1 files changed, 10224 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/59531-0.txt b/59531-0.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1ad8a36
--- /dev/null
+++ b/59531-0.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,10224 @@
+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 59531 ***
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ THE WORLD'S BEST HISTORIES
+
+ NORWAY
+
+ BY
+
+ SIGVART SÖRENSEN
+
+ EDITOR "MINNEAPOLIS TIDENDE"
+
+ _WITH FRONTISPIECE_
+
+ THE CO-OPERATIVE PUBLICATION SOCIETY
+
+ NEW YORK AND LONDON
+
+
+
+
+ COPYRIGHT 1899
+ BY PETER FENELON COLLIER
+     _Norway_
+
+
+
+
+Illustration: THE INVASION OF GREAT BRITAIN BY THE NORTHMEN
+     _Norway._
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+In preparing this volume it has been my aim to omit as few important
+events as possible without making the book a mere enumeration of names
+and dates. Above all, I have tried to be accurate. Among the works
+which I have used as sources, the first one to be mentioned is the
+great work of Snorre Sturlason: "The Heimskringla, or The Sagas of the
+Norse Kings," and I have used the English translation of the same by
+Samuel Laing, Esq., revised edition by Rasmus B. Anderson (Scribner &
+Welford, New York, 1889). I have also found much assistance in O. A.
+Överland's "Norges Historie." Among many other works used as sources or
+consulted, are: J. E. Sars's "Udsigt over den Norske Historie"; Jacob
+Aall's "Erindringer"; F. Winkel Horn's "History of the Literature of
+the Scandinavian North," translated by R. B. Anderson (S. C. Griggs
+& Co, Chicago, 1895). The Constitution of Norway, the most liberal
+Constitution of Europe, appeared to me to be an appropriate closing
+chapter in a History of Norway. This interesting document has been
+translated into English by the Honorable Knute Nelson, United States
+Senator from Minnesota, to whom I am under obligation for permission to
+use his translation.                                      S. S.
+     MINNEAPOLIS, MINN., 1899.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+ CHAPTER I
+
+ THE NORTHMEN
+
+                                                                    PAGE
+
+ The Ancestors of the Present Norwegians--Early Social
+ Conditions--Independence and Self-government of the People--The
+ Kings of the old Northmen                                            15
+
+
+ CHAPTER II
+
+ THE RELIGION OF THE NORTHMEN
+
+ The Creation of the World--Ask and Embla, the first Human
+ Couple--Asgard, the Dwelling of the Gods--The Struggle between Good
+ and Evil--The End of the World--A new Race                           18
+
+
+ CHAPTER III
+
+ THE VIKING AGE
+
+ The three Stages of the Viking Age--Cruises to Scotland, Ireland,
+ England and other Countries--Norse Kingdom in Ireland                26
+
+
+ CHAPTER IV
+
+ THE YNGLING FAMILY--HALFDAN THE SWARTHY
+
+ Beginning of Authentic History--Olaf the Tree-feller--Halfdan
+ Whiteleg--Gudrod the Hunter--Halfdan the Swarthy gives the Eidsiva
+ Law--Queen Ragnhild's Dream                                          29
+
+
+ CHAPTER V
+
+ HARALD THE FAIRHAIRED (860-930)--NORWAY UNITED
+
+ King Harald's Courtship--The Battle of Hafrsfjord--Norway United
+ under one King--Emigration of the Discontented--Settlement in
+ Iceland--The Cruise of Gange-Rolf--Northmen settle in Normandy--King
+ Harald's Sons--Death of King Harald                                  31
+
+
+ CHAPTER VI
+
+ BIRTH OF HAAKON THE GOOD--ERIK BLOOD-AXE (930-935)
+
+ Sigurd Ladejarl--Erik and Queen Gunhild--Haakon, Athelstan's
+ Foster-son, proclaimed King--Erik Blood-Axe exiled and killed in
+ a Battle in England                                                  36
+
+ CHAPTER VII
+
+ HAAKON THE GOOD (935-961)
+
+ The Laws Improved--Other Reforms--First Attempts to Introduce
+ Christianity--Norway attacked by the Gunhild-sons--Battle of
+ Fitje--Death of Haakon                                               39
+
+
+ CHAPTER VIII
+
+ HARALD GRAYFELL AND HIS BROTHERS (961-970)
+
+ Return of the Gunhild-sons--Earl Sigurd of Lade killed--The Murder
+ of Trygve Olafson and Gudrod Biornson--Earl Haakon--Harald
+ Grayfell killed in Denmark                                           42
+
+
+ CHAPTER IX
+
+ EARL HAAKON (970-995)
+
+ Attacks by the Danish King, Harald Bluetooth--The
+ Joms-vikings--Sigvalde Jarl makes War on Haakon--The Battle in
+ Hjorungavaag--Revolt against Earl Haakon--Olaf Trygvason arrives
+ in Norway--Earl Haakon killed by his Slave                           45
+
+
+ CHAPTER X
+
+ THE YOUTH OF OLAF TRYGVASON
+
+ The Birth of Olaf--Flight to Sweden and Russia--Olaf sold as a
+ Slave--Freed by his Uncle--Viking Cruises to Vendland, England
+ and other Countries--Return to Norway                                51
+
+
+ CHAPTER XI
+
+ OLAF TRYGVASON (995-1000)
+
+ Christianity Introduced in Viken--Erling Skialgson of Sole--Great
+ Opposition to Christianity--Founding of the Town of Nidaros--Olaf
+ woos Queen Sigrid the Haughty--He marries Thyra from Denmark--
+ Building of the "Long Serpent"--Einar Thambaskelfer--Expedition to
+ Vendland--Battle of Svolder--Death of Olaf Trygvason                 54
+
+
+ CHAPTER XII
+
+ THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA
+
+ Erik the Red finds Greenland--Christianity Introduced--Biarne
+ Heriulfson sees Strange Lands--Leif Erikson, the Discoverer of
+ America--The new Country is called Vinland--Subsequent Journeys
+ to Vinland--Thorfin Karlsefne                                        65
+
+
+ CHAPTER XIII
+
+ THE EARLS ERIK AND SVEIN, SONS OF HAAKON (1000-1015)
+
+ Norway Divided between the Victors at Svolder--Erling Skialgson
+ of Sole--Earl Erik leaves for England                                70
+
+
+ CHAPTER XIV
+
+ THE YOUTH OF OLAF HARALDSON
+
+ Olaf's Childhood--Olaf on his Viking Expeditions--Battles in England 73
+
+
+ CHAPTER XV
+
+ OLAF THE SAINT (1015-1028)
+
+ Return to Norway--Capture of Earl Haakon--The Earl vows never to
+ fight King Olaf--Olaf's Reception by his Mother and Father-in-law,
+ Sigurd Syr--Meeting of the District Kings--Olaf driven away from
+ Nidaros--Battle of Nesje--Death of Earl Svein--Trouble with the
+ Swedish King--Thorgny Lagman dictates to the King--Enforcing
+ Christianity--Conspiracy against the King--Olaf's Half-brothers--The
+ Peace of Konungahella--Dale-Gudbrand--Canute the Great claims
+ Norway--Battle of Helge-Aa--Killing of Erling Skialgson--Olaf's
+ Flight to Russia                                                     75
+
+
+ CHAPTER XVI
+
+ THE BATTLE OF STIKLESTAD (1030)
+
+ Biorn Stallare's Visit to Olaf in Russia--King Olaf returns to
+ Norway--His Vision--Thormod Kolbrunarskald--Battle Of Stiklestad
+ --King Olaf's Death--Olaf Sigurdson leaves Norway                    99
+
+
+ CHAPTER XVII
+
+ KING SVEIN ALFIFUSON (1030-1035)
+
+ The Rule of Alfifa--Attempt to introduce Feudal Laws--The Sanctity
+ of King Olaf--Rumors of Miracles--Olaf declared the National
+ Saint--Trygve Olafson--Magnus Olafson returns to Norway--Alfifa and
+ Svein flee to Denmark                                               105
+
+
+ CHAPTER XVIII
+
+ MAGNUS THE GOOD (1035-1047)
+
+ Magnus's Birth and Baptism--Agreement with the Danish King,
+ Hardeknut--Magnus and Kalf Arneson on the Battlefield of
+ Stiklestad--Warning to the King--The Gray Goose--Magnus claims
+ the Danish Throne--Svein Estridson appointed Earl--Battle at
+ Lyrskog Heath--Battles at Aaros and Helganes--Return of Harald
+ Sigurdson--Death of King Magnus                                     109
+
+
+ CHAPTER XIX
+
+ HARALD HAARDRAADE (1047-1066)
+
+ Harald's Adventures in Southern Cities--Conflicts with Svein
+ Estridson--Quarrels with Einar Thambaskelfer--Murder of Einar and his
+ Son--Agreement with Haakon Ivarson--Treachery to Kalf Arneson--Battle
+ of Nis-Aa--Peace Meeting at Gaut River--Earl Toste arrives in
+ Norway--The Battle at Stanford Bridge--Death of King Harald--The
+ Founding of Oslo                                                    116
+
+
+ CHAPTER XX
+
+ OLAF KYRRE (1066-1093)
+
+ Magnus and Olaf divide the Power--Peace made with
+ Svein Estridson--Death of Magnus--The Founding of
+ Bergen--Guild-brethren--Skule, Toste's Son--Changes in Court
+ Customs--Death of Olaf Kyrre                                        127
+
+
+ CHAPTER XXI
+
+ MAGNUS BAREFOOT (1093-1103)
+
+ Haakon Proclaimed King in Throndhjem--Haakon dies on the Dovre
+ Mountain--Rebellion led by Thorer of Steig--Expedition to the
+ Western Isles--War with Sweden--Peace Meeting at Konungahella--
+ Second Expedition Westward--Death of King Magnus in Ulster          131
+
+
+ CHAPTER XXII
+
+ SIGURD THE CRUSADER (1103-1130) AND HIS BROTHERS, EYSTEIN AND OLAF
+
+ Division of the Country between the Brothers--Sigurd's Crusade--Visit
+ to Jerusalem--Return to Norway--King Eystein's Peaceful Work at
+ Home--Annexation of Jemteland--King Sigurd and Borghild of Dal--The
+ "Man-measuring"--Death of Eystein--The Kalmar Levy--Sigurd shows
+ Signs of Insanity--Ottar Birting--Sigurd marries Cecilia--Death of
+ Sigurd                                                              136
+
+
+ CHAPTER XXIII
+
+ MAGNUS THE BLIND AND HARALD GILLE (1130-1136)
+
+ Harald Gille comes to Norway as a Pretender--Harald and Magnus divide
+ the Kingdom--Battle between the two Kings at Fyrileif--Harald takes
+ Magnus prisoner at Bergen--Magnus maimed--Sigurd Slembe arrives in
+ Norway--Harald Gille murdered--Konungahella destroyed               147
+
+
+ CHAPTER XXIV
+
+ SIGURD MUND, EYSTEIN, AND INGE KROKRYG, THE SONS OF HARALD GILLE
+ (1136-1161)
+
+ Sigurd and Inge proclaimed Kings--Sigurd Slembe supports Magnus the
+ Blind--Battles at Minne and Krokaskog--Battle at Holmengraa--Magnus
+ and Sigurd Slembe killed--Eystein proclaimed King--Ottar Birting
+ assassinated--King Sigurd slain--Death of Eystein--Haakon, Sigurd
+ Mund's Son, given Title of King--Fall of King Inge at Oslo          151
+
+
+ CHAPTER XXV
+
+ THE CHURCH
+
+ Visit of Cardinal Nicholas--An Archbishopric established at
+ Nidaros--Cloisters in Norway                                        159
+
+
+ CHAPTER XXVI
+
+ HAAKON HERDEBRED (1161-1162)--ERLING SKAKKE
+
+ Erling Skakke has his Son Magnus proclaimed King--He seeks aid in
+ Denmark--Defeats Haakon at Tunsberg--Battle of Sekken--Haakon
+ killed                                                              161
+
+
+ CHAPTER XXVII
+
+ MAGNUS ERLINGSON (1162-1184)--THE BIRCHLEGS
+
+ Sigurd Markusfostre--Battle of Ree--Magnus Crowned--Norway
+ attacked by the Danish King--Rebellion of the Hat-Swains--Peace
+ with Denmark--Erling made Earl of Viken--Harald Sigurdson
+ Beheaded--Eystein Meyla--The Birchlegs--Eystein killed--The Youth of
+ Sverre Sigurdson--Sverre Proclaimed King at the Oere-Thing--Battle
+ at Kalveskindet--The fall of Erling Skakke--Battle of the
+ Ilevolds--Battle at Nordnes--Erik Sigurdson (King's-son)--Battle of
+ Fimreite--Fall of King Magnus                                       163
+
+
+ CHAPTER XXVIII
+
+ SVERRE SIGURDSON (1184-1202)
+
+ Sverre appoints Lawmen and Prefects--A new Pretender--The Kuvlung
+ Party--The Varbelgs--Rebellion of the Oyskeggs--Battle of
+ Florevaag--Sverre's Struggle with the Hierarchy--Bishop Nicholas
+ Arneson--Sverre Excommunicated--Sverre Crowned in Bergen--Organization
+ of the Bagler Party--Burning of Bergen--Papal Interdict against
+ Norway--The Baglers Defeated at Strindsö--Uprising in Viken--The
+ Siege at Tunsberg--Sverre's Sickness and Death                      178
+
+
+ CHAPTER XXIX
+
+ HAAKON SVERRESON (1202-1204), GUTHORM SIGURDSON (1204), AND INGE
+ BAARDSON (1204-1217)
+
+ Reconciliation with the Church--Inge Magnusson Killed--Death of
+ King Haakon--Election of Guthorm Sigurdson--The Pretender Erling
+ Steinvegg--Death of Guthorm Sigurdson--Inge Baardson Proclaimed
+ King--Birth of Haakon Haakonson--His Journey across the Mountains
+ --The Baglers visit Nidaros--Death of Erling Steinvegg--Philip made
+ King of the Baglers--Compromise at Hvitings Island--Jealousy of
+ Haakon Galen--Young Haakon Disinherited--Death of King Inge         190
+
+
+ CHAPTER XXX
+
+ HAAKON HAAKONSON THE OLD (1217-1263)
+
+ Haakon Proclaimed King--Earl Skule's Demands--Rebellion of the
+ Slitungs--The Ribbungs--Treachery of Earl Skule--State Meeting in
+ Bergen--King Haakon Married--Death of Bishop Nicholas and Sigurd
+ Ribbung--Skule Raised to the Rank of Duke--Duke Skule Proclaimed
+ King--Battles at Laaka and Oslo--Duke Skule Killed--Coronation of
+ Haakon--King Haakon's Fame Abroad--Expedition to Scotland--Haakon's
+ Death                                                               199
+
+
+ CHAPTER XXXI
+
+ SNORRE STURLASON
+
+ The Family of Snorre Sturlason--The Snorrelaug--Visit to
+ Norway--Snorre Murdered--"The Heimskringla"--"The Edda"             209
+
+
+ CHAPTER XXXII
+
+ MAGNUS LAW-MENDER (1263-1280)
+
+ Peace Concluded with Scotland--Magnus as a Law-Giver--Privileges
+ Granted to the Hanseatic League--The First Nobility--Death of King
+ Magnus                                                              212
+
+
+ CHAPTER XXXIII
+
+ ERIK PRIEST-HATER (1280-1299)
+
+ New Struggle with the Church--War with Denmark--The Peace of
+ Kalmar--Earl Alf Erlingson executed--The Maid from Norway--Death
+ of King Erik                                                        214
+
+
+ CHAPTER XXXIV
+
+ HAAKON V. MAGNUSSON (1299-1319)
+
+ Audun Hugleikson Condemned for Treason--The false "Maid from
+ Norway"--The Peace of Copenhagen, 1309--New Law of Succession--Death
+ of King Haakon                                                      217
+
+
+ CHAPTER XXXV
+
+ MAGNUS ERIKSON SMEK (1319-1374)--HAAKON VI. MAGNUSSON (1355-1380)
+
+ Magnus Smek Becomes King of Norway and Sweden--Erling Vidkunson
+ Appointed Regent--Haakon Magnusson Acknowledged as King of
+ Norway--Battle at Enköping--Death of Magnus--Flood in the Gaula
+ Valley--The Black Death                                             219
+
+
+ CHAPTER XXXVI
+
+ OLAF HAAKONSON THE YOUNG (1381-1387)
+
+ Olaf Becomes King of Denmark and Norway--The first Union with
+ Denmark--A Pretender Executed                                       223
+
+
+ CHAPTER XXXVII
+
+ MARGARET (1387-1389)--ERIK OF POMERANIA (1389-1442)--THE KALMAR UNION
+ (1397)
+
+ Margaret Acknowledged as Ruler of Norway--Erik of Pomerania Chosen as
+ King--The three Countries United--The Kalmar Union--Death of Queen
+ Margaret--The Victualia Brethren--Bergen Plundered--Revolt of Amund
+ Bolt--Erik of Pomerania Deposed in Denmark                          224
+
+
+ CHAPTER XXXVIII
+
+ CHRISTOPHER OF BAVARIA (1442-1448)
+
+ Norway at first Loyal to Erik--Christopher Finally
+ Accepted--Restrictions of the Hansa Privileges                      229
+
+
+ CHAPTER XXXIX
+
+ THE UNION WITH DENMARK--CHRISTIAN I. (1450-1481)
+
+ Christian Elected by one Party and Carl Knutsson by Another--Christian
+ Crowned--Closer Union with Denmark--The first of the Oldenborgs--War
+ with Sweden--War with the Hansa--Christian Pawns the Norwegian
+ Possessions                                                         231
+
+
+ CHAPTER XL
+
+ HANS (1483-1513)
+
+ King Hans Crowned in Throndhjem--The Victory of the
+ Ditmarshers--Revolt of Knut Alfson--Prince Christian as Regent
+ --War with the Hansa Towns                                          235
+
+
+ CHAPTER XLI
+
+ CHRISTIAN II. (1513-1523)
+
+ The Lovely Dyveke and her Mother--The King's Marriage--The Death of
+ Dyveke--Torben Ox Executed--Christian Crowned as King of Sweden--The
+ Carnage of Stockholm--Gustavus Wasa--The Flight of Christian II     239
+
+
+ CHAPTER XLII
+
+ FREDERICK I. (1524-1533)
+
+ Lady Inger of Oestraat--The King's Recess--Attempt of Christian II.
+ to Recover Norway--Christian Imprisoned                             243
+
+
+ CHAPTER XLIII
+
+ INTERREGNUM (1533-1537)
+
+ The Count's Feud--King Christian Recognized--Revolt of the
+ Archbishop--The Flight of Olaf Engelbrektson                        247
+
+
+ CHAPTER XLIV
+
+ CHRISTIAN III. (1537-1559)--THE REFORMATION INTRODUCED
+
+ The Catholic Faith Abolished--The Church Ordinance--Norway declared
+ a Danish Province--Robbing the Norwegian Churches                   250
+
+
+ CHAPTER XLV
+
+ FREDERICK II. (1559-1588)
+
+ The Northern Seven Years' War--Battle of Svarteraa--Throndhjem
+ taken by the Swedes--Burning of Oslo--Sarpsborg Burned--Peace at
+ Stettin--Misrule in Norway--Erik Munk Deposed and Imprisoned--City
+ of Fredericksstad Founded                                           252
+
+
+ CHAPTER XLVI
+
+ CHRISTIAN IV. (1588-1648)
+
+ The Popular King--Frequent Visits to Norway--The Laws Improved--War
+ with Sweden--The Scotch War--Colonel Sinclair Killed--Peace at
+ Knaeröd--The Peace of Lubeck--Second War with Sweden--Peace at
+ Bromsebro--The Hannibal's Feud--The City of Christiania             255
+
+
+ CHAPTER XLVII
+
+ FREDERICK III. (1648-1670)--ABSOLUTISM INTRODUCED (1660)
+
+ The last Royal Charter--War with Sweden--The Krabbe War--Peace at
+ Roskilde--The Peace broken by the Swedish King--Siege of Halden--Peace
+ of Copenhagen--The King's Revolution--Absolutism Introduced--Kort
+ Adeler                                                              261
+
+
+ CHAPTER XLVIII
+
+ CHRISTIAN V. (1670-1699)
+
+ Extravagance at Court--German Manners Introduced--A new
+ Nobility--Peter (Schumacher) Griffenfeld--The Scania War--The
+ Gyldenlöve Feud--A new Code of Laws                                 267
+
+
+ CHAPTER XLIX
+
+ FREDERICK IV. (1699-1730)
+
+ War with the Duke of Holstein--The Great Northern War
+ (1709-1720)--Naval Battle in Kjögebugt--Charles XII. Invades
+ Norway--The Heroic Anna Kolbjörnsdatter--King Charles at
+ Frederickshald--Peter and Hans Kolbjörnson--Peter Wessel
+ Tordenskiold--The Battle of Dynekilen--King Charles XII. Killed
+ before Frederickssteen--The Peace of Fredericksborg--The Sale of
+ Norwegian Church Property--Hans Egede, Greenland's Apostle          272
+
+
+ CHAPTER L
+
+ CHRISTIAN VI. (1730-1746)
+
+ Pietism and Hypocrisy--Confirmation Introduced--Improvement in
+ Popular Education--Famine in Norway--Ludvig Holberg--Erik
+ Pontoppidan                                                         281
+
+
+ CHAPTER LI
+
+ FREDERICK V. (1746-1766)
+
+ More Liberal Christianity--Luxury at Court--An "Extra Tax"--Revolt
+ in Bergen--Promotion of Science and Art                             284
+
+
+ CHAPTER LII
+
+ CHRISTIAN VII. (1766-1808)
+
+ Johan Frederick Struensee--Reforms without Preparation--Struensee
+ Executed--The Guldberg Period--Prosperity in Norway--Crown
+ Prince Frederick as Regent--The Bernstorf Ministry--The "Armed
+ Neutrality"--Naval Battle at Copenhagen, 1801--The Peace of
+ Tilsit--Bombardment of Copenhagen, 1807--The Norwegian
+ "Government Commission"                                             286
+
+
+ CHAPTER LIII
+
+ FREDERICK VI. (1808-1814)
+
+ War with Sweden--Battles at Lier, Toverud, Trangen, and
+ Prestebakke--Armistice, December, 1808--Gustavus IV.
+ Deposed--Christian August becomes Crown Prince of Sweden--Peace
+ of Jönköping--The Society for Norway's Welfare--The University
+ of Norway--Famine and Distress in Norway                            293
+
+
+ CHAPTER LIV
+
+ MARSHAL BERNADOTTE
+
+ Candidates for the Swedish Succession--Baron Mörner goes to
+ Paris--Marshal Bernadotte--Crown Prince Charles John--Rupture with
+ Napoleon--Agreement with Russia--Norway Promised to Sweden--Treaty
+ of Kiel--Norway ceded to the Swedish King                           298
+
+
+ CHAPTER LV
+
+ NORWAY DECLARES HER INDEPENDENCE
+
+ Norwegians Refuse to Recognize the Treaty of Kiel--Christian Frederick
+ as Regent--The Constitutional Convention at Eidsvold--Constitution of
+ May 17, 1814--Christian Frederick elected King of Norway            302
+
+
+ CHAPTER LVI
+
+ WAR WITH SWEDEN--UNION OF NOVEMBER 14, 1814
+
+ The Powers demand Acceptance of the Treaty of Kiel--War breaks
+ out--Surrender of Fredericksstad--Siege of Frederickssteen--The
+ Swedes defeated at Lier and Matrand--Convention at Moss--The
+ Storthing Convened--Christian Frederick Abdicates-Union with Sweden
+ --Charles XIII. elected King of Norway                              306
+
+
+ CHAPTER LVII
+
+ THE UNION WITH SWEDEN
+
+ The Rigsakt of 1815--Charles XIV. John ascends the Throne--Nobility
+ Abolished--The Storthing rejects the King's Propositions--Independence
+ Day--The Storthing Dissolved in 1836--Minister Lövenskiold
+ Impeached--Oscar I. becomes King--Norway gets her own Flag--The
+ German-Danish War--Charles XV.--Norway Prosperous--A Union
+ Committee--Oscar II. ascends the Throne--The Office of Statholder
+ Abolished--Conflict between King and Storthing--Parliamentarism
+ Adopted--The Absolute Veto--The Resolution of June 9, 1880--Selmer
+ Ministry Impeached--The April Ministry--Johan Sverdrup forms
+ a Ministry--Trial by Jury Introduced--Emil Stang--Rector
+ Steen's Ministry--The Consular Question--Stang again--Hagerup's
+ Ministry--Negotiations with Sweden--Steen's Second Ministry--Universal
+ Suffrage--The Norwegian Flag                                        310
+
+
+ CHAPTER LVIII
+
+ NORWEGIAN LITERATURE                                                318
+
+
+ CHAPTER LIX
+
+ THE CONSTITUTION OF NORWAY                                          325
+
+
+
+
+HISTORY OF NORWAY
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+_The Northmen_
+
+
+Norway (in the old Norse language _Noregr_, or _Nord-vegr_, i.e._,
+the North Way), according to archæological explorations, appears to
+have been inhabited long before the historical time. The antiquaries
+maintain that three populations have inhabited the North: a Mongolian
+race and a Celtic race, types of which are to be found in the Finns and
+the Laplanders in the far North, and, finally, a Caucasian race, which
+immigrated from the South and drove out the Celtic and Laplandic races,
+and from which the present inhabitants are descended. The Norwegians,
+or Northmen (Norsemen), belong to a North-Germanic branch of the
+Indo-European race; their nearest kindred are the Swedes, the Danes,
+and the Goths. The original home of the race is supposed to have been
+the mountain region of Balkh, in Western Asia, whence from time to time
+families and tribes migrated in different directions. It is not known
+when the ancestors of the Scandinavian peoples left the original home
+in Asia; but it is probable that their earliest settlements in Norway
+were made in the second century before the Christian era.
+
+The first settlers probably knew little of agriculture, but made
+their living by fishing and hunting. In time, however, they commenced
+to clear away the timber that covered the land in the valleys and
+the sides of the mountains and to till the ground. At the earliest
+times of which the historical tales or _Sagas_ tell us anything with
+regard to the social conditions, the land was divided among the free
+peasant-proprietors, or _bonde_ class. Bonde, in English translation,
+is usually called peasant; but this is not an equivalent; for with the
+word peasant we associate the idea of inferior social condition to
+the landed aristocracy of the country, while these peasants or bondes
+were themselves the highest class in the country. The land owned by a
+peasant was called his _udal_. By udal-right the land was kept in the
+family, and it could not be alienated or forfeited from the kindred
+who were udal-born to it. The free peasants might own many thralls or
+slaves, who were unfree men. These were mostly prisoners captured by
+the vikings on their expeditions to foreign shores; the owners could
+trade them away, or sell them, or even kill them without paying any
+fine or _man-bote_ to the king, as in the case of the killing of a free
+man. As a rule, however, the slaves were not badly treated, and they
+were sometimes made free and given the right to acquire land.
+
+In early days Norway consisted of a great number of small states called
+_Fylkis_, each a little kingdom by itself. The free peasants in a
+Fylki held general assemblies called _Things_, where laws were made
+and justice administered. No public acts were undertaken without the
+deliberation of a Thing. The _Thing_ was sacred, and a breach of peace
+at the _thing_-place was considered a great crime. At the Thing there
+was also a hallowed place for the judges, or "lag-men," who expounded
+and administered the laws made by the Thing. Almost every crime could
+be expiated by the payment of fines, even if the accused had killed
+a person. But if a man killed another secretly, he was declared an
+assassin and an outlaw, was deprived of all his property, and could
+be killed by any one who wished to do so. The fine or man-bote was
+heavier, the higher the rank of the person killed. For a thrall or
+slave no man-bote was paid.
+
+The _Thing_ or _Fylkis Thing_ was not made up of representatives
+elected by the people, but was rather a primary assembly of the free
+udal-born peasant-proprietors of the district. There were leading men
+in the _fylki_, and each _fylki_ had one or more chiefs, but they had
+to plead at the _Thing_ like other free men. When there were several
+chiefs, they usually had the title of _herse_; but when the free men
+had agreed upon one chief, he was called _jarl_ (earl), or king.
+The king was the commander in war, and usually performed judicial
+functions; but he supported himself from his own estates, and the free
+peasants paid no tax. The dignity of the king was usually inherited
+by his son, but if the heir was not to the liking of the peasants
+or people, they chose another. No man, however clear his right of
+succession, would think of assuming the title or power of a king except
+by the vote of a Thing. There he was presented to the people by a free
+peasant, and his right must be confirmed by the Thing before he could
+exert any act of kingly power. The king had a number of free men in his
+service, who had sworn allegiance to him, and who served him in war and
+in peace. They were armed men, kept in pay, and were called _hird-men_
+or court-men, because they were members of the king's _hird_ or court.
+If they were brave and faithful, they were often given high positions
+of trust; some were made _lendermen_ (liegemen), or managers of the
+king's estates.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+_The Religion of the Northmen_
+
+
+The religion of the ancient Norwegians was of the same origin as that
+of all the other Germanic nations, and its main features will be given
+in this chapter.
+
+In the beginning of time there were two worlds; in the south was
+Muspelheim, luminous and flaming, with Surt as a ruler. In the north
+was Niflheim, cold and dark, with the spring Hvergelmer, where the
+dragon Nidhugger dwells. Between these worlds was the yawning abyss
+Ginungagap. From the spring Hvergelmer ran icy streams into the
+Ginungagap. The hoar-frost from these streams was met by sparks
+from Muspelheim, and by the power of the heat the vapors were given
+life in the form of the Yotun or giant Ymer and the cow Audhumbla,
+on whose milk he lives. From Ymer descends the evil race of Yotuns
+or frost-giants. As the cow licked the briny hoar-frost, the large,
+handsome and powerful Bure came into being. His son was Bur, who
+married a daughter of a Yotun and became the father of _Odin_, Vile,
+and Ve. Odin became the father of the kind and fair _Æsir_, the gods
+who rule heaven and earth.
+
+Bur's sons killed Ymer, and in his blood the whole race of Yotuns
+drowned except one couple, from whom new races of Yotuns or giants
+descended. Bur's sons dragged the body of Ymer into the middle of
+Ginungagap. Out of the trunk of the body they made the earth and of his
+blood the sea. His bones became the mountains, and of his hair they
+made trees. From the skull they made the heavens, which they elevated
+high above the earth and decorated with sparks from Muspelheim. But
+his brain was scattered in the air and became clouds. Around the earth
+they let the deep waters flow, and on the distant shores the escaped
+Yotuns took up their abode in Yotunheim and in Utgard. For protection
+against them the kind gods made from Ymer's eyebrows the fortification
+Midgard as a defence for the inner earth. But from heaven to earth they
+suspended the quivering bridge called Bifrost, or the rainbow.
+
+The Yotun woman Night, black and dark as her race, met Delling (the
+Dawn) of the Æsir race, and with him became the mother of Day, who
+was bright and fair as his father. Odin placed mother and son in the
+heavens and bid them each in turn ride over the earth. Night rides
+ahead with her horse Hrimfaxe, from whose foaming bit the earth is
+every morning covered with dew. Day follows with his horse Skinfaxe,
+whose radiant mane spreads light and air over the earth.
+
+A great number of maggots were bred in Ymer's body, and they became
+gnomes or dwarfs, little beings whom the gods gave human sense
+and appearance. They lived within the mountains and were skilful
+metal-workers, but they could not endure the light of day. Four dwarfs,
+the East, West, North, and South, were placed by the gods to carry the
+arch of heaven.
+
+As yet there were no human beings on earth. Then, one day, the three
+gods, Odin, Hoener, and Lodur, were walking on the shore of the sea,
+where they found two trees, and from them they made the first man and
+the first woman, Ask and Embla (ash and elm). Odin gave them life,
+Hoener reason, Lodur blood and fair complexion. The gods gave them
+Midgard for a home, and from them the whole human race is descended.
+
+The ever green ash tree Ygdrasil is the finest of all trees. It shoots
+up from three roots. One of them is in the well Hvergelmer in Niflheim,
+and on this the dragon Nidhugger is gnawing. The other root is in
+Yotunheim, in the wise Yotun Mimer's fountain. One of Odin's eyes,
+which he pledged for a drink of the fountain, is kept here. Whoever
+drinks of this fountain becomes wise. The third root is in heaven,
+at the Urdar well, where the gods hold their Thing or court. To this
+place they ride daily over the bridge Bifrost. Here also the three
+Norns abide, the maidens Urd, Verdande, and Skuld (past, present, and
+future). They pour water from the well over the roots of the tree. The
+Norns distribute life and govern fate, and nothing can change their
+decision.
