that varied +rose-work which is the admiration of modern glass-makers. The colours +are more skilfully combined and better blended than in the windows of +the preceding century; and although some of the figures are still +wanting in expression, and have not thrown off all the stiffness which +characterised them, the draperies, at least, are lighter and better +drawn.” Examples of the thirteenth century which have remained to our +time are very numerous. There is at Poitiers some painted glass composed +of small roses, and chiefly placed in one of the windows in the centre +of the church and in the “Calvary” of the apse; at Sens, the legend of +St. Thomas of Canterbury is represented in a number of small medallions, +called <i>verrières légendaires</i>; at Mans is glass representing the +corporations of trades; at Chartres, the painted glass in the cathedral, +a work both magnificent and extensive, contains no fewer than one +thousand three hundred and fifty subjects, distributed throughout one +hundred and forty-three windows. At Rheims, the painted glass is perhaps +less important, but it is remarkable both for the brilliancy of its +colours and also for its characteristic fitness to the style of the +edifice. Bourges, Tours, Angers, and Notre-Dame in Paris, present very +beautiful specimens. The Cathedral of Rouen possesses, to this day, a +window which bears the name of Clement of Chartres, <i>master glazier</i>, +the first artist of this kind who has left behind him any work bearing +his signature. We must, in conclusion, mention the Sainte-Chapelle, +Paris, which is unquestionably the highest representation of what the +art is capable of producing. The designs of the windows in this last +edifice are <i>legendary</i>, and although some few inaccuracies may be +noticed in the figures, the fault is redeemed by the studied elegance of +the ornamentation and the harmony of colours, which combine to render +them one of the most consistent and perfect works of painting on glass.</p> + +<p>In the thirteenth century “<i>grisaille</i>” first made its appearance; it +was <span class="pagenum"><a name="page_259" id="page_259">{259}</a></span>quite a new style, and has been often since employed in the borders +and ornaments of painted windows. “<i>Grisaille</i>,”<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> the name of which +is to some extent sufficient to describe its aspect, was used +simultaneously with the mosaics of variegated glass, as we see in the +Church of St. Thomas, Strasbourg, in the Cathedral of Freybourg in +Brisgau, and in many churches of Bourges.</p> + +<p>The large number of paintings on glass belonging to the thirteenth +century, which may still be studied in various churches, has given rise +to the idea of classifying all these monuments, and arranging them under +certain schools, which have been designated by the names of +<i>Franco-Norman</i>, <i>Germanic</i>, &c. Some have even gone further, and +desired to recognise in the style peculiar to the artists of ancient +France a Norman style, a Poitevin style (the latter recognisable, it is +said, by the want of harmony in the colours), &c. We can hardly admit +these last distinctions, and are the less inclined to do so, as those +who propound them seem to base their theories rather on the defects than +the good qualities of the artists. Besides, at a period in which a +nobleman sometimes possessed several provinces very distant from each +other—as, for example, Anjou and Provence—it might so happen that the +artists he took with him to his different residences could scarcely +fail, by the union of their various works, to cause any provincial +influences to disappear, and would finally reduce the distinction +between what is called the Poitevin style, the Norman style, &c., to a +question of a more or less skilful manufacture, or of a more or less +advanced improvement.</p> + +<p>In the fourteenth century the artist in glass became separated from the +architect; although naturally subordinate to the designer of the +edifice, in which the windows were to be only an accessory ornament, he +wished to give effect to his own inspiration. The whole of the building +was subjected by him to the effect of his more learned and correct +drawing, and his purer and more striking colouring. It mattered little +to him should some part of the church have too much light, or not light +enough, if a flood of radiance deluged the apse or the choir, instead of +being gradually diffused everywhere, as in earlier buildings. He desired +his labour to recommend him, and his work to do him honour.</p> + +<p>The court-poets, Guillaume de Machaut and Eustache Deschamps, celebrate +in their poems several works in painted glass of their time, and even +give some details in verse on the mode of fabricating them.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_260" id="page_260">{260}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_192_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_192_sml.jpg" width="363" height="471" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_233" id="fig_233"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 233.—Legend of the Jew of the Rue des Billettes, +Paris, piercing the Holy Wafer with his Knife. (From a Window of the +Church of St. Alpin, at Châlons-sur-Marne. Fourteenth Century.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>In 1347 a royal ordinance was proclaimed in favour of the workmen of +Lyons. The custom existed at that time of adorning with painted windows<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_261" id="page_261">{261}</a></span> +royal and lordly habitations. The artists produced their own designs, +adapting them to the use that was made, in private life, of the halls +for which they were intended. Some of these windows representing +familiar legends adorned even the churches (<a href="#fig_233">Fig. 233</a>).</p> + +<p>Among the most important works of the fourteenth century, we must +mention in the first place the windows of the cathedrals of Mans, +Beauvais, Évreux (<a href="#fig_234">Fig. 234</a>), and the rose-windows of St. Thomas at +Strasbourg. Next come the windows of the Church of St. Nazaire at +Carcassonne and of the Cathedral of Narbonne. There are, besides, in the +Church of St. John at Lyons, in Notre-Dame of Semur, in Aix in Provence, +at Bourges, and at Metz, church-windows in every respect worthy of +attention.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 110px;"> +<a href="images/ill_193_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_193_sml.jpg" width="110" height="462" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_234" id="fig_234"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 234.—Fragment of a Window presented to the +Cathedral of Evreux by the Bishop Guillaume de Cantiers. Fourteenth +Century.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The fifteenth century only continues the traditions of the preceding +one. The principal works dating from this epoch begin, according to the +order of merit, with the window of the Cathedral of Mans, which +represents Yolande<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> of Aragon, and Louis II., King of Naples and +Sicily, ancestors of the good King René; after them we shall place the +windows of the Sainte-Chapelle, Riom; St. Vincent, Rouen; the Cathedral +of Tours; and that of Bourges, representing a memorial of Jacques Cœur, +&c.</p> + +<p>The sixteenth century, although bringing with it, owing to religious +troubles, many ravages of new iconoclasts, has handed down to us a +variety of numerous and remarkable church-windows. We are, of course, +unable to mention them all; but it seems expedient—adopting the rule of +most archæologists—to divide them into three branches or schools, which +are actually formed by the different <span class="pagenum"><a name="page_262" id="page_262">{262}</a></span>styles of the artists of that +epoch; the French school, the German school, and the Lorraine school +(<a href="#fig_235">Fig. 235</a>), which partakes of the characteristics of the two preceding.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_194_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_194_sml.jpg" width="334" height="439" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_235" id="fig_235"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 235.—Allegorical Window, representing the “Citadel +of Pallas.” (Lorraine work of the Sixteenth Century, preserved in the +Library at Strasbourg.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>At the head of the French school figures the celebrated Jean Cousin, who +decorated the chapel of Vincennes; he also made for the Célestins +monastery,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_263" id="page_263">{263}</a></span> Paris, a representation of Calvary; for St. Gervais, in +1587, the windows representing the “Martyrdom of St. Lawrence,” the +“Samaritan conversing with Christ,” and the “Paralytic.” In these works, +which belong to a high style of painting, the best method of +arrangement, vigorous drawing, and powerful colouring, seem to reflect +the work of Raphael. Windows in “<i>grisaille</i>,” made from the cartoons of +Jean Cousin, also decorated the Castle of Anet.</p> + +<p>Another artist, named Robert Pinaigrier, who, although inferior to +Cousin, was much more fertile in production, assisted by his sons Jean, +Nicholas, and Louis, and several of his pupils, executed a number of +windows for the churches of Paris, of which the greater part have +disappeared: Saint-Jacques la Boucherie, the Madeleine, Sainte-Croix en +la Cité, Saint Barthélemy, &c. Magnificent specimens of his work still +remain at Saint-Merry, Saint-Gervais, Saint-Etienne du Mont, and in the +Cathedral of Chartres. Pinaigrier’s works in the decorations of châteaux +and the mansions of the nobility are perhaps equally numerous.</p> + +<p>At this period several windows were made from the drawings of Raphael, +Leonardo da Vinci, and Parmigiano; it may also be remarked that two +patterns of the latter’s work were used by Bernard Palissy, who was a +glass-maker before he became an enameller, in forming windows in +“<i>grisaille</i>” for the chapel of the Château of Ecouen. For the same +place, following the style of Raphael, and from the drawings of Rosso, +called <i>Maître Roux</i>, Bernard Palissy executed thirty pictures on glass, +representing the history of Psyche, which are justly considered as +ranking among the most beautiful compositions of the epoch; but it is +not now known what has become of these valuable windows, which at the +Revolution were transported to the Museum of French Monuments.</p> + +<p>They were, it is said, executed under the direction of Leonard of +Limoges, who, like all the masters of that school (<a href="#fig_236">Fig. 236</a>), applied to +painting on glass the processes of enamelling, and <i>vice versâ</i>. In the +collections of the Louvre and of several amateurs, there are still +examples of his composition, on which he employed the best +glass-painters of his time; for he could not himself work on all the +objects that proceeded from his studios, and which were almost +exclusively destined for the king’s palace.</p> + +<p>The French art of glass-working became cosmopolitan. It was introduced +into Spain and also into the Low Countries under the protection of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_264" id="page_264">{264}</a></span> +Charles V. and the Duke of Alba. It even appears to have crossed the +Alps; for we know that in 1512 a glass-painter of the name of Claude +adorned with his works the large windows of the Vatican; and Julius II. +summoned Guillaume of Marseilles to the Eternal City, the pontiff when +occupying the sees of Carpentras and Avignon having appreciated his +talent. We must not omit to mention, among the Flemish artists who +escaped this foreign influence, the name of Dirk of Haarlem (<a href="#fig_237">Fig. 237</a>), +the most celebrated master in this art at the close of the fifteenth +century.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_195_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_195_sml.jpg" width="220" height="359" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_236" id="fig_236"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 236.—St. Paul, an Enamel of Limoges, by Etienne +Mercier.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_265" id="page_265">{265}</a></span></p><p>While French art was thus spreading over the continent, foreign art</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_196_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_196_sml.jpg" width="410" height="409" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_237" id="fig_237"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 237.—Flemish Window (Fifteenth Century), half +life-size. Painted in Monochrome, relieved with yellow, by Dirk of +Haarlem. (Collection of M. Benoni-Verhelst, Ghent.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p class="nind">was being introduced into France. Albert Dürer employed his pencil in +painting twenty windows in the church of the Old Temple, in Paris, and +produced a collection of pictures characterised by vigorous drawing, and +warm and intense colouring. The celebrated German did not work +alone—other artists assisted him; and, notwithstanding the devastations +which took place during the Revolution, in many a church and mansion +traces of these<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_266" id="page_266">{266}</a></span> skilful masters may still be found; their compositions, +which are generally as well arranged as they are executed, are marked +with a tinge of German simplicity very suitable to the pious nature of +the subjects they represent.</p> + +<p>In 1600, Nicholas Pinaigrier placed in the windows of the Castle of La +Briffe seven pictures in “<i>grisaille</i>,” copied from the designs of +Francis Floris, a Flemish master, who was born in 1520. At this same +period Van Haeck, Herreyn, John Dox, and Pelgrin Rösen, all belonging to +the school of Antwerp, and other artists who had decorated the windows +of most of the churches in Belgium, especially St. Gudule in Brussels, +influenced either directly or indirectly the glass-painters of the east +and north of France. Another group of artists, the Provençals, imitators +of the Italian style, or rather perhaps inspired by the same luminary, +the sun of Michael Angelo, trod a similar path to that which Jean +Cousin, Pinaigrier, and Palissy had followed with so much renown. The +chiefs of this school were Claude, and Guillaume of Marseilles, who, as +we have just mentioned, carried their talent and their works into Italy, +where they succeeded in educating some clever pupils.</p> + +<p>With regard to the school of Messin or Lorraine, it is principally +represented by a disciple of Michael Angelo, Valentin Bousch, the +Alsatian, who died in 1541 at Metz, where he had executed, since 1521, +an immense number of works. The windows of the churches of St. Barbe, +St. Nicolas du Port, Autrey, and Flavigny-sur-Moselle, are due to the +same school, in which Israel Henriet was also brought up; he became the +chief of a school exclusively belonging to Lorraine, at the time when +Charles III. had invited the arts to unite under the patronage of the +ducal throne. Thierry Alix, in a “Description inédite de la Lorraine,” +written in 1590, and mentioned by M. Bégin, speaks of “large plates of +glass of all colours,” made in his time in the mountains of Vosges, +where “all the herbs and other things necessary to painting” were found. +M. Bégin, after having quoted this curious statement, adds that the +windows which at that era were produced in the studios of Vosges, and +subsequently carried to all parts of Europe, constituted a very active +branch of commerce.</p> + +<p>“Nevertheless,” says Champollion-Figeac, “art was declining. Christian +art especially was disappearing, and had almost come to an end, when +Protestantism stepped in and gave it the last blow; this is proved by +the window in the cathedral church of Berne, in which the artist, +Frederic</p> + +<div class="blockquott"><p class="c">“FRANCIS I. AND ELEANOR HIS WIFE AT PRAYERS.”</p> + +<p class="c">PART OF A WINDOW IN THE CHURCH OF ST. GUDULE IN BRUSSELS. FROM +“L’HISTOIRE DE LA PEINTURE SUR VERRE EN EUROPE.”</p> + +<p>This magnificent window was given to the Church of St. Gudule by +Francis I. and Eleanor of Spain, his wife, sister of Charles V., +and widow by her first marriage of Emmanuel the Great, King of +Portugal.</p> + +<p>The donors are represented kneeling, each one protected by his or +her patron saint; the king is attended by St. Francis of Assisi, +who is receiving in a vision the impress of the stigmata of Jesus +on the Cross; the queen is accompanied by St. Eleanor, who holds in +her hand the palm of the elect. This window is from a design by +Bernard van Orley.</p> + +<p>Francis I. and Eleanor expended on the window two hundred and +twenty-two crowns, or four hundred florins, an important sum in +those days (1515-47).</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="chrm_12" id="chrm_12"></a> +<a href="images/ill_197_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_197_sml.jpg" width="393" height="623" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<div class="caption"><p>FRANCIS I. AND ELEONORA AT THEIR DEVOTIONS.</p> + +<p>Portion of a Stained Glass Window in the Church of St. Gudule at +Brussels.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_267" id="page_267">{267}</a></span></p> + +<p>Walter, dared to launch his satire against doctrine itself, and to +ridicule transubstantiation by representing a pope shovelling four +evangelists into a mill, from which come forth a number of wafers; these +a bishop is receiving into a cup in order to distribute them to the +wondering people. Any edification of the masses by the powerful effect +of transparent images placed, so to speak, between the earth and heaven, +soon ceased to be possible, and glass-painting, henceforth alienated +from the special aim of its origin, was destined also to disappear.”</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_198_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_198_sml.jpg" width="231" height="297" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_238" id="fig_238"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 238.—Temptation of St. Mars, a Hermit of Auvergne, +by the Devil disguised as a Woman. Fragment of a Window of the +Sainte-Chapelle of Riom. Fifteenth Century. (From “Histoire de la +Peinture sur Verre,” by M. F. de Lasteyrie.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_268" id="page_268">{268}</a></span> </p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_269" id="page_269">{269}</a></span> </p> + +<h2><a name="FRESCO-PAINTING" id="FRESCO-PAINTING"></a>FRESCO-PAINTING.</h2> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">The Nature of Fresco.—Employed by the Ancients.—Paintings at +Pompeii.—Greek and Roman Schools.—Mural Paintings destroyed by +the Iconoclasts and Barbarians.—Revival of Fresco, in the Ninth +Century, in Italy.—Fresco-Painters since Guido of +Siena.—Principal Works of these Painters.—Successors of Raphael +and Michael Angelo.—Fresco in <i>Sgraffito</i>.—Mural Paintings in +France from the Twelfth Century.—Gothic Frescoes of Spain.—Mural +Paintings in the Low Countries, Germany, and Switzerland.</p></div> + +<p class="nind"><a href="images/ill_199_lg.jpg"> +<span class="letra"> +<img src="images/ill_199_sml.jpg" +width="90" +alt="“T" +/></span></a>OO frequently in conversational language and even in the writings of +grave authors,” says M. Ernest Breton, “the word <i>fresco</i> is made +synonymous with mural painting in general. This confusion of terms has +sometimes caused the most fatal errors. The etymology of the word is the +best definition of the subject. The Italians give the name of paintings +<i>in fresco</i> or <i>a fresco</i>, that is to say, <i>à frais</i>, or <i>sur le frais</i>, +to those works executed upon damp stucco into which the colour +penetrates to a certain depth. The ancient French authors, preserving +the difference existing between the Italian <i>fresco</i> and the French +<i>frais</i>, wrote the word <i>fraisque</i>. At the present day Italian +orthography has prevailed, and with us this word has now more relation +to its etymology than its real signification.”</p> + +<p>Whatever may be the common acceptation of the word, we must, in order to +keep within the limits of our subject, here only take into consideration +real frescoes, or in other words, works of art executed upon a bare +wall, properly prepared for the purpose, with which they are as it were +incorporated; for in the roll of art all are excluded from the catalogue +of mural paintings, rightly so called, which, although applied to walls +either directly or by the aid of panels or fixed canvas, are produced +otherwise than with water-colours, and used in such a manner as to +penetrate the special kind of plaster with which the wall had been +previously covered.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_270" id="page_270">{270}</a></span> We will mention as a striking example of this the +famous “Lord’s Supper” of Leonardo da Vinci, which has many times been +called a fresco (it is well known to have been painted upon the wall of +the refectory of Santa Maria della Gratia, at Milan), but is nothing but +a painting in distemper<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> on a dry partition—a circumstance, +by-the-bye, which has not a little contributed to the deterioration of +this magnificent work.</p> + +<p>Fresco has long been considered the most ancient style of painting. +Vasari, who wrote in the middle of the sixteenth century, says in apt +terms that “the ancients generally practised painting <i>in fresco</i>, and +the first painters of the modern schools have only followed the antique +methods;” and, in our own day, Millin, in his “Dictionnaire des +Beaux-Arts,” asserts that the great paintings in the “Pœcile” of Athens +and the “Lesche” of Delphi, by Panænus and Polygnotus, spoken of by +Pausanias, were executed by this process; the same author also ranks +among frescoes the numerous paintings left by the Egyptians in their +temples and catacombs. “It was,” he remarks, “what the Romans called <i>in +udo pariete pingere</i> (to paint on a damp wall); they say <i>in cretula +pingere</i> (to paint on chalk) to designate water-colour painting on a dry +ground.”</p> + +<p>Some persons have considered the paintings found at Herculaneum and +Pompeii to be frescoes; nevertheless Winckelmann, who is an authority in +these matters, said, a hundred years ago, in speaking of those works, +“It is to be remarked that the greater part of these pictures were not +painted on damp lime, but upon a dry ground, which is rendered very +evident by several of the figures having scaled off in such a way as to +show distinctly the ground upon which they rest.”</p> + +<p>The whole mistake has arisen from taking the expression “<i>in udo +pariete</i>,” found in Pliny, in too literal a sense; the error, which +might at all events have been dissipated by an attentive examination of +the examples themselves, would not have lasted long if the passage from +Pliny had<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_271" id="page_271">{271}</a></span> been compared with a statement of Vitruvius, which informs us +that they applied to fresh walls uniform tints of black, blue, yellow, +or red, which were destined to form the grounds of paintings, or even +allowed them to remain plain, like our present coloured walls. The +employment of this process may also be easily recognised in the +paintings of Pompeii, where this uniform colouring has sometimes +penetrated nearly an inch into the stucco of the wall. On this ground, +when it was perfectly dry, ornamental subjects were painted either in +distemper or encaustic.</p> + +<p>Thus, therefore, it is shown that the process of painting <i>in fresco</i> +was unknown to the ancients, and was invented by artists of succeeding +times; but it would be difficult to assign any precise date to this +invention; for however far we go back, we do not find any authors who +fix the epoch at which the new method was for the first time followed. +We are, therefore, compelled to notice the age of some particular +example which shows that the discovery had then taken place, without +being able to determine the exact date of its commencement.</p> + +<p>Painting, which with the Greeks attained its greatest height in the +reign of Alexander, fell, says M. Breton, “with the power of Greece. In +losing its liberty, the country of the Fine Arts lost, too, the +perception of the beautiful.” At Rome, painting never reached the same +degree of perfection as it did in Greece; for a long time it was only +practised by men of the lowest rank and by slaves. A few patricians, +such as Amulius, Fabius <i>Pictor</i> (painter), and Cornelius Pinus, were, +at the best, able to bring about only some slight revival. After the +twelve Cæsars, painting followed the movement of decadence which carried +away with it all the arts; like them, it received its death-blow in the +fourth century, on the day when Constantine, quitting Rome in order to +establish the seat of empire at Byzantium, took with him into his new +capital not only the best artists, but also a prodigious number of their +productions, and of those of the artists who preceded them. Several +other causes may also be mentioned as having led to the decline of art, +or to the destruction of examples which would now bear witness to its +power in remote ages. In the first place, there was the birth of +Christian Art, which rose on the ruins of Paganism; then, the invasion +of barbarians which took place in the fifth century; lastly, in the +eighth and ninth centuries, the fury of the Iconoclasts, or +Image-breakers, a sect at the head of which figured several emperors of +the East, from Leo<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_272" id="page_272">{272}</a></span> the Isaurian, who reigned in 717, down to Michael +the Stammerer and Theophilus, who respectively ascended the imperial +throne in 820 and 829.</p> + +<p>Even among the ignorant masses, to whom we owe the loss of so many +<i>chefs-d’œuvre</i>, were some individuals who formed honourable exceptions, +not only by opposing the devastations, but also by manifesting a +laudable conservative instinct. Cassiodorus tells us that Theodoric, +king of the Goths, re-established the office of <i>centurio nitentium +rerum</i> (guardian of beautiful objects), instituted by the emperor +Constantius; and we know that the Lombard kings who succeeded this +prince and reigned in Italy for 218 years, although less zealous in the +culture of the arts, did not fail to honour and protect them. In Paul +the Deacon<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> we read that, in the sixth century, queen Teudelinde, +wife of Autharis and afterwards of Agilulphus, caused the valorous deeds +of the first Lombard kings to be painted on the <i>basilica</i> that she had +consecrated at Monza under the name of St. John. Other paintings of the +same epoch may still be seen at Pavia. The Church of St. Nazaire at +Verona possesses in its crypt paintings spoken of by Maffei, which have +been engraved by Ciampini and Frisi: these must date back to the sixth +and seventh centuries. Lastly, they have recently found in the +subterranean chapel of the <i>basilica</i> of St. Clement, in Rome, some +admirable mural paintings, which archæologists refer to the same epoch.</p> + +<p>The Eastern artists, driven away by the persecutions of the Iconoclasts, +sought an asylum in Italy, where the Latin Church, obedient to the +prescriptions of the Council of Nice, seemed determined to multiply +sacred images as much as possible. The arrival of the Grecian artists in +the West was also singularly promoted by the commercial relations which +from that time were established between all points of the Mediterranean +shore and the maritime or mercantile towns of Italy—Pisa, Genoa, and +Venice. Thus was brought about the movement which, although taking place +on Italian soil, drew from an entirely Eastern source the inspiration of +the revival of the Fine Arts; thus was continued the so-called Byzantine +school, destined to be the foundation of all modern art.</p> + +<p>In 817 some Greek artists, by order of Pope Pascal I., executed under +the portico of the Church of St. Cecilia in Rome a series of frescoes, +the subjects of which were taken from the life of the saint. To the same +school<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_273" id="page_273">{273}</a></span> we are indebted for the sitting figures of Christ and His mother +(<a href="#fig_239">Fig. 239</a>), in the old Church of Santa-Maria Trans-Tiberia, in Rome; the +large Madonna painted on the walls of Santa-Maria della Scala, Milan, +which, at the time when this church was destroyed and replaced by the +theatre of La Scala, was taken away and carried to the Church of +Santa-Fidelia, where it still remains; a series of portraits of the +Popes after St. Leo, a collection of which a large portion perished in +the fire of St. Paul-extra-Muros, Rome (<a href="#fig_240">Fig. 240</a>); and lastly, the +paintings in the vaults of the Cathedral of Aquila.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_200_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_200_sml.jpg" width="280" height="268" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_239" id="fig_239"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 239.—Christ and His Mother. Fresco-Painting of the +Ninth Century, in the Apse of Santa-Maria Trans-Tiberia, Rome.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>“The works of these earliest painters,” observes M. Breton, “seem to +mark the transition from painting to sculpture: they are long figures as +stiff as columns, single or arranged symmetrically, forming neither +groups nor compositions, without perspective or effects of light and +shade, and having nothing to express their meaning than a sort of legend +proceeding out of the mouths of the characters. These frescoes, which +are so weak<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_274" id="page_274">{274}</a></span> when looked at in an artistic point of view, are remarkable +for their material execution, being extremely solid in their +workmanship. It is astonishing to see the wonderful preservation of some +pictures of saints that adorn the pilasters of St. Nicholas in Treviso +and the walls of the church in Fiesole, whereon are preserved the +frescoes of Fra Angelico.”</p> + +<p>Among the paintings remaining to our time, the first in which the +authors departed from the uniform style of the Byzantine masters are +those which adorn the interior of the ancient temple of Bacchus, now the +Church of St. Urban in the Campagna of Rome: there is nothing Grecian +either in the figures or draperies, and it is impossible not to +recognise in them an Italian pencil; the date, however, is 1011. Pesaro, +Aquila, Orvieto, and Fiesole, possess examples of the same epoch.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_201_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_201_sml.jpg" width="197" height="259" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_240" id="fig_240"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 240.—Portrait of the Pope Sylvester I. +Fresco-Painting in Mosaic, on a gold ground, in the Basilica of St. +Paul-extra-Muros, Rome.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>At last, in the thirteenth century, notwithstanding its fierce intestine +struggles, Italy, and especially Tuscany, witnessed the dawn of the sun +of the Fine Arts, which, after a long period of darkness, was to shine +with so much brilliancy over the whole world. Pisa and Siena, earliest +in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_275" id="page_275">{275}</a></span> revival, gave birth respectively to Giunta and Guido +(Palmerucci), each of whom in his time acquired great renown; but the +only works of these artists which remain now, in the Cathedral of +Assisi, seem but to indicate a desire of progress without manifesting +any real advancement in art.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_202_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_202_sml.jpg" width="294" height="408" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_241" id="fig_241"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 241.—The Apostles in the Garden of Gethsemane. +Fresco by Berna, at San-Geminiano. (Fourteenth Century.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>To Guido of Siena succeeds, but not immediately, the friend of +Petrarch,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_276" id="page_276">{276}</a></span> Simon Memmi, whose frescoes in the Campo Santo of Pisa +testify to his powerful genius, and denote the first remarkable stage of +art.</p> + +<p>In the collegiate church of San-Geminiano<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> may be still seen a fresco +by Berna (<a href="#fig_241">Fig. 241</a>), an eminent master in the school of Siena, who died +in 1370.</p> + +<p>Passing, but not without mention, Margaritone and Bonaventura +Berlinghieri, who were only the timid harbingers of a great +individuality, the Florentine school places in the first rank of its +celebrities Cimabue (1240-1300), justly regarded by the artistic world +as the true restorer of painting. Cimabue pointed out the path; Giotto, +his pupil, trod it. He took nature for his guide, and has been surnamed +“nature’s pupil.” Real imitation was the object of his endeavour, and as +he found this system marvellously applied in the beautiful antique +marbles which had already inspired, in the preceding century, the +sculptors John and Nicolas of Pisa, he made an earnest study of these +ancient <i>chefs-d’œuvre</i>. The impulse was given, and the Campo Santo of +Pisa shows us its first results in “The Dream of Life.”</p> + +<p>For two centuries there was a slow but always progressive improvement, +owing to the industry of Buffamalco, Taddeo Gaddi, Orcagna, Spinello of +Lucca, and Masolino of Panicale. With the fifteenth century appeared Fra +Angelico of Fiesole (<a href="#fig_242">Figs. 242</a> and <a href="#fig_246">246</a>), and Benozzo Gozzoli; then +Masaccio, Pisanello, Mantegna, Zingaro, Pinturicchio, and lastly +Perugino, the Master of the divine Raphael. In the sixteenth century art +attained its culminating point. At this epoch Raphael and his pupils +painted the “Farnesina” and the “Stanze” and “Loggie” of the Vatican (it +is known that the two first pictures of the “Loggie” (<a href="#fig_243">Fig. 243</a>) were +painted solely by the hand of Raphael); Michael Angelo alone executed +the immense expanse of the “Last Judgment,” and Paul Veronese painted +the ceilings of the palace of the Doges at Venice. Then Giulio Romano +covered with his works the walls of the Te palace at Mantua; Andrea del +Sarto, those of the “Annunziata” and “Dello Scalzo” at Florence. Daniel +of Volterra painted his famous “Descent from the Cross” for the Trinité +du Mont, Rome; at Parma, the Pencil of Correggio worked marvels on the +circle of the dome of the cathedral. Leonardo da Vinci, besides the +picture of the “Lord’s Supper,” which we before mentioned only to +exclude it from the</p> + +<div class="blockquott"><p class="c">“THE DREAM OF LIFE.”</p> + +<p class="c">FRESCO-PAINTING, BY ORCAGNA, IN THE CLOISTER OF THE CAMPO SANTO OF PISA. +(FOURTEENTH CENTURY.)</p> + +<p>This fresco is by Andrea Cione, called Orcagna, a Florentine painter of +the fourteenth century, who executed for the Campo Santo of Pisa a +series of paintings which are still admired, representing the four +destinies of man:—“Death,” “Judgment,” “Hell,” and “Paradise.” Each of +these large compositions embraces several scenes; that which we give +belongs to the “Triumph of Death.”</p> + +<p>Petrarch had just given to the world the concluding notes of his +funereal song, and the wish of the painter seems to have been to call to +life, in his fresco, the strange vision of the poet. The happy of this +world are here represented gathered together under cool shades and upon +carpets of verdure; gay lords are murmuring magic words into the ears of +the young ladies of Florence. Even quiet falcons on the wrists of the +lords seem captivated by this delicious music. Everything appears to +invite forgetfulness of the miseries of life,—the richness of the +vestments, the beautiful sky of Italy, the perfumes, the love-songs.... +This is the “Dream of Life,” which “Death” is destined to dispel with +one sweep of his mighty wing.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="chrm_13" id="chrm_13"></a> +<a href="images/ill_203_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_203_sml.jpg" width="496" height="391" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<div class="caption"><p>THE DREAM OF LIFE.</p> + +<p>(After a Copy made for the Library of M Ambroise Firmin Didot.) From a +fresco Painting by Orcagna, in the Cloister of the Campo Santo of Pisa. +Fourteenth Century.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_277" id="page_277">{277}</a></span></p> + +<p class="nind">number of frescoes, endowed the monastery of St Onofrio at Rome with a +magnificent Madonna, and the palace of Caravaggio, near Bergamo, with</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_204_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_204_sml.jpg" width="354" height="431" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_242" id="fig_242"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 242.—Group of Saints, taken from the large Fresco +of “The Passion” in the Convent of St. Mark. Painted by Fra Angelico of +Fiesole.</p></div> +</div> + +<p class="nind">a colossal Virgin. It was, in short, the age of splendid productions in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_278" id="page_278">{278}</a></span> +mural painting, that in which the great Buonarotti exclaimed when +engaged in enthusiastic labour on one of his sublime +conceptions—“Fresco is the only painting; painting in oils is only the +art of women and idle and unenergetic men.” And yet, at least as regards +improvements in the process of execution, fresco had hardly reached its +climax.</p> + +<p>In the seventeenth century the school of Bologna, after having for a +long time maintained a merely imitative style of art, shone forth with +independent light under the influence of the Carracci, who, summoned to +Rome, covered the walls of the Farnesian gallery with frescoes, to which +none others could be compared for brilliancy and powerful effect. As +much must be said of the works of their pupils: the “Martyrdom of St. +Sebastian,” in the Church of St. Mary of the Angels; the “Miracles of +St. Nil,” at Grotta-Ferrata, near Rome; the “Death of St. Cecilia,” at +Saint-Louis-des-Français, by Domenichino; “Aurora,” by Guercino, at the +Villa Ludovici; the “Chariot of the Sun,” by Guido, in the Rospigliosi +Palace, &c.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_205_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_205_sml.jpg" width="393" height="220" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_243" id="fig_243"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 243.—First Picture of the Loggie of Raphael—“God +creating the Heaven and the Earth.”</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Luca Giordano, a Neapolitan painter, founder of the gallery of the +Ricciardi Palace at Florence, and author of the frescoes in numerous +churches in Italy and Spain, must not be forgotten; and with him must<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_279" id="page_279">{279}</a></span> +be mentioned Pietro da Cortona, of the Roman school, who especially +distinguished himself in the ceilings of the Barberini Palace, at Rome.</p> + +<p>We still have to mention the fertile painters of the Genoese and +Parmesan schools—Lanfranc, Carloni, and Francavilla; but the hour of +decadence had come when these artists appeared; they had more boldness +than talent, they aimed at the majestic, but only succeeded in attaining +to the gigantic; their pencils were skilful, but their soul lacked +fervour and conviction; in spite of their efforts, fresco-painting +declined under their hands, and since that time has only decayed and +gradually sunk into oblivion.</p> + +<p>We must not quit the classical ground of the Fine Arts without +mentioning a process of painting which is closely allied to fresco, and +bears the characteristic name of <i>sgraffito</i> (literally, a scratch). +This style of painting, or rather of drawing (for the works had the +appearance of a large drawing in black crayon), was more generally used +for the exterior of buildings, and was produced by covering the wall +first with black stucco, then with a second layer of white, and +afterwards by removing with an iron instrument the second layer so as to +lay bare, in places, the black ground. The most important work executed +in this style is the ornamentation of the monastic house of the knights +of St. Stephen, at Pisa; this work is by Vasari, to whom also has been +attributed—but wrongfully—the invention of <i>sgraffito</i>, which was used +long before his time.</p> + +<p>Hitherto we have chiefly confined our remarks to Italy and Italian +artists; however, in the consideration of them we have nearly summed up +our brief history of fresco. If we would look to France for any +remarkable works of this kind, we must refer to the epochs in which +Italy sent Simon Memmi to decorate the palace of the popes at Avignon, +and Rosso and Primaticcio to adorn that of the kings at Fontainebleau. +Prior to this, all we meet with are, at the most, a few primitive, not +to say barbarous, subjects, painted here and there, in distemper, by +unknown artists, on the walls of churches or monasteries. Among these +conventional examples it is, however, only just to distinguish some +pictures of powerful effect, if not in execution, at least for the ideas +they are intended to convey; we would speak of the “Dance of Death,” or +“Dance of the Dead,” like that which existed at Paris in the Cemetery of +the Innocents, and another still to be seen in the Abbey of Chaise-Dieu, +in Auvergne; legends more than<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_280" id="page_280">{280}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_206_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_206_sml.jpg" width="359" height="438" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_244" id="fig_244"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 244.—“Fraternity of the Cross-bowmen.” +(Fresco-Painting of the Fifteenth Century, in the ancient Chapel of St. +John and St. Paul, Ghent.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p class="nind">pictures, and philosophical compositions rather than manifestations of +art. Spain, too, has no reason to be proud of her national productions; +for, with the exception of the Gothic frescoes still existing in the +Cathedral of Toledo, representing the combats between the Moors and the +Toledans<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_281" id="page_281">{281}</a></span> (pictures specially worthy of the attention of archæologists), +the only frescoes of Spanish origin we can mention are the paintings of +a few ceilings in the Escurial and in a chapter-room in the Cathedral of +Toledo; all the other frescoes must be attributed to Italian artists.</p> + +<p>Whenever the northern artists, usually so cold and methodical in their +mode of operation, devoted themselves to mural painting, it seems to +have been necessary that they should enliven their temperament in the +sunny rays of a southern sky; for while in Holland and Belgium we notice +but few walls covered with decorative painting, we find a large number +of Italian churches and palaces which contain frescoes bearing the +signature of Flemish masters.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_207_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_207_sml.jpg" width="255" height="277" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_245" id="fig_245"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 245.—“Death and the Jew.” An episode from the +“Dance of Death.” Painted in 1441, in the Cemetery of the Dominicans, +Basle. (Facsimile from the Engraving of M. Mérian.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>There was considerable excitement manifested a few years ago at the +discovery of the mural paintings in the ancient Chapel of St. John and +St. Paul, in Ghent (<a href="#fig_244">Fig. 244</a>). These works are of the fifteenth +century,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_282" id="page_282">{282}</a></span> and although satisfactory enough as regards the design, they +derive more importance from the subjects which they represent than from +any merit of execution.</p> + +<p>In speaking of Germany, we should not omit to mention the ancient “Dance +of Death” (<a href="#fig_245">Fig. 245</a>), at Basle, in the cemetery of the Dominicans, +painted in the middle of the fifteenth century; also another “Dance of +Death” much more famous, and the façades of several houses, painted at +Basle by Holbein. We must also indicate the paintings with which (in +1466) Israel de Meckenheim covered the walls of a chapel of St. Mary of +the Capitol, at Cologne; and the frescoes of St. Etienne and St. +Augustine, at Vienna. But it does not follow, from this limited +enumeration of works, that Germany either created or followed any +special school.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_208_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_208_sml.jpg" width="315" height="219" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_246" id="fig_246"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 246.—Fra Angelico, of Fiesole.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_283" id="page_283">{283}</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="PAINTING_ON_WOOD_CANVAS" id="PAINTING_ON_WOOD_CANVAS"></a>PAINTING ON WOOD, CANVAS, ETC.</h2> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">The Rise of Christian Painting.—The Byzantine School.—First +Revival in Italy.—Cimabue, Giotto, Fra Angelico.—Florentine +School: Leonardo da Vinci, Michael Angelo.—Roman School: Perugino, +Raphael.—Venetian School: Titian, Tintoretto, Veronese.—Lombard +School: Correggio, Parmigianino.—Spanish School.—German and +Flemish Schools: Stephan of Cologne, John of Bruges, Lucas van +Leyden, Albert Dürer, Lucas van Cranach, Holbein.—Painting in +France during the Middle Ages.—Italian Masters in France.—Jean +Cousin.</p></div> + +<p class="nind"><a href="images/ill_209_lg.jpg"> +<span class="letra"> +<img src="images/ill_209_sml.jpg" +width="90" +alt="A" /></span></a>FTER its first weak manifestations in the dark shadows of the +Catacombs—the place of refuge to which the earliest believers had to +resort to celebrate their holy mysteries—Christian painting made its +first attempt to display itself in open day at the time when the new +faith found in Constantine the high protection of a crowned disciple. +But this art felt an instinctive repugnance to draw its inspirations +from works which had been created under the empire of decayed and +contemned creeds. In the completely spiritual worship of the true God, +it seemed but natural to seek for other types than those which had been +consecrated by the fancies of materialistic mythologies.</p> + +<p>The school of <i>idea</i>, which was substituted for the school of <i>form</i>, +desired to owe nothing to its frivolous predecessor. It would have +considered it a reproach to give even the semblance of permanence to +reprobated traditions, and it set itself to work to create an art +completely new in all its features. The rule it laid down, therefore, +was to regard as non-existent the <i>chefs-d’œuvre</i> which recalled to mind +the days of moral error; rejecting the inspiration to be derived from +the magnificent relics of the past, it resolved to commence an era of +its own, and to exist on its own ideas. Hence that principle of +energetic simplicity which, although it may have hindered art from +elevating itself to the perfection we call classical, had at least this +advantage, that it sought by gradual development to imprint on<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_284" id="page_284">{284}</a></span> +Christian art a stamp of individuality from which it was to derive both +its power and its glory.</p> + +<p>Thus, by the enthusiasm of faith, was called into existence that really +primitive School of Painting which has received the name of <i>Byzantine</i>; +because at the very time when it obtained the liberty of displaying +itself, Constantine, transferring the seat of empire to Byzantium, +necessarily took with him the body of artists of whom he was the +protector; because, too, as we have before observed, Byzantium +henceforth became for many centuries the sole focus whence light +radiated towards the West, which was now plunged in barbarism. We must, +therefore, go back to the Byzantine school, if we wish to trace to their +origin all the forms of European painting.</p> + +<p>“Allegory,” says M. Michiels, “was the first language of Christian +painting; not only did it express typically the Evangelical teachings, +but the Divine personages themselves were metamorphosed into symbols. +Sometimes, for instance, Christ appeared in the form of a young +shepherd, bearing on his shoulders and carrying back to the fold a +wandering sheep; sometimes He was represented as the Orpheus of the new +faith, charming and taming ferocious animals by the sound of His +lute.... He also was made to assume the form of the lamb without spot, +or of a phœnix spreading its wings, the conqueror of death and the +spirits of darkness. Thus was the transition softened down; thus did +they escape the raillery of Pagans who would have turned into ridicule +the heroic sufferings and the glorious humiliations of the Son of man. +But this timidity could not long continue.... The council held at +Constantinople in 692 commanded that allegory should be repudiated, and +that the objects of their veneration should be displayed to the faithful +without the veil hitherto employed. Now was exhibited to view a +spectacle new indeed to men; a Deity crowned with thorns, enduring the +outrages of a vile populace, or stretched upon a cross and pierced with +a lance, turning His sad glance to heaven and wrestling with His agony. +The Greeks and Latins were but slow in adopting this mode of +representation, and did so with regret.... But the perception of moral +dignity was destined to eclipse the vain pomp of Pagan grandeur. The +generous sufferings of sacrifice were to become the greatest of all +glories.”</p> + +<p>“Christian painting, when once established as an art on the banks of the +Bosphorus, assumed a certain immobility of character. Forms, attitudes,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_285" id="page_285">{285}</a></span> +groups, and vestments—all were regulated by ecclesiastical +prescription. There was, as it were, an inflexible text-book, to which +artists were bound to submit. Delicacy of colouring and nobility of +attitude were the only things to recall the beauty of ancient art. Even +in our days the Greek and Russian painters follow a similar plan, +drawing and arranging their figures in the same manner as their +ancestors of the time of Honorius and the Palæologi.”</p> + +<p>Even in the West the case was nearly the same, so long as the practice +of painting remained almost exclusively confined to artists coming from +Constantinople. Thus, in some celebrated manuscripts of the eighth and +ninth centuries we find compositions that give a very exact +representation of the state of the art in these remote times, though the +paintings themselves have been destroyed by the Iconoclasts. In fact, +during ten centuries it seemed that the Western races resisted any +expression of artistic individuality or invention. Throughout this long +period we find Greek painters the supreme arbiters of taste and +knowledge in the countries of Western Europe, forcing upon them their +own barren style, and teaching them their contracted perceptions. Art +among them seemed always to be but a mere instinct. Constant +immigrations took place which were continually leading them to every +point in Western Europe, but none of them ever brought anything novel in +art beyond what their predecessors had already introduced. If they took +root in a new country, the son repeated the works of his father. The +pupil took no means to enlarge his thoughts; he adopted as his model and +his ideal nothing but the work of his master, and the poor form of +tradition was continued without enthusiasm and without progress (Fig. +247). Genius is altogether wanting, or if its sacred spark sprung forth +from heaven, it was soon extinguished when it reached the earth for want +of a soul which could receive it, and be kindled by its fire. The Greek +masters doubtless affected some pride in the grandeur of their native +name, but they were none the less living proofs that the sources from +which flowed the inspiration of a Zeuxis, a Protogenes, or an Apelles, +had since those far-distant days been long dried up. The East had for +ever terminated its ancient character of artistic creation, and the most +it seemed destined to achieve during the Middle Ages was to preserve the +germ which the West was to bring again into active life.</p> + +<p>Italy, and more particularly Tuscany, may lay claim to the honour of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_286" id="page_286">{286}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_210_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_210_sml.jpg" width="347" height="446" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_247" id="fig_247"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 247.—“Baptism of King Clovis.” (Fragment of a +Painting on Canvas at Rheims. Fifteenth Century.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p class="nind">having witnessed, about the end of the thirteenth and the beginning of +the fourteenth century, the dawn of the great revival of artistic light. +The names of Giunta of Pisa, Guido of Siena, and Duccio, had, however, +already<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_287" id="page_287">{287}</a></span> commenced the glorious list of Italian artists, who were the +first to endeavour to modify the immutable Greek manner. Their attempts, +no doubt, seem but insignificant, looking at the immense progress +subsequently accomplished; but, however slight it may appear to be, the +first step made beyond the beaten path which has been trodden for +centuries is often evidence of the most courageous daring.</p> + +<p>The year 1240 witnessed the birth of Cimabue: as a young man, he became +enamoured of art by watching the labours of the Greek painters who had +been summoned to Florence to decorate the chapel of the Gondi. It was +purposed to make him a <i>savant</i> and a lawyer; but he succeeded in +abandoning the pen in favour of the pencil, and, from the lessons of the +timid Byzantines, he soon became a master whose every thought was +henceforth devoted to the emancipation of an art that he found condemned +to a kind of immobility. Thanks to him, the expression of faces, which +up to that time had been entirely conventional in character, was +animated by a truer sentiment; the lines of drawing, which had been hard +and stiff, were broken up into well-ordered grace; the colouring, +hitherto dull and gloomy, assumed soft brilliancy and harmonious relief. +It is said that Cimabue’s <i>chef-d’œuvre</i>, the “Madonna” which is still +to be seen in the Church of Santa-Maria-Novella, was carried in +procession by the crowd to the place which it now occupies; the painter +was received with shouts, and, it is added, the joy of the people at the +sight of the picture was so great that the part of the city wherein +Cimabue’s studio was situated received, after this event, the name of +<i>Borgo Allegro</i> (the Joyous Town). One day when Cimabue was in the +country, he noticed a young shepherd-boy who was amusing himself by +sketching on a rock the sheep he tended. The painter took charge of the +boy; he became his favourite pupil, and was the celebrated Giotto, who +happily persevered in the reform commenced by Cimabue. Giotto, the first +among the artists of his time, ventured to paint portraits, and +succeeded well in them. To him we owe our acquaintance with the real +features of his friend Dante; and we still admire, at least as +manifestations of an adventurous genius, the paintings he left in the +Church of Santa Clara at Naples, in the Cathedral of Assisi, and +especially in the Campo Santo at Pisa, where he painted in fresco the +history of Job.</p> + +<p>Giotto died in 1336, but he left behind him to continue his work, Taddeo +Gaddi, Giottino, Stefano, Andrea Orcagna, and Simon Memmi, who were<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_288" id="page_288">{288}</a></span> +each destined to open out some new path in art. In the Campo Santo at +Pisa we may see how great was the power of the genius of these masters, +especially of Andrea Orcagna (1329-1389), who has there represented, +with an equal measure of beauty and of sombre and terrible energy, the +“Dream of Life,” facing the “Triumph of Death.” Taddeo Gaddi remained a +fervent disciple of his master, and continued his delicate accuracy of +design, and the living freshness of his colouring. Stefano succeeded him +in the boldness of his compositions, in his studious knowledge of the +nude, and of perspective effect which had been hitherto neglected. +Giottino inherited his serious inspirations. Memmi endeavoured to recall +his mystical and graceful sentiment. Orcagna, who was at once painter, +sculptor, architect, and poet, seemed to possess in turn all the +qualities which his fellow-disciples had shared among them, and could +represent with equal success the terrors of the infernal regions and the +visions of heaven.</p> + +<p>The progress of which these painters had constituted themselves the +apostles was not carried out without exciting some opposition. In +addition to the Greek masters, who naturally felt compelled to contend +with the innovators, certain individuals were found among the Italian +artists who energetically embraced the party of the past. We will only +mention one, Margaritone of Arezzo, who wore out his long life in a +useless devotion to a cause which was already lost; even his name we +should not have particularised, if it had not been that the art owed him +some gratitude for the service he rendered it, by substituting the use +of canvas prepared for painting instead of panels of wood, which had +hitherto been exclusively employed.</p> + +<p>The Florentine school (for thus we call the group of artists who trod in +the footsteps of Cimabue and Giotto) had for its representative, at the +beginning of the fifteenth century, Giovanni of Fiesole, surnamed <i>Fra +Angelico</i>, the personification of enthusiasm in artistic sublimity; +whose works, too, resemble so many hymns of adoration. Born in the year +1387, and inheriting great wealth, he was endowed with a contemplative +mind, and, ignorant of the talent which inspired him, he sought oblivion +from the world in the garb of a Dominican, little suspecting that glory +awaited him in the very depth of his humility. At first, as a kind of +pious recreation, he covered with miniatures several pages of +manuscripts; next, his com<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_289" id="page_289">{289}</a></span>panions in the cloister requested him to +paint a picture. He obeyed, feeling convinced that the inspiration which +stirred within him was a manifestation of the Divine spirit, and it was +with the most artless simplicity that he referred to this celestial +origin the <i>chef-d’œuvre</i> which proceeded from his hands. His reputation +spread far and wide. At the invitation of the head of the Christian +Church, he repaired to Rome in order to paint one of the chapels of the +Vatican. And when the pontiff, full of enthusiasm at his talent, wished +to confer upon him as a reward the dignity of archbishop, Angelico +retired modestly to his cell in order to devote himself without +interruption to that art which was to him a continual prayer, and a +perpetual soaring up to that heavenly country on which he unceasingly +meditated with all the unutterable feelings of the elect.