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diff --git a/59546-0.txt b/59546-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..7a36d95 --- /dev/null +++ b/59546-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2291 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 59546 *** + + + + + + + + + + + + + +Transcriber Note + +Text emphasis denoted as _Italics_ and =Bold=. Whole numbers and +fractional parts denoted as 12-3/4. + + + +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ + | | + | U. S. DEPARTMENT OF | + | AGRICULTURE | + | | + | FARMERS' BULLETIN No. 1409 | + +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ + | | + | | + | TURKEY RAISING | + | | + | | + | [Illustration] | + | | + | | + +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ + +Turkey raising is usually carried on as a side line on general farms, +though in some parts of the United States it constitutes the chief source +of revenue from farming. + +The number of turkeys in this country decreased for a time after the 1890 +census, but during recent years the industry has been growing, largely +because of improved methods of controlling turkey diseases and better +methods of management. + +This bulletin has been prepared primarily to inform those interested +in turkey raising on modern methods of management. Most of the +recommendations are adaptable to both small and large scale production. + + + Washington, D. C. Issued April 1924 + Slightly revised February 1939 + + + + + TURKEY RAISING + + +_By Stanley J. Marsden and Alfred R. Lee_, _associate poultry husbandmen, +Animal Husbandry Division, Bureau of Animal Industry_[1] + +[1] This publication is a revision of former editions prepared by M. A. +Jull, senior poultry husbandman, and A. R. Lee. + + + + +CONTENTS + + + Page + + The turkey industry of the United States 1 + + Varieties 2 + The Bronze 3 + The White Holland 4 + The Bourbon Red 4 + The Narragansett 4 + The Black 5 + The Slate 6 + + Standard weights of turkeys 6 + + Selecting breeding stock 6 + + Managing breeding stock 8 + Breeding pens or enclosures 8 + Mating 9 + Egg production 10 + Care of hatching eggs 11 + Feeding 12 + Combating diseases and pests 14 + + Incubating turkey eggs 16 + Natural incubation 17 + Artificial incubation 17 + + Raising poults 18 + Brooding 19 + Sanitation 21 + Litter 22 + Early development 23 + Marking 23 + Feeding growing turkeys 23 + Feed consumption and cost of growing 28 + + Equipment for raising turkeys 30 + Containers for feed and water 30 + Houses and fences 33 + Protection against dogs 36 + Devices that prevent tail-feather picking 36 + + Range management of growing turkeys 37 + + Fattening turkeys for market 38 + + Marketing turkeys 39 + When to market 39 + Selecting birds for market 40 + Withholding feed before slaughter 40 + Killing and picking 40 + Cooling 42 + Packing 43 + + Dressed-turkey grades 43 + + + + +THE TURKEY INDUSTRY OF THE UNITED STATES + + +TURKEY RAISING has long been an important enterprise in the United States +because great quantities of turkey meat are required annually and its use +throughout the year is becoming more popular. Producers should endeavor +to make turkey raising more profitable by overcoming heavy losses from +diseases that heretofore have been a serious handicap. + +The enterprise is very adaptable, extending to practically all parts of +the United States. The more important areas of production are the Middle +Western, Northwestern, and Southwestern States, where large numbers of +small flocks are raised annually on farms and ranches and where there are +also many large commercial flocks. The number of turkeys in this country +began to decrease about 1890, but by 1910 interest in turkey raising +revived, and in recent years the industry has been growing, largely +because of increased knowledge of blackhead disease and its control. + +According to the census there were 3,688,000 turkeys on farms in the +United States in 1910 and about the same number in 1920. The 1930 census +showed 16,794,000 turkeys, but this was the number raised to market age +instead of the number of breeding turkeys kept. This new census figure +provides a much better measure of the industry's actual size. The 1930 +figure indicates a moderate increase between 1920 and 1930 in the number +of breeding turkeys kept. The nine States leading in turkey production, +as shown by the 1930 census, are Texas, North Dakota, Minnesota, +California, Oklahoma, Oregon, Colorado, Virginia, and Idaho. + +Where conditions are suitable and proper methods of management are +followed turkeys can be raised successfully with very simple equipment; +therefore the capital outlay in the enterprise may be quite small. Except +during the growing season managing the flock is fairly simple. Of course, +constitutional vigor must be maintained in the breeding stock; the flock +must be kept relatively free from disease; and the soil, especially where +the poults are fed, must be kept sanitary. Moreover, turkeys, even when +veil fed, will make good use of at least a limited range and in doing so +will destroy many injurious insects, eat great quantities of succulent +green feed, and pick up much waste grain, weed seeds, and other sources +of nutriment. This fact reduces the cost of production and increases the +profits. + +[Illustration: Figure 1.--Bronze turkey, male.] + + + + +VARIETIES + + +All domestic varieties of turkeys have descended from the North American +wild stock, comprising the eastern wild turkey, which ranged over the +eastern part of the United States from Maine to Florida; the Florida +wild turkey, which ranged over southern Florida; the Rio Grande wild +turkey, which ranged over southern Texas and northwestern Mexico; and +the Mexican wild turkey, which ranged over Arizona, western New Mexico, +southern Colorado, and Mexico. It is probable, however, that these four +wild turkeys were of common origin and that most of our domesticated +varieties, especially the Bronze, have descended from the Mexican wild +turkey. + +Six standard varieties of domestic turkeys are recognized by the American +Poultry Association, an organization having as its primary function the +promotion of standard qualities in all breeds and varieties of poultry +in North America. The association publishes the Standard of Perfection, +which contains concise descriptions of breeds and varieties of poultry, +with illustrations of the most important ones. + +The following is a brief description of each of the six varieties, +namely, the Bronze, White Holland, Bourbon Red, Narragansett, Black, and +Slate. + +[Illustration: Figure 2.--Bronze turkey, female.] + + +THE BRONZE + +The Bronze, often called the Mammoth Bronze, is the heaviest and also +the most popular variety. The male (fig. 1) is distinguished by (1) the +rich, iridescent, red-green sheen of the plumage on the neck, wing bows, +wing fronts, wing coverts, breast, front half of the back, and lower +thighs; and (2) the lighter, brilliant, copper-colored bronzing of the +rear half of the back, tail coverts, tail itself, and body. The bronzing +in the tail, tail coverts, and body is bordered by a distinct narrow +black band, which in turn is bordered by a wide edging of pure white. +The rear portion of the back has the broad bronze bar with the narrow +edging of black but does not have the white tips. The plumage of the +female (fig. 2) is similar to that of the male, except for an edging of +white on the black bars on the back, wing bows, wing coverts, breast, and +body. This white edging is narrow in the front of the body and gradually +widens toward the rear. Both sexes have the same color pattern in the +large wing feathers and in the main tail feathers and coverts. The main +tail feathers and coverts have brown penciling (narrow bars) on a dull +black background; the large wing feathers are evenly barred with black +and white, the bars of the secondaries becoming indistinct as the back +is approached. Creaminess, yellow, or yellowish brown in the pure white +edging of the main tail feathers and coverts of the Bronze indicates +an admixture of wild-turkey blood and is a serious defect in the +standardbred Bronze. Lack of the copper-colored bronzing or a tendency +for it to be greenish is also a serious color defect. + + +THE WHITE HOLLAND + +The White Holland (fig. 3) probably originated as a "sport" from the +Bronze or the wild turkey. Its plumage should be pure white in color and +free in all sections from black flecking or ticking. The shanks and toes +in this variety should be pinkish white. + + +THE BOURBON RED + +The Bourbon Red male (fig. 4) is of a rich, deep brownish-red color +in all sections except the wings, tail, and breast. The primaries and +secondaries of the wings are pure white, and the main tail feathers are +pure white except for an indistinct bar of red crossing each feather near +the end. The breast feathers are red with a very narrow edging of black. +The color of the female is similar to that of the male, but there is a +very narrow edging of white on the tips of the breast feathers. More than +one-third of any other color except white showing in the large feathers +of the wing or tail constitutes a standard disqualification in this +variety. The rich reddish color, without some black, is rather difficult +to obtain and this black ticking or flecking is a rather common fault. A +faded red, approaching buff, is also undesirable. + +[Illustration: Figure 3.--White Holland turkey, male.] + + +THE NARRAGANSETT + +The Narragansett (fig. 5) generally resembles the Bronze in color +pattern, but has no iridescent red-green sheen and no bronzing. The +Narragansett colors are metallic black with light steel-gray edging and +barring bordered, in certain sections, by a narrow black band on the +end of the feathers. The plumage, as a whole, has a dark background of +metallic black with a broad, light steel-gray edging, showing more of +the light color in this edging as the body is approached. In the male, +the colors of the wing fronts, wing bows, and wing coverts are the +reverse of the colors found elsewhere, being light steel gray, ending +in a narrow band of black. The wing coverts form a broad silvery bar +across the folded wings. The neck and saddle are black, ending in a broad +steel-gray band. The back is rich metallic black, free from bronzing. +The breast, body, and fluff are black, the feathers ending in a broad +silvery-gray band edged with black. The large wing and tail feathers and +the primary coverts are barred with black and white similarly to those of +the Bronze, the barring of the upper secondaries becoming indistinct as +the back is approached. + +The plumage of the female is similar to that of the male in this variety, +except that an extra edging of silvery gray is added to the ends of the +feathers on the back, wing bows, wing coverts, breast, and body. The +light edging should be narrow toward the front of the bird and broader +toward the rear. The female in general presents a lighter appearance than +the male. There should be a rich metallic black but no bronze barring +in either sex. The offspring of a Narragansett mating sometimes have a +bronze color, but such birds should not be kept for breeders. + +[Illustration: Figure 4.--Bourbon Red turkey, male.] + + +THE BLACK + +The Black (fig. 6), known in England as the Norfolk turkey, is lustrous +greenish black in all sections of the plumage. Objectionable white +tipping in the feathers of young turkeys of this variety often disappears +after the first molt. Any variation from the solid black color should be +carefully avoided in breeding this variety. The shanks and toes should be +pink in mature birds and almost black in young birds. + + +THE SLATE + +The Slate (fig. 7) has an ashy-blue or slate-colored plumage, sometimes +dotted with tiny black spots, which are undesirable. Feathers of +any other color, such as white, buff, or red, constitute a standard +disqualification. This variety does not breed true to color, and many +of the offspring have both solid white and solid black as well as +black-and-white ticking and splashing. The shanks and toes should be pink. + + + + +STANDARD WEIGHTS OF TURKEYS + + +The standard weights of the different varieties of turkeys as given in +the Standard of Perfection are given in table 1. + + + +Table 1.--Standard weights of turkeys at various ages + + ---------------+-----------+----------+-----------+---------+---------- + | | Yearling | | | + | Adult | cock (1 | Cockerel | Hen | Pullet + Variety | cock (2 | year old | (less | (1 year | (less + | years old | and less | than 1 | old or | than 1 + | or over) | than 2) | year old) | over) | year old) + ---------------+-----------+----------+-----------+---------+---------- + | _Pounds_ | _Pounds_ | _Pounds_ |_Pounds_ | _Pounds_ + Bronze | 36 | 33 | 25 | 20 | 16 + White Holland | 33 | 30 | 23 | 18 | 14 + Bourbon Red | 33 | 30 | 23 | 18 | 14 + Narragansett | 33 | 30 | 23 | 18 | 14 + Black | 33 | 30 | 23 | 18 | 14 + Slate | 33 | 30 | 23 | 18 | 14 + ---------------+-----------+----------+-----------+---------+---------- + +[Illustration: Figure 5.--Narragansett turkey, female.] + + + + + +SELECTING BREEDING STOCK + + +The breeding stock is the foundation of the turkey industry, and the +greatest care must be used in selecting both male and female breeders. +Failure in this respect has undoubtedly been one of the principal +reasons why satisfactory results have not been obtained on many farms +and commercial plants. One of the first steps in improving conditions, +therefore, is more careful selection of the breeding stock. + +The most satisfactory time of the year to select breeding stock is in +November or December, especially before large numbers of turkeys are +sold for the Thanksgiving and Christmas markets. Selecting birds early +in the season makes possible a choice from a larger number and, what is +more important, saves the best-developed and most vigorous birds for +breeding instead of marketing them. New blood may be introduced into the +flock or a beginning with turkeys may be made by obtaining hatching eggs, +day-old poults, or breeding stock, but the purchase of eggs or poults is +recommended. New breeding stock should be treated for worms and lice and +should be quarantined for 2 or 3 weeks to detect any disease. + +[Illustration: Figure 6.