+
+The dwelling in heaven of the _Æsir_ or gods is called Asgard. In its
+middle was the field of Ida, the gathering place of the gods, with
+Odin's throne, Lidskialv, from which he views the whole world. Odin
+is the highest and the oldest of the gods, and all the others honor
+him as their father. Odin's hall is Valhalla. The ceiling of this hall
+is made of spears, it is covered with shields, and its benches are
+ornamented with coats of mail. To this place Odin invites all who have
+fallen in battle, and he is therefore called Valfather, _i.e._, the
+father of the fallen. The invited fallen heroes are called _Einherier_;
+their sport and pastime is to go out every day and fight and kill each
+other; but toward evening they awake to life again and ride home as
+friends to Valhalla, where they feast on pork of the barrow Særimner,
+and where Odin's maidens, the Valkyrias, fill their horns with mead.
+These Valkyrias were sent by Odin to all battles on earth, where they
+selected those who were to be slain and afterward become the honored
+guests at Valhalla. At Odin's side sit the two wolves, Gere and Freke,
+and on his shoulders the ravens Hugin and Munin. These ravens fly forth
+every morning and return with tidings from all parts of the world.
+Odin's horse is the swift, gray, eight-footed Sleipner. When he rides
+to battle he wears a golden helmet, a beautiful coat of mail, and
+carries the spear Gungner, which never fails. Odin is also the god
+of wisdom and poesy; in the morning of time he deposited one of his
+eyes in pledge for a drink of Mimer's fountain of wisdom, and he drank
+Suttung's mead in order to gain the gift of poesy. He has also taught
+men the art of writing Runes and all secret arts.
+
+Thor, the son of Odin, is the strongest of all the gods. His dwelling
+is called Thrudvang. He rides across the heavens in a cart drawn by two
+rams. He is always at war with the Yotuns or evil giants, and in battle
+with them he uses his great hammer, Mjolner, which he hurls at the
+heads of his enemies. The earth trembles under the wheels of his cart,
+and men call the noise thunder. Thor's wife is Sif, whose hair is of
+gold.
+
+Balder is a son of Odin and Frigg. He is so fair that his countenance
+emits beams of brightness. He is wise and gentle, and is therefore
+loved by all. His dwelling is Breidablik, where nothing impure exists.
+Nanna is his wife.
+
+Njord comes from the race of the wise Vanir. He rules the wind, can
+calm the sea and stop fire, and he distributes wealth among men. His
+aid is invoked for success in navigation and fishing. His wife is
+Skade, daughter of a Yotun, and his dwelling is Noatun by the sea.
+
+Frey, the son of Njord, rules rain and sunshine and the productiveness
+of the soil, and his aid is needed to get good crops, peace, and
+wealth. His dwelling is Alfheim. He sails in the magnificent ship
+"Skibladner," which was built for him by the dwarfs. His wife is the
+Yotun daughter Gerd, but in order to get her he had to give away his
+good sword, so that he will be unarmed in the coming final battle of
+the gods.
+
+Tyr, Odin's son, is the god of courage and victory, whom brave men call
+upon in battle. He has only one hand, for the Fenris-Wolf bit off his
+right hand.
+
+Brage, the long-bearded, is the god of eloquence and poetry. His wife
+is Idun, who has in her keeping the apples of which the gods eat to
+preserve their eternal youth.
+
+Heimdal, the white god with teeth of gold, was in the beginning of time
+born by nine Yotun maidens, all sisters. He is the watchman of the
+gods. He is more wakeful than birds. He can see a hundred miles off,
+and he can hear the grass grow. His dwelling is Himinbjorg, which is
+situated where the Bifrost bridge reaches heaven. When he blows his
+Gjallar-horn it is heard throughout the world.
+
+Among the other gods were Haad, son of Odin, blind but strong; the
+silent and strong Vidar; Vale, the archer; Ull, the fast ski-runner,
+and Forsete, the son of Balder, who settles disputes between gods and
+men.
+
+Among the goddesses (or _asynier_), Frigg, Odin's wife, is the
+foremost. She knows the fate of everybody and shields many from danger.
+Her dwelling is Fensal. Next comes Freya, the goddess of love. She is
+the daughter of Njord and sister of Frey. She is also called Vanadis,
+or the goddess of the Vanir. She was married to Odd, and by him had a
+daughter, Noss. But Odd left her, and Freya weeps in her longing for
+him, and her tears are red gold. When she travels her wagon is drawn
+by two cats. The name of her dwelling is Folkvang. There were also a
+number of other goddesses, who were in the service of either Frigg or
+Freya.
+
+Æger, the ruler of the turbulent and stormy sea, is a Yotun, but he
+is a friend of the gods. When they visit him his hall is lighted with
+shining gold. His wife is Ran, and their daughters are the waves.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+In the beginning there was peace among gods and men. But the arrival
+of the Yotun women in Asgard undermined the happiness of the gods, and
+in heaven and on earth a struggle commenced which must last until both
+are destroyed. The Yotuns continually attack the inhabitants of Asgard,
+and it is only the mighty Thor who can hold them at bay. It is the evil
+Loke, who is the worst enemy of gods and men. He belongs to the Yotun
+race, but was early adopted among the gods. He was fair in looks, but
+wily and evil in spirit. He had three evil children--the Fenris-Wolf,
+the Midgard-Serpent, and Hel. The gods knew that this offspring of Loke
+would cause great trouble; therefore they tied the Fenris-Wolf, threw
+the serpent into the sea, and hurled Hel down into Niflheim, where she
+became the ruler of the dead. All who die from sickness or age are sent
+to her awful dwelling, Helheim.
+
+The greatest sorrow which Loke caused the whole world was that by his
+deceit he caused the death of the lovely god, Balder. Then the gods
+took an awful revenge. They tied him to three stones, and over his head
+they fastened a venomous serpent, whose poison always was to drip upon
+his face. Loke's faithful wife, Sigyn, placed herself at his side and
+held a cup under the poisonous drip; but whenever the cup is full and
+she goes to empty it, the poison drips into Loke's face, and then he
+writhes in agony so that the whole world trembles. This is the cause of
+earthquakes.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+There will come a time when these gods and the world shall perish in
+_Ragnarokk_, which means the perdition of the gods. They will have many
+warnings. Corruption and wickedness will be common in the world. For
+three years there will be winter without sun. The sun and the moon will
+be swallowed up by the wolves of the Yotuns, and the bright stars will
+disappear. The earth will tremble, and the mountains will collapse, and
+all chains and ties are sundered. The Fenris-Wolf and Loke get loose,
+and the Midgard-Serpent leaves the ocean. The ship "Naglfar" carries
+the army of the Yotuns across the sea under the leadership of the Yotun
+_Rym_, and Loke advances at the head of the hosts from the abode of
+Hel. The heavens split, and the sons of Muspel come riding ahead, led
+by their chief Surt. As the hosts are rushing across the Bifrost, the
+bridge breaks behind them. All are hastening to the great battle-place,
+the plains of _Vigrid_, which is a hundred miles wide. Now Heimdal
+arises and blows his Gjallar-horn, all the gods are assembled, the ash
+Ygdrasil trembles, and everything in heaven and on earth is filled with
+terror. Gods and Einherier (the fallen heroes) arm themselves for the
+battle. In the front rides Odin with his golden helmet and beaming coat
+of mail and carrying his spear, Gungner. He meets the Fenris-Wolf, who
+swallows him, but Vidar avenges his father and kills the wolf. Thor
+crushes the head of the Midgard-Serpent, but is stifled to death by its
+venom. Frey is felled by Surt, and Loke and Heimdal kill each other.
+Finally Surt hurls his fire over the world, gods and men die, and the
+shrivelling earth sinks into the abyss.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+But the world shall arise again and the dead come to life. From above
+comes the all-powerful one, he who rules everything, and whose name no
+one dares utter. All those who were virtuous and pure of heart will
+gather in _Gimle_ in everlasting happiness, while the evil ones will go
+to Naastrand at the well Hvergelmer to tie tortured by Nidhugger. A new
+earth, green and beautiful, shall rise from the ocean. The gods awake
+to new life and join _Vidar_ and _Vale_, and the sons of Thor, Mode and
+Magne, who have survived the great destruction and who have been given
+their father's hammer, because there is to be no more war. All the gods
+assemble on the field of Ida, where Asgard was located. And from _Liv_
+and _Livthraser_, who hid themselves in Ygdrasil during the burning of
+the world, a new human race shall descend.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+_The Viking Age_
+
+
+It is but natural that the ancient Norwegians should become warlike
+and brave men, since their firm religious belief was that those who
+died of sickness or old age would sink down into the dark abode of
+Hel (Helheim), and that only the brave men who fell in battle would
+be invited to the feasts in Odin's Hall. Sometimes the earls or kings
+would make war on their neighbors, either for conquest or for revenge.
+But a time came when the countries of the north with their poorly
+developed resources became overpopulated, and the warriors had to seek
+better fields abroad. The viking cruises commenced, and for a long time
+the Norwegians continued to harry the coasts of Europe.
+
+At first the viking expeditions were nothing but piracy, carried on
+for a livelihood. The name Viking is supposed to be derived from the
+word _vik_, a cove or inlet on the coast, in which they would harbor
+with their ships and lie in wait for merchants sailing by. Soon
+these expeditions assumed a wider range and a wilder character, and
+historians of the time paint the horrors spread by the vikings in dark
+colors. In the English churches they had a day of prayer each week to
+invoke the aid of heaven against the harrying Northmen. In France the
+following formula was inserted in the church prayer: "_A furore Norman
+norum libera nos, o Domine!_" (Free us, O Lord, from the fury of the
+Northmen!)
+
+Gradually the viking life assumed a nobler form. There appear to be
+three stages or periods in the viking age. In the first one the vikings
+make casual visits with single ships to the shores of England, Ireland,
+France or Flanders, and when they have plundered a town or a convent
+they return to their ships and sail away. In the second period their
+cruises assume a more regular character, and indicate some definite
+plan, as they take possession of certain points, where they winter,
+and from where they command the surrounding country. During the third
+period they no longer confine themselves to seeking booty, but act as
+real conquerors, take possession of the conquered territory and rule it.
+
+In the latter part of the eighth century the vikings first found their
+way across the North Sea to the islands north of Scotland. In 787
+they landed for the first time on the British coast. In that year it
+is recorded in the English annals that Norwegians came in three ships
+and committed great ravages on the coasts of Wessex. Six years later
+they attacked Northumberland, where they caused even greater ruin.
+They especially plundered churches and cloisters. Soon they extended
+their plundering expeditions to the northern coast of France, where
+the powerful emperor Charlemagne was then the ruler. They made only
+small progress as long as he lived, but during the reigns of his weak
+successors they made havoc along the coasts of France, and also forced
+the Straits of Gibraltar and made unwelcome visits to the countries
+on the Mediterranean. Some of the French kings knew no better remedy
+than to pay the vikings great sums of money to keep them away from the
+country. Thus King Charles the Baldheaded paid in the year 846 a sum of
+7,000 pounds of silver, and in 877 a further sum of 5,000 pounds, for
+this purpose.
+
+The Northmen, by their viking expeditions, early took possession of the
+Orkneys, the Shetland Islands, the Hebrides and the Faroe Islands. In
+going westward to these islands they were sometimes driven out of their
+course, and thus Nadodd, who was on his way to the Faroe Islands, was
+driven far to the north and northwest and found a large uninhabited
+country, which was afterward called Iceland.
+
+The vikings often came to Ireland, and about the year 837 they
+succeeded, under the leadership of the chieftain Thorgeisl, in
+establishing a kingdom at Dublin, which they strongly fortified.
+Thorgeisl appears to have ruled in Ireland until about 846, when he was
+drowned. A more permanent kingdom was established by Olaf the White,
+who took possession of Dublin and the surrounding country in 852. The
+dominion in Dublin of the Norwegians is supposed to have lasted for
+three and a half centuries.
+
+As to the influence of the Northmen on the development of the countries
+visited by them during the later Viking periods, the eminent English
+writer Samuel Laing, the translator of the "Heimskringla," or the Sagas
+of the Norse kings, says:
+
+"All that men hope for of good government and future improvement in
+their physical and moral condition--all that civilized men enjoy
+at this day of civil, religious and political liberty--the British
+constitution, representative legislation, the trial by jury, security
+of property, freedom of mind and person, the influence of public
+opinion over the conduct of public affairs, the Reformation, the
+liberty of the press, the spirit of the age--all that is or has been of
+value to man in modern times as a member of society, either in Europe
+or in the New World, may be traced to the spark left burning upon our
+shores by these northern barbarians."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+_The Yngling Family--Halfdan the Swarthy_
+
+
+The authentic history begins with Halfdan the Swarthy, or Halfdan
+the Black, who reigned from about the year 821 to about 860. The
+Icelander Snorre Sturlason, who, in the twelfth century, wrote the
+"Heimskringla," or the Sagas of the Norse Kings, gives a long line of
+preceding kings of the Yngling race, the royal family to which Halfdan
+the Swarthy belonged; but that part of the Saga belongs to mythology
+rather than to history.
+
+According to tradition the Yngling family were descendants of Fiolner,
+the son of the god Frey. One of the surnames of the god was Yngve, from
+which the family derived the name Ynglings. Their original home is said
+to have been Upsala in Sweden, but they were driven away on account
+of their cruelty. One of them, whose name was Olaf, emigrated with
+his followers to Vermeland, which he made habitable by cleaning away
+a great deal of the timber. Hence he was called Olaf the Tree-feller
+(Tre-telgja). His son, Halfdan Whiteleg (Hvitbein), conquered Romerike
+and other Norwegian districts, and Halfdan's son also became king of
+Vestfold, or the country west of the Folden, the bay now called the
+Christiania Fjord. Vestfold now became the most important part of the
+country. In the neighborhood of the present town of Laurvik a famous
+temple was founded in Skirings-sal, where the kings often resided, and
+which soon became a popular trading place.
+
+Halfdan Whiteleg's grandson, Gudrod the Hunter, made war on Harald
+Redbeard, who was king of Agder, the southwestern part of Norway. He
+killed Harald and his son Gyrd, and took a great booty. He afterward
+married Harald's daughter, Asa.
+
+Gudrod's son, Halfdan, surnamed the Swarthy, was only a year old when
+his father was killed, and his mother Asa then returned with him to
+Agder, where he grew up and became stout and strong. At the age of
+eighteen he became king in Agder, and soon afterward went to Vestfold,
+where he divided that kingdom with his brother Olaf. Halfdan increased
+his possessions, both by marriage and by warfare, until he ruled over
+the whole country around the Christiania Fjord, Thoten, Land, Hadeland,
+Romerike and Sogn. King Halfdan was a wise man, a lover of truth and
+justice. He made good laws, which he observed himself and compelled
+others to observe. He fixed certain mulcts, or penalties, for all
+crimes committed. His code of laws, called the Eidsiva Law, was adopted
+at a common Thing at Eidsvold, where about a thousand years later the
+present constitution of Norway was adopted.
+
+Halfdan became the ancestor of the royal race of Norway, his son,
+Harald the Fairhaired, being the first king of united Norway. According
+to tradition, when Queen Ragnhild was with child she dreamed that
+she was standing in her herb-garden, and she took a thorn out of her
+chemise, and while she was holding it in her hand it grew into a great
+tree, one end of which struck roots into the earth, while the other
+raised itself in the air until she could hardly see the top or the end
+of its widely spread branches. The lower part of the tree was red with
+blood, but the stem was beautifully green, and the branches white as
+snow, and they spread over all Norway, and even much more. This dream
+was years afterward interpreted as having foretold the destiny of
+Ragnhild's son.
+
+One day in the spring of 860, when Halfdan the Swarthy was driving home
+from a feast across the Randsfjord, he broke through the ice and was
+drowned. He was so popular that when his body was found the leading
+men in each _Fylki_ demanded to have him buried with them, believing
+that it would bring prosperity to the district. They at last agreed to
+divide the body into four parts, which were buried in four different
+districts. The trunk of the body was buried in a mound at Stein,
+Ringerike, where a little hill is still called Halfdan's Mound.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+_Harald the Fairhaired (860-930)--Norway United_
+
+
+Harald was only ten years old when he succeeded his father. Many of
+the chiefs thought that it would be an easy matter now to divide the
+country between them, but Guthorm, a brother of Harald's mother, who
+was at the head of the government and commander of the army, soon
+subdued them.
+
+When Harald had become old enough to marry, he sent his men to a girl
+named Gyda, a daughter of King Erik of Hordaland, who was brought up
+as a foster-child in the house of a rich _Bonde_ in Valders. Harald
+had heard of her as a very beautiful though proud girl. When the men
+delivered their message, she answered that she would not marry a king
+who had no greater kingdom than a few _Fylkis_ (districts), and she
+added that she thought it strange "that no king here in Norway will
+make the whole country subject to him, in the same way as Gorm the Old
+did in Denmark, or Erik at Upsala." When the messengers returned to the
+king, they advised him to punish her for her haughty words, but Harald
+said she had spoken well, and he made the solemn vow not to cut or comb
+his hair until he had subdued the whole of Norway and had become the
+sole king.
+
+Harald immediately gathered an army and went northward over the Dovre
+Mountain, and after several battles conquered the whole of Trondelag,
+the common name of all the districts about the Throndhjem (Drontheim)
+Fjord. Here he procured ships, sailed southward along the coast and
+conquered one district after another in the western part of the
+country. Finally, the remaining kings gathered their men and ships and
+met Harald in naval battle in Hafrsfjord, a little inlet in Jæderen,
+near the present city of Stavanger. The battle was fierce and long,
+but Harald finally gained the day. After this battle, which occurred
+in 872, King Harald met no opposition, and was acknowledged as king of
+the whole of Norway. Shortly after the battle the king attended a feast
+given by Ragnvald, the Earl of More (Morejarl), and the latter cut the
+king's hair, which had not been cut or combed for ten years, and gave
+him the surname, the Fairhaired. Harald shortly afterward married Gyda.
+
+King Harald deprived the peasant-proprietors of their allodium or
+udal-right, and compelled them to pay land dues of their possessions.
+Over every _Fylki_ or district he placed an earl (_jarl_), who was
+to administer justice and collect the taxes, of which he retained
+one-third as salary. In case of war the earl was to serve the king with
+sixty warriors. Each earl had under him four _herses_, each of whom had
+a royal estate of twenty marks annual income to manage, and was bound
+to support twenty men-at-arms.
+
+Many of the proud peasants objected to the rule of Harald and to the
+payment of taxes. They wanted to be independent, as before, and left
+the country. Many of them settled on the Faroe Islands and the Scotch
+islands, and in the summer they would make viking cruises and harry the
+coasts of Norway to revenge themselves on the king. To stop this Harald
+sailed westward one summer with a fleet, fought the vikings and took
+possession of Shetland and the Orkney Islands, and placed an earl in
+charge of them. Many of the fleeing Northmen then sailed northward with
+their goods and men and settled in _Iceland_, where they established a
+free state, which existed for nearly 400 years.
+
+Earl Ragnvald (Morejarl) was King Harald's dearest friend, and the king
+had great regard for him, but he did not allow that to excuse a crime
+committed by his son. Ragnvald had a son by the name of Rolf, who was
+so stout and strong that no horse could carry him, and therefore he was
+called Gange-Rolf, or Rolf the Walker. He went early on viking cruises
+to the shores of the Baltic Sea. One summer, on his return from one of
+his expeditions, he made _strand-hug_ in Viken. (Strand-hug was a foray
+for cattle to provision the viking ships.) Harald had declared this a
+great crime, and when he heard what Rolf had done, he called an extra
+session of the Thing, and had Rolf declared an outlaw in all Norway.
+Gange-Rolf, however, did not remain in Norway, but sailed westward
+to the Sudreys, the present Hebrides, and afterward joined the army
+of vikings, which, in the year 885, went to France and plundered the
+country around Paris and the province of Bourgogne. The Frenchmen made
+a compromise with the vikings, and for some years they spared the
+French coasts, but later Gange-Rolf returned with a great number of
+vikings, and finally compelled the French king, Charles the Simple, by
+the peace of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte to cede to him and his successors a
+large province, which he peopled with Northmen, and which, therefore,
+was afterward called Normandy. The French king also promised to let
+him marry his daughter Gizela if he would adopt Christianity. This
+Rolf agreed to, and he was baptized in the year 912, being christened
+Robert. He ruled his new country well, and died in the year 931. From
+him descended the mighty earls of Normandy, who in time conquered the
+kingdoms of England and Naples.
+
+King Harald had many sons, and as they grew up they created a great
+deal of disturbance in the country. They had come from such different
+stock on the maternal side, and had been brought up so far from
+each other by rich peasants in different parts of the country, that
+brotherly feelings were little known to them. They became jealous of
+each other, and also jealous of the many mighty earls. They drove some
+of the earls from their estates, and even killed some of them. Thus
+two of the brothers set out one spring with a great force to attack
+Ragnvald, Earl of More, surrounded his house and burned him with sixty
+of his men.
+
+Hoping to avoid further domestic disturbances, Harald called together a
+_Thing_ at the Eidsiva Thing-place (the present Eidsvold), and summoned
+to it all the people of the Uplands. Here he gave to all his sons the
+title of king, and proclaimed a law that his descendants in the male
+line should each succeed to the title and dignity of king; but his
+descendants by the female side were to become only earls. He divided
+the country among his sons, but his dearest son, Erik, who was his son
+by the Danish Princess Ragnhild, and thus of royal birth on both sides,
+was to be acknowledged as their overlord. This the other brothers
+did not like, and the result was bloody conflicts. Erik first killed
+Ragnvald Rettilbeine, the ruler in Hadeland, because he was said to be
+a sorcerer. Next he attacked his brother Biorn, who generally lived at
+the trading-place Tunsberg, and who was called Biorn Farmand, or Biorn
+the Merchant, because he cared little for war, but more for trading
+expeditions. As he refused to pay tribute to Erik, the latter attacked
+and killed him, and plundered his house. King Biorn lies buried in the
+Seaman's Mound (Farmandshaugen) at Sæheim (in the present Sem's parish)
+in Jarlsberg. Halfdan the Black, who ruled in Throndhjem, resolved to
+avenge his brother Biorn's death, and collected a great force of men
+and ships. Erik sought the aid of his father Harald, who also equipped
+a fleet and took up a position at Rein-plain on the north side of the
+Throndhjem Fjord; but now friends of both interceded in order to bring
+about a reconciliation. In Halfdan's army there was a clever man called
+Guthorm Sindre, who had formerly been in the service of Harald, and
+was a great friend of both. He was a great skald (poet), and had once
+composed songs about the father and the son, for which they had then
+offered him a reward. He would take nothing at the time, but was given
+the promise that, some day or other, they should grant him any request
+he should make. He now went before King Harald with words of peace,
+and made the request that the kings should become reconciled. And the
+Saga adds: "So highly did the king esteem him that, in consequence of
+his request, they were reconciled."
+
+When Harald the Fairhaired was eighty years old, he became very weak
+and unable to bear the burden of the government. Then he brought his
+son Erik to his royal high-seat and gave him the power and the command
+over the whole land (930). Three years later King Harald died of old
+age. He was buried under a mound at Hauge, near Haugesund in Ryfylke.
+The gravestone is still to be seen. At the grave a large monument in
+memory of Harald was erected in 1872, one thousand years after the
+battle of Hafrsfjord.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+_Birth of Haakon the Good--Erik Blood-Axe (930-935)_
+
+
+When Harald the Fairhaired was nearly seventy years old, he begat a
+son by Thora Moster-stang (Moster-pole). She was so called because she
+was tall, and her family came from the island of Moster. She was very
+handsome, and was descended from good people, but was called the king's
+servant-girl, for at that time, as the Saga says, "many were subject
+to service to the king who were of good birth, both men and women."
+Sigurd Ladejarl, or Earl of Lade (near Throndhjem), was a friend of
+Thora's family, and when she was about to be confined he brought her in
+his ship from Moster northward to Sæheim, where King Harald was then
+living. They spent the night at the shore south of the Alv-island, and
+here Thora bore her child, on a stone near the ship's gangway. It was
+a male child, and Earl Sigurd baptized him in heathen fashion, and
+called him Haakon after his own father. The boy soon grew handsome,
+large in size, and very like his father King Harald. When the king
+felt that he was not going to live much longer, he sent Haakon over to
+England to be brought up by the English king, Athelstan, the grandson
+of Alfred the Great. King Athelstan had Haakon baptized and brought up
+in the Christian faith, and in good habits and all sorts of exercises,
+and it is said he loved Haakon above all his relations. He gave him a
+sword, of which the hilt and handle were gold; but the blade was still
+better, for with it Haakon cut a millstone to the centre eye. The sword
+was thereafter called Kvernbite (millstone cutter), and Haakon carried
+it to his dying day.
+
+As stated, Erik was proclaimed king by his father in 930. Erik had
+early gone out on viking expeditions, and his daring enterprises had
+given him the surname Blood-Axe. He was handsome and manly-looking,
+but morally weak. He was hated during his father's lifetime, because
+he had killed his brother Biorn the Merchant; but still more hated was
+his cruel and treacherous queen, Gunhild. She enticed him into killing
+several of his brothers, and it began to be the common belief that
+Gunhild and Erik were going to remove all his brothers, in order to
+secure the whole of the kingdom for themselves and their children. This
+plan, however, was frustrated by Haakon, the youngest son of Harald.
+
+When Haakon, Athelstan's foster-son, heard of his father's death, he
+immediately prepared to leave England, and was given men and ships
+by King Athelstan. He sailed north to Tröndelagen, where he found
+the mighty Sigurd, Earl of Lade, who had been his mother's friend and
+his guardian in early childhood. Sigurd received him well, and Haakon
+promised him great power if he became king. They assembled a great
+meeting of the peasants, where Earl Sigurd made a speech and advised
+the people to make Haakon their king. Thereupon Haakon arose and made
+a speech, which greatly pleased the peasants. They said to each other
+that it looked as if Harald the Fairhaired had come back and had become
+young again. Haakon promised, in case they would make him their king,
+to give them back the udal-right (allodium), which Harald had taken
+from them. His speech was so well received that the people cheered
+wildly, and with great enthusiasm they proclaimed him their king. He
+immediately started southward, and the other districts followed the
+example of Tröndelagen and swore allegiance to Haakon.
+
+Erik made a desperate attempt to raise an army, but not succeeding,
+he had to leave the country with his wife Gunhild, his children,
+and a few followers (935). For some time he harried the coasts of
+Scotland and England as a viking, until finally he accepted a portion
+of Northumberland from King Athelstan on the condition that he was to
+defend the country against Norwegian and Danish vikings. Erik remained
+in England under shifting conditions, until he was killed in a battle
+in 954. After his death Queen Gunhild had a poem written in his honor,
+the so-called Eriksmál, of which a beautiful fragment still exists.
+Shortly after Erik's death Queen Gunhild went to Denmark with her sons,
+and was well received by the Danish king, Harald Bluetooth (Blaatand),
+the son of Gorm the Old. The children of Erik Blood-Axe and Gunhild
+were: Gamle, Guthorm, Harald, Ragnfred, Ragnhild, Erling, Gudrod, and
+Sigurd Sleva. All the boys were handsome and of manly appearance, but
+in character they resembled their mother.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+_Haakon the Good (935-961)_
+
+
+Haakon did a great deal to improve the internal conditions of
+the country. He regulated the judicial districts, and gave the
+Gulathings-law for the western district, with common Thing-place
+at Gula (in Ytre Sogn), and the Frostathings-law for the northern
+district, with common Thing-place at Frosten (peninsula in
+Throndhjems-fjord). Much was done for the defence of the country
+against enemies. The whole coast was divided into _Skibredes_, or
+ship districts, each of which was to build, equip, man, and provision
+a ship for use in case of war. In order to inform the inhabitants of
+the approach of an enemy, King Haakon built _Varder_, or signal fires,
+on the highest mountains at proper distances from each other. By the
+successive lighting of these signal fires the news of war could be
+carried from the southernmost signal-place to the northern end of
+Halogaland in seven days. Warning was also to be sent around from house
+to house by _Budstikke_ as a signal for the people to assemble. The
+_Budstikke_ was a stick of wood like a very heavy cane, with a spike
+at the end of it. If the bearer of the message found nobody at home,
+he would stick the cane on the side of the door, and the owner of the
+house would, on his arrival home, immediately despatch it to the next
+house.
+
+King Haakon, who had been brought up in the Christian faith, resolved
+to introduce Christianity in Norway, but when he took the preliminary
+steps he found no support from his otherwise faithful friend, Earl
+Sigurd of Lade, who was an ardent adherent of the Asa-faith. Fearing
+to offend the earl, Haakon postponed his effort for a time, until he
+thought he had gained sufficient popularity in the country. He then
+sent to England for a bishop and other teachers, and announced that
+it was his intention to have the whole people embrace the Christian
+religion. When he made this announcement to the assembled peasants at
+Throndhjem, they declined to commit themselves, and asked to have this
+very important matter referred to the Frosta-thing, where it could be
+legally settled.
+
+At the Frosta-thing, where a great number of people were assembled,
+King Haakon made an earnest speech, in which he said that it was his
+command and his prayer to all, rich and poor, young and all, that they
+should forsake the old heathen gods, be baptized, and believe in the
+one living God, Jesus Christ, the son of the Virgin Mary, abstain from
+work every seventh day, Sunday, and fast every Friday. A great murmur
+ran through the crowd of peasants, who complained that the king wanted
+to deprive them of their work and their old faith, and the mighty
+peasant, Asbiorn of Medalhus, arose and made a speech to the king, in
+which he said that they had had great faith in him when they chose him
+for their king, but now they had made up their minds to part with him
+and choose another if they were not left free to retain the religion
+they believed in. And the king was told that he must accept one of
+these conditions before the meeting was concluded. The king felt that
+there was no escape but to yield to the peasants, and Earl Sigurd of
+Lade, who had all the time been near the king, arose and said: "King
+Haakon is willing to acquiesce in your wishes, peasants. Never will he
+give up your friendship." Encouraged by this the peasants afterward
+made the king participate in their heathen sacrifices, and the king was
+obliged to give up the attempt to introduce Christianity in Norway.
+
+King Haakon soon afterward had to meet other demands upon him, when
+the southern parts of the country were attacked by the sons of his
+brother Erik, who, after their mother, were called the Gunhild-sons.
+Several times Haakon defeated the invaders, and after one great battle
+they stayed away for six years. Finally, in the twenty-sixth year of
+Haakon's reign, while he and his men were enjoying a feast at Fitje on
+the island Stord in Hordaland, the enemy appeared again with a great
+naval force. Although greatly outnumbered by the enemy, Haakon's men
+won the battle, and the aggressors were obliged to flee to their ships;
+but when Haakon pursued them without his coat of mail, he was hit in
+the armpit by a deadly arrow and received a wound from which he died,
+after being brought, shortly after the battle, to "Haakon's Rock,"
+where he had been born. Before he died he requested his friends to
+send a ship after the sons of Gunhild, with the message asking them to
+return and assume the government, giving due respect to his adherents.
+He himself had no sons, and his daughter Thora could not, according to
+the law, succeed to the throne. Haakon was deeply mourned by friends
+and foes, and all said that Norway would never again get such a good
+king. The poet Eyvind Skaldaspiller composed a poem in his honor,
+the Haakonarmaal, in which he praised his virtues and described his
+reception in Odin's Valhalla.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+_Harald Grayfell and his Brothers (961-970)_
+
+
+The Gunhild-sons (or Eriks-sons) immediately returned to Norway
+when they received the message that Haakon the Good had named them
+as heirs to the throne. The oldest one, Harald Grayfell (Graafeld,
+so named after having once worn a gray fur robe), was considered as
+chief king, but their mother Gunhild was in fact the chief ruler. They
+were penurious and cruel, and soon became widely hated. There were
+many chiefs in the country at that time. Trygve Olafson, a grandson
+of Harald the Fairhaired, ruled in Viken, or the country around the
+Christiania Fjord; his cousin Gudrod, son of Biorn the Merchant, was
+chief in Westfold, and Earl Sigurd of Lade ruled the country around
+Throndhjem. Gunhild's sons at first resided mostly in the middle of the
+country, but soon laid plans to obtain more power. By great promises
+they bribed Griotgard, a brother of Earl Sigurd, to send them word when
+there might be a favorable opportunity to attack and kill the earl.
+This plan succeeded. Having been notified by Griotgard that Earl Sigurd
+was at a feast at Oglo in Stjoradal and had but few men with him, King
+Harald Grayfell and his brother Erling surrounded the house at night,
+set fire to the building, and burned the earl and all his men.
+
+When the people heard of Earl Sigurd's death, there was a great
+uprising. They gathered a large fleet, and, after having proclaimed
+Sigurd's son, Haakon, as their earl and commander-in-chief, they
+steered out of the Throndhjem Fjord, intent upon taking vengeance.
+When Gunhild's sons heard of this, they fled southward to Raumsdal and
+South More. Some time afterward the Gunhild-sons attacked and murdered
+Trygve Olafson, king in Viken, and Gudrod Biornson, king in Westfold.