</p> + +<p>About the same era as the “seraphic monk,” who died full of years in +1455, appeared Tomaso Guidi, for whom a kind of unconsciousness of +everyday life had obtained the ironical <i>sobriquet</i> of Masaccio (the +Stupid); who, however, astonished the world by his works to such extent +that it was said concerning them, “those of his predecessors were +<i>painted</i>, but his were <i>living</i>.” Masaccio was one of the first (and +this fact shows how slowly art may progress even in bold hands) to place +in his pictures firmly on the soles of their feet figures presenting a +full front, instead of making them stand upon their great-toes, as his +predecessors had done from a want of knowledge of the requisite +foreshortening. Masaccio died in 1443.</p> + +<p>Philippo Lippi, who devoted himself more specially to the study of +nature, both in the human physiognomy and also in the accessory details +of his works, marks as it were the last stage of the art, when it +approached the state of full vigour in which it was to manifest the +whole extent of its power. We are now at the end of the fifteenth +century, and the masters of the <i>great masters</i> are in existence. It was +Andrea Verrochio who, at the sight of an angel which Leonardo da Vinci, +his pupil, had painted in one of his works, for ever abandoned his +pencil. It was Domenico Ghirlandajo who, jealous of the superior +qualities which he recognised in his pupil, the youthful Buonarotti, not +only endeavoured, but succeeded in diverting his talents, at least for a +time, to sculpture. It was Fra Bartolommeo (1469-1517) who was affected +with such profound grief at the death of his friend Savonarola, that he +embraced a monastic life. Baccio della Porta (such was the name of the +Brother) was a very great painter (<a href="#fig_248">Fig. 248</a>); the vigour and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_290" id="page_290">{290}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_211_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_211_sml.jpg" width="394" height="592" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_248" id="fig_248"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 248.—“The Patriarch Job.” A Painting on Panel, by +Fra Bartolommeo. Fifteenth Century.</p> + +<p>(In the Gallery at Florence.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_291" id="page_291">{291}</a></span></p> + +<p class="nind">harmony of colouring which he showed, especially in his last +productions, has sometimes caused them to be attributed to Raphael, with +whom he was for some time united in the bonds of friendship. But we must +not confine ourselves to characterising the works of one single group of +artists; for, although the revival took its rise on the banks of the +Arno, it spread far and wide beyond those limits. Added to this, Giotto, +when visiting Verona, Padua, and Rome, left in each place the still +resplendent traces of his presence. When Fra Angelico went to adorn the +Vatican, his genius spread around it a fruitful irradiation which +everywhere dimmed the ancient renown of the Byzantine painters who had +hitherto prevailed in the Italian cities.</p> + +<p>At Rome we find flourishing in succession Pietro Cavallini, whom Giotto +had instructed during the sojourn of the latter in the Eternal City; +Gentile da Fabriano, who drew his inspiration from Fra Angelico; and +Pietro della Francesca, who has been regarded as the originator of +perspective. We next meet with Pietro Vannucci, called Perugino, who was +born in 1446; it was owing to nothing but the force of his genius and +his character that he became one of the most celebrated masters of his +time. At the close of his career, Perugino had the honour of initiating +into the practice of his art Raphael Sanzio of Urbino, who was in his +own day, as he still is, the prince of painting.</p> + +<p>At Venice a body of pioneers, still more numerous and compact, prepared +the way for the new era, destined to be made illustrious by Titian, +Tintoretto, and Paul Veronese. We will mention also Gentile and Jacopo +Bellini; the former was incessantly absorbed in investigating the +theories of an art which he nevertheless exercised with all the +<i>abandon</i> of an inspired genius; the latter constantly devoted himself +to the combination of power and grace; and, at the age of seventy-five +years, seemed to regain a second youth in following with happy boldness +the example of his pupil Giorgione.<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> This painter, who was born in +1477, and died in 1511, introduced all kinds of innovations in respect +to design and colouring, and was the master of Giovanni da Udine, +Sebastian del Piombo, Jacques Palma, and Pordenone,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_292" id="page_292">{292}</a></span> fellow-pupils and +sometimes rivals of the three great artists by whose works the Venetian +school was to mark its individuality.</p> + +<p>At Parma a local school was represented by Antonio Allegri, called +Correggio, born in 1494; and by Francesco Mazzuoli, called Parmigianino, +born in 1503.</p> + +<p>In other places, too, talents of a vigorous or of a graceful character +were developed, but we can only cast a comprehensive glance on this +memorable artistic epoch, and are unable to offer a detailed review of +the artists and their works. And what further luminaries of art could we +wish to embrace in our summary after having displayed in it, shining, so +to speak, at one and the same epoch, Leonardo da Vinci (<a href="#fig_249">Fig. 249</a>), +Michael Angelo, Raphael, Titian, Tintoretto, Veronese, Correggio, and +Parmigianino?</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_212_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_212_sml.jpg" width="345" height="306" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_249" id="fig_249"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 249.—Portrait of Leonardo da Vinci, from a Venetian +Engraving of the Sixteenth Century.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Four principal schools compete with one another—the Florentine school,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_293" id="page_293">{293}</a></span> +the characteristics of which are truth of design, energy of colouring, +and grandeur of conception; the Roman school, which seeks its ideal in +the skilful and sober judgment of its lines, the dignity of its +compositions, propriety of expression and beauty of form; the Venetian +school, which occasionally neglected correctness of drawing, and devoted +itself more to the brilliancy and magical effect of colour; lastly, the +school of Parma, which is distinguished especially by its softness of +touch and by its knowledge of light and shade. All such estimations of +the different qualities of these various groups must not, however, be +looked upon as in any way absolute.</p> + +<p>As chiefs of the first school we have two men, each of whom presents to +us one of the richest organisations and the most widely extending genius +which human nature has, perhaps, ever produced; these were Leonardo da +Vinci and Michael Angelo, both of whom were sculptors as well as +painters; and also architects, musicians, and poets. We will first speak +of Leonardo da Vinci, whose style presents two very distinct epochs; the +first tending to vigour in the shadows, to a mistiness in reflected +lights, to a general effect produced by a certain oddness, or rather by +a strange representation of truth; a combination of qualities which, as +M. Michiels says, makes Leonardo the “most northerly of the Italian +painters” (<a href="#fig_250">Fig. 250</a>). His second style, “clear, serene, and precise,” +transports us into a “completely southern sphere.” But some secret +influence drew the artist so forcibly towards his earlier manner, that +he returned to it at an advanced age in painting the famous portrait of +Mona Lisa, which adorns the gallery of the Louvre. We must not forget +the fact that we have to attribute to Pope Leo X. the great revival of +the arts, and especially of painting, in Italy at the commencement of +the sixteenth century.</p> + +<p>“In Michael Angelo,” still to quote the words of M. Michiels, “science, +power, grandeur, and all the more severe qualities are combined. No +vulgar artifice and no affectation. The painter was imbued with a +sublime ideal of majestic types from which nothing was able to divert +him. He felt as if there were existing in himself a whole population of +heroes, whom, by the aid of painting and sculpture, he endeavoured to +withdraw from their mental concealment, and to embody in incarnate +forms. His personages scarcely seem to belong to our race; they appear +to be creatures worthy<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_294" id="page_294">{294}</a></span> of some more spacious world, to the proportions +of which their physical vigour and their moral energy would well +respond. The very women do not possess the grace of their sex; we might +fancy them valiant Amazons well capable of mastering a horse or of +crushing an enemy. This great man’s object was neither to charm nor to +please; his delight rather was to astonish and to strike with admiration +or terror; but it is this very excess of power which enabled him to win +the approbation of all.”</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_213_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_213_sml.jpg" width="265" height="314" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_250" id="fig_250"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 250.—The Holy Family, by Leonardo da Vinci, from +the Picture in the Museum at St. Petersburg.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Next we have Raphael, <i>il divino Sanzio</i>, as he was called by his +numerous admirers, whose genius was constantly attaining to grandeur by +means of simplicity, and to power by means of reserve. Michael Angelo +always seems as if he were only able to represent a limited portion of +his gigantic conceptions on the wall he covered with his designs; but it +was<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_295" id="page_295">{295}</a></span> sufficient for Raphael to place some tranquil figure on a narrow +square of canvas, and we have before us the bright image of the most +perfect and delicious inspiration. He created for himself a heaven which +he peopled with the purest and most venerated types of the human race; +and a light, as from on high, beams with regal splendour on these +graceful visions. In Raphael, even more than in Leonardo da Vinci, it +seemed as if two artists of equal sublimity succeeded one another. At +first we have the charming dreamer who, in the fresh enthusiasm of his +early youth, creates Madonnas, artless daughters of the earth in whose +look and countenance a sacred light shines in all its ineffable purity; +next he is the master full of the deepest science, for whom the real +beauties of creation have no concealment; who, in representing nature, +succeeded in transforming to her the magnificent ideal of which his own +soul appears to have received the impression from association with the +divine regions.</p> + +<p>“The principal characteristic of Raphael,” still following the very just +remarks of M. Michiels, “is the universality of his fame. It becomes +almost painful to hear the vulgar crowd constantly repeating a magic +name, the true signification of which they do not understand.” As the +spoiled child of fortune, the creator of Virgins and “The +Transfiguration,” he is almost without detractors from his fame; and it +is impossible to reckon the number of his admirers. “One circumstance in +his life affords us an emblem of his destiny. Having sent to Palermo the +famous canvas of the ‘Spasimo,’<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a> a tempest overwhelmed the ship which +carried it; but the waves seemed to respect the <i>chef-d’œuvre</i>. After +having drifted more than fifty leagues through the sea, the box which +enclosed the precious production floated gently on shore at the port of +Genoa. The picture was in no way injured. The Sicilian monks, for whom +it was intended, did not fail to claim it; and since that time, thanks +to the mercy of the waves, it attracts to the foot of Etna numerous +pilgrims to the shrine of genius.”</p> + +<p>At Venice, we first have Titian, the painter of Charles V. and Francis +I. “The genius of Titian,” says Alexander Lenoir, “is always great and +noble. No painter has ever produced flesh-colours so beautiful and +life-like. In Titian there is no apparent tone; the colouring of his +flesh is so well<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_296" id="page_296">{296}</a></span> blended, that it seems as difficult to imitate as the +model itself. Add to his pictures their truth and expression of action, +and the elegance and richness of the drapery, and we shall have some +idea of the great works which he left behind him.”</p> + +<p>Next Jacques Robusti presents himself, who, from the profession of his +father was surnamed Tintoretto (the Dyer). He was at first a pupil of +Titian, who, it is said, from motives of jealousy, dismissed him from +his studio; but the fervour of uninterrupted labour was all that +Tintoretto required in order to mature the most productive talent. “The +drawing of Michael Angelo, and the colouring of Titian”—such was the +ambitious motto he wrote over the door of his humble <i>atelier</i>, and we +are almost justified in stating that he was enabled, by force of study +and labour, to fulfil his aspirations, if we look only at some of his +pieces executed before a certain fever of exuberant production had +seized upon and necessarily weakened his vigorous talents. To form some +estimate of the extent to which Tintoretto was impelled by this impulse +of creation, we may recollect that even Paul Veronese reproached him +with being unable to restrain himself—Veronese, the most indefatigable +of producers!</p> + +<p>With regard to the latter, his works are characterised not only by the +number of figures in them, but also by the striking brilliancy of the +<i>mise en scène</i>. Although he multiplies his actors, they are grouped in +perfect order; although he paints a multitude, he knows how to avoid a +crowd. Notice how a feeling of life profusely pervades the whole of his +vast pictures of important events; an idea of space is everywhere given; +everywhere light plays a powerful part, and imagination has full scope. +He is the painter <i>par excellence</i> of feasts and ceremonies: at once +pompous and natural, his copiousness is only equalled by his dazzling +facility; and we are compelled to forgive the errors with which he +mingles on the same canvas the religious ideas of sacred subjects and +the profane splendour of modern times.</p> + +<p>What shall we say about Correggio? There is no methodical scale by which +to measure grace; and there is no formula laid down of delicious +softness. But if, at the Louvre, we examine his “Antiope asleep,” we +shall not soon forget the fascinating power of the old Allegri +(Correggio).</p> + +<p>From Correggio to Parmigianino the distance is of the kind that +admiration can easily fill up. It was said of the latter that he had +more the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_297" id="page_297">{297}</a></span> appearance of an angel than of a man; and the Romans of his +own day used to add that the spirit of Raphael had passed into his body. +In more than one instance his genius was kindled by the sun of +Correggio, and ripened in the studios of Michael Angelo and Raphael; but +in addition to this, his flexible and varied talent enabled him to find +a place by himself between these two masters. “St. Francis receiving the +Stigmata,” and “The Marriage of St. Catherine,” which he painted before +he had attained his eighteenth year, are still regarded as equal to the +<i>chefs-d’œuvre</i> signed by Allegri. It is well known that a “St. +Margaret,” executed by Parmigianino fifteen years later for a church at +Bologna, was placed by Guido in the same rank as the “St. Cecilia” of +Raphael.</p> + +<p>By the side of, or after, these famous men, in whom the glory of Italian +painting seems to have brilliantly culminated, how many noble names +still remain to be cited; how many remarkable names are there still to +mention, even among those who, in following the glorious path opened out +for them by the great masters, began to show glimpses of the earliest +symptoms of decay, exhaustion, and lassitude! It does not form a part of +our plan to dwell upon the various phases of this decadence; but before +we glance at the last sparks of light which were shed forth, we must not +forget the fact that the Italian pleiades were not exclusively +privileged to illumine the artistic horizon.</p> + +<p>It is certainly the case that all over Europe the Byzantine tradition +had been the sole possessor of the throne of art since the earliest +centuries of the Middle Ages. In Germany as in Italy, in France as in +the countries bounding it on the north, we find nothing but the same +school displaying the dead level of its inflexibility. At various +epochs, however, certain feeble attempts at independence were here and +there manifested; but these aspirations were at first generally +isolated, and therefore transient in their character. Finally, however, +as if the hour of revival had been simultaneously agreed upon at all +points of the intellectual world, these desires for emancipation +manifested themselves in a corresponding effort to reject the former too +absolute form, and to substitute the element of life for the principle +of conventionality.</p> + +<p>In Spain a strange combat was waging on the soil itself, for the +possession of which two hostile races, two irreconcilable faiths, were +in fierce contention. The Mahometan built the Alhambra, the halls of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_298" id="page_298">{298}</a></span> +which were destined to be subsequently adorned by a Christian pencil. In +the paintings that enliven the arches of this marvellous edifice an art +is manifested which is both simple and grand in its character; but in +this one undertaking it appears to have exhausted the share of vitality +time had awarded to it; for immediately afterwards it seems to have died +away. If, however, any fresh masters of the art of painting appeared on +the Iberian soil, they had sought in Italy the flame of inspiration, or +some mighty art-pilgrim visited their country. We must come down to a +later epoch, from the consideration of which we are now precluded, in +order to meet with an Herrera, a Ribera, a Velasquez, or a Murillo, the +glory of whom, although comparatively late, may perhaps hold its own by +the side of the great Italian schools, but cannot pretend to eclipse +them. Among the predecessors of these real and distinct individualities, +we will, however, mention the following:—Alonzo Berruguete, born in +1480, at once painter, architect, and sculptor; he was a pupil of +Michael Angelo, in whose works he often took a share; Pedro Campagna, +born in 1503, who studied under the same master—his <i>chef-d’œuvre</i> is +still admired in the Cathedral of Seville; Luis de Vargas, born in 1502, +who was able in many points to appropriate the secrets of Sanzio, from +whom he appeared to have received lessons; Morales, whose paintings are +still admired for the harmony of their lines and the delicacy of their +touch; Vicente Juanes, whose purity of design and sober vigour of +colouring obtained for him the title (certainly by some exaggeration of +praise) of the “Raphael of Valencia;” lastly, Fernandez Navarette, born +in 1526, who, perhaps less hyperbolically, was surnamed the “Spanish +Titian;” and Sanchez Coello, born about 1500, who, excelling in +portraits, has handed down the likenesses of some celebrated personages +of his time.</p> + +<p>In Germany and the Low Countries we find similar traces of the feeling +of regeneration actuating the minds of artists at a much earlier period. +The first name which presents itself to us beyond the Rhine is that +mentioned in the Chronicle of Limburg, of the date of 1380. “There was +then at Cologne,” says the chronicler, “a painter named Wilhelm. +According to the masters, he was the best in all the countries of +Germany; he has painted men of every description as if they were alive.” +We have nothing left of the works of this artist except some panels +without signature, which, in consideration of the date they bear, are +attributed to him; an examination shows that, considering the epoch at +which he lived, Wilhelm<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_299" id="page_299">{299}</a></span> might justly be looked upon as a creative +genius. He was succeeded by his most talented pupil, <i>Maître</i> Stephan. A +triptych of his work may be seen at the Cathedral of Cologne, +representing “The Adoration of the Magi,” “St. Gereon,” “St. Ursula,” +and “The Annunciation.” This work, which exhibits charming finish as +well as harmonious simplicity, is sufficient evidence that its author +was possessed of much natural ability as well as a certain extent of +knowledge; and if we make it our study to seek out the relics of the +artistic movement of the period, we can in no way feel surprise at +seeing that the influence of this early master made itself felt in a +very extended radius.</p> + +<p>But at this epoch, that is, at the commencement of the fifteenth +century, in a city of Flanders, a new luminary made its appearance, +which was destined to eclipse the brilliancy of the somewhat weak German +innovation. Two brothers, Hubert and John van Eyck, together with their +sister Margaret, established themselves in the “triumphant city of +Bruges,” as it is called by an historian; and very soon all the Flemish +and Rhenish regions resounded with the name of Van Eyck, their works +being the only representations which were admired and followed; and even +in those early days it was a title of glory to form a part of their +brilliant school.</p> + +<p>John, the younger of the two brothers, was the one to whom renown more +particularly attached (<a href="#fig_251">Fig. 251</a>). He is reputed to have been the +inventor of oil-painting; but all he did was to improve the methods +employed. Nevertheless, tradition tells us that an Italian master, +Antonello of Messina, made a journey to Flanders, with the object of +finding out the secret of John Bruges (by which name Van Eyck is often +called); and that he subsequently circulated it throughout the Italian +schools. Be this as it may, John of Bruges, apart from any similarity in +manner (for it was by the force of his colouring, as much as by his new +theories of composition, that he succeeded in revolutionising the old +school of painting), may be considered as the Giotto of the North; but +we must add that the effects of his attempts were much more rapidly +decisive. At one leap, so to speak, the somewhat cold painting of the +Gothic school decked itself with a splendour which left but little for +the future Venetian school to achieve beyond it; with one flight of +genius, stiff and methodical conceptions became imbued with suppleness +and vital action. Finally, we have the first notable sign of the true +feeling of an art combining science and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_300" id="page_300">{300}</a></span> grace—a knowledge of anatomy +is shown in the life-like flesh and under the brilliant draperies. There +is, however, a considerable distance, which cannot fail to be remarked, +separating the two reformers of art whose names we have just brought +together. One, Giotto, desired to grasp the real in order to make it +conduce to the triumph of the ideal; while Van Eyck only accepted the +ideal because he had as yet been unable to apprehend the deepest secrets +of the real. All the other masters are but as the fruit yielded by the +school of the great Florentine, and by those which the descendants of +the Flemish masters were destined to produce. At Ghent, we still have as +an object of admiration, an altar-piece, a <i>chef-d’œuvre</i> of Van Eyck; +it is an immense composition, some portions of which have been removed; +but at first it did not contain less than three hundred figures, +representing the “Adoration of the Paschal Lamb by the Virgins of the +Apocalypse.”</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_214_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_214_sml.jpg" width="338" height="262" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_251" id="fig_251"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 251.—“The Holy Virgin, St. George, and St. Donat.” +By John van Eyck. (Museum at Antwerp.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>John van Eyck resided for some time at the court of Portugal, whither he +had been sent by Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, to delineate</p> + +<div class="blockquott"><p class="c">“ST. CATHERINE AND ST. AGNES.”</p> + +<p class="c">A PICTURE ATTRIBUTED TO MARGARET VAN EYCK.</p> + +<p>On the left of the picture is seen St. Catherine of Alexandria holding +in her hands the instruments of her punishment—the <i>wheel</i>, which is +broken into fragments, and the <i>sword</i> which decapitated her; below her +is the head of the Emperor Maxmilian II., who ordered her martyrdom.</p> + +<p>On the right is St. Agnes, and a <i>lamb</i>, the emblem of her innocence and +gentleness.</p> + +<p>The <i>ring</i> St. Agnes is presenting to St. Catherine denotes the bond +which unites the two virgin-martyrs, and attests that both are worthy to +be spouses of Jesus Christ.</p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="chrm_14" id="chrm_14"></a> +<a href="images/ill_215_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_215_sml.jpg" width="372" height="548" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<div class="caption"><p>ST. CATHERINE AND ST. AGNES.</p> + +<p>Painting attributed to Margaret Van Eyck. (M. Quedeville’s +Collection.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_301" id="page_301">{301}</a></span></p> + +<p class="nind">the features of his <i>fiancée</i>, the Princess Elizabeth (1428). The +influence exercised by his labours is thought to have brought about that +tendency to brilliancy and realism which, after its first manifestation +in the earliest Spanish manner, gave way before the encroachments of +Italian genius, only to reappear in all its power in the great national +school.</p> + +<p>Among the best pupils that Van Eyck left behind him at Bruges, we must +not omit the name of Hugo van der Goes, whose works are rare.</p> + +<p>Roger van der Weyden, of whose paintings but few are now extant, was the +favourite pupil of John of Bruges, and the master of Hemling, whose +reputation was destined to equal, if not to surpass, that of the chief +of his school. “Hemling,” says M. Michiels, so eminent a judge on this +subject, “whose most ancient picture bears the date 1450, possesses more +sweetness and grace than the Van Eycks. His figures charm by an ideal +elegance; his expression never exceeds the limits of tranquil feeling +and agreeable emotion. Quite contrary to John van Eyck, he prefers the +slender and rich character of the Gothic (<a href="#fig_252">Fig. 252</a>) to the heaviness and +scanty detail of Roman architecture. His colouring, although less +vigorous, is softer; the water, the woods, the sites, the grass, and the +distances of his pictures cause a dream-like feeling.”</p> + +<p>A kind of instinctive reaction was manifested in the pupil, but the +master was not altogether forgotten. We shall, however, find elsewhere +the effects of his direct influence; but in order not to have to return +to the school of Bruges, we will first mention Jerome Bosch, who, +contrary to his countryman Hemling, sought after opposition of effects +and singularities of invention; and next Erasmus, the great thinker and +writer, who was also a painter in his day;<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> lastly, Cornelius +Engelbrechtsen, the master of Lucas van Leyden, born in 1494. The latter +was as famous with the pencil as with the graving tool, and introduced +into all his works a powerful and sometimes strange originality which +caused him to be looked upon as the first painter of “<i>genre</i>.” Lucas +van Leyden must close our list of the artists who opened out the paths +which were destined to be followed, though with many a diversity of +method and of style, by Breughel, Teniers, Van Ostade, Porbus, and +Schellincks. At the head of these masters was subsequently to rise the +magnificent Rubens, and the energetic Rembrandt, the king of the +palette, the great chief of the school, who<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_302" id="page_302">{302}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="fig_252" id="fig_252"></a> +<a href="images/ill_216_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_216_sml.jpg" width="378" height="527" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<div class="caption"><p>Fig 252.—“St. Ursula.” By Hemling.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_303" id="page_303">{303}</a></span></p> + +<p class="nind">towers loftily over all his pupils, Gerard Dow, Ferdinand Bol, Van +Eckhout, Govaert Flinck, &c., as well as over his imitators and +contemporaries—Abraham Bloemaert, Gerard Honthorst, Adrian Brauwer, +Seghers, &c.</p> + +<p>When the Van Eycks made their appearance, German art—which, under the +impulse of Stephan of Cologne, had appeared as if destined to direct the +movement—allowed itself to be led away and influenced by the Flemish +school, without, however, entirely divesting itself of the individual +characteristics which are, to some extent, inherent in the region +wherein it flourished. In Alsatia, we see the style peculiar to the +school of Bruges showing itself in Martin Schön (1460); in Suabia, it +had as its interpreter Frederick Herlen (1467); at Augsburg, it was old +Holbein; at Nuremberg, it was first Michael Wohlgemuth, and after him +Albert Dürer (1471), whose vigorous individuality did not fail to +reflect the temperament of the Van Eycks.</p> + +<p>“The works of Albert Dürer present a singular combination of the +fantastic and the real (<a href="#fig_253">Fig. 253</a>). The principal tendencies peculiar to +the character of the northern mind are always to be found in them. The +thoughts of the artist are always transporting him into a world of +abstraction and chimeras; but the ever-present consciousness of the +difficulties of life under the cold northern sky always draws him back +to the details of existence. On the one hand, therefore, he seems to +love philosophical, and even supernatural subjects; but, on the other, +the minute details of his execution bind him down to earth. His models, +his action, his positions, the muscular development of his nude +subjects, the innumerable folds of his draperies, the expression which +he gives to joy, grief, and hatred, all seem to bear a manifest +character of exaggeration. Added to this, he is deficient in grace; a +rudeness entirely northern in its character closes the path to any of +the softer qualities of art. The panels of Albert Dürer all seem to have +a touch of the antique barbarism of the Germanic hordes. He himself was +in the habit of wearing his hair long, like the ancient German kings. +Upon the whole, however, his beautiful colouring, the skilful firmness +of his drawing, his grand characteristics, his depth of thought, the +poetry, often terrible, of his composition, place him in the first rank +of masters” (Michiels).</p> + +<p>While Albert Dürer was endeavouring to combine in his works every type +of the strangest character, Lucas van Cranach made it his study<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_304" id="page_304">{304}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_217_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_217_sml.jpg" width="366" height="545" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_253" id="fig_253"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 253.—“Jesus Crowned with Thorns,” painted on Wood +by Albert Dürer; a Fac-simile traced from the original of the same size. +(In the Collection of M. de Quedeville.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_305" id="page_305">{305}</a></span></p> + +<p class="nind">to represent with no less success pleasant legends or the most charming +realities. He is the painter of artless youths, aerially veiled, and of +sportive and enchanting virgins; and if some antique scene is created by +his delicate and original pencil, it seem, to be metamorphosed by a +happy facility into something that appears to have the character of a +German reminiscence (<a href="#fig_254">Fig. 254</a>).</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_218_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_218_sml.jpg" width="273" height="390" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_254" id="fig_254"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 254.—“Princess Sibylla of Saxony,” by Lucas van +Cranach. (Suermondt Collection.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Between these two masters, so equally endowed with power in their<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_306" id="page_306">{306}</a></span> +respective lines of art, the great Holbein takes his place, as if +embodying the rather abrupt vigour of the one, and the sentimental +delicacy of the other. This painter’s artistic career was carried out +almost entirely in England, but the character of his genius belongs +unquestionably to the country where he left behind him his “Dance of +Death,” a piece of tragic raillery justly held to be the most wonderful +among all the creations of fancy.</p> + +<p>Albert Dürer, who died in 1528, and Lucas van Cranach, and Holbein, who +died in 1553,<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> were destined to create a race of painters, and a host +of successors were soon at work. But the movement, which was impeded by +troubles of a religious character, died away in the terrible convulsions +of the Thirty Years’ War, and was never again renewed.</p> + +<p>The era in which German art seemed all at once to decline was that +wherein the Italian school flourished in full splendour, and exercised +an unrivalled influence over every European country occupied by the +Latin races. France yielded all the more readily to this foreign +influence, because the Papal court at Avignon had already given an +asylum to Giotto in the first place, and afterwards to Simon Memmi; both +of whom, and especially the last, have left master-like traces of their +presence on French soil.</p> + +<p>As a matter of fact, although French painting, regarded in the light of +a national art, cannot boast of having spontaneously produced, as a +thing of home-growth, any of those essays of complete independence of +which Germany and Italy are so proud; the memorials of French art at +least bear witness that, during the long reign of Byzantine tradition, +it never ceased to struggle with some force under the yoke; at a time, +indeed, when Italy and Germany themselves seemed, on the contrary, to +bear the burden with the most submissive servitude.</p> + +<p>The tenth century, in becoming subject to the influence of a foolish but +heartfelt terror (the fear of the end of the world), marked a period of +fatal obstruction to every kind of effort, and progress died away; but +if we look beyond this we shall perceive that, from the earliest days of +the monarchy, painting was held in honour, and painters themselves +afforded proofs of power, if not of genius. We shall, for instance, find +that the basilica of St. Germain-des-Prés, built by Childebert I., had +its walls decorated with “elegant paintings.” We shall find Gondebaud, +the son of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_307" id="page_307">{307}</a></span> Clotaire, himself handling the pencil and “painting the +walls and roofs of oratories.” In the reign of Charlemagne, we discover +the texts which the bishops and priests were compelled to paint on “the +whole interior surface” of their churches, in order that the charm of +the colouring and of the compositions might aid the fervour of faith in +the congregations. But all this is but evidence recorded in the pages of +the ancient chronicles. We have other testimony derived from works still +existing, on which a judgment may be practically passed. Some frescoes +discovered at St. Savin, in the department of Vienne, and at +Nohant-Vicq, in the department of Indre, which must be attributed to the +eleventh and twelfth centuries, attest, in all their rude simplicity, +the efforts of a thoughtful art, and specially bear the stamp of a true +spirit of independence.</p> + +<p>The Sainte-Chapelle, in Paris, by its painted windows and the mural +paintings of its crypt, asserts the real vitality of an artistic +feeling, which only waited for the signal of a bolder spirit to rise to +loftier things. Moreover, if other examples are wanting, there are +manuscripts, on the ornamentation of which the most skilful painters +have concentrated their powers, that would suffice to point out the +tendencies and artistic standard of every succeeding age. (See the +article on <span class="smcap">Miniature-Painting</span>.) However little we may consult history, +we scarcely ever fail to discover traces of certain groups of artists +whose names or works have survived. Thus, a series of paintings +preserved in the Cathedral of Amiens, as well as the “Sacre de Louis +XII.” and the “Vierge au Froment,” in the museum at Cluny, prove to us +the existence, at the end of the fifteenth century, of the school of +Picardy, which possessed skill in composition, combined with a feeling +for colour and a certain knowledge of handling. Thus, too, the +researches of the learned have traced out the laborious career of the +Clouet family, sung by Ronsard and others, but whose works are almost +entirely lost; thus, also, we find the names of Bourdichon, Perréal, +Foucquet, who worked for Louis XI. and Charles VIII., and that of the +peaceful King René of Provence, who thought it not beneath his dignity +to make himself the practical chief of a school whose nameless +productions are still scattered over the south of France.</p> + +<p>With the sixteenth century commenced the age of the great Italian +painters. In 1515, Francis I. persuaded Leonardo da Vinci to come to +France, and to afford the example of his wonderful genius. But the +illus<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_308" id="page_308">{308}</a></span>trious creator of “La Gioconda” (the famous portrait of Mona +Lisa), burthened with years and worn out with work, visited France as if +only to draw his last breath (1519). Andrea del Sarto, the graceful +pupil of the severe Michael Angelo, came to France in 1517; but, after +having painted for his royal protector a few pictures, among which was +the magnificent “Charity” in the Louvre, he again repaired to the +Italian soil, to which his unhappy marriage recalled him to his doom.</p> + +<p>In 1520 Raphael died, at the age of only thirty-seven years. Giulio +Pippi (called <i>Giulio Romano</i>), Francis Penni (called <i>il Fattore</i>), and +Perino del Vaga, whom he named as his heirs and charged with the +completion of his unfinished works, did their best to replace the +illustrious dead. For a short time it might have been thought that the +inspiration of the master still remained with his pupils; but soon a +separation of this group of artists, who had found their principal power +in unity of thought, took place; and, fifteen or twenty years after the +tomb had closed on Raphael, the tradition of his school was nothing more +than a glorious ruin.</p> + +<p>Michael Angelo, who died in 1563, was destined to have a longer career; +but it was only to become a witness of the rapid decadence of the great +movement he had helped to call forth. After Daniele di Volterra, the +painter of the “Descent from the Cross,” which is classed among the +three most beautiful works that Rome possesses; after Vasari, who +possessed a double title to celebrity as a skilful painter and the +historian of the Italian schools; after Rosso, whose renown subsequently +suffered at the court of France; and Bronzino, who sought success in +taste and delicacy; the school of the great Buonarotti produced nothing +but works which seemed to wander from exaggeration to bad taste. The +dwarfs who attempted to walk in the footsteps of the giant were soon +exhausted, and only succeeded in rendering themselves ridiculous.</p> + +<p>The Venetian school, the great masters of which did not become extinct +before the end of the sixteenth century, had its period of decadence at +a later epoch; this will not come under our consideration. The Lombard +school, which, by the deaths of Correggio and Parmigianino, had been +left without its chiefs before the middle of this century (1534 and +1540), seemed for a moment as if it would disappear as it had risen. But +in Michael Angelo Caravaggio (<a href="#fig_255">Fig. 255</a>) it met with a powerful master, +who was able for some time to arrest the progress of its decadence.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_309" id="page_309">{309}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_219_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_219_sml.jpg" width="557" height="369" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_255" id="fig_255"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 255.—“The Tribute Money.” Picture by Caravaggio +(Sixteenth Century), in the Florence Gallery.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_310" id="page_310">{310}</a></span></p> + +<p>We have as yet done little more than hint at the presence of Rosso, or +<i>Maître Roux</i>, at the court of France. He came in 1530, at the +invitation of Francis I., to decorate the Palace of Fontainebleau. “His +engraved work,” says M. Michiels, “shows him to be a feeble and +pretentious man, devoid both of taste and inspiration, who exhibited +laboured refinement in the place of vigour, mistaking want of proportion +for grandeur, and absence of truth for originality. Being nominated by +the king as Canon of the Sainte-Chapelle, he had as his assistants +Leonard, a Fleming, the Frenchmen Michel Samson and Louis Dubreuil, and +the Italians Lucca Penni, Bartolommeo Miniati, &c. But in 1531, +Primaticcio arrived from Mantua, and a contest arose henceforth between +them.... Le Rosso having ended his days by suicide, Primaticcio remained +master of the field. His most talented pupil decorated under his +direction the magnificent ball-room. Primaticcio painted with less +exaggeration and more delicacy and elegance than Rosso; but still he +formed one of that troop of awkward and affected copyists who +exaggerated the errors of Caravaggio.... His empire of forty years’ +duration, in the midst of a foreign population, was, however, an +undisturbed one. Henry II., Francis II., Charles IX., and Catherine de +Medicis, showed him no less favour than Francis I. He died in 1570, +loaded with honours and riches.</p> + +<p>“The number of French artists who allowed themselves to be influenced by +the Italian method was considerable. At last a man of more vigorous +character arose who would not permit false taste to rule him, and +adopted all the improvements of modern art, without following in the +footsteps of court favourites. His talents inaugurated a new period in +the history of French painting. We are speaking of Jean Cousin, who was +born at Soucy, about 1530; he adorned with his compositions both glass +and canvas, and was, in addition, a skilful sculptor. His famous picture +of the “Last Judgment,” in the Louvre, suggests a high opinion of him. +The colouring is harsh and monotonous, but the drawing of the figures +and the arrangement of the piece prove that he had the habit of thought +and also of reckoning on his own powers and of seeking out novel +dispositions, producing effects hitherto unknown.”</p> + +<p>The beautiful composition we introduce here (<a href="#fig_256">Fig. 256</a>) is taken from M. +A. Firmin Didot’s “Notice sur Jean Cousin,” in which a large number of +other subjects are reproduced; some of them may have been<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_311" id="page_311">{311}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_220_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_220_sml.jpg" width="345" height="471" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_256" id="fig_256"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 256.—Composition by Jean Cousin. First Sketch of +his “Last Judgment,” from a Wood-Engraving in the Romance of “Gérard +d’Euphrate.” Paris, 1549. (Cabinet of M. A. F. Didot.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p class="nind">engraved by the painter himself. Like Albert Dürer and Holbein, Jean +Cousin did not disdain to apply his talents to the ornamentation of +books.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_312" id="page_312">{312}</a></span></p> + +<p>Jean Cousin is generally looked upon as the real chief of the French +school. After him, and by his side, we must place the Janets,<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> who +although of Flemish origin, are actually French in their style and the +character of their pictures. The most celebrated of them, François +Clouet, portrayed, with a realism full of elegance and distinction, the +nobles and beautiful ladies of the court of Valois.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_221_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_221_sml.jpg" width="210" height="191" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_257" id="fig_257"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 257.—Sketch of the Virgin of Alba. Chalk-drawing by +Raphael.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>We should here close our remarks, were it not that we might be accused +of an important omission in this review of the principal schools. For +nothing has been said of the Bolognese school, whose origin, though not +its maturity, belongs to the epoch we have made our study. But the +material circumstances we now mention must be our justification: +although the school of Bologna gave signs of its existence in the +thirteenth century, and under the impulse of Guido, Ventura, and Ursone, +showed itself to be industrious, active, and numerous; and also in the +fourteenth century, under that of Jacopo d’Avanzo and Lippodi Dalmasio; +yet it died away, reviving only at the commencement of the sixteenth +century, again to become extinct after the death of the poetic +Raibolini, called <i>Francia</i>, without having produced<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_313" id="page_313">{313}</a></span> any of those great +individualities to whose glory alone we are compelled to devote our +attention.</p> + +<p>We must, however, confess that this school, which suddenly retrieved its +position at a time when all other schools were in a state of complete +decadence, found three illustrious chiefs instead of one, and acquired +the singular glory of resuscitating, by a kind of potent eclecticism, +the <i>ensemble</i> of the noblest traditions. But it was not till the latter +part of the sixteenth century that Bologna witnessed the opening by the +Carracci of that studio whence were destined to proceed Guido, Albano, +Domenichino, Guercino, Caravaggio, Pietro of Cortona and Luca +Giordano—a magnificent phalanx of men who, by their own works and the +force of their example, were to become the honour of an age into which +it does not form a portion of our task to follow them.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_222_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_222_sml.jpg" width="237" height="133" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_314" id="page_314">{314}</a></span> </p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_315" id="page_315">{315}</a></span> </p> + +<h2><a name="ENGRAVING" id="ENGRAVING"></a>ENGRAVING.</h2> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Origin of Wood-Engraving.—The St. Christopher of 1423.—“The +Virgin and Child Jesus.”—The earliest Masters of +Wood-Engraving.—Bernard Milnet.—Engraving in <i>Camaïeu</i>.—Origin +of Engraving on Metal.—The “Pax” of Maso Finiguerra.—The earliest +Engravers on Metal.—Niello Work.—<i>Le Maître</i> of 1466.—<i>Le +Maître</i> of 1486.—Martin Schöngauer, Israel van Mecken, Wenceslaus +of Olmutz, Albert Dürer, Marc Antonio, Lucas van Leyden.—Jean +Duret and the French School.—The Dutch School.—The Masters of +Engraving.</p></div> + +<p class="nind"><a href="images/ill_223_lg.jpg"> +<span class="letra"> +<img src="images/ill_223_sml.jpg" +width="90" +alt="A" /></span></a>LMOST all authors who have devoted themselves to investigate this +subject have asserted, but doubtless very erroneously, that engraving on +metal was naturally derived from engraving on wood. Nevertheless, any +one who gives but a slight consideration to the difference existing +between the two processes must be led to the belief that the two arts +must result from two distinct inventions. In wood-engraving, the +impression is, in fact, formed by the portions of the block which are in +relief; while in engraving on metal, the incised strokes give the lines +of the print. Now, no one who has any knowledge of professional matters +can for a moment doubt that, in spite of the similar appearance of the +productions, there is a radical difference in the starting-points and +modes of execution of these two methods.</p> + +<p>We certainly must consider it probable that the appearance of prints +produced by wood-engraving may have suggested the idea of seeking to +obtain a similar or better result by some other process; but that a +process should be assimilated, as if by affiliation, to another +diametrically opposed to it is a view we do not feel called upon to +accept without reservation.</p> + +<p>Be this as it may, certain authors look upon wood-engraving as having +been invented in Germany at the commencement of the fifteenth century. +Others have derived it from China, where it was in use in the year 1000 +of our era. Others, again, propound the opinion that the art of printing +stuffs<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_316" id="page_316">{316}</a></span> by means of engraved blocks was employed in different parts of +Asia, to which it had been imported from ancient Egypt, at a period long +before it was first thought of in Europe. These hypotheses being +admitted, the whole question reduces itself into an inquiry as to the +way in which the art made its entrance into Western Europe in the first +half of the fifteenth century; this being the earliest date at which we +find engravings made in Germany, France, and the Low Countries.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_224_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_224_sml.jpg" width="276" height="388" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_258" id="fig_258"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 258.—“The Virgin and Infant Jesus.” Fac-simile of a +Wood-Engraving of the Fifteenth Century. (Bibl. Imp., Paris.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_317" id="page_317">{317}</a></span></p> + +<p>The most ancient <i>dated</i> impression known of a cut engraved on wood is a +St. Christopher, without either mark or name of its author, bearing a +Latin inscription and the date of 1423. This specimen is so roughly +engraved, and in drawing is so faulty, that it is only natural to assume +it must be one of the earliest attempts at wood-engraving. There is, +however, an engraving in the Imperial Library, Paris, representing the +Virgin holding the Child Jesus seated in her arms (<a href="#fig_258">Fig. 258</a>), which may +perhaps be considered an earlier specimen than the St. Christopher. The +back of the niche is a kind of mosaic, formed of diamond-shaped +quadrilaterals; the <i>aureolæ</i> and ornaments of the niche are coloured a +yellowish brown. There is, however, one singularity in this engraving +which testifies to its great antiquity; it is printed on paper made of +cotton, and is unsized, and the impression sinks so deeply into it that +it may be seen nearly as well on the back of the print as on the front. +We must not omit to mention another engraving, preserved in the Royal +Library, Brussels; this is also a “Virgin with the Child Jesus,” +surrounded by four saints (<a href="#fig_259">Fig. 259</a>). It is a composition of a somewhat +grand style, and does not agree very well with the date, <small>MCCCCXVIII.</small>, +which is seen at the foot of the print.</p> + +<p>We must, doubtless, attribute to nearly the same time some specimens of +playing-cards,—these we have already mentioned when dealing specially +with this subject; and also a series of figures of the Twelve Apostles +with Latin legends, underneath which are the same number of phrases in +French, or rather in the ancient dialect of Picardy, reproducing the +whole text of the Decalogue; one of these xylographic plates may be seen +in the chapter on “<span class="smcap">Printing</span>.” In these engravings each figure is +standing up, clothed in a long tunic, and covered with a wide mantle; +the ink, so to speak, is bistre, and the mantles are coloured, red and +green alternately. The Apostles all bear the symbolical sign which +distinguishes them, and are surrounded with a long fillet, whereon is +traced in Latin the sentence of the Creed attributed to each, and one of +the ten Commandments. St. Peter, for instance, has for his motto this +French sentence, “Gardeis Dieu le roy moult sain;” St. Andrew, “Ne +jurets point son nome en vain;” St. John, “Père et Mère tosjours +honoras;” St. James the Greater, “Les fiestes et dymeng, garderas,” &c.</p> + +<p>There are other engravings belonging to the middle of the fifteenth +century which make known the fact that the art of engraving was<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_318" id="page_318">{318}</a></span> +practised by several artists in France; and that without doing any +injustice</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_225_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_225_sml.jpg" width="343" height="472" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_259" id="fig_259"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 259.—“The Virgin and Child.” A Wood-Engraving of +the Fifteenth Century(?). (Bibl. Roy., Brussels.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p class="nind">to Germany we can attribute several anonymous works to French masters.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_319" id="page_319">{319}</a></span> +But we must in any case claim the very characteristic works of an +engraver named Bernard Milnet. In the engravings of this master there +are neither lines nor cross-hatching; the ground of the print is black; +the lights are</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_226_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_226_sml.jpg" width="421" height="401" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_260" id="fig_260"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 260.—“St. Catherine on her Knees.” Fac-simile of an +Engraving on Wood, by Bernard Milnet, called the “Master with the dotted +backgrounds.” (Bibl. Imp., Paris.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p class="nind">formed by an infinite number of white dots varying in size according to +the requirement and taste of the artist. This engraver does not appear +to have had any imitators; and, to tell the truth, his mode of operation +must have<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_320" id="page_320">{320}</a></span> presented many difficulties in execution. There are only six +known specimens of his work—a “Virgin with the Child Jesus,” “St. +Catherine Kneeling” (<a href="#fig_260">Fig. 260</a>), the “Scourging of Christ,” a group of +“St. John, St. Paul, and St. Veronica,” a “St. George,” and a “St. +Bernard.”</p> + +<p>Although engravings of this time are now extremely rare, it does not +necessarily follow that they were equally scarce at the dates when they +were executed. M. Michiels, in his “Histoire de la Peinture en Flandre,” +says that, “according to ancient custom, on feast-days the Lazarists, +and others belonging to religious orders who were accustomed to nurse +the sick, carried in the streets a large wax candle ornamented with +mouldings and glass-trinkets, and distributed to the children +wood-engravings illuminated with brilliant colours, and representing +sacred subjects. There must, therefore, have been a considerable number +of these engravings.”</p> + +<p>In the sixteenth century wood-engraving, improved by the pupils of +Albert Dürer, and especially by John Burgkmair (<a href="#fig_261">Fig. 261</a>), was very +extensively developed; and the art was then practised with a superiority +of style which left far behind the timid attempts of the preceding +century.</p> + +<p>The works of most of the wood-engravers of this period are anonymous; +nevertheless, the names of a few of these artists have survived. But it +is only by an error that, in the nomenclature of the latter, certain +painters and designers, such as Albert Dürer, Lucas van Leyden, and +Lucas van Cranach, have long been made to figure. There are +wood-engravings which do actually bear the signatures or monograms of +these masters; but the fact is, that the latter were often in the habit +of drawing their designs on the wood, as is frequently the practice with +artists in our own day; and the engraver (or rather the <i>formschneider</i>, +form-cutter, to employ the usual expression), in reproducing the +composition drawn with a pencil or pen, has copied also the signature +which the designer of the subject added. An error often committed by +writers may be thus easily set right.</p> + +<p>We must not quit the subject of wood-engraving without mentioning +engraving in <i>camaïeu</i>; a process of Italian origin, in which three or +four blocks, applying in succession to the print uniform tints of more +or less intense tones, ultimately produced engravings of a very +remarkable effect, imitating drawings with the stump or the pencil. At +the commencement of the sixteenth century several artists distinguished +themselves in this<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_321" id="page_321">{321}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_227_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_227_sml.jpg" width="324" height="494" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_261" id="fig_261"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 261.—The Archdukes and High Barons of Germany +assisting, in State Costume, at the Coronation of the Emperor +Maximilian. A fragment taken from a large collection of Engravings, +entitled the “Triumph of Maximilian I.,” by J. Burgkmair. (Sixteenth +Century.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_322" id="page_322">{322}</a></span></p> + +<p class="nind">mode of engraving, especially Ugo di Carpi, who worked at Modena about +the year 1518; Antonio Fantuzzi, a pupil of Francis Parmigianino, who +accompanied and assisted Primaticcio at Fontainebleau; Gualtier, and +Andrew Andreani; and lastly, Bartholomew Coriolano, of Bologna, who +would have been the last engraver in this style, were it not for Antonio +M. Zanetti, a celebrated Venetian amateur, who was still nearer to us in +point of date. Two or three Germans, John Ulrich in the sixteenth, and +Louis Buring<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> in the seventeenth, century, also made some engravings +in <i>camaïeu</i>, but only with two blocks: one giving the design of the +subject with the outline and cross-hatching, the other introducing a +colour, usually bistre, on which all the lights were taken out, so as to +leave the ground of the paper white. These specimens imitated a +pen-and-ink drawing on coloured paper, and finished with the brush or +pencil.</p> + +<p>We must now go back to the year 1452, which is generally fixed upon as +the date of the invention of engraving on metal (<a href="#fig_262">Fig. 262</a>).<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a> When +discussing the subject of “Goldsmith’s Work,” we mentioned, among the +pupils of the illustrious Ghiberti, Maso Finiguerra, and stated that +this artist had engraved on silver a “Pax” intended for the treasury of +the Church of St. John. Certain writers having recognised in a print now +in the Imperial Library of Paris, and also in another print in the +Library of the Arsenal, an exact impression of this engraving, were led +to attribute to the celebrated Florentine goldsmith the honour of an +invention in which he might perhaps have had no share at all. Possibly +this process of printing off an impression, which was a very natural +thing to do, had been actually practised by goldsmiths long before +Finiguerra; they wished, doubtless, to preserve a pattern of their +<i>niello-work</i>, or to see how it progressed in its various stages. The +proofs, thus taken off by hand, having been lost, Finiguerra may have +been considered the originator of a method which he only applied as a +matter of course to his goldsmith’s work. The two circumstances—that +the plate is made of silver and not of any common metal, and that it may +be classed among the numerous <i>nielli</i>, engraved plates of decorative +goldsmith’s work, which have been handed down to us and are of even +earlier dates—will alone suffice, in our opinion, to dispose of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_323" id="page_323">{323}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_228_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_228_sml.jpg" width="290" height="500" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_262" id="fig_262"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 262.