--Black turkey, male.] + +Turkeys are raised for meat rather than for egg production. The breeders, +therefore, should have compact, meaty bodies. The breastbone should be +straight, the back broad, especially at the shoulders, and the breadth +carried well back toward the tail. The body should be deep, with the +breast so broad, full, and well rounded that the breastbone does not +protrude prominently. Other important points are full, bright eyes, a +broad head, and stout legs set well apart and rather short. Above all +else, the birds should be vigorous. When, pedigrees and performance +records of the birds' ancestors are available, selection should be +based on fertility, hatchability, livability, early maturity, and other +desirable factors, as well as on the physical points mentioned above. + +It is wise to select or build up a flock of purebred turkeys. It costs +no more to raise purebred stock than mongrels and the purebreds are +usually heavier and command higher market prices. Also, if good standard +qualities of shape and color are maintained, some of the birds can be +sold for breeding purposes at increased prices. + + + + +MANAGING BREEDING STOCK + + +Results in turkey raising depend to a large extent on the kind of +breeding stock used each year and the manner in which it is managed. + + +BREEDING PENS OR ENCLOSURES + +Until a few years ago breeding flocks were ordinarily allowed free +range throughout the breeding and laying season (fig. 8). This practice +often gives unsatisfactory results because the nests cannot be found +readily and therefore the eggs cannot be gathered daily. Many breeding +flocks are now kept in good-sized breeding pens or enclosures with +nests conveniently located inside or outside the roosting shed (fig. +9). For a pen of 12 to 18 birds a yard of 10 to 15 square rods is large +enough. Frequently an orchard is very satisfactory. A hog-proof fence +about 6 feet high will confine the turkeys; they are not likely to fly +over the fence, because they cannot rest on the top wire. Fences should +be tightly stretched and should be dog-proof, because dogs and coyotes +are very destructive in turkey flocks. Solid-top fences, gates, and +buildings less than 9 feet high should be topped with strips of poultry +fence 3 feet wide to prevent turkeys from perching on them. If turkey +hens persist in flying over the fence the flight feathers of one wing +may be cut, but the wing of a breeding male should never be clipped, as +the clipping may interfere with mating. + +Sanitation in the breeding yards must not be neglected. Either the fences +and shelters should be made portable and moved each year to clean ground, +or double yards should be constructed for use only in the breeding +season, during which time one yard is occupied for 2 successive weeks and +then the other, which in the meantime has been kept free of all poultry. + +[Illustration: Figure 7.--Slate turkey, male.] + +If two or more breeding pens are maintained, they must be isolated from +each other. This can be done with double fences, 12 feet or more apart, +or with single fences built solid for about 3 feet above the ground, so +that the turkeys cannot see those in other pens. + + +MATING + +Best results in mating are obtained when from 10 to 15 females are mated +to 1 male, although as many as 18 hens can be mated to 1 young tom under +favorable conditions. As a rule good fertility will result when several +toms are kept with a flock of hens. However, if the toms are quarrelsome +and mating is seriously interfered with the males must be alternated, 1 +tom being allowed to run with the hens 1 day and another tom the next +day. Surplus toms should be penned out of sight of the breeding birds. + +[Illustration: Figure 8.--Breeding flock of Bronze turkeys on +free range.] + +The soundest breeding program is one of using yearlings and 2-year-old +hens which have been selected as breeders alter they have passed through +one full breeding season successfully. However, if pedigreeing can +be done, it is practicable to use well-matured pullets selected from +parents that lived through their first breeding season and showed good +production, fertility, hatchability, and poult livability. The breeding +males may be young or old but, in general, well-matured young toms give +better results. Proved sires, of course, are valuable and can well be +used so long as they will breed. Reserve breeding toms should always be +kept, especially when older toms are used, as the latter are sometimes +sterile. The spurs of a yearling or older tom should be trimmed smooth, +as should the toe-nails of all breeding males, regardless of age, to +avoid needless tearing of the backs of the females. + +All breeding hens and toms that are not to be used for another breeding +season should be marketed about June 1. If older hens are used in +breeding, it is advisable to replace 3-year-old females with young birds, +since egg production decreases rapidly after that age. Immature stock +should never be used but, as mentioned before, well-matured young toms +and pullets make good breeders especially if trap nesting and pedigreeing +can be carried on, thus enabling the breeder to cull properly and sell +as market birds the offspring of all hens that die during their first +laying season. + +It is not advisable for the average producer to inbreed turkeys, as this +practice has been found to lower the vitality of the stock. When only one +breeding pen or flock is kept, it is advisable to obtain new blood every +season from a reliable outside source. + + +EGG PRODUCTION + +The time of year at which turkeys naturally lay depends largely on the +climate of the region in which they are raised, being earliest in the +South. However, climate need not be permitted to hold back egg production +as artificial light can be used to obtain early eggs, as with chickens. +Soon after mating begins, the female looks for a nesting place, and +about 10 days after the first mating she begins to lay. One nest should +be provided for every 3 or 4 hens. The number of eggs produced per bird +depends on the breeding of the stock as well as on management. Under +ordinary circumstances in the Northern States, young turkey hens should +average 35 to 40 eggs and yearling hens 25 to 30 eggs each during the +normal breeding season if they are broken up whenever broodiness occurs. +By normal breeding season is meant the time between the date the first +egg is laid (late in the winter or early in the spring) and June 1. If +artificial lights are used, starting about February 5, the breeders +should average 50 to 55 eggs each, or an increase of about 15 eggs by +June 1, due to the lighting. A few turkey raisers have used lights in +December or January, thereby securing very early hatched turkeys and +further increasing turkey-egg production. + +Turkeys are not extensively trap-nested, but the practice is carried +on by producers who wish to pedigree the poults and carry on selective +breeding. One trap nest is needed for each two hens. The hens should have +free access to the trap nests before they start to lay, and they should +be carefully watched to see that they do not lay their eggs anywhere +except in the trap nests. Secluded places in the house or yard should +be eliminated. A simple form of trap nest is illustrated in figure 9. +The turkey enters at the front, through the trap door, which closes +automatically when the turkey is inside. The door at the top of the coop +is opened to release the bird from the nest. + +When incubators or chicken hens are used to hatch the eggs, the turkey +hens may be broken of their broodiness so that they will continue laying. +Breaking the hens of broodiness by confining them to a wire-floored +coop is very desirable because it permits the hatching of a relatively +large number of early turkeys and a larger number from each hen. The +birds hatched no later than June are the ones that grow and mature most +satisfactorily and therefore attain the best size for the Thanksgiving +and Christmas markets. Early hatched birds should be marketed at +Thanksgiving or before, and those of later hatches can be used to supply +the Christmas and New Year demand. There is some demand for freshly +dressed turkeys at all times of the year. To meet this demand turkeys +may be hatched from eggs laid during summer and fall. By the use of +artificial light and proper feeds, hatchable eggs can be produced in the +winter and early in the spring. + +It is natural for turkey hens to seek secluded places to lay their +eggs. Yards that have comparatively short vegetation and are free from +bushes or other places of concealment are best, because such conditions +discourage the birds from laying outside the nests provided for them. A +lookout for hidden nests must be maintained, otherwise eggs may not be +collected regularly and may be frozen, partly incubated, or destroyed by +animals. Sometimes the hidden nests can be found by watching the turkey +hens carefully as they make their way to them, but an easier and quicker +method is to confine the hens early some morning soon after they come +from the roosts and then let them out about 2 p. m.; the laying hens +will make straight for their nests in order to lay the eggs they have +been holding. Nests are easily made of boxes or barrels placed inside +the shelter or outside in the yards. Some turkey growers prefer to build +nesting batteries with nests about 12 by 24 inches. + +[Illustration: Figure 9.--Turkey trap nests. The dimensions of +this nest are as follows: Width, 14 inches; depth, 24 inches; height in +front, 19 inches; and height in hack, 45 Inches. The trap-nest fronts may +be home-made, or commercial fronts may be used.] + + +CARE OF HATCHING EGGS + +Hatchability can be seriously damaged by holding eggs at temperatures +above 65° or below 35° F. It is most important to hold eggs in a room +that can be kept below 65°, preferably between 50° and 60°. Eggs should +be collected several times daily and held on their sides or on the small +end. It is best to turn eggs gently once daily while they are being held +for hatching, but this is probably not necessary unless they are to be +kept longer than a week. For best results they should not be held longer +than 10 days but if they are held at a suitable temperature and are +turned once a day, fair hatchability will be retained for as long as 3 +weeks. + + +FEEDING + +Feeding young breeding turkeys is a matter of supplying a growing ration +in the fall and early in the winter, a laying ration late in the winter +and in the spring, and a maintenance ration during the summer. Unless +breeders are to be kept over for another year, they should be marketed, +if possible, about June 1 in order to reduce feed costs and to aid in +preventing the spread of blackhead and other diseases that may affect +adult turkeys during the summer. If breeders are to be held over for +the next season or until fall and if a good summer and fall range is +available well away from the growing stock, the breeders are best carried +through the summer on a daily feeding of whole grain such as a mixture of +equal parts of corn, oats, and wheat. This mixture should be fed at the +rate of one-fifth pound per hen daily as a supplement to feed obtained +from the range. The toms, if ranged with the hens, should have access to +grain in a feeder too high for the hens to reach. A better method is to +pen the toms in a separate range lot and give them each one-half pound of +grain daily in troughs. + +Breeding stock so managed during the summer respond economically to a +fattening diet offered in the fall. Beginning about 4 weeks before they +are to be marketed, usually early in October, the birds may be offered +all they will eat daily of the grain mixture. Within 4 weeks they will +acquire a fine finish and make a gain in weight of 2-1/2 pounds or more +per hen and 4 pounds or more per tom. About 5-3/4 pounds of grain per +pound of gain is required for the 4-week fattening period. A little +better finish is acquired in 6 weeks; but the grade is not improved, and +the gains are more expensive. Breeding stock that are to be kept over +should be held in the range lots as long as possible and should also be +fed liberally in the fall, in order to put them in good condition for the +winter. + +Later in the fall and through the winter the rations for breeders, +especially young breeders, may be the same as the growing rations +normally fed to young stock. Scratch grain and a simple mash, such as +that suggested for growing poults, make a good feed for carrying the +breeders through the winter, since they meet the demands of the birds for +continued growth or for maintenance. If the climate is such that green +feed and sunshine are not available, as in the Northern States, add 5 +percent of alfalfa-leaf meal and 1 percent of cod-liver oil to the mash. +The birds should have all the mash and scratch they will eat during the +fall and winter. Breeders will not become too fat if fed in accordance +with this method. They will be fat, but this is desirable if heavy egg +production is expected. + +For the production of large numbers of hatchable eggs turkeys require +a ration containing the various nutrients and vitamins. Good results +can be obtained with a simple laying ration, such as laying mixture No. +1, if the birds get an abundance of fresh green feed and have range. +When ground oats or ground barley is included in any mixture it should +be finely ground. Alfalfa leaf meal should be bright green in color. +The cod-liver oil should be a standard good-quality product, or the +equivalent in fortified cod-liver oil may be used if thoroughly mixed. + +_Laying Mixture No. 1_ + + MASH _Parts by | SCRATCH + weight_ | + | + Yellow corn or barley (ground) 20 | Mixture of equal parts of + Wheat middlings or ground wheat 15 | yellow corn, wheat, and + Oats or barley (ground) 20 | heavy oats. (Grain sorghum + Meat scrap (50- to 55-percent | may be used in place of the + protein) 10 | corn.) + Fish meal (60- to 70-percent protein) 10 | + Wheat bran 12 | + Ground oystershell or limestone 7 | + Dried milk 5 | + Salt (fine, sifted) 1 | + --- | + Total 100 | + +Laying mash should be kept before the birds at all times beginning +about a month before eggs are expected. Scratch mixture should be fed +in troughs, at the rate of one-fifth of a pound per day per bird, so +that the consumption during laying will be about equal parts of the mash +and scratch. The birds must have access to growing green feed, direct +sunshine, and water. + +If the birds cannot obtain fresh succulent green feed and direct sunshine +in abundance, as in the case of those kept in