+Harald Grayfell hastened to Trygve Olafson's home, hoping to be able to
+exterminate the whole race; but Trygve's widow, Astrid, had fled with
+her foster-father, Thorolf Lusarskeg.
+
+Gunhild's sons collected a great army in Viken and sailed northward,
+collecting men and ships on the way from every district for the purpose
+of fighting Earl Haakon. When Earl Haakon heard of this, he also
+collected men and fitted out ships, but when he ascertained the size of
+the approaching fleet, he sailed with a few men south to Denmark, where
+he was well received by King Harald Bluetooth (964). Gunhild's sons
+brought their army north to Throndhjem, and subdued the country and
+collected taxes, of which they had received none while Earl Haakon was
+there.
+
+In Denmark Earl Haakon laid some deep plans to obtain power again. A
+nephew of King Harald Bluetooth, called Gold-Harald, had returned home
+and demanded half of the kingdom. As the king had no desire to yield to
+his demand, but still feared Gold-Harald's influence with the people,
+Earl Haakon advised him to get Norway for his nephew instead. He was
+to invite the Norwegian king, Harald Grayfell, on a friendly visit to
+Denmark, and then have Gold-Harald kill him. Afterward it would be easy
+to take Norway on account of the very hard times prevailing there, and
+the great unpopularity of the Gunhild-sons. The plan was followed; but
+when Gold-Harald had killed Harald Grayfell, he was in turn attacked
+and killed by Earl Haakon. Soon after King Harald Bluetooth sailed for
+Norway with 720 ships. He had with him Earl Haakon, Harald Grenske, a
+son of King Gudrod, and many other great men who had fled from their
+udal estates in Norway on account of Gunhild's sons. They won the
+country without resistance, and King Harald installed Haakon as earl
+of the northern and western parts of the country. The earl was to pay
+certain taxes to the king and help him with armed men in case of war.
+The king retained for himself the country around Viken, and left Harald
+Grenske there as his representative.
+
+The two surviving brothers, Gudrod and Ragnfred, fled with their
+mother, Gunhild, to the Orkneys.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+_Earl Haakon (970-995)_
+
+
+Earl Haakon subdued all those parts of the country belonging to his
+dominion, and remained all winter (970) in Throndhjem. As he proceeded
+along the coast he ordered that in all his dominions the heathen
+temples and sacrifices should be restored, and continued as of old.
+The people thought they soon had proof that the gods were pleased with
+Haakon's action, for, according to the saga, "the first winter that
+Haakon ruled over Norway the herrings set in everywhere through the
+fjords to the land, and the seasons ripened to a good crop all that had
+been sown," while for several years previously dearth and hard times
+had prevailed.
+
+Earl Haakon waited for an opportunity to repudiate his obligations to
+the Danish king, and it came in time. In 973, when Otto II. became
+emperor of Germany, King Harald Bluetooth prepared himself for war in
+order to resist the emperor's claim to sovereignty over Denmark, and
+in 975 he ordered Earl Haakon to come to his aid with all the forces
+it was possible to raise. Haakon complied with the request, and for
+a time successfully fought the Germans. But when he had boarded his
+ships and prepared to sail homeward, the emperor returned for a second
+attack, and soon compelled the Danish king to make peace. King Harald
+Bluetooth agreed to introduce Christianity both in Denmark and in
+Norway. He sent for Earl Haakon and made him accept baptism and promise
+to introduce Christianity in Norway. Priests were sent with him to help
+him with this work. Haakon set sail with the priests on board; but no
+sooner did he get a favorable wind than he put the priests ashore, and
+sailed away. From now on he considered himself the sworn enemy of the
+Danes. He steered through the Sound, and harried the coasts on both
+sides. At the coast of East Gautland he made a great heathen sacrifice.
+Thereupon he burned his ships and marched through the country with his
+men. He defeated Earl Ottar, the ruler in Gautland, and continued his
+march through Smaaland and West Gautland to Norway. He again took up
+his residence in Throndhjem.
+
+King Harald Bluetooth was greatly incensed at Earl Haakon's action, and
+decided to take an awful revenge. He collected a great fleet, which he
+brought to Norway. He burned and destroyed the settlements and killed a
+great number of people wherever he came. In Lærdal in Sogn, it is said
+that only five dwellings were left unburned. The inhabitants fled to
+the woods with such movable goods as they could save. As soon, however,
+as it was reported that Earl Haakon was coming southward with a fleet,
+King Harald lost his courage, set sail, and returned to Denmark.
+
+When Harald Bluetooth died (985), his son Svein, who afterward was
+given the surname Tjuguskeg (Fork-beard), became king of Denmark. He
+instigated the Joms-vikings to make war on Earl Haakon. These vikings
+were Danes, who lived at Jomsborg, Pomerania, on the island Wollin
+or Jom, at the mouth of the river Oder. They were very powerful and
+warlike, and had very strict laws. No one could join their company who
+was older than fifty or younger than eighteen years, and no woman was
+permitted to enter their burgh. They considered it a disgrace to show
+fear or to complain of pain. Earl Sigvald (Sigvalde Jarl), a son of
+King Strut-Harald of Scania (Skaane, in the southern part of Sweden),
+was chief of the Joms-vikings at this time. King Svein of Denmark
+invited these vikings to a great feast in memory of his father, and
+as Earl Sigvald's father had fallen about the same time, he suggested
+that they should also drink his "funeral-ale." The Joms-vikings came
+to the festival with their bravest men, forty ships of them from
+Vendland (Pomerania), and twenty ships from Scania. All the guests
+drank a great deal, and there was great gayety in the hall. According
+to old custom on such occasions they made solemn vows, in emptying the
+drinking-horns. King Svein, in drinking to his father's memory, made
+the solemn vow, that before three winters were past he would go with
+his army to England and conquer King Ethelred. The guests also drank
+Christ's health, and a bowl to the memory of Saint Michael. Thereafter
+Earl Sigvald drank to his father's memory, and made a vow, that before
+three winters came to an end he would go to Norway and either kill Earl
+Haakon or chase him out of the country, and the other Joms-vikings
+vowed that they would go with Earl Sigvald to Norway and share in the
+fight. The next morning, when they had slept off their drink, they
+thought they had promised rather much, and, in order to find Earl
+Haakon unprepared, they sailed away on their expedition at once.
+
+When Earl Erik, the son of Haakon, who was then in Raumarike, heard
+of the festival and of the vows of the Joms-vikings, he immediately
+gathered his men, and went to the Uplands, and thence over the
+mountains to Throndhjem, and joined his father, Earl Haakon. They
+immediately sent warnings around, and sent messages to North More and
+South More, and to Raumsdal, and also north to Namdal and Halogaland,
+summoning all the country to furnish men and ships. Earl Haakon went
+with an army to South More, and Erik was to follow with what army he
+could collect from the north.
+
+Meanwhile, the Joms-vikings sailed slowly northward, plundering the
+coasts. Christmas night they were at Jæderen. At Hjorungavaag (on the
+island Hareidland in South More) they met Earl Haakon and his sons
+Erik, Svein, Sigurd and Erling. The earl had 180 ships and boats, fully
+manned and equipped, and the Joms-vikings had 60 ships. A bloody and
+fierce battle followed, probably the greatest that had ever taken place
+in Norway. At first the advantage was on the side of the Joms-vikings,
+and Earl Haakon was hardly pressed. So many spears were thrown against
+him that his armor was split asunder, and he threw it off. It is said
+that Earl Haakon then sacrificed his young son Erling to the gods in
+order to gain victory. A great hailstorm arose, and the Joms-vikings
+were defeated, but only after a most desperate fight. Earl Sigvald
+turned and fled with some of his ships; but many of his men preferred
+to fall in battle. Haavard the Hewer (Huggende) stood on his knees and
+fought, after both his feet had been cut off. One of the champions, Bue
+the Thick (Digre), received a terrible cut that took away his under-lip
+and chin, and, seeing that resistance was in vain, he took a chest
+full of gold in each hand and shouted: "Overboard, all Bue's men,"
+and jumped into the sea. After the battle the dead were ransacked by
+Haakon's men, and the booty brought together to be divided; and there
+were twenty-five ships of the Joms-vikings in the booty.
+
+While Earl Haakon ruled over Norway there were good crops in the
+land and peace internally among the peasants. The earl, for a long
+time, was therefore well liked; but later he became proud and much
+given to debauchery. According to the saga, he would go so far as to
+have the daughters of people of high station brought home to him,
+and after keeping them a week or two send them home in shame. The
+people therefore began to murmur loudly, and finally they rose against
+him. Early in the year 995 Earl Haakon was at a feast at Medalhus in
+Gauldal. There was a mighty peasant in the neighborhood, by name Orm
+Lyrgja, who had a wife called Gudrun, a daughter of Bergthor of Lundar.
+She was called the Lundar-sun, because she was so beautiful. The earl
+sent his slaves to Orm, with the errand that they were to bring Gudrun
+to the earl. Orm first invited the slaves to take supper, and while
+they were eating and drinking he sent word around to all his neighbors,
+and soon had so many gathered at his house that he could refuse to let
+his wife be taken away. The slaves departed with many threats; but Orm
+sent out messages to all the neighboring country, and soon a large body
+of armed men were marching toward Medalhus where Haakon was. With a
+single thrall (slave) called Kark, who had been with him since boyhood,
+Earl Haakon fled across the Gaula River, rode his horse into a hole,
+and left his cloak behind on the ice, in order to make his pursuers
+believe that he had been drowned. Then he went to the estate of Rimul,
+where one of the earl's mistresses, Thora, lived, and asked her to hide
+him for a few days until the army of the peasants had dispersed. They
+went to a swine-sty, where Kark dug a deep hole and covered it with
+boards. The earl and Kark went into the hole, and Thora covered it, and
+threw earth and manure over it, and drove the swine upon the top of it.
+
+Olaf Trygvason had just then arrived in the country, and when the
+peasants heard he was of the family of Harald the Fairhaired, they
+flocked around him and hailed him as their king. Then they all set
+about hunting for Earl Haakon. At Rimul they looked everywhere for him
+without finding him. Then Olaf held a House-Thing or council out in the
+yard, and stood upon a great stone which lay beside the swine-sty, and
+made a speech to the people, in which he promised rewards and honors to
+the man who should kill the earl. This speech was heard by the earl and
+the thrall Kark.
+
+"Why art thou so pale," asked the earl, "and now again black as earth?
+Thou hast not the intention to betray me?"
+
+"By no means," replied Kark.
+
+"We were both born on the same night," said the earl, "and the time
+will be short between our deaths."
+
+King Olaf went away in the evening. When night came the earl kept
+himself awake; but Kark slept, and was disturbed in his sleep. The earl
+woke him, and asked him what he had been dreaming.
+
+Kark answered: "I was at Lade, and Olaf Trygvason was laying a golden
+ring about my neck."
+
+The earl then said: "It will be a bloody ring Olaf will lay about thy
+neck if he catches thee. Take care of that! From me thou shalt enjoy
+all that is good, therefore betray me not."
+
+Then they both kept awake, evidently mistrusting each other. But toward
+morning the earl dropped asleep. Then Kark killed him, and cut off
+his head, and hastened to Olaf Trygvason with it, but Olaf had the
+faithless thrall decapitated. Earl Haakon was fifty-eight years old at
+his death, in February, 995.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+_The Youth of Olaf Trygvason_
+
+
+When the Gunhild-sons had killed Trygve Olafson, king in Viken (the
+grandson of Harald the Fairhaired), in 963, Trygve's widow Astrid fled
+with her foster-father, Thorolf Lusarskeg. Astrid was pregnant with
+a child of King Trygve, and she went to a lake and concealed herself
+on a small island with a few followers. Here she gave birth to a boy,
+and she called him Olaf, after his grandfather. She remained there
+all summer, but when the nights became dark, and the days began to
+shorten and the weather to be cold, she travelled further with Thorolf
+and a few others until she reached Ofrustad, where her father, Erik
+Biodaskalle, lived, and they remained there during the winter. But in
+the spring spies were sent out by Gunhild to find the boy, and Astrid
+had to flee again with her son. She proceeded eastward, and at last
+came to her father's friend, Haakon the Old, in Sweden, where she and
+her son remained a long time and were well treated. When Gunhild heard
+that Astrid and her son Olaf were in Sweden, she sent ambassadors
+to the king of Sweden with the request that the king assist them in
+getting hold of Olaf Trygvason, to bring him back to Norway, where
+Gunhild would bring him up. Astrid then determined to go with her son
+to Gardarike, or Russia, where she had a brother, Sigurd Eriksson, who
+held a high position there. Olaf was then three years old. As they
+sailed out into the Baltic, however, they were captured by vikings from
+Esthonia, who made booty both of the people and their goods, killing
+some, and taking others as slaves. Thorolf, whom they considered too
+old for a slave, was killed. Olaf was separated from his mother, and
+an Esthonian took him and a son of Thorolf as his share of the booty.
+The boys were sold for a stout and good ram, and a third man, called
+Reas, afterward bought Olaf for a good cloak. Olaf remained with Reas
+in Esthonia for six years (967-972), was treated well, and was much
+beloved by the people.
+
+Sigurd Eriksson, the brother of Astrid, happened to come to Esthonia
+to collect taxes for King Valdemar (or Vladimir), king in Novgorod,
+Russia. In the market-place he saw a very handsome boy, and as he could
+see that he was a foreigner, he asked him his name and family. The boy
+answered that his name was Olaf, that he was a son of Trygve Olafson,
+and that Astrid, a daughter of Erik Biodaskalle, was his mother. Sigurd
+thus discovered that the boy was his sister's son, and he bought him,
+and took him with him to Novgorod, He at first said nothing to the boy
+about their relationship, but treated him well. Olaf was then nine
+years old.
+
+One day Olaf was in the market-place, where a great many people were
+assembled. There he saw and recognized Klerkon, who had killed his
+foster-father, Thorolf Lusarskeg, on the journey from Sweden. Olaf had
+a little axe in his hand, and with it he clove Klerkon's skull, and
+then he ran home and told his uncle Sigurd what he had done. Sigurd
+immediately took Olaf to Queen Allogia, told her what had happened,
+and begged her to protect the boy. The queen took a liking to the boy,
+paid the fine for the manslaughter he had committed, and induced King
+Valdemar to admit him to his court, where he was brought up as a king's
+son. Olaf remained with King Valdemar nine years (973-981).
+
+At the age of eighteen Olaf was given ships by King Valdemar and
+set out on viking cruises. After a plundering visit to the island
+of Bornholm he came to Vendland (Pomerania), where he married Queen
+Geira, the daughter of King Burislav, and subdued the countries which
+had formerly belonged to her dominions, but had lately failed to pay
+her taxes. Every summer he made viking cruises, and in the winter he
+stayed with Queen Geira. Olaf had been three years in Vendland when
+Geira was taken sick and died. His grief was so great that he could
+not afterward stay in Vendland. He then provided himself with warships
+and made viking cruises to Denmark, England, Northumberland, Scotland,
+the Hebrides, the Isle of Man, and western France. On returning from
+France he was driven by a storm to the Scilly Isles, where he and all
+his men were baptized in the Christian faith. Afterward Olaf came to
+England, and married Princess Gyda, a daughter of the Irish king Olaf
+Kvaran. The English annals contain many references to Olaf Trygvason,
+and name him as chief of a fleet of nearly 400 ships which, in the
+year 991, harried the east coast of England and won a great battle,
+after which the Englishmen were compelled to pay him 10,000 pounds in
+silver. Three years later he again attacked the coast of England, and
+the English king, Ethelred, had to beg for peace and promise to pay him
+16,000 pounds in silver. Olaf and his army went into winter quarters
+in Southampton. Soon afterward King Ethelred invited him to his home;
+Olaf accepted the invitation, and the two became good friends. During
+his stay with the king, Olaf was confirmed, and King Ethelred himself
+became his sponsor and gave him many precious gifts. Olaf, for his
+part, made a solemn vow that he would never again attack the coasts of
+England, a promise which he appears to have kept.
+
+Early in the year 995 Olaf proceeded to Norway, and arrived at
+Throndhjem just when the peasants had risen against Earl Haakon. They
+made him their chief, and when the earl was dead, and his sons had
+fled, Olaf Trygvason became king of Norway.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+_Olaf Trygvason_ (995-1000)
+
+
+Olaf Trygvason was twenty-seven years old when he came to Norway.
+At a general Thing at Throndhjem the people elected him king of all
+Norway, as Harald the Fairhaired had been, and in return he promised to
+enforce law and justice. The following spring and summer Olaf travelled
+through the whole country, to the southernmost part of Viken, and
+everywhere he was hailed as king, even by the chiefs in the Uplands and
+in Viken, who, during the reign of Earl Haakon, had at least nominally
+acknowledged the suzerainty of the Danish king. In the Uplands the
+petty kings, who were descendants of Harald the Fairhaired, were
+allowed to retain their possessions on the old conditions.
+
+Olaf had decided, before he left England, to introduce Christianity
+in Norway, and he found it advisable to commence this work in Viken,
+where he had many of his relatives and warmest friends. Here was the
+rich and influential Lodin, who, some time before, had married Olaf's
+mother Astrid. His mother's brothers and two brothers-in-law of Olaf
+were also mighty people in that part of the country. Another reason for
+starting the work here was that a good many had already adopted the
+Christian faith under the influence of missionaries from Germany and
+Denmark. During his stay in Viken, Olaf called his relatives together
+and informed them of his intention to convert the whole of Norway to
+the Christian faith. He would accomplish that, he said, or die in
+the attempt. But he promised to make his relatives great and mighty
+men if they would support him with all their power. This they agreed
+to do, and as the most powerful men among the people had now acceded
+to King Olaf's request, the others followed their example, and all
+the inhabitants of the east part of Viken allowed themselves to be
+baptized. Greater opposition was met in the north part of Viken (around
+"Folden"), where Christianity had not had so many former adherents. But
+Olaf would tolerate no opposition; those who opposed him he punished
+severely, killing some, mutilating others, and driving some into
+banishment. During that summer (996) and the following winter all Viken
+was made Christian.
+
+The next spring King Olaf christianized Agder. He met no opposition
+until he came to Hordaland, where there were many mighty men. They met
+him fully armed at a public assembly, ready to resist; but after he had
+made his speech entreating them to accept Christianity, but adding that
+those who would not submit must expect punishment, their courage failed
+them, and all the people present were baptized before the assembly
+was dissolved. King Olaf then went with his men to the _Gula-Thing_,
+where one of the chieftains asked of the king, as a sign of goodwill,
+that he give his sister Astrid in marriage to their relation, Erling
+Skialgson of Sole, whom they looked upon as one of the most hopeful men
+in the country. This the king readily acceded to, since Erling was a
+man of good birth and fine appearance. Erling Skialgson and Astrid were
+married in the summer, and the king, who was present at the wedding,
+at his departure invested Erling with all the land north of the Sogne
+Fjord and east to the Lidandisnes, on the same terms as Harald the
+Fairhaired had given land to his sons.
+
+After having christianized the people of Sogn, South More, Raumsdal and
+North More, King Olaf, after a year's absence, returned to Throndhjem.
+At Lade he had the great heathen temple razed to the ground, took all
+the ornaments, and burned the temple with all the images. When the
+people heard of this they sent out war-tokens and collected a great
+force, with which they intended to attack the king. In the meantime
+Olaf sailed with his men out of the fjord along the coast northward,
+intending to proceed to Halogaland and baptize there. But when he came
+out to Bjarnaurar (Björnör), he heard from Halogaland that a force was
+assembled there to defend the country against the king. The chiefs of
+this force were Harek of Thiotta, Thorer Hiort from Vagar, and Eyvind
+Kinrifa. At the same time he learned that the peasants in Throndhjem
+had now dispersed. He therefore turned about and sailed in through the
+Throndhjem Fjord again.
+
+In the fall King Olaf laid the foundation of the future city of
+Nidaros at the mouth of the river Nid. He built his royal residence at
+Skipakrok (the ships' creek), built a church further up, and laid out
+building lots for the people. The work was pushed forward with energy,
+so that Olaf could take up his residence there in the winter, and by
+Christmas the church was also ready.
+
+At the beginning of the winter Olaf summoned the peasants to a Thing at
+Frosta, and they came in great numbers, but also well armed. When the
+Thing was called to order, the king began in a mild manner to preach
+Christianity; but the peasants soon objected, and the mighty Jernskegge
+(Ironbeard), who was their spokesman, said that the will of the people
+was now, as formerly, that the king should not break the laws. They
+wanted the king to offer sacrifice, as other kings before him had done.
+If he did not do as they wanted, they would kill him or banish him from
+the country. Seeing that the people were in earnest, and had a superior
+force present, King Olaf talked to them in a more conciliatory manner,
+promised to be present at their midwinter sacrifices, and said that
+they could then further discuss the proposed change of faith. This
+speech was well received, and the assembly dispersed.
+
+When Yuletide came, Olaf invited all the mighty peasants from Strinden,
+Gaulardal, and Orkadal to a feast at Lade. They came, were entertained
+in the best possible manner the first evening, and toward morning
+became quite drunk. The next day he called a House-Thing, where
+his men were present in much greater number than the peasants. He
+made a speech, in which he said that at Frosta he had offered them
+Christianity, but instead of accepting it they had demanded that he
+should offer sacrifice to their gods, as other kings had done. "Now,"
+he continued, "if I shall turn again to making sacrifice, then will I
+make the greatest of sacrifices that are in use, and I will sacrifice
+men. But I will not select slaves or malefactors for this, but will
+take the greatest men only to be offered to the gods." Thereupon he
+selected eleven of the principal men, and all these, he said, he would
+offer in sacrifice to the gods for peace and a fruitful season, and
+ordered them to be laid hold of immediately. As the peasants saw that
+resistance was useless, they all submitted to the king's demands. He
+spared their lives on the condition that they should be baptized, take
+an oath to support the true faith, and renounce all sacrifices to the
+heathen gods. They were then baptized, and had to send their sons,
+brothers or other near relations as hostages. Later on, King Olaf came
+with his men to Mærin, where the people were assembled. He promised to
+go into their temple to look at their ceremonies; but while there, he
+and his men knocked down and demolished the images of the gods, while
+the chief of the peasants, Jernskegge, was killed outside of the temple
+by one of the king's men. When the king came outside, he demanded that
+the peasants be baptized, or fight with him on the spot, and as their
+chief was dead, and there was a superior force against them, they
+yielded, were baptized, and gave hostages for their perseverance in the
+faith.
+
+In this and similar ways King Olaf succeeded in christianizing, in
+name at least, practically the whole of Norway. Christianity was also
+introduced in Iceland, the Faroe Islands, and the Orkneys.
+
+Queen Sigrid the Haughty (Storraade), widow of King Erik of Sweden,
+resided on her large estates in Gautland and wielded a great influence.
+Her son, Olaf the Swede, besides being king of Sweden, also ruled
+over Denmark, whence Svein Tjuguskeg had been expelled. Many were her
+wooers, but she had so far rejected all, and she even caused two of
+them, her foster-brother Harald Grenske and the Russian king Vsevolod,
+to be killed, by being burned in their lodgings, in order, as she
+said, to make petty kings quit courting her. Olaf Trygvason evidently
+thought that it would strengthen him if he could marry Sigrid, and sent
+messengers to her with a request for her hand. They were well received,
+and it was agreed that Olaf and Sigrid should meet at Konungahella, at
+the boundary line between Norway and Sweden, early in the spring. King
+Olaf sent Queen Sigrid as a gift the great gold ring he had taken from
+the heathen temple at Lade. She was greatly pleased with this ring, and
+had it passed around in her hall to be admired. When it came to her two
+goldsmiths they shook their heads, and upon being pressed, pronounced
+the ring false. The queen ordered the ring to be broken into pieces,
+and it was found to be copper inside. Sigrid became very angry, and
+said that Olaf would probably deceive her in more ways than this one.
+
+Early in the spring Olaf met Queen Sigrid at the appointed place, and
+it seemed that they were coming to an agreement. But when Olaf insisted
+that Sigrid should become a Christian and be baptized, she answered:
+"I must not part from the faith which I have held, and my forefathers
+before me; but, on the other hand, I shall make no objection to your
+believing in the god that pleases you best." Then King Olaf became
+angry and struck her in the face with his glove, saying: "Why should
+I care to have thee, an old faded woman, and a heathen jade?" Greatly
+enraged Sigrid cried: "This may some day be thy death." Thus they
+parted. The king set off to Viken, and the queen returned to Gautland.
+
+King Olaf unexpectedly met a new bride. The Danish king, Svein
+Tjuguskeg, had compelled his sister Thyra to marry King Burisleif of
+Vendland;[1] but Thyra had been with this heathen and dissolute husband
+only a week when she fled back to Denmark, and afterward, in order to
+avoid her brother, went to Norway, where she met King Olaf. "Thyra was
+a well-spoken woman," says the saga, "and the king had pleasure in her
+conversation." He also saw that she was a handsome woman, although she
+can not have been very young at that time, and the result was that they
+were married, much against the wish of Svein Tjuguskeg.
+
+[1] Vendland, or Vindland, the country inhabited by the Vends, seems to
+have included Mecklenburg, Pomerania, and Prussia on the Baltic.
+
+Shortly after this Sigrid the Haughty married Svein Tjuguskeg, who, by
+this relationship with King Olaf the Swede, recovered back his kingdom,
+Denmark. Their family connections also included the two sons of the
+late Earl Haakon, Erik, who married Svein Tjuguskeg's daughter Gyda,
+and Svein, who married Holmfrid, a sister of Olaf the Swede. Thus the
+chain was formed, which for a long time was to have influence on the
+destiny of Norway.
+
+Olaf Trygvason and his wife, Thyra, spent the winter after their
+marriage at Nidaros (Throndhjem). Queen Thyra often complained, and
+wept bitterly over it, that she, who had great possessions in Vendland,
+had no property here suitable for a queen, and she entreated the king
+to go to Vendland and have her property there restored to her. But all
+King Olaf's friends advised him not to undertake such an expedition. It
+is told that on Palm Sunday the king was walking in the street, and met
+a man with a number of fine angelica roots, remarkably large for that
+early season. The king bought one, and brought it home to Queen Thyra,
+whom he found crying. He said to her: "See here, queen, is a great
+angelica stalk, which I give thee." But she threw it away and said: "A
+greater present my father, Harald Gormson, gave to my mother; and he
+was not afraid to go out of the country and take what was his; but thou
+darest not go across the Danish dominions for that brother of mine,
+King Svein." Then King Olaf sprang up, and answered with a loud oath:
+"Never did I fear thy brother, King Svein; and if we meet he shall give
+way before me!"
+
+Shortly after Easter the king convoked a Thing in the town, and
+proclaimed to the people that in the summer he would go upon an
+expedition abroad, and announced how many ships and men he wanted
+from each district. The king had then just finished a ship which was
+larger and more magnificent than any other ship in the country. This
+ship was called the "Long Serpent" (Ormen lange). The crew was made up
+of picked men of great strength and courage, none of them more than
+sixty or less than twenty years of age. The only exception was Einar
+Thambaskelfer, who was only eighteen years old. Einar was unusually
+strong, and was considered the most skilful archer. He had a bow called
+Thamb, which he was wont to make quake; hence his name (Thambaskelfer,
+_i.e._, Thamb-quaker). The king himself commanded the "Long Serpent."
+His half-brother, Thorkel Nefia, commanded the "Short Serpent," and
+his mother's brothers, Thorkel Dydril and Jostein, had the "Crane"
+(Tranen), and both these ships were well manned. King Olaf had sixty
+ships when he left Norway, and sailed southward through the Sound to
+Vendland. With him, on board the "Long Serpent," were Queen Thyra,
+his sister Ingibjorg, bishop Sigurd, and several priests. Many of
+his friends had joined him on the journey south along the Norwegian
+coast, among them his brother-in-law, Erling Skialgson of Sole, who had
+a large and well-equipped ship. When King Olaf arrived in Vendland,
+he was well received by King Burisleif, his claims to Queen Thyra's
+estates were peaceably settled, and he remained there a portion of the
+summer.
+
+Sigrid the Haughty was Olaf Trygvason's bitterest enemy after their
+meeting at Konungahella, when he struck her in the face with his glove.
+She urged King Svein much to fight King Olaf, saying that he had the
+more reason to do so, as Olaf had married his sister Thyra without
+his leave. King Svein finally resolved to attack King Olaf. He sent
+messengers to his brother-in-law, King Olaf the Swede, and to Earl
+Erik, inviting them to join him with an army, so that they all together
+might attack King Olaf Trygvason. He also sent Earl Sigvald to Vendland
+to spy out Olaf Trygvason's movements, and by pretending friendship
+gain his confidence and lead him into a trap.
+
+Between the island of Rügen and the mainland of the present Prussian
+province of Pomerania lies a little island called Greifswalder Oie,
+or Svolder, as it was called at that time. Here lay on the 9th of
+September, in the year 1000, a fleet of eighty ships. Sixty of them
+belonged to the Danish king Svein Tjuguskeg, fifteen to the Swedish
+king Olaf, and five to Earl Erik. They lay there waiting for King Olaf
+to pass by on his return home from Vendland.
+
+With a light but favorable breeze the Norwegian fleet sailed out of the
+harbor, where it had been lying during the stay in Vendland. All the
+small vessels, which sailed faster, got out to sea before the others.
+Earl Sigvald with his ships remained near the king for a while, and
+then sailed ahead telling the king to sail in his keel-tracks, as
+he knew best where the water was deepest. The earl, who was informed
+of the presence of the Danish fleet, sailed close under the island
+of Svolder, and Olaf Trygvason with his remaining eleven large ships
+followed. Meanwhile the Danish king Svein, the Swedish king Olaf, and
+Earl Erik, gathered their forces and made ready for battle.
+
+When Olaf Trygvason sailed in toward the island, the whole fleet of
+the enemy came out against him. When his chieftains saw this superior
+force they begged the king to proceed on his way, and not risk a battle
+against such odds. But the king, standing high on the quarter-deck of
+the "Long Serpent," replied: "Strike the sails; never shall men of mine
+think of flight. I never fled from battle. Let God dispose of my life,
+but flight I shall never take."
+
+King Olaf ordered the ships to close up to each other. The "Long
+Serpent" lay in the middle of the line; on one side lay the "Little
+Serpent," and on the other the "Crane." King Olaf stood on the
+quarter-deck of the "Serpent," high over the others. He had a gilt
+shield, and a golden helmet, and over his armor he had a short red
+jacket, so that he was easily distinguished from the others. When he
+saw the enemy's ships drawing up for battle, he asked: "Who is the
+chief of the force right ahead of us?" The answer came that it was King
+Svein with the Danish army. The king said; "We are not afraid of these
+soft Danes, for there is no courage in them. But who are those on the
+right?" He was answered, that it was King Olaf with the Swedish forces.
+"Better it were," said King Olaf, "for these Swedes to stay at home
+licking their sacrificial vessels,[2] than to come under our weapons.
+But who owns the large ships on the other side of the Danes?" "That is
+Earl Erik, the son of Haakon," said his men. Then the king said: "He,
+methinks, has good reason for meeting us; and from these men we may
+expect the sharpest conflict, for they are Northmen like ourselves."
+
+[2] The Swedes were then still heathens.
+
+The battle commenced and became very severe, and many people were
+slain. King Svein made a violent attack on the "Long Serpent," but was
+soon compelled to retreat. Then Olaf the Swede came up with his fifteen
+ships, but he fared no better, and the king himself had a narrow escape
+from death. When Earl Erik came up with his ships the fight became most
+severe, and a great number of people fell. The men from the smaller
+ships soon began to seek refuge on board the "Long Serpent," and at
+last all King Olaf Trygvason's ships were cleared of men except the
+"Long Serpent." Then Earl Erik brought his ship up to the side of the
+"Serpent," and the fight went on with battle-axe and sword.
+
+Einar Thambaskelfer stood at the mast of the "Serpent" and sent deadly
+arrows from his bow. He sent an arrow at Earl Erik, which hit the
+tiller-end just above the earl's head so hard that it entered the wood
+up to the arrow-shaft. The earl had hardly time to ask whose shot it
+was, when another arrow flew between his arm and his side, and clear
+through a board behind him. Again Einar drew his bow, when it was hit
+by an arrow from the enemy and broke in two. "What was it that broke
+with such a noise?" cried King Olaf. "Norway, king, from thy hands,"
+answered Einar. "Not so," said the king, "take my bow and shoot," and
+the king threw his own bow to Einar. Einar took the bow, and drew it
+over the head of the arrow. "Too weak, too weak," said he, "is the bow
+of the king," and, throwing it aside, he took sword and shield, and
+fought desperately.
+
+Finally, after a terrible combat, the earl's men boarded the "Serpent,"
+and the few men who were left were killed or leaped overboard. King
+Olaf held his shield over his head when he threw himself in the water,
+and was drowned. Among the last men to leave the ship were Einar
+Thambaskelfer, who was captured in the water, and Thorkel Nefia, who
+swam ashore.