—The Prophet Isaiah, holding in his hand the +saw which was the instrument of his martyrdom. (Fac-simile from an +Engraving on Copper by an unknown Italian Master of the Fifteenth +Century.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_324" id="page_324">{324}</a></span></p> + +<p class="nind">idea that this work was expressly executed in order to furnish +impressions on paper. It was nothing but chance that in this case +introduced the name of Finiguerra, which would not have become known in +this connection, if it had not been for the preservation of two ancient +impressions of his <i>niello-work</i>; while those taken from other and +perhaps older plates had been destroyed. Thus the date, or the asserted +date, of the invention of engraving on metal was fixed by the +ascertained date of the piece of goldsmith’s work.</p> + +<p>Be this as it may, the print of the “Pax,” or rather of the +“Assumption,” engraved by Finiguerra, does not fail, in the opinion of +all writers and amateurs, to bear the title of the earliest print from +metal; a title to which it has a perfect right, and in thus regarding it +we are induced to give a brief description of the subject represented in +the engraving. Jesus Christ, seated on a lofty throne and wearing a cap +similar to that of the Doges, places, with both his hands, a crown on +the head of the Virgin, who, with her hands crossed upon her breast, is +seated upon the same throne; St. Augustine and St. Ambrose are kneeling; +in the centre, below, and on the right, several saints are standing, +among whom we can distinguish St. Catherine and St. Agnes; on the left, +in the rear of St. Augustine, we see St. John the Baptist and other +saints; lastly, on both sides of the throne a number of angels are +blowing trumpets; and, above, are others holding a streamer, on which we +read: “<span class="smcap">Assvmpta. est. Maria. in. celvm. ave. exercitvs. angelorvm</span>;” +“Mary is taken up into Heaven. Hail, army of angels!”</p> + +<p>The first of the impressions of this <i>niello</i> found its way into the +Royal Library with the Marolles Collection, bought by Louis XIV. in +1667: the other was discovered only in 1841, by M. Robert Dumesnil, who, +in the Library of the Arsenal, was turning over the leaves of a volume +containing engravings by Callot and Sebastian Le Clerc. This latter +impression, though taken on inferior paper, is nevertheless in a much +better state of preservation than the other; but the ink is of a greyer +hue, and one might readily fancy that, as M. Duchesne, the learned +writer, asserts, it was printed before the final completion of the +plate.</p> + +<p>In support of the opinion which we before indirectly expressed, that the +practice of taking impressions from engraved plates of metal might well +be a kind of fortuitous result of a mere professional tradition +incidental to the goldsmith’s art, we may remark that most of the +engravings which have<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_325" id="page_325">{325}</a></span> been handed down to us as belonging to the era +fixed upon for the invention of engraving, are the work of Italian +goldsmith-engravers. More than four hundred specimens of this date have +been preserved; among the artists we must mention Amerighi, Michael +Angelo Bandinelli, and Philippo Brunelleschi, of Florence; Forzoni +Spinelli, of Arezzo; Furnio, Gesso, Rossi, and Raibolini, of Bologna; +Teucreo, of Siena; Caradosso and Arcioni, of Milan; Nicholas Rosex, of +Modena, of whose work we have three <i>nielli</i> and more than sixty +engravings; Antonio Pollajuolo, who engraved a print called the “Fight +with Cutlasses,” representing ten naked men fighting; lastly, the most +skilful of the metal-chasing goldsmiths after Finiguerra, Peregrino of +Cesena, who has left his name and his mark on sixty-six <i>nielli</i>.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_229_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_229_sml.jpg" width="323" height="222" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_263" id="fig_263"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 263.—Fac-simile of a <i>Niello</i> executed on Ivory, +from the original design of Stradan, representing Columbus on board his +Ship, during his first Voyage to the West.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>More special mention must be made of Bartholomew Baldini, better known +under the name of Baccio, to whom we owe, in addition to some large +engravings both of a sacred and of a mythological character, twenty +vignettes designed for the folio edition (1481) of Dante’s “Inferno;” of +Andrea Mantegna, a renowned painter, who himself engraved many of his +own compositions; and of John van der Straet, called <i>Stradan</i> (Fig. +263), who executed at Florence many remarkable plates.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_326" id="page_326">{326}</a></span></p> + +<p>We find in Germany an engraver who dates several of his works in the +year 1466, but on none of them has he left more than his initials, E. S. +This has not failed to tax the ingenuity of those who would establish +his individuality in some authentic way. Some have agreed to call him +Edward Schön or Stern, on account of the stars he frequently introduces +into the borders of the vestments of his figures; one asserts that he +was born in Bavaria, because in a specimen of his works is the figure of +a woman holding a shield emblazoned with the arms of that country; +another believes him to have been a Swiss, because he twice engraved the +“Pilgrimage of St. Mary of Einsiedeln,” the most celebrated in the +country. But those amateurs who, upon the whole, think more of the work +than the workman, are content to designate him as <i>the Master of 1466</i>.</p> + +<p>This engraver has left behind him three hundred examples, most of them +of small dimensions, among which, independently of sundry very curious +compositions, we must notice two important series, namely, an <i>Alphabet</i> +composed of grotesque figures (<a href="#fig_264">Fig. 264</a>), and a pack of <i>Numeral Cards</i>, +the greater part of which are in the Imperial Library.</p> + +<p>At almost the same epoch Holland also presents us with an anonymous +engraver, who might be called <i>the Master of 1486</i>, from the date on one +only of his engravings. The works of this artist, whose manner exhibits +a powerful and original style, are very rare in any collections not +belonging to the country in which he worked. The Cabinet of Engravings +at Amsterdam possesses seventy-six of them, while that of Vienna has but +two, that of Berlin one only, and that of Paris six, among which we may +remark “Samson sleeping on the knees of Delilah,” and “St. George,” on +foot, piercing with his sword the throat of the dragon which menaced the +life of the Queen of Lydia.</p> + +<p>We have still three comparatively celebrated engravers to mention before +reaching the epoch at which Marc Antonio Raimondi in Italy, Albert Dürer +in Germany, and Lucas van Leyden in Holland, all simultaneously +flourished.</p> + +<p>Martin Schöngauer, for some time designated by the name of Martin Schön, +who died at Colmar in 1488, was a good painter as well as a skilful +engraver. More than one hundred and twenty specimens of his work are +known, the most important of which are—“Christ bearing his Cross,” “The +Battle of the Christians” (waged against the infidels by the apostle<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_327" id="page_327">{327}</a></span> +St. James), both very rare compositions of large size; the “Passion of +Jesus Christ,” the “Death of the Virgin,” and “St. Anthony tormented by +Demons,” one proof of which, it is said, was coloured by Michael Angelo. +We must add (and this circumstance shows again the kind of direct +relation which we have already noted as existing between engraving and +goldsmith’s work), that Martin Schöngauer also engraved a pastoral staff +and a censer, both of very beautiful workmanship.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_230_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_230_sml.jpg" width="249" height="380" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_264" id="fig_264"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 264.—Fac-simile of the letter N from the “Grotesque +Alphabet,” engraved by the “Master of 1466.”</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Israel van Mecken (or Meckenem), supposed to be a pupil of Francis<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_328" id="page_328">{328}</a></span> van +Bocholt, as he worked at Bocholt previous to the year 1500, is, of all +German engravers of this epoch, the one whose works are most extensively +known. The Cabinet of Engravings in the Imperial Library, Paris, +possesses three volumes of his engravings, containing two hundred and +twenty-eight superb examples; among these we must especially notice a +composition engraved on two plates of the same height; “St. Gregory +perceiving the Man of Sorrows at the Moment of the Mass.” We must +confine ourselves to the mention, in addition, of his “St. Luke painting +the Portrait of the Virgin;” “St. Odile releasing from Purgatory, by his +prayers, the Soul of his Father, Duke Etichon;” “Herodias” (<a href="#fig_265">Fig. 265</a>); +and “Lucretia killing herself in the presence of Collatinus and others,” +which last is the only subject this artist has taken from profane +history.</p> + +<p>We mention Wenceslaus of Olmutz, who was engaged in engraving from the +year 1481 to 1497, with the especial object of describing an allegorical +print due to his <i>burin</i>; it may serve to give a notion of the fantastic +tendency impressed on the ideas of the day by the religious dissensions +which arose at this epoch between several princes of Germany and the +court of Rome. This print, or rather this graphic satire, most of the +allusions in which are now lost to us, represents the monstrous figure +of a woman entirely naked, seen in profile and turning to the left, her +body covered with scales, with the head and mane of an ass; her right +leg terminates in a cloven foot, and the left in a bird’s claw; her +right arm is terminated by the paw of a lion, and the left by a woman’s +hand. The back of this fantastic being is covered with a hairy mask, and +in the place of a tail she has the neck of a chimera, with a deformed +head from which darts a serpent’s tongue. Above the engraving is +written, “<i>Roma Caput Mundi</i>” (“Rome the head of the world”). On the +left hand is a three-storied tower, upon which a flag adorned with the +keys of St. Peter is floating. On the château is written, “<i>Castelagno</i>” +(Castle of St. Angelo); in the foreground is a river, upon whose waves +is traced the word “<i>Tevere</i>” (the Tiber); lower still is the word +“<i>Ianrarii</i>” (January), below the date 1496: on the right, in the +background, is a square tower, upon which is written, “<i>Tore Di Nona</i>” +(Tower of the Nones); on the same side, in front, is a vase with two +handles, and in the centre of the lower part the letter W, the +monogrammatic signature of the engraver. Our interest in this plate is +increased by the date it bears; for, being engraved by means of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_329" id="page_329">{329}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_231_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_231_sml.jpg" width="586" height="398" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_265" id="fig_265"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 265.—“Herodias,” a Copper-plate Engraving, by +Israel van Mecken.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_330" id="page_330">{330}</a></span></p> + +<p><i>aquafortis</i>, it proves that Albert Dürer is wrongfully regarded as the +inventor of this mode of engraving, more expeditious than with the +<i>burin</i>, as the oldest <i>aquafortis</i> work of Albert Dürer is dated 1515, +that is to say, nineteen years later than that of Wenceslaus of Olmutz.</p> + +<p>We now come to three great artists who, at a period in which the art of +engraving had made the most remarkable progress, availed themselves of +it for producing works which eminently characterise each master +respectively.</p> + +<p>Albert Dürer, born at Nuremberg in 1471, was a vigorous painter, and was +not less remarkable for the productions of his <i>burin</i> and +etching-needle. We do not intend to describe all his works, though all +are worthy of notice, but must content ourselves with mentioning “Adam +and Eve standing by the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil,” a small +plate of delicate workmanship and admirable perfectness of design; the +“Passion of Jesus Christ,” in a series of sixteen plates; “Christ +praying in the Garden of Gethsemane,” the first work executed by this +master by means of <i>aquafortis</i>, then a new method, which, being less +soft than the <i>burin</i>, gave rise to an idea not dispelled for some time, +that this print and several others were engraved on iron or tin; several +figures of the “Virgin with the Infant Jesus,” which are all remarkable +for expression and simplicity, and have received odd <i>sobriquets</i> on +account of some accessory object which accompanies them (for instance, +the “Virgin with the pear, butterfly, ape,” &c.); the “Prodigal Son +keeping Swine,” a composition in which the painter himself is +represented; “St. Hubert praying before the Cross borne by a Stag” (Fig. +266), a very rare and beautiful plate; the “Chevalier and his Lady;” +lastly, the “Chevalier of Death,” a <i>chef-d’œuvre</i>, dated 1515, and +representing Francis of Sickingen, who was destined to be the firmest +supporter of Luther’s Reformation.<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a></p> + +<p>Marc Antonio Raimondi, born at Bologna about the year 1475, was first a +pupil of Francis Raibolini, and afterwards of Raphael,<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a> whose style +he often</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_232_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_232_sml.jpg" width="421" height="554" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_266" id="fig_266"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 266.—“St. Hubert praying before the Cross borne by +a Stag.” Engraved by Albert Dürer.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_331" id="page_331">{331}</a></span> </p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_332" id="page_332">{332}</a></span> </p> + +<p class="nind">followed, and in his compositions did his utmost to imitate his pure and +noble manner. Everything in his designs is ideally true, and all is +harmonious in the <i>ensemble</i> of his works. Most of his engravings still +existing are very much sought after, and as any description we could +give would only convey but an imperfect idea of the excellence of these +works, the strongest testimony in favour of their merit will be to +mention the high prices given for certain prints by this master at the +public sale which took place in 1844. For example:—“Adam and Eve,” a +print after Raphael, 1,010 francs (£40); “God commanding Noah to build +the Ark,” from the same master, 700 francs (£28); the “Massacre of the +Innocents,” 1,200 francs (£48); “St. Paul preaching at Athens,” 2,500 +francs (£100); the “Lord’s Supper,” 2,900 francs (£116); the “Judgment +of Paris,” which is regarded as the <i>chef-d’œuvre</i> of Marc Antonio, +3,350 francs (£134); three pendentives of the “Farnesina,” 1,620 francs +(£64 10s.), &c. Subsequently, these enormous prices have been even +exceeded.</p> + +<p>Lucas van Leyden, born in 1494, and, like Albert Dürer, a clever painter +as well as skilful engraver, has left about eighty plates, the most +remarkable of which are “David playing the Harp before Saul;” the +“Adoration of the Magi;” a large “Ecce Homo,” engraved by the artist at +the age of sixteen; a “Peasant and Peasant-woman with a Cow;” the “Monk +Sergius killed by Mahomet;” the “Seven Virtues;” a plate called the +“Little Milkmaid,” very rare; lastly, a “Poor Family travelling,” of +which only five proofs are known; they were bought for sixteen louis +d’or by the Abbot of Marolles, when he formed his cabinet of prints, +which became one of the richest additions to the Imperial Library.</p> + +<p>In a befitting rank below these famous artists we may class a French +engraver, Jean Duret, born at Langres in 1488, who was goldsmith to +Henri II., and executed several beautiful allegorical plates on the +intrigues of the king and Diana of Poitiers, as well as twenty-four +compositions taken from the Apocalypse; also Pierre Woeiriot (or +Voeiriot), an engraver and goldsmith of Lorraine, born in 1531, who +produced numerous fine works down to the end of the century; the most +famous of them, designated by the name of the “Bull of Phalaris” (Fig. +267), represents the tyrant of Agrigentum shutting up human victims +destined to be burnt alive in a brazen bull.</p> + +<p>There were at work in Italy at the same epoch Augustine of Musi<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_333" id="page_333">{333}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_233_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_233_sml.jpg" width="406" height="510" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_267" id="fig_267"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 267.—“Phalaris, Tyrant of Agrigentum, causing +Victims destined to be burnt alive to be shut up in a Brazen Bull.” +Engraved by P. Woeiriot. (French School of the Sixteenth Century.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_334" id="page_334">{334}</a></span></p> + +<p>(Agustino de Musis, called the Venetian), Giacomo Caraglio, the +Ghisis,<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a> Eneas Vico; in Germany, Altdorfer (<a href="#fig_268">Fig. 268</a>), George +Pencz,<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> Aldegrever, Jacque Binck, Bartel and Hans Sebald Beham (Fig. +269), who are designated under the collective name of the “Little +Masters;” in Holland, Thierry (Dirk) van Staren.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 143px;"> +<a href="images/ill_234_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_234_sml.jpg" width="143" height="265" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_268" id="fig_268"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 268.—“Repose of the Holy Family.” Engraved by A. +Altdorfer.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>In the course of the sixteenth century engraving reached its culminating +point, and at that time Italy and Germany no longer took the lead in +this branch of art, for the most skilful and renowned masters then +belonged to Holland and France.</p> + +<p>Those of Holland were Henry Goltzius (or Goltz), born in 1558, and his +pupils Matham and the Mullers, whose vigorous gravers might remind one +of brilliant effects of colour without any loss of purity of design; the +two brothers, Boetius and Scheltius Bolswaert, so called from their +native town Bolswaert, born in 1580 and 1586 respectively; Paul Pontius +and Lucas Vorsterman, both born in 1590, whose engravings so well +represent the <i>chiaroscuro</i> and colour of Van Dyck and Jordaens.</p> + +<p>In France was Jacques Callot, born in 1594, whose works were both +numerous and original, and enjoyed a somewhat popular celebrity; among +them the most worthy of remark are the “Temptation of St. Anthony,” the +“Fair of the Madonna d’Imprunette,” “The Garden” and the “Parterre,” +both scenes in Nancy; as well as several series, such as the “Miseries +of War,” &c. There were also Michael Lasne, born in 1596, who engraved a +number of historical portraits; and Etienne (Stephen) Baudet, who +reproduced eight large landscapes after Poussin.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_335" id="page_335">{335}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_235_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_235_sml.jpg" width="356" height="545" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_269" id="fig_269"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 269.—“Ferdinand I., Brother of Charles V.” Engraved +by Bart. Beham in 1531.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_336" id="page_336">{336}</a></span></p> + +<p>A separate notice is reserved for Jonas Suyderoef, born at Leyden in +1600, who, by combining the graver, the etching-needle, and aquafortis, +gave an exceptional character to his works. Among the two hundred +engravings by this master the most admired are the “Treaty of Munster,” +after Terburg; and the “Burgomasters of Amsterdam receiving the News of +the Arrival of Queen Mary of Medicis,” after De Keyser.</p> + +<p>We are now touching closely upon, even if we have not already exceeded, +the limits to which we are prescribed by the scope of our notices; but +as the history of engraving does not present, like that of so many other +arts, the spectacle of a grievous decadence after a period of +brilliancy, we cannot without regret come to a conclusion, when mention +might still be made of many distinguished names among the engravers of +every country.</p> + +<p>We should also scarcely be able to pass on to another subject without +having alluded to those men whose works belong, indeed, to the following +epoch, but the date of whose birth connects them with that we are +considering. We could not, in fact, assume to have treated of engraving +had we passed over in silence Van Dyck, Claude Lorraine, and Rembrandt +(<a href="#fig_270">Fig. 270</a>), those greatest of masters who were equally celebrated for +painting and engraving. In truth, perhaps, we could not say anything of +them which would not be superfluous.</p> + +<p>Who is not acquainted with at least some few works by Van Dyck? This +celebrated pupil of Rubens has left in painting as many masterpieces as +canvases; and in engraving he knew how to give to his etching-needle so +much <i>verve</i> and spirit, that his prints are perfect models to follow, +and have never been surpassed. Who is there that does not admire the +landscapes of Claude Lorraine, which are equally remarkable for the +light diffused over them, and the misty atmosphere that tempers its +brilliancy? We all know this master produced, as if for recreation, +certain engravings which for truth and melancholy (<i>mélancolic</i>) are +hardly surpassed by his marvellous paintings. And how can we speak of +Rembrandt without seeming to be commonplace? For his fertile and varied +talent no difficulty ever seemed to exist; a theme, the most simple and +common in appearance, becomes in his hands the basis of a masterly +conception; nature, to which he seemed to lend a new life, while seizing +upon its most striking realities, was for him an inexhaustible source of +powerful compositions.</p> + +<p>The mention of these artists on the threshold of an epoch into which we<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_337" id="page_337">{337}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_236_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_236_sml.jpg" width="342" height="363" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_270" id="fig_270"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 270.—“Portrait of John Lutma, Goldsmith of +Groningen.” Designed and Engraved in aquafortis by Rembrandt.</p></div> +</div> + +<p class="nind">are precluded from following them, must suffice to convey some idea of +the height that art had attained during this century. We will, however, +enumerate after them a few names among foreign engravers. The Flemish +artists, Nicolas Berghem and Paul Potter, both great animal-painters, +have left some prints in aquafortis for the possession of which amateurs +contend; Wenceslaus Hollar, the Englishman,<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a> engraved “The Queen of +Sheba,” after Veronese; to Cornelius Visscher, a Dutchman, we owe the +famous<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_338" id="page_338">{338}</a></span> “Seller of Ratsbane;” and to Stefano della Bella, of Florence, +the “View from the Pont-Neuf, Paris.” Rupert, the Prince-Palatine +(nephew of Charles I. of England), was the inventor of the mezzo-tinto, +or black style of engraving; and William Faithorne, an Englishman, +engraved several portraits after Van Dyck. France also presents to our +notice some justly celebrated names. The views of towns by Israel +Silvestre, of Nancy, are very beautiful; François de Poilly, of +Abbeville, reproduced several pictures by Raphael; Jean Pesne, of Rouen, +himself a painter, engraved especially after Poussin; Antoine Masson, of +Orleans, has left a print of the “Pilgrims of Emmaus,” after the picture +by Titian, which is regarded as a <i>chef-d’œuvre</i>. Lastly, Robert +Nanteuil, of Rheims, the famous portrait-painter, engraved Péréfixe, +Archbishop of Paris, four times; the Archbishop of Rheims five times; +Colbert six times; Michel Le Tellier, Chancellor of France, ten times; +Louis XIV. eleven times, and Cardinal Mazarin fourteen times.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_237_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_237_sml.jpg" width="150" height="204" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_271" id="fig_271"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 271.—“The Holy Virgin.” Engraved by Aldegrever in +1527.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_339" id="page_339">{339}</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="SCULPTURE" id="SCULPTURE"></a>SCULPTURE.</h2> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Origin of Christian Sculpture.—Statues in Gold and +Silver.—Traditions of Antique Art.—Sculpture in +Ivory.—Iconoclasts.—Diptychs.—The highest Style of Sculpture +follows the Phases of Architecture.—Cathedrals and Monasteries +from the Year 1000.—Schools of Burgundy, Champagne, Normandy, +Lorraine, &c.—German, English, Spanish, and Italian +Schools.—Nicholas of Pisa and his Successors.—Position of French +Sculpture in the Thirteenth Century.—Florentine Sculpture and +Ghiberti.—French Sculptors from the Fifteenth to the Sixteenth +Century.</p></div> + +<p class="nind"><a href="images/ill_238_lg.jpg"> +<span class="letra"> +<img src="images/ill_238_sml.jpg" +width="90" +alt="I" /></span></a>T is an indisputable fact that the epoch in which the Emperor +Constantine, by receiving baptism, effected the triumph of Christianity, +developed a kind of revival in the movement of the decorative arts, the +ideas of which were then exclusively directed to the exaltation of the +new faith. To construct numerous basilicas, to adorn them magnificently, +and by means of the chisel to embody in a material form the spiritualism +of the Gospel, were the objects of this pious monarch. Gold and silver +were the less spared, as marble was considered too common a substance in +which to represent the sacred personages of the divine hierarchy. At +Constantinople, in the basilica constructed by Constantine, there was +represented, on one side of the apse, a seated figure of our Saviour +surrounded by His twelve disciples; on the other side, Christ was +represented also sitting on a throne and accompanied by four angels, who +had precious stones of Alabanda, inlaid, to represent their eyes. All +these figures were life-size, and made of silver <i>repoussé</i>; each one +weighing from ninety to a hundred and ten pounds. In the same church, a +canopy representing the Apostles and cherubim in relief, of polished +silver, weighed more than two thousand pounds. But these splendours were +even eclipsed by those of the font of porphyry in which Constantine +received baptism from the hands of Bishop Sylvester. The part whence the +water flowed away was adorned with massive silver over an extent of five +feet, and for the purpose three thousand pounds of this<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_340" id="page_340">{340}</a></span> precious metal +were employed. In the centre, columns of gold supported a lamp of the +same metal weighing fifty-two pounds, in which, during the feast of +Easter, two hundred pounds of perfumed oil were burnt. The water was +poured into the font through the image of a lamb of solid gold, weighing +thirty pounds. On the right was a life-size representation of our +Saviour, weighing a hundred and seventy pounds; on the left was a statue +of John the Baptist of the same size; while seven hinds of silver placed +around the font, and pouring water into the basin, harmonised in their +dimensions and materials with the other figures.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_239_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_239_sml.jpg" width="193" height="146" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_272" id="fig_272"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 272.—Altar of Castor (a Gallo-Roman Sculpture), +discovered in 1711 under the Choir of Notre-Dame, Paris.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>We would not assert that these works, pompously enumerated by +Anastasius, the Librarian, corresponded in purity and elevation of style +with the richness of the materials employed; for we know, on the +contrary, that in order to comply with the wishes of the powerful +emperor, artists were found who, by simple substitution of heads, +attributes, or inscriptions, converted without any scruple a Jupiter +into God the Father, or a Venus into a Virgin. The large cities were not +as yet depopulated of the innumerable crowd of statues which adorned +them; and it was only in provinces far from the metropolis that the +images of the false gods were buried under the fragments of their +overthrown temples (<a href="#fig_272">Figs. 272</a> and <a href="#fig_273">273</a>).</p> + +<p>In fact, before the art had adopted, or rather created, the system of +Christian symbolism, it was absolutely necessary to borrow the elements +of its existence from the glorious materials of the past, and even to +imitate the works of Pagan art.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_341" id="page_341">{341}</a></span></p> + +<p>In Greece more than elsewhere—and by Greece we include +Constantinople—statuary preserved, under Constantino and his earliest +successors, a certain degree of power which we might call original. The +design still adhered to beautiful forms, and, in the arrangement of +subjects, the principles of the ancients were for a long time applied, +as if instinctively. Although artists no longer studied nature, they +were, at all events, surrounded by excellent models, which guided them +with somewhat imperious rule.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_240_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_240_sml.jpg" width="193" height="151" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_273" id="fig_273"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 273.—Altar of Jupiter Ceraunus (Gallo-Roman +Sculpture), discovered in 1711, under the Choir of Notre-Dame, Paris.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>We have already seen that, among the barbaric chiefs who invaded the +empire of the Cæsars and seated themselves on the Imperial throne of +Rome, were some who, at a certain period, professed to be, if not the +protectors of the Fine Arts, which had then sunk into torpor, at least +the preservers of the Greek and Roman monuments belonging to the noblest +epoch of Art. The statues were no longer broken down; the inscriptions +and bas-reliefs ceased to be mutilated; the triumphal arches (<a href="#fig_274">Fig. 274</a>), +the palaces, and the theatres, were respected, or, rather, were left +standing. But a kind of deadness had come over the artistic world, and a +few sympathetic manifestations of this kind were not sufficient to +reanimate its enervated spirit; it was necessary that the period of +repose should be fully accomplished—a period which, in the views of +Providence, was perhaps a phase of profound contemplation or preparatory +development.</p> + +<p>Nevertheless, although the art which gives life to marble and bronze—a +high style of sculpture—was in a stationary or retrograde state, the +lower kind, which we may call domestic, preserved some degree of +activity.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_342" id="page_342">{342}</a></span> For instance, it was then the custom for great personages to +send as presents diptychs of ivory, on the outer face of which were +carved bas-reliefs recalling some memorable event. Monarchs, on their +accession, were in the habit of conferring diptychs of this kind on the +governors of provinces and bishops; and the latter, in order to testify +to the good understanding existing between the civil and religious +authorities, placed the diptych on the altar. A marriage, a baptism, or +any success, gave occasion for the presentation of diptychs. For two +centuries artists lived on nothing but this kind of work. It needed +events of some very extraordinary character to cause the production of +any monument of real sculpture.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_241_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_241_sml.jpg" width="335" height="286" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_274" id="fig_274"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 274.—Restoration of a Roman Triumphal Arch, with +its Bas-reliefs.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>In the sixth century the cathedrals of Rome, Trèves, Metz, Lyons, +Rhodez, Arles, Bourges, and the abbeys of St. Médard at Soissons, St. +Ouen at Rouen, and St. Martin at Tours, are mentioned as remarkable; and +yet the walls of these edifices were nothing but bare stone, without +either ornament or sculpture. “To become living stones,” says M. J. +Duseigneur,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_343" id="page_343">{343}</a></span> “they had to wait for another age. The whole of the +ornamentation was exclusively applied to the altar and the baptismal +font. The tombs even of great personages present the most primitive +simplicity.” (<a href="#fig_275">Fig. 275</a>.)</p> + +<p>Ancient Gaul, in spite of its disasters, still retained, in certain +parts of its territory, men, or rather groups of men, in whose hearts +the cultivation of Art still remained a living principle. This was the +case in Provence, round the archbishops of Arles; in Austrasia (Metz), +near the throne of Brunehaut; in Burgundy, at the court of King Gontran. +Most of the works and even the names of these artists are now lost; but +history has recorded the movement, which was, as it were, a happy link +destined to abbreviate the solution of continuity in artistic tradition.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_242_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_242_sml.jpg" width="308" height="108" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_275" id="fig_275"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 275.—A Stone Tomb, of one of the first Abbots of +St. Germain-des-Prés, Paris.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>At the time when Greek art, in its degenerate state, had sunk down into +a department of mere goldsmith’s work, casting over Europe only a pale +and feeble light; when artists, in representing sacred or profane +subjects, contented themselves with simple medallions of bronze, gold, +or silver, which were generally inserted in a shrine, or suspended on +the walls; across the seas Byzantine art was springing into life; an art +which blended Hellenic reminiscences with Christian sentiment.</p> + +<p>In the eighth century, the epoch of the uprising of the Iconoclasts +against images of all kinds, Byzantine sculpture had acquired certain +well-marked characteristics: rigidness of outline, meagreness of form, +elongation of the proportions, combined with great profuseness of +costume; all was the expression of saddened resignation and costly +grandeur. The monumental statuary of this age has, however, almost +entirely disappeared, and we should be nearly destitute of any accurate +record as to the state of Art for a period of several centuries, were it +not for numerous diptychs which, to some extent, supply this want. Many +of these sacred diptychs were exquisitely wrought.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_344" id="page_344">{344}</a></span> Gori, in his “Trésor +des Diptyques,” written in Latin and published at Florence in 1759, +divides these monuments into four classes: diptychs intended to receive +the names of the newly baptised; those wherein were written the names of +the benefactors of the church, sovereigns, and popes; and those destined +to preserve the memory of the faithful who had died in the bosom of the +church (<a href="#fig_276">Fig. 276</a>). Their outward surface generally represented some +scene taken from the Evangelists, in which Christ was especially +depicted as young and beardless, his head glorified with a nimbus +without a cross. The more these representations were condemned, the more +they who paid respect to them endeavoured to perpetuate their use. The +Greek artists, being unable to find a livelihood in their own country, +made their way into Italy in such numbers that the popes Paul I., Adrian +I., and Pascal I., erected monasteries to receive them. Owing to the +influence of this immigration, Art, which in the West was germinating in +an undecided state between a weak style of originality and an awkward +mode of imitation, was compelled to assume a character of its own, and +this necessarily was the Byzantine character; that is, a manner which +was firm, clear, and, in general, impressed with a certain imposing +nobility of style. This style attained all the more success by its being +illustrated by very eminent artists, whom Charlemagne patronised as +fully adequate to the magnificence of his ideas; and also because the +richness of ornament which this style combined with its work was likely +to render it pleasing to the populace.</p> + +<p>The royal palaces of Aix-la-Chapelle, Goddinga, Attiniacum, and +Theodonis Villa, and the monasteries of St. Arnulph, Trèves, St. Gall, +Salzbourg, and Prüm felt the salutary influence which Charlemagne +exercised on all kinds of Art. Prior to 1793, in these various +localities precious remains were still to be seen, reaching back to the +eighth century; they testified to the fact that, apart from Byzantine +influence, and bearing the impress of a simple Christian sentiment, +sculpture still clung, owing to Lombard ascendancy, to some of the grand +traditions of antiquity.</p> + +<p>This union of principles gave rise to a number of works bearing a +remarkable character. The foundation of the abbeys of St. Mihiel +(Lorraine), Isle-Barbe (near Lyons), of Ambernay and Romans; the +erection of several of the great monasteries in Alsace, Soissonnais, +Brittany, Normandy, Provence, Languedoc, and Aquitaine; the construction +of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_345" id="page_345">{345}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_243_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_243_sml.jpg" width="294" height="454" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_276" id="fig_276"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 276.—Diptychs in Carved Ivory of the Eleventh +Century. (M. Rigollot’s Collection, Amiens.)</p> + +<p style="text-align:left;margin-left:4em; +text-indent:-2em;">The first compartment represents St. Remy, Bishop of Rheims, +healing a paralytic; the second, St. Remy healing a sick man by the +invocation of the sacrament on the altar; the third, St. Remy, +assisted by a holy bishop, baptising King Clovis in the presence of +Queen Clotilda, and receiving from the Holy Spirit the sacred +<i>ampulla</i>.</p> +</div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_346" id="page_346">{346}</a></span></p> + +<p class="nind">important churches of Metz, Toul, Verdun, Rheims, Autun, &c.; the +restorations which took place at the abbeys of Bèze, St. Gall, St. +Benignus of Dijon, Remiremont, St. Arnulphe-lès-Metz, and Luxeuil, were +of sufficient importance to occupy an immense number of artists, +architects, and sculptors, who, like the monk Gundelandus, abbot of +Lauresheim, handled the compasses and the mallet with as much authority +as the crucifix. Nothing could equal the splendour of some of the +monasteries, which were perfect centres of genius and skill, in which +all the Fine Arts united were a mutual assistance to one another; +directed, perhaps, by a master who was himself inspired by a feeling for +elevated production (<a href="#fig_277">Fig. 277</a>).</p> + +<p>Nevertheless, the smaller examples of sculpture and carving constituted +the principal work of the artists of the eighth century. In the +execution of any larger objects they were deterred by a dread of the +Iconoclasts, who still continued their course of destruction, neither +was it much less after the death of Charlemagne, owing to the civil wars +and invasions which, in every direction, put a stop to or ruined +architectural works. A shrine or an altar might perhaps be saved, but a +church-front or doorway could not be protected; and the hereditary +hatred with which princes pursued one another did not fail to be wreaked +on their effigies. At that time there were neither artists nor monks; +every one became a soldier, and the common peril gave some energy to our +alarmed ancestors.</p> + +<p>When these invasions had almost come to an end in Europe, the very +disasters they had caused assisted to some extent the progress both of +architecture and sculpture. In the first place there sprang up a +complete order of new buildings, originated by the need that arose for +fresh edifices for the purpose of public worship; the Church, having a +thousand disasters to repair, built or restored a number of monasteries +which assumed a decided character of individuality. The cathedrals of +Auxerre, Clermont, Toul, the Church of St. Paul at Verdun, the abbeys of +Montier-en-Der and of Gorze, of Munster, Cluny, Celles-sur-Cher, &c., +were specially adorned with the sculptural characteristics of this +epoch. Crucifixes in high relief were multiplied, the introduction of +which into monumental sculpture did not take place before the +pontificate of Leo III. In the arched recesses over doorways +representations of the good and the bad were placed opposite to one +another; the worship of the Virgin was celebrated in all<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_347" id="page_347">{347}</a></span> kinds of +artistic productions; and, in short, sculpture was displayed everywhere +with an extraordinary amount of richness. Nothing escaped, so to speak, +its luxurious growth: <i>ambons</i>,<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a> seats, arches, baptismal fonts, +columns, cornices, bell-turrets, and gargoyles—everything, in short, +testified that sculpture and stone were now in full harmony. Almost all +the figures were then represented as clothed in the Roman style, with a +short tunic, and the chlamys clasped upon the shoulder; this still +continued to be the court-costume, and consequently the only one +suitable to the representation of the exalted followers of Christianity.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_244_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_244_sml.jpg" width="213" height="352" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_277" id="fig_277"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 277.—Bas-relief in the Abbey-Church of St. Denis; a +reproduction of the ancient Statue of Dagobert I., destroyed in the +Ninth Century.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_348" id="page_348">{348}</a></span></p> + +<p>It is worthy of remark that the monuments of this age are generally +wanting both in dates and the name of the sculptor. Not more than five +or six of the principal artists or directors of artistic works of the +period are mentioned by name in any historical records. Among them, +however, are Tutilon, a monk of Saint-Gall, who at once poet, sculptor, +and painter, ornamented with his works the churches of Mayence and Metz; +Hugues, Abbot of Montier-en-Der; Austée, Abbot of St. Arnulph, in the +diocese of Metz; Morard, who, with the co-operation of King Robert, +rebuilt, towards the end of the tenth century, the old church of St. +Germain-des-Prés, at Paris; lastly, Guillaume, Abbot of St. Benignus, at +Dijon, who took under his direction forty monasteries, and became chief +of a school of Art, as well as their head on religious matters. The +doorways of the churches of Avallon, Nantua, and Vermanton, executed at +this epoch, bear witness to the rigour of an improved taste; and it may +be well said that this abbot Guillaume, who for a long series of years +directed a number of artists, who also in their turn became chiefs of +schools, exercised as powerful an influence on French art as Nicholas of +Pisa on Tuscan art in the following century.</p> + +<p>But although it embraced within its influence a very extended sphere, +the school of Burgundy did not fail to find on the ancient Gallic soil +very skilful and industrious rivals. The districts of Messin, Lorraine, +Alsace, Champagne, Normandy, and the Ile-de-France, in short all the +various centres of the South, possessed numerous artists, each of whom +impressed on their works their own special character of individuality.</p> + +<p>While all this activity was prevailing in France, Italy had as yet taken +so insignificant a part in the revival of Art, that in 976 Peter +Orseolo, Doge of Venice, having formed the idea of rebuilding the +basilica of St. Mark, was compelled to summon from Constantinople both +architects and artists.</p> + +<p>A period of check to any progress took place in France, however, just as +in all the rest of Europe, when, at the approach of the year 1000, the +whole population became subject to an ideal dread that the end of the +world was at hand; but when this date was once passed, every school of +art set vigorously to work, and the most remarkable monuments of +Romanesque architecture sprang up throughout Europe in every direction.</p> + +<p>Then it was that the artists of Burgundy built and ornamented, among +other churches and monasteries, the Abbey of Cluny, the apse of which +consisted of a bold cupola, supported by six columns thirty-six feet in +height, of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_349" id="page_349">{349}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_245_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_245_sml.jpg" width="278" height="502" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_278" id="fig_278"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 278.—Tomb of Dagobert, executed by order of St. +Louis, in the Abbey-Church of St. Denis. It represents the King carried +away by Demons, after his death, towards the Infernal Bark, from which +he is rescued by Angels and the Fathers of the Church. (Thirteenth +Century.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_350" id="page_350">{350}</a></span></p> + +<p>Cipolin and Pentelican marble, with captials, cornices, and friezes, +carved painted, and decorated with bronze. In Lorraine they worked at +the cathedrals of Toul and Verdun, and the abbey of St. Viton. In the +diocese of Metz Gontran and Adélard, celebrated abbots of St. Trudon, +covered Hasbaye with new buildings. “Adélard,” says a chronicler, +“superintended the construction of fourteen churches, and his outlay was +so great that the imperial treasury would scarcely have sufficed for +it.” In Alsace, the cathedral at Strasbourg and the two churches of +Colmar and Schelestadt simultaneously arose, and in Switzerland the +Cathedral of Basle. These magnificent edifices are still standing to +show the vigour and majestic simplicity with which the art of sculpture +was then able to embody its ideas; and, by lending its aid to +architecture, to manifest, so to speak, the faith which actuated it. It +was in this century that Fulbert, Bishop of Chartres, who was doubtless +a sculptor also, superintended the restoration of his church, the +splendour of which is still open to the admiration of all. Art, too, did +not less distinguish herself in the decoration of certain additions made +at that time to edifices already existing. The doorways of the churches +of Laon, Châteaudun, and St. Ayoult of Provins, grand works of the +earliest years of the twelfth century, yield the palm only to the +splendid external ornamentation of the Abbey of St. Denis, executed +between the years 1137 and 1180. The Abbot Suger, who was himself an +eminent artist, does not name any of the sculptors to whose care this +important task was committed. We are equally ignorant as to the +sculptors of the statues of Dagobert and of Queen Nanthilde, his wife; +and also as to the artists of a large golden crucifix, the foot of which +was enriched with bas-reliefs, and the figure of Christ, that presented, +says Suger, “an expression really divine.” The names of the sculptors of +the cathedral church of Paris are likewise concealed from our +admiration. One might suppose that a body of artists fired with the same +inspiration, and with a common sentiment both in thought and action, had +there assembled to design their works; some sculpturing in marble the +sarcophagus of Philip of France; some peopling the rood-loft and the +apse with tall figures and a long gallery of Biblical subjects; others +decorating the façade and exterior with statues, all of every +diversified character, but yet all appearing to unite in the expression +of the same feelings and the same faith (<a href="#fig_279">Fig. 279</a>).</p> + +<p>In the twelfth century, the Burgundian artists continued their +marvellous<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_351" id="page_351">{351}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_246_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_246_sml.jpg" width="350" height="439" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_279" id="fig_279"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 279.—External Bas-relief of Norte-Dame, in Paris, +representing Citizens relieving Poor Scholars. (The work of Jean de +Chelles. Date 1257.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p class="nind">work. The tomb of Hugues, Abbot of Cluny; the doorway of the monastery +of St. Jean, that of the Church of St. Lazare at Autun; the nave and the +west front of Semur-en-Auxois, are all of this school, and of this +epoch.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_352" id="page_352">{352}</a></span></p> + +<p>The school of Champagne raised to the memory of Count Henry I., in the +Church of St. Etienne, at Troyes, a tomb surrounded with forty-four +columns of gilded bronze, surmounted by a slab of silver on which were +placed, in a recumbent position, the statues of the Count and of one of +his sons; bas-reliefs, in bronze and silver, representing the Holy +Family, the celestial court, angels, and prophets, surrounded this +monument. The tomb of Count Henry was a triumph of sculpture in metal; +and, at that time, surpassed all other tombs in France, just as the +Cathedral of Rheims was destined, ere long, to excel all others.</p> + +<p>In Normandy we find the same enthusiasm, the same zeal, the same skill +in Art; and there, at least, we learn the names of some of the artists: +Otho, the builder of the Cathedral of Séez; Garnier, of Fécamp; +Anquetil, of Petit-Ville, &c. The masons and sculptors, too, formed at +this epoch a numerous and powerful corporation.</p> + +<p>In the South, Asquilinus, Abbot of Moissac, near Cahors, ornamented with +fine statues the cloister and front of his church, and affixed to the +sides of the apse a Crucifixion so skilfully carved, that it was +believed to have emanated from some divine hand (“ut non humano, sed +divino artificio facta”). In Auvergne, Provence, and Languedoc, many +other important works of sculpture were executed. But the chief +masterpiece of all, which combines the different styles of the southern +schools, is the famous Church of St. Trophimus of Arles, the front of +which, where the breadth and grace of the Greek style is allied with the +purest Christian simplicity, carries back the imagination to the +brightest epochs of the art.</p> + +<p>Towards the end of the eleventh and the commencement of the twelfth +century, the sculptors’ studios of the districts of Messin and Lorraine +were in full activity. Several magnificent churches having been +destroyed by fire, particularly that of Verdun, the whole population +assisted, either with money or labour, in the restoration of these +edifices. It was a perfect artistic crusade, in which several bishops +and abbots, who were clever artists as well as spiritual chiefs, took +the lead in the movement.</p> + +<p>In Alsace, art asserted its position in the magnificent Cathedral of +Strasbourg,<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a> a kind of challenge thrown out to the artists on the +other side of the Rhine, who were unable, even at Cologne, to carry an +edifice to such an</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="chrm_15" id="chrm_15"></a> +<a href="images/ill_247_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_247_sml.jpg" width="329" height="587" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<div class="caption"><p>CLOVIS I. AND CLOTILDE HIS WIFE.</p> + +<p>Statues formerly at the Entrance of the Church of Notre Dame at Corbeil. +Twelfth Century.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_353" id="page_353">{353}</a></span></p> + +<p class="nind">enormous height, or to adorn it with such a diversified multitude of +statues. Although belonging more especially to the thirteenth century, +it may be taken as the starting-point of the prodigious works executed +by an association of freemasons, who have marked with their hieroglyphic +signatures the stones of this edifice, as of all others executed by them +in the valley of the Rhine, from Dusseldorf to the Alps.</p> + +<p>We are, however, led to believe that Germany also did not fail to be +subject to the influence of this artistic school, for among contemporary +monuments are several in a style which manifestly testifies to the +effects of the neighbouring country of Alsace.</p> + +<p>Flemish art of that time is exemplified by the Church of St. Gudule at +Brussels, the style of which is especially rich with decorations +borrowed from churches on the banks of the Rhine, the Moselle, the +Sarre, and the Upper Meuse.</p> + +<p>If we include in one comprehensive glance French, German, and Flemish +sculptural works, we shall recognise in all, notwithstanding the +predominance of any particular school, one original and special type. +The characteristics of this are elongated faces with a calm, +contemplative, and penitent expression; stiffness of attitude, and a +kind of ecstatic immobility, rather than any glow of animation; +draperies with small narrow folds and close-fitting, as if wetted; +pearled fringes or ribbons, set off with gems (<a href="#fig_280">Fig. 280</a>). We see statues +of lofty proportions reared up; representations of various personages +are multiplied on the tombs; Greek art is disappearing and its learned +theories are giving way before Christian sentiment; thought is obtaining +the mastery over mere form; symbolism makes its appearance and becomes a +science.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 103px;"> +<a href="images/ill_248_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_248_sml.jpg" width="103" height="365" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_280" id="fig_280"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 280.—Statue said to be of Clovis I., formerly in +the porch of St. Germain-des-Prés, Paris. (Twelfth Century.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>But let us turn our eyes towards Italy. Venice had scarcely raised<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_354" id="page_354">{354}</a></span> her +lofty dome ere Pisa aspired to have one also. Many a Tuscan ship, +launched upon the sea for conquests of a new kind, brought from Greece +an infinity of monuments, statues, bas-reliefs, capitals, friezes, and +various fragments; and the Tuscan people, the best organised race in +Europe for fully appreciating all the beauty of form, were called upon +to draw their inspiration from the relics of ancient works of Art. The +enthusiasm became general. In 1016, Buschetto, regarded as the first +architect of his time, undertook the building of the Cathedral of Pisa, +where ancient fragments are still conspicuous amid the works of more +modern creation: a kind of holographic testament the benefit of which +the followers of the art of Phidias have thus handed down to posterity. +The pupils of Buschetto, accepting the impulse of his masterly hand and +reproducing his ideas, soon spread all over the peninsula, and the +cathedrals of Amalfi, Pistoia, Siena, and Lucca arose, the Byzantine +character of which differed from the Lombard style presented by the +Cathedral of Milan. One might almost have fancied that the bosom of the +earth brought forth statues which, as if by enchantment, peopled every +pedestal; and that from heaven descended the ray which animated them +with their sublime expression. The art of casting in bronze, hitherto +almost unknown in Italy, became naturalised there as much as the art of +carving in stone.</p> + +<p>While in the West the Arts were making such a spring, in the East they +had relapsed into the lowest stage of debasement, at the period when +Byzantium was simultaneously threatened by the Bulgarians and the +Crusaders; although for a time they had appeared to revive, owing to the +zeal of Basil the Macedonian, Constantine VIII., and some of their +successors. Eastern sculpture disappeared when the Latins sacked the +ancient capital of the first Christian emperor (1204).</p> + +<p>At the approach of the thirteenth century, which was destined to be the +great age of Christian architecture and sculpture, artists no longer +looked, as they had hitherto done, towards Byzantium, they depended on +themselves; and although some hesitation might still be felt, they found +all round them models they could imitate, traditions they could follow, +and masters to whom they could listen. Christian art had now an +independent existence, and the various schools asserted their styles in +a way which became every day more clear, more powerful, and more +original.</p> + +<p>“The style of the head of Christ at Amiens” (<a href="#fig_281">Fig. 281</a>), says M.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_355" id="page_355">{355}</a></span> +Viollet-le-Duc, writing on this subject, “fully deserves the attention +of</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_249_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_249_sml.jpg" width="347" height="452" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_281" id="fig_281"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 281.—“The <i>Beau Dieu d’Amiens</i>;” a Statue of Christ +in the Front of the Cathedral of Amiens. (Thirteenth Century.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p class="nind">sculptors. This carving is treated in the same way as the Greek heads<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_356" id="page_356">{356}</a></span> +called Eginetic. There is the same simplicity of model, the same purity +of outline, the same style of execution, at once broad and delicate. It +well represents the features of Christ as a man: a blending of sweetness +with firmness, a gravity devoid of sadness.”</p> + +<p>This is not the place to assert any minute comparisons between different +manners and styles; even the bare enumeration of the many monuments to +which this fervent age gave birth might prove wearisome. We call it a +“fervent age,” and fully are we justified, for, at a time when a whole +world of artist-sculptors of ornaments and figures were devoting +themselves to the most delicate and marvellous works of sculpture (Fig. +282), none seemed desirous of displaying his own personal distinction. +We find, for instance, numerous sculptors setting aside all claim to +individual merit, and carrying this self-denial so far that, instead of +their own names, they inscribed that of the Virgin Mary on the carvings +of the churches which they had enriched with their finest works: “Hoc +panthema pia cælaverat ipsa Maria.”