confinement or in cold +climates, the ration must be more inclusive. Such a ration may be +compounded as follows: + +_Laying Mixture No. 2_ + + MASH _Parts by | SCRATCH _Parts by + weight_ | weight_ + | + Yellow corn or barley (ground) 26 | Yellow corn or grain + Wheat middlings or ground wheat 20 | sorghum 40 + Wheat bran 12 | Heavy oats 37-1/2 + Alfalfa leaf meal 10 | Wheat 20 + Meat scrap (50- to 55-percent | Cod-liver oil 2-1/2 + protein) 8 | ------- + Dried milk 8 | Total 100 + Fish meal (60- to 70-percent | + protein) 8 | + Ground oystershell or limestone 7 | + Salt (fine, sifted) 1 | + --- | + Total 100 | + +As with the simpler ration, the mash should be kept before the birds at +all times, and the scratch can be hand-fed in troughs at the rate of +one-fifth of a pound per bird per day. Clean water should be provided +at all times. The same ingredients can be mixed and fed as an all-mash +ration with good results. The all-mash formula is as follows: + +_Laying Mixture No. 3 (All-mash feed)_ + + _Parts by | _Parts by + weight_ | weight_ + | + Yellow corn (coarsely ground) 30 | Dried milk 5 + Oats (finely ground) 20 | Fish meal (60- to + Wheat middlings (standard or brown) 21 | 70-percent protein) 3 + Wheat bran 6 | Ground oystershell or + Alfalfa leaf meal 5 | limestone 4 + Meat scrap (50- to 55-percent | Cod-liver oil 1-1/4 + protein) 4 | Salt (fine, sifted) 3/4 + | ------- + | Total 100 + +This all-mash mixture is kept before the breeders at all times. Just +enough to carry the birds through each day should be given. In this way +its freshness is assured, an important consideration in all-mash feeding. + +If desired, the oyster shell or limestone may be fed separately in +hoppers, but mixing it in the mash saves labor and prevents excessive +consumption. Gravel or granite grit should be provided to furnish +grinding material. Clean water, placed in contamination-proof vessels, +should be provided at all times. Alfalfa hay probably cannot be depended +upon to supply adequate amounts of green-feed substitute for hatching-egg +production. Only by fresh green feed or green-feed substitutes and fish +oils can those requirements be met. The oil should be freshly mixed in +the feed every week or two. + +All feed should be fed in feeders, never on the ground or in the litter. +Feeders should be constructed so as to prevent waste and contamination +with droppings. Turkey hens consume a little less than one-half pound +of mash and scratch grain per day when practically all of their feed is +furnished. Toms consume about 0.7 pound daily; eating mostly scratch +grains. + + +COMBATING DISEASES AND PESTS + +Turkey raisers, to be permanently successful, must follow some system +of sanitation. Many growers have prevented disease and the attacks of +parasites in their flocks by providing range on clean soil; that is, +soil on which no poultry manure has been spread; feeding their birds +from feeders that cannot be contaminated by droppings; and keeping the +quarters sanitary at all times. _Separation of the turkeys from chickens +and other poultry at all times is essential._ + +Diseases and parasites of turkeys are discussed in detail in Farmers' +Bulletin 1652, Diseases and Parasites of Poultry. Coccidiosis often +causes heavy losses in young turkeys. It is best combated by carefully +cleaning the brooder house and changing the litter once a week during the +brooding period, keeping the litter dry, and using wire-covered feeding +platforms. Turkeys are subject also to the attacks of various species +of worms, but treatment for worms should not be undertaken until the +presence of worms has been determined by examining the droppings or by +post-mortem examination. + +BLACKHEAD + +Although other infectious diseases sometimes affect turkeys, blackhead +is by far the most destructive ailment. It is caused by one of the +Protozoa and is primarily a disease of the caeca (the blind pouches +of the intestines) and the liver, but the fact that the head of the +affected bird often becomes discolored has given the disease its common +name, blackhead. It attacks turkeys most frequently, but chicks are +often affected by it without showing symptoms; thus the chickens carry +and spread the infection to turkeys when allowed to range with them. A +combination of spotted liver and ulcerated caeca indicates that the birds +have blackhead infection. + +Although blackhead affects adult turkeys, it occurs principally among +poults between the ages of 6 weeks and 6 months. It is found to a greater +or lesser extent throughout the United States. The turkeys affected by +blackhead, like all birds having infectious diseases, should be removed +immediately from the flock to prevent the spread of the disease. The best +procedure is to kill the sick birds and burn or bury the bodies, as no +treatment has been found satisfactory. Move the flock to clean ground, +if possible; but if this cannot be done, clean out and disinfect the +roosting place, plow the ground in the yards, and install a system of +yard sanitation. Keep chickens and all other poultry away from turkey +yards at all times in order to prevent infection from this source. The +organisms which cause the disease may be carried by flies, blown with +dust, conveyed in contaminated soil on the feet of the caretaker, or +spread for considerable distances in other ways. + +Several measures for preventing blackhead are practiced, the chief of +which are: (1) Obtaining eggs or stock from flocks known to be healthy; +(2) quarantining and worming all new stock; (3) cleaning and changing +the litter at least weekly during the brooding period; (4) keeping both +young and mature turkeys on clean ground at a considerable distance from +chickens; (5) excluding, so far as possible, pigeons, sparrows, and +persons from the turkey houses and yards; (6) frequently cleaning and +occasionally disinfecting growing houses, feed troughs, and all other +equipment; (7) feeding only in clean feeders, never on the ground; (8) +immediately killing and deeply burying or completely burning all diseased +birds; and (9) eliminating all stagnant water pools where the turkeys +range. Clean range, clean quarters, clean feed, and clean water are most +important. + +LICE AND MITES + +Lice may cause high mortality among young poults, those badly infested +gradually becoming weaker until they die. Head lice are the most +troublesome and are found close to the skin near the top of the head, +above and in front of the eyes, and under the throat. Applying an insect +powder, preferably sodium fluoride, when the hen is set, is an easy +method of preventing lice from getting a start among poults. Apply the +sodium fluoride among the leathers, working it well down next to the +skin, 1 pinch on the head, 1 on the neck, 2 on the back, 1 on the breast, +1 below the vent, 1 at the base of the tail, 1 on each thigh, and 1 +scattered on the underside of each wing when spread. If this treatment is +not applied, hen-hatched poults are almost certain to have lice. + +If the hen has been treated in this manner before being set and the +poults are not exposed to infested stock or premises, they will remain +free from lice indefinitely. It is well, however, to examine the poults +occasionally and, if lice are found, to apply sodium fluoride sparingly. +It should not be applied until the poults are at least a week old, and +then only two very small pinches should be used. Distribute one of these +on the neck, the top of the head, and the throat, and the other on the +back and below the vent. After the poults are old enough to roost, +control lice by applying nicotine sulphate solution in a thin line on +the top surface of the roosts. Repeat as often as necessary to keep down +the lice and be sure that each bird is exposed to the treatment. Sodium +fluoride applied as directed for delousing setting hens or as a dip will +completely eliminate all species of lice from mature stock. + +The dipping method consists in immersing mature fowls in a large tub +of solution made by mixing 1 ounce or sodium fluoride to each gallon +of tepid water. Immerse the birds for only a few seconds, raising the +feathers at the same time to allow the dip to penetrate to the skin. Dip +the birds on a warm day, preferably in the morning, so as to give them +time to dry before night. + +Destroy red mites in the roosting quarters by painting the under side +of the roosts and the roost supports with anthracene oil, crude oil, +crank-case oil, or any coal-tar disinfectant. Make the application light +but thorough, and do it preferably in the morning. + +The fowl tick or blue bug is one of the worst pests of turkeys in the +Southwest. It can be controlled by the methods advised for controlling +red mites. + +PROTECTION FROM COLD, DAMPNESS, AND ENEMIES + +Protection from adverse weather conditions and enemies is required +if turkeys are to be raised successfully. An open-front shed with a +reasonably tight roof and dry floor, so arranged that the north, west, +and east sides can be closed against storms, will give ample protection +for full-grown turkeys. Boosts may be made from good-sized poles or 2 +by 4's nailed flat to supports which should be slightly higher at the +rear than at the front, where they should be about 2-1/2 feet above the +floor. The space between the roosts should be about 2 feet and the space +underneath enclosed with poultry wire. In the southern part of the United +States there is little need for well-built turkey houses, but during +damp, cold, or stormy weather the turkeys should have protection of +some kind. They should not be exposed to dampness, but they can stand a +considerable amount of dry cold. + +In many localities protection from dogs must be provided in some way. +High roosts or well-built shelters provide this at night. Keeping the +birds confined to high roosts or in dog-proof shelters at night and +during the early morning hours gives a good protection. An attendant or +a good watchdog is needed to protect the turkeys when they are off their +roosts or out of their shelters. + + + + +INCUBATING TURKEY EGGS + + +The vigor of the breeding stock, the manner in which it has been fed and +managed, and the care given the eggs will determine to a high degree +the hatchability of the eggs. An important measure of success in turkey +raising is the number of fully matured turkeys raised in proportion to +the number of hens in the breeding flock. An average of 25 mature birds +raised per hen is considered very good in well-managed turkey flocks, +whereas in most general-farm flocks 10 to 15 mature birds per hen would +be a good average. + +The period of incubation of turkey eggs is 28 days, and the method +is much the same as that used with chicken eggs. Turkey eggs can be +successfully hatched by turkey hens or chicken hens, or in incubators. +Hatching in incubators is best and is coming into more general use, +especially on farms and ranches where turkeys are raised in large +numbers. Turkeys hatched and reared by hens, especially chicken hens, are +likely to contract disease and become infested with parasites at an early +age. Sitting turkey hens can cover from 15 to 18 eggs; chicken hens, from +7 to 10 eggs. + + +NATURAL INCUBATION + +Hatching the eggs under turkey hens is widely practiced and is often +the most practical method. When the turkey hen becomes broody and has +remained consistently on the nest for 2 or 3 days, she should be given +her eggs. If several turkey hens are sitting at the same time, care +should be taken that each gets back into her own nest. Nests are most +conveniently arranged on the ground, in boxes about 2 feet square or in +barrels. If rats are a menace, the nest should furnish protection against +them and should always be made proof against larger animals so that the +turkey hens will not be disturbed or the eggs destroyed. The nests should +be flat and shallow, as deep nests may result in crushed eggs or crushed +baby poults. Nests with damp sod bottoms and only a little straw to +keep the eggs from rolling into the corners are generally satisfactory. +Nesting batteries in which each hen is provided with a small individual +run so that she can get off and on the nest at will are very good. With +this method the only care necessary is to see that feed and water are +always before the hens and that each one remains broody. If individual +runs are not provided, the hens should be taken off daily, allowed to +exercise and eat, and then returned to their own nests. Plenty of water +to drink and clean, wholesome grain feed, such as a mixture of wheat, +oats, and corn, should be provided, and fresh green feed or good alfalfa +hay should be made available. + +Turkey or chicken hens, before being set on turkey eggs, should be +treated with sodium fluoride, as previously directed. + + +ARTIFICIAL INCUBATION + +Correct incubator temperatures are much the same for turkey eggs as for +chicken eggs, but the greater size of the turkey eggs may necessitate +some adjustment of the apparatus used in measuring the temperature. +This is true in nearly all kinds of incubators except those of the +forced-draft type. The relative position of the thermometer in the +egg chamber is important in the accuracy with which it records the +temperature. For hatching turkey eggs the proper position of the +thermometer is usually indicated in the directions that are furnished +by the manufacturer of the incubator. As a general rule, with the +bottom of the bulb 1-7/8 inches above the egg tray, the thermometer +should read 100.5° F. for the first week, 101.5° the second, 102.5° the +third, and 103° the last week. Forced-draft incubators are usually run +at about 99.5°. Temperature can best be regulated, however, by using +the thermometer that goes with the machine, placing it in the position +recommended by the manufacturer, and then following the manufacturer's +instructions for hatching turkey eggs, making sure that the egg trays do +not sag. + +Turkey eggs lose about 3.5 percent less moisture during incubation than +do chicken eggs, notwithstanding the fact that turkey eggs require about +7 days longer to hatch. Excellent hatches have been obtained when the +loss of moisture based on the weight of the eggs just before they were +set, ranged within the following limits: After 6 days of incubation, 2 to +8 percent; after 12 days of incubation. 