+
+King Olaf Trygvason was thirty-six years old when he fell at Svolder.
+His widow, Queen Thyra, died shortly afterward from grief.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+_The Discovery of America_
+
+
+During the reign of Earl Haakon a man from Jæderen, called Erik the
+Red, being obliged to leave Norway because he had killed a man,
+proceeded to the western part of Iceland. Here he committed a similar
+offence and was condemned at Thorsnes Thing to banishment. He had
+heard that a man called Gunbiorn, son of Ulf Krage, had some time ago
+been driven by the storm far westward and had seen a great country.
+Erik the Red fitted out a vessel and told his friends that he intended
+to find the country Gunbiorn had seen. He took with him a man by the
+name of Heriulf Bardson. They found the country (984), and on a visit
+later to Iceland Erik the Red gave such a fine description of the new
+country that it was called Greenland. A number of colonists returned
+with him to the new country, and the foundation of several settlements
+were laid. In the summer of 999 Leif Erikson, a son of Erik the Red,
+made a visit to Norway, and as he met King Olaf Trygvason he adopted
+Christianity, and passed the winter with the king. In the following
+spring King Olaf sent Leif Erikson, together with a priest and other
+teachers, to Greenland to proclaim Christianity there. Flourishing
+colonies, with churches, monasteries, and bishoprics, are known to have
+been maintained in Greenland until the end of the fourteenth century.
+
+Biarne Heriulfson, a son of the above-named Heriulf Bardson, while
+sailing westward from Iceland in search of his father, met with stormy
+weather, northerly winds and fogs, and was driven out of his course.
+As he came to different shores, which, from the description he had
+received, could not be those of Greenland, he turned around, and,
+sailing in a northeasterly direction, finally arrived at his father's
+home in Greenland. When telling of his discovery he was much ridiculed
+for not having landed and examined the new countries. Leif Erikson
+bought Biarne's ship, and with a crew of thirty-five men set out, in
+the year 1000, to look for these lands. He came first to a land on
+his right as he sailed southward. It had great icy mountains in the
+interior and a shore of flat stones. He therefore named the country
+Helluland (from the Norse _helle_, a flat stone). He continued his
+course southward, and came to another country, which was level and
+covered with woods and had a low coast. He called this country Markland
+(outfield or woodland). The antiquaries consider Helluland to have
+been Newfoundland, and Markland some part of Nova Scotia. Leif and
+his party put to sea again with a northeast wind, and after two days'
+sailing made land, and came to an island lying on the north side of
+the mainland. They entered the channel between the island and a point
+projecting northeast from the mainland, and at last landed at a place
+where a river which came from a lake fell into the sea. They found
+the country very agreeable, and, resolving to winter there, erected
+some houses. Leif divided his people into two parties, to be employed
+in turns in exploring the country and working about the houses. One
+evening it happened that one of the exploring party, a German by
+birth, named Tyrker, was missing. They went out to search for him,
+and when they met him he told them he had been up the country, and
+had discovered vines and grapes, a fruit with which he was acquainted
+from his native country. They now occupied themselves in gathering
+grapes and cutting vines, and felling timber with which they loaded the
+vessel. Leif called the country Vinland. Toward spring they made ready
+and sailed away, and returned to Greenland.
+
+In the year 1002 Leif Erikson's brother, Thorvald, fitted out a ship
+and sailed southward with thirty men, after consulting with Leif. They
+came to Vinland, to the houses put up by Leif, where they remained
+quietly all winter, and lived by fishing. In the spring Thorvald sent a
+party in the long-boat to explore the country to the south. They found
+the country beautiful and well wooded, but with little space between
+the woods and the sea, and the strand full of white sand. There were
+also many islands, and shallow water. They came back in the autumn to
+Leif's houses. The following spring Thorvald sailed with his vessel
+eastward, then northward along the land. Outside of a cape they met
+bad weather and were driven ashore and broke their keel. They remained
+there a long time to repair their vessel. Thorvald said to his men:
+"We will stick up the keel here upon the ness and call the place
+Keelness."[3] Then they sailed eastward along the country and landed on
+a headland, which Thorvald liked so well that he said he would like to
+make his home there. On going on board they saw three little hills on
+the sandy shore. They went up to them and found they were three canoes,
+made of skin, with three natives--or _Skrælings_, as the Northmen
+called them--under each canoe. They killed eight of them, while one
+made his escape in his canoe. Afterward a great number of the natives
+attacked Thorvald's party. They were repulsed, but Thorvald was wounded
+by an arrow and died. He was buried on the headland which he had said
+he liked so well. His men remained there during the winter, and in the
+spring returned to Greenland.
+
+[3] Keelness (old Norse _Kjalarnes_) is supposed by the antiquaries to
+be the present Cape Cod, Massachusetts.
+
+In the summer of 1006, an Icelander by the name of Thorfin Karlsefne
+came to Greenland, and, in the winter, married Gudrid, the widow of
+Thorstein, third brother of Leif Erikson. By her advice he resolved
+to undertake an expedition to Vinland and establish a colony there.
+In the spring (1007) they set out with three ships, 160 men, and all
+kinds of live stock, and sailed to Vinland. Some time after their
+arrival there Gudrid bore a son, who was named Snorre. The colonists
+occasionally traded with the _Skrælings_, giving them pieces of cloth
+and dairy products for their skins; but when they refused to sell them
+weapons, the _Skrælings_ became hostile to the settlers and attacked
+them repeatedly. These constant hostilities so disheartened the
+settlers that they resolved to leave the country, and, after three
+years' sojourn in Vinland, Thorfin Karlsefne and his party returned
+to Greenland. Another expedition to Vinland was undertaken, shortly
+after their return, by Freydis, the illegitimate daughter of Erik the
+Red, her husband Thorvald, and two Norwegians named Helge and Finboge.
+This party quarrelled among themselves, and Freydis, who is described
+as a very bad woman, caused a great number of them to be murdered. The
+survivors returned to Greenland in the spring of 1013. The next summer,
+Thorfin Karlsefne went to Norway with his Vinland cargo and sold it to
+great advantage. He returned to Iceland and bought land there, and,
+according to the saga, many men of distinction are descended from him
+and his son Snorre, who was born in Vinland.[4]
+
+[4] Accounts of these journeys to Vinland are contained in the
+_Flateyar-bok_, or Flatey Codex, an Icelandic manuscript, which takes
+its name from the island Flatey, Iceland, where it was preserved. It
+was written by two priests between the years 1387 and 1395. The work is
+a collection of sagas transcribed from older manuscripts and arranged
+chronologically. The book is written on parchment, and is one of the
+most beautiful works of penmanship from that time in Europe. It is
+known that Christopher Columbus came to Iceland in 1477, on purpose to
+gain nautical information, and it would seem next to impossible that
+he should not have heard of the written accounts of the discoveries
+recorded in the Flatey Codex.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+_The Earls Erik and Svein, Sons of Haakon (1000-1015)_
+
+
+After the battle of Svolder, the three allied princes divided the
+kingdom of Norway between them. King Olaf the Swede got four districts
+in the Throndhjem country, and the districts of North More and South
+More and Raumsdal, and in the eastern part of the country he got
+Ranrike from the Gaut River to Svinesund. Earl Erik got four districts
+in the Throndhjem country, and Halogaland, Naumudal, the Fjord
+districts, Sogn, Hordaland, Rogaland, and North Agder, all the way to
+the Naze (Lindesnes, the southernmost point in Norway). The Danish
+king, Svein Tjuguskeg, retained Viken, which he had held before, and
+Raumarike and Hedemarken. After the division, the Swedish king gave his
+Norwegian possessions into the hands of his brother-in-law Svein, the
+brother of Earl Erik, on the same conditions as the sub-kings or earls
+held such possessions formerly from the chief king. At the same time
+the Danish king gave most of his possessions in Norway in fief to Earl
+Erik. Thus the two brothers together ruled over a larger territory than
+their father, Earl Haakon, had held; but they were not able to wield
+the same power. During his whole time, Earl Erik received no taxes from
+Rogaland, which Erling Skialgson ruled over with unlimited authority.
+The earls Erik and Svein were baptized, and adopted the Christian
+faith; but as long as they ruled in Norway they allowed every one to
+do as he pleased as to the manner of observing his Christianity. On
+the other hand, they upheld the old laws, and all the old rights and
+customs of the country. They were popular men and good rulers. Of the
+two brothers Earl Erik had most to say in all public matters.
+
+The earls tried to gain the friendship of Olaf Trygvason's old friends,
+and in many cases they succeeded. The brave young Einar Thambaskelfer
+was won over by their giving him great fiefs in Orkadal, so that he
+became one of the most powerful and esteemed men in all the Throndhjem
+country. They also gave him their proud sister Bergliot in marriage.
+One mighty man, however, they tried in vain to conciliate. That was
+Erling Skialgson, the brother-in-law of Olaf Trygvason. He could
+not forgive Earl Erik for having joined the Swedes and Danes in an
+unexpected attack on Olaf Trygvason and causing his death. He managed
+to maintain a firm hold on the dominions his brother-in-law had given
+him. If the earls visited a neighborhood where they knew that Erling
+was staying, they always took with them a large armed force, and they
+never thought of visiting Erling on his estate, Sole. He had with him
+never less than ninety free men. If it was reported that the earls were
+in the neighborhood, he had two hundred men or more. He never went by
+water from one place to another except in a fully-manned ship of twenty
+benches of rowers. In the summer he used to make viking cruises in
+order to procure means with which to support his many men.
+
+Erling was a good master. At home, on his estate, he always had thirty
+slaves besides the many servants engaged in work outside. He gave each
+of them a certain day's work; when one of them was through with that,
+he had the balance of the day at his own disposal. Each one received a
+piece of land to cultivate, and what grain he produced he could sell
+and use the proceeds toward buying himself free. The amount needed
+for this purpose was fixed by the earl, and it was so low that many
+bought their freedom at the end of a year, while all who were at all
+industrious could make themselves free within three years. He also
+assisted his men after they had become free. Some of them were given
+land to clear and cultivate, while others were shown how to conduct the
+herring-fisheries.
+
+After the death, in England, of the Danish king, Svein Tjuguskeg, his
+son, Canute (Knut) the Mighty, sent word to Earl Erik in Norway (his
+brother-in-law) to come over and help him to conquer England. The
+earl immediately called together the mightiest peasants, and in their
+presence divided the country between his brother Svein and his son
+Haakon. As the latter was only seventeen years old, the earl appointed
+his brother-in-law, Einar Thambaskelfer, guardian for him. Thereupon
+Earl Erik set sail for England. He met King Canute there, and was with
+him when he captured London. He was given Northumberland to govern, and
+remained there until his death.
+
+From the short joint reign of Earl Svein and Earl Haakon in Norway
+only one event of importance is known. As soon as Earl Erik had left
+the country, they effected a reconciliation with the mighty Erling
+Skialgson at Sole, who had never been able to forgive Earl Erik for
+the assault on Olaf Trygvason, but readily made peace with Svein and
+Haakon; and the new friendship was further cemented by Aslak, Erling's
+son, marrying Earl Svein's daughter Gunhild (or Sigrid, as the name
+is given in another place). One good reason why the earls sought to
+strengthen their power by an alliance with the powerful chieftain,
+Erling Skialgson, was no doubt the unexpected appearance of a most
+threatening enemy, the young pretender to the throne, Olaf, son of
+Harald Grenske.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+_The Youth of Olaf Haraldson_
+
+
+Olaf Haraldson, after his death called Olaf the Saint, was the son of
+Harald Grenske and Aasta. Harald Grenske, who, as we have seen, at one
+time governed Viken under the suzerainty of the Danish king, was the
+grandson of Biorn the Merchant--who was killed by Erik Blood-Axe--and
+a great-grandson of Harald the Fairhaired. Olaf was born shortly after
+the death of his father. His mother Aasta was then staying at the
+home of her father, Gudbrand Kula, a mighty man in the Uplands. Soon
+afterward, Aasta was married again to Sigurd Syr, who was king in
+Ringerike and a descendant of Harald the Fairhaired, and in his house
+Olaf was brought up. When King Olaf Trygvason came to Ringerike to
+spread Christianity, he induced Sigurd Syr and his whole family to be
+baptized, and he acted as godfather at the baptism of little Olaf.
+
+One day, when Olaf was ten years old, King Sigurd wanted to ride out,
+and, as there was nobody else about the house, he told his stepson
+Olaf to go and saddle his horse. Olaf did not refuse, but he went to
+the goats' pen, and put the king's saddle on the largest he-goat, led
+him up to the door, and went in and told King Sigurd that his horse
+was saddled. When King Sigurd came out and saw what Olaf had done, he
+said: "Easy it is to see that thou wilt little regard my orders; and
+thy mother will think it right that I do not order thee to do anything
+against thy own inclination. I see well enough that thou art far more
+proud than I am." Olaf answered little, but went his way laughing.
+
+When Olaf grew up he became of medium height, but very stout and
+strong. He had light brown hair, and a broad face which was white and
+red. He had particularly fine eyes, which were beautiful, but piercing,
+so that one was afraid to look him in the face when he was angry.
+Olaf was very expert in all bodily exercises, understood well how to
+handle his bow, and was especially an expert in throwing his spear. He
+was well liked by his friends and acquaintances, was ambitious in his
+sports, and always strove to be the first.
+
+Olaf was twelve years old when, for the first time, he went on board
+a ship of war (1007). His mother, Aasta, got Rane, who was called
+foster-father of kings, to command the ship and take Olaf under his
+charge. The men on board, however, gave Olaf the title of king. With
+two ships, Olaf first steered to Denmark and then to Sweden, where he
+harried the coasts and fought with vikings. Afterward he made cruises
+to Finland, Russia, and Gotland. Later he turned westward to Friesland
+and England, where he took part in the fights between the Danes and the
+Anglo-Saxons. From the poems of the Skalds it appears that he took part
+in the battle of Hringmara (1010), and in the storming of Canterbury
+(1012). In company with Thorkel the Tall (a brother of Earl Sigvald) he
+entered the English king Ethelred's service, took part in his battles
+against the Danish vikings, and accompanied Ethelred on his flight to
+Normandy. From here he thought of making a pilgrimage to the Holy Land;
+but on the way he had, according to tradition, a remarkable dream.
+He thought he saw a tall and handsome man, who told him to return to
+Norway and take his Udal, adding "for thou shalt be king over thy
+country forever."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+_Olaf the Saint (1015-1028)_
+
+
+Leaving his long-ships (battleships) behind him at Northumberland, Olaf
+sailed, in the fall of 1015, with two merchant-ships and 120 well-armed
+men, across the North Sea to Norway. After a stormy voyage he landed on
+the west coast of Norway, near a small island called Sæla. King Olaf
+thought this was a good omen, because that word means luck. He sailed
+southward to Ulfasund, where he heard that Earl Haakon was south in
+Sogn, and was expected north with a single ship as soon as the wind was
+favorable. King Olaf then sailed further south, and when he came to
+Saudungssund he laid one of his vessels on each side of the sound, with
+a thick cable between them. Soon after Earl Haakon came rowing into
+the sound with a manned ship; they saw Olaf's ships, but thought they
+were only two merchant vessels, and rowed in between them. When the
+ship was over the cable, Olaf's men on each side wound it up with the
+windlass, so that Haakon's ship upset, and all his men plunged into the
+water. Most of them, however, were picked up and taken on board Olaf's
+ship; only a few were drowned. Among those saved was Earl Haakon. He
+was a very handsome boy of eighteen years, with fair, silken hair,
+bound about his head with a gold ornament. When Olaf saw him, he said:
+"True it is what has been said of your family: you are handsome people;
+but now your luck has deserted you." Haakon replied: "It is always so,
+that sometimes one is victorious, and sometimes another. I am little
+beyond childhood in years; besides, we did not expect any attack. It
+may turn out better with me another time." "But dost thou not fear that
+thou art now in such a condition that, hereafter, there will be neither
+victory nor defeat for thee?" asked the king. "That all depends upon
+thee," said the earl. Olaf then asked what he would give if he were
+allowed to go unhurt. The earl asked what he demanded. "Nothing," said
+the king, "except that thou shalt leave the country and take an oath
+that thou shalt never go into battle against me." Earl Haakon agreed to
+this, took the oath, and rowed away with his men. As soon as possible
+he sailed over to England, to his mother's brother, King Canute, who
+received him well. His father, Earl Erik, whom he afterward joined,
+considered his son's oath binding upon him also, and he therefore made
+no attempt to win back the lost kingdom, but remained in Northumberland
+until his death (1024).
+
+King Olaf now went southward along the coast, holding Things with the
+peasants in many places. Many went willingly with him, while others,
+who were Earl Svein's relations or friends, refused him allegiance. He
+therefore decided first to apply to his relations, the kings in the
+Uplands, and see what support he could gain from them for his cause.
+He sailed east to Viken, set his ships on land, and proceeded with
+one hundred and twenty men up the country to Ringerike, to meet his
+stepfather, Sigurd Syr. The story of his reception at his mother's
+home, as detailed in Snorre Sturlason's _Heimskringla_, is very
+interesting, and gives a vivid picture of the life and customs at the
+home of a rich and mighty Norwegian in those days. The main portion of
+the description is here given.
+
+As Olaf was approaching Sigurd Syr's home some of the servants ran
+ahead to the house. Olaf's mother, Aasta, was sitting in the room, and
+around her some of her girls. When the servants told her that King Olaf
+was coming, and that he might soon be expected, Aasta immediately got
+up, and ordered men and girls to put everything in the best order. She
+ordered four girls to bring out all that belonged to the decoration
+of the room, and put it in order with hangings and benches. Two men
+brought straw for the floor, two brought forward four-cornered tables
+and the drinking-jugs, two bore out victuals and placed the meat on
+the table, two she sent away from the house to procure in the greatest
+haste all that was needed, and two carried in the ale; and all the
+other serving men and girls went outside of the house. Messengers
+went to seek King Sigurd wherever he might be, and brought to him his
+dress-clothes, and his horse with gilt saddle, and his bridle which was
+gilt and set with precious stones. Four men she sent off in different
+directions to invite all the great people to a feast, which she was
+preparing as a rejoicing for her son's return. She made all who were in
+the house dress themselves with the best they had, and lent clothes to
+those who had none suitable.
+
+King Sigurd Syr was in the field superintending the harvest work when
+the messengers came to him with the news, and told him all that Aasta
+was doing at the house. He had many people with him working in the
+field. He probably did not like the interruption of the work caused
+by his wife's message, but he dressed himself in the fine clothes sent
+him, mounted his horse, and rode home together with thirty well-dressed
+men whom he had sent for. As they rode up to the house, Olaf, under his
+banner, was seen coming up from the other side with one hundred and
+twenty men all well equipped. People were also gathered all around.
+King Sigurd saluted his stepson, and invited him and his men to come
+and drink with him. But Aasta went up and kissed her son, and invited
+him to stay with them, saying that all the land and people she could
+furnish would be at his service. King Olaf thanked her kindly for her
+invitation. Then she took him by the hand, and led him into the room to
+the high-seat, while King Sigurd got men to take care of their clothes,
+and see that the horses were cared for. Then Sigurd went in, and a
+great feast was had.
+
+King Olaf had not been at the place many days before he called his
+stepfather, King Sigurd, his mother Aasta, and his foster-father Rane
+to a conference and consultation. He informed them that it was his
+intention to win back from the Danes and the Swedes the land of his
+forefathers or die in the attempt. He asked Sigurd to help him, and
+give him the best possible advice in the matter. King Sigurd thought
+the plan was very risky, but knew from experience that it would be
+useless to try to dissuade Olaf from it. He would, therefore, help him
+with goods and money; but he would not bind himself to anything more,
+before he knew the views and intentions of the other Upland kings.
+
+In the Uplands there lived at that time many descendants from Harald
+the Fairhaired. They all bore the title of king, although their
+possessions were small. After the death of Olaf Trygvason they had
+acknowledged the suzerainty of the Danish king. One of them ruled over
+Raumarike, Hadeland and Thoten, another over Valders. In Gudbrandsdal
+there was a king named Gudrod, and in Hedemarken two brothers, Rorek
+and Ring, were the rulers. With these district-kings Sigurd Syr had
+a meeting in Hadeland which King Olaf also attended. Here Sigurd
+announced his stepson Olaf's purpose, and asked their aid to accomplish
+the plan. He also told of the many brave deeds which Olaf had performed
+on his war expeditions.
+
+King Rorek then made a speech against the proposed change. The people,
+he said, had had many experiences. When King Haakon, Athelstan's
+foster-son, was king, all were content; but when Gunhild's sons ruled
+over the country, they became so hated for their tyranny that the
+people would rather have foreign kings, who usually left the people to
+themselves if only the taxes were paid. When Earl Haakon had succeeded
+in establishing himself firmly as a ruler with the help of the people,
+he became so hard and overbearing toward them that they could no
+longer tolerate him. They killed him, and raised to the kingly power
+Olaf Trygvason, who was udal-born to the kingdom, and in every way
+well qualified to be a chief. The whole country's wish was to make him
+supreme king, and raise again the kingdom which Harald the Fairhaired
+had established. But when King Olaf had become secure in his power,
+no man could manage his own affairs for him. With the small kings he
+was very hard, and collected even greater tribute than Harald the
+Fairhaired had done. A man was not even allowed to believe in what
+god he pleased. After Olaf Trygvason had been taken away, they had
+kept friendly with the Danish king, and had received great help from
+him in everything; they had been allowed to rule themselves, and had
+experienced no oppression. Rorek was, therefore, inclined to let well
+enough alone, and declined to take any part in the proposed plan. His
+brother Ring was of a different opinion. He said that even if he only
+could keep the same power and property that he held now, he would
+prefer to see one of his own race as supreme king rather than a foreign
+chief. And if Olaf succeeded in making himself supreme king, those of
+them would fare best who had best deserved his friendship. He believed
+Olaf to be an honorable man, and if they gave him aid now he would
+certainly show his gratitude afterward. He was in favor of giving Olaf
+all possible friendship and support. The others, one after the other,
+expressed the same opinion, and the result was that the most of them
+entered into a league with King Olaf. This league was confirmed by oath.
+
+Thereafter the kings summoned a Thing, and here Olaf explained in a
+long speech what claims he had to the throne of Harald the Fairhaired.
+He requested the peasants to elect him king, and he promised them
+to uphold the old laws, and to defend the country. His speech was
+very well received. Then the different kings spoke in support of his
+request, and the result was that King Olaf was proclaimed king over the
+whole country according to the laws of the Uplands. The king thereupon
+proceeded through the Uplands accompanied by three hundred and sixty
+men, and from all directions the people flocked to him and hailed him
+as their king.
+
+From the Uplands King Olaf hastened over the Dovre Mountain to the
+Throndhjem country. It was of importance to come there before the
+reports of his proceedings reached Earl Svein, who was about to
+celebrate Christmas at Steinker. At Medaldal, in Orkedal, he summoned
+the peasants to a Thing, where he requested them to accept him as
+king. They were without a leader and did not have sufficient strength
+to offer opposition to the king; so the result was that they took the
+oath of allegiance. At Griotar he met an army of about eight hundred
+men, which had been collected by Einar Thambaskelfer, but had been left
+without a leader while Einar went to Gauldal to get more men. Olaf
+offered the men peace and law, "the same as King Olaf Trygvason offered
+before me," and then presented them with two conditions--either to
+enter his service or fight him. The result was that they hailed him as
+their king. When Earl Svein heard of this, he fled from Steinker with a
+long-ship and proceeded to Frosta. After having reached Steinker, Olaf
+again summoned a Thing, and compelled the people to recognize him as
+their king. He thereupon sailed to Nidaros, where he made preparations
+to celebrate Christmas. Earl Svein and Einar Thambaskelfer meanwhile
+gathered an army of 2,400 men, with which they suddenly descended upon
+Nidaros. Olaf and his men barely escaped, and fled southward to the
+Uplands by the same way they had come. Earl Svein took the Christmas
+provisions which Olaf's party had been obliged to leave and then burned
+the town of Nidaros.
+
+Olaf spent the winter in the Uplands, and in the spring gathered an
+army with which he intended to meet Earl Svein. The kings in Hedemarken
+furnished him with many armed men, and his stepfather, Sigurd Syr,
+joined him with a great force. During the winter he had built a
+ship, which was named "Karlshoved" (Carl's Head, possibly intended
+to represent the head of Charlemagne, whose name was held in great
+veneration). On the bow of the ship was a crowned head, which the king
+himself had carved. With a fine and well-equipped fleet Olaf set out
+from Viken, going first to Tunsberg.
+
+Earl Svein in the meanwhile collected a great force in the north. Many
+of the chiefs were his relatives and friends, and were able to give him
+great assistance. His brother-in-law, Einar Thambaskelfer, was on his
+side, and with him many other lendermen (a sort of local governors);
+and among them were many who had taken oath of allegiance to King Olaf
+the winter before. Earl Svein sailed south along the coast, drawing
+men from every district. When they came to Rogaland, Erling Skialgson
+of Sole joined them with a considerable force. Svein's fleet is said
+to have consisted of forty-five ships, with probably upward of 2,500
+men; Olaf hardly had half the number of ships, but his ships were
+considerably larger, so that the number of men was probably about the
+same. Toward the end of Easter he entered Viken with his fleet and put
+in at Nesiar (Nesje), a headland on the east side of the bay (near
+Fredriksværn).
+
+On Palm Sunday, March 25, 1016, the two fleets met in battle. Before
+opening the battle Olaf had his ships tied together, his own ship,
+"Karlshoved," occupying a place in the centre. On this ship were one
+hundred and twenty men armed in coats of mail, French helmets, and
+white shields, on which was a gilt or painted cross. Olaf had a white
+banner on which the figure of a serpent was sewed. The king instructed
+his men to defend themselves with the shields in the beginning, and
+take care of their lances and arrows, so that they were not thrown
+away to no purpose. This advice was followed with good results. When
+the conflict had become exceedingly sharp, and the missiles began to
+be scarce on the earl's side, Olaf's men were well supplied, and their
+attack was very severe. Men fell in great numbers on both sides, but
+mostly on the earl's ships. King Olaf with the "Karlshoved" engaged
+Earl Svein's ship, and his men were soon preparing to enter it. The
+earl, seeing his defeat, ordered his ship cut loose from the others,
+and at the last moment his brother-in-law, Einar Thambaskelfer,
+succeeded in pulling the ship out of the line of battle from behind,
+using his own vessel as a tow-boat. When the earl's ship was gone, the
+flight became general. Some of the earl's men fled up the country,
+others surrendered on the king's mercy, but Earl Svein and his
+followers escaped out through the bay. Svein proceeded to Sweden to
+seek the aid of the Swedish king, while Erling Skialgson and some other
+chiefs sailed westward and returned to their homes. Earl Svein was well
+received by King Olaf the Swede, and it was agreed that next winter
+they should proceed with an armed force overland through Helsingland
+and Jemteland and down to the Throndhjem country, for the earl depended
+upon the faithful help of the people there. The summer was to be spent
+in viking expeditions in the Baltic. Svein made a cruise to Russia and
+plundered the coasts; in the fall he was taken sick there and died
+(1016).
+
+King Olaf went north after the battle of Nesje, and settled down in
+Nidaros, where he rebuilt the royal residence and the church, and
+helped the merchants to rebuild the town. After the death of Earl
+Svein he was readily recognized by all the people in that part of the
+country as the rightful king. The Swedish king became very angry when
+he heard that he had lost the possessions in Norway which he had won
+by the battle of Svolder, and he threatened to take great revenge upon
+Olaf the Big, a nickname which he had given his Norwegian opponent on
+account of his stoutness. He sent tax-collectors into Norway, and when
+these were harshly treated, some of them even being killed, Olaf the
+Swede was highly enraged, and war between the two kings was threatened.
+King Olaf made preparations for an emergency, although he much
+preferred peace, and even wished to marry the Swedish king's daughter.
+He built fortifications on a headland in the river Glommen, near the
+falls of Sarpen, and around these fortifications he laid the foundation
+of the town of Borg or Sarpsborg. The people on both sides of the
+boundary were very much displeased with the feud between the kings,
+and on both sides the kings were urged to make peace. The Norwegian
+king was willing enough, and sent conciliatory messages to Olaf the
+Swede, but the latter rejected all overtures. Finally the matter was
+brought to a crisis at a general Thing assembled at the Swedish city of
+Upsala. Here the king at first also refused to hear the propositions
+for peace, when Thorgny Lagman (lawman, a kind of judge at the Thing)
+rose, and made the following speech: "The disposition of Swedish kings
+is different now from what I hear it was formerly. My grandfather,
+Thorgny, could well remember the Upsala king Erik Eymundson, and used
+to tell of him that when he was in his best years he went out every
+summer on expeditions, and conquered Finland and Karelen, Esthonia and
+Courland and many parts of the eastern country. Even at the present day
+the earth-bulwarks and other great works which he made are to be seen.
+And yet, he was not so proud that he would not listen to those who had
+something to say to him. Thorgny, my father, was a long time with King
+Biorn, and well knew his ways and manners. At that time the kingdom was
+in great power and suffered no losses. He, too, was sociable with his
+men. I also remember Erik the Victorious, and was with him on many a
+war expedition. He enlarged the Swedish dominion and bravely defended
+it, and with him also it was easy to talk about public affairs. But the
+king we now have allows no one to talk with him of anything but what he
+himself desires to hear. He wants to have Norway laid under him, which
+no Swedish king before him ever desired, and thereby causes many men
+to be alarmed. But now it is the will expressed by us peasants that
+thou, King Olaf, make peace with the king of Norway, and give him thy
+daughter Ingegerd in marriage. If thou wilt reconquer the countries on
+the Baltic which thy relations and ancestors had there, we will all
+go with thee. But if thou wilt not now consent to what we demand, we
+will no longer suffer law and peace to be disturbed, but will attack
+thee and kill thee. So our forefathers did when, at the Mora Thing,
+they drowned five kings in a morass because they were filled with the
+same insupportable pride thou hast shown toward us. Now tell us, in
+all haste, which of these two conditions thou wilt choose." The whole
+public approved, with clash of arms and shouts, the speech of Thorgny
+Lagman. Then the king rose and said he would do as the people desired.
+"All Swedish kings," he said, "have done so, and have allowed the
+peasants to rule in all according to their will." The murmur among the
+people then came to an end, and it was decided that the terms of peace
+offered by the Norwegian king were to be accepted, and that Ingegerd,
+the king's daughter, was to be married to King Olaf of Norway.
+
+In the meanwhile King Olaf travelled through the country, and
+carefully investigated the manner in which Christianity was observed.
+Where he found the people lacking in Christian knowledge, he taught
+them and furnished them with Christian teachers. If he met with
+obstinate opposition, he acted with severity and cruelty. "If any there
+were," says the saga, "who would not renounce heathen ways, he took the
+matter so zealously that he drove some out of the country, mutilated
+others on hands or feet, or stung their eyes out; hanged some, slew
+some with the sword; but let none go unpunished who would not serve
+God." In this way he proceeded through the country, accompanied by
+three hundred and sixty armed men.
+
+King Olaf soon found that Christianity was thriving less the further
+he proceeded into the interior. In the Uplands five small kings
+came together at Ringsaker, and under the leadership of King Rorek
+conspired to kill King Olaf. "But it happened here," says the saga,
+"as it usually does, that every one has some friend even among his
+enemies." Ketil Kalf of Ringenes, who was present at the meeting of the
+conspirators, went down after supper to the lake (Miosen), and boarded
+a little vessel which King Olaf had made him a present of after the
+battle at Nesje. He had forty well-armed men with him, and rowed in all
+haste down the lake. He arrived early in the morning at Eid (Eidsvold),
+where he found the king and told him of the intention of the small
+kings of Upland. King Olaf immediately gathered his men, sailed north
+to Ringsaker, surprised the conspirators, and captured them.
+
+King Olaf now availed himself of the opportunity that chance had given
+him, to rid himself of royal rivals who, as descendants of Harald
+the Fairhaired, claimed under the law to have as much right to their
+possessions as any supreme king, and who had always been in the way
+of a national unity. King Olaf now, by one decisive act, secured the
+unity and independence of the country, and prepared the way for the
+victorious entrance of Christianity.
+
+King Ring and two other kings were banished from Norway, under oath
+never to return. Rorek was a treacherous man and could not be depended
+upon, so the king ordered both his eyes put out, and afterward
+took him with him in that condition wherever he went. He ordered
+Gudrod Valley-king's tongue to be cut out, and of the lendermen and
+peasants who were implicated in the conspiracy some he banished from
+the country, some he mutilated, and with others he made peace. King
+Olaf took possession of the land that these kings had possessed. His
+stepfather, Sigurd Syr, who had had nothing to do with the conspiracy
+of the other small kings, died during the winter (1018), and now Olaf
+alone bore the title of King in Norway.