</p> + +<p>In Germany, Christian art became specially enthroned in Saxony; and +Dresden, which has been justly styled the German Athens, can date back +her architecto-sculptural adornments to the tenth century. On the banks +of the Rhine, at Cologne, Coblentz, and Mayence, we find again the +school of Saint-Gall, which, having been planted in 971, under the +auspices of Notker, Bishop of Laodicea, left its stamp, during a period +of two centuries, in a series of remarkable works.</p> + +<p>England, as early as the seventh century, had called to her aid some of +the French “masters in stone” and best workmen, and she subsequently +continued to do so for the building and ornamentation of her finest +religious edifices. William of Sens, a very skilful artist (<i>artifex +subtilissimus</i>), proceeded, in 1176, to rebuild Canterbury Cathedral. +Norman and French artists also restored the abbeys of Croyland and +Wearmouth, and York Cathedral, already enriched with Byzantine and +French sculpture.</p> + +<p>Spain and Portugal, the soil of which had long been the theatre of an +inveterate conflict between two races embracing two irreconcilable +religions, were destined to inherit from these very struggles the +creation of a singularly characteristic style of art. In adopting the +Byzantine style, the Moors had deprived it of its character of simple +earnestness, and made it to harmonise with the tendencies of their +refined sensualism. Even when<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_357" id="page_357">{357}</a></span> Christian art was able to exercise an +undivided rule, it could not fail to be influenced by the buildings +erected by the Moors; and the fact that this alliance of architectural +and sculptural styles succeeded in producing masterpieces is well +attested by the cathedrals of Cuenca, Vittoria, and some portions of +those of Seville, Barcelona, and Lugo in Galicia.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_250_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_250_sml.jpg" width="320" height="424" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_282" id="fig_282"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 282.—Statues in the South Porch of Bourges +Cathedral. (Twelfth Century.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_358" id="page_358">{358}</a></span></p> + +<p>Sicily and the kingdom of Naples followed the movement made in other +countries of Europe; but here, again, was felt the influence of various +foreign importations. Some of them were of Greek origin, coming from +Byzantium; some northern, from Normandy, and perhaps also from Germany; +most, however, from Spain, and especially from the important school of +Aragon.</p> + +<p>“Nicolas of Pisa,” says Emeric David, “was born towards the end of the +twelfth century, in a town then peopled with Greek masters and the +pupils of those masters, and full of Greek monuments of every age; a +town which might be called altogether Greek. He had the good sense to +disdain the productions of his own time and to devote himself to the +more elevated contemplation of the <i>chefs-d’œuvre</i> of ancient Greece. +This proof of undoubted discernment, and a high degree of taste on his +part, could not but lead to very marked progress. But a premature study +of the antique is not so sure a guide to the desired end as the +contemplation of nature, to which Guido of Siena, his contemporary, and +a little later Cimabue and Giotto, taught perhaps by his errors, +assiduously applied themselves.” There can, however, be no doubt that +the first development of Christian sculpture in Italy must +unquestionably be referred to Nicolas of Pisa. He had, nevertheless, +some rivals who were well worthy of competing with him. Among these were +Fuccio, sculptor of the magnificent tomb of the Queen of Cyprus, in the +Church of San Francesco at Florence; and also Marchione of Arezzo, who +in 1216 carved his name over the doorway of the church of that town. +Giovanni of Pisa, son of Nicolas, who sculptured many beautiful works at +Arezzo, Pistoia, and Florence, and even surpassed himself in the Campo +Santo at Pisa, perhaps the most remarkable monument in Christian Europe, +has been placed by some far below his father in rank as a sculptor, on +account of an accusation made against him of having abandoned the Greek +style. But this renunciation was, in fact, a real trait of genius, and +actually constitutes his glory; for, by neglecting form to some extent, +he was enabled to carry religious idealism and power of expression to +its very highest limits. We must, therefore, consider Giovanni and +Margaritone, pupils of Nicolas; Andrea Ugolino, pupil of Giovanni; +Agnolo and Agostino of Siena; and the celebrated Giotto, who was at once +architect, sculptor, and painter, as real regenerators of the art. +Indeed, we might call these great artists the creators of Christian +sculpture in Italy—that art in which simul<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_359" id="page_359">{359}</a></span>taneously shone forth +seriousness of composition, grace and ease of attitude, simplicity of +imitation, elevation of sentiment; in short, all the great harmonies of +a style which seemed to breathe forth a hymn of love and faith.</p> + +<p>Thanks to the studios of Agnolo and Agostino, Siena, a small town which +calls to mind the ancient Sicyone, so weak in a political point of view +and yet so learned and polished, was for some time the rival of Pisa, up +to the period when Florence absorbed the artistic splendour of the two +cities. Florence, as the home of the Arts, became the centre of +radiation, whence artists took their flight over the whole of Italy, and +from Italy spread among all the nations of Europe.</p> + +<p>Towards the end of the thirteenth century, the churches of Florence, on +which the fraternities combined their efforts, and some of the civil +buildings of this rich and flourishing city, were filled with statues. +The foundation of the municipal palace in 1282, and that of the +cathedral in 1298, made these two wonderful edifices real museums of +sculpture, in which, among the works of Eastern artists, those of +Giovanni of Arezzo and Giotto are distinguished. Agostino and Agnolo of +Pisa executed at that time some magnificent examples at Santa Maria in +Orvieto, San Francisco in Bologna, and in the subterranean Church of +Assisi, &c. Lastly, Andrea of Pisa, a contemporary of Giotto, as he died +only in 1345, extracted from antiquity all that Christian sculpture +could borrow from it; that is, he combined sublimity both of form and +expression. At Pisa, the chancel of Santa Maria a Ponte; at Florence, +the campanile and the high-altar of Santa Maria de’ Fiori, and a door of +San Giovanni; in the Cathedral of Pistoia, the tomb of Cino, are all of +them so many masterpieces; above which, however, the old Pisan master +proudly classed the works of his son Nino. This young artist, who carved +the monument of the Scaligers at Verona, became, in fact, the worthy +follower of the school which recognised Andrea as its chief. Jacopo +della Quercia and Niccolo Aretino enriched also with magnificent works +the towns of Siena, Lucca, Bologna, Arezzo, and Milan, as well as +Florence. But when, in 1424, the tomb closed over Jacopo della Quercia, +the lofty destinies of the art seemed to come to a termination, and soon +rapidly declined. In Venice, at the death of Filippo Calendario, which +occurred in 1355, Italian sculpture had already lost much of its +nobility and vigour of style.</p> + +<p>Italian sculpture (<a href="#fig_283">Fig. 283</a>), as remarked by Emeric David, raised +itself<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_360" id="page_360">{360}</a></span> to the height of the sublime by merely striving after a simple +and exact imitation of nature. It was by the same course of action that +French sculpture always emulated its Transalpine rival; but, in order to +attain the same end, the imitation followed a different path. In Italy, +Art raised itself to the ideal by an attentive study of Greek forms; +while on this side of the Alps, when sentiment required it, form was, if +not sacrificed, at least neglected. French art showed more respect for +the orthodoxy of Christian thought; she did not introduce into the +sanctuary of the Holy of Holies any of those profane and material ideas +that might have been inspired by the marbles of Greece. In spite of the +pointed architecture which everywhere prevailed, French sculpture, +replete with a certain eloquent unction, preserved for a considerable +period the Byzantine style in the appearance of the head and in the +delicacy of draperies; without, however, altogether renouncing its +individuality of character, and without ceasing to seek for models +peculiar to its own soil.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_251_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_251_sml.jpg" width="353" height="268" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_283" id="fig_283"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 283.—Bas-relief on one of the Bronze Gates of St. +Peter’s at Rome, representing the Coronation of the Emperor Sigismund by +Pope Eugène IV., in 1433. (Sculpture of the Fifteenth Century.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_361" id="page_361">{361}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_252_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_252_sml.jpg" width="118" height="252" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_284" id="fig_284"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 284.—Statuette of St. Avit, in the Church of +Notre-Dame de Corbeil, demolished in 1820.</p> + +<p>(Eleventh Century.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Unfortunately for the personal glory of the French sculptors, the +historians of the time have scarcely taken the trouble to record their +names. In order to discover but a few of them, learned men of modern +days have been compelled to undertake laborious researches; while many, +and those the most remarkable—worthy, no doubt, to be compared with the +greatest Italian artists—are and must remain ever unknown (<a href="#fig_284">Fig. 284</a>). +The Italians were more fortunate; to them Vasari, their rival and +contemporary, has raised a lasting monument. In French art, the list of +the sculptors of so many masterpieces must come to a close when we have +mentioned Enguerrand, who, from 1201 to 1212, commenced the Cathedral +and the Church du Buc, at Rouen, and had for his successor Gautier de +Meulan; Robert de Coucy, chief of the body of artists who, in 1211, +caused the Cathedral of Rheims to rise loftily from the earth; Hugues +Libergier, who rebuilt the ancient basilica of St. Jovin; Robert de +Luzarches, the founder, in 1220, of the Cathedral of Amiens, continued +after his death by Thomas de Cormont and his son Regnault; Jean, Abbot +of St. Germain-des-Prés, who in 1212 under<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_362" id="page_362">{362}</a></span>took the Church of St. Cosme, +Paris; that of St. Julien le Pauvre being restored and adorned with +sculpture at the same date, from the designs of the abbot and the +“brethren” of Longpont (<a href="#fig_285">Fig. 285</a>); Jean des Champs, who in 1248 worked +at the ancient Cathedral of Clermont; lastly, the two Jeans de +Montereau, who at one time as military architects, at another as +sculptors of sacred subjects, were at the command of St. Louis, and +produced some extraordinary works both of construction and sculpture.</p> + +<p>Alsace manifested no less enthusiasm than France for the new +architectural system, and sculpture was also subject to a similar +development. From Basle to Mayence, the slopes of the Vosges and the +long valley of the Rhine, became full of edifices enriched with +sculpture and peopled with statues. Erwin of Steinbach (who died in +1318), assisted by Sabina, his daughter, and William of Marbourg, were +the most renowned masters in these parts.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_253_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_253_sml.jpg" width="258" height="193" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_285" id="fig_285"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 285.—Bas-relief formerly over the Doorway of St. +Julien le Pauvre, Paris, representing St. Julien and St. Basilissa, his +wife, conveying in their boat Jesus Christ under the figure of a Leper.</p> + +<p>(Thirteenth Century.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The extraordinary advance that French sculpture made in this age was +assisted—if not as regards the higher style of work, which could do +without this help, at least in respect to the minor details of the +art—by the institution of the fraternities of the <i>Conception +Notre-Dame</i>. In many towns the sculptors of images and the painters, the +moulders, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_363" id="page_363">{363}</a></span> <i>bahutiers</i>, or carvers in wood, horn, and ivory (Fig. +286), were all united under the same banner. In Germany and Belgium also +existed <i>hanses</i>, or guilds, which were in direct communication with +those of Alsace, and who accepted as guides French artists of known +ability; as, for instance, Volbert and Gérard, architect-sculptors, who +were simultaneously engaged in the construction of the Church of the +Holy Apostles, Cologne.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_254_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_254_sml.jpg" width="335" height="289" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_286" id="fig_286"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 286.—Fragment of a small Reredos, in carved Bone +(Fourteenth Century).</p> + +<p>Presented by Jean, Duc de Berry, Brother of Charles V., to the church of +the ancient Abbey of Poissy.</p> + +<p>(Museum of the Louvre.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>With respect to the works commenced or finished in the fourteenth +century, the only difficulty is to make a choice among these wonderful +monuments of Art; which, however, must be looked upon as the last +manifestations of Christian art, properly so-called. We must, however, +point out the polychrome sculptures of Chartres, of St. Remy, Rheims; +St. Martin, Laon; St. Yved, Braisne; St. Jean des Vignes, Soissons; of +the Chartreux, Dijon. In this ducal city we find, in 1357, Guy le Maçon, +a celebrated<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_364" id="page_364">{364}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_255_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_255_sml.jpg" width="190" height="355" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_287" id="fig_287"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 287.—“Le Bon Dieu,” in the old Chapel of the +Charnier des Innocents, Paris.</p> + +<p>(Fifteenth Century.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p class="nind">sculptor; at Bourges, about the same date, Aguillon, of Droues; at +Montpellier, between 1331 and 1360, the two Alamans, John and Henry; at +Troyes, Denisot and Drouin of Mantes, &c. Beyond France, Matthias of +Arras, in 1343, laid the foundations of the Cathedral of Prague, which +was to be continued and finished by another French artist, Pierre of +Boulogne. Arrested as our attention must be by the statues and +bas-reliefs which were multiplied under the porches, in the niches (Fig. +287), and on all the tombs, we can cast but a very cursory glance on the +immense number of wood-carvings, figures in ivory, and movable pieces of +sculpture, executed by<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_365" id="page_365">{365}</a></span> artists who may be divided into two very +distinct classes, the Norman and the Rhenish; all of other schools +appear to have been nothing but imitators of these.</p> + +<p>In 1400 the <i>Maître</i> Pierre Pérat, architect of three cathedrals, who +was at once both civil engineer and sculptor, and one of the greatest +masters of whom France can boast, died at Metz, where he was interred +with all the honours due to his wonderful talents. Just at the same time +a memorable competition was opened at Florence. The object in view was +to finish the doors of the Baptistery of St. John. The formal +announcement of the competition, which was made all over Italy, did not +fail to call forth the most skilful artists. Seven of these were +selected, on account of their renown, to furnish designs: they consisted +of three Florentines—Filippo Brunelleschi, Donatello, and the +goldsmith, Lorenzo Ghiberti; Jacopo della Quercia of Siena; Nicolo +Lamberti d’Arezzo; Francesco da Valdambrina; and Simone da Colle, called +<i>de’ Bronzi</i>. To each of these competitors the republic granted one +year’s salary, on condition that, at the end of the period, each of them +should furnish a panel of wrought bronze of the same size as those of +which the doors of St. John were to be composed. On the day fixed for +the examination of the works, the most celebrated artists of Italy were +summoned. Thirty-four judges were selected, and before this tribunal the +seven models were exhibited, in the presence of the magistracy and the +public. After the judges had audibly discussed the respective merits of +the works, those of Ghiberti, Brunelleschi, and Donatello were +preferred. But to whom of the three was the palm to be awarded? They +hesitated. Then Brunelleschi and Donatello retired apart and exchanged a +few words; after which one of them, commencing to address the assembly, +said:—“Magistrates and citizens, we declare to you that in our own +judgment Ghiberti has surpassed us. Award him the preference, for our +country will thus acquire the greater glory. It is less discredit to us +to make known our opinion than to keep silence.”</p> + +<p>These doors, at which Ghiberti worked for forty years, with the +assistance of his father, his sons, and his pupils, are perhaps the +finest work we have in sculptured metal.</p> + +<p>At the date when Lorenzo Ghiberti, Donatello, Brunelleschi, and their +pupils were the representatives of Florentine sculpture, the French +school also produced its masters and its works of Art. Nicholas Flamel, +the famous<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_366" id="page_366">{366}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_256_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_256_sml.jpg" width="153" height="364" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_288" id="fig_288"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 288.—“St. Eloi, Patron of Goldsmiths and Farriers.” +A Sculpture of the Fifteenth Century, in the Church of Notre-Dame +d’Armançon, at Semur, Burgundy.</p></div> +</div> + +<p class="nind">writer (<i>écrivain</i>) of the parish of St. Jacques la Boucherie, +ornamented the churches and mortuary chapels of Paris with mystical and +alchemical (<i>alchimiques</i>) sculptures, of which he was the designer if +not the actual artist. Thury executed the tombs of Charles VI. and +Isabelle of Bavaria; Claux Sluter, author of the “Ruits de Moïse,” at +Dijon, assisted by James de la Barre, multiplied the works of monumental +sculpture in Burgundy (<a href="#fig_288">Fig. 288</a>). In Alsace, under the impulse of King +René, himself an artist, the sculptor’s art produced examples bearing +the impress of a remarkable individuality. In the district of Messin, +Henry de Ranconval, his<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_367" id="page_367">{367}</a></span> son Jehan, and Clausse, were distinguished. In +Touraine, Michael Columb executed the tomb of Francis II., Duke of +Brittany; Jehan Juste, that of the children of Charles VIII., as +introductory to the mausoleum of Louis XII., which he executed between +1518 and 1530, for the basilica of St. Denis; a German, Conrad of +Cologne, assisted by Laurent Wrine, master of the ordnance to the king, +cast in metal the effigy for the tomb of Louis XI. In Champagne appeared +Jean de Vitry, sculptor of the stalls of the Church of St. Claude +(Jura); in Berry, Jacquet Gendre, <i>master-mason</i> and <i>figure-maker</i> for +the Hôtel de Ville, Bourges, &c.</p> + +<p>At the end of the same century, Peter Brucy, of Brussels, exercised his +art at Toulouse; the inspiration of the Alsacian artists was developed +in the magnificent sculpture of Thann, Kaisersberg, and Dusenbach; while +Germany, achieving but a late independence, sheltered the faults of her +early genius under the illustrious names of Lucas Moser, Peter Vischer, +Schühlein, Michel Wohlgemuth, Albert Dürer (<a href="#fig_289">Fig. 289</a>), &c.</p> + +<p>In sculptural works, as in every other branch of art, historical +sentiment and faith seemed to die out with the fifteenth century. +Mediæval art was subjected to protest; the desire seemed to be to +re-create beauty of form by going back to the antique; but the +emphatically Christian individuality was no longer reached, and this +pretended <i>renaissance</i>, in which even earnest minds were induced to +gratify themselves, only served to exhibit the feeble efforts of an +epoch that sought to reproduce the glories of a vanished age. In the +time of Charles VIII. and Louis XII., Lombarde-Venetian art, the +affected and ingenious imitation of the Greek style, was introduced into +France; it suited the common people, and pleased mediocre intellect. The +sculptors who came at that period to seek their fortunes at the court of +the French kings worked exclusively for the aristocracy, and vied with +one another in adorning, with an ardent infatuation for Italian art, the +royal and aristocratic palaces which were being built or restored in +every direction, such as the Châteaux of Amboise and Gaillon. But they +failed to do any injury to French artists, who still remained charged +with the works of sacred sculptures; and their style became but +slightly, if at all, influenced by this foreign immigration. Even +Benvenuto Cellini himself failed to exercise much effect on the vigorous +schools of Tours, Troyes, Metz, Dijon, and Angers; his reputation and +his works never passed, so to speak, beyond the limits of the court of +France, and the brilliant traces they<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_368" id="page_368">{368}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_257_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_257_sml.jpg" width="288" height="401" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_289" id="fig_289"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 289.—“St. John the Baptist preaching in the +Desert.” Bas-relief in Carved Wood by Albert Dürer.</p> + +<p>(Brunswick Gallery.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p class="nind">left behind them were confined to the school of Fontainebleau. Ere long, +some zealous artists from all the principal centres of the French +schools left their country and betook themselves to Italy; among these +were Bachelier of Languedoc, Simon and Ligier Richier of Lorraine, +Valentine Bousch of Alsace, and Jacques of Angoulême, who had the honour +of a victory over his master, Michael Angelo, in a competition of +statuary (many<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_369" id="page_369">{369}</a></span> of the former artist’s works now exist in the Vatican); +Jean de Boulogne, and several others. Some of them, after they had +become celebrated on the other side of the Alps, returned to their +native country, bringing back to it their own native genius matured by +the lessons of the Italians. There was, therefore, always a French +school that preserved its individual characteristics, its generic good +qualities and defects, which are so well represented in the sculptures +of the Hôtel du Bourgtheroulde, Rouen (<a href="#fig_290">Fig. 290</a>).</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_258_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_258_sml.jpg" width="325" height="224" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_290" id="fig_290"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 290.—Bas-relief of the Hôtel du Bourgtheroulde, +Rouen, representing a Scene in the Interview between Francis I. and +Henry VIII., on the Field of the Cloth of Gold.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Michael Angelo was born on the 6th of March, 1475, and died on the 17th +of February, 1564, without having shown any signs of decadence; greater, +possibly, by his genius than by his works, he is the personification of +the Renaissance. It would be, perhaps, irreverent to say that this age +was an age of decay; we might fear of desecrating the tomb of Buonarotti +if we laid to his charge that his grand boldness led ordinary talents +astray; and it is not a pleasant subject of thought that, influenced by +two currents of ideas—one coming from Italy, the other from +Germany—the art of the century operated to its own suicide. When the +very soil itself seemed to be shaken, and the Christian pedestal which +had formed both its grandeur and power overturned, what could be done<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_370" id="page_370">{370}</a></span> +in the way of opposition to the downfall of Art by Jean Goujon, Jean +Cousin (<a href="#fig_291">Fig. 291</a>), Germain Pilon, François Marchand, Pierre Bontemps, +those stars of French sculpture in the sixteenth century?</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_259_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_259_sml.jpg" width="345" height="188" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_291" id="fig_291"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 291.—Statue in Alabaster of Philip Chabot, Admiral +of France, by Jean Cousin. Formerly in the Church of the Célestins, +Paris, now in the Museum of the Louvre.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>A final manifestation of the old religious feeling was, however, +apparent in the tombs of the Church of Brou, designed by Jean Perréal, +the great painter of Lyons, executed by Conrad Meyt, and carved by +Gourat and Michael Columb; also in the mausoleum of Francis II., carved +by Columb and his family; in the sepulchre of St. Mihiel (<a href="#fig_292">Fig. 292</a>) by +Richier; of the <i>Saints de Solesme</i>, in the tombs of Langey du Bellay, +and of the Chancellor De Birague, by Germain Pilon, &c. But fashion and +the prevailing taste now required from artists nothing but profane and +voluptuous compositions, and they adopted this line of Art all the more +readily, seeing, as they did every day, most beautiful works of +Christian sculpture mutilated by a new tribe of Iconoclasts, the +Huguenots, who seldom showed mercy to the figured monuments in Catholic +churches. The stalls of the Cathedral of Amiens, by Jean Rupin, the +rood-loft by Jean Boudin, and a number of other works of the same kind, +testify to the irruption of the Greek style, its implantation in +religious art, and its hybrid association with pointed architecture. It +is, however, only due to our sculptors of the sixteenth century to say, +that when they sacrificed<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_371" id="page_371">{371}</a></span> themselves to the requirements of their age +in imitating the masterpieces of Italy, they approached the natural +grace of Raphael much closer than</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_260_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_260_sml.jpg" width="436" height="269" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_292" id="fig_292"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 292.—“The Entombment,” by Richier, in the Church of +St. Mihiel (Meuse). (Sixteenth Century.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Cellini, Primaticcio, or any of the other Italian artists who were +settled in France; that they combined in the best possible way the +mythological<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_372" id="page_372">{372}</a></span> expression of the ancients with our modern ideas, and +that, thanks to them, France is enabled to point with pride to a natural +art, original and independent, which has been handed down to our days in +direct succession by Sarrazain, Puget, Girardon, and Coysevox.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_261_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_261_sml.jpg" width="235" height="127" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<div class="caption"><p>Figs. 293, 294.—Gargoyles on the Palace of Justice, +Rouen. (Fifteenth Century.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_373" id="page_373">{373}</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="ARCHITECTURE" id="ARCHITECTURE"></a>ARCHITECTURE.</h2> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">The Basilica the first Christian Church.—Modification of Ancient +Architecture.—Byzantine Style.—Formation of the Norman +Style.—Principal Norman Churches.—Age of the Transition from +Norman to Gothic.—Origin and Importance of the <i>Ogive</i>.—Principal +Edifices in the pure Gothic Style.—The Gothic Church, an Emblem of +the Religious Spirit in the Middle Ages.—Florid +Gothic.—Flamboyant Gothic.—Decadency.—Civil and Military +Architecture: Castles, Fortified Enclosures, Private Houses, Town +Halls.—Italian Renaissance: Pisa, Florence, Rome.—French +Renaissance: Mansions and Palaces.</p></div> + +<p class="nind"><a href="images/ill_262_lg.jpg"> +<span class="letra"> +<img src="images/ill_262_sml.jpg" +width="90" +alt="W" /></span></a>HEN the Christian family, humble and persecuted, was beginning to form +itself into congregations; when it was forbidden to consecrate any +special edifice to the performance of the services of its religion—a +religion which opposed to the gorgeous ceremonies of polytheism the most +austere simplicity—any refuge might have seemed good enough which +offered to the faithful the means of assembling themselves together in +security; any retreat must have appeared sufficiently ornamented which +would recall to the disciples of the crucified Saviour the mournful +events preceding the glorification of that Divine sacrifice. But when +the religion proscribed one day found itself on the next the religion of +the State, things changed.</p> + +<p>Constantine, in the mighty ardour of his zeal, wished to see the worship +of the true God efface in pomp and in magnificence all the solemnities +of the heathen world. In expelling the idols from their temples, the +idea could not have suggested itself of using these buildings for the +new religion, because they were generally of excessively limited +dimensions, and the plan on which they were built would have but +indifferently answered the requirements of the Christian ceremonial. +What was necessary for these services was principally a spacious nave, +in which a large congregation could assemble to hear the same word, to +join in the same prayer, and to intone the same chants. The Christians +sought, therefore, among the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_374" id="page_374">{374}</a></span> edifices then in existence (<a href="#fig_295">Fig. 295</a>), for +such as would best answer these purposes. The <i>basilicas</i> presented +themselves; these buildings served at once as law-courts and places of +assembly for tradesmen and money-changers, and were generally composed +of one immense hall, with lateral galleries and tribunes adjoining it. +The name of <i>basilica</i>, derived from the Greek word <i>basileus</i> (a king), +was given them, according to some writers, from the fact that formerly +the kings themselves used to administer justice within their walls; +according to others, because the basilica of Athens served as a tribunal +of the second archon, who bore the title of king; whence the edifice was +called <i>stoa basiliké</i> (royal porch), a designation of which the Romans +preserved only the adjective, the substantive being understood.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_263_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_263_sml.jpg" width="286" height="216" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_295" id="fig_295"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 295.—Basilica of Constantine, at Trèves, +transformed into a Fortress in the Middle Ages.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>“The Christian basilica,” says M. Vaudoyer, in his learned treatise on +architecture in France, “was most certainly an imitation of the heathen +basilica; but it is of importance to observe that from one cause or +another the Christians, in the construction of their basilicas, very +soon substituted for the Grecian architecture of the ancient basilicas a +system of arches reposing directly on isolated columns, which served as +their supports; a perfectly new contrivance, of which there existed no +previous example.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_375" id="page_375">{375}</a></span> This new mode of construction, which has generally +been attributed to the want of skill in the builders of this period, or +to the nature of the materials they had at their disposal, was, however, +to become the fundamental principle of Christian art; a principle +characterised by the breaking up of the range of arches, and by the +abandonment of the system of rectilinear construction of the Greeks and +Romans.</p> + +<p>“Indeed, the arcade, which had become the dominant element of Roman +architecture, had nevertheless remained subject to the proportions of +the Greek orders, of which the entablature served as an indispensable +accompaniment; and from this medley of elements so diverse was produced +the mixed style which characterises the Greco-Roman architecture. But +the Christians, in separating or breaking up the arcade, in abandoning +the use of the ancient orders, and in making the column the real support +of the arch, laid the foundations of a new style, which led to the +exclusive employment of arches and vaults in Christian edifices. The +Church of St. Sophia at Constantinople, built by Justinian in the middle +of the sixth century, affords the most ancient example of this system of +construction by arches and vaults in a Christian church of large +dimensions.”</p> + +<p>Transported to the East, the Latin style there assumed a new character, +owing especially to the adoption and generalisation of the cupola, of +which there were some examples in Roman architecture, but only as an +accessory; whereas, in what is called Byzantine architecture, this form +became dominant, and, as it were, fundamental; thus, at all periods and +at each time that the architectural influence of the East made itself +felt in the West, we see the cupola introduced into buildings. The +Church of St. Vital at Ravenna affords, in its plan (<a href="#fig_296">Fig. 296</a>) and in +its general appearance, an example of this influence, which is quite +Byzantine.</p> + +<p>Edifices of Latin architecture, properly so called, are rare, we might +almost say that they have all disappeared (<a href="#fig_297">Figs. 297</a> and <a href="#fig_298">298</a>); but if +some churches in Rome, whose foundation dates back to the fifth and +sixth centuries, can be considered as specimens of this first period of +Christian art, it is in the arrangement of the plan much more than in +the details of execution, which for a long subsequent time since have +been united with the work of later periods.</p> + +<p>In the days when Christianity was so triumphantly established as to have +no fear nor scruple to utilise, in the construction of its churches, the +ruins<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_376" id="page_376">{376}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_264_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_264_sml.jpg" width="233" height="312" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_296" id="fig_296"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 296.—Church of St. Vital, at Ravenna. Byzantine +style. (Sixth Century.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p class="nind">of the ancient temples, it generally happened that the architect, +conforming himself to new requirements, endeavoured, by a prudent return +towards the traditions of the past, to avoid those striking +incongruities which would have deprived of all their value the +magnificent materials he had at his disposal. Hence arose a style still +undecided; hence mixed creations, which it will suffice merely to +mention. Then we must not forget—to say nothing of the case in which, +as in the old Roman city, Christian basilicas might be built with the +marble of heathen sanctuaries—the monuments of this same Rome were +still the only models that presented themselves for imitation. Finally, +for this architecture which the Christian religion was to create as its +own, it was obvious there would be an infancy, an age of groping in the +dark and of uncertainty; and at length that there should be a separation +from the past, and a gradually experienced feeling of individual +strength. (<a href="#fig_299">Fig. 299</a>.)<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_377" id="page_377">{377}</a></span></p> + +<p>This infancy lasted about five or six centuries; for it was only about +the year 1000 that the new style—which we see at first made up of +“recollections” and weak innovations—assumed an almost determinate +form. This is the period called Norman,<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> which, according to M. +Vaudoyer, has left us some monuments that are “the noblest, the +simplest, and the severest expression of the Christian temple.”</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_265_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_265_sml.jpg" width="337" height="297" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_297" id="fig_297"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 297.—The Church of St. Agnes, at Rome, Latin style +(Fifth Century). Restored and debased in the Seventeenth Century.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_298" id="fig_298"></a>Fig. 298.—The Church of St. Martin, at Tours (Sixth +Century). Rebuilt or restored in the Eleventh Century.</p> +</div> +</div> + +<p>“Three years after the year 1000, which was supposed was to be the last +year of the world,” says the monk Raoul Glaber, “churches were renewed +in nearly every part of the universe, especially in Italy and in Gaul, +although the greater number were still in a condition good enough to +require<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_378" id="page_378">{378}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_266_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_266_sml.jpg" width="174" height="276" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_299" id="fig_299"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 299.—Remains of the Church of Mouen, in Normandy. +Architecture of the Fifth or Sixth Century.</p></div> +</div> + +<p class="nind">no repairs.” “It was to this period, that is to say, the eleventh +century,” adds M. Vaudoyer, “must be assigned the greater number of the +ancient churches of France, grander and more magnificent than all those +of preceding centuries; it was then, also, the first associations of +builders were formed, whereof the abbots and the prelates themselves +formed a portion, and which were essentially composed of men bound by a +religious vow; the Arts were cultivated in the convents, the churches +were built under the direction of bishops; the monks co-operated in +works of all kinds.... The plan of the Western churches preserved the +primitive arrangement of the Latin basilica—that is, the elongated form +and the lateral galleries; the most important modifications were the +lengthening of the choir and of the galleries, or of the cross, a free +passage established round the apse (<a href="#fig_300">Fig. 300</a>); and, lastly, the +combination of chapels, which grouped themselves around the sanctuary. +In the construction the isolated columns of the nave are sometimes +replaced by pillars, the spaces between which are filled up with +semicircular arches,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_379" id="page_379">{379}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_267_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_267_sml.jpg" width="221" height="455" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_300" id="fig_300"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 300.—Notre-Dame, Rouen, ogival style. (Thirteenth +Century.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p class="nind">and a general system of vaulted roofs is substituted for the ceilings +and timber roofs of the ancient Latin basilicas.... The use of bells, +which was but sparingly adopted in the East, contributed to give to the +churches<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_380" id="page_380">{380}</a></span> of the West a character and an appearance quite their own, and +which they owe particularly to those lofty towers that had become the +essential part of their façade.”</p> + +<p>The façade itself is generally of great simplicity. We enter the edifice +by one of three doors, above which runs, in most cases, a little gallery +formed of very small columns close to each other, supporting a range of +arcades; and these arcades are often ornamented with statues, as we find +in the church of Notre-Dame at Poitiers, which—together with the +churches of Notre-Dame des Doms, at Avignon; of St. Paul, at Issoire; of +St. Sernin, at Toulouse; of Notre-Dame du Port, at Clermont, &c.—may be +considered as one of the most complete specimens of Norman architecture.</p> + +<p>In churches of this style, as for instance those of St. Front, at +Périgueux; of Notre-Dame, at Puy en Velay; of St. Etienne, at Nevers, +are seen also some cupolas; but we must not forget that the Byzantine +architects, whose migrations towards the West were constantly taking +place at this period, could not fail to leave traces of their +wanderings, and we must acknowledge that, especially in our own country +(France), where Oriental influence was never more than partial, the +union of the two architectonic principles produced the happiest results. +The Cathedral of Angoulême, for example, is justly regarded as one of +the edifices in which Oriental taste harmonises the best with the Norman +style.</p> + +<p>At the beginning of this period, the bell-towers were of very little +importance; but gradually we find them rising higher and higher, and +attaining to great elevations. Some cathedrals on the borders of the +Rhine, and the Church of St. Etienne at Caen, are examples of the +extraordinary height to which these towers were built. In principle, we +may add, there was only one bell-tower (<a href="#fig_301">Fig. 301</a>); but it generally +happened that two were given to churches built or restored after the +year 1000: St. Germain-des-Prés had three bell-towers—one over the +portal, and one at each side of the transept; certain churches had four +and even five bell-towers.</p> + +<p>Norman bell-towers are generally square, exhibiting, in stories, two or +three ranges of round-arched arcades, and terminating in a pyramidal +roof resting on an octagonal base. The Abbey of St. Germain d’Auxerre +possesses one of the most remarkable bell-towers of the Norman style; +then come, although built subsequently to the principal edifice, those +of the Abbaye aux Hommes, at Caen.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_381" id="page_381">{381}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_268_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_268_sml.jpg" width="295" height="395" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_301" id="fig_301"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 301.—Ancient Church of St. Paul-des-Champs, at +Paris, founded, in the Seventh Century, by St. Eloi. Restored and in +part rebuilt in the Thirteenth Century.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The sun’s rays penetrated into the Norman church first through the +<i>oculus</i>,<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a> a vast round opening intended to admit light into the +nave, and situated above the façade, which generally rose in the form of +a gable<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_382" id="page_382">{382}</a></span> above one or several rows of small columns on the exterior. A +series of lateral windows opened on the side-aisles of the edifice; +another was pierced on a level with the galleries; and a third between +the vaulted arches of the nave.</p> + +<p>The crypt, a sort of subterranean sanctuary, which generally contained +the tomb of some beatified saint, or of some martyr to whom the edifice +was dedicated, formed very often an integral part of the Norman church. +The architecture of the crypt, which had for its ideal object to recall +to the mind the period when the offices of the Christian religion were +performed in caverns and in catacombs, was generally of a massive and +imposing severity, well suited to express the sentiment which must have +presided over the earliest Christian buildings.</p> + +<p>The Norman style, that is to say, the primitive idea of Christian +architecture, freed from its remaining servility to the antique, seems +to have caught a glimpse of the definitive formula of Christian art. +Many a majestic monument already attested the austere power of this +style; and perhaps a final and masterly inspiration would have sufficed, +perfection being attained, to cause the researches of the <i>maîtres +d’œuvre</i>,<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a> made as they felt their way forward, to cease of +themselves. Already, too, as a sign of maturity, Norman edifices, +instead of remaining in the somewhat too unadorned simplicity of the +first period, became gradually ornamented, till in time they resembled, +from their base to the summit, a delicate work of embroidery. It is to +this florid Norman style, which in France reigns especially to the south +of the Loire, that the charming façade of the Church of Notre-Dame de +Poitiers (<a href="#fig_302">Fig. 302</a>) belongs, which we have already cited as a perfect +type of the Norman style itself; the façade of St. Trophimus, at Aries +(<a href="#fig_303">Figs. 303</a> and <a href="#fig_304">304</a>), an example in the general arrangement of which the +same character of original unity does not prevail; and that of the +Church of St. Gilles, which M. Mérimée cites as the most elegant +expression of the florid Norman.</p> + +<p>In short, let us repeat it, the Norman style, grandiose in its +austerity, still quiet and compact even in its richest phantasy, was on +the eve of <i>individualising</i> for ever, perhaps, Christian architecture; +its rounded arches, uniting their full soft curves to the simple +profiles of columns, robust even in their lightness, seemed to +characterise at one and the same time the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_383" id="page_383">{383}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_269_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_269_sml.jpg" width="331" height="506" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_302" id="fig_302"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 302.—Notre-Dame la Grande of Poitiers (Twelfth +Century).</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_384" id="page_384">{384}</a></span></p> + +<p class="nind">elevated calm of hope and the humble gravity of faith. But lo! the +<i>ogive</i> sprang up; not, indeed, as certain authors have thought they +were right in affirming, from an outburst of spontaneous invention, for +we find the principle and the application of it not only in many +edifices of the Norman period, but even in the architectural +contrivances of the most remote times. And it happened that this simple +breaking up of the round arch, this “sharpness” of the arch, if we may +use the expression, which the Norman builders had skilfully utilised, +giving more of slenderness or graceful strength to vaults of great +extent, became the fundamental element of a style which, in less than a +century, was to shut the future to a tradition dating from six or eight +centuries, and which could with justice pride itself on the most +beautiful architectural conceptions. (<a href="#fig_305">Fig. 305</a>.)</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_270_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_270_sml.jpg" width="344" height="199" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_303" id="fig_303"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 303.—Tympanum of the Portal of St. Trophimus, at +Arles (Twelfth Century).</p></div> +</div> + +<p>From the twelfth to the thirteenth century the transition took place. +The Norman style, which is distinguished by its round arch, maintained +the struggle with the Gothic style, of which the ogive is the original +mark. In the churches of this period we find also, with regard to the +ground-plan of edifices, the choir assuming larger dimensions, +necessitated no doubt by increased ceremonials in the services. The +Latin cross, which was the ground-plan whereon up to this time the +greater number of sanctuaries were built, ceased to indicate as +precisely as heretofore its outlines; the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_385" id="page_385">{385}</a></span> nave was raised considerably +in height, the lateral chapels were multiplied, and often broke the +perspective of the side-aisles; bell-towers assumed greater importance, +and the placing of immense organs above the principal entrance gave rise +to a new system of elevated galleries in this part of the building.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_271_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_271_sml.jpg" width="329" height="402" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_304" id="fig_304"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 304.—Details of the Portal of St. Trophimus, at +Arles. (Twelfth Century.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The churches of St. Remy, Rheims; of the Abbey of St. Denis; of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_386" id="page_386">{386}</a></span> St. +Nicholas, Blois; the Abbey of Jumiéges; and the Cathedral of +Châlons-sur-Marne, are the principal examples of the architecture of the +mixed style.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_272_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_272_sml.jpg" width="252" height="365" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_305" id="fig_305"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 305.—Cloister of the Abbey of Moissac, Guyenne. +(Twelfth Century.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>It should be remarked that for a long while, in the north of France, the +pointed arch had prevailed almost entirely over the round arch, at the +time when, in the south, Norman tradition, blended with the Byzantine, +still continued to inspire the builders. Nevertheless, the demarcation +cannot be rigorously established, for, at the time when edifices of the +purest Norman style showed themselves in our (French) northern counties +(as, for example, the Church of St. Germain-des-Prés, and the apse of</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="chrm_16" id="chrm_16"></a> +<a href="images/ill_273_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_273_sml.jpg" width="376" height="626" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<div class="caption"><p>DECORATION OF LA SAINTE CHAPELLE, PARIS.</p> + +<p>Thirteenth Century.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_387" id="page_387">{387}</a></span></p> + +<p>St. Martin-des-Champs, Paris), we find, at Toulouse, at Carcassonne, at +Montpellier, the most remarkable specimens of the Gothic style. At last +Gothic architecture gained the day. “Its principle,” says M. Vitet, “is +in emancipation, in liberty, in the spirit of association and commerce, +in sentiments quite indigenous and quite national: it is homely, and +more than that, it is French, English, Teutonic, &c. Norman +architecture, on the contrary, is sacerdotal.”</p> + +<p>And M. Vaudoyer adds: “The rounded arch is the determinate and +invariable form; the pointed arch is the free and indefinite form which +lends itself to unlimited modifications. If, then, the Pointed style has +no longer the austerity of the Norman, it is because it belongs to that +second phase of all civilisation, in which elegance and richness replace +the strength and the severity of primordial types.”</p> + +<p>It was, moreover, at this period that architecture, like all the other +arts, left the monasteries to pass into the hands of lay architects +organised into confraternities, who travelled from place to place, and +thus transmitted the traditional types; the result of this was that +buildings raised at very great distances from each other presented a +striking analogy, and often even a complete similitude to each other.</p> + +<p>There has been much discussion not only on the origin of the pointed +arch, but also as to the beauty and excellence of its form. According to +some it was suggested by the sight of many arches interlaced, and only +constituted one of those fantastical forms which an art in quest of +novelty adopts; others, among whom is M. Vaudoyer, attribute to it the +most remote origin, by making it result quite naturally in the first +attempts at building in stone,—“from a succession of courses of stone +so arranged that each overhung the other;” or else in wooden +constructions, “from the greater facility there was in forming with +beams a pointed rather than a perfectly rounded arch;” others consider +the adoption of the Pointed style, as we said above, as nothing but a +proof of the religious independence succeeding the rigid faith of +earlier days. A third opinion, again, is that of M. Michiels, who looks +on the Pointed style as in some sort an inevitable result of the +boldness of the Norman, and who considers the Gothic, of which it is the +characteristic, as “expressing the spirit of a period when religious +feeling had attained its most perfect maturity, and Catholic +civilisation produced its sweetest and most agreeable fruits.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_388" id="page_388">{388}</a></span>”</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_274_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_274_sml.jpg" width="399" height="590" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_306" id="fig_306"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 306.—Mayence Cathedral. Rhenish Norman. (Twelfth +and Thirteenth Centuries).</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_389" id="page_389">{389}</a></span></p> + +<p>Whatever may be the merits of these different opinions, into the +discussion of which we need not enter, it is now generally assumed that +the Pointed style, properly so called, sprang up first within the limits +of the ancient Ile-de-France, whence it propagated itself by degrees +towards the southern and eastern provinces.</p> + +<p>M. Michiels, agreeing on this point with the celebrated architect +Lassus, points out that it would be as difficult to attribute the +creation of this style to Germany as to Spain. It was in the thirteenth +century that the finest Gothic buildings appeared in France; while in +Germany, except the churches built, as it were, on the French frontier, +we find nothing at that period but Norman churches (<a href="#fig_306">Fig. 306</a>); and it is +reasonable to suppose that, if we owed the general adoption of the +pointed arch to Spain, the introduction of it would have been gradually +made through that part of the country situated beyond the Loire, where, +however, the Norman style continued to be in great favour when it was +almost entirely abandoned in the north of France.</p> + +<p>A century sufficed to bring the Pointed style to its highest perfection. +Notre-Dame (<a href="#fig_307">Fig. 307</a>) and the Sainte-Chapelle, in Paris; Notre-Dame, +Chartres; the cathedrals of Amiens (<a href="#fig_308">Fig. 308</a>), Sens, Bourges, Coutances, +in France; those of Strasbourg, Fribourg, Altenberg, and Cologne, in +Germany, the dates of whose construction succeed each other at intervals +from the first half of the twelfth to the middle of the thirteenth +century, are so many admirable specimens or types of this art, which we +may here call relatively new.</p> + +<p>To know to what marvellous variety of combinations and effects, by +merely modifying it in height and breadth from its original type, this +pointed arch, which, taken by itself, might appear the simplest of +forms, can attain, one must have passed some time in dividing into the +different parts of which it is composed, by an accurate examination of +its <i>tout ensemble</i>, such an edifice as Notre-Dame, Paris, or as the +Cathedral of Strasbourg; the first of which attracts attention by the +sustained boldness of its lines, strong as they are graceful; the +second, by its perfectly bold independence, seeming, as it does, to +taper away as by enchantment, in order to bear to a surprising height +the evidence of its incomprehensible temerity.</p> + +<p>We must rise in thought above the edifice to grasp the plan of its first +conception; we must, from below, study it on all sides to perceive<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_390" id="page_390">{390}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_275_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_275_sml.jpg" width="347" height="495" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_307" id="fig_307"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 307.—Notre-Dame, Paris (Twelfth and Thirteenth +Centuries).</p> + +<p>View of the principal Façade before the restoration executed by Messrs. +Lassus and Viollet-le-Duc.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_391" id="page_391">{391}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_276_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_276_sml.jpg" width="346" height="510" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_308" id="fig_308"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 308.—Interior of Amiens Cathedral. (Thirteenth +Century.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_392" id="page_392">{392}</a></span></p> + +<p class="nind">with what art its various parts are arranged, grouped, placed at certain +intervals from each other; we must seek to discover the contrivance by +virtue of which the immense <i>évidage</i> (sloping) of numerous buttresses, +the height of the towers, the retiring of the laterals, and the curve of +the apse are harmonised; we must enter the church and stand in its nave, +with its interminable delicate ribs—how many clusters of small columns +extend above the slender pillars!—we must contemplate the beautiful +fancies of the rose-windows, which by their many-coloured glass sober +down the glare of the light passing through them; we must gain the +summit of those towers, those spires, and from them command the dizzy +extent of aërial</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_277_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_277_sml.jpg" width="284" height="185" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_309" id="fig_309"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 309.—Capital of a Column in the Abbey of St. +Geneviève (destroyed), Paris.</p> + +<p>(Eleventh Century.)</p> + +<p><a name="fig_310" id="fig_310"></a>Fig. 310.—Capital of a Column in the Church of St. +Julien the Poor (destroyed), Paris.</p> + +<p>(Twelfth Century.)</p> +</div> +</div> +<p class="nind">space, and the landscape stretching out around them below; we must +follow attentively with our eye the strikingly bold outlines which the +turrets, the ornamented gables, the <i>guivres</i>, the tops of the +bell-towers trace upon the sky. This done, we should yet have paid but a +brief tribute of attention to these prodigious edifices. What, then, if +we wished to devote sufficient time to the ornamentation of the details +(<a href="#fig_309">Figs. 309 to 312</a>)? if we desired to obtain a tolerably exact idea of +the people from the statues which swarm from the porch to the pinnacle, +and of the <i>flora</i> and <i>fauna</i>, real or ideal, that give movement to +every projection or animate every wall? if one counted on success in +finding out the key to all the crossings<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_393" id="page_393">{393}</a></span> and intersections of the +lines, of the well-adjusted conceptions which, while they deceive the +eye, contribute to the majesty or the solidity of the whole? if, +finally, we were most careful not to lose any one of the multifarious +thoughts that have been fixed in the stones of the gigantic edifice? The +mind becomes confused; and certainly the effect produced by so much +imagination and so much enterprise, by so much skill and taste, +wonderfully elevates the soul, which searches with more love after the +Creator when it sees such a work proceeding from the hands of the +creature.