4.1 to 6 percent; after 18 days +of incubation, 6.2 to 9 percent; and after 24 days of incubation, 9 to 12 +percent. + +On this basis, a dozen turkey eggs of normal size should lose about 1 +ounce for every 6 days of incubation. The air cells of turkey eggs are +smaller in proportion to the size of the eggs than are those of chicken +eggs because normal evaporation in turkey eggs during incubation is +considerably less than that in chicken eggs. When more moisture is needed +in the incubator it can be provided by putting in water pans, or by +placing burlap wicks in the pans. When less moisture is needed the water +pans may be removed or the ventilation increased. + +As a rule the eggs should be turned at least 3 and preferably 4 to 6 +times daily. Four times daily, every 6 hours, day and night, is an +excellent plan. They should be tested preferably on the eighth or ninth +and again on the twentieth to twenty-second days, and all infertile eggs +and those having dead germs should be removed. Cooling the eggs once or +twice a day until they feel slightly cool to the face may be of value +in small incubators. Turning and cooling should be discontinued about +the twenty-third day, and the incubator door should be darkened and kept +closed until hatching is completed. The poults may then be left in the +incubators for about 24 hours or else put in the brooder and fed as soon +as hatching is completed and the poults thoroughly dried off. Poults +held in the incubator should be kept at about 95° F. and should have a +rough surface such as 1/4-inch-mesh hardware cloth to stand on. Keeping +the incubator dark helps to keep the poults quiet and tends to prevent +spraddle legs. There is no good reason for withholding feed longer than +24 hours. If feed is withheld for a much longer period when the poults +are in the brooder, they may eat the litter. Therefore, poults should be +fed when they are put in the brooder house. + +Shipping day-old poults in specially built strawboard boxes has been +found to be satisfactory. The container is larger than that ordinarily +used for baby chicks, 60 poults commonly being placed in each box. + + + + +RAISING POULTS + + +There are few turkey-raising problems so important as brooding and +rearing the poults, because the greatest losses in turkey raising usually +occur in the first few weeks of the birds' lives. Heavy mortality among +the poults may indicate that the breeding stock used was low in vitality +or was poorly managed, but it more often indicates poor feeding or +management of the poults. The importance of keeping both the poults +and the breeding turkeys on ground free from infection and away from +chickens cannot be overemphasized. Improper brooding methods cause great +losses, because turkey poults are very susceptible to cold, dampness, +overcrowding, overheating, unsuitable feeds, and unsuitable litter, and +they succumb readily to attacks of diseases and parasites. + + +BROODING + +The poults may be brooded naturally by turkey hens or artificially by +brooders. Brooding by turkey hens provides a never-failing source of +heat, allows the poults to be raised in small flocks, and permits taking +advantage of free-range conditions. Its disadvantages are that the +young turkeys may contract disease or become infected with parasites +from the hens and they may wander too far and be killed by storms or +predatory animals. Artificial brooding makes it easier to maintain proper +sanitation, keeps down costs, puts the poults more directly under the +control of the operator, and is more adaptable to large-scale production. + +NATURAL BROODING + +Brooding poults by turkey hens is not difficult, although several details +should receive careful attention. As soon as the hatch is completed and +the poults begin to run out from under the sitting hen, transfer the hen +and her brood to a coop. A coop of simple design, such as the =A=-shaped +type (fig. 10), large enough to accommodate a turkey hen comfortably, +and well built to protect the brood from rains and natural enemies, is +all that is required. It should be about 5 feet long, 3 feet wide, and 3 +feet high, with a raised, rat-proof floor. Provide good-sized screened +openings for ventilation in hot weather. These openings should be so +fixed that rain will not beat into the coop. Have a separate coop for +each hen, and if there are several broods, place the coops some distance +apart on well-drained soil where the grass is fairly short. + +[Illustration: Figure 10.--A well-built brood coop which can be +used either for setting a turkey hen or for raising a brood of poults.] + +For the first day or so it is well to confine the poults in the coop +with the mother hen. Then make a small yard, using boards or wire around +the front of the coop, and allow the poults to run in and out at will. +However, they should not be allowed to run in long, wet grass, and during +heavy rains they should be confined to the coop. Move the coop and yard +to fresh ground every few days, clean it once a week or more frequently, +and disinfect it occasionally. When the poults are about a week old +the mother hen may be allowed to roam with her brood, but care should +be taken to see that the entire brood returns in the evening and is +protected at night from predatory animals. Good results may be obtained +by keeping the mother hens confined and allowing the poults to range, but +the brood should be properly sheltered during rainstorms or damp weather, +which are likely to cause high mortality. The poults may be kept with the +mother hen for 3 months or more, but better results are usually obtained +by moving them to a separate rearing field on clean ground when they are +from 8 to 10 weeks old. If they have shelter and will roost, they are +better off without the hens after that age. A turkey hen will raise up to +20 poults successfully, but more than 20 can sometimes be placed with a +hen in warm weather. + +ARTIFICIAL BROODING + +The practice of brooding poults artificially is becoming more popular and +is usually more successful than brooding with turkey hens. The methods +used in artificial brooding are very similar to those used in raising +chicks, which are discussed in Farmers' Bulletin 1538, Incubation and +Brooding of Chickens. However, one point of great importance in brooding +poults artificially is to make sure that they do not crowd together +while in the brooder house. This can be avoided by frequent attention, +by providing an even temperature, and by having good ventilation in the +brooder house. A colony house or permanent brooder house that is suitable +for brooding chicks is equally suitable for turkeys, but fewer birds +should be put in the house, as turkey poults are larger than chicks. +Between 75 and 125 poults should be placed under one 52-inch hover in the +average colony brooder House. Larger hovers and larger brooding rooms +will accommodate 225 poults or more, but only an experienced operator +should attempt; to raise groups larger than 150. The prevailing custom +is to use brooder stoves in portable colony houses or permanent brooding +quarters. + +The colony houses may be moved several times each season, thereby giving +the poults plenty of free range on clean soil. Since blackhead is closely +associated with insanitary conditions, special effort must be made to +keep the houses, runs, and yards clean. If permanent brooder houses are +used, a floor of concrete from 12 to 14 feet wide or a small gravel or +cinder-floored yard is often used in front of the house. A skeleton +framework covered with to 1-inch-mesh wire may also be used to floor the +outside run either with the permanent brooder houses or with the colony +houses (fig. 11). Poults are regularly confined to this small yard for +the first 8 weeks and in some cases have been successfully reared to +market age in it. However, a clean yard containing growing green feed is +an advantage in brooding. If it is used only for about 8 weeks each year, +there seems little danger of contamination. + +The brooder and brooder house should be operated to keep the young +turkeys comfortable. A dim light under or above the hover at night has +a quieting effect on the poults. The temperature should be high enough +to keep the poults comfortable but not high enough to be detrimental to +their health. When the poults are first put into the colony house with +the brooder stove, the temperature 3 inches above the floor under the +hover should be from, 95° to 110° F. This temperature should be lowered +gradually as the poults get larger until they are 6 or 8 weeks old, when +they require little or no heat, especially in the daytime. It is a common +practice in cold weather to keep the general room temperature at the +floor rather high, about 75°, to prevent crowding. The exact temperature, +however, is of minor importance provided the poults are kept comfortable +and good ventilation is maintained. The poults, if comfortable, will +be active and contented. This is the real test of temperature. All +warm points and surfaces except those at the brooder itself should be +eliminated. Free access from all parts of the brooder room to the hover +must be provided. All corners in the brooding room, especially back of +the hover, should be rounded, preferably by using 1/2-inch-mesh poultry +wire. A fence of the same material should be set up around the hover +for the first 2 or 3 days until the poults become accustomed to their +surroundings and learn to return to the source of heat. Flat roosts 2 +to 2-1/2 inches wide and slightly tilted up at the rear may be placed +at graduated levels in the brooder house when the poults are from 2 to +3 weeks old, to encourage them to begin roosting at an early age. This +provision lessens the danger of night crowding. The front roost should be +6 inches above the floor and each of the others a few inches higher than +the one in front of it and about 8-1/2 inches apart, center to center. + +[Illustration: Figure 11.--Young turkeys in a colony house +equipped with wire-floored sun porch.] + + +SANITATION + +The brooder house should be thoroughly cleaned and the litter changed +once every 7 days, or oftener if disease occurs, regardless of the type +of litter used. This cleaning schedule must be adhered to rigidly if +blackhead, coccidiosis, and other diseases are to be prevented. + +Thoroughly clean and disinfect brooder houses and equipment used for +turkeys at the end of each brooding season or oftener if disease occurs. +First clean the house thoroughly and burn all litter and droppings or +haul them to land that is not to be used for poultry and from which +there will be no drainage into the turkey range. Then scrub the floor +and sides of the house, if it is of board construction, with boiling hot +lye solution (one-third of a can to a pail of water) and allow them to +dry out. Next, thoroughly spray the entire inside of the building with +a 3- or 4-percent solution of cresol compound or any other approved +disinfectant. Give the same treatment once a year to the quarters +occupied by the breeding stock. The "fire gun", a large kerosene torch +which involves the blow-torch principle, has proved to be valuable in +disinfecting, if it is properly used and the house has been thoroughly +cleaned. + + +LITTER + +Sand or gravel is recommended for litter for the first 2 or 3 weeks; +after that, clean wheat straw is advised as a means of saving labor. +Gravel or sand makes the best litter; but with large flocks, using it +for more than 2 or 3 weeks may require too much labor. Straw or hay, if +used during the first 2 weeks, may cause a stunting of growth and a high +mortality. Many growers have been successful in using, as a substitute +for litter, 1/2-inch wire mesh stretched tightly a few inches above the +floor of the house, but it requires much labor to clean this, and it +seems to have no advantage over clean litter. A wire-floored sun porch +makes a good substitute, for an outside yard during the brooding period +although, as previously stated, a clean yard in grass is preferable. + + +EARLY DEVELOPMENT + +The poults, when first hatched, are covered with soft down. When they +are about 10 days old, feathers begin to appear where the wings join the +body, and in about 3 weeks the tail feathers begin to appear. From then +on feather growth is rapid, and when the poults are 2 months old they +are well feathered. About the fifth week fleshy protuberances called +caruncles begin to appear, and by the seventh week they begin to extend +down the neck. The appearance of caruncles in the poults is termed +"shooting the red." On the top of the head of both males and females +a fleshy protuberance develops into what is called the "dew bill" or +"snood"; on males it is larger and more elastic than on females. + +The sex of young turkeys can be distinguished by the appearance of a +tuft of hairs on the breast of males between 3 and 4 months old. The +tuft usually does not appear on the breasts of the females until they +are much older, and the hairs of the tuft are shorter and finer than +those on males. The hock joints on the males are much broader and heavier +than on the females. The sex of well-grown Bronze turkey poults can be +distinguished by examining the mature breast feathers which appear at 12 +to 14 weeks. Those of the males are bronze black with no white, whereas +the tip of those of the females have a narrow white edge. Day-old poults +may be sexed as is done with baby chicks by examining that part of the +sex organs that can be seen at the vent. + + +MARKING + +When large numbers of turkeys are raised it is advisable to adopt some +system of marking the poults that enables the grower to keep a record of +the age and breeding of the different broods, as this is of assistance in +selecting early hatched birds for breeding and slaughter purposes. Such +a system also makes it possible to separate the poults out of special +matings from the rest of the flock or from neighboring flocks. The poults +may be marked by punching holes in the webs between the toes or slitting +these webs. Different webs may be punched or slit for different broods, +and thus provide a record of all turkeys raised. + +Heavy, aluminum, clinch pigeon-wing bands are well adapted for marking +young turkeys. The bands can be applied in two ways: + + According to the first, the band is first made round and clinched, + then slipped over the baby poult's toes and flattened so that it will + not come off but at the same time will allow for some growth of the + leg. When the poult is about 4 weeks old the band is transferred to + the wing by unclinching and inserting it in a hole made in the