+
+Shortly after his stepfather Sigurd Syr's death, Olaf went to visit
+his mother, Aasta, and on this occasion it is told that she took her
+boys (half-brothers of Olaf) to show them to the king. King Olaf took
+Guthorm on one knee and his brother Halfdan on the other. He made a wry
+face at the boys, and pretended to be angry, and they became frightened
+and ran away. Then Aasta brought in her youngest son, Harald, who was
+then three years old. The king made a wry face at him also, but the
+boy only stared back at him. The king then took hold of the boy's hair
+as if to pull it, but the boy in return pulled the king's whiskers.
+"Thou wilt probably be revengeful some day, my friend," said the king.
+The following day Olaf and Aasta were watching the boys at play down
+by the lake (at the Tyrifjord). Guthorm and Halfdan had built houses
+and barns and had little figures representing cattle and sheep.
+Little Harald was down by the water, where he had little chips of wood
+floating. The king asked him what they were, and Harald answered that
+they were warships. The king laughed, and said: "The time may come,
+kinsman, when thou wilt command ships." Then the king called Guthorm
+and Halfdan up to him, and asked them what they would like to have
+above all. "Fields," answered Guthorm. "And how large?" asked the
+king. "I would have that headland yonder sown with corn every summer,"
+answered the boy. The headland included ten farms. "There would be a
+great deal of corn there," said the king. Turning to Halfdan, he asked
+what he would like best to have. "Cows," said Halfdan. "And how many?"
+asked the king. "So many that when they came to the lake to drink they
+would stand close together around the whole lake," was the answer. "You
+both take after your father in wanting a great husbandry," said the
+king. "But what wouldst thou have?" he asked Harald. "Men," replied
+the boy. "And how many?" "So many that in a single meal they would eat
+all of Halfdan's cows," was the answer. The king laughed, and said to
+Aasta: "Here, mother, thou art bringing up a king." "And more is not
+related of them on this occasion," says the saga; but the prophecy was
+fulfilled, for Harald, Sigurd's son, in time became king of Norway.
+
+The Swedish king broke the promises he had given at the Upsala Thing,
+and did not send his daughter Ingegerd to the appointed meeting-place
+on the boundary, when King Olaf of Norway came to fetch his bride.
+Shortly afterward the Swedes revolted, and the Swedish king again had
+to make concessions, and promise to make peace with the king of Norway.
+The latter had, in the meanwhile, against the wishes of her father,
+married Astrid, a younger half-sister of Ingegerd. At the peace of
+Konungahella, where the kings finally met, this marriage was approved
+by the Swedish king, the boundary lines between the two countries were
+finally agreed upon, and friendly relations were established.
+
+After the peace of Konungahella, King Olaf was able to pay more
+attention to the domestic affairs of the country. He went north,
+and in the fall came to Nidaros, where he prepared to take up his
+winter residence. He made careful inquiries as to the condition of
+Christianity, and learned to his regret that it was not observed at
+all up north, in Halogaland, and was not observed as it should be in
+Naumdal and the interior of the Throndhjem country. In the spring
+Olaf started on an expedition north to Naumdal, where he summoned the
+peasants to meet him, and at every Thing he was accepted as king. He
+had the laws read to the people, and threatened them with loss of life,
+limbs, and property, if they would not subject themselves to Christian
+law. They all promised to obey, and the rich men made great feasts
+for the king. Thus he proceeded north to Halogaland, where Harek of
+Thiotta, a mighty man of the family of Harald the Fairhaired, after
+having made a feast for the king, was made lenderman, and was given the
+same privileges he had enjoyed under former rulers. The king remained
+most of the summer in Halogaland, went to all the Things, and baptized
+all the people. Thorer Hund, who lived on the island Biarkey and was
+one of the most powerful men in that northern country, also became one
+of Olaf's lendermen. Toward the end of the summer King Olaf sailed back
+to Throndhjem.
+
+During his stay at Nidaros the king ascertained that the people of the
+interior of the Throndhjem country were still offering sacrifices
+to the heathen gods for peace and a good season, and that Olver
+of Eggja, a mighty man in that neighborhood, presided over these
+sacrifice-feasts, although he had twice assured the king that the
+people were loyal Christians. Learning that they were preparing such
+a feast at Mæren, the king proceeded to that place one night with
+three hundred and sixty armed men, captured Olver of Eggja, and had
+him killed together with many others, and severely punished all the
+peasants who had taken a leading part in the sacrifices. In this way he
+brought the people back to the Christian faith, gave them teachers, and
+built and consecrated churches. The widow of Olver of Eggja, who was
+young and handsome, of good family, and rich, was given by the king in
+marriage to Kalf Arneson, a young favorite among the king's men. The
+king also gave him an office, and Kalf thus became a great chief.
+
+In the summer of 1021 King Olaf proceeded to Moere and Raumsdal. In
+the fall he left his ships in Raumsdal and proceeded to Gudbrandsdal.
+The mightiest man there was Dale-Gudbrand, who ruled over the valley
+districts there with the authority of a king, although he did not bear
+the title. When he heard that Olaf was approaching, he summoned all the
+men in the valley to a Thing, where they decided to resist the attempt
+to force Christianity upon them. A force of eight hundred men, under
+the leadership of Alf, the son of Gudbrand, was sent against Olaf,
+but a battle had scarcely begun when the peasants fled, and Alf was
+captured. Then the king was invited to hold a Thing with the peasants,
+so they could discuss the proposed change of faith. To the request
+of the king that the people should believe in the true God and be
+baptized, Dale-Gudbrand replied: "We do not understand of whom thou art
+speaking. Dost thou call him God whom neither thou nor any one else
+can see? But we have a god who can be seen every day, although he is
+not out to-day, because the weather is wet. I expect that fear will mix
+with your very blood when he comes into the Thing. Now, since thy God
+is so great, let him make it so that to-morrow we have a cloudy day but
+without rain, and then let us meet again." The next day when the Thing
+had assembled, the weather was such as Gudbrand had desired. Bishop
+Sigurd stood up in full vestments, with mitre on his head and crosier
+in his hand, and spoke to the peasants of the true faith, and of the
+many miracles that God had performed. On the third day the peasants
+came to the assembly carrying between them a great image of the god
+Thor, which they placed on the green. Dale-Gudbrand then said: "Where
+now, king, is thy god? I think he will now carry his head lower; and
+neither thou nor thy bishop are so bold to-day as on former days; for
+now our god, who rules over all, has come, and looks on you with an
+angry eye. And now I see well enough that you are terrified."
+
+The king instructed one of his men, Kolbein Sterke (Kolbein the
+Strong), to strike the image with his club with all his might, if in
+the course of the king's speech it should happen that all the people
+looked in another direction. Then the king spoke to the people, saying:
+"Much hast thou talked to us this morning, and greatly hast thou
+wondered that thou canst not see our God. But I expect that he will
+soon come to us. Thou wouldst frighten us with thy god, who is both
+blind and deaf, and can neither save himself nor others, and cannot
+even move without being carried; but now I expect that he will soon
+come to grief. For turn your eyes toward the east. Behold our God
+advancing in great light!" The sun was just rising, and all turned to
+look. Immediately Kolbein struck the idol with his club, so that it
+burst into many pieces, and out of it ran rats as big as cats, snakes,
+and lizards, which had fattened on the good things that had daily
+been given to the god. At this the peasants became greatly terrified
+and fled. But the king ordered them together again, and urged them to
+abandon their worthless heathen gods, and finally he gave them the
+choice between accepting Christianity and fighting. Dale-Gudbrand then
+arose and said, that since their own god would not help them, they
+would have to believe in the king's God and serve him. Then Olaf caused
+all the people in the valley to be baptized, and gave them teachers.
+Gudbrand himself and his son were baptized by the bishop. Gudbrand
+built a church on his estate, and he and Olaf parted as friends.
+
+With the same firm hand King Olaf established Christianity in
+Hedemarken and Raumarike. During his stay in Raumarike he assembled
+a great Thing at Eidsvold and proclaimed the Eidsiva law for all the
+Uplands.
+
+King Olaf succeeded in having Christianity established by law
+throughout the whole of Norway. He built many churches and gave
+property to them, so that there was at least one priest in each Fylki.
+With the assistance of Bishop Grimkell he had a church law adopted. He
+also improved the civil laws, and had a fourth _law-thing_ established
+for Viken, the Borge-Thing, which had its own law, and was held at the
+city of Borg (now Sarpsborg). However, by his cruel way of introducing
+Christianity, and his relentless way of enforcing all laws, Olaf
+gradually made many enemies; he severely punished all who broke the
+laws, whether they were high or low, and one after the other among
+the chiefs became unfriendly to him. Among the most dangerous of these
+enemies were Erling Skialgson of Sole, Thorer Hund of Biarkey and Harek
+of Thiotta.
+
+At this time Canute (Knut) the Great, called by some Canute the Old,
+a son of the Danish king, Svein Tjuguskeg, was king of England and
+Denmark. Canute claimed the hereditary right to all Norway, and his
+sister's son, Earl Haakon, who had held a part of it, appeared to him
+to have lost it in disgrace. Many of the discontented Norwegians went
+over to England, pretending various errands, and visited Canute the
+Great and Earl Haakon, who was staying with Canute. Every one who thus
+came was most hospitably received, and were given costly presents. The
+young earl listened with pleasure to the complaints of the discontented
+about King Olaf's tyranny, and to their appeals for a return of the
+former state of affairs. Haakon forgot the oath he had given to King
+Olaf, and begged his uncle Canute to try if King Olaf would not
+voluntarily surrender the kingdom or at least a part of it. King Canute
+then sent magnificently equipped messengers to Norway, bearing his
+letter and seal.
+
+King Olaf had come down from the Uplands in the spring (1025) and was
+sojourning in Tunsberg, when the messengers of Canute the Great arrived
+and made known their errand. "King Canute considers all Norway as his
+property," they said, "his forefathers before him having possessed the
+kingdom; but as he offers peace to all countries, he will not invade
+Norway with an army if it can be avoided. But if King Olaf Haraldson
+wishes to remain king of Norway, he must come to King Canute, and
+receive the kingdom in fief from him, become his vassal, and pay the
+tribute which the earls before him have paid." To this King Olaf
+replied: "I have heard that the Danish king Gorm was considered a good
+and popular king, although he ruled over Denmark alone; but the kings
+who succeeded him were not satisfied with this. It has now come so far
+that King Canute rules over Denmark and England, and has also conquered
+a great part of Scotland. And still he lays claim to the kingdom I have
+inherited. I think he ought to be satisfied with what he has. Does he
+wish to rule over all the countries of the North? Will he eat up all
+the cabbage in England? He will have to do so before I show him any
+kind of vassalage. Bring him this answer: I will defend Norway with
+battle-axe and sword as long as life is given me, and will pay tribute
+to no man for my kingdom."
+
+Later in the summer the discontented Norwegians in England were
+reinforced by Aslak and Skialg, the sons of Erling Skialgson of Sole,
+who, no doubt with their father's knowledge and consent, went over to
+England and were received by King Canute with open arms.
+
+King Olaf understood the danger that was threatening him and took
+measures to protect himself. He had spies out to keep an eye on the
+movements of Canute, and in the fall he sent messengers eastward to
+Sweden to his brother-in-law, King Anund Jacob, who had succeeded
+his father, Olaf the Swede, as king of Sweden, and let him know King
+Canute's demands upon Norway, adding that, in his opinion, if Canute
+subdued Norway, King Anund would not long enjoy the Swedish dominions
+in peace. He therefore thought they ought to unite for their defence.
+King Anund received this message favorably, and promised to arrange a
+personal meeting with King Olaf in the near future.
+
+In the autumn King Canute the Great came from England to Denmark,
+and remained there all winter with a large army. Believing that an
+offensive and defensive alliance between Norway and Sweden would be
+fraught with danger to his Danish kingdom, he sent messengers to the
+Swedish king, in order to win his friendship or at least secure his
+neutrality. But, although the messengers brought many costly presents
+for King Anund, they were very coolly received, and returned to King
+Canute with the information that he could not depend much upon the
+friendship of King Anund.
+
+King Olaf spent the winter at Sarpsborg. Early in the spring he and
+King Anund met at Konungahella, on the Gaut River, where their alliance
+was concluded.
+
+King Olaf set out with his men and raised a levy over the whole
+country. All the lendermen in the North followed him except Einar
+Thambaskelfer, who remained quietly on his great estate. Olaf sailed
+with his fleet south around Stadt, and many people from the districts
+around joined him. At Hordaland he heard that Erling Skialgson had
+left the country with a great force and several ships, and had sailed
+westward to England to Canute the Great. King Olaf proceeded eastward
+and then south to Denmark, where he first ravaged the coast of Seeland,
+and afterward met King Anund Jacob of Sweden, and with him harried
+the coast of Skåne (Scania, then a part of Denmark, now belonging to
+Sweden). They proclaimed to the people that they intended to conquer
+Denmark, and asked the support of the people for this purpose. Many men
+entered the service of the kings, and agreed to submit to them.
+
+When King Canute heard in England that King Olaf had gone to Denmark
+with a plundering army, he collected a great force and a large fleet
+with which he proceeded to Denmark. Earl Haakon was second in command.
+King Olaf and King Anund now sailed eastward, and put up in Helgeaa,
+a short but wide river forming the outlet of a number of lakes near
+what was then the boundary between Sweden and Denmark. When they heard
+that King Canute was coming after them with his great force, they made
+preparations to receive him. They dammed up the lake at the head of the
+river, so that the water rose to a considerable height in the lake,
+while the river was quite low. Then the allies made their ships ready
+for battle. When Canute arrived, it was too late in the evening to
+begin the battle, and seeing the harbor empty, he entered it with as
+many ships as possible. Early in the morning the dam was broken, and
+the water rushed with great force down upon Canute's fleet. A good many
+people were drowned, and the ships were scattered, some of them in a
+considerably damaged condition. However, when the fleet had again been
+collected, the allied kings perceived that it was of too formidable
+strength to be attacked, and so they withdrew. King Canute, after
+having vainly lain in wait for Olaf, and having no special desire for
+a war between Denmark and Sweden, sailed away and returned to England.
+King Olaf returned overland through Sweden to Norway.
+
+In the following year (1028) Canute the Great returned with a large
+fleet to Norway. By a policy of general bribery he had won the
+friendship of a great many of the discontented chiefs. The saga says
+"that every man who came to him, and who he thought had the spirit of a
+man and would like his favor, got his hands full of gifts and money."
+He first landed in Agder, where he summoned a Thing and received the
+oath of allegiance from the peasants. King Olaf was then in Tunsberg.
+Canute sailed northward along the coast, and everywhere he was hailed
+as king. In Ekersund Erling Skialgson came to him with many people,
+and King Canute and Erling renewed their league of friendship. Canute
+then continued his journey until he came to Throndhjem, and landed at
+Nidaros. Here a Thing was summoned, at which King Canute was proclaimed
+king of all Norway. Thorer Hund and Harek of Thiotta were present, and
+the king divided Halogaland between them. The king made Earl Haakon
+governor-in-chief of all the land he had taken on this expedition. At
+the same time he appointed his son Hardeknut king of Denmark. He gave
+Einar Thambaskelfer great gifts, and restored to him the fiefs he had
+formerly held.
+
+When King Olaf heard that King Canute had gone south to Denmark he
+sailed with a few ships, and as many men as would follow him, up along
+the coast. When he came north to Eikundasund (Ekersund), he heard
+that Erling Skialgson was ready to meet him with a great force. On
+the 21st of December the king sailed out of the harbor, and the wind
+being strong and favorable, he sailed past the place where Erling was
+with his fleet. Erling soon pursued him, but was separated from his
+main force, and when he overtook King Olaf he was met by the whole of
+the latter's force. A severe fight began, and many men fell on both
+sides; but finally Erling was the only man left on his ship. King
+Olaf who, with his men, had entered the ship, called out to him from
+the fore-deck: "Thou hast turned thy face straight against us to-day,
+Erling." "Face to face shall eagles fight," said Erling. The old man's
+courage and manly defence had awakened Olaf's sympathy, and the king
+asked him if he would enter his service. "That I will," said Erling.
+He took off his helmet, laid down his sword and shield, and went
+forward to the fore-deck. King Olaf, who half regretted his kindly
+feelings toward the conquered man, gently scratched his cheek with
+the edge of his battle-axe, saying: "The traitor to the king must be
+marked." Immediately one of the king's men, Aslak Fitiarskalle, rushed
+up, and cleft Erling's skull with his axe, saying: "Thus we mark the
+traitor to the king." When the king saw the old chieftain lying dead at
+his feet he deeply regretted the ill-considered scorn he had uttered,
+and said to Aslak: "Ill luck was that stroke; for thou hast struck
+Norway out of my hands." Erling Skialgson was sixty-two years old at
+the time of his death, and the saga says that he was the greatest and
+worthiest man in Norway of all those who had no higher title.
+
+Olaf continued his journey northward, but was soon pursued by Erling's
+sons, who had raised a great army. When he heard that Earl Haakon was
+also coming against him with an army from Throndhjem, he found himself
+compelled to flee from the country. He landed at Valdal and crossed the
+mountains to Gudbrandsdal and thence to Sweden, where he left his wife
+Astrid and his daughter Ulfhild. Olaf, with his son Magnus and a few
+faithful friends, travelled to Russia, where he was well received by
+his brother-in-law, King Jaroslav, who had married Ingegerd, the sister
+of the Swedish king, Anund Jacob.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+_The Battle of Stiklestad (1030)_
+
+
+In the summer of 1029 Earl Haakon went to England to fetch his bride,
+Gunhild, a daughter of Canute's sister. Everything was satisfactorily
+arranged, but on his return voyage his vessel foundered, and all on
+board were lost.
+
+One of King Olaf's best friends, Biorn Stallare,[5] believing that
+Olaf would not return to Norway, had been induced by great gifts and
+promises to give allegiance to Earl Haakon and King Canute; but when he
+heard that the earl had perished, so that the country was again without
+a chief, he greatly regretted that he had failed to be true to King
+Olaf, and it seemed to him that there was now some hope that Olaf might
+again become king if he came back to Norway. He therefore immediately
+journeyed east to Russia to Olaf, and told him of Earl Haakon's death,
+and brought him other news from Norway. When the king asked him how
+his friends had kept their fidelity toward him, Biorn answered that it
+had been different with different people. Then he fell at the king's
+feet, and said: "All is in your power, sire, and in God's. I have taken
+money from King Canute's men, and sworn them allegiance; but now I
+will follow thee, and not part from thee so long as we both live." The
+king answered: "Arise, Biorn; thou shalt be reconciled with me; but
+reconcile thy perjury with God. I must know that but few men in Norway
+have adhered to their fealty to me, when such a man as thou art could
+be false to me." Biorn named those who had principally bound themselves
+to be his enemies; among them were Erling's sons, Einar Thambaskelfer,
+Kalf Arneson, Thorer Hund and Harek of Thiotta.
+
+[5] A _Stallare_ was a very influential officer, a kind of court
+marshal.
+
+Olaf now made preparations for his return to Norway, and shortly after
+Christmas started with two hundred and forty men. His young son,
+Magnus, was left behind with King Jaroslav in Russia. In Sweden, King
+Anund received his brother-in-law well, and gave him four hundred and
+eighty picked warriors to go with him. When it was reported in Norway
+that King Olaf had come from the east to Sweden, his friends gathered
+aid for him in Norway. The most distinguished man in this party was
+Harald Sigurdson, Olaf's half-brother, who was then quite young, but
+very stout and manly of growth. Many other brave men were there also;
+and they were in all seven hundred and twenty men, when they proceeded
+eastward through the Eid forest and Vermeland, and met Olaf in Sweden.
+Olaf's kinsman, Dag Ringson, collected an army of about 1,400 men, with
+which he joined King Olaf.
+
+When King Olaf had crossed the mountain and was descending on the west
+side, where it declines toward the sea, and he could see the country
+for many miles, he became sad and rode by himself in silence for quite
+a while. Finally, Bishop Sigurd rode up to him, and asked him why he
+was so silent, and what he was thinking of. The king answered: "Strange
+things came into my mind a while ago. As I looked down the valley, it
+appeared to me that I was looking over all Norway. It then came into my
+mind how many happy days I have had in this country. My vision went
+further, until I looked over the whole wide world, both land and sea.
+I recognized places where I have been before; but I also saw places
+of which I had never heard, both inhabited and uninhabited, as far as
+the world goes." Then the bishop dismounted from his horse, kissed the
+king's foot, and said: "It is a holy man whom we are now following."
+
+When King Olaf came down into Verdalen, he mustered his force, and he
+then had over 3,600 men. Among them were about six hundred who were
+heathens, and who refused to be baptized. These men were sent back, as
+Olaf would not have any heathens among his warriors.
+
+In the evening Olaf's whole forces took up their night-quarter in
+one place, and lay down under their shields; the king lay long awake
+in prayer to God, and slept but little. Toward morning he slumbered
+for a while, and when he awoke, day was breaking. The king thought
+it too early to awaken the army, and asked where the bard Thormod
+Kolbrunarskald was. Thormod was near by, and asked what the king
+desired. The king said: "Sing us a song." Thormod arose and sang, so
+loud that the whole army could hear him, the old Biarkemaal.[6] Then
+the troops awoke, and, when the song was ended, the people thanked him
+for it, and the king gave him a fine gold ring.
+
+[6] The _Biarkemaal_ is so called because it was composed and sung by
+Bodvar Biarke, a Norwegian, who, with Rolf Krake and others, was killed
+in battle. Rolf Krake was king in Seeland (Denmark); he had twelve
+powerful warriors called _Berserks_ (_i.e._ dressed in bear skins);
+among them was Bodvar Biarke. Rolf and his men were attacked during
+the night, and the Biarkemaal was then sung to encourage Rolf's men to
+fight valiantly for their chief.
+
+The king now led his army further down the valley until he came to
+Stiklestad, where he placed his army in battle array against the
+peasants' army. The lendermen and peasants had collected a vast army;
+it is said to have numbered 14,400 men. When the armies were near
+together, Thorer Hund went forward in front of the banner with his
+troop, and called out: "Forward, forward, Bonde-men!" The peasants
+repeated this war-cry and shot their arrows and spears. The king's men
+now raised their battle-cry, and encouraged each other to advance,
+shouting: "Forward, forward, Christ-men! cross-men! king's-men!" King
+Olaf's army rushed down the hill upon the peasant army with a fierce
+assault, and for a moment drove it from its original position; but the
+chiefs urged their men forward, and forced them to advance again. The
+peasant army pushed forward from all quarters, and the battle became
+very severe. Those who stood in front hewed down with their swords;
+those who stood next thrust with their spears, while those in the
+rear shot arrows, cast spears, or threw stones, hand-axes, or pieces
+of timber. Many fell on both sides. When the ranks in front of the
+king's banner began to be thinned, he ordered the banner moved forward,
+and the king himself followed with a party of chosen men, and placed
+himself in the front rank. King Olaf fought most desperately. He hewed
+at Thorer Hund, and struck him across the shoulders; but the sword
+would not cut, and it was as if dust flew from Thorer's reindeer-skin
+coat. Then the king said to Biorn Stallare: "Do thou kill the dog on
+whom steel will not bite." (Thorer's surname Hund means dog.) Biorn
+turned the axe in his hand, and gave Thorer such a blow with the hammer
+of it on the shoulder that he staggered; but the next moment Thorer
+ran his spear through the body of Biorn, and killed him, saying:
+"Thus we hunt bears north in Finmark." (Biorn means bear.) Thorstein
+Knarrarsmid, one of Thorer Hund's followers, struck at King Olaf with
+his axe, and the blow hit his left leg above the knee. Fin Arneson
+immediately felled Thorstein; but the king, badly wounded, staggered
+toward a stone, threw down his sword and shield, and prayed God to help
+him. Then Thorer Hund struck at him with his spear, and the stroke went
+in under his mail-coat and into his abdomen. Still another wound was
+given the king on the left side of the neck, and these three wounds
+caused the death of King Olaf. He was then thirty-five years old.
+
+The battle had lasted an hour and a half, and was now virtually ended.
+Dag Ringson and his men still fought desperately for a while, but
+they were soon overwhelmed by numbers and fatigue, and were obliged
+to retire. There was a valley through which many fled, and men lay
+scattered on both sides; many were severely wounded, and many so
+fatigued that they were unable to move. The peasants pursued them only
+a short way; for their leaders soon returned to the battlefield, where
+they had friends and relatives to care for.
+
+It is said that Thorer Hund went to where King Olaf's body lay, laid
+it out on the ground, and spread a cloak over it. He told afterward
+that when he wiped the blood from the face it was very beautiful,
+and the cheeks were red. Some of the king's blood came on Thorer's
+wounded hand, and it healed so speedily that he did not need to dress
+it. This was told by Thorer himself when King Olaf's holiness came to
+be generally reported among the people; and Thorer Hund was among the
+first of the king's powerful opponents who endeavored to spread abroad
+the belief in Olaf's sanctity.
+
+Harald Sigurdson, King Olaf's half-brother, was severely wounded at
+Stiklestad; but one of Olaf's men brought him to a peasant's house the
+night after the battle, and the peasant cared for Harald, and healed
+his wound in secret, and afterward gave him his son to attend him.
+
+Some time after the battle, two young men were one day riding across
+the mountain to Jemteland in order to reach Sweden. One of them was a
+peasant's son from Verdalen, the other a young warrior, the last one of
+King Olaf's men who fled from the country. As they were passing over
+the ridge, the young man turned to his companion, and sang:
+
+    "The wounds were bleeding as I rode;
+    And down below the peasants strode,
+    Killing the wounded with the sword,
+    The followers of their rightful lord.
+    From wood to wood I crept along,
+    Unnoticed by the peasant-throng;
+    Who knows, I thought, a day may come
+    My name will yet be great at home."
+
+It was Olaf's brother, Harald, who was setting out to try his luck in
+foreign countries, whence he was to return one day, rich in honors and
+goods.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+_King Svein Alfifuson (1030-1035)_
+
+
+When King Canute the Great heard that Earl Haakon had been lost in a
+shipwreck on his way to Norway, he concluded to put his natural son
+Svein on the throne of Norway. Svein's mother was Ælfgifa, a daughter
+of an English chieftain in Northampton, but the Norwegians called
+her Alfifa and her son Svein Alfifuson. Svein had, a couple of years
+before, been appointed by King Canute to govern Jomsborg in Vendland;
+but after Earl Haakon's death King Canute sent word to him to proceed
+to Denmark and from there to Norway, to take that kingdom in charge and
+assume the title of king of Norway. With a number of men from Denmark,
+Svein proceeded to Norway together with his mother, Alfifa, and he was
+hailed as king at every Thing. He had come as far as Viken at the time
+the battle was fought at Stiklestad, where King Olaf fell. He continued
+his journey northward until, in the autumn, he came to the Throndhjem
+country; and there, as elsewhere, he was received as king.
+
+Svein was very young and inexperienced, and it was his mother who had
+most to say in governmental affairs. Together with Bishop Sigurd and
+some Danes, whom she had brought with her from Denmark, she commenced
+to rule the country in a very arbitrary manner, and the people soon
+became greatly discontented. For a time the disaffection smouldered
+beneath the surface; but when the foreign rulers proceeded to introduce
+a new system of laws, fashioned in accordance with the development of
+the feudal system in the rest of Europe, there was a general uprising
+throughout the country.
+
+Among the laws introduced in King Svein's name were the following:
+No man must leave the country without the king's permission; or if
+he did, his property fell to the king. Whoever killed a man should
+forfeit his land and movable property. At Christmas every man had
+to give the king a certain portion of the products of his farm. The
+peasants were obliged to build all the houses the king required on his
+farms. For every seven males over the age of five years one man was to
+be furnished for the service of war. Every ship that went out of the
+country should have storage reserved for the king in the middle of the
+ship. Several heavy taxes were provided. And to all this was added a
+provision that the testimony of one Dane should invalidate that of ten
+Norwegians.
+
+When these laws were announced at the Thing in Throndhjem, loud murmurs
+were heard among the people. Those who had not taken part in the
+uprising against King Olaf said: "Now take your reward and friendship
+from Canute and his race, ye men of the interior of Throndhjem who
+fought against King Olaf, and deprived him of his kingdom. Ye were
+promised peace and justice, and now ye have got oppression and slavery
+for your great treachery." This was true, and the chiefs felt it well
+enough; but they were afraid of making open rebellion, as many of them
+had given King Canute their sons or other near relatives as hostages.
+
+At this time the people began to talk much of King Olaf's sanctity.
+There were many rumors of miracles in connection with the dead king,
+and it gradually became the general opinion that a great mistake or
+rather a crime had been committed by the rebellion against King Olaf.
+People began to severely reproach those who had excited opposition to
+the king, and among those especially accused was Bishop Sigurd. He got
+so many enemies that he found it most advisable to leave the country,
+and proceeded to England to King Canute. When Bishop Sigurd had left,
+the people of Throndhjem sent word to Bishop Grimkell, desiring him to
+come to Throndhjem. King Olaf had sent Bishop Grimkell back to Norway
+when he went east to Russia, and since that time Grimkell had been
+in the Uplands. He now came north and visited Einar Thambaskelfer,
+who received him with open arms. Einar congratulated himself upon not
+having taken part in the strife against King Olaf, and was now one of
+the mighty men who looked upon the dead king as a saint. Einar and the
+bishop obtained King Svein's leave to exhume the body of Olaf. It is
+said that they found that the coffin had raised itself almost entirely
+to the surface of the earth, and when the coffin was opened they found
+that the king's face was red as if he had merely fallen asleep, and his
+hair and nails had grown as if he had lived all the time. Grimkell now
+declared that King Olaf was truly a holy man, and with the approbation
+of the king and the decision of the Thing Olaf was declared the saint
+of the nation. His body was transported into Clement's church, where
+a place was made for it near the high altar. The coffin was covered
+with costly cloth, and stood under a gold embroidered tent. People soon
+began to make pilgrimages to the shrine of Saint Olaf, and gradually a
+great number of churches were built and dedicated to him, not only in
+Norway, but also in other countries.
+
+When King Svein had been three years in Norway, a young man, who called
+himself Trygve, and professed to be a son of Olaf Trygvason and Queen
+Gyda of England, came from the west with an armed force, intending to
+claim the throne of Norway. Svein called upon his chiefs to furnish
+him with men and ships in defence of the country, and an army was soon
+ready; but Einar Thambaskelfer, and Kalf Arneson, and some others
+refused to give aid. King Svein sailed south and met Trygve in battle
+in Sognesund. In this battle Trygve fell, and many of his men with him;
+but some fled, and others received quarter.
+
+After the battle in Sognesund King Svein returned to Throndhjem; but
+his stay there was not of long duration. He met the people at a Thing,
+and heard their complaints, but no understanding could be reached.
+Shortly afterward the situation became so strained that King Svein and
+his mother found it necessary to remove to the southern part of the
+country to spend the winter. During this winter Einar Thambaskelfer and
+Kalf Arneson had many consultations in Nidaros with the other chiefs,
+and the result was that in the spring a deputation of prominent chiefs,
+including Einar Thambaskelfer and Kalf Arneson, proceeded east to King
+Jaroslav in Russia to offer the throne of Norway to Magnus, the son
+of Olaf the Saint, who had been raised at King Jaroslav's court. They
+asked and received full forgiveness for having fought against Magnus's
+father at Stiklestad. They thereupon swore allegiance to Magnus, who,
+on the other hand, promised them under oath that he would be true and
+faithful to them all when he got the dominions and kingdom of Norway.
+Einar and Kalf were to act as his foster-fathers and counsellors.
+Magnus returned with them to Norway and was welcomed with great joy. At
+Oere-Thing he was proclaimed king over the whole land. When King Svein
+heard this news he tried to raise an army; but nobody would listen to
+him, and he and his mother were obliged to flee to Denmark. Here Svein
+died in the year 1036; his father Canute dying a short time before him.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+_Magnus the Good (1035-1047)_
+
+
+Magnus was a natural child of Olaf the Saint, his mother being a girl
+by the name of Alfhild, who was usually called the king's slave-woman,
+although she was of good descent. She was a very handsome girl and
+lived in King Olaf's court. It is said that when Magnus was born she
+was very sick, and it was some time after the birth before it could
+be discovered whether the boy was alive. A priest, who was present,
+requested Sigvat the Skald (poet) to hasten to the king and tell him
+of the event; but Sigvat refused, as the king had strictly forbidden
+anybody to awaken him in the middle of the night. As the child was
+very weak, however, they decided to baptize it, and Sigvat the Skald
+named the boy Magnus. The next morning the king demanded to know why
+they had named the boy Magnus, since there was no such name in his
+family. Sigvat said: "I called him after King Carl Magnus (Emperor
+Charlemagne), who, I knew, had been the best man in the world." This
+satisfied the king.