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_278_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_278_sml.jpg" width="349" height="233" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_311" id="fig_311"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 311.—Vestige of the Architecture of the Goths at +Toledo. (Seventh Century.)</p> + +<p><a name="fig_312" id="fig_312"></a>Fig. 312.—Capital in the Church of the Célestins +(destroyed), Paris. (Fourteenth Century.)</p> +</div> +</div> + +<p>When you approach the Gothic church, when you stand beneath its lofty +roof, it is as if a new country were receiving you, possessing you, +casting around you an atmosphere of subduing reverie in which you feel +your wretched servitude to worldly interests vanishing away, and you +become conscious of more solid, more important ties, springing up in +you. The Deity whom our finite nature can figure to ourselves seems in +fact to inhabit this immense building, to be willing to put himself in +direct communion with the humble Christian who approaches to bow down +before Him. There is nothing in it of the human dwelling-place—all<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_394" id="page_394">{394}</a></span> +relating to our poor and miserable existence is here forgotten; He for +whom this residence was constructed is the Strong, the Great, the +Magnificent, and it is from a paternal condescension that He receives us +into His holy habitation, as weak, little, miserable. It is the ideal of +the faith which is realised; all the articles of the belief in which we +have been brought up are here embodied before our eyes; it is, lastly, +the chosen spot where the meeting of mortal nothingness and Divine +Majesty is quietly accomplished.</p> + +<p>The Christianity of the Middle Ages had then been able to find in the +Gothic style a tongue as tractable as it was energetic, as simple as it +was ingenious, which, for the pious excitement of souls, was to declare +to the senses all its ineffable poetry. But as the unbounded faith, of +which it was the faithful organ, was on the next dawn of its most ardent +aspirations about to decline, so this splendid style was almost as soon +to lose its vigour, and to exhaust itself in the unrestrained +manifestation of its power.</p> + +<p>Springing into existence with the warm enthusiasm of the first Crusades, +the Pointed style seems to follow in its different phases the decline of +faith in the time of these adventurous enterprises. It began by a +sincere outburst, and was produced by a bold, unshackled genius; then a +factitious or reflected ardour gave birth to elaborateness and +mannerism; then the fervent zeal and the artistic sentiment dwindled +away: this is the decadency.</p> + +<p>Gothic art raised itself in less than a century to its culminating +point; within two centuries more it was to reach the fatal point where +it would begin to decline. The thirteenth century saw it in all its +glory, with the edifices we have mentioned; in the fourteenth it had +become the Florid or <i>Rayonnant</i> Gothic, which produced the churches of +St. Ouen at Rouen, and of St. Etienne at Metz. “Then,” says M. A. +Lefèvre, one of the latest historians of architecture, “no more walls; +everywhere open screen-work supported by slender arcades; no more +capitals, rows of foliage imitated directly from nature; no more +columns, lofty pillars ornamented with round or bevelled mouldings. As +yet, however, there was nothing weakly in its extreme elegance; slim and +delicate without being gaunt, the Florid style did not in the least +disfigure the churches of the thirteenth century, which it bounded and +decorated.</p> + +<p>“But after the <i>Rayonnant</i> Gothic came the <i>Flamboyant</i>, which, always<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_395" id="page_395">{395}</a></span> +under the pretext of lightness and grace, denaturalises the ornaments, +the forms, and even the proportions of the architectural members. It +effaces the horizontal lines which used to give two stories to the +windows of the nave, fills up the nave with irregular compartments, +<i>cœurs</i>, <i>soufflets</i>, and <i>flammes</i>; suppresses the angles of the +pillars and sharpens the mouldings; leaves even to the most massive +supports nothing but an undulating, vanishing, impalpable form, where +shadow cannot fix itself; changes the lancet-arches into braces, or into +flat-arched vaults more or less depressed, and the florid ornamentation +of the pinnacles into whimsical scrolls. It reserved all its riches for +accessory or exterior decorations, stalls, pulpits, hanging key-stones, +running friezes, rood-screens, and bell-towers. Visible decadency of the +whole corresponds with great progress in details.” (<a href="#fig_313">Fig. 313</a>.)</p> + +<p>The churches of St. Wulfran, Abbeville; of Notre-Dame, Cléry-sur-Loire; +of St. Riquier; of Corbeil; and the cathedrals of Orleans and of Nantes, +may be cited as the principal specimens of the <i>Flamboyant</i> style, and +as the last notable manifestations of an art which thenceforward +diverged more and more from its original inspiration. The middle of the +fifteenth century is generally fixed as the limit beyond which the +handsome Gothic buildings that still rose were no longer, in any degree, +the normal productions of their period, but were felicitous copies or +imitations of works already consecrated by the history of the art.</p> + +<p>A remark may here be made showing to what extent religious feeling +predominated in the Middle Ages; it is that at the very moment when the +Norman and Gothic architects were designing and producing so many +marvellous habitations for the Deity, they seemed to bestow scarcely any +attention on the construction of comfortable or luxurious dwellings for +man, even those destined for the most exalted personages of the State. +In proportion as this sentiment of original faith lost its intensity, +Art occupied itself more and more with princely and lordly habitations. +The middle class was the last favoured by this progress, and the feeling +of their position as citizens had taken the place of a zeal exclusively +pious; so we find the “town-halls” absorbing the splendour and elegance +of which private houses remained destitute; these being generally built +of wood and plaster, and in the heart of the towns, so close together +that they seemed to be disputing for light and air.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_396" id="page_396">{396}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_279_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_279_sml.jpg" width="540" height="407" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_313" id="fig_313"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 313.—Saloon of the Schools, Oxford. (Fourteenth +Century.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_397" id="page_397">{397}</a></span></p> + +<p>Everywhere, during the Middle Ages, rose the church—the home of peace; +but everywhere also towered up at the same time the castle, that +characterised the permanent state of war in which feudal society lived, +delighted, and gloried.</p> + +<p>“The castles of the richest and most powerful nobles,” says M. Vaudoyer, +“consisted of irregular, uncomfortable buildings, pierced with a few +narrow windows, standing within one or two fortified enclosures, and +surrounded by moats. The donjon, a large high tower, generally occupied +the centre, and other towers, more or less numerous, flanked the walls, +and served for the defence of the place.” (<a href="#fig_314">Fig. 314</a>). “These castles,” +adds M. Mérimée, “generally present the same characteristics as the +ancient <i>castellum</i>; but a certain ruggedness, a striking quaintness in +plan and execution, bear witness to a personal will, and that tendency +to isolation which is the instinctive sentiment of the feudal system.”</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_280_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_280_sml.jpg" width="346" height="249" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_314" id="fig_314"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 314.—Ancient Castle of Marcoussis, near +Rambouillet. (Thirteenth Century.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>In most of the buildings destined for the privileged classes, it seems +as if it were deemed unnecessary that care should be taken to secure +harmony<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_398" id="page_398">{398}</a></span> of form. The decorative style of the period showed itself +chiefly in the interior of some of the principal apartments, the +habitable quarters of the lord of the castle and of his family. There +were vast fireplaces with enormous chimney-corners surmounted by +projecting mantelpieces; the vaulted roof was ornamented with pendents +of various devices, and with painted or carved escutcheons. Narrow +closets, contrived in the walls, served as sleeping places. The +embrasures of the windows pierced in the excessively thick walls formed +so many little chambers, raised a few steps above the floor of the room +to which they admitted light. Stone seats ran along each side of these +embrasures. Here the inmates of the tower generally sat when the cold +did not oblige them to draw near to the fireplaces. (<a href="#fig_315">Figs. 315</a> and <a href="#fig_316">316</a>.)</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_281_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_281_sml.jpg" width="322" height="183" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_315" id="fig_315"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 315.—Staircase of a Tower.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_316" id="fig_316"></a>Fig. 316.—Pointed Window with Stone Seats.</p> + +<p>(Thirteenth Century.)</p> +</div> +</div> + +<p>With the exception of these slight sacrifices made to the comforts of +life, everything in the castle was arranged, contrived, and disposed +with a view to strength and resistance; and yet it cannot be denied +that, unintentionally, the builders of these silent (<i>taciturnes</i>) +edifices have many a time—aided often, it is true, by the picturesque +sites which encircle their works—attained to a majesty of height and a +grandeur of form truly extraordinary.</p> + +<p>If the Norman church expresses with gentle severity, and the Gothic<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_399" id="page_399">{399}</a></span> +church with sumptuous fancy, the important and sublime doctrines of the +Gospel, we must equally allow that the castle, in some sort, loudly +proclaims the stern and uncivilised notions of the feudal authority of +which it was at once the instrument and the symbol.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_282-a_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_282-a_sml.jpg" width="191" height="142" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_317" id="fig_317"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 317.—The Castle of Coucy in its ancient state.</p> + +<p>(From a Miniature taken from a Manuscript of the Thirteenth Century.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Placed, in most cases, on natural or artificial eminences, it is not +without a sort of eloquent boldness that the towers and the donjons +shoot into the air, succeed each other at intervals, command and support +each other. It is frequently not without a sort of fantastic grace that +the walls scale the rising ground, making an infinity of the strangest +bends, or coiling themselves about with the supple ease of a serpent.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_282-b_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_282-b_sml.jpg" width="308" height="105" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_318" id="fig_318"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 318.—The Castle of Vincennes, as it was in the +Seventeenth Century.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Evidently, if the castle raises its gloomy head high into the air, it +has no other object in doing so than to secure to itself the advantages +of distance and height; but not the less on that account does it stand +out on the sky a grand object. The masses of its walls unsymmetrically +pierced with sombre loop-holes present an abrupt and naked appearance; +but the mono<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_400" id="page_400">{400}</a></span>tony of their lines is picturesquely broken by the +projection of overhanging turrets, by the corbels of the machicolated +arches, and by the embrasures of the battlements.</p> + +<p>A vast amount of civilisation still exists for him who recalls the past +in the multitude of ruins which were the witnesses of bloody feudal +divisions; and we must add to the system of isolated castles that often +commanded the most deserted valleys, the apparatus of strength and +defence of cities and towns—gates, ramparts, towers, citadels, &c., +immense works which, although inspired solely by the genius of strife +and dissension, did not fail nevertheless, in many instances, to combine +harmony and variety of detail with the general grandeur of the whole.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_283_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_283_sml.jpg" width="354" height="318" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_319" id="fig_319"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 319.—Tour de Nesle, which occupied the site of the +Exchange on the banks of the Seine, Paris.</p> + +<p>(From an Engraving of the Seventeenth Century.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>We may cite, as examples of architecture purely feudal, the castles of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_401" id="page_401">{401}</a></span> +Coucy (<a href="#fig_317">Fig. 317</a>), Vincennes (<a href="#fig_318">Fig. 318</a>), Pierrefonds, the old Louvre, the +Bastille, the Tour de Nesle (<a href="#fig_319">Fig. 319</a>), the Palais de Justice, +Plessis-les-Tours, &c.; and as specimens of the fortified town in the +Middle Ages, Avignon and the city of Carcassonne. Let us add that +Aigues-Mortes, in Provence; Narbonne, Thann (Haut-Rhin), Vendôme, +Villeneuve-le-Roi, Moulins, Moret (<a href="#fig_320">Fig. 320</a>), Provins (<a href="#fig_321">Fig. 321</a>), afford +yet again the most characteristic remains of analogous fortifications.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_284_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_284_sml.jpg" width="166" height="258" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_320" id="fig_320"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 320.—Gate of Moret. (Twelfth Century.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>While the nobles, jealous and suspicious, sheltered themselves in the +shadow of their donjons built with many strategical contrivances and of +substantial materials; while the large and small towns were surrounded +with deep moats, high walls, impregnable towers, the most primitive +simplicity presided over the construction of private dwellings. Stone +hardly ever, and brick but seldom, figured among the number of the +materials employed. Sawed or squared timbers serving as ribs, mud or +clay filling up the interstices, were all that was at first required for +the erection of houses as small as they were comfortless, and following +each other in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_402" id="page_402">{402}</a></span> irregular lines along the narrow streets. The beams of +the corbels, it is true, began to be adorned with carvings and +paintings, the façades with panes (glass) of different colours; but we +must reach the last half of the fifteenth century before we see the +resources of architecture applied to the erection and ornamentation of +private houses. Moreover, faith was already growing weak; and no longer +was it possible to direct all the resources of an entire province to the +honour of the Deity by the erection of a church; the use of gunpowder, +by revolutionising the art of war, came to lessen, if it did not +annihilate, the vast strength of walls; the decline of feudalism itself +had commenced; and, lastly, the enfranchisement of corporations gave +rise to a perfectly new order of individuals who took their place in +history. We must refer to this period the house of Jacques Cœur, +Bourges; the Hôtel de Sens, Paris (<a href="#fig_322">Fig. 322</a>); the Palais de Justice, +Rouen; and those town-halls in which the belfry was then considered as a +sort of palladium, in whose shade the sacred rights of the community +sheltered themselves. It is in our (French) northern towns—St. Quentin, +Arras, Noyon; and in the ancient cities of Belgium—Brussels (<a href="#fig_323">Fig. 323</a>), +Louvain, Ypres, that these edifices assume the most sumptuous character.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_285_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_285_sml.jpg" width="218" height="213" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_321" id="fig_321"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 321.—Gate of St. John, with Drawbridge, Provins. +(Fourteenth Century.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>In Germany, where for a time it reigned almost exclusively, Gothic art<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_403" id="page_403">{403}</a></span> +established the cathedrals of Erfurt, of Cologne, Fribourg, and of +Vienna; then it died away in the growth of the <i>Flamboyant</i> style. In +England, after having left some magnificent examples of pure +inspiration, it found its decline in the attenuated meagreness and the +complicated ornamentation of the style called <i>Perpendicular ogival</i>. If +it penetrated also into Spain, it was to contend with difficulty against +the mighty Moorish school, which had too many imposing <i>chefs-d’œuvre</i> +in the past to surrender without resistance the country of its former +triumphs (<a href="#fig_324">Fig. 324</a>). In Italy it clashed not only with the Latin and +Byzantine schools, but also with a style that, just beginning to form +itself, was soon to dispute with it the empire of taste, and to dethrone +it in that very land which had been its cradle. The cathedrals of +Assisi, of Siena, of Milan, are the splendid works in which its +influence triumphed over local traditions and over the <i>Renaissance</i> +that was preparing to follow; yet we must not think that it succeeded +even there in rendering itself absolutely the master, as it had done on +the Rhenish or British territories. Sacrifices were made in its favour; +but these sacrifices did not amount to an entire immolation.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_286_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_286_sml.jpg" width="241" height="204" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_322" id="fig_322"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 322.—Doorways of the Hôtel de Sens, at Paris; the +last remaining portion of the Hôtel Royal de</p> + +<p>Saint-Pol, built in the reign of Charles V. (Fourteenth Century.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>When we use the word <i>Renaissance</i>, we seem to be speaking of a return +to an age already gone by, of the resurrection of a period that had +passed<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_404" id="page_404">{404}</a></span> away. It is not strictly in this sense that the word must be +understood in the present instance.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_287_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_287_sml.jpg" width="296" height="419" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_323" id="fig_323"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 323.—Belfry of Brussels (Fifteenth Century), from +an engraving of the Seventeenth Century.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Inheriting from of old the artistic temperament of Greece, rather than +spontaneously creating of herself any style, Italy, among all the +nations of Europe, was the country which had most successfully resisted +the profound<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_405" id="page_405">{405}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_288_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_288_sml.jpg" width="583" height="407" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_324" id="fig_324"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 324.—Interior of the Palace of the Alhambra, at +Granada.—(Thirteenth Century.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_406" id="page_406">{406}</a></span></p> + +<p class="nind">darkness of barbarism, and the first on which the light of modern +civilisation shone.</p> + +<p>At the period of this new dawn of genius, Italy had only to ransack the +ruins its first magnificence had bequeathed it to find among them +examples it might follow; moreover, it was the time when the active +rivalry of its republics caused all the treasures of ancient Greece to +flow into it. But while it derived inspiration from these abundant +manifestations of another age, it never entertained the idea of +abandoning itself exclusively to a servile imitation; it had—and in +this consists its chief title to glory—while giving a peculiar +direction to the revivals of the antique, the good sense to remain under +the poetic influence of that simple and congenial art which had consoled +the world during the whole continuance of that protracted infancy of a +civilisation which was at last advancing with rapid strides towards +perfect manhood.</p> + +<p>From the twelfth century, Pisa gave an impetus to the art by building +its Duomo, its Baptistery, its Leaning Tower, and the cloisters of its +famous Campo Santo; so many admirable works forming an era in the +history of modern art, and in a brilliant manner opening the career on +which so many distinguished men were to enter, rivalling each other in +invention, in science, and in genius. In these monuments the union of +Oriental taste with the traditions of ages gone by created an +originality as grand as it was graceful. “It is,” as M. A. Lefèvre +points out, “the Antique without its nudity, the Byzantine without its +heaviness, the fervour of the Western Gothic without its ghastliness” +(<i>effroi</i>).</p> + +<p>In 1294 the magistrates of Florence passed the following decree, +charging the architect, Arnolfo di Cambio, to convert into a cathedral +the church, till then of little importance, of Santa Maria de’ +Fiori:—“Forasmuch,” they said, “as it is in the highest degree prudent +for a people of illustrious origin to proceed in their affairs in such +manner that their public works may cause their grandeur and wisdom to be +acknowledged, the order is given to Arnolfo, master-architect of our +town, to make plans for repairing the Church of Santa Maria with the +greatest and most lavish magnificence, so that the skill and prudence of +men may never invent, nor ever be able to undertake, anything more +important or more beautiful.”</p> + +<p>Arnolfo applied himself to his task, and conceived a plan which the +shortness of human life did not allow him to carry out; but Giotto +succeeded<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_407" id="page_407">{407}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_289_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_289_sml.jpg" width="341" height="499" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_325" id="fig_325"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 325.—Interior of the Basilica of St. Peter’s, +Rome.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_408" id="page_408">{408}</a></span></p> + +<p class="nind">him, and to Giotto succeeded Orcagna, and to Orcagna, Brunelleschi, who +designed and almost completed that Duomo, of which Michael Angelo said +it would be difficult to equal, and impossible to surpass, it.</p> + +<p>Arnolfo, Giotto, Orcagna, Brunelleschi—does it not suffice to cite +these great names for us to form an idea of the movement going on at +this period? and which was soon to produce Alberti, Bramante, Michael +Angelo, Jacques della Porta, Baldassare Peruzzi, Antonio and Juliano de +Sangallo, Giocondo, Vignola, Serlio, and even Raphael, who, when he +liked, was as mighty an architect as he was a marvellous painter. It was +in Rome that these princes of the art congregated together, as the +splendours of St. Peter’s (<a href="#fig_325">Fig. 325</a>), to mention only one of their grand +creations, still attest; so, it is from this city that henceforward +light and example are to come.</p> + +<p>In the style which this masterly phalanx created, the Latin rounded arch +regained all its ancient favour, and united itself to the ancient +orders, which became intermingled, or, at any rate, superposed. The +ogive was abandoned, but the columns to decorate their capitals, and the +entablatures to give more grace to their projections, borrowed a certain +fantastical style which yielded in nothing to the ogival; the Grecian +pediment reappeared, changing sometimes the upper lines of its triangle +into a depressed semicircle; lastly the cupola, that striking object +which was the characteristic feature of the Byzantine style, became the +dome, whose ample curve defied, in the daring heights whereto it rose, +the wonders of the Perpendicular Gothic.</p> + +<p>The Italian <i>Renaissance</i> was now accomplished, the Gothic age at an +end. Rome and Florence sent in every direction their architects, who, as +they travelled far from these metropolises of the new style, were once +more subjected to certain territorial influences, but who knew how to +make the tradition of which they were the apostles triumphant. It was +then that France inaugurated in its turn a Renaissance peculiar to +herself; it was then that, under the reign of Charles VIII., after his +expedition into Italy, began, with the Château de Gaillon, a long +succession of edifices, which in many cases yielded neither in richness +nor in majesty to the works of the preceding period. Under Louis XII. +rose the Château de Blois, and the Hôtel de la Cour des Comptes, Paris, +a splendid building destroyed by fire in the eighteenth century. Under +Francis I., Chambord (<a href="#fig_326">Fig. 326</a>), Fontainebleau, Madrid (near Paris), +magnificent royal “humours,” contended in<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_409" id="page_409">{409}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_290_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_290_sml.jpg" width="338" height="473" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_326" id="fig_326"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 326.—Château de Chambord, with its Ancient Moat. +(Seventeenth Century.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p class="nind">elegance and grace with the châteaux of Nantouillet, Chenonceaux, and +Azai-le-Rideau; and with the manor-house of Ango, near Dieppe, all +sump<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_410" id="page_410">{410}</a></span>tuous, lordly mansions; the old Louvre, the palace of kings, the +cradle of monarchy, was regenerated under the care of Peter Lescot; the +Hôtel de Ville, Paris, still bears witness to the varied talent of +Dominique Cortona, who, as M. Vaudoyer said of him, “justly understood +that, in building for France, he should act in a perfectly different +manner to that in which he would have acted in Italy.” Under Henry II. +and Charles IX. this activity continued, and the architects who sought +their inspirations in Grecian and Roman antiquity, as much as in the +<i>souvenirs</i> of the Italian Renaissance, delighted in loading all the +elegant and graceful buildings with ornaments, with bas-reliefs, and +with statues, which they seemed to carve in the stone, as delicately +wrought as a piece of goldsmith’s work. Philibert Delorme built for +Diana of Poitiers the Château d’Anet, that architectural jewel whose +portico, transported piece by piece at the time of the revolutionary +disorders, now decorates the court of the Ecole des Beaux-Arts; Jean +Bullant built Ecouen for the Constable Anne de Montmorency; and the +architect d’Anet undertook, by order of Catherine de Medicis, the +construction of the Palace of the Tuileries, which, by a sort of +exigency resulting from its particular destination, seemed typically to +characterise the style of the French Renaissance.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_291_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_291_sml.jpg" width="212" height="184" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_327" id="fig_327"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 327.—Porte de Hal, Brussels. (Fourteenth Century.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>We must not burden with details this summary of one of the most +important branches of art. The history of architecture is among those +vast<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_411" id="page_411">{411}</a></span> domains which demand either a short epitome or a thoroughly deep +investigation. The epitome being alone consistent with the plan of our +work, we must confine ourselves to its limits; but we may, perhaps, be +allowed to think that the few rapid pages thus devoted to the subject +have inspired the reader with the desire of penetrating farther into a +study which is capable of offering him so many agreeable surprises, so +many rational delights.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_292_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_292_sml.jpg" width="153" height="202" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_412" id="page_412">{412}</a></span> </p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_413" id="page_413">{413}</a></span> </p> + +<h2><a name="PARCHMENT_AND_PAPER" id="PARCHMENT_AND_PAPER"></a>PARCHMENT AND PAPER.</h2> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Parchment in Ancient Times.—Papyrus.—Preparation of Parchment and +Vellum in the Middle Ages.—Sale of Parchment at the Fair of +Lendit.—Privilege of the University of Paris on the Sale and +Purchase of Parchment.—Different Applications of +Parchment.—Cotton Paper imported from China.—Order of the Emperor +Frederick II. concerning Paper.—The Employment of Linen Paper +dating from the Twelfth Century.—Ancient Water-Marks on +Paper.—Paper Manufactories in France and other parts of Europe.</p></div> + +<p class="nind"><a href="images/ill_293_lg.jpg"> +<span class="letra"> +<img src="images/ill_293_sml.jpg" +width="90" +alt="A" /></span></a>LTHOUGH most authors who speak of parchment attribute the invention of +it, on the testimony of Pliny, to Eumenius, king of Pergamus +(doubtlessly from the etymology of the word by which it was designated, +viz., <i>Pergamena</i>), it seems to be proved, according to Peignot, that +the use of it is much more ancient, and that its origin is utterly lost. +Certainly, in many passages of the Old Testament we find a Hebrew Word, +in Latin <i>volumen</i>, which can only be understood to mean a roll formed +of prepared skin or of the leaves of papyrus, and it is consequently +evident that the Jews, from the time of Moses, wrote the tables of the +Law on rolls of parchment.</p> + +<p>Herodotus says that the Ionians called books <i>diphthera</i> (διφθἑρα, a +prepared hide), because, at a time when the <i>biblos</i> (βἱβλος, the inner +bark of the papyrus) was scarce, they wrote on skins of goats or of +sheep. Diodorus Siculus affirms that the ancient Persians wrote their +annals on skins, and we must suppose that Pliny’s assertion refers only +to some improvements the King of Pergamus had made in the art of +preparing a material that could supply the place of papyrus, which +Ptolemy Epiphanius would no longer allow to leave Egypt. The absolute +deficiency of papyrus raised into activity the fabrication of parchment, +and soon so large a quantity was seen to flow into Pergamus that this +town was considered as the cradle of the new trade, already so +flourishing. There were then books of two kinds,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_414" id="page_414">{414}</a></span> the one in rolls +composed of many leaves sewed together, on one side of which only was +there writing; the others, square-shaped, were written upon both sides. +The grammarian Crates, ambassador of Eumenius at Rome, passed as the +inventor of vellum.</p> + +<p>Ordinary parchment is the skin of a goat, sheep, or lamb, prepared in +lime, dressed, scraped, and rendered smooth by pumice-stone. Its +principal qualities are whiteness, thinness, and stiffness; but the work +of the currier must have been formerly very imperfect, for Hildebert, +Archbishop of Tours in the eleventh century, tells us that the writer, +before beginning his occupation, “was in the habit of clearing away from +the parchment, with the aid of a razor, the remains of fat and other +gross impurities, and then with pumice-stone to make the hair and +tendons disappear:” this almost amounts to affirming that the scribes +bought the hide undressed, and, by an elaborate preparation, made them +fit for proper use. Virgin parchment, which in its grain and colour +resembles vellum, was made of the skins of those lambs and goats which +had been clipped. Vellum, more polished, whiter, more transparent, is +made, as its name indicates, of the hide of the calf.<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a></p> + +<p>It is probable that with the Romans, papyrus, considering the facility +they had of procuring it for themselves, was more frequently used than +parchment, which, at first, was rare and costly. But parchment, more +durable and of greater resistance than papyrus, was reserved for the +transcription of the most important works. Cicero, who had many books on +parchment in his magnificent library, said that he had seen the “Iliad” +copied on a scroll of <i>pergamena</i> which went into a nut-shell. Many of +Martial’s epigrams prove to us that in the time of this poet books of +such kind were still more numerous. Unfortunately, there remains to us +no writing on parchment dating from this distant period. The Virgil in +the Vatican, and the Terence at Florence, are of the fourth and fifth +century of our era. Admitting that time destroys all, and also that the +work of the rude tribes on many occasions assisted this natural cause of +destruction, we must not forget that at certain periods, to supply the +place of new parchment when it was scarce, a plan had been devised of +making the parchment rolls which had already been used for manuscripts +serve again<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_415" id="page_415">{415}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_294_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_294_sml.jpg" width="385" height="518" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_328" id="fig_328"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 328.—Miniature of the Ninth Century, representing +an Evangelist who is transcribing with the <i>Calamus</i>, on Parchment, the +Sacred Text, of which he is receiving the revelation.</p> + +<p>(Bibl. de Bourgogne, Brussels.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_416" id="page_416">{416}</a></span></p> + +<p class="nind">for a similar purpose, either by scraping and rubbing them with +pumice-stone, or by boiling them in water or soaking in lime. There is +no doubt but the scarceness and the dearness of parchment was the cause +of the loss of very many excellent works. Muratori cites, for example, a +manuscript of the Ambrosian Library, of which the writing, dating from +eight or nine centuries back, had been substituted for another of more +than a thousand years old; and Maffei informs us that the employment of +ancient parchment scraped and washed became so general, in the +fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, throughout Germany, that the +Emperors put a stop to this dangerous abuse by issuing an order to the +notaries to use nothing but parchment “quite new.”</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_295_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_295_sml.jpg" width="359" height="253" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_329" id="fig_329"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 329.—View of the Ancient Abbey of St. Denis and its +Dependencies.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Generally, the quality of parchment serves to determine the date of its +manufacture. The vellum of manuscripts till the middle of the eleventh +century is very white and thin; the parchment of the twelfth century is +thick, rough, and brownish, which often shows it has been scraped or +washed. The greater number of fine manuscripts are on<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_417" id="page_417">{417}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_296_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_296_sml.jpg" width="243" height="240" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_330" id="fig_330"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 330.—Seal of the University of Paris (Fourteenth +Century), after one of the Dies preserved in the Collection of Medals in +the Imperial Library, Paris.</p></div> +</div> + +<p class="nind">virgin parchment, which from its nature was suited to the delicacies of +calligraphy and illumination. Moreover, we see from a statute of the +University of Paris, dated 1291, that the parchment trade had attained +at that period to considerable development; so, as a protection against +the frauds and deceptions which might result from the great competition +of traders in it, and to insure a good article being furnished to +students and artists, a special privilege was granted to the university, +which, in the person of its rector, had not only the right of +inspection, but also the refusal of all parchment bought in Paris, no +matter whence it had come. Besides which, at the fair of Lendit, which +was held every year at Saint-Denis, on the domains of the abbey (Fig. +329), and at the fair of Saint-Lazare, the rector likewise caused the +parchment brought to them to be examined, and the merchants of Paris +could not purchase any till the king’s agents, those of the Bishop of +Paris, and the masters and scholars of the university, had provided +themselves with what they required (<a href="#fig_330">Fig. 330</a>). Let us add that the +rector was paid a duty on all<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_418" id="page_418">{418}</a></span> parchment sold, and the result of this +tax was the only source of income attached to the rectorship in the +seventeenth century.</p> + +<p>Although white parchment seems to be the best suited for writing, the +Middle Ages, following the example of antiquity, gave to the material +various tints, especially purple and yellow. The purple was chiefly +intended to receive characters of gold or silver. The Emperor +Maximinius, the younger, inherited from his mother the works of Homer +inscribed in gold on purple vellum; and parchment tinted in this way +was, during the first centuries, one of the prerogatives reserved for +princes and the great dignitaries of the Church. It is remarkable that +the barbarism of the seventh and eighth centuries did not diminish the +favour in which these luxurious manuscripts were held. Little by little, +however, the custom (of writing the entire work in gold or colours) +dwindled away. Scribes began by colouring a few pages only in each +volume, then some margins or frontispieces; and lastly this decoration +was restricted to the heads of chapters, or to words to which great +prominence was to be given, or to capital letters. The <i>rubricatores</i> +(literally, writers in red), workmen who performed this operation, came +in time to be mere painters of letters or <i>rubrics</i> (so called because +they were originally painted red), of whose assistance, however, the +first printers availed themselves to <i>rubric</i> or colour the initials of +missals, Bibles, and law books.</p> + +<p>The dimensions or sizes of our books at the present day have their +origin in the sizes of the parchment in olden times. The entire skin of +the animal, cut square and folded in two, represented the “in-folio,” +which, moreover, varied in length and breadth; and we have every reason +to suppose that paper, from the day it was invented, followed the +ordinary sizes of the folded parchment.</p> + +<p>As to the dimensions of the parchment employed for diplomas, they varied +according to the time, the brevity of the matter, or the nature of its +employment. Among the ancients, who wrote only on one side of the +parchment, the skins were cut in bands joined together so as to form +<i>volumes</i> or rolls, which were unrolled as their contents were read. +This custom was preserved for public and judicial acts for a long time +after the invention of the square book (<i>codex</i>) had caused the +<i>opisthographic</i> writing to be adopted, by which is to be understood +writing on both sides of the page. In principle, only the final formulæ, +or the signatures, were written on the back<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_419" id="page_419">{419}</a></span> of the document. By degrees +people adopted the practice of writing on the back as well as the front +of the page; but it was not till the sixteenth century that this custom +became general.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_297_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_297_sml.jpg" width="260" height="259" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_331" id="fig_331"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 331.—Seal of the King of La Basoche. (This title +was suppressed, with all its prerogatives, by Henry III.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Judicial acts, composed sometimes of many skins sewed together, came in +time to form rolls of twenty feet in length; to such extreme proportions +did they reach, though at first they were so small in size that their +limited dimensions are truly incredible; for in 1233 and 1252 we find +contracts of sales of two inches long by five inches wide, and in 1258 a +will written on a piece of parchment of two inches by three and a half. +It was by way of compensating for the great cost of parchment that +opisthographic writing was adopted and rolls were put aside; and the +name alone remains as applied to the <i>rolls</i> of procedure. The size that +leaves should assume was also fixed, according to the different uses for +which they were intended. For instance, the leaves of parliamentary +documents were nine inches and a half long by seven and a half wide; +those of the council, ten by eight; those of finance and of private +contracts, twelve and a half<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_420" id="page_420">{420}</a></span> by nine and a half; letters of pardon, +under the king’s hand, were to be on entire skins squared, two feet two +inches by one foot eight inches in diameter.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_298_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_298_sml.jpg" width="173" height="223" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_332" id="fig_332"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 332.—The Paper-Maker, drawn and engraved in the +Sixteenth Century by J. Amman.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>But while the use of parchment was still strictly employed in the +chancellor’s offices and the tribunals, where the <i>basoche</i> (a +brotherhood of lawyers of all grades) considered it as one of their most +lucrative privileges (<a href="#fig_331">Fig. 331</a>), it had for a long while ceased to be +used anywhere else. Paper, after having during many centuries competed +with parchment, at last almost entirely replaced it (<a href="#fig_332">Fig. 332</a>); for if +less durable, it had the great advantage of costing much less. Formerly +nothing but the ancient papyrus of Egypt was known, and it was made use +of concurrently with parchment till there was brought into Europe, +towards the tenth century, cotton paper, which is generally believed to +be a Chinese invention, and which was at first called <i>Grecian +parchment</i>, because the Venetians, who introduced it into the West, had +found it in use in Greece.</p> + +<p>Actually, this paper was at first of a very inferior quality, coarse, +spongy, dull, and subject to the attacks of damp and worms; so much so +that the Emperor Frederick II. issued, in 1221, an order declaring null +and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_421" id="page_421">{421}</a></span> void all documents written on it, and fixing the term at two years +by which all were to be transcribed on parchment.</p> + +<p>The use and the knowledge of the process of manufacturing paper from +cotton soon led to the fabrication of paper from linen or rags. It is, +however, impossible to say when and where it was accomplished—the +assertions and the testimonies on this point are so contradictory. Some +think that the paper was brought from the East by the Spanish Saracens; +others say it came from China; these affirm it has been employed since +the tenth century; those, that we can only find specimens of it as far +back as the reign of St. Louis.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_299_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_299_sml.jpg" width="331" height="341" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_333" id="fig_333"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 333.—Water-Marks on Paper, from the Fourteenth to +the Fifteenth Century.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_422" id="page_422">{422}</a></span></p> + +<p>At any rate, the most ancient writing on paper made of rags known at the +present day is a letter from Joinville to Louis X., dated 1315; we may, +moreover, mention with certainty, as written on linen paper, an +inventory of goods belonging to a certain Prior Henry, who died in 1340, +which is preserved at Canterbury, and many authentic writings, dating +back as far as 1335, preserved in the British Museum, London. The first +paper-manufactory established in England was, it is said, at Hertford, +which dates only from 1588; but important paper-manufactories existed in +France from the reign of Philippe de Valois, that is, from the middle of +the fourteenth century; particularly at Essonne and at Troyes. The paper +which came from these manufactories bore generally, in the paper itself, +different marks (<a href="#fig_333">Fig. 333</a>) called water-marks, such as a bull’s head, a +cross, a serpent, a star, a crown, &c., according to the quality or +destination of the paper. Many other countries in Europe had also +flourishing paper-manufactories in the fourteenth century. From this +period we find, indeed, a large number of documents written on paper +made of rags, the use of which thus preceded by about a century the +invention of printing.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_300_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_300_sml.jpg" width="118" height="130" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_334" id="fig_334"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 334.—Banner of the Paper-Makers of Paris.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_423" id="page_423">{423}</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="MANUSCRIPTS" id="MANUSCRIPTS"></a>MANUSCRIPTS</h2> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Manuscripts in Olden Times.—Their Form.—Materials of which they +were composed.—Their Destruction by the Goths.—Rare at the +Beginning of the Middle Ages.—The Catholic Church preserved and +multiplied them.—Copyists.—Transcription of +Diplomas.—Corporation of Scribes and +Booksellers.—Palæography.—Greek Writings.—Uncial and Cursive +Manuscripts.—Sclavonic Writings.—Latin Writers.—Tironian +Shorthand.—Lombardic +Characters.—Diplomatic.—Capetian.—Ludovicinian.—Gothic.—Runic.—Visigothic.—Anglo-Saxon.—Irish.</p></div> + +<p class="nind"><a href="images/ill_301_lg.jpg"> +<span class="letra"> +<img src="images/ill_301_sml.jpg" +width="90" +alt="L" /></span></a>ET the reader refer to the chapters on <span class="smcap">Parchment</span> and <span class="smcap">Binding</span>, and he +will find a few remarks on the purely material part of manuscripts; we +may, then, here treat this question very summarily; and for that purpose +we shall avail ourselves of the remarkable work of J. J. +Champollion-Figeac.</p> + +<p>When writing was once invented, and had passed into general use in +civilised society, the choice of substances suited for its reception, +and to fix it in a durable manner, was very diversified, although +depending on the nature of the text to be written.</p> + +<p>People wrote on stone, on metals, on the bark and leaves of many kinds +of trees, on dried or baked clay, on wood, on ivory, wax, linen, the +hides of quadrupeds, on parchment, the best of these preparations; on +papyrus, which is the inner bark of a reed growing in the Nile; then on +paper made of cotton; and lastly, on paper made from hemp and flax, +called rag paper. The Roman world had adopted the use of papyrus, which +was a very important branch of commerce at Alexandria. We find proof of +this in the writers of antiquity: St. Jerome bears witness to it as far +as regards the fifth century of our era. The Latin and Greek emperors +gave their diplomas on papyrus. Popes traced their most ancient bulls<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_424" id="page_424">{424}</a></span> +upon it. The charters of the kings of France of the first race were also +issued on papyrus. From the eighth century parchment contended with +papyrus; a little later cotton paper also became its competitor, and the +eleventh century is generally fixed on as the period when papyrus was +entirely superseded by the new materials appropriated to the +preservation of writing.</p> + +<p>For writing on papyrus the brush or reed was employed, with inks of +different colours; black ink was, however, most generally used. There +grew on the banks of the Nile, at the time when the reed furnished +papyrus, another sort of reed, stiffer and also more flexible, and +admirably suited for the manufacture of the <i>calamus</i>, an instrument +supplying the place of the pen, which was not adopted before the eighth +century.</p> + +<p>The size of manuscripts was in no way subject to fixed rules, there were +volumes of all dimensions; the most ancient on parchment are, in +general, longer than they are broad, or else are square; the writing +rests on a line traced with the dry point of the <i>calamus</i>, and +afterwards with black-lead; the parts making up a volume are composed of +an indeterminate number of leaves; a word or a figure, placed at the +bottom of the last page of each part and at the end of the volume, +serves as a <i>catchword</i> from one fasciculus to another.</p> + +<p>The emperors of Constantinople used to sign in red ink the acts of their +sovereignty; their first secretary was the guardian of the vase +containing the cinnabar (vermilion), which the emperor alone might use. +Some diplomas of the kings of France of the second race are signed in +the same manner. In valuable manuscripts, great use was made of golden +ink, especially when the parchment was dyed purple; but red ink was +almost always employed for capital letters or for the titles of books, +and for a long time after the invention of printing the volumes still +had the <i>rubrics</i> (<i>ruber</i>, red) painted or beautifully executed with +the pen.</p> + +<p>The greater number of rich manuscripts, even when they contained the +text of some ancient secular author, were destined to be presented to +the treasuries of churches and abbeys, and these offerings were not made +without great display: the book, whatever its contents might be, was +placed on the altar, and a solemn mass was celebrated on the occasion; +moreover, an inscription at the end of the work mentioned the homage +which had been paid for it to God and to the saints in paradise.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_425" id="page_425">{425}</a></span></p> + +<p>We must not forget that in this time of almost universal ignorance, the +Church was the only depository of literature and science; she sought +after those heathen authors who could instruct her in eloquence that +might be employed in advancing the faith, almost as much as she sought +for sacred books; it was not rare even to see Christian zeal exalting +itself so far as to find prophets of the Messiah in writers very +anterior to the doctrines of Christ. Thus the best Greek and Latin +manuscripts of profane authors are the work of monks, as were the Bibles +and the writings of the Fathers of the Church. The rules of the most +ancient brotherhoods recommended the monks who could write and who +wished to please God to re-copy the manuscripts, and those who were +illiterate to learn to bind them. “The work of the copyist,” said the +learned Alcuin to his contemporaries, “is a meritorious work, which is +profitable to the soul, while the work of the ploughman is profitable +only to the belly.”</p> + +<p>At all periods of history we find mention made of certain celebrated +manuscripts. We will not go so far back as the Greek traditions relating +to the works of Homer, of which some copies were ornamented with a +richness that has, probably, never been surpassed. In the fifth century +St. Jerome possessed twenty-five parts of the works of Origen, which +Pamphilus the Martyr had copied with his own hand. St. Ambrose, St. +Fulgentius, Hincmar, Archbishop of Rheims, men as learned as they were +pious, applied themselves to reproducing with their own hands the best +ancient texts. A copyist by profession was called <i>scriba</i>, <i>scriptor</i>; +the place in which they generally worked was called <i>scriptorium</i>. The +capitularies against bad copyists were frequently renewed. “We ordain +that no scribe write incorrectly,” we find in the collection of Baluze. +We read in the same collection, in 789, “There shall be good Catholic +texts in all monasteries, so that prayers shall not be made to God in +faulty language.” In 805, “If the Gospels, the Psalter, or the Missal +are to be copied, only careful middle-aged men are to be employed; +verbal errors may otherwise be introduced into the faith.” There were, +moreover, <i>correctors</i> who rectified the work of the copyists, and +attested the work, on the volumes, by the words <i>contuli</i>, <i>emendavi</i> +(“I have collated, I have revised”). A copy of Origen’s works has been +mentioned, corrected by the hand of Charlemagne himself, to whom is also +attributed the introduction of full stops and commas.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_426" id="page_426">{426}</a></span></p> + +<p>The same care presided over the preparation of royal charters and +diplomas; the referendaries or chancellors drew them up and +superintended their despatch; the principal officers of the crown +intervened, as guarantors or witnesses to them, and these acts were read +publicly before they were signed and sealed. Notaries and witnesses +guaranteed the authenticity of private charters.</p> + +<p>As long as printing did not exist in France, the corporation of scribes, +copyists of charters, and copyists of manuscripts, which counted among +them booksellers, was very numerous and very influential, since it was +composed of graduates of the university that patronised them and placed +them among the number of its indispensable agents. He who desired to +become a bookseller had to give proof of his instruction and of his +ability; he was obliged to take an oath “not to commit any deception, +fraud, or evil thing which might damage or prejudice the university, its +scholars and frequenters, nor to rob nor speak ill of them.” Besides +which he was compelled to deposit a sum of fifty francs (<i>livres +parisis</i>) as caution-money.</p> + +<p>The rules imposed on scribes and on booksellers were always very strict, +and this severity was only too justly occasioned by the abuses that +existed, and by the scandalous disorder of the people who exercised +these professions. In the year 1324 the university published this +order:—“There will be admitted only people of good conduct and morals, +sufficiently acquainted with the book trade, and previously approved by +the university. The bookseller may not take a clerk into his service +till that clerk has sworn, before the university, to exercise his +profession according to the ordinances. The bookseller must give to the +university a list of the works which he sells; he must not refuse to let +a manuscript to whomsoever may wish to make a copy of it, on payment of +the indemnity fixed by the university. He is forbidden to let out books +that have not been corrected, and those students who find an incorrect +copy are requested to denounce it publicly to the rector, so that the +bookseller who has let it out may be punished, and that the copy may be +corrected by <i>scholares</i> (learned men or scholars). There shall be every +year four commissioners chosen to fix the price of books. One bookseller +shall not sell a work to another bookseller before he has exposed the +work for sale during four days. In any case the seller is obliged to +register the name of the purchaser, to describe him, and to state the +price for which the book was sold.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_427" id="page_427">{427}</a></span>”</p> + +<p>From century to century this legislation underwent variations, according +to the ideas of the times: and when the printing-press came, in the +middle of the fifteenth century, to change the face of the world, the +corporation of <i>scribes</i> rose at first against the new art which was to +ruin them. “But at last,” says Champollion-Figeac, “they submitted, and +temporary measures were recommended to the public authorities for the +defence of an ancient order of things which could not long resist the +new.”</p> + +<p>Now let us go back to the first centuries of the Middle Ages, to resume +the question from a palæographic point of view.</p> + +<p>The languages and literature of modern Europe are all Greek or Latin, +Sclavonic or Gothic; these four great families of peoples and of +languages have existed in spite of the vicissitudes of politics. Such is +the basis whereon must be found all the researches by which we are to +establish the origin and nature of the writing peculiar to each +literature.</p> + +<p>The Greeks of Constantinople taught writing to the Sclavonic race, and +with it the Christian faith. The most ancient Greek writing (we speak of +the Christian era only) was the <i>capital</i> writing, regular and +well-proportioned; as it became general it was simplified more and more. +After this sort of writing, examples of which are found only on stone or +bronze, we come to the writing called, although we do not know why, +<i>uncial</i>,<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> which, was the first step towards the Greek <i>cursive</i> +(flowing).</p> + +<p><i>Uncial</i> writing was employed, in Greek manuscripts, up to the ninth +century; we may observe the transition from the <i>uncial</i> to the +<i>half-uncial</i>, and from the <i>half-uncial</i> to the <i>minuscule</i>.<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id="FNanchor_54_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a> In the +tenth century manuscripts in minuscule became very abundant—the +tachygrapher’s (ταχὑς, quick, and γρἁφω, I write), or the partisans of +quick writing, gained the day; the caligraphers (καλὁς, beautiful, and +γρἁφω I write) desired to follow their example. These employed a great +deal of time in painting the initials of running letters: the new +method, which produced more in the same space of time, easily got into +favour; the caligraphers abandoned the uncial and adopted the minuscule +characters connected together, which combined good<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_428" id="page_428">{428}</a></span> forms with greater +facility of execution. Thenceforward, the uncial was no longer employed +except for the titles or headings of books.