middle + of the web between the first and second joints of the wing and about + one-fourth inch from the edge. The band is again clinched and made + round so that it is not easily flattened and its lettering can be read + easily. According to the second method of application the band is put + directly into the wing at hatching time, a thin knife blade being used + to make the hole for the band, near the edge of the web and midway + between the joints of the wing. Turkey poults, when good sized, may + be tattooed on the wing for identification. When the breeding turkeys + are selected as they approach maturity, heavy wing bands or heavy + permanent leg bands may be used if the birds were not marked at an + earlier age. + + +FEEDING GROWING TURKEYS + +Success in turkey raising depends mainly upon the combination of feeds +given the young poults. Poor-quality feeds, lack of vitamins, and +shortage of proteins, especially if the poults are closely confined, are +the more common causes or failures. Some difficulty may be experienced +in getting artificially brooded poults to eat, as a young poult is much +less active than a chick; but if several small troughs are provided +there should be no serious trouble from this cause. Dipping the beaks of +backward poults in milk or water, or feeding oatmeal flakes may induce +them to eat. Poults brooded with hens, of course, do not need this +special attention. + +After the poults are from 6 to 8 weeks old they may get some of their +living from a good range, but the use of additional feed, preferably a +balanced ration of mash and scratch grain, will give better growth and +result in early maturity and greater returns above feed cost. + +In natural brooding the turkey hen, while confined to the coop, should +be fed mash and given some tender green feed. Water and gravel or grit +should, of course, be kept before her all the time. In feeding the hen +and her brood it is advisable to feed the poults outside the coop and the +hen inside in order to prevent the hen from wasting the feed intended for +the poults. + +For the first 24 to 72 hours after hatching, poults can live without +feed, the yolk of the egg which they absorb before hatching being +sufficient to maintain them for that length of time. As soon as they are +put into the brooder house or with the hen they should be fed. If they +are not fed for the first day or two they should be kept in a darkened +coop or incubator. However, leaving the poults in a darkened incubator +for only 12 to 24 hours and feeding them as soon as they are removed to +the brooder seems to be better and is now becoming a general practice. + +[Illustration: Figure 12.--Cross section of trough feeders for +turkey poults of various ages; _A_, Lath feeder for first week; _B_, +feeder for second to fourth weeks; _C_, feeder for fifth to twelfth +weeks. Feeder _C_ will give better results if equipped with a reel, at +the top, similar to that shown in figure 14.] + + +The first feed may be a mixture of finely chopped, tender green feed, +and dry starting mash. Hard-boiled eggs, ground or crumbled, may also be +added if desired. This feed should be placed on clean boards or in little +feeders made of laths as illustrated in figure 12. It is a good plan to +keep the feed before the poults at all times from the very beginning so +that the backward poults will learn to eat and their growth rate will not +be retarded. Milk, if not too high priced, may be kept before them in +easily cleaned crockery, tin, wooden, or graniteware receptacles which +the poults cannot get into or contaminate. After the first few days the +green feed, unless it is available in the yards, may be spread on top +of the mash in the feeders. Turkey poults appear to be easily harmed by +eating large quantities of tough, fibrous litter or green feed; hence the +selection of a tender green feed is most important. + +FEEDING DURING THE FIRST 6 TO 8 WEEKS + +The use of a well-balanced, all-mash ration is the simplest and most +practical method of feeding poults during the first few weeks of their +lives. Many commercial starting mashes are available or good home-mixed +mashes may be used with excellent success. The protein, mineral, and +vitamin contents are the main points to be considered. Milk in some form +is very desirable, dried milk being preferable. Liquid milk is a fair +feed, but the dried form is preferable at least for starting rations. + +The following starting mashes are recommended for feeding turkey poults +during the first 6 to 8 weeks. Mash No. 1, fed without liquid milk, is +preferable. + + + STARTING MASH NO. 1 _Parts by + weight_ + Yellow corn (ground) 17 + Whole oats (pulverized) 15 + Meat scrap (50- to 55-percent protein) 12 + Wheat bran 12 + Wheat middlings or shorts 12 + Dried milk 10 + Alfalfa leaf meal 10 + Fish meal (60-percent protein) 10 + Cod-liver oil 1-1/2 + Salt (fine, sifted) 1/2 + ------- + Total (crude protein 25 percent; + crude fiber 6 percent) 100 + + STARTING MASH NO. 2 _Parts by + weight_ + Yellow corn (ground) 33 + Wheat middlings or shorts 20 + Wheat bran 10 + Whole oats (pulverized) 10 + Meat scrap (50- to 55-percent protein) 10 + Alfalfa leaf meal 10 + Fish meal (60-percent protein) 5 + Cod-liver oil 1-1/2 + Salt (fine, sifted) 1/2 + ------- + Total (crude protein 19 percent; + crude fiber 6 percent) 100 + + +Starting mash No. 2 is advised for feeding when liquid skim milk or +buttermilk is kept before the poults at all times. Some water is +furnished, allowing one dish of water to several of milk. These starting +mashes are fed without scratch grain; but water, green feed, and hard +grit such as fine gravel, coarse sand, or commercial granite grit should +be supplied. The green feed should be chopped fine and scattered on top +of the mash in the feeders once or twice daily, allowing all the poults +will consume in about half an hour. Tender alfalfa tops, onion tops, +lettuce, and tender, short lawn clippings, preferably those containing +clover, are all good feeds. Tough green feed should be avoided as it may +cause impaction. Green feed as picked by the birds from the yards is +most desirable. In that case hand feeding is not necessary. The mash in +dry form should be kept before the poults at all times, but only enough +mash to last for a day or two should be supplied at one time. About 1 +inch of feeder space per poult (including both sides of the feeders) is +desirable. This should be increased to 2 or 3 inches after about 2 or 3 +weeks. Plans for feeders are shown in figure 12. + +FEEDING FROM 6 TO 8 WEEKS TO MARKETING TIME + +Rations for growing the poults after the age of 6 to 8 weeks may include +mash and whole grain or liquid milk and whole grain. Many turkeys are +grown and fattened on grain supplemented with whatever insects and +green feed can be obtained from the range. A better plan is to provide +sufficient protein and minerals to give normal growth. The minimum +feeding advised is to allow each day one liberal feeding of a 20-percent +protein mash, or to furnish all the milk the birds will drink with a +feeding of whole grain. Either the mash or the liquid milk should be used +with liberal feedings of whole grain for fattening in the fall. + +Good growing mashes suitable for different conditions may be made as +follows: + + GROWING MASH NO. 1 _Parts by + weight_ + Yellow corn or barley (ground) 25 + Oats or grain sorghum (ground) 25 + Wheat middlings or shorts 20 + Meat scrap (50- to 55-percent protein) 19 + Wheat bran 10 + Salt (fine, sifted) 1 + ------- + Total (crude protein 19 to 21 percent) 100 + + GROWING MASH NO. 2 _Parts by + weight_ + Yellow corn or barley (ground) 32 + Soybean oil meal 26 + Wheat middlings or shorts 15 + Wheat bran 10 + Oats or grain sorghum (ground) 10 + Steamed bonemeal 4 + Ground oystershell or limestone 2 + Salt (fine, sifted) 1 + ------- + Total (crude protein 19-1/2 percent) 100 + + GROWING MASH NO. 3 _Parts by + weight_ + Yellow corn (ground) 35 + Meat scrap (50- to 55-percent protein) 15 + Wheat bran 10 + Wheat middlings or shorts 10 + Oats or barley (ground) 10 + Alfalfa leaf meal 10 + Dried milk 9 + Salt (fine, sifted) 1 + ------- + Total (crude protein 20 to 21 percent) 100 + + GROWING MASH NO. 4 _Parts by + weight_ + Yellow corn (ground) 20 + Wheat middlings (standard or brown) 15 + Oats (finely ground) 15 + Wheat bran 10 + Alfalfa leaf meal 10 + Yellow corn gluten meal 10 + Dried milk 10 + Meat scrap (50- to 55-percent protein) 5 + Steamed bonemeal 2 + Ground oystershell or limestone 2 + Salt (fine, sifted) 1 + ------- + Total (crude protein 20 percent; + crude fiber 6 percent) 100 + +These growing mashes are all fed with scratch grains consisting of such +grains as corn, wheat, barley, and oats. Corn, wheat, or barley may be +used as the only scratch grain except with growing mash No. 4, which +should contain from 50 to 75 percent of oats. A good grain mixture may be +made of 40 parts of corn, 40 parts of wheat, and 20 parts of oats. Mashes +1 and 2 are for flocks having access to a good green range. In mash No. 2 +soybean oil meal, which has proved to be a good source of protein and is +also good for fattening, is substituted for meat scrap. Mash No. 3 is a +more complete ration and is advised for all conditions where the turkeys +do not have an abundance of growing green feed. + +Other combinations of grains and byproducts may be used successfully, +the exact selection depending largely on availability and cost of feeds. +It is best to use at least two grains, and preferably three or four, in +the ration. Corn is the grain most commonly used in feeding turkeys. Not +more than 60 percent of the entire growing ration should consist of +oats or barley or a combination of the two. Yellow corn tends to produce +a deep-yellow skin color while white corn, barley, and wheat produce +turkeys with light-colored skins. + +If the birds have all the milk they will drink along with whole grains, +they will consume enough milk to make good growth, if no water is fed. +A mixture of 30 percent of corn, 30 percent of oats, 20 percent of +wheat, and 20 percent of barley is satisfactory; so is a free choice of +several grains. However, the whole-grain and liquid-milk method works +well only when the birds are on a good, green range and is practical to +use only when milk products are cheap. Some loss from pendulous crops is +to be expected when liquid milk is consumed liberally and this is one +of the chief objections to its use. The milk receptacles should be set +on a wire screen and covered to protect them from the weather and from +contamination with droppings. Sanitation is especially important when +milk is used. + +GENERAL SUGGESTIONS FOR FEEDING + +Feed should be kept before the birds constantly from hatching to market +age. During the first 6 weeks feed starting mash. During the seventh +and eighth weeks feed a mixture of equal parts of the starting and +growing mashes. From 9 to 12 weeks feed the growing mash. From 13 weeks +to marketing feed growing mash and scratch grain. No scratch grain is +fed during the first 12 weeks. If a change is made from mash to the +whole-grain and liquid-milk method, cut down the mash gradually until the +poults learn to drink the milk and to eat the whole grain freely. + +Cod-liver oil is necessary in starting rations, but as a rule it is not +necessary in a growing ration unless the birds are confined. In that +case, about 1 percent should be added to the mash. A good grade of plain +cod-liver oil is advised for use in turkey feeds. Fish meal, though an +excellent feed, may impart an undesirable flavor to turkey meat. Fish +meal and cod-liver oil should be omitted from the fattening ration +during the last 8 weeks before the birds are marketed. Birds should not +be moved, or feeding arrangements radically changed in the last 6 weeks +before marketing. + +Feeding the growing mash wet is a common practice in some localities. +Like the dry-mash and scratch-grain system, it produces fine-quality +turkeys although the labor in feeding may be greater. With this method +the turkeys are fed all they will eat of a moist, crumbly mash placed +in troughs with sufficient trough space provided to accommodate all +the flock at one time. Only as much mash as the birds will clean up in +30 to 60 minutes is fed twice daily. Tail picking seldom occurs during +moist-mash feeding if the ration is complete. + +Grit may be furnished in the form of commercial granite grit or coarse +sand for little poults and fine gravel for the larger birds. Limestone +grit does not serve well as grinding material and is unnecessary with the +rations as listed. + +The poults may be put on the rearing ground when they are from 8 to 12 +weeks old. An alfalfa field is an ideal rearing ground and may be used +as a permanent, fenced, rearing range divided into 2 or 3 sections. +When the rearing range is divided into 2 sections, 1 may be used for 2 +seasons in succession while the other is rested for 2 seasons. A better +plan is to divide it into 3 parts, allowing 1 season's use followed by +2 seasons' rest for each of the 3 sections. With portable houses and +fences a method known as the "Minnesota plan" (p. 37) permits the turkey +poults to be moved to a new section once a week and to an entirely new +plot each year. Land on which no poultry of any kind have run for 2 +years and on which no poultry manure has been spread, may be considered +clean ground. The feed should not be put on the ground but in hoppers or +troughs which should be moved frequently or set on wire-covered framework +to prevent contamination with droppings. It is very important that the +drinking water be fresh and clean and that the growing turkeys should not +have access to stagnant water pools. Watering dishes should be placed on +wire-covered platforms with a device to prevent contamination from the +birds' perching on the top or sides. + +The limited-range method with full feeding, as described, is recommended +in preference to free range with limited feeding. However, conditions +sometimes demand that free range be permitted, and limited feeding +practiced. In such cases, when natural feed is abundant, good results +can be obtained by feeding the poults, after they are from 8 to 10 weeks +old, only once daily, as previously suggested. Any of the growing mashes +previously listed should make a good supplement to range feeds. This +extra feed will tend to keep the birds nearer home and keep them growing +at a reasonably good rate. Scratch grains should also be fed and as +marketing time approaches, will be eaten more liberally by the birds. For +turkeys on free range, plenty of water in convenient locations should be +provided. Water helps to maintain good health and may help to prevent the +condition known as "crop bound." + +Turkeys which are well fed should make increases in weight comparable to +those given in table 2, which gives the average weights, at various ages, +ox Bronze turkeys raised in an experiment conducted at the United States +Range Livestock Experiment Station at Miles City, Mont. These birds were +fed starting and growing mashes containing about 22 percent of protein. + +Table 2.