+
+Magnus was only eleven years old when he was proclaimed king at
+the Oere-Thing. In the beginning he allowed Kalf Arneson and Einar
+Thambaskelfer to take care of all government matters in his name; but
+he soon developed into a clever, intelligent young man with a great
+deal of independence. Hardeknut, who was then king of Denmark, was
+inclined to press his claims to Norway, which he had inherited from
+his father, Canute the Great, and collected an army. King Magnus also
+armed himself, and they were about to meet in battle at the Gaut River.
+However, the chiefs on both sides, who very much desired to avoid war,
+made overtures for peace, and the result was a friendly meeting between
+the kings at the Brenn Islands at the mouth of the Gaut River. They
+arranged for a brotherly union, under oath, to keep the peace with each
+other to the end of their lives; and if one of them should die without
+leaving a son, the survivor should succeed to both countries. Twelve of
+the principal men in each kingdom swore to the kings that this treaty
+should be observed.
+
+After the conciliation at the Brenn Islands Magnus was in undisputed
+possession of his father's throne. During his stay in the southern part
+of the country he had come in contact with his father's former friends
+and faithful adherents, who had a great deal to say about the actions
+of the Throndhjem people toward King Olaf. Magnus listened with great
+eagerness to this talk, and, before he really understood it, he had
+become possessed of a bitter feeling against those men who had been
+his father's opponents. He especially began to dislike Kalf Arneson,
+who, according to common belief, had dealt King Olaf the last deadly
+blow at Stiklestad. One day the king was at a feast at the Haug estate
+in Verdalen. At the table he said to Einar Thambaskelfer: "Let us ride
+to-day over to Stiklestad. I wish to see the different reminders of
+the battle." Einar replied: "Well, I know little about how matters went
+there; but take Kalf with thee: he can give thee information about all
+that took place." When the tables were removed, the king made himself
+ready, and said to Kalf: "Thou must go with me to Stiklestad." After
+repeating this command the king went out. Kalf put on his riding
+clothes in all haste, and said to his foot-boy: "Ride immediately to
+Eggja, and order my house-servants to have all my property on board my
+ship before sunset."
+
+The king and Kalf now rode over to Stiklestad. They alighted from their
+horses, and went to the place where the battle had been. "Where did the
+king fall?" asked Magnus. Kalf pointed with his spear, and said: "There
+he lay when he fell." The king further asked: "And where wast thou
+then, Kalf?" "Here, where I am now standing," answered Kalf. The king
+turned red as blood in the face, and said: "Then thy axe could well
+have reached him."
+
+Kalf replied: "My axe did not come near him." Then he immediately
+went to his horse, and rode away with all his men, while the king
+returned to Haug. When Kalf reached home he found his ship ready, and
+immediately sailed for the Orkneys. The king confiscated the Eggja
+estate and other possessions which Kalf left behind him.
+
+Magnus commenced to severely punish many of those who had borne
+arms against Saint Olaf. He drove some of them out of the country,
+took large sums of money from others, and had the cattle of others
+slaughtered for his use. Thorer Hund had escaped punishment by making
+a pilgrimage to Jerusalem shortly after Olaf's fall, and it is said
+that he never came back. Harek of Thiotta was killed with the king's
+consent by Asmund Grankelson, whose father had been killed by Harek.
+The people soon began to murmur, and the discontent spread throughout
+the country. In Sogn the people even gathered an armed force, and were
+determined to fight, if Magnus came into their district. When the
+young impetuous king heard of this, and made up his mind to punish the
+rebellious Sognings, his friends, who knew that the disaffection was
+widely spread through the country, decided to warn him of his danger.
+Twelve of his friends came together, and determined, by casting lots,
+which one of them should inform the king of the discontent of the
+people, and the lot fell upon Sigvat the Skald.
+
+Sigvat then composed a poem, which he called "The Free-speaking Song"
+(_Bersöglisvísur_), in which he reminded the king of the promises
+he made when he was proclaimed king, and advised him to be guided
+by that respect for the laws and the rights of the people which his
+predecessors had shown. He blamed him for his severity, and warned him
+of the danger threatening him and his country.
+
+Sigvat's song made a deep impression on the young king, and from now on
+he was an entirely changed man. He consulted the most prudent men, and
+revised the laws, repealing such of Svein Alfifuson's laws as were most
+obnoxious to the people. He codified the laws in a written book called
+"The Gray Goose" (_Graagaasen_).[7] It was only a short time before
+King Magnus became very popular, and was beloved by all the country
+people, who now called him Magnus the Good.
+
+[7] "The Gray Goose," so called probably from the color of the
+parchment on which it is written, is one of the most curious relics
+of the Middle Ages, and gives us an unexpected view of the social
+condition of the Northmen in the eleventh century. Law appears to
+have been so far advanced among them that the forms were not merely
+established, but the slightest breach of the legal forms of proceeding
+involved the loss of the case. "The Gray Goose" embraces subjects not
+dealt with probably by any other code in Europe at that period. The
+provision for the poor, the equality of weights and measures, police
+of markets and of sea havens, provision for illegitimate children of
+the poor, inns for travellers, wages of servants and support of them
+in sickness, protection of pregnant women and even of domestic animals
+from injury, roads, bridges, vagrants, beggars, are subjects treated of
+in this code. (S. Laing.)
+
+The Danish king, Hardeknut, who was also king of England, died of
+apoplexy at a wedding-feast at Lambeth, England, in June, 1042. This
+was the end of Danish rule in England. After the death of Hardeknut,
+his half-brother, Edward the Good, a son of the English king Ethelred
+and Queen Emma, was chosen king of England.
+
+When King Magnus heard of Hardeknut's death, he immediately sent word
+to Denmark that he intended to claim the Danish throne in accordance
+with the agreement made between himself and Hardeknut at their meeting
+at the Gaut River. Shortly afterward King Magnus proceeded to Denmark
+with a fine fleet of seventy ships. He was well received, and at a
+Thing assembled at Viborg, Jutland (where the Danes always elected
+their king), he was proclaimed king of all the Danish dominions. He
+remained in Denmark during the summer (1042), and wherever he came he
+was received with enthusiasm. He divided the country into districts and
+appointed administrative officers, gave fiefs to influential men, and
+took all steps to secure himself in power. In the autumn he returned to
+Norway.
+
+Among the Danes who swore allegiance to King Magnus was Svein, commonly
+called Svein Estridson, a son of Earl Ulf. His mother was Estrid
+(Astrid), a daughter of King Svein Tjuguskeg. She was a sister of
+Canute the Great by the father's side, and of the Swedish king Olaf
+by the mother's side, her mother being Queen Sigrid the Haughty. One
+day, as King Magnus was sitting in his high-seat with a large number of
+men around him, and with Svein Estridson sitting on a footstool before
+him, the king made a speech, in which he said that he had promised the
+Danes a chief who could defend and rule the country in the absence of
+the king. "And," he continued, "I know no better man fitted, in all
+respects, for this than Svein. I will therefore make him my earl, and
+give him the government of my Danish dominions while I am in Norway,
+just as King Canute the Great set his father, Earl Ulf, over Denmark
+while he was in England." Einar Thambaskelfer, who was with the king,
+was very ill-pleased with this appointment, as he put no faith in
+Svein, and said to the king: "Too great an earl, too great an earl, my
+foster-son!"
+
+King Magnus had an early opportunity to regret his choice, for,
+the same winter in which Svein was given the administration of the
+government of Denmark as earl, he successfully courted the friendship
+of the most influential men, and assumed the title of King of Denmark.
+King Magnus heard this news, and at the same time that the people of
+Vendland had a large army with which they plundered in Denmark. He
+then gathered a large force, with which he sailed to Denmark. There he
+summoned the people to come to him, and drew together a great army in
+Jutland. Ordulf, the duke of Brunswick, who the year before had married
+Ulfhild, the daughter of King Olaf the Saint, and the half-sister of
+King Magnus,[8] also came to his aid with a great force. King Magnus
+met the Vends in battle at Lyrskog Heath in Schleswig and gained a
+great victory. It was generally reported in the army that King Magnus
+had a vision the night before the battle, in which Olaf the Saint had
+appeared and had given the king advice. "It is the common saying," says
+the saga, "that there never was so great a slaughter of men in the
+northern lands, since the time of Christianity, as took place among the
+Vendland people on Lyrskog Heath." This was on the 28th of September,
+1043. King Magnus followed up his victory, and sailed to Vendland,
+attacked and captured the fortress of Jomsborg. A great many of the
+people of Vendland submitted to King Magnus, while others fled the
+country.
+
+[8] From this union descended, in direct line, the royal house of
+Brunswick and Saxony, whose members until lately occupied the thrones
+of Hanover and Brunswick and still reign in England.
+
+After this King Magnus turned his attention to Earl Svein. A battle was
+fought, and Svein had to flee to his relatives in Sweden. But as soon
+as Magnus went to Norway, Svein would return to Denmark and strengthen
+himself with the Danes, and Magnus had continual wars with his earl.
+Among the principal battles were those at Aaros (now Aarhus) and
+Helganes.
+
+When King Magnus came back to Norway in the autumn of 1045, after
+one of his battles with Svein, he heard that his relative, Harald
+Sigurdson, had come to Sweden on his way to Norway, and that Harald and
+Svein had come to an understanding, and intended to endeavor to subdue
+both Denmark and Norway. King Magnus then ordered a general levy over
+all Norway, and he soon collected a great army with which to meet the
+intruder. The relatives and friends of both Harald and Magnus, however,
+said that it would be a great misfortune if there should be war between
+them, and the result was a friendly meeting, where Magnus gave Harald
+half of his kingdom. They were to rule together on equal terms; but
+whenever they were together in one place King Magnus was to be "the
+first man in seat, service and salutation." King Magnus died the
+following year (1047) on one of his expeditions to Denmark. Before his
+death King Magnus declared that Svein Estridson was to have Denmark,
+while Harald should rule over Norway.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+_Harald Haardraade (1047-1066)_
+
+
+Harald, the son of Sigurd Syr and Astrid, now became the sole king
+of Norway. As we have seen, Harald fled from the country after the
+battle of Stiklestad (1030). He went to Russia to the court of King
+Jaroslav, who received him with kindness and made him a commander in
+the army. Harald remained in the service of King Jaroslav for three
+years, and then went with a body of men to Constantinople (called by
+the Northmen Miklagaard), where he soon became the captain or chief
+of the Varings. (The Varings were the bodyguard of the emperors, and
+the guard was composed mostly of Northmen.) With them he went on many
+expeditions, and always gained victories and a great deal of booty. He
+conducted expeditions against the Saracens in Africa (which the Varings
+called Serkland), where he gathered great wealth in gold, jewels,
+and other precious things. He also served in Sicily, where he won
+several battles. After having spent several years in these campaigns
+he returned to Constantinople, and then went to Jerusalem, and bathed
+in the river Jordan, according to the custom of other pilgrims.
+Thereafter he returned to Russia and was received in the most friendly
+way by King Jaroslav. He married the latter's daughter, Elisabeth, or
+Ellisif, as the Northmen called her.
+
+When King Magnus died, Harald, as already stated, became sole king
+of Norway. But he also wanted Denmark, and called his men-at-arms
+together, and told them that he intended to go with an army to Viborg
+Thing and there proclaim himself king of Denmark, to which, he said,
+he had the hereditary right, as well as to Norway. The friends of the
+late King Magnus, however, did not like this, and Einar Thambaskelfer
+said that he considered it a greater duty to bring his foster son King
+Magnus's corpse to the grave, and lay it beside his father King Olaf's
+north in Throndhjem, than to be fighting abroad, and taking another
+king's dominions and property. He ended his speech with saying that
+he would rather follow King Magnus dead than any other king alive.
+The result was that King Harald returned to Norway with his army. For
+many years thereafter King Harald was at war with Svein Estridson (or
+Ulfson), but did not succeed in driving him away from Denmark.
+
+Einar Thambaskelfer was the most powerful man in the Throndhjem
+country. There was but little friendship between him and King Harald,
+although Einar retained all the fiefs he had held under King Magnus.
+Einar had many large estates, and was married to Bergliot, a daughter
+of Earl Haakon. Their son Eindride was married to Sigrid, a daughter of
+Ketil Kalf and Gunhild, King Harald's sister's daughter. Einar was well
+versed in law, and often acted as spokesman for the peasants at the
+Things, when the king demanded more of the people than was his right.
+This happened more than once, for Harald's rule was quite severe.
+Therefore he was called Harald _Haardraade_, or Hard-ruler. Einar did
+not lack the boldness to assert his opinions at the Things, even in the
+presence of the king; and for this reason he was held in high esteem
+by the people, while the king came to hate him more after every such
+dispute. Einar, therefore, began to keep a number of men around him
+whenever the king was in the neighborhood. One day he came to the town
+(Nidaros) with eight or nine ships and nearly six hundred men. When
+Harald, who was standing in the doorway of his house, saw Einar going
+ashore, he exclaimed in verse: "Here I see Einar Thambaskelfer land
+with quite a force. In his haughtiness he probably expects even to fill
+the royal chair; for often has even an earl a smaller force of men
+with him. This Einar will some day deprive me of my kingdom, unless he
+himself has to kiss the thin lips of the axe."
+
+One day there was a meeting, at which the king himself was present. A
+thief had been caught and was brought before the Thing. The man had
+been in the service of Einar, who had liked him very well. Einar well
+knew that the king would not let the man off, especially as Einar
+took an interest in him. He therefore let his men arm themselves,
+went to the Thing, and took the man away by force. The mutual friends
+of the king and Einar then intervened and tried to bring about a
+reconciliation, and they succeeded so far that a day was appointed for
+a meeting between them at the king's house at the river Nid. The king
+had the shutters for the smoke-hole in the roof closed so as to exclude
+the light. When Einar came into the yard with his people, he told his
+son Eindride to remain outside with the men, "for there is no danger
+here for me." Eindride remained standing outside the door. When Einar
+came into the room, he said: "Dark it is in the king's Thing-room."
+At this some men fell upon him with spears and swords. "Sharp are now
+the bites of the king's dogs," said Einar, and rushed toward the king,
+but was felled to the floor by the king's men. When Eindride heard the
+noise he drew his sword and rushed into the room; but he was instantly
+killed along with his father. The king then went with all his men
+to his ships, and rowed down the river, the peasants not having the
+courage to pursue him after having lost their leader. Einar's wife
+Bergliot, who came up from her home, and in vain urged the peasants to
+pursue the murderers, said: "Now we miss my kinsman, Haakon Ivarson:
+Einar's slayer would not be rowing out of the river if Ivar stood here
+on the river-bank."
+
+Bergliot sent word to Haakon Ivarson (a son of Ivar the White, nephew
+of Earl Haakon the Great), who was a mighty man in the Uplands, and
+requested him to avenge the death of Einar and Eindride. Meanwhile
+King Harald proceeded to his kinsman by marriage, Fin Arneson, who
+lived at Austraat in Yrjar, and persuaded him to first go to Nidaros
+and bring about a reconciliation with the peasants, and thereafter to
+proceed to the Uplands and reach an understanding with Haakon Ivarson,
+so that he would not oppose the king. In return for this the king
+promised to recall to the country Fin's brother Kalf, and restore to
+him the estates and dignities of which King Magnus had deprived him. To
+Haakon Ivarson, Fin was to offer any favor he might wish short of the
+kingdom. Fin successfully accomplished both of the missions intrusted
+to him. Haakon Ivarson said, as to the conditions of peace: "I will
+be reconciled with King Harald if he will give me in marriage his
+relation Ragnhild, King Magnus Olafson's daughter, with such dower as
+is suitable to her and she will be content with," and Fin agreed to
+this on behalf of the king.
+
+The next Christmas Haakon went to King Harald to ask the fulfilment
+of the pledges given him. The king said that he, for his part, would
+adhere to the whole agreement; but as for Ragnhild it would be
+necessary for Haakon to ask her consent himself. When Haakon came to
+Ragnhild, and paid his addresses to her, she answered: "I have no
+fault to find with thee, for thou art a handsome man, expert in all
+exercises. But thou must remember I am a king's daughter, while thou
+art only a lenderman. Had my father, King Magnus, lived he would have
+found that no man less than a king was suitable for me; so it is not
+to be expected that I will marry one who has no princely rank." Haakon
+then went to the king and demanded that he be made an earl under the
+agreement made with Fin Arneson. This the king refused to do, saying
+that it had been the custom since the time of Saint Olaf to have only
+one earl in the country, and he could not take the title from Orm, who
+now held it. Haakon now understood that there was nothing to obtain
+from the king, and left in disgust. Fin Arneson became very angry, and
+told the king that he had broken his word.
+
+Haakon shortly afterward left the country with a well-manned ship,
+and went to King Svein of Denmark, who received him well and made him
+commander of his coast defence against the vikings from Vendland,
+Kurland and other eastern countries.
+
+It was not a long time before Fin Arneson fell out with the king.
+His brother Kalf, who had been on a viking cruise to the "Western"
+(British) countries ever since he had left Norway, was recalled by the
+king and given back his estates according to agreement. But shortly
+afterward, during an expedition to Denmark, the king sent Kalf ashore
+on the island Fyen with a small force of men, and commanded him to
+attack a much stronger Danish force, promising that he would soon make
+a landing with the others and come to their assistance. Kalf obeyed,
+and was attacked by a great force of the enemy, and he and many of his
+men were killed. A long while afterward, when the Danes had withdrawn,
+Harald landed and made a plundering expedition into the country. Later
+he composed some verses, in which he boasted of having caused the death
+of thirteen men, and Fin rightly supposed that his brother was one of
+them. Fin took this matter so much to heart that he left Norway and
+went to King Svein of Denmark, who gave him a friendly reception. He
+swore allegiance to King Svein, and was made earl of Halland (now a
+province of Sweden), where he remained for a long time and defended the
+country against the Northmen.
+
+Haakon Ivarson showed great zeal in his position as commander of the
+Danish coast defence, being out with his warships both winter and
+summer, and was in high favor with King Svein, until he attacked and
+killed the king's nephew, Asmund, an ungovernable young man, who had
+been killing and plundering everywhere, both abroad and at home, and
+whom Haakon thought the king much desired to get rid of. The king sent
+Haakon a message that he had better leave the country. "Tell him," he
+said, "that I will do him no harm; but I cannot answer for all our
+relations." Haakon then proceeded north to his estates in Norway.
+During his stay in Denmark his relative, Earl Orm, had died. His
+many friends therefore gave themselves much trouble to bring about a
+reconciliation between him and King Harald, and in this they succeeded.
+Haakon was given the title of earl, with the same power that Earl Orm
+had had, and was married to Ragnhild, King Magnus's daughter. He swore
+to King Harald an oath of fidelity and pledged himself to render all
+the service he was liable to.
+
+In the winter of 1061-62, King Harald resided at Nidaros, where he
+commenced building a large warship. He sent a message south to Denmark
+to King Svein, and challenged him to meet him in the spring at the Gaut
+River and fight, with the understanding that the one who gained the
+victory should have both kingdoms. King Svein accepted the challenge,
+but did not keep the appointment. King Harald, who had arrived at the
+place agreed upon, heard that Svein's forces lay in the south, partly
+at Fyen and partly about Seeland. Harald then sailed southward along
+Halland with one hundred and eighty of his ships, and brought up his
+fleet at the Nis-Aa (Nis River). Shortly afterward King Svein came upon
+them with a Danish fleet consisting of three hundred and sixty ships.
+King Harald held a war council, and many said that it would be better
+to fly than to fight with a fleet twice the size of their own. The king
+replied: "Sooner shall we all fall and lie dead one upon another than
+fly." King Harald drew up his ships in battle array, laying his great
+dragon ship in the middle. At his side lay Ulf Stallara, and on the
+other wing lay the ships of Earl Haakon Ivarson from the Uplands. At
+the extremity of the other side lay the Throndhjem chiefs. It was late
+in the day when the battle began, and it continued the whole night.
+The battle was very severe, and toward morning the greater part of
+the Danish fleet broke into flight. While Harald pursued some of the
+Danes, King Svein made his escape with the aid of Earl Haakon Ivarson,
+who, during the battle, had contributed more than any one else to the
+victory of the Norwegians.
+
+King Harald sailed north to Viken with all the conquered ships after
+the battle of Nis River, and spent the winter at Oslo. Earl Haakon went
+to the Uplands and remained in his dominions there during the winter.
+In the spring, however, he gathered all his loose property and fled
+eastward; for he heard that King Harald had again become his enemy,
+mainly because Haakon had allowed King Svein to escape after the battle
+of Nis River. Haakon proceeded to King Steinkel of Sweden, who gave him
+the province of Vermeland to govern. When Haakon heard that King Harald
+had gone north to Throndhjem, he made a hurried expedition back to the
+Uplands and collected the taxes due him. The next summer King Harald
+in vain tried to collect taxes in the same places. Then King Harald
+gathered an army, with which he invaded Sweden, and defeated Haakon.
+Upon his return he severely punished the people of the Uplands for
+having been disloyal. He maimed some, killed others, and robbed many of
+all their property.
+
+Year after year King Harald had made war on Denmark without coming
+nearer to King Svein's throne. It appears that finally the people in
+both counties became tired of this continual and wasteful warfare, and
+during the same winter that Earl Haakon had settled down in Vermeland,
+Sweden, there were many negotiations between leading men of both
+countries who wanted peace and demanded that their kings should come
+to an agreement. The result was a meeting of the two kings at the Gaut
+River, where peace was agreed upon. Harald was to have Norway, and
+Svein Denmark; the war should cease as it now stood, each retaining
+what he had got, and this peace should endure as long as they were
+kings. This peace was confirmed by oath, and the kings parted, having
+given each other hostages (1064).
+
+In the year 1066, Earl Toste came from England and asked King Harald
+to aid him in an attempt to conquer England from his brother Harald
+Godwinson, who had been proclaimed king of England. Earl Toste had
+already been on a similar mission to Denmark, but King Svein Estridson
+had declared that he would be content if he could keep his own kingdom
+and defend that against the Northmen. King Harald Sigurdson looked
+upon the plan with more favor, and promised his help. He collected
+an army and sailed for England with a large fleet. Before he left
+Throndhjem he gave the reins of the government to his son Magnus,
+whom he had proclaimed king at the Oere-Thing. He took with him his
+younger son Olaf, the queen and two daughters. At first King Harald
+was very successful against the Englishmen, and after a great victory
+the citizens of York surrendered the city to him. In the evening he
+returned to his ships to spend the night. Later in the same evening,
+however, King Harald Godwinson arrived with a numerous army, and rode
+into the city with the goodwill and consent of the people of the
+castle. All the gates and walls were beset so that the Northmen could
+receive no report of their arrival, and the army remained all night in
+the town.
+
+In the morning King Harald Sigurdson landed with a portion of his
+army, leaving the remainder behind with the ships. As they came across
+Stanford Bridge, they discovered a numerous army approaching. Earl
+Toste advised a speedy return to the ships to get more men and arms;
+but Harald Sigurdson did not wish to appear cowardly, and elected
+instead to send three messengers with their fastest horses back to
+the ships with an order to the men there to immediately come to their
+assistance. Harald then arranged his men in a line of battle, long but
+not deep. Then he turned both wings backward until they met together,
+so that the army formed a wide ring of the men standing shield to
+shield. Thus he would defend himself against the enemy's horsemen,
+from whom he expected a violent attack. Those in the first rank were
+ordered to set the spear-shaft on the ground, and the spear-point
+against the horseman's breast; those in the next rank were to direct
+the spear-point against the horse's breast. Inside the ring, the bowmen
+were to stand, and here he also selected a place for himself and Earl
+Toste, and a body of chosen men. Now the English king approached with
+his army, which was twice as large as that of the Northmen. While
+Harald was yet arranging his army, riding around on his black horse,
+twenty horsemen came riding up from the English army, and asked if Earl
+Toste was there. The earl himself answered: "Here you can find him."
+One of the horsemen, speaking for the English king, then offered the
+earl peace and a third of the kingdom if he would be reconciled with
+his brother. The earl said: "But if I accept this offer, what will he
+give King Harald Sigurdson for his trouble?" The horseman replied: "He
+will give him seven feet of English ground, or as much more as he may
+be taller than other men." "Then," said the earl, "return and tell King
+Harald to get ready for battle. Never shall the Northmen have a chance
+to say that Earl Toste left King Harald Sigurdson to join his enemy."
+Then the horsemen returned to the English army. King Harald Sigurdson
+said to Earl Toste: "Who was the man who spoke so well?" "That was my
+brother, King Harald Godwinson," said the earl. "Too late I learned
+that," said the king; "for he had come so near to our army that he
+never should have been able to report the felling of our men."
+
+Now the battle began, the English horsemen advancing against the
+Northmen; but as long as the Northmen remained standing in a ring,
+shield to shield, and with the spears pointing out, the enemy could
+do nothing against them. But when the Northmen thought the enemy was
+retiring, they were imprudent enough to pursue the Englishmen, and thus
+break their own invincible ring. Then the Englishmen rode up from all
+sides, and made a terrible attack. Many people fell on both sides. King
+Harald Sigurdson was hit by an arrow in the throat and fell dead to the
+ground, and most of his men fell around him. Harald was fifty-one years
+old when he died (1066).
+
+The town of Oslo (now a suburb of Christiania) was founded during the
+reign of King Harald Sigurdson. A church was built there and dedicated
+to the Virgin Mary. The shrine of the holy Halvard, lately discovered
+and acknowledged as a national saint, was placed in this church.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX
+
+_Olaf Kyrre, the Quiet (1066-1093)_
+
+
+The English king permitted King Harald Sigurdson's son Olaf to leave
+the country with the men he had left. Olaf proceeded to the Orkney
+Isles, where he remained during the winter (1066-67). The next summer
+he returned to Norway, where he was proclaimed king along with his
+brother, Magnus taking the northern and Olaf the eastern part of the
+country.
+
+Shortly after the two brothers had assumed the government, the Danish
+king, Svein Estridson, gave notice that the peace between the Northmen
+and the Danes was at an end. The brothers hurriedly collected armies
+to defend the country, and Svein set out from the south with a Danish
+force. He met King Olaf on the coast of Halland, where an indecisive
+battle was fought. Soon afterward Magnus arrived with reinforcements
+from the north, but then negotiations were opened, and peace was
+concluded on the old conditions at Konungahella. The agreement here
+made was confirmed by Olaf taking King Svein's daughter Ingerid in
+marriage.
+
+The following year King Magnus died at Nidaros, April 28, 1069, after
+being ill for some time. His son, Haakon, who was fostered by Thorer of
+Steig in Gudbrandsdal, being only an infant child, Olaf now became sole
+king of Norway.
+
+After the short conflict with Denmark, Olaf had no wars. A long period
+of peace was something new in the history of the country, and the
+people therefore gave King Olaf the surname _Kyrre_, _i.e._, the Quiet.
+He preserved law and order with firmness, and did a great deal to
+promote commerce and the prosperity of the towns. Before his time there
+were three towns in Viken (Tunsberg, Oslo, and Sarpsborg), and one in
+Throndhjem (Nidaros). King Olaf founded the merchant town of Bergen
+(then Björgvin), where many wealthy people settled down, and the place
+was soon regularly frequented by merchants from foreign countries. The
+other towns also made good progress.
+
+In King Olaf's time there were held a greater number of general
+entertainments and hand-in-hand feasts than formerly. Already, during
+the heathen time, the Northmen used to arrange feasts by clubbing
+together. After the introduction of Christianity they were continued,
+but naturally changed their character. These feasts, which from
+the time of Olaf Kyrre were called guilds, had a partly religious
+character, and appear to have been regular meetings of fraternities,
+whose members were pledged to defend and help each other. The members
+were called guild-brethren and guild-sisters, and each guild was under
+the protection of a saint. The members were governed by strict laws,
+and in order to insure good and peaceful behavior, men of dignity, both
+clergymen and laymen, were present at the meetings. King Olaf built
+several guild-halls in different parts of the country, among them the
+great guild-hall in Nidaros. The guild-brethren built Margaret's church
+in Nidaros.
+
+There are many stories of King Olaf's good works. Once when he sat
+in the great guild-hall in Nidaros, one of his men said to him: "It
+pleases us, king, to see you so happy." He answered: "Why should I
+not be happy when I see my subjects sitting happy and free in a guild
+consecrated to my uncle, the sainted King Olaf. In the days of my
+father these people were subjected to much terror and fear; the most
+of them concealed their gold and their precious things, but now I see
+glittering on his person what each one owns, and your freedom is my
+gladness."
+
+At the Things, King Olaf did not speak much, preferring to let others
+speak for him. One who was often intrusted with this duty was his
+foster-brother Skule, who was a son of Earl Toste, and was usually
+called the king's foster-son. Skule, who had come over with him from
+England, was made commander of King Olaf's court-men and was given the
+king's cousin Gudrun in marriage. He was a dear friend of the king,
+who gave him fine estates near Konungahella, Oslo, and Nidaros. The
+principal one of these estates was Reine in Rissen, which became the
+seat of this afterward powerful family. Skule was the ancestor of King
+Inge Baardson and Duke Skule.
+
+King Olaf made several changes in the rooms on the king's estates. The
+king had formerly had his high-seat on the middle of one of two long
+benches at the long walls of the house; but Olaf had the high-seat
+removed to a cross-bench at the short wall facing the entrance.
+Formerly the fire was in the middle of the floor between the long
+benches; but Olaf had the fireplace removed to one corner of the room,
+where he had a kind of a chimney-place built. He had the floors, which
+had formerly been without covering, covered with stone and strewed
+with juniper-tops. He introduced table-cups instead of the deer-horns
+out of which they formerly used to drink. Much unusual splendor and
+foreign fashions in the cut of clothes were also introduced. King Olaf
+doubled the number of attendants, so that he had one hundred and twenty
+courtmen-at-arms (_hird-men_), sixty "guests,"[9] and sixty house
+servants. He used the fashion, which was introduced from the courts
+of foreign kings, of letting his grand butler stand at the end of the
+table, and fill the cups for himself and the other distinguished guests
+who sat at the table. He had also torch-bearers, who held as many
+torches at the table as there were guests of distinction present.
+
+[9] The "guests" were one division of the king's men. They were of a
+lower rank than the _hird-men_.
+
+King Olaf Kyrre was a devout Christian. A better order was introduced
+in the affairs of the church, and the country was divided into three
+bishoprics. Many churches were built, among the largest of which were
+the Christ Church in Bergen and the Christ Church in Nidaros.
+
+King Olaf died on his estate, Haukby, in Ranrike, September 22, 1098.
+His body was brought north to Nidaros and buried in Christ Church. The
+saga says of King Olaf: "He was the most amiable king of his time, and
+Norway was much improved in riches and cultivation during his reign."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI
+
+_Magnus Barefoot (1093-1103)_
+
+
+Immediately after the death of Olaf Kyrre, his son Magnus was
+proclaimed at Viken king of all Norway; but the Upland people chose his
+cousin Haakon, the foster-son of Thorer of Steig, as king. Haakon and
+Thorer went north to Throndhjem and summoned the Oere-Thing at Nidaros,
+and the people there proclaimed Haakon king of half of Norway, as his
+father had been. In order to win the goodwill of the Throndhjem people,
+Haakon relieved them of all harbor duties, did away with the Christmas
+gifts to the king, and gave them many other privileges. Thereafter he
+returned to the Uplands, where he gave the people the same privileges.
+
+In the meanwhile King Magnus proceeded north to Nidaros, took
+possession of the king's house built by Harald Haardraade, and remained
+there the first part of the winter. When Haakon heard of this he also
+came up to Nidaros, and negotiations were opened for a settlement
+between the rival kings, Haakon offering to accept half the kingdom
+and let Magnus retain the other half. Magnus refused to acknowledge
+any rights of Haakon, and a conflict seemed imminent. However, one
+day, after having made quite a demonstration with his force, Magnus
+sailed southward, and Haakon also decided to go south, taking the
+inland route. While he was crossing the Dovre Mountain, he pursued a
+ptarmigan, which flew up beside him; and during this chase he was taken
+violently ill, and died on the mountain. His body was brought back to
+Nidaros, and all the people went to meet the body, as the saga says,
+"sorrowing, and the most of them weeping; for all the people loved him
+with sincere affection." Haakon, who was twenty-five years old at his
+death, was laid at rest in Christ Church (February, 1094).
+
+Magnus Olafson was now sole king of Norway. A rebellion was started by
+some of the adherents of the late King Haakon, under the leadership of
+Thorer of Steig and the late Haakon's near friend, Svein, who aspired
+to become king. Svein was a Dane by birth, said to be of high family
+and a brave warrior. His father was one Harald Flette, of whom nothing
+is known. Several chiefs took part in this movement, among them the
+rich and powerful man, Skialg Erlingson from Jadaren, and Egil Aslakson
+of Aurland. The force proceeded from Gudbrandsdal down to Raumsdal,
+and afterward north to Throndhjem. King Magnus's liegeman and devoted
+friend, Sigurd Ulstreng, collected a force and met Thorer and Svein in
+battle, but suffered a bad defeat. He fled to King Magnus, who then
+collected an army, and proceeded north to Throndhjem. Magnus scattered
+the rebels, and captured Thorer of Steig and Egil Aslakson, and hanged
+them. Svein, Harald Flette's son, fled out to sea first, and then
+sailed to Denmark and remained there. King Magnus punished severely all
+who had been guilty of treason toward him, killing some and burning the
+houses of others.