</p> + +<p>Among the fine specimens of this epoch which have been preserved, we may +mention, in the Imperial Library of Paris, a Book of the Gospels, called +Cardinal Mazarin’s, and the Commentaries of Gregory Nazianzus; at the +Laurentinean Library, Florence, are a Plutarch and a Book of the +Gospels, written with gold ink in large and massive minuscule cursive +characters; and lastly, a book of ecclesiastical offices, belonging also +to the Imperial Library in Paris, and which bears this superscription in +Greek:—“Pray for Euthymus, a poor monk, priest of the monastery of St. +Lazare. This volume was finished in the month of May, Convocation S, in +the year 6515,” a date which, according to the computation of the Greek +Church, corresponds to the month of May of the year 1007 of the +Christian era.</p> + +<p>To the twelfth century is assigned the beautiful Greek manuscript which +was afterwards given to Louis XIV. by Chrysanthes Noras, Patriarch of +Jerusalem; to the thirteenth century belongs another manuscript, in very +small cursive letters, ornamented with portraits, presented by the +Emperor Palæologos to St. Louis. It was only in the fourteenth century +that manuscripts half Latin and half Greek, appeared. Lastly came Ange +Végèce, of Corfu, who, towards the middle of the fifteenth century, made +for himself, as a Greek caligrapher, such a reputation that he gave, it +is said, rise to the proverb, “<i>Écrire comme un ange</i>.”</p> + +<p>The Greek alphabet, when it penetrated into the countries of the north +with the Christian religion and civilisation, underwent important +modifications. On the right bank of the Danube, in ancient Mœsia, +Ulphilas, the descendant of a Cappadocian family formerly taken prisoner +by the Goths, invented, in the fourth century, the alphabet bearing, on +that account, the name of <i>Mœso-Gothic</i>, and which is of Greek origin, +with a mixture of Latin characters and other peculiar signs. This +writing is heavy, without being elegant; differing, as if by an instinct +of nationality, from the types which it imitates. The Mœso-Gothic +manuscripts are, however, very rare; only two or three being known.</p> + +<p>The Sclavonic writing, which is also a daughter of Greece, has a history +nearly similar to that of the Mœso-Gothic. When the people of this +family were converted to Christianity, they were brought over to it by +Greek Christians, and the Patriarch Cyril, in the ninth century, became<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_429" id="page_429">{429}</a></span> +their teacher; he taught them, how to write (which they never knew till +then), and it was the Greek alphabet they adopted, adding to it, +however, a few new signs, so that they might be able to express the +sounds peculiar to their language. Sclavonic manuscripts are positively +numerous in public libraries. We find them in Paris, Bologna, and Rome, +but above all in Germany, and in the country under the dominion of the +Muscovite. One of the most celebrated is that belonging to the town of +Rheims, and which is known by the name of “Texte du Sacre,” because a +tradition (an erroneous one, however) asserts that the kings of France, +at the time of their coronation at Rheims, took the oaths on this book, +which was said to be written by the hand of St. Procopius. The Sclavonic +manuscripts in general recommend themselves less by the elegance of +their execution than by the richness of their bindings.</p> + +<p>The actual Russian alphabet is but an abridgment of the alphabet called +the <i>Cyrilian</i>, reduced to forty-two signs by the Emperor Peter I.; so +that the Sclavonic nations knew two <i>Cyrilian</i> alphabets, the ancient +Sclavonic for the liturgical writings, and the modern Sclavonic, or +Russian, in general use. Of the first no manuscripts exist earlier than +the eleventh century of our era.</p> + +<p>The manuscripts of the Latins are, without doubt, more numerous and more +varied, because the Latin Church is more extensive, and because Roman +civilisation spread itself over a larger number of European provinces. +At the head of the manuscripts of the Latin writing is placed a fragment +of papyrus, found in Egypt, on which is inscribed an imperial edict for +the annulment of a sale of property, agreed upon in consequence of some +violence committed by a certain man named Isidore; the date of this +document has been fixed as the third century. For the fourth century we +have the “Virgil,” with miniatures, which we mention elsewhere +(<span class="smcap">Miniatures of Manuscripts</span>), and a “Terence,” both belonging to the +Vatican Library, and both written in capital letters; in the latter, +however, they are irregular, and called, on that account, <i>rustic +capitals</i>.</p> + +<p>To the same period we must refer the “Treatise on the Republic,” by +Cicero, which has but lately been found in a volume from which the +previous writing had been effaced, as was often the case (see <span class="smcap">Parchment +and Paper</span>), in order to make room for the new writing. For the fifth +century we have a second “Virgil,” with miniatures, which passed from<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_430" id="page_430">{430}</a></span> +the library of the Abbey of St. Denis into that of the Vatican. The +“Prudence,” which the Imperial Library of Paris still possesses, is a +very fine manuscript of the sixth century, written, in rustic capitals, +quaint but elegant.</p> + +<p>Two other kinds of writing were, at the same period, in use among the +Latins; this same rustic capital, ceasing to be rectangular, and rounded +in its principal strokes, became the uncial; and for that very reason +being much more expeditious, was reserved especially for the copying of +works; while the cursive, although sometimes employed for manuscripts, +was used chiefly in letter-writing. Of the first of these two writings, +the uncial, we have two fine specimens of the sixth century in the +“Sermons” of St. Augustine, on papyrus (<a href="#fig_336">Fig. 336</a>), and in a Psalter of +St. Germain-des-Prés, written in letters of silver on purple vellum, +both of which now belong to the Imperial Library, Paris.</p> + +<p>In the same century, we find a kind of writing called <i>half-uncial</i>, +which became more and more expeditious by the change made in certain of +its forms. There was then also a Gallican uncial, the form of which we +can see in the manuscript said to be by St. Prosper (Imperial Library, +Paris); and an uncial of Italy, among which figure the Bible of +Mont-Amiati, at Florence; the palimpsest<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id="FNanchor_55_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a> Homilies of the Vatican, +and the admirable Book of the Gospels at Notre-Dame, Paris (<a href="#fig_337">Fig. 337</a>).</p> + +<p>The most ancient style of cursive writing, employed in charts and +diplomas, is to be seen in the deeds known by the name of <i>charters of +Ravenna</i>, from the name of the town in which they were first discovered. +We may consider as analogous to these the writing of the Acts of our +early kings, very difficult to read on account of the exaggerated manner +in which the thin strokes join the letters together, and by the +indefinite forms of the up and down strokes. We give a fragment (Fig. +338) taken from an original chart, on parchment, of Childebert III. We +see what the same writing had become in 784 by Fig. 339, copied from an +original capitulary of Charlemagne.</p> + +<p>To the same period belongs the employment, in ordinary use among +chancellors and notaries, of a writing completely tachygraphic; it is +composed of ciphers, one of which took the place of a syllable or a +word. This writing was called <i>Tironian</i>, because the invention of it is +attributed to<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_431" id="page_431">{431}</a></span> Tiro, Cicero’s freed-man, who made use of it in +tachygraphing, or, as we should now say, stenographing (short-hand), the +speeches of the illustrious orator. Fig. 340 is taken from a psalter of +the eighth century, of which the text is transcribed with the +tachygraphic characters of that period.</p> + +<p>The name of <i>Visigothic</i> is given to the writing of manuscripts executed +in the south of France and in Spain during the rule of the Goths and the +Visigoths; this writing, still rather Roman, is generally round and +embellished with fanciful strokes, which render it agreeable to the eye.</p> + +<p>We also find in Italy the <i>Lombardic</i>, in use for diplomas till the +twelfth century.</p> + +<p>The beautiful manuscripts on purple vellum are of the time of +Charlemagne, when luxury in the arts showed itself in all forms. There +is in the Imperial Library, Paris, a magnificent volume, which came from +the ancient domain of Soubise, that contains the Epistles and Gospels +for all the festivals of the year: the execution of this work is +perfect; the gigantic capital letters, of Anglo-Saxon form, are +coloured, and rendered still richer by being dotted with gold.</p> + +<p>A valuable manuscript of the “Tractus Temporum” of the Venerable Bede, a +manuscript posterior by more than two hundred years to the author, who +lived in the beginning of the eighth century, affords a specimen of one +of the varieties of minuscule writings, which in France was called the +<i>Lombardic writing of books</i>, because it was in use during the reign of +the Lombard kings beyond the Alps; it is more difficult to read than the +Roman, though similar in form, because the words are not separated. A +beautiful manuscript of “Horace” (Imperial Library, Paris), which +presents a mixture of the different kinds of Roman writing of the +period, is attributed to the same century. We have in Fig. 341 an +elegant ornamental capital, taken from a manuscript, “Commentaries of +St. Jerome,” also in the Imperial Library. We find specimens of writing +of Anglo-Saxon origin, capital letters, and running text, in many books +of the Gospel.</p> + +<p>The diplomatic writing of the tenth century is here represented by a +charter of the king, Hugh Capet, from which we borrow Fig. 342; it must +have been issued between 988 and 996. In this fragment, the first line +only is composed of characters very elongated, close together, mixed +with some capital letters and some singular forms. It bears witness to +the fact that the fine Merovingian writing had then singularly +degenerated.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_432" id="page_432">{432}</a></span></p> + +<p>In the eleventh century the minuscule of manuscripts was characterised +by its angular forms, which caused it to receive the name of <i>Capetian</i>. +Then the Capetian, exaggerated in its tendency towards its strokes and +angles, became the <i>Ludovician</i>, which announces the thirteenth century, +and characterises the reign of St. Louis.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_302_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_302_sml.jpg" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_335" id="fig_335"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 335.—Scribe or Copyist, in his Work-room, +surrounded by Open Manuscripts, and Writing at a Desk.</p> + +<p>(From a Miniature of the Fifteenth Century.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>However, manuscripts of the thirteenth century abound, and the history +of the writing of the period of St. Louis and of the three centuries +succeeding it, may be summed up in these words:—“The Capetian writing +called <i>Ludovician</i>, when it had come to differ still more from the +beautiful forms of the writings of Charlemagne’s time or the renovated +Roman, was more and more deformed, and these successive degradations +became so complicated that the writing, in the seventeenth century, +resulted in being perfectly illegible. Thus can be generalised all the +precepts relative to the state of writing, in the manuscripts and the +charters in France, for this period of three hundred years” (<a href="#fig_343">Fig. 343</a>).</p> + +<p>It was, however, the era of the richest manuscripts, that in which was +brought to perfection the art of ornamenting them, when the pencil of +the miniature-painter and the pen of the caligrapher, conjointly, +produced some masterpieces (<a href="#fig_344">Fig. 344</a>). This was also the time when the +corporation of writers became numerous and powerful (<a href="#fig_335">Fig. 335</a>). One of<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_433" id="page_433">{433}</a></span> +the most distinguished members of this society was that Nicholas Flamel, +about whom so many fabulous legends have been invented. We give, as a +specimen of his magnificent cursive writing (<a href="#fig_345">Fig. 345</a>), the fac-simile +of one of the <i>ex libris</i> inscriptions he placed at the beginning of all +the books belonging to Duke Jean de Berry, whose secretary and +<i>bookseller</i> he was.<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a></p> + +<p>In other countries than France, in Germany especially, Gothic writing +was easily diffused. German manuscripts differ little from those of +France. We observe only that German writing continued to be very fine +till the middle of the thirteenth century, at which period it became +irregular, angular, and bristling with sharp points.</p> + +<p>That which has just been said of Germany in particular is naturally +applicable to East and West Flanders, and to the Low Countries. During +the fifteenth century, under the impulse given by the Dukes of Burgundy, +whose influence we have already mentioned, the most important +chronicles, the best histories then extant, were magnificently +transcribed in that beautiful Gothic minuscule, thick, massive and +angular, which was called <i>lettre de forme</i>; and we find it again in +some ancient editions of the end of the fifteenth century (<a href="#fig_346">Fig. 346</a>), +and of the beginning of the sixteenth.</p> + +<p>In more northern countries the <i>Runic</i> alphabet was made use of, to +which for a long while a marvellous origin was attributed, but which the +Benedictines justly regarded as an imitation, or rather as a corruption, +of the Latin alphabet. There exist in the <i>Runic</i> language inscriptions +on stone and on wood, some manuscripts on vellum, and Irish books on +parchment and on paper.</p> + +<p>In the south, the writing seems constantly to have reflected the lively +and frank spirit of its inhabitants, among whom was perpetuated the +profound impress of the old Roman civilisation. The minuscule continued +as high as it was long, thin, and distinct; even when it was altered by +the influence of the Gothic, it was still beautiful, and, above all, +legible, as we may be convinced of by examining a fine manuscript +entitled “Specchio della Croce” (“Mirror of the Cross”), of the +thirteenth century; and a precious manuscript of Dante, of the +fourteenth century, both belonging to the Imperial Library, Paris.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_434" id="page_434">{434}</a></span></p><p>We may adopt for Spain the same opinions as for Italy. There was in +that country also writing of great merit, handed down from the Romans, +which received, as we have already said, the name of <i>Visigothic</i>. The +Visigothic writing of the eleventh and twelfth centuries, of the +eleventh especially, is a minuscule of the most graceful kind. But +Gothicism, by the <i>Capetian</i> and the <i>Ludovician</i> coming in as +intermediate agents, at last corrupted this elegant and delicate +writing, as we see in the collection of Spanish troubadours, formed by +order of John II., King of Castile and Leon, about 1440; a celebrated +manuscript in the Imperial Library, Paris.</p> + +<p>Into England, where the Anglo-Saxon type reigned supreme, the Norman +conquest introduced the French writing in charters and manuscripts. And +lastly, among the writings called national, we must again mention that +of Ireland, of which there are fine examples remaining; but upon +examination they prove to be nothing but a variety of the Anglo-Saxon. +It is said to have been in use since the sixth century; and we find that +in spite of divers conquests it continued to be employed till the +fifteenth century. It was even known and employed in France, although it +by no means recommends itself by its elegance, as is attested, among +other manuscripts, by that of the “Homilies of St. Augustine,” in the +Imperial Library, Paris, which is supposed to belong to the eighth +century.</p> + +<p>Here our summary review of palæographic examples at different periods of +the Middle Ages comes to an end. We might follow up our investigations +on this point, even after the time when the printing-press was invented, +since manuscripts are found of the reign of Louis XIV.; but they were +nothing but fanciful inutilities; each century, in order to show itself +in its true light, should follow the instincts and the inspirations +which belong to it.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_435" id="page_435">{435}</a></span></p> + +<p class="c"> +FAC-SIMILE OF MANUSCRIPTS.<br /> +</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_303-a_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_303-a_sml.jpg" width="432" height="174" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_336" id="fig_336"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 336.—Writing of the Sixth Century, with Capital +Letters, from a Manuscript, on Papyrus, of the “Sermons of St. +Augustine.”</p> + +<p>(Imperial Library, Paris.)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Text.</span>—<i>Spes nostra e[st +non de isto tempore, neque de mundo est, neque +in ea felicita[te....</i></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Translation.</span>—Our hope is not of this time, nor is it of the world, nor +in that felicity.</p> +</div></div> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_303-b_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_303-b_sml.jpg" width="420" height="195" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_337" id="fig_337"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 337.—Title and Capital Letters of the Seventh +Century, from a Book of the Gospels of Notre-Dame, Paris. (Imperial +Library, Paris.)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Text.</span>—<i>Incipit præfatio.</i></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Translation.</span>—Here begins the Preface.</p> +</div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_436" id="page_436">{436}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_304-a_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_304-a_sml.jpg" width="419" height="254" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> + +<div class="caption"> +<p><a name="fig_338" id="fig_338"></a>Fig. 338.—Writing of the end of the Seventh Century, +after a Diploma of Childebert III., for the Gift of a Villa to the Abbey +of St. Denis. (This Fac-simile gives only the half of the length of the +lines.)</p> + +<div class="poetry"> +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0"><span class="smcap">Text.</span>—<i>Childeberthus rex</i><br /></span> +<span class="i0"><i>Se oportune beneficia ad loca sanctorum quod pro juvamen servorum....</i><br /></span> +<span class="i0"><i>Et hoc nobis ad eterna retributione pertenire confidemus. Ideoque....</i><br /></span> +</div></div> +</div> +</div></div> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_304-b_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_304-b_sml.jpg" width="414" height="108" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_339" id="fig_339"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 339.—Writing of the Eighth Century, from a +Capitulary of Charlemagne, addressed to Pope Adrian I. in 784.</p> + +<p>(Imperial Library, Paris.)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Text.</span>—<i>Primo Capitulo. Salutant vos dominus noster, filius vester, +Carolus rex [et filia vestra domna nostra Fastrada, filii et +filæ +domini nostri simul, et omnis domus sua.</i></p> + +<p><i>II. Salutant vos cuncti sacerdotes, episcopi et abbates, atque omnis +congregatio illorum [in Dei servicio constituta etiam, et universus] +populus Franconum.</i></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Translation.</span>—I. Our lord, your son, King Charles [and your daughter our +Lady Fastrada, salute thee, also the sons and] daughters of our Lord, +and all his house.</p> + +<p>II. All the priests, bishops, and abbots salute thee, as also the whole +congregation [of those who are established in the service of God, and +the whole] of the French people.</p> +</div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_437" id="page_437">{437}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_305-a_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_305-a_sml.jpg" width="381" height="135" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_340" id="fig_340"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 340.—Tironian Writing of the Eighth Century, from a +Latin Psalter. (Imperial Library, Paris.)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Text.</span>—<i>Exsurge, Domine, in ira tua et exaltare in finibus inimicorum +meorum, et exsurge, Domine Deus meus, in precepto quod mandasti; et +sinagoga populorum circomdabit, te, et propter hanc in altum regredere.</i></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Translation.</span>—Arise, O Lord, in thine anger, lift up thyself because of +the rage of mine enemies: and awake for me to the judgment that thou +hast commanded.</p> + +<p>So shall the congregation of the people compass thee about: for their +sakes therefore return thou on high.—(Psalm vii. 6, 7.)</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_305-b_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_305-b_sml.jpg" width="296" height="205" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_341" id="fig_341"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 341.—Writing of the Tenth Century, after a +Manuscript of the “Commentaries of St. Jerome.”</p> + +<p>(Imperial Library, Paris.)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Text.</span>—<i>Qui nolunt inter epistolas Pauli eam recipere quæ ad Filemonem +scribitur aiunt non semper apostolum nec omnia Christo in se loquente +dixisse. Quia neque</i> ...</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Translation.</span>—Those who are unwilling to receive among the epistles of +St. Paul that which is written to Philemon, deny that the Apostles spoke +everything and at <span class="pagenum"><a name="page_438" id="page_438">{438}</a></span>all times under the inspiration of Christ. Because +neither ...</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_306_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_306_sml.jpg" width="427" height="277" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_342" id="fig_342"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 342.—Diplomatic Writing of the Tenth Century, from +a Charter of Hugh Capet. (Archives of the Empire.)</p> + +<p>This Fac-simile gives only half the length of the lines.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Text</span> (completely restored.)—<i>In nomine sanctæ et individuæ Trinitatis, +Hugo gratia Dei Francorum rex. [Mos et consuetudo regum prædecessorum +nostrorum semper exstitit ut ecclesias Dei sublimarent et justis +petitioni +bus servorum Dei clementer faverent, et oppression[em eorum +benigne sublevarent, ut Deum propitium] haberent, eujus amore id +fecissent. Hujus rei grati[a, auditis clamoribus venerabilis Abbonis +abbatis] monasterii S. Mariæ, S. Petri et S. Benedicti Flori[acensis et +monachorum sub eo degentium, nostram] presentiam adeuntium, pro malis +consuetudi[nibus et assiduis rapinis</i> ...</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Translation.</span>—In the name of the holy and indivisible Trinity, Hugh, by +the grace of God, King of the Francs.</p> + +<p>The custom and habit of the kings our predecessors has always been to +honour the churches of God, and to show themselves mercifully favourable +to the just petitions of the servants of God, and to deliver them kindly +from oppression, so that God might be propitious to them, for the love +of whom they thus acted. For this cause, having heard the complaints of +the venerable Abbon, Abbot of the Monastery of Our Lady, St. Peter and +St. Benedict, of Fleury-sur-Loire, and those of the monks living under +his direction, and who came into our presence, on account <span class="pagenum"><a name="page_439" id="page_439">{439}</a></span>of the bad +customs and continual rapines ...</p> +</div></div> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_307_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_307_sml.jpg" width="428" height="305" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_343" id="fig_343"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 343.—Cursive Writing of the Fifteenth Century, +after an Original Letter, taken from “Recueil des Lettres de Rois.”</p> + +<p>(Imperial Library, Paris.)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Text.</span>—<i>Messeigneurs et freres, si tres humblement que faire puis a voz +bonnes graces me recommande. Messeigneurs, j’ay receu, voz lettres par +le present porteur: ensemble la requeste et arrest de la court par +icelle ensuivy. J’ay le tout communiqué a messeigneurs les generaulx de +Langue doil et Normandie, et nous avons souuant esté ensemble. Ilz +trouuent bien estrange, aussi font daultres, qui zelent le bien et +honneur de la chambre ausquelz pareillement</i> ...</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Translation.</span>—My lords and brothers, I commend myself as humbly as +possible to your good graces. My lords, I received your letters by the +bearer of this, together with the petition and the decree of the court +accompanying them. I communicated the whole to my lords the generals of +La Langue d’Oil and of Normandy, and we have often conferred together on +the matter. They think it very strange, as do others also, who are +zealous for the good and the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page_440" id="page_440">{440}</a></span>honour of the chamber, to which equally +...</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_308_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_308_sml.jpg" width="227" height="272" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_344" id="fig_344"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 344.—Writing of the Fourteenth Century, after a +Manuscript of “L’Histoire Romaine;” being a paraphrase of the text of +Valerius Maximus. (Imperial Library, Paris.)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Text.</span>—<i>Eadem, &c.</i>—<span class="smcap">Glose.</span> <i>Ceste histoire touche Titus Liuius ou quint +liure. Pourquoy il est assauoir que ou temps que les Gals auoient prise +Romme et assis le Capitole, si comme il est dit deuant, il y auoit +dedens le Capitole un jeune homme qui auoit non Gayus Fabius qui estoit +de la lignie des Fabiens. Et pour auoir la congnoissance de ceste lignie +est assauoir aussi que il y ot asses pres de Romme jadis une cite qui +estoit appelee Gabinia: laquele cite apres moult de inconueniens se +rendi a Romme par tel conuenant que il seroient citoiens de Romme.</i></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Translation.</span>—Eadem, &c.—<span class="smcap">Glose.</span> Livy, in his fifth book, touches on +this history. We must know that at the time when the Gauls had taken +Rome and besieged the Capitol, as was said above, there was in the +Capitol a young man named Caius Fabius, and who was of the Fabian race; +and to know this race we must also know that there was formerly near +Rome a town called Gabinia; which town, after many vicissitudes, +surrendered to Rome, on the condition that all its inhabitants should be +considered as citizens of Rome.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_441" id="page_441">{441}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_309_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_309_sml.jpg" width="250" height="413" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_345" id="fig_345"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 345.—Fac-simile of the Inscription <i>Ex libris</i>, +&c., in the beginning of a Manuscript executed by John Flamel, Scribe +and Librarian to the Duke de Berry, at the end of the Fourteenth +Century.</p> + +<p>(Imperial Library, Paris.)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Text.</span>—<i>Ceste Bible est a Monseigneur le Duc de Berry.</i></p> + +<p style="margin-left:30%;"> +<span class="smcap">Flamel.</span><br /> +</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Translation.</span>—This Bible belongs to Monseigneur the Duke de Berry.</p> + +<p style="margin-left:30%;"> +<span class="smcap">Flamel.</span><br /> +</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—The Duke de Berry, John, brother of King Charles V., and uncle to +King Charles VI., was a great amateur of fine books. He spent very large +sums in having manuscripts copied and illuminated. The Imperial Library, +Paris, preserves a large number of the most valuable of them.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_442" id="page_442">{442}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_310-a_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_310-a_sml.jpg" width="393" height="176" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_346" id="fig_346"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 346.—Writing of the Fifteenth Century, after the +First Page of a Breviary. (Royal Library, Brussels.)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Text.</span>—<i>Sabbato in aduentu Domini, ad vesperas, super psalmos antiphona, +Benedictus, psalmus, ipsum cum ceteris antiphonis et psalmis. Infra +capitulum.</i></p> + +<p><i>Ecce dies veniunt, dicit Dominus, et suscitabo Dauid germen.</i></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Translation.</span>—On Saturday in Advent, at vespers, before the psalms +chanted alternately, (comes) the hymn Benedictus, with the other +antiphons and psalms. After the lesson ...</p> + +<p>“Behold the days are coming, saith the Lord, and I will restore the seed +of David.”</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_310-b_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_310-b_sml.jpg" width="269" height="192" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_347" id="fig_347"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 347.—Design of a Caligraphic Ornament taken from a +Charter of the University of Paris.</p> + +<p>(Fifteenth Century.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_443" id="page_443">{443}</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="MINIATURES_IN_MANUSCRIPTS" id="MINIATURES_IN_MANUSCRIPTS"></a>MINIATURES IN MANUSCRIPTS.</h2> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Miniatures at the Beginning of the Middle Ages.—The two “Vatican” +Virgils.—Painting of Manuscripts under Charlemagne and Louis le +Débonnaire.—Tradition of Greek Art in Europe.—Decline of the +Miniature in the Tenth Century.—Origin of Gothic Art.—Fine +Manuscript of the time of St. Louis.—Clerical and Lay +Miniature-Painters.—Caricature and the Grotesque.—Miniatures in +Monochrome and in Grisaille.—Illuminators at the Court of France +and to the Dukes of Burgundy.—School of John Fouquet.—Italian +Miniature-Painters.—Giulo Clovio.—French School under Louis XII.</p></div> + +<p class="nind"><a href="images/ill_311_lg.jpg"> +<span class="letra"> +<img src="images/ill_311_sml.jpg" +width="90" +alt="C" /></span></a>ONTEMPORANEOUS, almost, with the idea which first caused oral +traditions, chronicles, speeches, and poetry to be collected together +under the form and name of <i>book</i>, is the art of ornamenting manuscripts +with miniatures. Our intention is not to go back to the sources—as +obscure as they are distant—of that art, but only to point out its +principal phases of improvement or of decay during the Middle Ages.</p> + +<p>The most ancient known miniatures date from the very commencement of +that period which is generally called the Middle Ages; that is to say, +from the third and fourth centuries. These paintings, of which there +exist but two or three specimens in the libraries of Europe, +nevertheless offer, in their correctness and masterly beauty, the great +characteristics of ancient Art. The most celebrated are those of the +“Virgil,” preserved in the Vatican Library (<a href="#fig_348">Fig. 348</a>), a manuscript long +celebrated among learned men for the authenticity of its text.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_444" id="page_444">{444}</a></span> Another +“Virgil,” of the date of about a century later, and which, before its +presentation to the Pope, was one of the most beautiful ornaments of the +ancient library of the Abbey of St. Denis, in France, contains paintings +not less remarkable in respect of colour, but very inferior as far as +drawing and the style of the compositions are concerned. These two +incomparable examples are sufficient in themselves to show the state of +the painting of manuscripts at the beginning of the Middle Ages.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_312_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_312_sml.jpg" width="352" height="340" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_348" id="fig_348"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 348.—Miniature taken from the “Virgil” in the +Library of the Vatican, Rome.</p> + +<p>(Third or Fourth Century.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The sixth and seventh centuries have left us no books with miniatures; +the utmost we find at that period are some capital letters embellished +by caligraphy. In the eighth century, on the contrary, the ornaments +were<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_445" id="page_445">{445}</a></span> multiplied, and some rather elegant paintings can be pointed out; +the fact is, under the reign of Charlemagne a movement of renovation +took place in the Arts as in literature: the Latin writing, which had +become illegible, was reformed, and the style of painting manuscripts +assumed something of the form of the fine antique examples still extant +at that period. (<a href="#fig_350">Fig. 350</a>.)</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_313_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_313_sml.jpg" width="382" height="447" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_349" id="fig_349"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 349.—Painted Capital letters, taken from +Manuscripts of the Eighth or Ninth Century.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_446" id="page_446">{446}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_314_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_314_sml.jpg" width="528" height="67" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_350" id="fig_350"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 350.—Border, taken from a Book of the Gospels of +the Eighth Century. (Library of Vienna).</p></div> +</div> + +<p>If we would have an idea of the heaviness and the ungraceful character +of the writing and of the ornaments which accompanied it before the +period of Charlemagne, it will suffice to examine Fig. 349. “It was then +quite time,” says M. Aimé Champollion-Figeac, “that the salutary +influence exercised by the illustrious monarch made itself felt in the +Arts as well as in letters.” The first manuscripts which seem to bear +witness to this progress are first a sacramentary, said to be that of +Gellonius, the allegorical paintings of which are of great interest in +the history of Christian symbolism; and a Book of the Gospels, now in +the Louvre: the latter is said to have belonged to the great emperor +himself, and we reproduce one of the paintings from it (<a href="#fig_351">Fig. 351</a>). We +may mention, as of the ninth century, many Books of the Gospels, in one +of which, given by Louis le Débonnaire to the Abbey St. Médard de +Soissons, the purest Byzantine style shows itself; then the Bible called +the “Metz” Bible, in which are paintings of large dimensions, remarkable +for the felicitous groupings of the figures and for the beauty of the +draperies. One of these miniatures excites an interest quite peculiar, +inasmuch as King David, who is represented in it, is but a copy of an +ancient Apollo, round whom the artist has personified Courage, Justice, +Prudence, &c.</p> + +<p>Let us mention still further two Bibles and a book of prayers, the last +containing a very fine portrait of the king, Charles the Bald, to whom +it belonged; and lastly, two books really worth attention, on account of +the delicacy and freedom of the outline drawings, for the attitudes of +the characters represented, and for the draperies, which resemble those +of ancient statues. These books are a “Terence,” preserved in the +Imperial Library, Paris, number 7,899 in the catalogue; and a +“Lectionary of the Cathedal of Metz,” from which the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_447" id="page_447">{447}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_315_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_315_sml.jpg" width="315" height="450" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_351" id="fig_351"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 351.—Miniature from the Book of the Gospels of +Charlemagne.</p> + +<p>(Manuscript in the Library of the Louvre.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p class="nind">border (<a href="#fig_352">Fig. 352</a>) is taken. While in France the art of painting +manuscripts had progressed so much as to produce some perfect models of +delicacy and taste, Germany had never got beyond the simplest +compositions, as we see<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_448" id="page_448">{448}</a></span> in the “Paraphrase on the Gospels,” in Theotisc +(the old Teutonic language), belonging to the Library of Vienna.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_316_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_316_sml.jpg" width="522" height="83" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_352" id="fig_352"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 352.—Border of a Lectionary in the Cathedral of +Metz. (Ninth Century.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The artistic traditions of the ancients in the ninth century are +attested by the manuscripts of Christian Greece, whereof the Imperial +Library, Paris, possesses many magnificent specimens, at the head of +which we must place the “Commentaries of Gregory Nazianzus,” ornamented +with an infinite number of paintings, in which all the resources of +ancient art are applied to the representation of Christian subjects +(<a href="#fig_353">Fig. 353</a>). The heads of the characters portrayed are admirably +expressive, and of the finest style; the colouring of the miniatures is +warm and soft; the costumes, the representations of buildings and of the +accessories, offer, moreover, very interesting subjects of study. +Unfortunately, these paintings were executed on a very crumbling +surface, which has in many places peeled off: it is sad to see one of +the most precious monuments of Greek and Christian Art in a deplorable +state of dilapidation.</p> + +<p>The masterpiece of the tenth century, which again is due to the artists +of Greece, is a “Psalter, with Commentaries,” belonging also to the +Imperial Library (number 139 among the Greek manuscripts), a work in +which the miniature-painter seems not to have been able to disengage +himself from the Pagan creeds in illustrating Biblical episodes. Two +celebrated manuscripts of the same time, but executed in France, and +preserved in the same collection, show, by the stiffness and +incorrectness of the drawing, that the impetus given by the genius of +Charlemagne had abated: these are the “Bible de Noailles,” and the +“Bible de St. Martial,” of Limoges (<a href="#fig_355">Fig. 355</a>).</p> + +<p>To speak truly, if in France there was a decadency, the Anglo-Saxon and +Visigothic artists of this period<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_449" id="page_449">{449}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_317_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_317_sml.jpg" width="544" height="320" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_353" id="fig_353"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 353.—Miniature of the Ninth Century, extracted from +the “Commentaries of Gregory Nazianzus,” representing the consecration +of a Bishop. (Large folio Manuscript in the Imperial Library, Paris.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_450" id="page_450">{450}</a></span></p> + +<p class="nind">were also very inferior, to judge from a Latin Book of the Gospels of +the tenth century painted in England (<a href="#fig_356">Fig. 356</a>); it, however, proves +that the art of ornamenting books had degenerated less than that of +drawing the human figure. Another manuscript with paintings, called +Visigothic, containing the Apocalypse of St. John, gives, in its +fantastic ornaments and animals, an example of the strange style adopted +by a certain school of miniature-painters.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 91px;"> +<a href="images/ill_318_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_318_sml.jpg" width="91" height="542" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_354" id="fig_354"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 354.—Fac-smile of a Miniature drawn with the pen, +taken from a Bible of the Eleventh Century. (Imperial Library, Paris.)</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 217px;"> +<a href="images/ill_318-b_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_318-b_sml.jpg" width="217" height="358" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_355" id="fig_355"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 355.—Border taken from the Bible of St. Martial of +Limoges. (Tenth Century.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_451" id="page_451">{451}</a></span></p> + +<p>Germany now began to improve in the art of painting miniatures. It owed +this happy result to the emigration of Greek artists, who came to the +German court to take refuge from the troubles of the East. The progress +accomplished in this part of Europe shows itself in the drawing of the +figures of a German Book of the Gospels of the beginning of the eleventh +century, a work very superior to that of the Teutonic Book of the +Gospels just referred to. The border of which we give a fac-simile in +Fig. 357 shows also a certain degree of improvement; it is taken from a +Book of the Gospels of the same period, preserved in the Royal Library, +Munich.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_319-a_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_319-a_sml.jpg" width="528" height="90" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_356" id="fig_356"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 356.—Border taken from a Book of the Gospels in +Latin, executed in England. (Tenth Century.)</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_319-b_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_319-b_sml.jpg" width="523" height="77" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_357" id="fig_357"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 357.—Border taken from a Book of the Gospels of the +beginning of the Eleventh Century. In the Royal Library, Munich.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>But in France, to foreign invasions and to misfortunes of all kinds, +which, since the death of Charlemagne, had afflicted the country, was +added the terror caused by the general expectation that the world was +coming to an end at the expiration of the first millennial. People were, +therefore,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_452" id="page_452">{452}</a></span> otherwise employed than in ornamenting books. Accordingly, +this epoch is one of the most barren in religious or other paintings. +Fig. 358 represents the last degree of abasement in this art. Nothing in +the world could be more barbarous, nor farther removed from all +sentiment of the beautiful, and even from the instinctive idea of +drawing. Ornamentation, however, remained sufficiently good, although +under very heavy forms, as the Sacramentary of Æthelgar, which is +preserved in the Library of Rouen, shows (<a href="#fig_359">Fig. 359</a>). The decadency, +however, seems to have come to a stop in France towards the end of the +eleventh century, if we judge of the art from paintings, executed in +1060, and contained in a Latin manuscript, bearing the number 818, in +the Imperial Library.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_320_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_320_sml.jpg" width="292" height="341" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_358" id="fig_358"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 358.—Miniature taken from a Missal of the Beginning +of the Eleventh Century.</p> + +<p>(Imperial Library, Paris, No. 821.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_453" id="page_453">{453}</a></span></p> + +<p>In the manuscripts of the twelfth century, the influence of the Crusades +made itself already felt. At this period, the East regenerated in some +sort the West in all that concerned arts, sciences, and literature. Many +examples witness that the painting of manuscripts was not the last to +undergo this singular transformation. Everything the imagination could +invent of the most fantastic was particularly brought into play to give +to the Latin letters a peculiar character—imitated, moreover, from the +ornaments of Saracenic architecture. This practice was even applied to +public acts and documents, as Fig. 360 proves; it represents some of the +initial letters in the “Rouleau Mortuaire” of St. Vital. Callot, in his +“Temptation of St. Anthony,” has, we think, imagined nothing stranger +than the figure we give; a demon standing on the back of Cerberus forms +the vertical line in the letter T; while two other demons, whose feet +are in the mouth of the first, form the two lateral branches of the +letter.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_321_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_321_sml.jpg" width="542" height="127" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_359" id="fig_359"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 359.—Border taken from the Sacramentary of +Æthelgar. (Rouen Library.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>In the thirteenth century, Saracenic or Gothic art universally +prevailed. Everywhere figures assumed gaunt, elongated forms; +coats-of-arms invaded the miniatures; but the colouring was of +marvellous purity and brightness; burnished gold, applied with the +greatest skill, stood out from blue or purple backgrounds which even in +our own day have lost nothing of their original freshness.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_454" id="page_454">{454}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_322_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_322_sml.jpg" width="338" height="358" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_360" id="fig_360"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 360.—Initial Letters extracted from the “Rouleau +Mortuaire” of St. Vital, Twelfth Century.</p> + +<p>(Imperial Archives of France.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Among the most remarkable manuscripts of this century we must mention a +Psalter in five colours, containing the French, Hebrew, and Roman +versions, with some commentaries (Imperial Library, No. 1,132 <i>bis</i>). +One should analyse the greater number of subjects depicted in this +manuscript to understand all their importance; we will mention only that +among them are sieges of towns, Gothic fortresses, interiors of Italian +banking-houses, various musical instruments, &c. There is, perhaps, no +other manuscript which equals this in the richness, the beauty, and +multiplicity of its paintings: it contains ninety-nine large miniatures, +independently of ninety-six<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_455" id="page_455">{455}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_323_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_323_sml.jpg" width="585" height="348" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_361" id="fig_361"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 361.—Facsimile of a Miniature of a Psalter, of the +Thirteenth Century, representing warlike, scientific, commercial, and +agricultural Works. (Imperial Library, Paris.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_456" id="page_456">{456}</a></span></p> + +<p class="nind">medallions representing divers episodes suggested by the text of the +Psalms (<a href="#fig_361">Fig. 361</a>). After this psalter we must place the Breviary of St. +Louis, or rather of Queen Blanche, formerly preserved in the Arsenal +Library, Paris, and now in the Musée des Souverains; a celebrated +manuscript which has, on folio 191, this inscription: “C’est le Psautier +monseigneur St. Loys, lequel fu à sa mère.”<a name="FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a> But the volume is not +rich in large miniatures. We observe in it, however, a calendar +ornamented with small subjects very delicately executed, representing +the labours appropriate to each month, according to the seasons of the +year. The character of the paintings exhibits a style anterior to the +reign of Louis IX.; and it is supposed, indeed, that this book first +belonged to the mother of that king.</p> + +<p>We must now mention another Psalter, which was actually used by St. +Louis; as is proved not only by an inscription at the beginning of the +volume, but still further by the fleurs-de-lis of the king, the arms of +Blanche of Castile, his mother, and perhaps also <i>les pals de gueules</i> +of Margaret of Provence, his wife. Nothing can equal the beautiful +preservation of the miniatures in this volume, which contains +seventy-eight subjects, with as many explanatory texts in French. The +heads of the characters, though almost microscopic, have nevertheless, +generally, a fine expression.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 100px;"> +<a href="images/ill_324_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_324_sml.jpg" width="100" height="526" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_362" id="fig_362"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 362.—A Border taken from a Gospel in Latin, of the +Thirteenth Century.</p> + +<p>(Imperial Library, Paris.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The “Livre de Clergie,” which bears the date of 1260, merits far less +attention: so does the “Roman du Roi Artus,” No. 6,963, in the Imperial +Library, Paris, executed in 1276. But<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_457" id="page_457">{457}</a></span> we must point out two of the most +beautiful examples of this period, a Book of the Gospels in Latin, No. +665 in the Supplement, Imperial Library, from which we have borrowed an +elegant border (<a href="#fig_362">Fig. 362</a>), and the “Roman du Saint-Graal,” No. 6,769, +also in the Imperial Library.</p> + +<p>Italy was then at the head of civilisation in everything; it had +particularly inherited the grand traditions of painting which had gone +to sleep for ever in Greece only to wake up again in Europe.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_325_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_325_sml.jpg" width="229" height="145" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_363" id="fig_363"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 363.—Facsimile of a Miniature of the Thirteenth +Century, representing a scene of an old Romance: the beautiful Josiane, +disguised as a female juggler, playing a Welsh air on the <i>Rote</i> +(Fiddle), to make herself known to her friend Bewis. (Imperial Library, +Paris.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Here we must introduce a remark, the result of a general examination of +the manuscripts bequeathed to us by the thirteenth century; namely, that +the miniatures in sacred books are much more beautifully and carefully +executed than those of the romances of chivalry and the chronicles of +the same period (<a href="#fig_363">Figs. 363</a> and <a href="#fig_364">364</a>). Must we attribute this superiority +to the power of religious inspiration? Must we suppose that in the +monasteries alone clever artists met with sufficient remuneration? +Before answering these questions, or rather as an answer to them, let us +remember that in those days religious institutions absorbed nearly all +the social intellectual movement, as well as the effective possession of +material riches, if not of territorial property. Solely occupied with +distant wars or intestine quarrels which impoverished them, the nobles +were altogether unable to become protectors of literature and Art. In +the abbeys and convents were lay-brethren who sometimes had taken no +vow, but whose fervent spirits,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_458" id="page_458">{458}</a></span> burning with poetical imagination, +sought in the monastic retreat redemption from their past sins: these +men of faith were happy to consecrate their whole existence to the +ornamentation of a single sacred book destined for the community which +gave them in exchange all the necessaries of life.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="fig_364" id="fig_364"></a> +<a href="images/ill_326_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_326_sml.jpg" width="237" height="236" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<div class="caption"><p>Fig 364.—The Four Sons of Aymon on their good Steed, +Bayart. From a Miniature in the Romance of the “Four Sons of Aymon,” a +Manuscript of the Thirteenth Century. (Imperial Library, Paris.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>This explains the absence of the names of the miniature-painters in +ancient manuscripts, particularly in those which are written in Latin. +However, when romances and chronicles in the vulgar tongue began to come +into fashion, artists of great talent eagerly presented themselves to be +engaged by princes and nobles who wished to have this sort of books +ornamented; but the anonymous which these lay artists generally +preserved is explained by the circumstance that in most cases they were +considered only as artistic assistants in the lordly houses where they +were employed, and in which they fulfilled some other domestic duty; for +instance, Colard de Laon, the favourite painter of Louis of Orleans, was +also valet-de-chambre to this prince; Pietro Andrea, another artist, +doubtless an Italian, to judge from his Christian name, was +gentleman-usher; and we see this<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_459" id="page_459">{459}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_327_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_327_sml.jpg" width="393" height="525" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_365" id="fig_365"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 365.—Miniature taken from the “Roman de Fauvel” +(Fifteenth Century), representing Fauvel, or the Fox, reprimanding a +Widow who has married again, and to whom is being given a Serenade of +Rough Music.</p> + +<p>(Imperial Library, Paris.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_460" id="page_460">{460}</a></span></p> + +<p class="nind">same painter “sent from Blois to Tours, to procure certain matters for +the accouchment of Madame the Duchess;” or again, “from Blois to +Romorantin, to inquire after Madame d’Angoulesme, who was reported to be +very unwell.”</p> + +<p>Certain artists, however, who then took the modest name of illuminators, +lived entirely by their profession; working at <i>tableaux benoîts</i> +(blessed pictures), or popular paintings, which were sold at the +church-doors. Others, again, were paid assistants of the recognised +painters to princes or nobles; and the anonymous was quite naturally +imposed upon them by their subordinate position, if not by the simple +modesty which was for a long time the accompaniment of talent. In the +fourteenth century the study of miniatures is peculiarly interesting, on +account of the scenes of public and private life, of manners and +customs, we find reproduced in them. Portraits after life, <i>d’après le +vif</i>, as they were called in those days, made their appearance; and +caricature, at all times so powerful in France, already began to show +itself with a daring which, occupying itself with the clergy, women, and +chivalry, stopped only before the prestige of royalty.</p> + +<p>The miniatures of a French manuscript, dated 1313 (Imperial Library, +Paris, No. 8,504, F. L.), deserve to be mentioned, especially on account +of the various subjects they represent; for, besides the ceremony of the +reception of the King of Navarre into the order of chivalry, we see in +it philosophers discussing, judges administering the law, various scenes +of conjugal life, singers accompanying themselves on divers instruments +of music, villagers engaged in the labours of country life, &c. We must +mention also a manuscript of the “Roman de Fauvel,” in which is +especially prominent the very original scene of a popular concert of +rough music, by masked performers, given, according to an old custom, to +a widow who had married a second time (<a href="#fig_365">Fig. 365</a>).</p> + +<p>The period during which Charles V. occupied the throne of France is one +of those that produced the finest specimens of manuscript-painting. This +monarch, the founder of the Royal Library, was an admirer of illustrated +books, and had accumulated, at great cost, a large collection in the +great tower of the Louvre. A royal prince, whom we have already +mentioned as being excessively devoted to artistic luxuries, was the +rival of Charles V. in this respect: this was his brother, the Duke Jean +de Berry, who devoted enormous sums to the purchase and production of +manuscripts.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_461" id="page_461">{461}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 118px;"> +<a href="images/ill_328-a_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_328-a_sml.jpg" width="118" height="530" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_366" id="fig_366"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 366.—Border taken from a Prayer-book belonging to +Louis of France, Duke of Anjou, King of Naples, of Sicily, and of +Jerusalem. (Fourteenth Century.)</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 186px;"> +<a href="images/ill_328-b_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_328-b_sml.jpg" width="186" height="221" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_367" id="fig_367"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 367.—Miniature taken from “Les Femmes Illustres,” +translated from Boccacio. (Imperial Library, Paris.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Even under Charles VI. this impulse did not abate, and the art of +painting manuscripts was never in a more flourishing condition. The +border taken from the “Livre d’Heures,” or prayer-book, of the Duke +d’Anjou, uncle of the king (<a href="#fig_366">Fig. 366</a>), is an example of this. We might +mention, as specimens of illustrated works of this period, the book of +the “Demandes et Réponses,” by Peter Salmon, a manuscript executed for +the king, and ornamented with exquisite miniatures, in which all the +characters are true historical portraits, beautifully finished. +Nevertheless, the masterpieces of the French school at this period show +themselves in the miniatures of two translations of Boccacio’s “De +Claris Mulieribus” (“Beautiful Women”) (<a href="#fig_367">Fig. 367</a>).<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_462" id="page_462">{462}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_329_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_329_sml.jpg" width="428" height="595" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_368" id="fig_368"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 368.—Miniature of the Psalter of John, Duke of +Berry, representing the Man of Sorrow, or Christ, showing the Sign of +the Cross. (Imperial Library, Paris.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_463" id="page_463">{463}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 90px;"> +<a href="images/ill_330_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_330_sml.jpg" width="90" height="219" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_369" id="fig_369"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 369.