--_Average weights of Bronze turkey poults from hatching +time to market age_ + + ---------------+--------------------- + | Average live weight + +----------+---------- + Age | Males | Females + ---------------+----------+---------- + | _Pounds_ | _Pounds_ + Newly hatched | 0.13 | 0.13 + 2 weeks | 0.33 | 0.30 + 4 weeks | 0.86 | 0.75 + 8 weeks | 3.13 | 2.68 + 12 weeks | 6.64 | 5.28 + 16 weeks | 10.35 | 7.67 + 20 weeks | 14.47 | 9.67 + 24 weeks | 18.23 | 11.15 + 26 weeks | 20.18 | 12.04 + 28 weeks | 21.35 | 12.48 + ---------------+----------+---------- + + +FEED CONSUMPTION AND COST OF GROWING + +The quantity and cost of feed used in raising a flock of 156 Bronze +turkeys in Montana in 1934 are shown in tables 3 and 4. These poults (70 +males and 86 females) had well-balanced dry mashes (containing 22 percent +of protein) before them at all times and scratch grain beginning with the +second week. The birds were allowed to range on 2-acre nonirrigated lots +after they were 8 weeks of age. The costs were based on local feed prices +in Miles City, Mont., in 1934. By using the data in tables 2 and 3, the +feed consumption and cost for an average turkey can be estimated for any +period of growth. + +Table 3.--Average feed consumption and cost per pound of gain in +4-week periods for 70 male and 86 female Bronze turkeys in 1934 at Miles +City, Mont. + + ---------------+----------------------------+--------------- + | | Cost of feed + | Feed consumed per pound | for each + | of gain in live weight | pound of + Age +--------+---------+---------+ gain in + | Mash | Scratch | Total | live weight + | | grain | | + ---------------+--------+---------+---------+--------------- + |_Pounds_|_Pounds_ |_Pounds_ | _Cents_ + 1 to 4 weeks | 2.44 | 0.21 | 2.65 | 5.9 + 5 to 8 weeks | 2.41 | 0.16 | 2.57 | 5.7 + 9 to 12 weeks | 2.42 | 0.43 | 2.85 | 6.1 + 13 to 16 weeks | 3.47 | 0.42 | 3.90 | 8.8 + 17 to 20 weeks | 3.05 | 1.52 | 4.57 | 9.8 + 21 to 24 weeks | 3.09 | 3.45 | 6.54 | 13.5 + 25 to 28 weeks | 2.46 | 5.64 | 8.10 | 16.1 + ---------------+--------+---------+---------+--------------- + +Table 4.--Average feed consumption per bird in periods for 70 +male and 86 female Bronze turkeys in 1934 at Miles City, Mont. + + ---------------+--------+---------+---------- + Age | Mash | Scratch | Total + | | grain | + ---------------+--------+---------+---------- + |_Pounds_| _Pounds_| _Pounds_ + 1 to 4 weeks | 1.39 | 0.12 | 1.51 + 5 to 8 weeks | 4.45 | 0.29 | 4.74 + 9 to 12 weeks | 6.67 | 1.19 | 7.86 + 13 to 16 weeks | 9.96 | 1.21 | 11.17 + 17 to 20 weeks | 9.05 | 4.52 | 13.57 + 21 to 24 weeks | 7.64 | 8.53 | 16.17 + 25 to 28 weeks | 5.19 | 11.89 | 17.08 + ---------------+--------+---------+---------- + +Using the data contained in tables 2 and 3, it will be found that it took +approximately 96 pounds of mash and scratch feed to raise a 21-pound tom +to 28 weeks of age, and about 57-1/2 pounds of mash and grain to raise a +12-1/2-pound hen to that age, or about 4.6 pounds of feed for each pound +of live weight, when practically all feed was furnished. It took about 4 +pounds of feed for each pound of live weight up to 24 weeks of age. The +birds had access to a moderate sized range lot containing native grasses, +but very little feed was obtained from it during the 1934 season. + +DEFORMED BREASTBONES + +Crooked and dented breastbones in turkeys are common and sometimes cause +a considerable loss to growers when the birds are marketed, since a +severely crooked or very deeply dented breastbone causes the carcass to +be graded as no. 2. + +It is generally believed that faulty nutrition causes most of the +deformed breastbones, although level roosts narrower than 2-1/2 inches +have been known to cause deformities of this kind. If turkeys are +supplied with green feed, fed liberally on one of the rations suggested, +provided with tilted 2 by 4 roosts or medium-sized poles (see page 35), +and have plenty of direct sunlight, there will be few crooked breastbones +among them. A small number (from 1 to 2 percent) is to be expected as +it seems to be impossible to eliminate them entirely. The addition to +the ration of steamed bone meal and limestone grit or oyster shell as +a mineral reinforcement is recommended by some poultrymen. However, +the various rations, as listed, supply adequate quantities of the +bone-building ingredients. Further additions are unnecessary and may even +be harmful. + +[Illustration: Figure 13.--Mash hopper for feeding young turkeys +12 weeks old or older. The end plan of the same hopper is shown in figure +14.] + + + + +EQUIPMENT FOR RAISING TURKEYS + + +CONTAINERS FOR FEED AND WATER + +During the first 3 or 4 weeks after the poults hatch, two-piece crockery +fountains are excellent milk containers. For water, galvanized metal +containers are more convenient. When the poults are from 4 to 10 weeks +old, water pails, metal troughs, or shallow tin or graniteware pans +provided with wire or wooden guards are more satisfactory than fountains. +A good method is to place the water or milk outside the wall of the +brooder room so that the poults can drink it through a wire screen. +From the age of 9 weeks until market age, a supply of running water is +preferable, although ordinary water pails set inside the range house on +the wire floor or nails or tubs set outside the fence, with openings in +the wire for the birds' heads, are satisfactory. Changing the position +of the watering devices every few days or setting them on wire-covered +platforms will aid in providing sanitary conditions near the watering +places where filth is likely to accumulate rapidly. A watertight barrel +provided with a drip faucet and a trough also makes a good watering +device. Shade should be provided to prevent the drinking water from +getting hot. Suitable equipment for feeding mash and scratch feed is +shown in figure 12. + +[Illustration: Figure 14.--Diagram of end of mash hopper for +feeding young turkeys. Side view of same hopper shown in figure 13.] + +[Illustration: Figure 15.--A waste-proof, portable, outdoor +shelter for feeder. The wire floor helps to prevent contamination from +the soil and the roof provides shelter when the birds are eating.] + +[Illustration: Figure 16.--Large range house for turkeys. This +type is equipped with a wire-floored alleyway, as shown in figures 17 and +18. The antiflies on the roof prevent turkeys from roosting there.] + +Small trough feeders made of lath (fig. 12, _A_) may be used from the +first day in the brooder and until the poults are a week old. Such +feeders are made with 1 lath for the bottom, 2 for the sides, small +sections for end pieces, and another lath for a guard to keep poults out +of the trough. For poults from 8 days to 4 weeks old it is better to use +large trough feeders made of 1/2- by 2-1/4-inch boards for the sides with +a top guard consisting of a free-turning reel. Baling wire stretched +inside the troughs (fig. 12, _C_) aid in preventing waste of feed and +also serve as beak cleaners for the birds. To prevent waste, it is better +not to fill most trough feeders more than two-thirds full. In the brooder +house it is important to place feeders on a wire platform made of 1-inch +mesh, 16-gage wire, and 1- by 4- or 1- by 6-inch boards. Poults 5 to 12 +weeks old should have trough feeders made of 1/2- by 5-inch boards for +the sides, with a free-turning reel at the top. For poults from 12 weeks +old to market age the feeders should be even larger, as illustrated in +figures 13 and 14. + +[Illustration: Figure 17.--End elevation of turkey range house +with alleyway.] + +[Illustration: Figure 18.--Floor plan of turkey range house with +alleyway.] + +After the age of about 12 weeks, and when feeding is done under shelter, +use a flat-bottomed trough from 12 to 18 feet long or several short +feeders made with a 1- by 10-inch board as a bottom, 1- by 8-inch boards +as sides, and with a guard of 1- by 4-inch center piece topped with a +free-turning roller or reel (fig. 14). For outside feeding a similar +trough is advisable. It should be divided into two sections each 6 to 9 +feet long, set on 2- by 8- or 2- by 10-inch skids covered with 1-inch +hexagonal mesh, 16-gage wire or heavy gage 1-inch-mesh hardware cloth, +and provided with a gable roof and side boards to protect the feed and +the birds from sun, wind, and rain (fig. 15). The troughs can be removed +to be used as inside feeders and for replenishing the feed. Two 9-foot +feeders are sufficient for 150 to 175 birds. Inside feeding is preferred +whenever possible to provide it. + +[Illustration: Figure 19.--Interior of 10- by 25-foot ran so +house showing wire floor and wire under roosts. Figure 17 shows the wire +nailed on the underside of the roost supports.] + +[Illustration: Figure 20.--This shed-roof range house will +accommodate from 130 to 150 growing turkeys to market age. The plan of +this house is shown in figure 21.] + + +HOUSES AND FENCES + +A verminproof, weatherproof roosting shelter for growing poults is an +important piece of equipment. A square or rectangular structure with a +shed or gable roof makes a satisfactory range house. A shed roof is more +easily constructed. The use of wire guards called "antiflies" will keep +turkeys off the roof. Allowing for a 5-foot wire-floored alleyway to hold +the feeders and waterers, a house about 10 feet wide and 25 feet long +(figs. 16, 17, 18, and 19) will accommodate 150 to 175 growing turkeys to +market age; a similar house about 16 by 18 feet is large enough for 100 +birds. Feeding and watering can be done inside. For a permanent house, a +height of 5 or 5-1/2 feet at the caves and about 8 feet at the front (or +the peak, if gable-roofed) is sufficient. If no alleyway is used, a house +9 by 26 feet containing roosts only should care for 130 to 150 turkeys to +market age (figs. 20 and 21). + +[Illustration: Figure 21.--End elevation of range shelter for +turkeys. This type is built without an alleyway and measures 9 by 20 +feet.] + +With the latter type of house, feeding and watering must be done outside, +preferably with a covered feeder, as shown in figure 15. A cheaper +portable coop, not so high and with framework of lighter material, is +shown in figure 22. This coop is built on 4- by 10-inch skids and is +equipped with raised wire floor and with roosts. + +[Illustration: Figure 22.--Portable turkey range houses equipped +with wire floors and antiflies. The house on the left is 16 by 20 feet +and has a feed storage room at one end.] + +A permanent house should face south or in a southerly direction so that +the front is not exposed to storms. Board sides on the north and west +are desirable. Practically open-air conditions, combined with good +protection, may be obtained by leaving wire-covered openings about 2 or +2-1/2 feet wide across the north, west, and east sides at about the level +of the roosts. These Openings should be made closable by shiplap doors +that may be partly opened in warm weather and closed during cold weather +and storms. The south side may be left entirely open except for 1-inch +hexagonal mesh of 16- or 18-gage wire and enough boards to give strength +to the building and protect the birds from rainstorms. + +As mentioned on page 29, desirable roosts may be made of 2 by 4's with +edges beveled and laid flatwise but slightly titled up at about the angle +of a quarter-pitch roof in the direction toward which the birds are +likely to face. Roosts made of 2 by 4's or other sawed lumber may cause +dents in the breastbones if they are laid perfectly flat. Smooth poles +2-1/2 to 5 inches in diameter also make good roosts. Material less than +2-1/2 inches wide is not recommended for turkeys half grown or older. +Roosts should be placed preferably 20 to 24 inches apart (center to +center), about 14 inches from the wall and lengthwise or the building. +Those nearest the back wall of the shelter should be the highest, and +each of the others should be about 6 inches lower than the one back of +it. This arrangement insures an even distribution of the birds on the +roosts without crowding. Allow about 1 foot of roost space per bird as +they require as much space as this when approaching market age. + +The space beneath the roosts should be fenced off and covered with +1-1/2-inch, 18-gage wire mesh to prevent the birds from getting at the +droppings. This wire should be placed either on the under side of the +roost supports (fig. 17) or on special wire supports (fig. 21), and it +should be 6 to 12 inches below the top of the roosts. When a wire-floored +alleyway is used, removable vertical panels made of 1- by 4-inch boards +covered with the 1-1/2-inch hexagonal, 18-gage wire mesh should be placed +directly under the roosts which border the alleyways in such a way as to +close the opening underneath the roosts (fig. 19). + +In very dry regions, it the space underneath the roosts and wire floors +is entirely enclosed, the droppings may be allowed to accumulate +throughout the entire growing season to save labor. In damp climates, +however, the droppings should be removed frequently. + +Wire floors may be used, as described, in the alleyways of roosting +shelters to provide a place for inside feeding and watering and may also +be used in the outside yards when close-confinement rearing is practiced. +A practical method of construction is to make the floor in removable +sections, each about 5 feet square. The framework should be made of +2 by 4's placed on edge, with the top edge beveled to present about +three-fourths inch of surface; the center supports may be of 1 by 4's, +also placed on edge, spaced 12 to 16 inches apart, and laid lengthwise +of the alleyway (fig. 19). This frame should be covered with 1-inch +hexagonal, 16-gage wire mesh or chain-link fabric wire. Hardware cloth +in a 1-inch mesh made of 14-gage wire is perhaps more satisfactory and +will last longer, but the first cost