+
+King Magnus now had undisputed control of Norway, and devoted himself
+to the care of his country and his people. By his vigorous rule he
+maintained peace and order, and rooted out all vikings and lawless
+men. With his restless and ambitious disposition, however, he yearned
+for greater deeds and for fame in war. Wishing to retake the western
+countries, which had been dependencies of Norway under his ancestors,
+he set out with a great fleet, and first came to the Orkney Islands.
+There he took the two earls, Paul and Erlend, prisoners, and sent
+them to Norway, and placed his eight year old son Sigurd as chief of
+the islands, leaving some wise men with him as counsellors. Then King
+Magnus proceeded to the Southern Hebrides, where he harried the coasts
+and plundered wherever he came. Afterward he sailed to Wales and won a
+battle at Anglesey Sound, and took the Anglesey Isle. After this battle
+he returned north with his fleet, and came first to Scotland. He made
+a peace with the Scotch king, by which all the islands lying west of
+Scotland should belong to the king of Norway. King Magnus remained all
+the winter in the southern isles, and the next summer he returned with
+his fleet to Norway (1099).
+
+During their long stay in the Western countries King Magnus and his
+men had adopted some of the habits and fashions of clothing of those
+countries. They wore short jackets and kilts without breeches. On
+account of this the king was called Magnus Barefoot or Bareleg.
+
+A short time after his return to Norway, King Magnus became involved in
+war with the Swedish king, Inge Steinkelson. Magnus insisted that the
+Gaut River and Lake Venern should be considered the boundary between
+the countries, so that the Swedish district of Dalsland would belong to
+Norway. This war lasted for two years, and was generally unsuccessful
+for King Magnus. In the spring of 1100 there was a battle at Foxerne
+(at the Gaut River, between Kongself and Wenersborg), in which the
+Norwegians were overwhelmed by numbers, driven to flight, and many
+of them killed by the pursuing Swedes. King Magnus was easily known,
+for he was a stout man, had a red cloak over him, and bright yellow
+hair that fell over his shoulders. Ogmund Skoptason, who was also a
+tall and handsome man, rode at the side of the king. He saved the king
+by putting on the king's cloak. He started off in a little different
+direction, and the Swedes, supposing him to be the king, rode after
+him, while the king proceeded to his ships. Ogmund escaped with great
+difficulty, but succeeded at last in reaching the ships. King Magnus
+then sailed down the river and proceeded north to Viken.
+
+The next summer a meeting of the kings was agreed upon at Konghelle
+on the Gaut River. The Danish king, Erik Eiegod, desired to have an
+archbishopric established for the northern countries, and it was
+important to have the other kings with him to execute this plan. By
+his mediation the meeting of the three kings was arranged, and they
+soon came to an understanding. Each should possess the dominions his
+forefathers had held before him, and each should make good to his own
+men the loss and manslaughter suffered by them. King Inge agreed to
+give King Magnus his daughter Margaret in marriage. This agreement was
+proclaimed to the people, and thus, within a short hour, the greatest
+enemies were made the best of friends.
+
+Shortly afterward Margaret, King Inge's daughter, came to Norway with
+an honorable retinue, and her wedding with King Magnus was celebrated
+with great festivities. The Norwegians liked their new queen, whom they
+considered as a pledge of the peace with Sweden, and they therefore
+called her _Fridkolla_, _i.e._, the peace-girl.
+
+When Magnus had been nine years king of Norway, he again sailed
+westward with a great force. He first conquered the Isle of Man, and
+afterward proceeded to Ireland and conquered a great part of that
+country. He lay at Ulster, and was about ready to return to Norway,
+when he was suddenly attacked by an Irish army. King Magnus had a
+helmet on his head, a red shield on which there was a golden lion, and
+was girt with his costly sword, Legbit; in his hand he had a short
+spear, and over his shirt a red silk cloak. King Magnus received a
+wound, being pierced by a spear through both thighs above the knees.
+The king took hold of the shaft between his legs, broke the spear in
+two, and said: "This way we break spearshafts, boys; let us go briskly
+on; nothing ails me." A little later King Magnus was hit in the neck
+with an Irish axe, and this was his death-wound. Then those who were
+behind fled. Vidkun Jonson, from Biarkey (a great-grandson of Thorer
+Hund), instantly killed the man who had given the king his death-wound,
+and fled, after having received three wounds; but he brought the king's
+banner and the sword Legbit to the ships. Vidkun Jonson was the last
+man who fled. The Northmen who escaped sailed away immediately.
+
+King Magnus was thirty years old when he fell.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXII
+
+_Sigurd the Crusader (1103-1130), and his Brothers, Eystein and Olaf_
+
+
+In the autumn the remnants of King Magnus's army and fleet left the
+island of Man, and with his thirteen year old son, Sigurd, returned
+to Norway. On their arrival in Norway, Sigurd and his two brothers,
+Eystein and Olaf, were proclaimed kings. Eystein, who was fourteen
+years old, was to have the northern, and Sigurd the southern, part of
+the country. Olaf was then four or five years old, and his third part
+of the country remained under the control of his two brothers.
+
+When the three sons of Magnus Barefoot had been chosen kings of Norway,
+several of those who had been away taking part in the crusades returned
+home. They had made themselves renowned, and had many things to relate.
+Some had been to Jerusalem and some to Constantinople, and it was said
+that those who would enter the military service at Constantinople had
+the best of opportunities to earn great money. By these extraordinary
+tidings many of the Northmen were seized by a desire to make similar
+expeditions, and they asked of the two kings that one of them should
+place himself at the head of such an expedition. The kings agreed to
+this, and had the preparations made at their common expense. Many of
+the great men in the country took part in this enterprise, and when all
+was ready it was decided that Sigurd was to go with the crusade, while
+Eystein was to stay at home and govern the country for their joint
+account.
+
+Four years after the fall of King Magnus (1107), King Sigurd sailed
+from Norway with sixty ships. He first visited the king of England,
+Henry I., and remained with him during the winter. In the spring he
+sailed with his fleet to Valland (the west of France), and in the
+fall came to Galicia, Spain, where he stayed the second winter. Along
+the coast he had several battles with the heathens. At the Straits
+of Gibraltar he defeated a large viking force, and on the island of
+Forminterra, east of Spain, he exterminated a band of Moorish brigands
+and took a great booty. After similar victories on the islands of Ivica
+and Minorca, he came to Sicily, where he was very well received by Duke
+Roger. It is stated in the saga that King Sigurd, during his stay in
+Sicily, conferred upon Duke Roger the title of king, though with what
+right he did so does not appear, nor is it mentioned by contemporary
+historians.
+
+In the summer King Sigurd sailed to Palestine, and at Acre met Baldwin,
+king of Palestine, who received him particularly well, accompanied him
+to Jerusalem and showed him the holy sepulchre and other sacred places.
+They also rode to the river Jordan and bathed in it, and then returned
+to Jerusalem. King Baldwin and the patriarch of Jerusalem presented
+Sigurd with a splinter of the holy cross, with the condition that he,
+and twelve other men with him, should swear to promote Christianity
+with all their power, and erect an archbishop's seat in Norway if
+possible, and the splinter was to be kept where the holy king Olaf
+reposed. Thereupon King Sigurd with his fleet assisted King Baldwin
+in capturing the town of Sidon, Syria, and received his share of a
+great booty. He then proceeded to Constantinople, and was received in
+the grandest style by Emperor Alexius. After having stayed here for
+some time and enjoyed the great festivities given in his honor, King
+Sigurd made preparations for his return home. He gave the emperor all
+his ships, and the valuable dragon head which had adorned his own ship
+was set up in the Sophia church. The emperor gave him horses and guides
+to conduct him through his dominions. Leaving quite a number of his
+men, who went into the service of the emperor, King Sigurd started
+homeward on horseback through Bulgaria, Hungary and Germany. When in
+the midsummer of 1111 he came to Schleswig in Denmark, Earl Eilif gave
+him a magnificent reception. Here he also met the Danish king Nils, who
+had married his stepmother, Margaret Fridkolla. King Nils accompanied
+him north to Jutland, and gave him a ship provided with everything
+needful. He then returned to Norway, where he was joyfully received by
+his people. He had been absent three years and a half, and all agreed
+that no one had ever made a more honorable expedition from Norway. From
+this day he was given the surname _Jorsalfar_, _i.e._, the Crusader.
+
+While King Sigurd was attaining fame on his journeys far away from his
+country, King Eystein was occupied with peaceful achievements at home.
+A great deal was done for the real benefit of the country, and under
+his wise government Norway made progress in the same way that it had
+done in the time of his grandfather Olaf Kyrre. He improved the laws,
+built churches and monasteries, made harbors, and established beacon
+lights. On the mountain of Dovre he built cabins, where travellers
+could find shelter. In Bergen he built the monastery at Nordnes,
+Michael's Church, the Church of the Apostles, and the great king's
+hall. In Nidaros he built the Church of St. Nikolas. He also built a
+Church at Throndenes in Halogaland. King Eystein also extended the
+limits of the country, not by warfare and bloodshed, but by peaceful
+negotiations. Thus he gained the allegiance of the inhabitants of the
+Swedish province Jemteland, which was formerly a Norwegian province,
+but was taken by Sweden after the fall of Olaf Trygvason.
+
+King Olaf was taken sick and died before he reached manhood, and
+it seems to have been only in name that he had any share in the
+government. The relation between Eystein and Sigurd was not always the
+most cordial, and Sigurd was usually to blame for it. The winter of
+1112-13 King Eystein spent most of the time at Sarpsborg. There lived
+at that time at Mikle-Dal in Aamord a rich and influential man called
+Olaf of Dal. He spent a good part of the winter at Sarpsborg with his
+daughter Borghild, a very handsome and accomplished girl. Borghild and
+King Eystein often met, and the king found great pleasure in conversing
+with her. The people began to talk about this friendship, and King
+Sigurd, who was then at Konghelle, also heard of the girl that his
+brother had taken a liking to. When Borghild heard it whispered that
+people talked ill of her intimacy with King Eystein, she took it much
+to heart. When Eystein had gone north she went to Sarpsborg, and, after
+suitable fasts, carried red-hot irons to prove her innocence, endured
+the test, and thus cleared herself from all offence. Sigurd then rode
+over to her home, where he remained all night, made Borghild his
+concubine and took her away with him. They had a son, who was called
+Magnus, and was immediately sent to Halogaland to be fostered by Vidkun
+Jonson of Biarkey.
+
+The relation between the brothers remained strained as long as they
+both were kings, but it never came to a breach of peace. Occasionally
+they even peacefully met as each other's guests. On one of these
+occasions, when the two kings were feasting together at one of
+Eystein's estates, they had what was called a "man-measuring," or
+comparison of merits. The saga says that in the evening, when the
+people began to drink, the ale was not good, so that the guests were
+very quiet and still. Then said King Eystein: "Why are the people so
+silent? It is more proper in parties that people are merry, so let us
+find some jest over our ale that will amuse us; for surely, brother
+Sigurd, all will like to see us happy."
+
+Sigurd replied, rather bluntly: "Do you talk as much as you please, but
+give me leave to be silent."
+
+Eystein said: "It is a common custom over the ale-table for one person
+to compare himself with another, and now let us do so." Sigurd did not
+answer.
+
+"I see," said Eystein, "that I will have to begin this amusement, and
+I will take thee, brother, to compare myself with; we are both kings,
+have equal property, and there is no difference in our birth."
+
+Sigurd then said: "Dost thou remember that I could always throw thee
+when we wrestled, although thou art a year older?"
+
+Eystein: "But I remember also that I was better at the games which
+require limberness."
+
+Sigurd: "But how was it when we were swimming? I could duck thee
+whenever I wanted to."
+
+Eystein: "But I could swim as far as thou, and could dive as well; and
+I could run on ice-legs[10] so well that nobody could beat me, while
+thou couldst no more do it than a cow."
+
+[10] Ice-legs were skates made of sheep legs.
+
+Sigurd: "I consider it a more useful and suitable accomplishment for a
+chief to be an expert at his bow; but I think thou couldst hardly draw
+my bow, even with the help of the foot."
+
+Eystein: "I am not as strong at the bow as thou art, but my aim is
+as good; and I can run on skis[11] much better than thou, and that is
+usually held a great accomplishment."
+
+[11] Ski (pronounced she), the long snow-shoe used in the North.
+
+Sigurd: "It is much better for a chief who is to be the superior of
+other men that he is conspicuous in a crowd, and strong and powerful in
+weapons above other men."
+
+Eystein: "It is just as well to be handsome, so as to be easily known
+from others on that account; and this behooves a chief, as a fair face
+and fine clothes go well together. I am also better versed in law than
+thou, and can speak better."
+
+Sigurd: "It may be that thou hast learned more law-quirks than I, for I
+have had something else to do; neither will any one deny thee a smooth
+tongue. But many say that thy words are not to be trusted; that thy
+promises are not kept, and that thou talkest according to what those
+who are about thee say, which is not kingly."
+
+Eystein: "Often I promise what people ask of me, as I like to have all
+be joyful about me, and it happens that conflicting interests afterward
+appear, which must be considered. But thou mostly promisest people what
+is evil, and no one is pleased because thy promises are kept."
+
+Sigurd: "All say that the expedition I made out of the country was a
+princely expedition, while thou wert sitting at home like thy father's
+daughter."
+
+Eystein: "Now thou hast touched the tender spot, and I would not have
+brought up this conversation if I had not known what to reply on this
+point. I think I equipped thee from home for this expedition like a
+sister."
+
+Sigurd: "Thou must have heard that I was in many battles in the
+Saracen's land, and gained victory in all. I brought to this country
+many valuables, the like of which had never been seen here before. I
+became acquainted with great men, and was respected by them. I went
+to the Saviour's grave, and saw thee not there. I went to the river
+Jordan, in which the Lord was baptized, and I swam across, but I saw
+thee not there. On the edge of the river there is a bush of willows,
+and there I twisted a knot of willows, and said that this knot thou
+shouldst untie, brother, or take the curse thereto attached."
+
+Then King Eystein said: "I have heard that thou hast had some battles
+abroad, but it was more useful for the country what I was doing here
+at home. North in Vaagen (Lofoten) I put up booths, so that the
+poor fishermen could find shelter; I also had a church built there,
+appointed a priest, and gave land for the support of the church; before
+that, they were nearly all heathens there. These people will remember
+that Eystein was king in Norway. Across the Dovre Mountain lay the
+road from Throndhjem. Formerly many froze to death, and all suffered
+hardships on the journey; but I built a mountain inn and endowed it
+with property. Those who hereafter travel there will remember that
+Eystein was king in Norway. Off Agdanes there were breakers and shoals
+and no harbor, so that many ships were wrecked; now there is a good
+harbor and good anchorage for the ships, and a church has also been
+built there. I had war-signals erected on the highest mountains, which
+is of benefit to all who live in the interior. I built the royal hall
+in Bergen and the Apostles' Church and a covered passage between them.
+The kings who succeed us will remember my name. I built St. Michael's
+Church at Nordnes (in Bergen) and the monastery Munkeliv at the same
+place. I improved the laws, brother, so that everybody could deal
+justly with his neighbor, and if the laws are upheld the government
+will be better. More by gentle words and wise dealings than by violence
+and breach of peace did I succeed in making the inhabitants of
+Jemteland subjects of this kingdom. All these things may be considered
+small matters, but they will benefit the people of the country more
+than the fact that thou hast butchered bluemen in Serkland for the
+devil and hurled them into hell. And if thou didst tie a knot for me,
+I will not untie it; but I think that if I had been inclined to tie a
+knot for thee, I could have tied such a knot that thou wouldst not have
+been king of Norway on thy return to this country with but a single
+ship."
+
+This was the end of the "man-measuring." There was silence in the hall,
+and both kings were very angry. Several other incidents are recorded,
+which show the jealousy that existed between the kings. However, peace
+was preserved between them as long as they lived.
+
+Six years after his brother Olaf's death, King Eystein was taken
+suddenly sick and died at the age of thirty-three, August 29, 1122. He
+was buried in Christ Church in Nidaros, and it is said that so many
+mourners had never stood over any man's grave in Norway since the death
+of King Magnus the Good.
+
+Sigurd was now sole king of Norway and free from the restraint which
+the pacific disposition of the popular Eystein had placed upon him.
+Shortly after the death of Eystein, King Sigurd entered into an
+agreement with the Danish king Nils Sveinson, who had married his
+stepmother, Margaret Fridkolla. They agreed upon a joint invasion of
+Sweden. The real motive was probably to secure this kingdom, which was
+at the time torn by internal strifes, for Margaret's son Magnus Nilson;
+but the avowed purpose was to christianize the inhabitants of the
+Swedish province of Smaaland, where paganism still lingered. The two
+kings were to meet with their armies at Oeresund. King Sigurd collected
+a fleet of about three hundred and sixty ships and proceeded to the
+meeting-place; but through some mistake the Danish army had already
+returned home. King Sigurd held a council with his men, at which they
+spoke of King Nils' breach of faith and determined to take revenge by
+plundering his country. They first plundered the town of Tumartorp, and
+then sailed east to the merchant town Kalmar, which they attacked. They
+plundered in the province of Smaaland, compelled the people to accept
+Christianity, and imposed on the country a tribute of 1,800 cattle.
+After this King Sigurd returned to Norway with a great booty. This
+expedition was called the Kalmar levy, and was the only levy Sigurd
+carried out while he was sole king.
+
+During the later years of his reign, King Sigurd was often violent and
+showed unmistakable signs of insanity. One Whit-Sunday he sat in his
+high-seat with Queen Malmfrid at his side, and in his hand he held
+the holy book, written in gilded letters, which he had brought with
+him from Constantinople. On the benches were seated many friends and
+guests. Then the king suddenly got one of his attacks. He rolled his
+eyes and looked all around him, and then said: "Many are the changes
+which may take place during a man's lifetime. Two things were dearer
+to me than anything else, namely, this book and the queen; and now it
+is quite different. The queen does not know herself how hideous she is;
+for a goat's horn is standing out of her head. And this book is good
+for nothing." Thereupon he threw the book on the fire which was burning
+on the floor, and gave the queen a blow with his fist between the eyes.
+
+Before the king stood the young taper-bearer, Ottar Birting, who was on
+duty that day. He was of small stature, but of agreeable appearance,
+lively and bold. His surname Birting had been given him on account of
+his black hair and dark complexion. He sprang forward and snatched the
+book from the fire, held it out, and said: "Yes, sire, different were
+the days when you came with great state and splendor to Norway, and
+all your friends hastened to welcome you. Now days of sorrow have come
+over us; for to this holy festival many of your friends have come,
+and cannot be cheerful on account of your sad condition. Now, good
+king, follow my advice! Make peace first with the queen, whom you have
+so highly affronted, and then gladden by gentleness all your chiefs,
+friends, and servants." "What?" cried King Sigurd. "Dost thou dare
+to give me advice, thou black churl, thou great lump of a houseman's
+lad!" And he sprang up, drew his sword, and swung it, as if going to
+cut him down. But Ottar stood quiet and upright, and looked the king
+straight in his face. The king turned round the sword-blade, and gently
+touched Ottar on the shoulder with it. Then he sat down in silence on
+his high-seat. All were silent, for nobody dared to utter a word. In a
+little while the king had quieted down. He then rebuked his liegemen
+for not having stopped his insane acts, and thanked Ottar for what he
+had done. He concluded his speech by making Ottar a liegeman, and
+said: "Go thou now and sit among the lendermen, and be a servant no
+longer."
+
+Ottar Birting became in later years one of the most celebrated men in
+Norway.
+
+A few years before his death King Sigurd, in spite of the strong
+protest of Bishop Magne, discarded Queen Malmfrid, and married a
+beautiful and high-born woman, named Cecilia. The last winter of his
+life King Sigurd spent in Oslo. In the spring he was taken violently
+sick. His friends saw in this the punishment of Heaven for his improper
+marriage, and urged him to dissolve it; but he loved Cecilia too dearly
+to acquiesce in this. At last, she herself suggested a separation. "I
+did not know that thou, too, wouldst leave me like the others," said
+the king sadly. He grew gradually worse after this, and on March 26,
+1130, he died, forty years old. His body was deposited in a vault in
+St. Halvard's Church. According to the saga, "the time of his reign was
+good for the country, for there was peace, and crops were good."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIII
+
+_Magnus the Blind and Harald Gille (1130-1136)_
+
+
+The year before King Sigurd's death a young man named Harald Gille
+(or Gillekrist, _i.e._, dedicated to Christ) came to Norway from
+Ireland with his mother, and declared that he was a son of King
+Magnus Barefoot. It is known that Magnus Barefoot had had a mistress
+in Ireland, and composed a verse once, in which he said he loved his
+Irish girl above all others. When the young man and his mother came to
+King Sigurd and told their story, the king told Harald that he would
+not deny him the opportunity to prove his birth by submitting to the
+ordeal by fire, but on condition that, if he should prove his descent,
+he should not claim the kingdom in the lifetime of King Sigurd, or of
+his son Magnus, and to this Harald Gille bound himself by oath. Harald
+agreed to the ordeal fixed by Sigurd, and walked over nine glowing
+plowshares with bare feet, attended by two bishops. Three days after
+the iron trial his feet were examined, and were found unburned. This
+ordeal was considered a divine judgment, and King Sigurd acknowledged
+Harald as his brother.
+
+It became a source of danger to the country that Harald was
+acknowledged as a son of Magnus Barefoot; for at that time the law of
+royal inheritance was that every son of a king, the illegitimate as
+well as the legitimate, had a right to the kingdom. This encouraged
+many to proclaim themselves rightful heirs to the throne and to prove
+their rights by the ordeal of fire. The priests had the charge of such
+ordeals, and they probably had the result in their power.
+
+Sigurd's son, Magnus, conceived a great hatred of Harald, and in this
+he had the sympathy of many of the leading men.
+
+Immediately after the death of Sigurd, his son Magnus summoned a Thing
+at Oslo, and was there proclaimed king of all Norway, according to an
+oath which the people had formerly sworn to King Sigurd. Harald Gille
+was in Tunsberg when he heard of Sigurd's death. He broke his promise
+to the late king, summoned a Thing, and had his followers proclaim him
+king of half the country. Negotiations were opened with King Magnus,
+and, as the latter found he had fewer people, he was obliged to divide
+the kingdom with Harald.
+
+For about three years the two kings kept the peace, although there was
+little friendship between them. They both passed the fourth winter at
+Nidaros, and invited each other as guests, but their people were always
+ready for a fight. In the spring King Magnus sailed southward with his
+fleet, and collected men from all districts, telling the people that he
+wanted to take the kingly dignity from Harald and give him such a part
+of the country as might be suitable. Harald proceeded from Throndhjem
+overland to the Uplands and Viken, and, when he heard what Magnus was
+doing, he also collected an army. At Fyrileif in Viken a battle was
+fought, and Magnus, who had a much superior force, won a decisive
+battle. Harald's army was put to flight, and he himself barely escaped
+to his ships. He sailed south to Denmark, and was well received by the
+Danish king, Erik Emune, who gave him the province of Halland in fief.
+
+After the battle of Fyrileif (August 10, 1134), King Magnus proclaimed
+himself sole king of Norway. He showed great lenience toward Harald's
+men, and had the wounded taken care of equally with his own men. His
+leading men advised him to keep his army together in Viken, and remain
+there, in case Harald should return from the south; but he thought
+this was not necessary, allowed the men to return to their homes, and
+proceeded with his court-men to Bergen. It was not long before King
+Magnus had cause to regret that he had disregarded the advice of his
+friends. Harald had soon gathered a sufficient force to invade Norway,
+and, while he proceeded along the coast, a good many people joined
+him. He came to Bergen, where he met only nominal resistance, and
+King Magnus was taken prisoner. King Harald held a meeting with his
+counsellors, and here it was decided that Magnus should be deprived
+of his dominions and should no longer be called king. He was then
+delivered to the king's thralls, who put out both his eyes, cut off one
+foot, and otherwise mutilated him. Magnus, who after this was given
+the surname "the Blind," was brought north to Nidaros and entered the
+Nidarholm cloister.
+
+When Harald Gille had been six years king of Norway, Sigurd Slembe came
+to the country, and claimed that he too was a son of Magnus Barefoot.
+Sigurd was in his childhood kept at his book, became a clergyman,
+and was consecrated a deacon. He showed early traces of a haughty,
+ungovernable spirit, and was therefore called Slembidjakn (_i.e._, the
+bad deacon). When he heard that he was the son of Magnus Barefoot, he
+laid aside all clerical matters and set out on trading expeditions.
+In Denmark he claimed to have established his parentage by the iron
+ordeal in the presence of five bishops, and when he arrived in Bergen
+he requested Harald Gille to acknowledge him as his brother. King
+Harald, however, accused him of being an accomplice in a murder case,
+and attempted to capture him. Sigurd escaped and afterward arranged
+a conspiracy, in which many of Harald's court-men took part. On St.
+Lucia's night, December 13, 1136, they came to the house where Harald
+was sleeping with his mistress, Thora, Guthorm's daughter, killed the
+guardsmen outside, broke into the house, and killed the king in bed.
+Sigurd and his men then took a boat and rowed out in front of the
+king's house. It was then just beginning to be daylight. Standing in
+his boat Sigurd spoke to the men on the king's pier, avowed the killing
+of Harald, and requested them to choose him as chief according to his
+birth. But all replied with one voice, that they would never give
+obedience to a man who had murdered his own brother. "And if thou art
+not his brother, thou hast no claim by descent to be king." Thereupon
+they outlawed Sigurd and all his men. Sigurd and his men saw it was
+best for them to get away, and fled northward to North Hordaland.
+
+King Harald Gille was thirty-two years old when he was slain. He was
+buried in the old Christ Church in Bergen. It was a few months before
+his death that pirates from Vendland, under their king, Rettibur,
+pillaged and burned the town of Konungahella (Konghelle). The town was
+afterward rebuilt, but never rose to the importance it had had before.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIV
+
+_Sigurd Mund, Eystein, and Inge Krokryg, the Sons of Harald Gille
+(1136-1161)_
+
+
+Queen Ingerid, the widow of Harald Gille, immediately after her
+husband's death held a consultation with the liegemen and court-men,
+and they decided to send a fast sailing vessel to Throndhjem to request
+the people there to take Harald's son (with Thora, Guthorm's daughter),
+Sigurd, for king. Sigurd, who was then in his fourth year, was being
+fostered by Gyrd Baardson. The people of Throndhjem assembled at a
+Thing and proclaimed Sigurd king. Queen Ingerid herself proceeded to
+Viken, where her son with Harald, the one year old Inge, was fostered
+by Aamunde Gyrdson. A Borgar-Thing (Thing at Borg or Sarpsborg) was
+called, at which Inge was chosen king. "Thus," it is related in
+the saga, "almost the whole nation submitted to the brothers, and
+principally because their father was considered holy; and the country
+took the oath to them, that the kingly power should not go to any other
+man as long as any of King Harald's sons were alive." It was agreed
+that the chief liegemen should rule in the name of the brothers while
+they were in their infancy.
+
+Sigurd Slembe proceeded north to Nidaros, and took Magnus the Blind
+out of the cloister in the hope that, by making common cause with him,
+he could secure a better following. In this he succeeded to some
+extent, many of King Magnus's old friends joining him. With quite a
+force they went south to the mouth of Raumsdal Fjord. Here Sigurd and
+Magnus divided their forces, Sigurd sailing westward to the Orkneys
+to seek aid. Magnus proceeded with his force through Raumsdal over
+to the Uplands, where he remained during the winter and collected an
+army. When it was rumored in Viken that Magnus the Blind had come to
+the Uplands, Thiostolf Aaleson and the other chiefs who were with
+King Inge gathered a great army and proceeded up to Lake Miosen, and
+met the forces of Magnus at Minne (1137). A great battle was fought,
+and Magnus was defeated. It is related that Thiostolf Aaleson carried
+the child-king, Inge, in his tucked-up cloak during the battle; but
+Thiostolf was hard pressed by fighting, and it was said that King Inge
+suffered an injury there, which he retained as long as he lived. His
+back was knotted into a hump, and one leg was shorter than the other.
+Hence he was afterward called Inge Krokryg, _i.e._, Inge the Hunchback.
+Magnus fled eastward to Gautland, where he received aid from the
+Swedes, but being again defeated at Krokaskog he fled to Denmark.
+
+Magnus the Blind was well received by the Danish king, Erik Emune, who
+collected a force and sailed north to Norway with two hundred and forty
+ships. Attacks were made at different places, and the town of Oslo was
+burned, including St. Halvard's Church; but King Erik soon returned
+to Denmark after having suffered great losses, and the expedition was
+pronounced a total failure.
+
+Sigurd Slembe about this time returned from the West, and made cruises
+against the pirates in Vendland, and occasionally harried the coasts of
+Norway. In the fall of 1139 Sigurd Slembe and Magnus the Blind came up
+to Norway from Denmark with thirty ships manned by Danes and Northmen.
+They met the fleet of kings Sigurd and Inge at Holmengraa (the gray
+holm), where a battle was fought. After the first assault, the Danes
+fled home to Denmark with eighteen ships, and thus Sigurd had to fight
+against a greatly superior force. One after another of his ships was
+cleared. The blind and crippled Magnus lay in his bed and could do
+nothing to defend himself. When his ship was almost entirely bare of
+men, his old and faithful court-man, Reidar Griotgardson, took King
+Magnus in his arms and tried to leap over to another ship with him. But
+just then he was struck between his shoulders by a spear, which went
+through him and also killed King Magnus. Reidar fell backward on the
+deck and Magnus upon him. Everybody afterward spoke of how honorably
+he had followed his master and rightful sovereign. "Happy are they
+who are given such praise after death," adds the writer of the saga.
+Sigurd Slembe leaped overboard and would probably have escaped, if
+he had not been betrayed by one of his own men. He was captured and
+put to death with the most horrible tortures. The men who took upon
+themselves to kill him, and who had personal grievances to avenge,
+broke his shin-bones and arms with an axe-hammer. Then they stripped
+him and flogged him, broke his back, and finally hanged him. He bore
+the tortures with great fortitude. He never moved and never altered
+his voice, but spoke in a natural tone until he gave up the ghost,
+occasionally singing hymns. Sigurd's friends afterward came from
+Denmark for his body, took it with them and interred it in Mary Church
+in Aalborg.
+
+When Sigurd was dead, it was acknowledged by all, both enemies and
+friends, that he was the most remarkable and most gifted man that had
+lived in Norway within memory of anybody living; "but in some respects
+he was an unlucky man," says the saga. Magnus the Blind was twenty-five
+years old when he fell. Thiostolf Aaleson transported his body to Oslo
+and buried it in St. Halvard's Church, beside King Sigurd, his father.
+
+Norway now had peace for some years. About six years after Sigurd and
+Inge had been proclaimed kings, a third son of Harald Gille, named
+Eystein, came from Scotland accompanied by his mother, Biadok, and by
+three men of high standing. They immediately proceeded to Throndhjem,
+and at the Oere-Thing Eystein was chosen king and given a third of
+the country with his brothers, Sigurd and Inge. King Harald himself
+had spoken to his men about this son, so that Eystein did not have to
+resort to the ordeal of iron in order to prove his right. A fourth son
+of Harald Gille, Magnus, who was being fostered by the great chief
+Kyrpinga-Orm at Studla, was also given the title of king, so that for
+a short time there were nominally four kings; but Magnus was deformed,
+lived but a short time, and died in his bed.
+
+Shortly after the death of Harald Gille, his widow, Queen Ingerid, had
+married the liegeman, Ottar Birting of Throndhjem, who thus became
+King Inge's stepfather and guardian, and who strengthened King Inge's
+government much during his childhood. King Sigurd was not very friendly
+to Ottar Birting, because, as he thought, Ottar always took King Inge's
+part. One evening Ottar was assassinated in Nidaros as he was going
+to the evening service. His relatives and friends accused King Sigurd
+of having instigated this deed and were much enraged against him. A
+peasant army under the leadership of King Eystein came to Nidaros and
+a conflict seemed inevitable. But King Sigurd then offered to clear
+himself by the ordeal of iron, and peace was made. King Sigurd hastened
+to the southern part of the country, and the ordeal was never heard of
+again. Many other things contributed to make Sigurd unpopular. As he
+grew up he became a very ungovernable and restless man. He was a stout
+and strong man, of a brisk appearance. He had light brown hair and
+quite a handsome face except that he had an ugly mouth. For that reason
+he was called Sigurd Mund (Mouth). His great immorality gave general
+offense to the people. He was not married, but had several illegitimate
+children.