—Border taken from the Bible called Clement +VII.’s. (Fourteenth Century.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>At that time two new styles appeared in the painting of manuscripts: +miniatures <i>en camaïeu</i> (in one colour only), and miniatures <i>en +grisaille</i> (in two colours, viz., a light colour shaded, generally with +brown). Of the first kind, we may instance “Les Petites Heures” of John, +Duke de Berry (<a href="#fig_368">Fig. 368</a>), and “Les Miracles de Notre-Dame.”</p> + +<p>Germany did not in this respect rise to the height of France; but +miniature-painting in Italy progressed more and more towards perfection. +A remarkable specimen of Italian art of this period is the Bible called +Clement VII.’s (<a href="#fig_369">Fig. 369</a>), which is preserved in the Imperial Library, +Paris. But there exists one more admirable still in the same +establishment, so rich in curiosities, of the manuscript of “The +Institution of the Order of the Holy Ghost,” an order of chivalry +founded at Naples in 1352, by Louis de Tarento, King of Naples, during a +feast on the day of Pentecost; it is in this superb manuscript, executed +by Italian or French artists, may, perhaps, be found the most exquisite +miniatures of that day (<a href="#fig_370">Fig. 370</a>); especially remarkable are the +beautiful portraits in <i>camaïeu</i> of King Louis and his wife, Jane I., +Queen of Naples. A valuable copy of the romance of “Lancelot du Lac,” of +the same date, recommends itself to the attention of connoisseurs by a +rare peculiarity: one can follow in it the successive operations of the +painter in miniature; thus are presented<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_464" id="page_464">{464}</a></span> to us consecutively the +outline-drawing, then the first tints, generally uniform, executed by +the illuminator; next the surface on which the gold is to be applied; +then the real work of the miniature-painter in the heads, costumes, &c.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_331_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_331_sml.jpg" width="252" height="265" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_370" id="fig_370"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 370.—Miniature from a Manuscript of the Fourteenth +Century, representing Louis de Tarento, second Husband of Queen Jane of +Naples, instituting the Order of the Holy Ghost.</p> + +<p>(Imperial Library, Paris.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>France, in spite of the great troubles which agitated her, and the wars +she had to maintain with foreign powers during the fifteenth century, +saw, nevertheless, the art of the painter improve very considerably. The +fine copy of Froissart in the Imperial Library, Paris (<a href="#fig_371">Fig. 371</a>), might +alone suffice to prove the truth of this assertion. The name of John +Foucquet, painter to King Louis XI., deserves to be mentioned with +eulogy, as that of one of the artists who contributed most to the +progress of painting on manuscripts. Everything thenceforward announced +the Renaissance which was to take place in the sixteenth century; and if +we wish to follow the onward progress of art from the beginning of the +fifteenth century till the time</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="chrm_17" id="chrm_17"></a> +<a href="images/ill_332_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_332_sml.jpg" width="377" height="522" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<div class="caption"><p>CORONATION OF CHARLES V., KING OF FRANCE.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_465" id="page_465">{465}</a></span></p><p>Miniature from Froissart’s Chronicles in the National Library, Paris.</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_333-a_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_333-a_sml.jpg" width="524" height="130" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_371" id="fig_371"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 371.—Border taken from “Froissart’s Chronicles,” a +French Manuscript of the Fifteenth Century. (Imperial Library, Paris.)</p></div> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_333-b_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_333-b_sml.jpg" width="512" height="98" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_372" id="fig_372"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 372.—Border taken from an “Ovid.” An Italian +Manuscript of the Fifteenth Century. (Imperial Library, Paris.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p class="nind">of Raphael, it is in the miniatures of manuscripts we shall find the +best evidences of it. Let us observe, by the way, that the Flemish +school of the Dukes of Burgundy exercised great influence over this +marvellous art for a period of more than a century. Spain was also +progressing; but it is to the Italian artists we must, from that time +forward, look for the most remarkable works. The Imperial Library of +Paris possesses many manuscripts which bear witness to the marked +improvement in miniature-painting at this period; among others an “Ovid” +of the fifteenth century (<a href="#fig_372">Fig. 372</a>); but in order to see the highest +expression of the art, we must examine an incomparable copy of Dante’s +works, preserved in the Vatican, a manuscript proceed<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_466" id="page_466">{466}</a></span>ing from the hands +of Giulio Clovio (<a href="#fig_373">Fig. 373</a>), an illustrious painter, pupil and imitator +of Raphael: his miniatures are remarkable for beauty.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_334_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_334_sml.jpg" width="343" height="448" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_373" id="fig_373"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 373.—Miniature, painted by Giulio Clovio, of the +Sixteenth Century, taken from Dante’s “Paradise,” representing the Poet +and Beatrice transported to the Moon, the abode of Women devoted to +Chastity. (Manuscript in the Vatican Library, Rome.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Lastly, in the reign of Louis XII., the complete regeneration of the +Arts<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_467" id="page_467">{467}</a></span> was effected. We should, however, mention that at this period +there were two very distinct schools: one whose style still showed the +influence of ancient Gothic traditions, the other entirely dependent on +Italian taste. The Missal of Pope Paul V. emanated from this last school +(<a href="#fig_374">Fig. 374</a>).</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_335_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_335_sml.jpg" width="524" height="151" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_374" id="fig_374"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 374.—Border taken from the Missal of Pope Paul V. +(An Italian Manuscript of the Sixteenth Century.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>This immense progress, which showed itself simultaneously in France and +in Italy by the production of many original works, seems to have +attained its climax in the execution of a justly celebrated manuscript, +known by the name of “Heures d’Anne de Bretagne” (<a href="#fig_375">Fig. 375</a>). Among the +numerous pictures which decorate this book of prayers, many would not be +unworthy of Raphael’s pencil: the expression in the face of the Virgin +Mary is, with many others, remarkable for its sweetness; the heads of +the angels have something divine in them; and the ornaments which occupy +the margin of each page are composed of flowers, fruits, and insects, +represented with all the freshness and brilliancy of nature. This +inimitable masterpiece was, like a sort of sublime testament, to mark +the glorious boundary-line of an art which must necessarily degenerate +now that the printing-press was causing the numerous class of scribes +and illuminators of the Middle Ages to disappear. It has never revived +since, but at intervals; and then more to meet the requirements of fancy +than to be of any real use.</p> + +<p>A few manuscripts adorned with miniatures of the end of the sixteenth +century may still be mentioned, especially two “Livres d’Heures” +(prayer-books) painted in <i>grisaille</i>, which<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_468" id="page_468">{468}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_336_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_336_sml.jpg" width="293" height="475" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_375" id="fig_375"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 375.—Miniature from the Prayer-book of Anne de +Bretagne, representing the Archangel St. Michael.</p> + +<p>(Musée des Souverains.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_469" id="page_469">{469}</a></span></p> + +<p class="nind">belonged to Henry II., King of France (now in the Musée des Souverains), +and the “Livre d’Heures,” executed for the Margrave of Baden by a +painter of Lorraine or of Metz named Brentel (<a href="#fig_376">Fig. 376</a>), who, however, +did nothing</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_337_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_337_sml.jpg" width="238" height="365" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_376" id="fig_376"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 376.—Miniature in the “Livre d’Heures” belonging to +the Margrave of Baden, representing the Portrait of the blessed Bernard +of Baden, who died in the odour of Sanctity, on July 15, 1458.</p> + +<p>(Imperial Library, Paris.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p class="nind">but put together designs copied from the great masters of Italy and +Flanders. There were, nevertheless, good miniature-painters in France up +to the seventeenth century, to illustrate the manuscripts executed with +so much taste<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_470" id="page_470">{470}</a></span> by the famous Jarry and the caligraphers of his school. +The last manifestation of the art shines forth, for example, in the +magnificent “Livre d’Heures” presented to Louis XIV. by the pensioners +of the Hôtel des Invalides, a remarkable work, but yet unworthy to +appear by the side of the “Livre d’Heures d’Anne de Bretagne,” which the +painter seems to have adopted as his model.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_338_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_338_sml.jpg" width="144" height="146" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_377" id="fig_377"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 377.—Escutcheon of France, taken from some +Ornaments in the Manuscript of the “Institution of the Order of the Holy +Ghost.” (Fourteenth Century.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_471" id="page_471">{471}</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="BOOKBINDING" id="BOOKBINDING"></a>BOOKBINDING</h2> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Primitive Binding of Books.—Bookbinding among the +Romans.—Bookbinding with Goldsmith’s Work from the Fifth +Century.—Chained Books.—Corporation of <i>Lieurs</i>, or +Bookbinders.—Books bound in Wood, with Metal Corners and +Clasps.—First Bindings in Leather, honeycombed (<i>waffled</i>?) and +gilt.—Description of some celebrated Bindings of the Fourteenth +and Fifteenth Centuries.—Sources of Modern Bookbinding.—John +Grollier.—President De Thou.—Kings and Queens of France +Bibliomaniacs.—Superiority of Bookbinding in France.</p></div> + +<p class="nind"><a href="images/ill_339_lg.jpg"> +<span class="letra"> +<img src="images/ill_339_sml.jpg" +width="90" +alt="A" /></span></a>S soon as the ancients had made square books, more convenient to read +than the rolls, binding—that is to say, the art of reuniting the leaves +stitched or stuck (<i>ligati</i>) into a movable back, between two square +pieces of wood, ivory, metal, or leather—bookbinding was invented. This +primitive binding, which had no other object than that of preserving the +books, no other merit than than of solidity, was not long ere it became +associated with ornament, and thus put itself in relation with the +luxury of Greek and Roman civilisation. Not contented with placing on +each side of the volume a little tablet of cedar-wood or of oak, on +which was written the title of the book (for books were then laid flat +on the shelves of the library), a piece of leather was stretched over +the edge to preserve it from dust, if the book was valuable, and the +volume was tied up with a strap passed round it many times, and which +was subsequently replaced by clasps. In certain instances the volume was +enveloped in thick cloth, and even enclosed in a case of wood or +leather. Such was the state of bookbinding in ancient times.</p> + +<p>There were then, as now, good and bad bookbinders. Cicero, in his +letters to Atticus, asks for two of his slaves who were very clever<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_472" id="page_472">{472}</a></span> +<i>ligatores librorum</i> (bookbinders). Bookbinding, however, was not an art +very generally known, for square books, notwithstanding the convenience +of their shape, had not yet superseded rolls; but we see, in the Notices +of the Dignities of the Eastern Empire (“Notitia Dignitatum Imperii), +written towards 450, that this accessory art had already made immense +progress; since certain officers of the empire used to carry, in the +public ceremonies, large square books containing the administrative +instructions of the emperor: these books were bound, covered with green, +red, blue, or yellow leather, closed by means of leathern straps or by +hooks, and ornamented with little golden rods disposed horizontally, or +lozengewise, with the portrait of the sovereign painted or gilt on their +sides. From the fifth century goldsmiths and lapidaries ornamented +binding with great richness. And so we hear St. Jerome +exclaiming:—“Your books are covered with precious stones, and Christ +died naked before the gate of his temple!” “The Book of the Gospels,” in +Greek, given to the basilica of Monza by Theodelinda, queen of the +Lombards, about 600, has still one of these costly bindings.</p> + +<p>A specimen of Byzantine art, preserved in the Louvre, is a sort of small +plate, which is supposed to be one of the sides of the cover of a book; +on it we find executed in bas-relief the “Visit of the Holy Women to the +Tomb,” and several other scenes from the Gospels. In this example the +beauty of the figures, the taste which dictated the arrangement of the +draperies, and the finish in the execution, furnish us with evidence +that, in the industrial arts, the Greeks had maintained till the twelfth +century their pre-eminence over all the people of Europe.</p> + +<p>In those days the binding of ordinary books was executed without any +ornamentation, this being reserved for sacred books. If, in the +treasures of churches, abbeys, and palaces, a few manuscripts covered +with gold, silver, and precious stones were kept as relics, books in +common use were simply covered in boards or leather; but not without +much attention being given to the binding, which was merely intended to +preserve the volumes. Many documents bear witness to the great care and +precision with which, in certain monasteries, books were bound and +preserved. All sorts of skins were employed in covering them when they +had been once pressed and joined together between boards of hard wood +that would not readily decay: in the North, even the skins of seals and +of sharks were employed, but pig-skin seems to have been used in +preference to all others.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="chrm_18" id="chrm_18"></a> +<a href="images/ill_340_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_340_sml.jpg" width="369" height="485" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<div class="caption"><p>PANEL OF A BOOK COVER.</p> + +<p>Bas-relief in Gold Repoussé. Ninth Century. (in the Louvre.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_473" id="page_473">{473}</a></span></p> + +<p>It must be admitted that we, perhaps, owe to their rich bindings, which +were well calculated to tempt thieves, the destruction of a number of +valuable manuscripts when towns or monasteries were sacked; but, on the +other hand, the sumptuous bindings with which kings and nobles covered +Bibles, the Gospels, antiphonaries,<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id="FNanchor_58_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a> and missals, have certainly +preserved to us very many curious examples that, without them, would by +degrees have deteriorated, or would not have escaped all the chances of +destruction to which they were exposed. It is thus, for instance, that +the famous manuscript of Sens has descended to us, which contains “La +Messe des Fous,” set to music in the twelfth century; it is bound +between two pieces of ivory, with bas-relief carvings of the fourth +century, representing the festivals of Bacchus. All great public +collections show with pride some of these rare and venerable bindings, +decorated with gold, silver, or copper, engraved, chased, or inlaid with +precious stones or coloured glass, with cameos or antique ivories (Fig. +378). The greater number of rich books of the Gospels mentioned in +history date back as far as the period of Charlemagne, and among these +we must mention, above all, one given by the emperor himself to the +Abbey of St. Riquier, “covered with plates of silver, and ornamented +with gold and gems;” that of St. Maximinius of Treves, which came from +Ada, daughter of Pepin, sister of Charlemagne, and was ornamented with +an engraved agate representing Ada, the emperor, and his sons; and +lastly, one that was to be seen as late as 1727 in the convent of +Hautvillers, near Epernay, and which was bound in carved ivory.</p> + +<p>Sometimes these sumptuous volumes were enclosed in an envelope made of +rich stuff; or, in pursuance of an ancient custom, a casket not less +gorgeously decorated than the binding, contained it. The Prayer-book of +Charlemagne, now preserved in the Library of the Louvre, is known to +have been originally enclosed in a small casket of silver gilt, on which +were represented in relief the “Mysteries of the Passion.”</p> + +<p>These books, however, bound with goldsmith’s work, were not those that +were chained in churches and in certain libraries (<a href="#fig_379">Fig. 379</a>), as some +volumes still in existence show, with the rings through which passed the +chain that fastened them to the desk. These <i>catenati</i> (chained books) +were generally Bibles and missals, bound in wood and heavily ornamented<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_474" id="page_474">{474}</a></span> +with metallic corners; which, while placed at the disposition of the +faithful and of the public in general, their owners wished to guarantee +against being stolen.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_341_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_341_sml.jpg" width="314" height="368" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_378" id="fig_378"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 378.—Binding in Gold, adorned with precious Stones +which covered a “Book of the Gospels” of the Eleventh Century, +representing Jesus Crucified, with the Virgin and St. John at the Foot +of the Cross.</p> + +<p>(Musée du Louvre).</p></div> +</div> + +<p>We must not forget to mention, among the most beautiful bindings of the +eleventh and twelfth centuries, the coverings of books in enamelled +copper (<a href="#fig_380">Fig. 380</a>). The Museum of Cluny possesses two plates of incrusted +enamel of Limoges, which must have belonged to one of these bindings: +the first has for its subject the “Adoration of the Magi;” the other</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="chrm_19" id="chrm_19"></a> +<a href="images/ill_342_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_342_sml.jpg" width="372" height="448" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<div class="caption"><p>IVORY DIPTYCH OF THE LOWER EMPIRE.</p> + +<p>Serving as a Book Cover, “l’Office des fous.”. (In the Library of +Sens)</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_475" id="page_475">{475}</a></span></p> + +<p class="nind">represents the monk Etienne de Muret, founder of the order of Grandmont +(in the twelfth century), conversing with St. Nicholas. The Cathedral of +Milan contains in its treasury the covering of a book still more ancient +and much richer, about fourteen inches long by twelve inches wide, and +profusely covered with incrusted enamel, mounted and ornamented with +polished, but uncut, precious stones of various colours.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_343_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_343_sml.jpg" width="345" height="213" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_379" id="fig_379"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 379.—Library of the University of Leyden, in which +all the Books were chained, even in the Seventeenth Century.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>But all these were only the work of enamellers, goldsmiths, +illuminators, and clasp-makers. The binders, or bookbinders properly so +called, fastened together the leaves of books, and placed them between +two boards, which they then covered with leather, skin, stuff, or +parchment; they added to these coverings sometimes leathern straps, +sometimes metal clasps, sometimes hooks, to keep the volume firmly +closed, and almost always nails, whose round and projecting heads +preserved the flat surface of the binding from being rubbed.</p> + +<p>In the year 1299, when the tax was imposed upon the inhabitants of Paris +for the exigencies of the king, it was ascertained that the number of +bookbinders then actually in the town amounted only to seventeen, who, +as well as the scribes and booksellers, were directly dependent on the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_476" id="page_476">{476}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_344_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_344_sml.jpg" width="405" height="524" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_380" id="fig_380"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 380.—Large Painted Initial Letter in a Manuscript +in the Royal Library, Brussels, showing the arrangement of the Binding, +in enamelled Metal, of a book of the Gospels. (Ninth or Tenth +Century.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_477" id="page_477">{477}</a></span></p> + +<p>University, the authorities of which placed them under the surveillance +of four sworn bookbinders, who were considered the <i>agents</i> of the +University. We must except, however, from this jurisdiction the +acknowledged bookbinder to the “Chambre des Comptes,” who, before he +could be appointed to this office, had to make an affirmation <i>that he +could neither read nor write</i>.</p> + +<p>In the musters, or processions, of the University of Paris, the +bookbinders came after the booksellers. To explain the relatively small +number of professed bookbinders, we must remember that at this period +the majority of scholars bound their own books, as divers passages of +ancient authors prove; while the monasteries, which were the principal +centres of bookmakers, had one or many members of their community whose +special function it was to bind the works written within their walls. +Tritheimius, Abbot of Spanheim at the end of the fifteenth century, does +not forget the bookbinders in the enumeration he makes of the different +employments of his monks:—“Let that one,” says he, “fasten the leaves +together, and bind the book with boards. You, prepare those boards; you, +dress the leather; you, the metal plates, which are to adorn the +binding.” These bindings are represented on the seal of the University +of Oxford (<a href="#fig_381">Fig. 381</a>), and on the banners of some French corporation of +printers and booksellers (<a href="#fig_382">Figs. 382</a> and <a href="#fig_386">386</a>).</p> + +<p>The metal plates, the corners, the nails, the clasps with which these +volumes were then laden rendered them so heavy that, in order to enable +the reader to turn over the leaves with facility, they were placed on +one of those revolving desks having space for many open folios at the +same time, and which were capable of accommodating many readers +simultaneously. It is said that Petrarch had caused a volume containing +the “Epistles of Cicero,” transcribed by himself, to be bound so +massively, that as he was continually reading it, he often let it fall +and injured his leg; so badly once that he was threatened with +amputation. This manuscript in Petrarch’s handwriting is still to be +seen in the Laurentian Library at Florence; it is bound in wood, with +edges and clasps of copper.</p> + +<p>The Crusades, which introduced into Europe many luxurious customs, must +have had great influence on bookbinding, since the Arabs had for a long +while known the art of preparing, dyeing, stamping, and gilding the +skins they employed to make covers for books: these covers took the name +of <i>alæ</i> (the wings), no doubt from the resemblance between them and<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_478" id="page_478">{478}</a></span> +the wings of a bird of rich plumage. The Crusaders having brought back +from their expeditions specimens of Oriental binding, our European +workmen did not fail to turn their brilliant models to account.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_345_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_345_sml.jpg" width="208" height="265" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_381" id="fig_381"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 381.—Seal of the University of Oxford, in which is +a Book bound with Corners and Clasps.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>An entire revolution, moreover, which had taken place in the formation +of royal and princely libraries, was to produce a revolution in binding +also. Bibles, missals, reproductions of ancient authors, treatises on +theology, were no longer the only books in common use. The new language +had given rise to histories, romances, and poems, which were the delight +of a society becoming more and more polished every day. For the pleasure +of readers, the gallant of one sex and the fair of the other, books were +required more agreeable to the eye, and less rough to the touch, than +those used for the edification of monks or the instruction of scholars. +And first of all were substituted, for the purpose of manuscripts, sizes +more portable than the grave folio. Then fine and smooth vellum was used +for writing, and books were covered in velvet, silk, or woollen stuffs. +Moreover, paper, a recent invention, opened up a new era for libraries; +but<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_479" id="page_479">{479}</a></span> two centuries were to elapse before pasteboard had entirely taken +the place of wooden covers.</p> + +<p>It is in the inventories, in the accounts, and in the archives of kings +and princes, we must look for the history of bookbinding in the +fourteenth and fifteenth centuries (<a href="#fig_383">Fig. 383</a>). We shall limit ourselves +to giving a description of some costly bindings, taken from the +inventories of the magnificent libraries of the Dukes of Burgundy and of +Orleans, now partly destroyed, and partly scattered about among the +great public collections of France and other countries.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_346_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_346_sml.jpg" width="113" height="130" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_382" id="fig_382"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 382.—Banner of the Corporation of +Printers-Booksellers of Angers.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Belonging to the Dukes of Burgundy, Philip the Bold, Jean sans Peur, and +Philip the Good, we see a small Book of the Gospels and of the “Heures +de la Croix” (a kind of prayer-book), with “a binding embellished with +gold and fifty-eight large pearls, in a case made of camlet, with one +large pearl and a cluster of small pearls;” the romance of the “Moralité +des Hommes sur le Ju (jeu) des Eschiers” (the game of chess), “covered +in silk, with white and red flowers, and silver-gilt nails, on a green +ground;” a Book of Orisons, “covered in red leather, with silver-gilt +nails;” a Psalter, “having two silver-gilt clasps, bound in blue, with a +golden eagle with two heads and red talons, to which is attached a +little silver-gilt instrument for turning over the leaves, with three +escutcheons of the same arms, covered with a red velvet <i>chemise</i>.”<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_480" id="page_480">{480}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_347_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_347_sml.jpg" width="349" height="478" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_383" id="fig_383"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 383.—Fragment of an engraved and stamped Binding in +an unknown Material (Fifteenth Century), representing the mystical Chase +of the Unicorn, which is taking refuge in the lap of the Virgin.</p> + +<p>(Public Library, Rouen.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_481" id="page_481">{481}</a></span></p> + +<p>The <i>chemise</i> was a sort of pocket in which certain valuable books were +enveloped. The “Heures de St. Louis” (St. Louis’s Prayer-book), now in +the Musée des Souverains, is still in its <i>chemise</i> of red sandal-wood.</p> + +<p>Belonging to the Duke of Orleans, brother of Charles VI., we find +Végèce’s book, “On Chivalry,” “covered in red leather inlaid, which has +two little brass clasps;” the book of “Meliadus,” “covered in green +velvet, with two silver-gilt clasps, enamelled with the arms of his +Royal Highness;” the book of Boèce, “On Consolation,” “covered in +figured silk;” “The Golden Legend,” “covered in black velvet, without +clasps;” the “Heures de Notre-Dame,” “covered in white leather.”</p> + +<p>The same inventories give an account of the prices paid for some +bindings and their accessories. Thus, in 1386, Martin Lhuillier, a +bookseller at Paris, received from the Duke of Burgundy 16 francs +(equivalent to about 114 francs French money of the present time), “for +binding eight books, of which six were covered in grained leather;” on +Sept. 19, 1394, the Duke of Orleans paid to Peter Blondel, goldsmith, 12 +livres 15 sols, “for having <i>wrought</i>, besides the duke’s silver seal, +two clasps” for the book of Boèce; and on Jan. 15, 1398, to Émelot de +Rubert, an embroideress at Paris, 50 <i>sols tournois</i>, “for having cut +out and worked in gold and silk two covers of green Dampmas cloth, one +for the Breviary, the other for the Book of Hours of the aforesaid +nobleman, and for having made fifteen markers (<i>sinets</i>) and four pair +of silk and gold straps for the said books.”</p> + +<p>The old style of thick, heavy, in some sort armour-plated, binding, +could not exist long after the invention of printing, which, while +multiplying books, diminished their weight, reduced their size, and, +moreover, gave them a less intrinsic value. Wooden boards were replaced +by compressed cardboard, nails and clasps were gradually laid aside, and +stuffs of different kinds no longer used; only skin, leather, and +parchment were employed. This was the beginning of modern binding; but +bookbinders were as yet but mechanics working for the booksellers, who, +when they had on their premises a bookbinding-room (<a href="#fig_384">Fig. 384</a>), assumed, +in their editions, the double title of <i>libraire-relieur</i> +(bookseller-bookbinder) (<a href="#fig_385">Fig. 385</a>). In 1578, Nicholas Eve still placed +on his books and his sign-board, “Bookseller to the University of Paris +and Bookbinder to the King.” No volume was sold unbound.</p> + +<p>From the end of the fifteenth century, although bookbinding was always<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_482" id="page_482">{482}</a></span> +considered as an adjunct to the bookseller’s shop, certain amateurs who +had a taste for art required richer and more <i>recherché</i> exteriors for +their books. Italy set us the example of beautiful bindings in morocco, +stamped and gilt; imitated, however, from those of the Koran and other +Arabian manuscripts, which Venetian navigators frequently brought back +with them from the East. The expedition of Charles VIII. and the wars of +Louis XII. introduced into France not only Italian bindings, but Italian +binders also. Without renouncing, however, at least for the <i>livres +d’heures</i>, the bindings ornamented with goldsmith’s work and gems, +France had very soon binders of her own, surpassing those who had been +to them as initiators or masters. Jean Grollier, of Lyons, loved books +too much not to wish to give them an exterior ornamentation worthy of +the wealth of knowledge they contained. Treasurer of War, and Intendant +of the Milanese before the battle of Pavia, he had begun to create a +library, which he subsequently transported into France, and did not +cease to enlarge and to enrich till his death, which happened in 1565. +His books were bound in morocco from the Levant, with such care and +taste that, under the supervision of this exacting amateur, bookbinding +seemed to have already attained perfection.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_348_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_348_sml.jpg" width="176" height="231" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_384" id="fig_384"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 384.—Bookbinders’ Work-room, drawn and engraved in +the Sixteenth Century, by J. Amman.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_483" id="page_483">{483}</a></span></p> + +<p>Princes and ladies of the court prided themselves on their love of books +and the desire to acquire them; they founded libraries, and encouraged +the works and inventions of good bookbinders who produced masterpieces +of patience and ability in decorating the covers of books, either with +enamelled paintings, or with mosaics made of different pieces inlaid, or +with plain gildings stamped on the surface with small irons. It would be +impossible to enumerate the splendid bindings in all styles that the +French bookbinders of the sixteenth century have left us, and which have +never been surpassed since. The painter, the engraver, and even the +goldsmith, co-operated with the bookbinder in his art, by furnishing him +with designs for ornaments. We now see reappearing some plates obtained +from hot or cold dies, representing various subjects, and the designs +from which they were taken, reproduced from those that had been in +fashion towards the beginning of the sixteenth century, were often drawn +by distinguished artists, such as Jean Cousin, Stephen de Laulne, &c.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_349_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_349_sml.jpg" width="158" height="219" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_385" id="fig_385"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 385.—Mark of William Eustace (1512), Bookseller and +Binder, Paris.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Nearly all the French kings, especially the Valois, were passionately +fond of splendid bindings. Catherine de Medicis was such a connoisseur +of finely-bound books, that authors and booksellers, who eagerly +presented her with copies of their works, tried to distinguish +themselves in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_484" id="page_484">{484}</a></span> choice and beauty of the bindings which they had made +expressly for her. Henry III., who appreciated handsomely-bound books no +less than his mother, invented a very singular binding, when he had +instituted the Order of “Penitents;” this consisted of death’s heads and +cross bones, tears, crosses, and other instruments of the Passion, gilt +or stamped on black morocco leather, and having the following device, +“Spes mea Deus” (“God is my hope”), with or without the arms of France.</p> + +<p>It is impossible to associate these superb bindings with the usual and +common work executed at the booksellers’ shops, and under their +superintendence. Some booksellers of Paris and of Lyons, the houses of +Gryphe and Tournes, of Estienne and Vascosan, paid a little more +attention, however, than others of the fraternity, to the binding of +books which they sold to the reading public; they adopted patterns of +dun-coloured calf, in compartments; or white vellum, with fillets and +arabesques in gold, fine specimens of which are now very rare.</p> + +<p>At this period Italian bookbinding had reached the most complete state +of decadency, while in Germany and other parts of Europe the old massive +bindings,—bindings in wood, leather, and parchment, with fastenings of +iron or brass,—still held their ground. In France, however, the +binders, whom the booksellers kept in a state of obscurity and +servitude, had not even been able to form themselves into a guild or +fraternity. They might produce masterpieces of their art, but were not +allowed to append their names to their works; and we must come down as +far as the famous <i>Gascon</i> (1641) before we can introduce the name of +any illustrious bookbinder.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_350_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_350_sml.jpg" width="114" height="132" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_386" id="fig_386"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 386.—Banner of the Corporation of +Printers-Booksellers of Autun.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_485" id="page_485">{485}</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="PRINTING" id="PRINTING"></a>PRINTING</h2> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang">Who was the Inventor of Printing?—Movable Letters in Ancient +Times.—Block Printing.—Laurent Coster.—<i>Donati</i> and +<i>Specula</i>.—Gutenberg’s Process.—Partnership of Gutenberg and +Faust.—Schoeffer.—The Mayence Bible.—The Psalter of 1457.—The +“Rationale” of 1459.—Gutenburg prints by himself.—The +“Catholicon” of 1460.—Printing at Cologne, Strasbourg, Venice, and +Paris.—Louis XI. and Nicholas Jenson.—German Printers at +Rome.—<i>Incunabula.</i>—Colart Mansion.—Caxton.—Improvement of +Typographical Processes up to the Sixteenth Century.</p></div> + +<p class="nind"><a href="images/ill_351_lg.jpg"> +<span class="letra"> +<img src="images/ill_351_sml.jpg" +width="90" +alt="F" /></span></a>IFTEEN towns have laid claim to the honour of being the birthplace of +printing, and writers who have applied themselves to search out the +origin of this admirable invention, far from coming to any agreement on +the point in their endeavours to clear up the question, have only +confused it. Now, however, after many centuries of learned and earnest +controversy, there only remain three antagonistic propositions, with +three names of towns, four names of inventors, and three different +dates. The three places are Haarlem, Strasbourg, and Mayence; the four +inventors, Laurent Coster, Gutenberg, Faust, and Schoeffer; the three +dates which are assigned to the invention of printing are 1420, 1440, +1450. In our opinion these three propositions, which some try to combat +and destroy by opposing each to the other, ought, on the contrary, to be +blended into one, and combined chronologically in such a manner as to +represent the three principal periods of the discovery of printing.</p> + +<p>There is no doubt that printing existed in the germ in ancient times; +that it was known and made use of by the ancients. There were stamps and +seals bearing legends traced the wrong way, from which positive +impressions were obtained on papyrus or parchment, in wax, ink, or +colour. We are shown, in museums, plates of copper or of cedar-wood, +covered with characters carved or cut out in them, which seem to have +been<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_486" id="page_486">{486}</a></span> intended for the purpose of printing, and which resemble the block +plates of the fifteenth century.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_352_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_352_sml.jpg" width="250" height="341" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_387" id="fig_387"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 387.—Ancient Wood-block Print, cut in Flanders +before 1440, representing Jesus Christ after his Flagellation. +(Delbecq’s Collection, Ghent.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Something very much like the process of printing in movable type is +described by Cicero in a passage in which he refutes the doctrine of +Epicurus on the creation of the world by atoms: “Why not believe, also, +that by throwing together, indiscriminately, innumerable forms of +letters of the alphabet, either in gold or in any other substance, one +can <i>print</i> with these letters, on the ground, the <i>Annals</i> of Ennius?” +The movable letters possessed by the ancients were carved in box-wood or +ivory; but they were only employed for teaching children to read, as +Quinctilian testifies in his<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_487" id="page_487">{487}</a></span> “Oratorical Institutions,” and St. Jerome +in his “Epistles.” There was then only wanting a fortunate chance to +cause this carved alphabet to create the typographic art fifteen +centuries earlier than its actual birth.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="fig_388" id="fig_388"></a> +<a href="images/ill_353_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_353_sml.jpg" width="257" height="327" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<div class="caption"><p>Fig. 388.—Fac-simile of an Engraving on Wood, by an +ancient Flemish Engraver (about 1438); which was inserted, after the +manner of a Miniature, in a Manuscript of the Fifteenth Century, +containing Prayers for the use of the People. (Delbecq’s Collection, +Ghent.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>“The art of taking impressions once discovered,” says M. Léon de +Laborde, “and applied to engraving in relief, gave rise to printing, +which was only the perfection to which a natural and rapid progression +of attempts and efforts would naturally lead.” “But it was only,” adds +M. Ambroise-Firmin Didot, “when the art of making paper—that art +familiar to the Chinese from the beginning of our era—spread in Europe +and became generally known, that the reproduction, by pressing, of +texts,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_488" id="page_488">{488}</a></span> figures, playing-cards, &c., first by the tabular process, +called <i>xylography</i> (block-printing), then with movable types, became +easy, and was consequently to appear simultaneously in different +places.”</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 157px;"> +<a href="images/ill_354_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_354_sml.jpg" width="157" height="377" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_389" id="fig_389"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 389.—Wood-block, cut in France, about 1440, +representing an Image of St. James the Great, with one of the +Commandments as a Text. (Imperial Library, Paris, Collection of +Prints.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>But, at the end of the fourteenth century, at Haarlem, in Holland, +wood-engraving had been discovered, and consequently <i>tabular +impression</i>, with which the Chinese, it is said, were already acquainted +three or four hundred years before the modern era. Perhaps it was some +Chinese book or pack of cards brought to Haarlem by a merchant or a +navigator, that revealed to the cardmakers and printsellers of the +industrious Netherlands a process of impressing more expeditious and +more economical. Xylography began on the day when a legend was engraved +on a wood-block; this legend, limited at first to a few lines, very soon +occupied a whole page; then this page was not long in becoming a volume +(<a href="#fig_387">Fig. 387</a> to 389).</p> + +<p>Here is an extract from the account given by Adrian Junius, in his Latin +work entitled “Batavia,” of the discovery of printing at Haarlem, +written in 1572:—“More than one hundred and thirty-two years ago there +lived at Haarlem, close to the royal palace, one John Laurent, surnamed +Coster (or governer), for this honourable post came to him by +inheritance, being handed down in his family from father to son. One +day, about 1420, as he was walking after dinner in a wood near the town, +he set to work and cut the bark of beech-trees into the shape of +letters,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_489" id="page_489">{489}</a></span> with which he traced, on paper, by pressing one after the +other upon it, a model composed of many lines for the instruction of his +children. Encouraged by this success, his genius took a higher flight, +and then, in concert with his son-in-law, Thomas Pierre, he invented a +species of ink more glutinous and tenacious than that employed in +writing, and he thus printed figures (<i>images</i>) to which he added his +wooden letters. I have myself seen many copies of this first attempt at +printing. The text is on one side only of the paper. The book printed +was written in the vulgar tongue, by an anonymous author, having as its +title ‘Speculum nostræ Salutis’ (‘The Mirror of our Salvation’). Later, +Laurent Coster changed his wooden types into leaden, then these into +pewter. Laurent’s new invention, encouraged by studious men, attracted +from all parts an immense concourse of purchasers. The love of the art +increased, the labours of his workshop increased also, and Laurent was +obliged to add hired workmen to the members of his family, to assist in +his operations. Among these workmen there was a certain John, whom I +suspect of being none other than Faust, who was treacherous and fatal to +his master. Initiated, under the seal of an oath, into all the secrets +of printing, and having become very expert in casting type, in setting +it up, and in the other processes of his trade, this John took advantage +of a Christmas evening, while every one was in church, to rifle his +master’s workshop and to carry off his typographical implements. He fled +with his booty to Amsterdam, thence to Cologne, and afterwards to +Mayence, where he established himself; and calculating upon safety here, +set up a printing-office. In that very same year, 1422, he printed with +the type which Laurent had employed at Haarlem, a grammar then in use, +called ‘Alexandri Galli Doctrinale,’ and a ‘Treatise of Peter the +Spaniard’ (‘Petri Hispani Tractatus’).”</p> + +<p>This account, which came, indeed, rather late, although the author +referred to the most respectable authorities in support of it, met at +first with nothing but incredulity and contempt. At this period the +right of Mayence to be considered the birthplace of printing could only +be seriously counterbalanced by the right Strasbourg had to be so +considered. The three names of Gutenberg, of Faust, and of Schœffer were +already consecrated by universal gratitude. Everywhere, then, except in +Holland, this new testimony was rejected; everywhere the new inventor, +whose claim had just been<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_490" id="page_490">{490}</a></span> made for a share of the honour, was rejected +as an apocryphal or legendary being. But very soon, however, criticism, +raising itself above the influences of nationality, took up the +question, discussed the account given by Junius, examined that famous +“Speculum” which no one had yet pointed out, proved the existence of +xylographic impressions, sought for those which could be attributed to +Coster, and opposed to the Abbé Tritheim (or Trithemius), who had +written on the origin of printing from information furnished by Peter +Schœffer himself, the more disinterested testimony of the anonymous +chronicler of Cologne in 1465, who had learned from Ulric Zell, one of +Gutenberg’s workmen, and the first printer of Cologne in 1465, this +important peculiarity:—“Although the typographic art was invented at +Mayence,” says he, “nevertheless the first rough sketch of this art was +invented in Holland, and it is in imitation of the ‘Donatus’ (the Latin +syntax by Cœlius Donatus, a grammarian of the fourth century, a book +then in use in the schools of Europe), which long before that time was +printed there; it is in imitation of this, and on account of it, that +the said art began under the auspices of Gutenberg.”</p> + +<p>If Gutenberg imitated the “Donatus,” which was printed in Holland before +the time he himself printed at Mayence, Gutenberg was not the inventor +of printing. It was in 1450 that Gutenberg began to print at Mayence +(<a href="#fig_390">Fig. 390</a>); but from as early a date as 1436 he had tried to print at +Strasbourg; and, before his first attempts, there had been printed in +Holland,—at Haarlem, and Dordrecht,—“Specula” and “Donati” on wooden +boards; a process known by the name of <i>xylography</i> (engraving on wood), +while the attempts at <i>typography</i> (printing with movable type) made by +Gutenberg entirely differed from the other; since the letters, engraved +at first on steel points (<i>poinçons</i>), and afterwards forced into a +copper matrix reproduced by means of casting in a metal more fusible +than copper the impress of the point on shanks (<i>tiges</i>) made of pewter +or lead, hardened by an alloy (<a href="#fig_391">Fig. 391</a>).</p> + +<p>Now, a rather singular circumstance comes to corroborate what was said +by Adrian Junius. A Latin edition of the “Speculum,” an in-folio of +sixty-three leaves, with wood engravings in two compartments at the head +of each leaf, consists of a mixture of twenty xylographic leaves, and of +forty-one leaves printed with movable type, but very imperfect, and cast +in moulds which were probably made of baked earth: an edition of a +Dutch<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_491" id="page_491">{491}</a></span> “Speculum,” in folio, has also two pages in a type smaller and +closer than the rest of the text. How are we to explain these anomalies? +On the one hand, a mixture of xylography and typography; on the other, a +combination of two different kinds of movable type. My hypothesis is, if +indeed the details given by Junius, open to suspicion as they are, be +correct, that the dishonest workman who, according to his own account, +stole the implements</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_355_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_355_sml.jpg" width="301" height="309" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_390" id="fig_390"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 390.—Fac-simile of a Page of the most ancient +Xylographie “Donatus” (Chapter on Prepositions), printed at Mayence, by +Fust and Gutenberg, about 1450.</p></div> +</div> + +<p class="nind">employed in the workshop of Laurent Coster, and who must have acted with +a certain amount of precipitation, contented himself with carrying off +some forms of the “Speculum” just ready for the press. The type employed +for twenty or twenty-two pages was sufficient to serve as models for a +counterfeit edition, and also for a book of small extent, such as the +“Alexandri Galli Doctrinale,” and the “Petri Hispani Tractatus.” It is<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_492" id="page_492">{492}</a></span> +probable that the Latin and Dutch editions of the “Speculum” were both +entirely composed, set up, and prepared for the text to be struck off, +when the thief took at hazard the twenty-two forms, which he determined +to turn to account, at any rate as a model for the counterfeit edition +he intended to publish. In cast-iron type, these forms could not have +weighed more than sixty pounds; in wooden type, not half as much; if we +add to these the composing-sticks, the pincers, the galleys, and other +indispensable elements of the trade, we shall find that the booty was +not beyond the strength of a man to carry easily on his shoulders. As +for the press, about that there could be no question, since the +impressions produced at Haarlem were made with a pad and by hand, as is +still the case with playing-cards and prints.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_356_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_356_sml.jpg" width="187" height="202" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_391" id="fig_391"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 391.—Portrait of Gutenberg, from an Engraving of +the Sixteenth Century.</p> + +<p>(Imperial Library of Paris, Print Room.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p>It remains now to discover who was this John who appropriated the secret +of printing, and took it from Haarlem to Mayence. Was it John Fust or +Faust, as Adrian Junius suspected? Was it John Gutenberg, as many Dutch +writers have alleged? or was it not rather John Gensfleisch the elder, a +relation of Gutenberg, as, from a very explicit passage of the learned +Joseph Wimpfeling, his contemporary, the latest defenders of the Haarlem +tradition think? The question is still undecided.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_493" id="page_493">{493}</a></span></p><p>The “Speculum,” however, is not the only book of the kind which</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_357_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_357_sml.jpg" width="353" height="486" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_392" id="fig_392"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 392.—Fac-simile of the Twenty-eighth Xylographic +Page of the “Biblia Pauperum;” representing, with Texts taken from the +Old Testament, David slaying Goliath, and Christ causing the Souls of +the Patriarchs and Prophets to come out of Purgatory.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_494" id="page_494">{494}</a></span></p> + +<p class="nind">had appeared in the Low Countries before the period assigned to the +discovery of printing in Holland. Some of these were evidently +xylographic, others show signs of having been printed with movable type +of wood, not of metal. All have engravings of the same character as +those of the “Speculum,” especially the “Biblia Pauperum” (“Poor Men’s +Bible”) (<a href="#fig_392">Fig. 392</a>), the “Ars Moriendi” (“The Art of Dying”) (<a href="#fig_393">Fig. 393</a>) +the “Ars Memorandi” (“The Art of Remembering”), which had a very wide +circulation.</p> + +<p>However this may be, Laurent Coster, notwithstanding the progress he had +made with his invention, was certainly ignorant of its importance. In +those days the only libraries were those belonging to convents and to a +few nobles of literary acquirements; private individuals, with the +exception of some learned men who were richer than their fellows, +possessed no books at all. The copyists and illuminators by profession +were employed exclusively in reproducing “Livres d’Heures” +(prayer-books), and school books: the first were sumptuous volumes, +objects of an industry quite exceptional; the second, destined for +children, were always simply executed, and composed of a few leaves of +strong paper or parchment. The pupils limited themselves to writing +passages of their lessons from the dictation of their teachers; to the +monks was assigned the task of transcribing, at full length, the sacred +and profane authors. Coster could not even have thought of reproducing +these works, the sale of which would have seemed to him impossible, and +he at first fell back upon the “Specula,” religious books which +addressed themselves to all the faithful, even to those who could not +read, by means of the stories or illustrations (<i>images</i>) of which these +books were composed; then he occupied himself with the “Donati,” which +he reprinted many times from xylographic plates, if not with movable +type, and for which he must have found a considerable demand. It was one +of these “Donati” that, falling under the eyes of Gutenberg, revealed to +him, according to the “Chronique de Cologne,” the secret of printing.</p> + +<p>This secret was kept faithfully for fifteen or twenty years by the +workmen employed in his printing-house, who were not initiated into the +mysteries of the new art till they had served a certain time of +probation and apprenticeship: a terrible oath bound together those whom +the master had considered worthy of entering into partnership with him; +for on the pre<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_495" id="page_495">{495}</a></span>servation of the secret depended the prosperity or the +ruin of the inventor and his coadjutors, since all printed books were +then sold as manuscripts.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_358_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_358_sml.jpg" width="310" height="439" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_393" id="fig_393"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 393.—Fac-simile of the fifth Page of the first +Xylographic Edition of the “Ars Moriendi,” representing the Sinner on +his Death-bed surrounded by his Family. Two Demons are whispering into +his ear, “Think of thy treasure,” and “Distribute it to thy friends.”</p></div> +</div> + +<p>But while the secret was so scrupulously maintained by the first Dutch<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_496" id="page_496">{496}</a></span> +printer and his partners, a lawsuit was brought before the superior +court of Strasbourg which, though the motives for it were apparently but +of private interest, was nevertheless to give the public the key to the +mysterious trade of the typographer. This lawsuit,—the curious +documents relating to which were found only in 1760, in an old tower at +Strasbourg,—was brought against John Gensfleisch, called Gutenberg (who +was born at Mayence, but was exiled from his native town during the +political troubles, and had settled at Strasbourg since 1420), by George +and Nicholas Dritzehen, who, as heirs of the deceased Andrew Dritzehen, +their brother, and formerly Gutenberg’s partner, desired to be admitted +as his representatives into an association of whose object they were +ignorant, but from which they no doubt knew their brother expected to +derive some beneficial results. It was, in short, printing itself which +was on its trial at Strasbourg towards the end of the year 1439; that +is, more than fourteen years before the period at which printing is +known to have been first employed in Mayence.</p> + +<p>Here is a summary, as we find them in the documents relating to this +lawsuit, of the facts stated before the judge. Gutenberg, an ingenious +but a poor man, possessed <i>divers secrets</i> for becoming rich. Andrew +Dritzehen came to him with a request that he would teach him <i>many +arts</i>. Gutenberg thereupon initiated him into the art of <i>polishing +stones</i>, and Andrew “derived great profit from this secret.” +Subsequently, with the object of carrying out <i>another art</i> during the +pilgrimage of Aix-la-Chapelle,<a name="FNanchor_60_60" id="FNanchor_60_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a> Gutenberg agreed with Hans Riffen, +mayor of Lichtenau, to form a company, which Andrew Dritzehen and a man +named Andrew Heilman desired to join. Gutenberg consented to this on +condition that they would together purchase of him the right to a third +of the profits, for a sum of 160 florins, payable on the day of the +contract, and 80 florins payable at a later date. The agreement being +made, he taught them the <i>art</i> which they were to exercise at the proper +period in Aix-la-Chapelle; but the pilgrimage was postponed to the +following year, and the partners required of Gutenberg that he should +not conceal from them any of the <i>arts and inventions</i> of which he was +cognisant. New stipulations were entered upon whereby the partners +pledged themselves to pay an additional sum, and in which it was stated +that<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_497" id="page_497">{497}</a></span> the <i>art</i> should be carried on for the benefit of the four +partners during the space of five years; and that, in the event of one +of them dying, <i>all the implements of the art, and all the works already +produced</i>, should belong to the surviving partners; the heirs of the +deceased being entitled to receive no more than an indemnity of 100 +florins at the expiration of the said five years.