would be greater. The wire may be +fastened with eight-penny nails and 1-inch staples alternated, one for +each strand of wire, but fastened only to the top or sides of the 2- by +4-inch framework, not to the center supports. The sections should be set +loosely in the alleyway and held 1 inch apart by nails driven into the +sides of the framework. Supports made of either 2 by 4 or 2 by 6 inch +material should be placed on both sides of the alleyway, directly under +the outer framework of the floor panels, and blocked up so as to hold the +floor frames 1 foot above the ground. + +Since hen turkeys fly well, it is sometimes difficult to keep them in +their runways. Clipping the large outer feathers (called primaries) of +one wing will do much to prevent the turkeys from flying, but it is +usually necessary to put a 3- or 4-foot guard made of 1 by 4 or 2 by 2 +inch material and lightweight poultry wire around the edge of the roof of +the roosting shelters, on gates, and on the fences themselves for 2 or +3 rods out from the buildings. Whenever practicable, these "antiflies" +should be slanted in toward the yard (figs. 16 and 20). Clipping the +wings of the toms is undesirable and is usually unnecessary when +antiflies are properly constructed. + +A 5-foot fence is usually high enough to confine turkeys, except near +buildings and over gates, where the fence should be 8 or 9 feet high. +Even a 4-foot fence has been reported as satisfactory by some growers. +Steel posts and square-mesh poultry fencing of full standard weight make +good turkey fences. + + +PROTECTION AGAINST DOGS + +Dogs cause heavy losses among turkeys in many localities. Turkey houses +must be well constructed to exclude dogs. Wire of 16-gage to 18-gage +weight is necessary, and it must be very tightly nailed. The 16-gage +weight should be used for the outside of buildings where it comes close +to the ground. Confining the turkeys to their shelters all night and +through the early morning hours is frequently a necessary precaution +unless an attendant is present or protection is afforded by a good +watchdog. Fences for confining poultry are not always entirely dog-proof. +High roosts, provided by some growers, give protection at night, but in +the early morning hours when the turkeys are off the roosts, an attendant +should be in the vicinity. Feeding the flock inside the shelter is +advantageous when turkeys must be confined during the early morning hours +as this greatly increases the feeding period. + + +DEVICES THAT PREVENT TAIL-FEATHER PICKING + +Tail-feather picking seems to begin by the birds' using each others' tail +feathers to clean their beaks of mash. Although it does not ordinarily +damage the birds for market, the habit ruins their appearance and +decreases their salability as breeding stock. It is not always possible +to prevent tail-feather picking entirely, especially in flocks raised in +confinement or in small range lots, but it may be prevented partially by +providing tightly stretched wire in or over the mash feeders. Baling wire +stretched tightly or strips of ordinary light-weight poultry wire may be +used. + +Feeding the mash moist will also aid in preventing tail-feather picking. +The kind of mash may also be a factor. A rather coarse mash containing +considerable ground corn, some bran, and some coarsely ground oats or +barley, including the hulls, seems to be more palatable than a fine mash +and is not so likely to clog the beaks of the birds. + + + + +RANGE MANAGEMENT OF GROWING TURKEYS + + +In Minnesota a successful system of moving poults around the colony +brooder house has been devised and is giving excellent results. The house +is built with a small opening in each side, and a portable frame is so +placed that the ground on each side of the house can be used as a small +outside run. The birds are allowed to range to the south for from 5 to 10 +days; then the house is thoroughly cleaned and the range changed to the +west; and so on until the land on all four sides of the house has been +utilized. The house is then moved to a clean spot, and the rotation is +repeated. After the birds are from 8 to 12 weeks old the house is again +moved to a clean place. Turkeys may be raised successfully on a small +acreage if they are moved to a clean area each week or two and to an +entirely different, clean area each year. + +Other systems of yarding have been devised, but the value of most of them +has not been proved experimentally. Some system of rotation is necessary +on a farm where turkeys are raised regularly. For fenced ranges where +the semiconfinement method is to be used, the Minnesota plan is entirely +satisfactory for small flocks. For large flocks the use of large yards +in the double or triple yarding system has given good results. Under +this system, after 8 or 10 weeks of brooding, the poults are put on +range, which may be divided into 2 or 3 equal parts. The range used is +changed yearly or biennially either by moving the equipment or by having +permanent equipment for each range. In the absence of fences, turkeys +may be herded so that they are protected from enemies and kept within +the clean area allotted to them each season. The use of portable fences +and portable roosting shelters enables the grower to move the entire +flock to clean range each season or several times each season. This +method is practical where large areas of suitable range are available, +so that the birds can be reared each season on land that has not been +used, or on which no droppings have been spread, for the preceding 2 +years. In wet climates it is probably safer to allow a rest of 3 or 4 +years. Enough range should be provided so that plenty of growing green +feed is available in each yard at all times during the season. When +the same ground is used for a whole season, and rainfall or irrigation +is adequate, an acre of grass pasture should provide range and green +feed for about 100 growing turkeys. An acre of alfalfa or clover would +probably provide feed for 150 birds, under favorable conditions. + +In arid or semiarid sections, during very dry seasons, it may be +advisable to provide fresh, green feed, or legume hay in abundance to +discourage the turkeys from eating undesirable green feed on the range. A +complete ration must be provided for such conditions. + +Where the range is limited to small areas of fenced land, the use of a +number of permanent range houses set in a row, preferably 200 feet or +more apart, in the middle of the range and along the dividing fence is +a practical method of range utilization. The dividing fence should be +double so as to provide a neutral area between the two ranges. Under this +plan the birds can use one-half of the range for 2 years in succession +and the other half for 2 years without the buildings being moved. If +individual range lots are desired for each flock of birds, permanent +range shelters arranged on either side of a service lane, each with +double or triple yards, are a solution to the clean-range problem. +If double yards are used for each house or if the range as a whole is +divided into 2 sections, a rotation of 2 seasons of use, followed by 2 +seasons of rest may be the best plan. Where 3 yards for each house can +be arranged or where the whole range is divided into 3 large yards, each +yard can be used for 1 season and allowed 2 seasons of rest. + +Under any system of permanent yards, certain sanitary precautions are +essential. Among these are the following: (1) Select such a location or +modify the one available in such a way that there is as little drainage +as possible from the yards that are being used to those that are being +rested; (2) each season, or several times each season, remove the +accumulations of droppings from the ground around the houses, feeders, +and water vessels; (3) grade up around each house with fresh earth each +season or whenever it is necessary, to prevent water from standing near +the buildings; (4) fill in or drain all depressions so that water does +not stand for any length of time anywhere on the range; (5) use antiflies +and, if necessary, clip one wing of each bird to keep it from flying +into and contaminating the yards that are being rested; (6) prevent +birds or persons from going in and out of yards that are being rested; +(7) move feeders and water vessels frequently, feed and water the birds +inside the range shelters on the wire floors, or place the feeders and +water vessels outside on roofed wire platforms so that the droppings +that accumulate near them will not become sources of infection; (8) use +contamination-proof feeders and water vessels; (9) see that flies do not +breed extensively in or near the houses and feeders; (10) place wide +boards set into the ground, an inch or two at the bottom of the fences +and extending for about 10 yards out from the buildings to prevent refuse +spreading to the adjoining yards. + +When birds are herded on free range some growers move the roosts, +feeders, and water vessels to clean ground several times each season, +whereas others use permanent roosting and feeding quarters and bring the +birds back each night. In either case excessive contamination at any one +point should be prevented so far as possible. + + + + +FATTENING TURKEYS FOR MARKET + + +In general, the best method of raising turkeys is to keep them growing +at a normal rate so that at the age of about 6 months they are in prime +market condition, no special fattening period being necessary. Such a +method calls for liberal feeding of balanced rations throughout the +growing period. A good range will supply a large quantity of feed at a +very reasonable cost, but not even the best range will furnish enough of +the right kinds of feed to produce large numbers of prime turkeys without +supplementary feeding. + +In many instances, however, turkey growers believe that it is more +profitable to force the birds to forage for most of their livelihood +until a few weeks before marketing time. A good plan for fattening these +range-grown birds is to begin early in the fall to feed the birds mash +and scratch, allowing them all they will eat of both. As they approach +maturity they will eat mostly scratch grain. The mash may be fed moist or +dry. Milk is an excellent fattening feed, and if plenty of liquid milk is +available it may be fed with scratch grain only and no mash. Some turkey +raisers feed equal parts of corn, wheat, and oats during the first part +of the fattening season and gradually change to all corn as the weather +becomes cooler. This system is satisfactory if plenty of milk can be fed +in addition. Without milk or some other high-protein feed, the results +are likely to be unsatisfactory. If too heavy feeding of corn alone is +begun before the range turkeys become accustomed to it, the disease known +as scours often results, especially if new corn is used. Old corn is a +much better feed than new corn, but the new crop is safe after it is well +matured and dry. + +As a general rule, turkeys that have been raised on free range cannot +be successfully fattened in close confinement. They may be successfully +fattened, however, if they are confined to moderate-sized yards +containing growing alfalfa or other green crops or stacks of alfalfa or +clover hay. There is no advantage in confining turkeys which have been +raised in semiconfinement to smaller quarters for fattening. + + + + +MARKETING TURKEYS + + +The marketing season for the bulk of the turkey crop is usually +comparatively short, extending from the middle of November to the latter +part of December. There is an increasing demand in the fall and winter +and even in late summer for young turkeys. Many turkey raisers sell their +birds alive to poultry dealers, who either dress them or ship them alive +to city dealers. In sections where turkeys are grown in large numbers, as +in Texas, dressing plants have been built by cooperative associations and +poultry dealers who collect the live birds and dress them for the various +city markets. As soon as possible after reaching the dressing plant, the +turkeys are killed, dry-picked, cooled, and packed in barrels or boxes +for shipment. + +Farmers near the city markets often dress their turkeys and sell them +direct either to the consumer or to the city dealer. In territory +adjacent to large cities marketing both live and dressed birds at +roadside stands has become common. + + +WHEN TO MARKET + +Experiments with Bronze turkeys have indicated that well-fed, young +birds of this popular variety are marketed to best advantage at from 24 +to 28 weeks of age, if they are in good flesh and reasonably free from +short pinfeathers. If they are kept longer than 28 weeks, the cost of +maintenance and gains and the extra labor of their care cause the costs +of production to rise rapidly. Under ordinary conditions 26 to 28 weeks +is the best age for marketing full-fed Bronze turkey toms. For turkeys +fed for rapid growth 24 weeks is a more profitable age if the birds are +ready for market then, as is often the case with young hens which mature +more quickly than the toms. Data obtained on more than 600 birds at the +United States Range Livestock Experiment Station at Miles City, Mont., +show that at 24 weeks of age the feed cost of producing live turkeys was +1 cent per pound lower than at 26 weeks of age, and 2.5 cents per pound +lower than at 28 weeks. These figures, of course, will vary in different +years, depending on the price of feeds. Besides this cost for feed the +extra labor in caring for the birds, often during unfavorable weather, +must be considered. + +With the expansion of the turkey industry, the chain stores have become +one of the large wholesale buyers of turkeys. They desire various sizes, +according to the nature of the patronage in different localities, and as +a result create a considerable market demand for hens and small toms. +This is particularly true of their Thanksgiving and Christmas trade. +Other channels of trade, such as restaurants, hotels, steamships, and +railroad lines, prefer large toms. As turkeys become more generally used +throughout the year an increase in the trade for small birds may be +expected. + + +SELECTING BIRDS FOR MARKET + +Practically all turkeys that are full fed are ready for market at from +26 to 28 weeks of age, and in many cases at 24 weeks, depending on sex, +breeding, feeding, and weather. However, with range birds on limited +feed, the grower can probably afford to hold his turkeys longer than 26 +or 28 weeks, if necessary, because the feed costs were low during the +growing period. It is, of course, very important to market only turkeys +that are fat and free from small pinfeathers. Sufficient protein and +minerals in the feed during the fall months are essential to proper +growth and economical gains as well as to proper feather development. A +prime turkey, especially a young one, is not expected to be excessively +fat, but it must have an even covering of fat so that the skin appears +white or yellowish white rather than dark or bluish. The breast must +be meaty and the whole body free from small pinfeathers, bruises, and +abrasions. Great care should be taken, therefore, not to allow the birds +to bruise themselves by flying or running against obstructions; they +should be handled gently and not frightened. + + +WITHHOLDING FEED BEFORE SLAUGHTER + +Birds with feed in their crops are usually graded as no. 2 and sold at a +lower price because feed in the crop spoils readily, and also detracts +from the appearance of the carcass. Mash feed passes out of the crop +quickly so that crops will be empty if the mash is removed at dusk on +the day before slaughter and no scratch grain fed on that day. If the +birds are kept without feed for more than 18 or 24 hours they may eat +soil, litter, droppings, or feathers, and thus defeat the main purpose +of withholding feed. This applies especially to old hens. If the birds +are not to be killed until late afternoon or evening, give them a light +feed of mash early in the morning. Scratch grain should be fed only until +about 18 hours before slaughter. Feeding should always be planned so +that feed is not withheld more than 24 hours. All birds being held for +slaughter should have free access to water up to killing time. + + +KILLING AND PICKING + +When the bird is to be killed, hang it up by the feet, holding its head +in one hand and taking care not to compress the veins in the neck. +Open the mouth and cut the jugular vein far back in the throat, just +below the base of the skull. For this purpose use the point of a sharp, +narrow-bladed knife. As soon as profuse bleeding begins, thrust the knife +up through the groove in the roof of the mouth and into the rear lobe of +the brain at the back of the skull so as to render the bird unconscious. +When the correct "stick" is obtained, the bird usually gives a peculiar +squawk, the tail feathers spread, and all the feathers are loosened by +a quivering of the muscles. After sticking, continue to hold the bird's +head and attach a blood cup to the lower jaw. The bird's wings should +never be locked, as this often results in their being broken, which +usually reduces the bird to a low grade. Likewise, no attempt should be +made to hold the bird's wings tightly. Blood cups weighing 5 pounds are +needed for large birds, whereas cups weighing 3 to 4 pounds are best for +small and medium-sized birds. + +In dry picking it is essential that the feathers be plucked immediately +after the bird is killed. If the bird has been properly stuck, they come +out very easily. First remove the tail and large wing feathers and then +the body feathers, leaving the small wing feathers and neck and upper +breast feathers until last. Pull out all feathers a few at a time, but +do not rub them off as this injures the skin and often lowers the grade. +Dry picking can be learned best by personal instructions. The semiscald +method of picking turkeys is used in some sections at commercial dressing +plants, but nearly all home-dressed turkeys are dry-picked.[2] + +[2] Detailed information on killing, grading, and marketing turkeys is +given in Farmers' Bulletins 1694. Dressing and Packing Turkeys, and +1815, Grading Dressed Turkeys. + +Clean-picked turkeys are now preferred, but a single row of short fan +feathers on the last joint of each wing may be left. Leave no feathers +on any other part of the body. Remove all pinfeathers, especially from +the breast, but do not attempt to dig out pinfeathers too short to be +pulled. After picking, snap the blood from the bird's mouth with a quick +motion and squeeze the vent to remove any droppings that may be there. +The feet, if dirty, should be washed and dried. These methods make for +clean carcasses, good grades, and good keeping quality. After picking +and chilling the birds, cover the heads with head wraps made of heavy +waxed paper, to prevent blood soaking through and smearing the carcasses. +Whenever the skin is torn, sew it neatly with white thread. + +When birds have been killed with feed in their crops, remove the entire +crop. Through a 2- or 3-inch slit in the neck, beginning where the neck +joins the body, the crop can be completely loosened and withdrawn, the +gullet being cut well below the crop. Then sew the opening with No. 36 +white thread. Turn in the edges of the skin so as to make a neat job that +will not be noticeable when the bird is put on the market. + +According to data on Bronze turkeys, killing and picking after the birds +had been starved overnight resulted in a loss of about 9 percent of +weight for large birds and 10 percent for small birds. The turkeys were +weighed both before and after they were killed and picked and again after +they had cooled overnight. The larger birds had the lower percentages +of loss in weight and therefore the higher dressing percentages. The +weight loss of dressed turkeys while chilling overnight is very small, +only about one-sixth of 1 percent. Therefore, practically all the loss +in weight that occurs during picking and chilling results from the loss +of blood and feathers. The weight loss of turkeys overnight just before +slaughter when they received no feed was about 3 percent, on an average, +making the total loss from their normal weight, due to withholding feed, +picking, and chilling, about 13 percent. When dressed turkeys are drawn, +with head and feet removed and giblets replaced, there is a further loss +of about 15 percent of the dressed weight. + +[Illustration: Figure 23.--Single-layer box of 10 turkey hens.] + + + + +COOLING + +Hanging the birds indoors by the legs for 24 hours or more, or laying +them on their backs on a clean surface where the temperature of the air +ranges from 30° to 36° F. will properly chill the carcasses. They should +be thoroughly chilled but not frozen, since frozen birds sweat and, +because of their rigid condition, cannot be packed without great waste +of space. In mild weather it is often impossible to cool the carcasses +properly without the use of refrigeration or ice water. Cooling in water +spoils the appearance of dry-picked carcasses and should be done only as +a last resort. A suitable thermometer is an indispensable part of the +chilling equipment. + + +PACKING + +Boxes and barrels are generally used for packing dressed turkeys. +Packing in clean barrels, while easier and slightly cheaper, is not so +satisfactory as box packing, although barrels are often more readily +available. + +Boxes are greatly preferred by the trade and by organized pools. In box +packing, the single-layer pack of 6 to 14 birds, depending on their size, +is preferred. The boxes are usually large enough to hold from 10 to 12 +medium-sized birds (fig. 23). + +When barrels are used, a large size is necessary for large toms. Smaller +barrels are suitable for hens and small toms. Line the barrel with white +wrapping paper or common white parchment paper. Lay the birds with their +backs against the sides of the barrel, and if it is necessary to pack +larger birds in the same barrel, place them in the center. When the +barrel is full, turn down the paper, take off the top hoop, place a piece +of clean burlap over the top, and replace and renail the hoop over the +burlap. + +Boxes, barrels, or any other containers used should be free from +objectionable odor, as the turkey meat may absorb it. + +There is considerable risk for the producer who does not have access +to proper refrigerating facilities in shipping dressed turkeys during +mild weather. If the birds are to be sold in mild weather, it is safest +to market them alive or else sell them dressed to local purchasers as +losses from improper cooling of dressed turkeys and from exposure to +warm weather during transit are likely to occur. When turkeys are to be +shipped only a short distance it may be feasible to chill the dressed +birds in ice water and then to pack them in barrels with cracked ice +between layers and at each end of the barrel. A top layer of ice placed +between two layers of burlap tacked securely over the top of the barrel +is desirable. The internal temperature of the turkeys should be reduced +to 34° F. before they are shipped. + + + + +DRESSED-TURKEY GRADES + + +Grading systems for dressed turkeys differ somewhat in different markets +but, in general, are similar. Greatest uniformity is provided where the +United States grades are used. The United States grading system is more +comprehensive than other systems and is intended to satisfy the demands +of the consumers more fully and to promote more uniform grading. + +The United States Government grading system was developed and is +sponsored by the Bureau of Agricultural Economics, United States +Department of Agriculture. Under this system as now used there are four +grades: U. S. Special or U. S. grade AA; U. S. Prime or U. S. grade A; U. +S. Choice or U. S. grade B; and U. S. Commercial or U. S. grade C. Each +grade is subdivided into four classes according to the age and sex of the +birds. + +These classes are: Young hen, young tom, old hen, and old tom. The +quality specifications for individual birds apply to each class with +due allowance for fleshing condition characteristic of its sex and +age. Detailed descriptions are provided for each grade. For the U. S. +Special grade it is required that turkeys have broad, full-fleshed +breasts and that the carcasses be fully covered with fat. The birds +must also have been well bled, carefully dry-picked or semiscalded, +and must be free from bruises, skin tears, and broken joints. The +breastbone must be straight or only slightly dented (not more than +one-fourth inch in depth). For the U. 3. Prime grade it is required that +birds be well fleshed, well fattened, and well bled, but they may have +slight imperfections such as scattered pinfeathers, slight flesh or +skin abrasions, and one disjointed but not broken wing or leg. Slightly +curved and slightly dented breastbones, not to exceed one-half inch in +depth, are permitted. To grade U. S. Choice, turkeys must have fairly +well-fleshed breasts and carcasses fairly well covered with fat. These +birds need be only fairly well bled and dressed and may have slight +flesh or skin bruises, small skin tears, or larger sewn-up tears, and +one broken leg or wing. Turkeys not meeting these grade requirements, +including birds poorly fleshed, poorly bled, or slightly deformed, but +suitable for food, make up the lowest or U. S. Commercial grade. + +Another system of grading in common use in buying dressed turkeys is to +make only 2 or 3 grades, except that sometimes the birds within the top +grades are divided into classes based on weight and sex. The no. 1 grade +usually consists of young toms weighing 12 pounds or more and young and +old hens weighing 8 pounds or more, dressed. For this grade the birds +must be well finished and free from serious tears, bruises, and severely +crooked breastbones. The crops must be empty and the carcasses reasonably +free from pinfeathers and reasonably well bled. The no. 2 grade includes +all old toms and such young toms, young hens, and old hens as are too +light for the no. 1 grade. The no. 2 grade also includes turkeys with +severely crooked breastbones, broken wings, bad blemishes, bad tears, +bad abrasions, feed in crops, numerous pinfeathers, and birds that have +been poorly bled or poorly fleshed. The no. 3 grade includes birds not +good enough for the no. 2 grade but still fit for food. These are culls +that never should have been marketed. The no. 3 grade is not always +used, since turkeys of this kind are often rejected by the buyers. On +some markets a medium grade of birds--between the no. 1 and the no. 2 +grades--is used. + +When graded and packed for market turkeys are further graded as to size, +birds of similar weight being placed in the same container, which is +labeled according to the grade. + + * * * * * + + +ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE WHEN THIS +PUBLICATION WAS LAST PRINTED + + _Secretary of Agriculture_ Henry A. Wallace. + _Undersecretary_ M. L. Wilson. + _Assistant Secretary_ Harry L. Brown. + Coordinator of Land Use Planning and M. S. Eisenhower. + Director of Information. + _Director of Extension Work_ C. W. Warburton. + _Director of Finance_ W. A. Jump. + _Director of Personnel_ Roy F. Hendrickson. + _Director of Research_ James T. Jardine. + _Solicitor_ Mastin G. White. + _Agricultural Adjustment H. R. Tolley, _Administrator_. + Administration_ + _Bureau of Agricultural Economics_ A. G. Black, _Chief_. + _Bureau of Agricultural Engineering_ S. H. McCrory, _Chief_. + _Bureau of Animal Industry_ John R. Mohler, _Chief_. + _Bureau of Biological Survey_ Ira N. Gabrielson, _Chief_. + _Bureau of Chemistry and Soils_ Henry G. Knight, _Chief_. + _Commodity Exchange Administration_ J. W. T. Duvel, _Chief_. + _Bureau of Dairy Industry_ O. E. Reed, _Chief_. + _Bureau of Entomology and Plant Lee A. Strong, _Chief_. + Quarantine_ + _Office of Experiment Stations_ James T. Jardine, _Chief_. + _Farm Security Administration_ W. W. Alexander, _Administrator_. + _Food and Drug Administration_ Walter G. Campbell, _Chief_. + _Forest Service_ Ferdinand A. Silcox, _Chief_. + _Bureau of Home Economics_ Louise Stanley, _Chief_. + _Library_ Claribel R. Barnett, _Librarian_. + _Bureau of Plant Industry_ E. C. Auchter, _Chief_. + _Bureau of Public Roads_ Thomas H. MacDonald, _Chief_. + _Soil Conservation Service_ H. H. Bennett, _Chief_. + _Weather Bureau_ Francis W. Reichelderfer, _Chief_. + + +U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1939 + +For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. + +Price 5 cents + + + * * * * * + + +Transcriber Note + +Illustrations were moved to avoid splitting paragraphs. Display of +numbers was standardized in the tables to show leading zeros. + + + + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of USDA Farmers' Bulletin No. 1409: +Turkey Raising, by Stanley J. Marsden and Alfred R. Lee + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 59546 *** |