</p> + +<p>Gutenberg accordingly offered to pay the heirs of his late partner the +stipulated sum; but they demanded of him an account of the capital +invested by Andrew Dritzehen, which, as they alleged, had been absorbed +in the speculation. They mentioned especially a certain account for +<i>lead</i>, for which their brother had made himself responsible. Without +denying this account, Gutenberg refused to satisfy their demands.</p> + +<p>Numerous witnesses gave evidence, and their depositions for and against +the object of the association show us a faithful picture of what must +have been the inner life of four partners exhausting themselves and +their money in efforts to realise a scheme the nature of which they were +very careful to conceal, but from which they expected to derive the most +splendid results.</p> + +<p>We find them working by night; we hear them answering those who +questioned them on the object of their work, that they were +“mirror-makers” (<i>spiegel-macher</i>); we find them borrowing money, +because they had in hand “something in which they could not invest too +much money.” Andrew Dritzehen, in whose care the <i>press</i> was left, being +dead, Gutenberg’s first object was to send to the deceased’s house a man +he could trust, who was commissioned to unscrew the press, so that the +pieces (or <i>forms</i>), which were fixed closely together by it, might +become detached from each other, and then to place these forms in or on +the press “in such a manner that no one might be able to understand what +they were.” Gutenberg regrets that his servant did not bring him back +all the forms, many of which “were not to be found.” Lastly, we find +figuring among the witnesses a turner, a timber-merchant, and a +goldsmith who declared that he had worked during three years for +Gutenberg, and that he had gained more than 100 florins by preparing for +him “the things belonging to printing” (<i>das zu dem Trucken gehoret</i>).</p> + +<p><i>Trucken</i>—printing! Thus the grand word was pronounced in the course of +the lawsuit, but certainly without producing the least effect on<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_498" id="page_498">{498}</a></span> the +audience, who wondered what was this occult <i>art</i> which Gutenberg and +his partners had carried on with so much trouble, and at such great +expense. However, it is quite certain that, with the exception of the +indiscretion, really very insignificant, of the goldsmith, Gutenberg’s +secret remained undiscovered, for it was supposed it had to do with the +<i>polishing of stones</i> and the manufacture of <i>mirrors</i>. The judge, being +informed as to the good faith of Gutenberg, pronounced the offers he +made to the plaintiffs satisfactory, decided against the heirs of Andrew +Dritzehen, and the three other partners remained sole proprietors of +their process, and continued to carry it out.</p> + +<p>If we study with some attention the documents relating to this singular +trial at Strasbourg, and if we also notice, that our word <i>mirror</i> is +the translation of the German word <i>spiegel</i> and of the Latin word +<i>speculum</i>, it is impossible not to recognise all the processes, all the +implements made use of in printing, with the names they have not ceased +to bear, and which were given to them as soon as they were invented; the +forms, the screw (which is not the <i>printing</i>-press, for they printed in +those days with the <i>frotton</i>, or rubber, but the frame in which the +types were <i>pressed</i>), the lead, the work, the art, &c. We see Gutenberg +accompanied by a turner who made the screw for the press, the timber +merchant who had supplied the planks of box or of pear wood, the +goldsmith who had engraved or cast the type. Then we ascertain that +these “mirrors,” in the preparation of which the partners were occupied, +and which were to be sold at the pilgrimage of Aix-la-Chapelle, were no +other than the future copies of the “Speculum Humanæ Salvationis,” an +imitation more or less perfect of the famous book of illustrations of +which Holland had already published three or four editions, in Latin and +in Dutch.</p> + +<p>We know, on the other hand, that these “Mirrors” or “Specula” were, in +the earliest days of printing, so much in request, that in every place +the first printers rivalled each other in executing and publishing +different editions of the book with illustrations. Here, there was the +reprint of the “Speculum,” abridged by L. Coster; there, the “Speculum” +of Gutenberg, taken entirely from manuscripts; now it was the “Speculum +Vitæ Humanæ,” by Roderick, Bishop of Zamora; then the “Speculum +Conscienciæ,” of Arnold Gheyloven; then the “Speculum Sacerdotum,” or +again, the voluminous “Speculum” of Vincent de Beauvais, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page_499" id="page_499">{499}</a></span>&c.</p> + +<p>It cannot now any longer be assumed that Gutenberg really made mirrors +or looking-glasses at Strasbourg, and that those pieces “laid in a +press,” those “forms which came to pieces,” that lead sold or wrought by +a goldsmith, were, as they wished it to be supposed, only intended to be +used “for printing ornaments on the frames of looking-glasses!”</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_359_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_359_sml.jpg" width="174" height="221" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_394" id="fig_394"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 394.—Interior of a Printing-office in the Sixteenth +Century, by J. Amman.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Would it not have been surprising that the pilgrims who were to visit +Aix-la-Chapelle on the occasion of the grand jubilee of 1440, should be +so anxious to buy ornamented mirrors? As to the art “<i>of polishing +stones</i>,” which Gutenberg had taught at first to Andrew Dritzehen, who +derived from it “<i>so much profit</i>,” having anything to do with printing +was, no doubt, also questionable; but we have not been able to solve the +enigma, and wait to clear up the difficulty till a new <i>incunable</i> +(<i>incunabula</i>, “a cradle,” the word is applied to the first editions +ever printed) is discovered, the work of some Peter (πἑτρος “a stone”) +or other; as, for example, the Latin sermons of Hermann de Petra on the +Lord’s Prayer; for Gutenberg, when speaking of <i>polishing stones</i>, might +have enigmatically designated a book he was printing; just as his +partner, in answer to the judge, after having raised his hand on high +and sworn to give true evidence,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_500" id="page_500">{500}</a></span> could call himself <i>a maker of +mirrors</i>, without telling a falsehood, without committing perjury. The +secret of printing was to be religiously kept by those who knew it.</p> + +<p>In short, it results from all this that Gutenberg, “an ingenious man and +a man of invention,” having seen a xylographie “Donatus,” had +endeavoured to imitate it, and had succeeded in doing so, the secret +being confided to Andrew Dritzehen; that the other <i>arts</i>, which +Gutenberg at first kept to himself, but which he subsequently +communicated to his partners, consisted in the idea of substituting +movable type for tabular printing; a substitution that could only be +effected after numerous experiments had been made, and which were just +about to be crowned with success when Andrew Dritzehen died. We may then +consider it as nearly certain that printing was in some sort discovered +twice successively—the first time by Laurent Coster, whose small +printed books, or books in letterpress (<i>en moule</i>), attracted the +attention of Gutenberg; and the second time by Gutenberg, who raised the +art to a degree of perfection such as had never been attained by his +predecessor.</p> + +<p>It was after the Strasbourg lawsuit between the years 1440 or 1442, as +stated by many historians, that Gutenberg went to Holland, and there +became a workman in the establishment of Coster; this is asserted in +order that they might be able to accuse him of the theft which Junius +has laid to the account of a certain man whose name was John. Only—and +the coincidence is not, in this case, unworthy of remark—two unedited +chronicles of Strasbourg and the Alsatian Wimpfeling relate, almost at +the same time, a robbery of type and implements used in printing, but +mentioning Strasbourg instead of Haarlem, Gutenberg instead of Laurent +Coster, and naming the thief John Gensfieisch. But, according to the +Strasbourg tradition, this John Gensfieisch the elder, related to and +employed by Gutenberg, robbed him of his secret and his tools, after +having been his rival in the discovery of printing, and established +himself at Mayence, where, by a just visitation of Providence, he was +soon struck blind. It was then, adds the tradition, that in his +repentance he sent for his former master to come to Mayence, and gave up +to him the business he had founded. But this last part of the tradition +seems to savour too much of the moral deductions of a story; and as it +is very improbable, moreover, that two thefts of the same kind were +committed at the same period, and under the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_501" id="page_501">{501}</a></span> same circumstances, we are +inclined to believe that the John mentioned by Junius was, in fact, +Gutenberg’s relative, who went to Haarlem to perfect himself in the art +of printing, and robbed Coster; for there really existed at Mayence, at +the time mentioned, a John Gensfleisch, who might have printed, before +Gutenberg went to join him there, the two school books, “Doctrinale +Alexandri Galli,” and “Petri Hispani Tractatus.” This is rendered still +more probable from the fact that, after search had been long made for +these books, which were absolutely unknown when Junius mentioned them, +three fragments of the “Doctrinale,” printed on vellum with the type of +the Dutch “Speculum,” were at length found.</p> + +<p>However, Gutenberg had not succeeded with his printing at Strasbourg. +When he quitted the town, where he left such pupils as John Mentell and +Henry Eggestein, he removed to Mayence, and established himself in the +house of <i>Zum Jungen</i>. There he again printed, but he exhausted his +means in experiments, alternately taking up and laying aside the various +processes he had employed—xylography, movable types of wood, lead, and +cast iron. He used, for printing, a hand-press which he had made on the +same principle as a wine-press; he invented new tools; he began ten +works and could finish none. At last, his resources all gone, and +himself in a state of despair, he was just going to give up the art +altogether, when chance sent him a partner, John Fust or Faust, a rich +goldsmith of Mayence.</p> + +<p>This partnership took place in 1450. Fust, by a deed properly drawn up +by a notary, promised Gutenberg to advance him 800 gold florins for the +manufacture of implements and tools, and 300 for other +expenses—servants’ wages, rent, firing, parchment, paper, ink, &c. +Besides the “Specula” and “Donati” already in circulation, which +Gutenberg probably continued to print, the object of the partnership was +the printing of a Bible in folio of two columns, in large type, with +initial letters engraved on wood; an important work requiring a great +outlay.</p> + +<p>A caligrapher was attached to Gutenberg’s printing establishment, either +to trace on wood the characters to be engraved, or to <i>rubricate</i> the +printed pages; in other words, to write in red ink, to paint with a +brush or to illuminate (<i>au frottou</i>) the initials, the capital letters, +and the headings of chapters. This caligrapher was probably Peter +Schœffer or<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_502" id="page_502">{502}</a></span> Schoiffer, of Gernsheim, a small town in the diocese of +Darmstadt, a clerk of the diocese of Mayence, as he styles himself, and +perhaps a German student in the University of Paris; since a manuscript +copied by him, and preserved at Strasbourg, is terminated by an +inscription in which he testifies that he himself wrote it in the year +1449, in “the very glorious University of Paris.” Schœffer was not only +a literary man, but was also a man of ingenuity and prudence +(<i>ingeniosus et prudens</i>). Having entered Gutenberg’s establishment, on +whom Fust had forced him, in 1452, to take part in the new association +they were then forming, Schœffer invented an improved mould with which +he could cast separately all the letters of the alphabet in metal, +whereas up to this time they had been obliged to engrave the type with a +<i>burin</i>. He concealed his discovery from Gutenberg, who would naturally +have availed himself of it; but he confided the secret to Fust, who, +being very experienced in casting metals, carried out his idea. It was +evidently with this cast type, which resisted the action of the press, +that Schœffer composed and executed a “Donatus,” of which four leaves, +in parchment, were found at Treves in 1803, in the interior of an old +bookcover, and were deposited in the Imperial Library of Paris. An +inscription in this edition, printed in red, announces formally that +Peter Schœffer alone had executed it, with its type and its initial +letters, according to the “new art of the printer, without the help of +the pen.”</p> + +<p>That was certainly the first public disclosure of the existence of +printing, which up to this time had passed off its productions as the +work of caligraphers. It seems that Schœffer thus desired to mark the +date and to appropriate to himself the invention of Gutenberg. It is +certain that Fust, allured by the results Schœffer had obtained, +secretly entered into partnership with him, and, in order to get rid of +Gutenberg, profited by the power which his bond gave him over that +unfortunate individual. Gutenberg, summoned to dissolve the partnership +and to return the sums he had received, which he was quite incapable of +paying, was obliged, in order to satisfy the demands of his pitiless +creditor, to give up to him his printing establishment with all the +materials it contained; among them was included this same Bible, the +last leaves of which were, perhaps, in the press at the moment when they +robbed him of the fruits of his long-protracted labours.</p> + +<p>Gutenberg evicted, Peter Schœffer, and Fust, who had given Schœffer<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_503" id="page_503">{503}</a></span> his +daughter in marriage, completed the great Bible, which was ready for +sale in the early months of 1456. This Bible, being passed off as a +manuscript, must have commanded a very high price. This accounts for the +non-appearance on it of any inscription to show by what means this +immense work had been executed; let us add that in any case we may well +suppose Schœffer and Fust were not willing to give to Gutenberg a share +of the glory which they dared not yet appropriate to themselves.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_360_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_360_sml.jpg" width="265" height="270" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_395" id="fig_395"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 395.—Fac-simile of the Bible of 1456 (1 Samuel xix, +1-5), printed at Mayence by Gutenberg.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The Latin Bible, without date, which all bibliographers agree in +considering as that of Gutenberg, is a large in-folio of six hundred and +forty-one leaves, divided into two, or three, or even four volumes. It +is printed in double columns, of forty-two lines each in the full pages, +with the exception of the first ten, which consisted of only forty or +forty-one lines (<a href="#fig_395">Fig. 395</a>). The characters are Gothic; the leaves are +all numbered, and have neither <i>signatures</i> nor <i>catchwords</i>. Some +copies of it are on vellum, others on paper. The number of copies which +were<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_504" id="page_504">{504}</a></span> printed of this Bible may be estimated at one hundred and fifty—a +considerable number for that period. The simultaneous publication of so +many Bibles, exactly alike, did not contribute less than the lawsuit of +Gutenberg and Fust to make known the discovery of printing. Besides +which, Fust and his new partner, although they had mutually agreed to +keep the secret as long as possible, were the first to reveal it, in +order to get all the credit of the invention for themselves, when public +rumour allowed them no longer to conceal it within their +printing-office.</p> + +<p>It was then they printed the “Psalmorum Codex” (Collection of Psalms), +the earliest book bearing their names, and which fixed, in a manner, for +the first time, a date for the new art they had so much improved. The +<i>colophon</i>, or inscription at the end of the “Psalmorum Codex,” +announces that the book was executed “without the help of the pen, by an +ingenious process, in the year of our Lord, 1457.”</p> + +<p>This magnificent Psalter, which went through three editions without any +considerable alterations being made in it in the space of thirty-three +years, is a large in-folio volume of one hundred and seventy-five +leaves, printed in red and black characters, imitated from those used in +the liturgical manuscripts of the fifteenth century. There exists, +however, of the rarest edition of this book but six or seven copies on +vellum (<a href="#fig_396">Fig. 396</a>).</p> + +<p>From this period printing, instead of concealing itself, endeavoured, on +the contrary, to make itself generally known. But it does not as yet +seem to have occurred to any one that it could be applied to the +reproduction of other books than Bibles, psalters, and missals, because +these were the only books that commanded a quick and extensive sale. +Fust and Schœffer then undertook the printing of a voluminous work, +which served as a liturgical manual to the whole of Christendom, the +celebrated “Rationale Divinorum Officiorum” (“Manual of Divine +Offices”), by William Durand, Bishop of Mende, in the thirteenth +century. It suffices to glance over this “Rationale,” and to compare it +with the coarse “Specula” printed in Holland, to be convinced that in +the year 1459 printing had reached the highest degree of perfection. +This edition, dated from Mayence (<i>Moguntiæ</i>), was no longer intended +for a small number of buyers; it was addressed to the entire Catholic +world, and copies of it on vellum and on paper were disseminated so +rapidly over the whole of Europe as to cause the belief, thenceforward, +that printing was invented at Mayence.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_505" id="page_505">{505}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_361_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_361_sml.jpg" width="408" height="535" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_396" id="fig_396"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 396.—Fac-simile of a page of the Psalter of 1459, +second edition, or the second copy that was struck off. Printed at +Mayence, by J. Fust and P. Schœffer.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_506" id="page_506">{506}</a></span></p> + +<p>The fourth work printed by Fust and Schœffer, and dated 1460, is the +collection of the Constitutions of Pope Clement V., known by the name of +“Clementines”—a large in-folio in double columns, having superb initial +letters painted in gold and colours in the small number of copies still +extant.</p> + +<p>But Gutenberg, though deprived of his typographic apparatus, had not +renounced the art of which he considered himself, and with reason, the +principal inventor. He was, above all, anxious to prove himself as +capable as his former partners of producing books “without the help of +the pen.” He formed a new association, and fitted up a printing-office +which, we know by tradition, was actively at work till 1460, the year +wherein appeared the “Catholicon” (a kind of encyclopædia of the +thirteenth century), by John Balbi, of Genoa, the only important work +the printing of which can be attributed to Gutenberg (<a href="#fig_397">Fig. 397</a>), and +which can bear comparison with the editions of Fust and Schœffer. +Gutenberg, who had imitated the Dutch “Donati” and “Specula,” doubtless +felt a repugnance at appropriating to himself the credit of an invention +he had only improved; accordingly, in the long and explicit anonymous +inscription placed at the end of the volume, he attributed to God alone +the glory of this divine invention, declaring that the “Catholicon” had +been printed without the assistance of reed, <i>stylus</i>, or pen, but by a +marvellous combination of points, matrices, and letters.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_362_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_362_sml.jpg" width="346" height="175" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_397" id="fig_397"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 397.—Fac-simile of the “Catholicon” at 1460, +printed at Mayence by Gutenberg.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>This undertaking brought to a happy termination, Gutenberg, no doubt +weary of the annoyances incident to business, transferred his +printing-<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_507" id="page_507">{507}</a></span>office to his workmen, Henry and Nicholas Bechtermuncze, +Weigand Spyes, and Ulric Zell. Then, having retired near to Adolphus +II., elector and archbishop of Mayence, where he occupied the post of +gentleman of the ecclesiastical court of that prince, he contented +himself with the modest stipend attached to that office, and died at a +date not authentically determined, but which cannot be later than +February 24, 1468. His friend, Adam Gelth, erected in the Church of the +Récollets at Mayence, a monument to his memory, with an epitaph styling +him formally “the inventor of the typographic art.”</p> + +<p>Fust and Schœffer did not the less continue to print books with +indefatigable ardour. In 1462 they completed a new edition of the Bible, +much more perfect than that of 1456, and of which copies were probably +sold, as were those of the first edition, as manuscripts, especially in +countries where, as in France, printing did not already exist. It seems +that the appearance in Paris of this Bible, (called the Mayence Bible), +greatly excited the community of scribes and booksellers, who saw in the +new method of producing books, <i>without the aid of the pen</i>, “the +destruction of their trade.” They charged, it is said, the sellers of +these books with magic; but it is more probable the latter were +proceeded against, and condemned to fine and imprisonment, for having +omitted to procure from the University authority for the sale of their +Bible; such permission being then indispensable for the sale of every +kind of book.</p> + +<p>In the meantime the town of Mayence had been taken by assault and given +up to pillage (October 27, 1462). This event, in consequence of which +the printing-office of Fust and Schœffer remained shut up for two years, +resulted in the dissemination over the whole of Europe of printers and +the art of printing. Cologne, Hamburg, and Strasbourg appear to have +been the first towns in which the emigrants established themselves.</p> + +<p>When these printers left Mayence, and carried their art elsewhere, it +had never produced any book of classic literature; but it had proved by +important publications, such as the Bible and the “Catholicon,” that it +could create entire libraries, and thus propagate, <i>ad infinitum</i>, the +masterpieces of human genius. It was reserved for the printing-office of +Fust and Schœffer to set the example in that direction, and of printing +the first classical work. In 1465, Cicero’s treatise “De Officiis,” +issued from the press of these two faithful associates, and marked, as +we may say, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_508" id="page_508">{508}</a></span> commencement of the printing of books for libraries, +and with so great success that in the following year a new edition of +the treatise was published, in quarto.</p> + +<p>At this period, Fust himself came to Paris, where he established a dépôt +of printed books, but left the management of the concern to one of his +own fellow-countrymen. This person dying soon afterwards, the books +found in his house, being the property of a foreigner, were sold by +right of forfeiture, for the king’s benefit. But upon the petition of +Peter Schœffer, backed up by the Elector of Mayence, the King, Louis +XI., granted to the petitioners a sum of 2,425 golden dollars, “in +consideration of the trouble and labour which the said petitioners had +taken for the said art and trade of printing, and of the benefit and +utility which resulted and may result from this art to the whole world, +as well by increasing knowledge as in other ways.” This memorable decree +of the King of France bears date April 21, 1475.</p> + +<p>We must mention, however, that about the year 1462, Louis XI., +inquisitive and uneasy at what he had heard of the invention of +Gutenberg, sent to Mayence Nicholas Jenson, a clever engraver, attached +to the mint at Tours, “to obtain secret information of the cutting of +the points and type, by means of which the rarest manuscripts could be +multiplied, and to carry off surreptitiously the invention and introduce +it into France.” Nicholas Jenson, after having succeeded in his mission, +did not return to France (it was never known why), but went to Venice +and established himself there as a printer. It would seem, however, that +Louis XI., not discouraged at the ill success of his attempt, +despatched, it is said, another envoy, less enterprising but more +conscientious than the first, to discover the secrets of printing. In +1469, three German printers, Ulric Gering, Martin Crantz, and Michael +Friburger, began to print in Paris, in a room of the Sorbonne, of which +their fellow-countryman, John Heylin, named De la Pierre, was then the +prior; in the following year they dedicated to the king, “their +protector,” one of their editions, revised by the learned William +Fichet; and in the space of four years they published about fifteen +works, quartos and folios, the majority being printed for the first +time. Then, when they were forced to leave the Sorbonne, because John de +la Pierre, who had returned to Germany, had no longer authority over the +institution, they set up in the Rue Saint-Jacques a new printing<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_509" id="page_509">{509}</a></span> +establishment, whose sign-board was the “Soleil d’Or,” from which, +during the next five years, were issued twelve other important works.</p> + +<p>The Sorbonne then, like the University, was the cradle and the +foster-mother in Paris of the art of printing, which soon attained to a +nourishing condition, and produced, during the last twenty years of the +fourteenth<a name="FNanchor_61_61" id="FNanchor_61_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a> century, numerous fine books of history, poetry, +literature, and devotion, under the direction of the able and learned +Pierre Caron, Pasquier Bonhomme, Anthony Vérard, Simon Vostre (Fig. +398), &c.</p> + +<p>After the capture of Mayence, two workmen, who had been dismissed from +the establishment of Fust and Schœffer, Conrad Sweynheim and Arnold +Pannartz, carried beyond the Alps the secret that had been confided to +them under the guarantee of an oath. They remained for a time in the +Convent of Subiaco, near Rome, in which were some German monks, and +there they organised a printing apparatus, and printed many fine +editions of Lactantius, Cicero, St. Augustine, &c. They were soon +invited to Rome, and met with an asylum in the house of the illustrious +family of Massimi; but they found an opponent in the city in one of +their own workmen from the convent, who had come to Rome and engaged +himself as printer to the cardinal John of Torquemada. Henceforward +sprang up between the two printing establishments a rivalry which showed +itself in unparalleled zeal and activity on both sides. In ten years the +greater number of the writings of the ancient Latin authors, which had +been preserved in manuscripts more or less rare, passed through the +press. In 1476 there were in Rome more than twenty printers, who +employed about a hundred presses, and whose great object was to surpass +each other in the rapidity with which they produced their publications; +so that the day soon arrived when the most precious manuscripts retained +any value only because they contained what had not been already made +public by printing. Those of which printed editions already existed were +so universally disregarded, that we must refer to this period the +destruction of a large number. They were used, when written on +parchment, for binding the new books; and to this circumstance may be +attributed the loss of certain celebrated works which printing in nowise +tended to preserve from the knife of the binder.</p> + +<p>While printing was displaying such prodigious activity in Rome, it was<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_510" id="page_510">{510}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_363_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_363_sml.jpg" width="334" height="533" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_398" id="fig_398"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 398.—Fac-simile of a page of a “Livre d’Heures” +printed in Paris, in 1512, by Simon Vostre.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_511" id="page_511">{511}</a></span></p> + +<p class="nind">not less active in Venice, where it seems to have been imported by that +Nicholas Jenson whom Louis XI. had sent to Gutenberg, and whom for a +long time even the Venetians looked on as the inventor of the art with +which he had clandestinely become acquainted at Mayence. From the</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_364-a_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_364-a_sml.jpg" width="286" height="87" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_399" id="fig_399"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 399.—The Mark of Gérard Lecu, Printer at Gouwe +(1482).</p> + +<p><a name="fig_400" id="fig_400"></a>Fig. 400.—The Mark of Fust and Schœffer, Printers. +(Fifteenth Century.)</p> +</div> +</div> + +<p class="nind">year 1469, however, Jenson had no longer the monopoly of printing in +Venice, where John de Spire had arrived, bringing also from Mayence all +the improvements Gutenberg and Schœffer had obtained. This art having +ceased to be a secret in the city of the Doges, great</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_364-b_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_364-b_sml.jpg" width="122" height="168" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_401" id="fig_401"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 401.—Mark of Arnold de Keyser, Printer at Ghent.</p> + +<p>(1480.)</p></div> +</div> + +<p class="nind">competition arose among printers, who flocked to Venice, where they +found a market for their volumes which a thousand ships carried to all +parts of the world. At this period important and admirable publications +issued from the numerous rival printing establishments in Venice.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_512" id="page_512">{512}</a></span> +Christopher Waltdorfer, of Ratisbon, published in 1471 the first edition +of the “Decameron” of Boccaccio, of which a copy was sold for £2,080 at +the Roxburgh sale; John of Cologne published, in the same year, the +first dated edition of “Terence;” Adam of Amberg reprinted, from the +Roman editions, “Lactantius” and “Virgil,” &c. Finally, Venice already +possessed more than two hundred printers, when in 1494 the great Aldo +Manuzio made his appearance, the precursor of the Estiennes,<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id="FNanchor_62_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a> who +were the glory of French printing. From every part of Europe printing +spread itself and flourished (<a href="#fig_399">Figs. 399 to 411</a>); the printers, however, +often neglected, perhaps intentionally, to date their</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_365_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_365_sml.jpg" width="255" height="162" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_402" id="fig_402"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 402.—Mark of Colard Mansion, Printer at Bruges. +(1477.)</p> + +<p><a name="fig_403" id="fig_403"></a>Fig. 403.—Mark of Trechsel, Printer at Lyons. (1489.)</p> +</div> +</div> + +<p class="nind">productions. In the course of 1469 there were only two towns, Venice and +Milan, that revealed, by their dated editions, the time at which +printing was first established within their walls; in 1470, five +towns—Nuremberg, Paris, Foligno, Treviso, and Verona; in 1471, eight +towns—Strasbourg, Spires, Treviso, Bologna, Ferrara, Naples, Pavia, and +Florence; in 1472, eight others—Cremona, Felizzano, Padua, Mantua, +Montreuil, Jesi, Munster, and Parma; in 1473, ten—Brescia, Messina, +Ulm, Bude,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_513" id="page_513">{513}</a></span> Lauingen, Mersebourg, Alost, Utrecht, Lyons, and St. Ursio, +near Vicenza; in 1474, thirteen towns, among which are Valentia (in +Spain) and London; in 1475, twelve towns, &c. Each year we find the art +gaining ground, and each year an increase in the number of books newly +edited, rendering science and literature popular by considerably +diminishing the price of books. Thus, for example, at the beginning of +the fifteenth century, the illustrious Poggio sold his fine manuscript +of “Livy,” to raise money enough to buy himself a villa near Florence; +Anthony of Palermo mortgaged his estate in order to be able to purchase +a manuscript of the same historical writer, valued at a hundred and +twenty-five dollars; yet a few years later the “Livy,” printed at Rome +by Sweynheim and Pannartz, in one folio volume on vellum, was worth only +five golden dollars.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_366_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_366_sml.jpg" width="325" height="235" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_404" id="fig_404"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 404.—Mark of Simon Vostre, Printer at Paris, in +1531, living in the Rue Neuve Nostre-Dame, at the Sign of St. John the +Evangelist.</p> + +<p><a name="fig_405" id="fig_405"></a>Fig. 405.—Mark of Galliot du Pré, Bookseller at Paris. +(1531.)</p> +</div> +</div> + +<p>The largest number of the early editions resembled each other, for they +were generally printed in Gothic characters, or <i>lettres de +somme</i>—letters which bristled with points and angular appendices. These +characters, when printing was only just invented, had preserved in +Holland and in Germany<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_514" id="page_514">{514}</a></span> their original form; and the celebrated printer +of Bruges, Colard Mansion, only improved on them in his valuable +publications, which were almost contemporaneous with Gutenberg’s +“Catholicon;” but they had already under-gone in France a semi +metamorphosis in getting rid of their angularities and their most +extravagant features. These <i>lettres de somme</i> were then adopted under +the name of <i>bâtarde</i> (bastard) or <i>ronde</i> (round), in the first books +printed in France, and when Nicholas Jenson established himself in +Venice</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_367_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_367_sml.jpg" width="343" height="221" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_406" id="fig_406"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 406.—Mark of Philippe le Noir, Printer, Bookseller, +and Bookbinder, at Paris, 1536, living in the Rue St. Jacques, at the +sign of the “Rose Couronnée.”</p> + +<p><a name="fig_407" id="fig_407"></a>Fig. 407.—Mark of Temporal, Printer at Lyons, 1550-1559, +with two devices; one in Latin, “And in the meanwhile time flieth, +flieth irreparably;” the other in Greek, “Mark, or know, Time.” (Observe +the play upon the words <i>tempus</i>, καιρὁς and Temporal.)</p> +</div> +</div> + +<p class="nind">he used the <i>Roman</i>, which were only an elegant variety of the <i>lettres +de somme</i> of France (Gothic characters). Aldo Manuzio, with the sole +object of insuring that Venice should not owe its national type to a +Frenchman, adopted the <i>Italic</i> character, renewed from the writing +called cursive or <i>de chancellerie</i> (of the chancellor’s office), which +was never generally used in printing, notwithstanding the fine editions +of Aldo. Hereafter the Ciceronean character was to come into use, so +called because it had been employed at Rome in the first edition of the +“Epistolæ Familiares” (Familiar Letters) of Cicero, in 1467. The +character called “St. Augustinian,” which appeared<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_515" id="page_515">{515}</a></span> later, likewise owes +its name to the large edition of the works of St. Augustine, published +at Basle in 1506. Moreover, during this first period in which each +printer engraved, or caused to be engraved under his own directions,</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_368-a_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_368-a_sml.jpg" width="279" height="126" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_408" id="fig_408"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 408.—Mark of Robert Estienne, Printer at Paris, +1536.</p> + +<p>“Do not aspire to know high things.”</p> +<p><a name="fig_409" id="fig_409"></a>Fig. 409.—Mark of Gryphe, Printer at Lyons, 1529.</p> + +<p>“Virtue my Leader, Fortune my Companion.”</p> +</div> +</div> + +<p class="nind">the characters he made use of, there was an infinite number of different +types. The <i>register</i>, a table indicative of the quires which composed +the book, was necessary to point out in what order these were to be +arranged</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_368-b_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_368-b_sml.jpg" width="280" height="152" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_410" id="fig_410"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 410.—Mark of Plantin, Printer, at Antwerp, 1557.</p> + +<p>“Christ the true Vine.”</p> + +<p><a name="fig_411" id="fig_411"></a>Fig. 411.—Mark of J. Le Noble, Printer at Troyes. +(1595.)</p> +</div> +</div> + +<p class="nind">and bound together. After the <i>register</i> came <i>the catchwords</i>, which, +at the end of each quire or of each leaf, were destined to serve an +analogous purpose; and the <i>signatures</i>, indicating the place of quires +or of leaves by letters or figures; but signatures and catchwords +existed already in the manuscripts,<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_516" id="page_516">{516}</a></span> and typographers had only to +reproduce them in their editions. There was at first a perfect identity +between the manuscripts and the books printed from them. The typographic +art seems to have considered it imperative to respect the abbreviations +with which the manuscripts were so encumbered as often to become +unintelligible; but, as it was not easy to transfer them precisely from +the manuscripts, they were soon expressed in such a way, and in so +complicated a manner, that in 1483 a special explanatory treatise had to +be published to render them intelligible. The punctuation was generally +very capriciously presented: here, it was nearly <i>nil</i>; there, it +admitted only of the full stop in various positions; the rests were +often indicated by oblique strokes; sometimes the full stop was round, +sometimes square, and we find also the star or asterisk employed as a +sign of punctuation. The new paragraphs, or breaks, are placed +indifferently in the same line with the rest of the text, projecting +beyond it or not reaching to it.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_369_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_369_sml.jpg" width="337" height="522" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_412" id="fig_412"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 412.—Border from the “Livre d’Heures” of Anthony +Vérard (1488), representing the Assumption of the Virgin in the presence +of the Apostles and Holy Women, and at the bottom of the page two +Mystical Figures.</p></div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page_517" id="page_517">{517}</a></span></p> + +<p>The book, on leaving the press, went, like its predecessor the +manuscript, first into the hands of the <i>corrector</i>, who revised the +text, rectifying wrong letters, and restoring those the press had left +in blank; then into the hands of the <i>rubricator</i>, who printed in red, +blue, or other colours, the initial letters, the capitals, and the new +paragraphs. The leaves, before the adoption of signatures, were numbered +by hand.</p> + +<p>At first, nearly all books were printed in folio and quarto sizes, the +result of folding the sheet of paper in two or in four respectively; but +the length and breadth of these sizes varied according to the +requirements of typography and the dimensions of the press. At the end +of the fifteenth century, however, the advantages of the octavo were +already appreciated, which soon became in France the sex-decimo, and in +Italy the duo-decimo.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_370_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_370_sml.jpg" width="338" height="525" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_413" id="fig_413"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 413.—Border taken from the “Livre d’Heures” of +Geoffroi Tory (1525).</p></div> +</div> + +<p>Paper and ink employed by the earliest printer seem to have required no +improvement as the art of printing progressed.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_518" id="page_518">{518}</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_371_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_371_sml.jpg" width="331" height="525" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<div class="caption"><p>Fig. 414—“Livre d’Heures,” by Guillaume Roville (1551), +a composition in the style of the school of Lyons, with Caryatides +representing female Saints semi-veiled.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The ink was black, bright, indelible, unalterable, penetrating deeply +into the paper, and composed, as already were the colours, of oil-paint. +The paper, which was certainly rather grey or yellow, and often coarse +and rough, had the advantage of being strong, durable, and was almost +fit, in virtue of these qualities, to replace parchment and vellum, both +of which materials were scarce and too expensive. Editors contented +themselves with having struck off on <i>membrane</i> (a thin and white +vellum) a small number of copies of each edition; never exceeding three +hundred. These sumptuous copies, rubricated, illuminated, bound with +care, resembling in every respect the finest manuscripts, were generally +presented to kings, princes, and great personages, whose patronage or +assistance the printer sought. Nor was any expense spared to add to +typography all the ornaments which wood-engravings could confer upon it; +and from the year 1475, numerous<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_519" id="page_519">{519}</a></span> illustrated editions, of which an +example was found in the first “Specula,” especially those printed in +Germany, were enriched with figures, portraits, heraldic escutcheons, +and a multitude of ornamented margins (<a href="#fig_412">Figs. 412 to 415</a>). For more than +a century the painters and engravers worked hand in hand with the +printers and booksellers.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_372_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_372_sml.jpg" width="329" height="518" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_415" id="fig_415"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 415.—Border employed by John of Tournes, in 1557, +ornamented with Antique Masks and Allegorical Personages bearing Baskets +containing Laurel Branches.</p></div> +</div> + +<p>The taste for books spread over the whole of Europe; the number of +buyers and of amateurs was every day increasing. In the libraries of +princes, scholars, or monks, printed books were collected as formerly +were manuscripts. Henceforth printing found everywhere the same +protection, the same encouragements, the same rivalry. Typographers +sometimes travelled with their apparatus, opened a printing-office in a +small town, and then went on elsewhere after they had sold one edition. +Finally, such was the incredible activity of typography, from its origin +till 1500, that the<span class="pagenum"><a name="page_520" id="page_520">{520}</a></span> number of editions published in Europe in the space +of half a century amounted to <i>sixteen thousand</i>. But the most +remarkable result of printing was the important part it played in the +movement of the sixteenth century, from which resulted the +transformation of the arts, of literature, and science; the discoveries +of Laurent Coster and of Gutenberg had cast a new light over the world, +and the press made its appearance to modify profoundly the conditions of +the intellectual life of peoples.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/ill_373_lg.jpg"> +<img src="images/ill_373_sml.jpg" width="118" height="101" alt="[Image unavailable.]" /></a> +<a name="fig_416" id="fig_416"></a><div class="caption"><p>Fig. 416.—Mark of Bonaventure and Abraham Elsevier, +Printers at Leyden, 1620.</p></div> +</div> + +<p class="fint">LONDON: PRINTED BY VIRTUE AND CO., CITY ROAD.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"><p class="cb">FOOTNOTES:</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> <i>Dorserets</i>, covers to backs of chairs, beds, &c.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Richard I., surnamed <i>Sans-peur</i>, third Duke of Normandy, +was natural son of William I., and grandson of Rollo. He died in +996.—[<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Charles le Brun, a distinguished painter of the French +school, flourished during the seventeenth century. The son of a +sculptor, who placed him under Simon Vouet, the young artist made such +progress that at the age of fifteen he painted a remarkable picture, +“Hercules Destroying the Horses of Diomede,” which brought him at once +into public notice. Le Brun’s patron, the Chancellor Seguier, sent him +to Italy, with an introduction to Nicholas Poussin, whose pure and +correct taste, however, seems to have had little influence on the French +artist, who, though possessing an inventive and somewhat elevated +genius, often showed himself a mannerist.—[<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> “Historical Topography of Ancient Paris in the district of +the Louvre and Tuileries.” By Berty and Legrand.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> Probably an abbreviation, or corruption, of +cap-mail.—[<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> Or <i>brassarts</i>—pieces to protect the upper part of the +arms.—[<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> This title is not chronologically correct. Henry of +Bolingbroke had been created Duke of Hereford nearly a year before his +intended combat with Norfolk, at Coventry, in 1398; when the king, +Richard II., interfered, and banished both nobles from the +kingdom.—[<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> <i>Anglicè</i>, partisan—a kind of pike or lance.—[<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> <i>Martel-de-fer</i>—a weapon combining a hammer and pick; used +by cavalry in the Middle Ages, to damage and destroy armour. It was +generally hung at the saddle-bow.—[<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> <i>Tassets</i>—parts of the cuirass.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> <i>Morion</i>—a kind of helmet, usually worn by +foot-soldiers.—[<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> So called, it may be presumed, from its form and +make.—[<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> Latin, <i>Luteus</i>—muddy.—[<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> Quincunx order is a method of arranging five objects, or +pieces, in the form of a square; one being in the centre, and one at +each corner.—[<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> <i>Limousine</i>—a term applied to enamelling, and derived, as +some writers assume, from Leonard Limousin, a famous artist in this kind +of work, resident at Limoges. It is, however, more probable it came from +the province Limousin, or Limosin, of which Limoges was the capital; and +that Leonard acquired the surname of Limousin from his place of birth or +residence; just as many of the old painters are best known by +theirs.—[<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> <i>Ogivale</i>—a term used by French architects to denote the +Gothic vault, with its ribs and cross-springers, &c. It is also employed +to denote the pointed arch.—<span class="smcap">Gwilt’s</span> <i>Encyclopædia of +Architecture</i>.—[<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> This is a literal rendering of the text of M. Labarte; but +the artists to whom allusion is made were only two, Niccola and +Giovanni, sculptors and architects of Pisa. According to Vasari, +Niccola, father of Giovanni (Jean or John), first worked under certain +Greek sculptors who were executing the figures and other sculptural +ornaments of the Duomo of Pisa and the Chapel of San Giovanni.—[<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> Andrea di Cione Orcagna.—[<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> <i>Autochthone</i>—relating to the aboriginal inhabitants of a +country: the use of the word here is not very intelligible.—[<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> <i>Gnomon</i>—literally the upright piece of wood or metal +which projects the shadow on the plane of the dial.—[<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> This clock, as many readers doubtless know, was removed +some years ago, when St. Dunstan’s Church, in Fleet Street, was +rebuilt.—[<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> The reader will notice a discrepancy between this +description of the <i>chorus</i> and that given in a preceding paragraph. We +have retained both, mainly because it is now impossible to determine +what the instrument really was: no mention of it appears in any book we +have consulted.—[<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> <i>Nabulum</i>—a name evidently derived from the Hebrew word +<i>nebel</i>, generally translated in the Scriptures as a psaltery.—[<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> The Welsh or Scotch <i>Crwd</i>.—[<span class="smcap">Tr.</span>]</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> In German <i>Geige</i>, “fiddle.”—[<span class="smcap">Tr.</span>]</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> Henry IV., born at Pau, in the Béarn.—[<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> The English “knave” is only our old equivalent for the +German <i>knabe</i>, and had originally the same meaning of <i>servant</i>; it is +also nearly similar in sense to the French <i>valet</i>.—[<span class="smcap">Tr.</span>]</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> <i>Paul, the Silentiary</i>, is so named from holding in the +court of Justinian the office of chief of the Silentiarii, persons who +had the care of the palace. He wrote a poem on the rebuilding of St. +Sophia, at Constantinople, which was translated from Greek into Latin, +and published with notes, by Du Cange, of Paris, in 1670. It is this to +which M. Lecroix refers in the text.—[<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> <i>Amandaire</i>—almond-shaped. Strictly speaking, the aureola +is the nimbus of the whole body, as the nimbus is the aureola of the +head. In Fairholt’s “Dictionary of Terms in Art” is an engraving showing +a saint standing in the centre of an almond-shaped aureola—[<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> <i>Grisaille</i>—white and black.—[<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> Probably Alfonso is thus designate!.—[<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> This is obviously a misconception. Lanzi, alluding to the +picture, says, “Had Leonardo desired to follow the practice of his age +in painting in distemper, the art at this time would have been in +possession of this treasure. But being always fond of attempting new +methods, he painted this masterpiece upon a peculiar ground, formed of +distilled oils, which was the reason that it gradually detached itself +from the wall,” &c. And a later authority, Kugler, thus writes: “The +determination of Leonardo to execute the work in oil-colours instead of +fresco, in order to have the power of finishing the minutest details in +so great an undertaking, appears to have been unfortunate.” Distemper +differs from fresco in that it is painted on a dry, and not a damp, +wall; but in both the vehicle used is of an aqueous, and not an oily, +nature.—[<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> Deacon of the Church at Aquila, and afterwards attached to +the court of Charlemagne. Paul, who died about the year 799, was +distinguished as a poet and historian.—[<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> Or San-Gemignano, a small town between Florence and +Siena.—[<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> Giorgione studied under Giovanni Bellini, younger brother +of Gentile, and son of Jacopo. M. Lacroix does not even mention Giovanni +Bellini, though he is generally esteemed before his father and brother, +besides being the master of two of the greatest painters of the Venetian +school, Titian and Giorgione; who, however, soon cast aside the +antiquated style of their early instructor.—[<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> The famous picture, an altar-piece, representing “Christ +bearing his Cross,” known by the name of <i>Lo Spasimo di Sicilia</i>, from +its having been painted for the convent of Santa Maria della Spasimo at +Palermo, in Sicily. It is now in the Museum of Madrid.—[<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> We can find no authority to support this +statement.—[<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> Holbein died of the plague which prevailed in London in +1554.—[<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> This name is generally written Jeannet, and, according to +Wornum’s “Epochs of Painting,” seems to have been applied +indiscriminately almost to the two painters, Jehannet or Jehan Clouet, +father and son. M. Lacroix appears also to include François under the +same general cognomen; which, indeed, appears to have been a species of +surname.—[<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> <i>Buziack</i> is the name by which this old wood-engraver is +generally known.—[<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> The legend which accompanies this engraving is in old +Italian; it relates to the famous prophecy of Isaiah as to the birth of +Christ (Isaiah vii. 14).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> We presume this plate to be that commonly known among +collectors of prints as “Death’s Horse;” it represents a knight on +horseback followed by Death. The best impressions of this plate are +prior to the date 1513. It is also called “The Christian Knight,” and +“The Knight, Death, and the Devil.”—[<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> That Marc Antonio studied painting under Raphael, as is +here implied, is more than doubtful, though he engraved a very large +number of his various compositions, and was highly esteemed by the great +master.—[<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> Giovanni B. B. Ghisi; Giorgio and Adams, his two sons; and +Diana, his daughter.—[<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> This engraver, generally known by the single name of +George, usually signed his plates with the surname Peins or +Pentz.—[<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> He was born at Prague, although most of his works were +executed in England.—[<span class="smcap">Tr.</span>]</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> Ambons—a kind of pulpit in the early Christian +churches.—[<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> Strasbourg spire is 468 feet in height, the highest in the +world. Amiens, the next, a mere <i>flèche</i>, is 422 feet.—[<span class="smcap">Tr.</span>]</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> M. Lacroix uses the word <i>Romane</i> throughout, with +reference to this style of architecture: we have adopted <i>Norman</i> as +that most commonly associated with it, and because it is a generic term +comprehending Romanesque, Lombardic, and even Byzantine.—[<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> <i>Oculus</i> (eye).—This word is not known in the vocabulary +of English architects; but it is evidently intended to signify a +circular window.—[<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> Officers who had jurisdiction over, and were inspectors +of, works of masonry and carpentry.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> The word is derived from <i>vellus</i>, which merely signifies +the skin of any beast, not of a calf only.—[<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> The word is derived from the Latin <i>uncialis</i>, and is +applied to letters of a round or hook-shaped form: such were used by the +ancients as numerals, or for words in abbreviated inscriptions.—[<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> <i>Minuscule.</i>—Less or little. The term is evidently here +intended to distinguish small letters from capitals.—[<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> <i>Palimpsest</i>—a kind of parchment from which anything +written could easily be erased.—[<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> Librarian probably; though <i>libraire</i> means only a +bookseller, <i>bibliothécaire</i> being the French for a librarian.—[<span class="smcap">Tr.</span>]</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> <i>Translation</i>: “This is Monseigneur St. Louis’ Psalter, +which belonged to his mother.”</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> <i>Antiphonaries</i>—books containing the responses, &c., used +in Catholic church-services.—[<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> “Garni de deux fermaulx d’argent, dorez, armoiez d’azur à +une aigle d’or à deux testes, onglé de gueulles, auquel a ung tuyau +d’argent doré pour tourner les feuilles, à trois escussons desdites +armes, couvert d’une chemise de veluyau vermeil.”</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_60_60" id="Footnote_60_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> Probably this “pilgrimage” refers to some one of the great +European Councils or Diets held in the city during the Middle Ages, as +were Congresses in later times.—[<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> <i>Sic</i>; but it should evidently be the fifteenth +century.—[<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_62_62" id="Footnote_62_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> <i>Anglicè</i>, Stephens, by which name this illustrious family +of scholars and printers is most popularly known in England. They were +ten in number, who flourished between 1512 and about 1660. Anthony, the +last distinguished representative of the family, died in poverty at the +Hôtel Dieu, Paris, in 1674, at the age of eighty-two.—[<span class="smcap">Ed.</span>]</p></div> + +</div> +<hr class="full" /> + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Arts in The Middle Ages and at the +Period of The Renaissance, by Paul Lacroix Jacob + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ARTS IN THE MIDDLE AGES *** + +***** This file should be named 59924-h.htm or 59924-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/5/9/9/2/59924/ + +Produced by Chuck Greif and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images available at The Internet Archive) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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