+
+In 1153 King Eystein made a cruise to the Orkneys. Some time after his
+return there was a quarrel between him and King Sigurd, because the
+latter had killed two of Eystein's court-men. A conference to settle
+this affair was arranged in the winter (1154-55) in the Uplands. They
+not only settled their difficulty, but privately arranged for a meeting
+of the three kings in Bergen next summer. It was said that their plan
+was to depose King Inge and give him two or three estates and a certain
+income, as he had not health to be a king. Their plan might possibly
+have succeeded if it had not been for King Inge's faithful man,
+Gregorius Dagson, who was then Inge's guardian and adviser. He made
+preparations for the meeting, and when Sigurd arrived in Bergen, King
+Inge had a superior force. After some hostile acts, King Sigurd was
+attacked in his lodgings by Gregorius Dagson and slain, June 10, 1155.
+Two or three days after King Eystein arrived from the east with thirty
+ships. He had along with him his brother's seven year old son Haakon,
+a son of King Sigurd. When he heard what had happened in Bergen,
+Eystein did not come up to the town, but anchored at Florevaag, while a
+reconciliation between the brothers was attempted. The result was that
+King Eystein returned to Viken and King Inge to Throndhjem, and they
+were in a way reconciled; but they did not meet each other.
+
+About a year later, after several quarrels and provoking incidents, the
+two brothers met with hostile fleets at Fors, Ranrike, and made ready
+for battle. So many of King Eystein's ships left him, however, and
+joined King Inge that Eystein had no choice but flight. He was captured
+by his brother-in-law, Simon Skalp, who murdered him after having
+allowed him to hear mass (August 21, 1157). King Eystein was buried in
+Fors Church.
+
+Inge was now sole king, but it was only a short time that he was in
+undisputed possession of the country. The adherents of the late kings,
+Eystein and Sigurd, chose the latter's son as their chief and gave him
+the title of king. He was then ten years old. He was afterward given
+the surname Herdebred, _i.e._, the broad-shouldered. Haakon and his
+adherents were outlawed by King Inge, who took possession of all their
+estates, after they had sought refuge in Sweden. Gregorius Dagson was
+then in Konungahella, where the danger was greatest, and had with him
+a strong and fine body of men, with which he defended the country. He
+defeated Haakon's force in a decisive battle at Konungahella (1159).
+Later Haakon, who had strengthened his forces with a number of robbers
+and adventurers, harried the frontier districts in Viken. One day he
+came to the estate of Haldor Brynjolfson, a brother-in-law of Gregorius
+Dagson, set fire to the house and burned it. Haldor came out, but was
+instantly cut down together with his house-men; in all about twenty
+men were killed. Haldor's wife, Sigrid, Gregorius Dagson's sister,
+escaped to the forest in her night-dress; but the five year old Aamunde
+Gyrdson, a nephew of Gregorius, was carried away by Haakon's men.
+
+When Gregorius Dagson heard of this he took it much to heart, and set
+out to avenge the outrage. On January 7, 1161, Gregorius caught sight
+of Haakon's force. There was a river, called Befia, between them, and
+in trying to cross it on the unsafe ice Gregorius fell through, and,
+while struggling to get ashore, was killed by an arrow shot by one of
+Haakon's men. When King Inge, who was then in Oslo, heard of Gregorius
+Dagson's death, he cried like a child, and, after having recovered
+himself, swore to attack Haakon, and either avenge his friend's death
+or die in the attempt. On the 3d of February, 1161, King Inge's spies
+brought him word that Haakon was coming toward the town (Oslo). The
+king ordered his men called together, and when they were drawn up in
+line they numbered nearly 4,800. When the night was well advanced, the
+spies came and informed the king that Haakon and his army were coming
+over the ice, which lay all the way from the town to the Hoved Isle.
+King Inge then led his army out on the ice, and drew it up in order of
+battle. The king and his brother Orm took their places under the banner
+in the centre. On the right wing, toward the nunnery, was Gudrod, the
+exiled king of the South Hebrides, and Jon Sveinson, a grandson of
+Bergthor Buk. On the left wing, toward Thrælaberg, stood the chiefs
+Simon Skalp and Gudbrand Skafhoggson, who was married to King Eystein
+Magnusson's daughter Maria. When Haakon and his army came near to King
+Inge's array, both sides raised a war shout. But then it appeared that
+there were traitors in Inge's army. Gudrod and Jon gave the enemy a
+signal, and when Haakon's men in consequence turned that way, Gudrod
+immediately fled with 1,800 men; and Jon, and a great body of men with
+him, ran over to Haakon's army and assisted them in the fight. When
+this news was told to King Inge, he said: "Such is the difference
+between my friends. Never would Gregorius have done so in his life."
+Some of Inge's men now advised him to mount a horse and ride up to
+Raumarike, where he could get help. But he refused to do so. "I have
+heard you often say, and I think truly, that it was of little use to my
+brother Eystein that he took to flight; and yet he was in many ways an
+abler man than I. I was in the second year of my age when I was chosen
+king of Norway, and I am now twenty-six. I have had misfortune and
+sorrow under my kingly dignity, rather than pleasure and peaceful days.
+I have had many battles; and it is my greatest luck that I have never
+fled, even when fighting against a superior force. God will dispose of
+my life, but I shall never betake myself to flight." As a result of the
+traitors' work Haakon gained a complete victory. When daylight came,
+King Inge was among the fallen. His brother Orm tried to continue the
+battle, but at last had to take flight. On the following day Orm was
+to have married Ragna, a daughter of Nikolas Mase and widow of King
+Eystein; but after the battle Orm fled to Svithiod, Sweden, where his
+brother Magnus was then king. Haakon and his men took possession of
+the town, and feasted on what had been prepared for the wedding. Those
+of Inge's friends who survived the battle fled in all directions. Only
+Kristina, Sigurd the Crusader's daughter, remained in town, for she had
+a promise to the late king to fulfil. She found King Inge's body, and
+had it laid in the stone wall of Halvard's Church, on the south side
+below the choir.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXV
+
+_The Church_
+
+
+From the time of Olaf Kyrre (the Quiet) there were three bishops in
+Norway; one in Nidaros, one in Bergen, and one in Oslo. During the
+reign of Kings Eystein and Sigurd the Crusader a bishopric was also
+established in Stavanger. The bishops were chosen by the king, and the
+bishops appointed the priests.
+
+For the last half century the Norwegian Church, as well as the Swedish,
+had been under the Danish archbishop at Lund. This arrangement appeared
+very unsatisfactory, as the Norwegian Church covered extended territory
+which called for special supervision. Since the time of Sigurd the
+Crusader there had been a constant desire to obtain an independent
+Norwegian archbishopric. Finally, during the reign of Harald Gille's
+sons, the pope sent Cardinal Nicholas Breakspear of Alba from Rome to
+Norway (1152). Cardinal Nicholas, who was an Englishman by birth and
+a very able and conscientious man, arrived in Nidaros, and seems to
+have immediately understood the situation. The saga says that he had
+taken offence at the brothers Sigurd and Eystein. The reason is not
+stated, but it was perhaps on account of their immoral life. "They were
+obliged to come to a reconciliation with him; on the other hand, he
+stood on the most affectionate terms with King Inge, whom he called
+his son." When an understanding had been arranged with the kings, the
+cardinal had John Birgerson consecrated archbishop of Throndhjem and
+gave him the consecrated vestment called pallium. He further settled
+that the archbishop's seat should be in Nidaros, in Christ Church,
+where King Olaf the Saint reposed. At the same time a new bishopric
+was established at Hamar, on Lake Miosen. Under the jurisdiction of
+the archbishopric at Nidaros were included the four other bishoprics
+of Norway, Oslo, Hamar, Stavanger, and Bergen, and those of the
+dependencies, Iceland, the Orkneys, the Faroes, Greenland, and the
+Hebrides with the Isle of Man.
+
+The establishment of the archbishopric at Nidaros was probably the most
+important result of the mission of Cardinal Nicholas, but he also left
+other traces of his work. He changed the manner of choosing bishops, so
+that instead of being appointed by the king they were now to be elected
+by the canonical communities established at the cathedrals. The bishops
+after this exercised much greater authority than they had done before.
+
+The saga says of Cardinal Nicholas that "he improved many of the
+customs of the Northmen while he was in the country. There never came
+a foreigner to Norway whom all men respected so highly, or who could
+govern the people so well as he did. After some time he returned to the
+South with many friendly presents, and declared ever afterward that he
+was the greatest friend of the people of Norway."
+
+Cardinal Nicholas was, shortly after his return to Rome, elected pope
+and consecrated under the name of Adrian IV.
+
+There were also several cloisters for monks in Norway at this time.
+They were generally quite wealthy, as many people would give all they
+had to the cloisters. There were at Throndhjem two cloisters, the
+Nidarholm and Elgeseter; in Bergen, Munkeliv, and a little further
+south Lyse Cloister, and near Oslo the Hoved Isle. At Gimsoe near Skien
+there was a convent for nuns.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVI
+
+_Haakon Herdebred (1161-1162)--Erling Skakke_
+
+
+After the fall of King Inge in the battle at Oslo, Haakon Herdebred
+(the Broad-shouldered) took possession of the whole country. He
+distributed all the offices, in the towns and in the country, among
+his own friends. As he was only about fourteen years old, he could
+not, of course, be expected to attend personally to the affairs of the
+government; but his liegemen governed in his name.
+
+Many of the adherents of the late King Inge refused to acknowledge King
+Haakon. Among them was the powerful and wily chieftain Erling Skakke.
+He was of a distinguished family, which resided on the Studla estate
+in Söndhordland. In his youth he had made a crusade to the Holy Land.
+On his way back through the Mediterranean he had a fight with pirates
+and was wounded in the neck, which compelled him afterward to carry his
+head on one side; hence his surname (_skakke_, wry). By the assistance
+of King Inge he obtained in marriage Kristina, a daughter of King
+Sigurd the Crusader and Queen Malmfrid. A year after their marriage she
+bore him a son, who was named Magnus.
+
+Erling Skakke called together in Bergen all the chiefs who had been
+attached to King Inge, and all his court-men, and the house-men of the
+late Gregorius Dagson. When they met they discussed the situation, and
+resolved to keep up their party and to elect a king in opposition to
+Haakon. Erling proposed to make the boy Nicholas, a son of Simon Skalp
+and Harald Gille's daughter Maria, king; but the others objected to
+this, and, after some discussion, Erling was persuaded to do what had
+probably been his intention from the beginning, namely, to let his own
+son, Magnus, be proclaimed king, although this was against the law of
+the country, the boy not being of royal birth on his father's side. A
+Thing was held in the town, and here Magnus Erlingson, then five years
+old, was proclaimed king of the whole country.
+
+Erling did not consider himself strong enough to immediately take
+up the fight with King Haakon. He therefore proceeded to Denmark,
+accompanied by his son and a large party. The Danish king, Valdemar the
+Great, received them hospitably and promised to furnish the necessary
+help to win and retain Norway, on condition that King Valdemar was to
+get that part of Norway which his ancestors, Harald Gormson and Svein
+Tjuguskeg, had possessed. With the help obtained in Denmark, Erling
+crossed over from Jutland to Agder, and thence sailed northward to
+Bergen, where he punished those who had given allegiance to Haakon.
+Then he returned along the coast, and attacked and defeated Haakon at
+Tunsberg. Haakon proceeded to Throndhjem, where he had most of his
+friends, and Erling returned to Bergen, after having reduced the whole
+of Viken in obedience to King Magnus.
+
+In the spring King Haakon started southward with quite a fleet. By a
+stratagem Erling succeeded in surprising him, when his forces were
+divided, at Sekken, in Raumsdal, where a battle was fought. Haakon was
+defeated, and the young king himself was killed (1162). Haakon's body
+was buried in Raumsdal; but afterward his brother, King Sverre, had the
+body removed to Nidaros and laid in the stone wall in Christ Church
+south of the choir.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVII
+
+_Magnus Erlingson (1162-1184)--The Birchlegs_
+
+
+After the battle of Sekken, Erling Skakke proceeded with King Magnus
+and the whole army up to Nidaros, where the Thing was convened, and
+Magnus was proclaimed king of all Norway. They remained there but
+a short time, however, for Erling did not put great faith in the
+Throndhjem people. Erling returned with his son to Bergen, and later in
+the fall went to Tunsberg, where he intended to stay during the winter.
+
+Some of the late King Haakon's chiefs, who had not been present at the
+battle, among them Earl Sigurd of Reyr, refused to acknowledge King
+Magnus. They left their ships in Raumsdal and went over to Uplands,
+where they found many adherents. They chose for their king a young son
+of King Sigurd Mund, named Sigurd Markusfostre (_i.e._, foster-son
+of Markus), who had been brought up by Markus of Skog, a friend and
+relative of Earl Sigurd. Quite an army was collected, but as the
+territory they held was small, their foraging became burdensome to the
+people, and there was considerable dissatisfaction. Erling Skakke took
+advantage of this, and when finally a battle was fought at Ree, near
+Tunsberg, he easily defeated Sigurd's adherents. Earl Sigurd fell in
+the battle (February, 1163). Sigurd Markusfostre and his foster-father
+were captured and killed in the fall of the same year.
+
+The archbishop in Nidaros was at that time Eystein, a son of Erlend
+Himalde, who descended from a very influential family in the Throndhjem
+district. In the summer of 1164 Erling Skakke had a conference with
+Archbishop Eystein in Bergen, where all the bishops of the country were
+then assembled, together with the legate from Rome, Stephanus. The
+result of the conference was that Magnus was to be anointed and crowned
+as king by the archbishop, while on the other hand it was agreed that
+in the future the church--represented by the archbishop and the other
+bishops, together with twelve leading men from each bishopric selected
+by the bishop--was to decide at the death of a king which one of his
+heirs was to succeed him; and if the king left no heirs of whom the
+magnates approved, they were to elect a successor to the throne. In
+the presence of the papal legate, the bishops, and a great many other
+clergymen, King Magnus, who was then eight years old, was anointed and
+crowned by the archbishop. Magnus, Erling's son, was the first crowned
+king in Norway. By this solemn act Erling Skakke believed he had
+secured his son's dynasty on the throne, and he could now with greater
+safety turn his whole attention to internal and foreign enemies, as he
+felt convinced that the greater part of the people would rally around
+the anointed king.
+
+When King Valdemar of Denmark heard that Erling Skakke had defeated
+Haakon Herdebred and Sigurd Markusfostre, and that his son Magnus had
+been crowned king of the whole country, he sent a message to Erling
+and reminded him of the agreement, by which Viken was to be ceded
+to the Danish king, if Magnus became king of Norway. Erling and his
+advisers showed no inclination to adhere to the agreement, and the
+messenger returned to Denmark without having accomplished anything.
+In the spring of 1165 King Valdemar sailed with a fleet north to
+Viken in order to take possession of the province. He tried peaceful
+proceedings; but he was so coolly received by the people of Viken that
+he returned to Denmark, preferring, as he said to his men, to use his
+army against the heathens of Vendland. The hostility between Norway and
+Denmark, however, lasted some time. Erling made a cruise to Jutland
+and defeated the Danes in a battle at Dyrsaa, and returned to Norway
+with a great booty. A second expedition of King Valdemar to Viken
+in the spring of 1168 became as indecisive as the first, so far as
+establishing any authority there; but he dealt the inhabitants of Viken
+a hurtful blow by forbidding them to trade with Denmark, at the same
+time forbidding the Danes to export grain to Norway.
+
+While Erling Skakke was absent on an expedition to Denmark, a band of
+rebels was organized under the leadership of a new pretender, Olaf, a
+son of King Eystein Magnusson's daughter Maria, in her marriage with
+the chief Gudbrand Skafhoggson, who fell with King Inge in the battle at
+Oslo. Olaf was brought up by an influential man named Sigurd Agn-Hat.
+Probably from the latter's surname the adherents of Olaf were called
+Hat-Swains (Hættesveiner). The Hat-Swains proclaimed Olaf king, and
+went through the Uplands, and sometimes down to Viken, or east to the
+forest settlements. At Rydjokel, near Lake Oiern, they surprised
+Erling Skakke and his men early one morning, and in the fight that
+followed killed several of Erling's men and drove the remainder down
+to their ships. Because Olaf did not succeed in capturing Erling,
+although the odds were all in his favor, he was afterward called Olaf
+the Unlucky (Ugæva). The following spring the Hat-Swains met Erling
+in battle at Stanger, in the eastern part of Viken, where Erling won
+a decisive victory. Sigurd Agn-Hat and many others of Olaf's men fell
+here. Olaf escaped by flight, went south to Denmark, and spent the
+winter in Aalborg, where he died of sickness the following spring
+(1169).
+
+The interruption of the navigation between Norway and Denmark under
+the decree of King Valdemar worked great hardship to the Norwegians,
+especially the inhabitants of Viken, and Erling Skakke was finally
+induced to open negotiations for peace. He spent a winter in Denmark,
+and in the following spring peace was finally concluded, the terms
+being that Viken should be under the sovereignty of the Danish king,
+but Erling was to hold it in fief as King Valdemar's vassal with the
+title of Earl. Erling returned to Norway, and the peace with Denmark
+was afterward well preserved.
+
+Erling Skakke considered it a policy of necessity to remove any person
+who by reason of royal birth might become rivals of his son to the
+throne. King Sigurd Mund had left a daughter named Cecilia. As soon
+as she became old enough, he sent her to Vermeland and made her the
+mistress of Folkvid the lawman, knowing that the children from such a
+connection could not become dangerous rivals. About the same time one
+of the king's men discovered and brought to Erling a young man named
+Harald, who in all secrecy had been brought up in the Uplands. He was
+the son of Erling's own wife Kristina, and his father was the late
+King Sigurd Mund. An illicit intimacy between such near relatives as
+Kristina and Sigurd was, under the church laws of the time, considered
+one of the greatest sins, and everything had therefore been done to
+keep the matter secret, and Kristina had heretofore succeeded in
+concealing her guilt. When Erling saw the illegitimate son of his wife
+before him, he said very little, and those present understood that the
+young man was doomed. King Magnus, who had taken a liking to Harald,
+interceded in his favor; but his father answered: "Thou wouldst govern
+this kingdom but a short time in peace and safety, if thou wert to
+follow the counsels of the heart only." Earl Erling ordered Harald to
+be taken to Nordnes, where he was beheaded.
+
+Erling Skakke, however, did not succeed in removing all pretenders.
+In the year 1174 there appeared on the scene a young man called
+Eystein, who claimed to be a son of King Eystein Haraldson. He was
+small of stature, and had a fine, soft face, and he was therefore
+generally called Eystein Meyla (Little Maiden). He first went on a
+visit to Gautland to Earl Birger Brosa, who was married to Eystein's
+aunt, Brigida, a daughter of Harald Gille. They received him well,
+and furnished him some assistance in men and money. Eystein then
+proceeded to Norway, and when he came to Viken many people flocked
+to him. His followers proclaimed him king, and he remained in Viken
+during the winter. His means of subsistence being soon exhausted, they
+commenced to rob and steal wherever there was an opportunity. They
+were not strong enough to remain long in any one place, but roamed
+about in mountains and forests. They suffered great hardships. Their
+clothes being worn out, they wound the bark of the birch-tree about
+their legs, and therefore the people called them Birkebeiner (_i.e._,
+Birchlegs). During the two years which the Birchlegs spent in and about
+Viken (1174-76), they had three battles in regular array with the
+peasants, and were victorious in them all; but at Krokaskog they came
+near meeting a disaster in encountering a superior force, and they only
+saved themselves by a hasty flight.
+
+In the third summer (1176), when Magnus had been king for thirteen
+years, the Birchlegs started on a more serious expedition. They
+procured ships and sailed along the coast gathering goods and men.
+After having passed out of Viken they proceeded with great speed
+northward to Nidaros, and no news preceded them until they reached
+the Throndhjem Fjord. Erling and his son Magnus, who were in Bergen,
+did not hear of their having sailed by. The Birchlegs easily overcame
+the opposition in Nidaros, and Eystein was proclaimed king by the
+Throndhjem people, who had never liked King Magnus. The Birchlegs
+afterward proceeded to Orkedal, where, upon reviewing the troops, they
+found that they had about 2,400 men. They then went to the Uplands, and
+on to Thoten and Hadeland, and from there to Ringerike, subduing the
+country wherever they came.
+
+Earl Erling and King Magnus had remained in Bergen while the Birchlegs
+were in the North. Then they agreed that Erling should remain with a
+strong force in Bergen, in case the enemy should come down along the
+coast, while King Magnus, who was now twenty years old, was to go
+to Viken and take up his residence in Tunsberg, in order to protect
+that part of the country from possible enemies. King Magnus went to
+Tunsberg, where he and Orm, "King's-brother," had their Christmas
+festivities. In January, 1177, King Magnus with his army met the
+Birchlegs at Ree, and won a decisive victory over them. The whole
+body of the Birchlegs was scattered far and wide. Eystein fled into
+a peasant's house, and begged for his life; but the peasant killed
+him and brought his body to King Magnus at the Ramnes farm. All the
+Birchlegs took flight, as they had no hope of mercy from Erling Skakke
+or King Magnus. Some went to Thelemark, where they had their families,
+and others proceeded east across the frontier to Sweden. King Magnus's
+men pursued the fugitives for a time, and killed as many as they could
+overtake.
+
+King Magnus then returned to Tunsberg, and gained great renown by this
+victory. It had heretofore been said by all that Erling, his father,
+was his best shield and support. But after gaining a victory over so
+strong and numerous a force with fewer men, King Magnus had shown
+that he could stand alone, and it was predicted that he would become
+a warrior as much greater than his father, Earl Erling, as he was
+younger.[12]
+
+[12] With this battle at Ree end the Sagas of the Norse Kings by Snorre
+Sturlason.
+
+The defeated Birchlegs, who fled across the Swedish frontier, met in
+Vermeland a man who was especially qualified to take the leadership of
+this headless band. His name was Sverre, and he claimed to be a son of
+King Sigurd Mund. He was at present staying with his sister Cecilia,
+who was the mistress of Folkvid lawman.
+
+During the latter part of the reign of Harald Gille's sons a combmaker
+in Bergen by the name of Unas married a girl by the name of Gunhild.
+Unas was probably a Faroe Islander by birth; his brother Roe
+became bishop of the Faroe Islands in 1157. Gunhild belonged to a
+distinguished family in western Norway. Shortly after their marriage
+Gunhild bore a son, who was named Sverre, and everybody supposed that
+Unas was his father. Sverre remained in Bergen until he was five
+years old, when he was sent over to the Faroe Islands, to be brought
+up by Unas's brother Roe. He was educated for the priesthood and was
+in time ordained as deacon. When he was twenty-four years old, his
+mother disclosed to him the fact that Unas, who had died a short time
+ago, was not his father, but that he was the son of King Sigurd Mund.
+From that day Sverre became very thoughtful. It appeared to him to
+be too great a task to make war on King Magnus and Earl Erling; but,
+on the other hand, it did not seem manful to sit quietly as a poor
+peasant's son when he was the son of a king. He therefore gave up his
+clerical position and embarked for Norway. Here he was informed that
+his kinsman, Eystein Meyla, had accepted the title of king from the
+Birchlegs; but he did not consider it wise to enter into any dealings
+with him. Without making himself known, he spent some time in different
+parts of Norway, investigating the sentiment of the people. He made
+the acquaintance of Earl Erling and King Magnus, and often talked with
+them and their court-men, who found the young clergyman from the Faroe
+Islands a pleasant and entertaining companion, and by his cunning he
+learned from them many things which they would not have talked about if
+they had known who he was, or what plans he was nourishing. The next
+winter he went to Sweden, first to Earl Birger and then to his sister
+Cecilia in Vermeland, where he met the remnants of the Birchleg band.
+The Birchlegs told him of the fall of Eystein Meyla and urged him to
+become their chief. Sverre for a long time declined, as the whole band
+consisted of only seventy men, who were all in great poverty, some
+of them wounded and without clothes, and all almost unarmed. All his
+objections, however, were of no avail, and they finally compelled him
+to become their chief.
+
+In the spring of 1177 Sverre set out with his seventy men to fight for
+the crown of Norway. He first went south toward Viken, and on the way
+he was joined by so many that, when he came to Saurboe, he had four
+hundred and twenty men. He held a Thing, and against his protest they
+proclaimed him king. Sverre soon discovered that a good many of his
+followers were but thieves and rascals, who were very much dissatisfied
+when he forbade them to rob and plunder the peasants. He started
+back toward Vermeland, and when he arrived at Eidskog and mustered
+his force, he found that it had again shrunk to seventy men. As he
+heard that the peasants of Thelemark, some of whom had served in the
+Birchleg bands under Eystein Meyla, were unfriendly to Earl Erling and
+King Magnus, he sent messages to them and promised to redress their
+grievances if they would join him. They were requested to meet him up
+north, where he was now going. Sverre well understood that, with his
+small force, he could not reach the Throndhjem country through the
+eastern, well-populated district, so he decided to proceed by unknown
+and almost impassable roads and make an unexpected invasion into the
+country. He passed through dense forests and wildernesses, through
+Dalarne and Jemteland, where he and his men underwent untold hardships.
+At times they had nothing to eat but sap, bark, and berries, dug up
+from under the snow. Finally, after many struggles, Sverre reached his
+destination early in June, 1177. His band had received some additions
+on his way through Jemteland, and he was now joined by eighty peasants
+from Thelemark, so that he had a force of about two hundred men.
+Outside of Nidaros he defeated and dispersed an army that was sent
+against him, and then marched into the town, where he met practically
+no opposition. He showed himself as a generous victor, and gave quarter
+to all who asked for it. After a few successful expeditions in the
+neighborhood he summoned the Oere-Thing, where he was proclaimed king
+of Norway (1177).
+
+When King Magnus and Earl Erling heard what had been going on in
+Throndhjem, they gathered a large fleet and sailed northward along
+the coast. Sverre's force was so small that he did not dare to await
+their arrival, but left Nidaros with his men and proceeded across the
+mountains toward the southern part of the country. For two years he and
+his men now led a life of want and suffering, wandering from district
+to district, living most of the time in the forests and mountains, and
+subsisting on what they could obtain on their foraging expeditions into
+the settlements. They were pursued from time to time by King Magnus's
+men, and had many small battles with them. It was only by Sverre's
+great cunning, wisdom and perseverance that they got through some of
+the greatest dangers.
+
+At last, in June, 1179, Sverre considered himself strong enough to
+meet Erling and Magnus, and in a battle at Kalveskindet, near Nidaros,
+he defeated their forces. Earl Erling fell in the battle, and King
+Magnus saved himself by flight. In the battle King Magnus suffered
+a considerable loss. Several of his prominent liegemen and sixty
+court-men were slain. Sverre captured most of the enemy's ships, among
+them the "Olafssuden," which King Magnus himself had commanded. Erling
+Skakke was buried outside the Christ Church, and Sverre, who seldom
+lost an opportunity to make a speech, held a funeral sermon over him.
+
+The battle at Kalveskindet and the fall of Earl Erling brought a great
+change in the fortunes of Sverre and the Birchlegs. Sverre's power and
+influence grew rapidly, and in a short time the greater part of the
+people outside of King Magnus's immediate surroundings were willing
+to acknowledge him as king. Heretofore the name "Birchlegs" had been
+a contemptuous nickname; but now it became an honorable appellation,
+which everybody was proud to carry. King Magnus and Sverre seemed to
+have exchanged roles. Magnus, the anointed and crowned king, was now
+considered the usurper, while Sverre was considered the rightful king.
+Magnus's court-men and men-at-arms were soon looked upon as a band of
+adventurers, and they were called "Heklungs," because it was told of
+them that they had once robbed a beggar-woman, who had her few coins
+wrapped up in her cloak (_hekl_).
+
+After the battle at Kalveskindet, King Sverre's men received pay for
+their services, and he distributed among them the honors and dignities
+which he had promised them. He appointed district officers throughout
+the whole of the Throndhjem country. Many prominent and high-born
+men of this part of the country soon came to him and offered their
+allegiance, and he therefore declared that Throndhjem should hereafter
+be considered his real home, and he called the people there his dearest
+subjects, remembering what loyalty they had always shown his father and
+his family.
+
+King Magnus spent the year following his defeat mostly in Bergen,
+where he had many strong friends, among them Archbishop Eystein and
+Orm King's-Brother (a half-brother of Harald Gille's sons). Afterward
+he went to Viken, where he spent the winter and gathered an army for
+a new expedition against his rival. After a short stay at Nidaros,
+King Sverre made a levy throughout Throndhjem, and proceeded with a
+fleet south to Bergen; but when he arrived there Magnus had already
+gone to Viken. He therefore returned to Nidaros, but on his way north
+he installed officers in all the districts he passed. The winter of
+1179-80 he spent in Nidaros.
+
+In the spring King Magnus appeared outside of Nidaros with a force much
+more numerous than the one Sverre had been able to muster, and a bloody
+battle was fought on the plains of the Ilevolds. The battle resulted in
+a complete victory for Sverre. King Magnus and some of his chiefs saved
+themselves by flight and sailed south with a few ships.
+
+King Magnus went first to Bergen, but soon after proceeded south to his
+kinsman, King Valdemar of Denmark, by whom he was well received. But
+Orm King's-Brother went to Viken, and Archbishop Eystein sailed over
+to England, where he remained for three years. From here he had Sverre
+declared under the ban of the church; but Sverre does not seem to have
+paid any attention to this step.
+
+About a month after the battle at the Ilevolds, King Sverre appeared
+with his fleet outside of Bergen. Resistance was useless, and the
+inhabitants gave him a good reception. He remained in Bergen all winter
+(1180-81), and early in the spring quelled an uprising of peasants
+under the leadership of Jon Kutiza. Sverre promptly punished the
+rebels, and the peasants had to pay heavy fines. Later in the spring
+King Magnus and Orm King's-Brother came north with a strong fleet, and
+a battle was fought at Nordnes, near Bergen. A good many men fell on
+both sides; but Magnus was again defeated and compelled to save himself
+by flight. The Birchlegs captured eighteen of Magnus's ships and
+brought them into the town. They also took other rich booty, for Magnus
+was at that time well supplied with money and goods.
+
+Magnus went to Stavanger, and it was but a short time before he was
+again ready to attack Sverre at Bergen. This time, however, Sverre
+wished to avoid a battle, and sailed with his ships north to Nidaros,
+where he proceeded to improve the fortifications of the town. Meanwhile
+Magnus remained in Bergen.
+
+During Sverre's stay in Nidaros there came to him a young man named
+Erik, who claimed to be a son of King Sigurd Mund. He had been
+in many foreign lands, had been in the service of the emperor at
+Constantinople, and on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, where he had
+bathed in the river Jordan. He now asked leave to prove his royal
+descent by the iron ordeal. After a consultation with his friends and
+chiefs, Sverre permitted him to undergo the ordeal upon the condition
+that he must not aspire to the crown. Sverre prescribed the oath to be
+taken by the young man in submitting to the ordeal to prove that he was
+the son of Sigurd Mund "and the brother of Sverre." In this way Sverre
+meant to obtain incidentally a confirmation of his own title. But Erik
+refused to undertake to establish the descent of anybody but himself,
+and omitted the additional words. He successfully underwent the ordeal,
+and King Sverre acknowledged him as his brother, and gave him a command
+in his royal guard.
+
+The conflict between Sverre and Magnus continued for three years
+more. In 1181 King Sverre opened negotiations for a cessation of
+hostilities, offering first to share the kingdom with Magnus, and
+afterward proposing that they should reign alternately for three years
+each. Magnus, however, declined all offers, and the war was continued.
+During the years 1181 and 1182, King Magnus made three attacks on the
+Birchlegs at Nidaros with varying success. In the summer of 1183 Sverre
+sailed with a fleet down to Bergen, where he surprised and defeated the
+Heklungs, and compelled Magnus to flee east to Viken. The Birchlegs
+did not pursue the enemy very far, but returned to Bergen, and took
+possession of Magnus's whole fleet and a rich booty. Magnus's crown,
+sceptre and whole coronation outfit fell into Sverre's hands. Many men,
+who had heretofore been attached to Magnus, now joined King Sverre and
+swore him allegiance. Archbishop Eystein, who had just returned to
+the country after a three years' sojourn in England, was reconciled
+to King Sverre, and returned to his archbishopric in Nidaros. After
+a short stay in Bergen, and having installed district officers in
+Sogn, Hordaland, and Rogaland, Sverre returned with his whole army to
+Nidaros. Magnus again proceeded to Denmark, where the previous year
+King Knut VI. had succeeded his father, Valdemar the Great, on the
+throne.
+
+Magnus made a final attempt to defeat Sverre in the summer of 1184,
+when he came up from Denmark with a large fleet. King Sverre had sailed
+into the Norefjord, a narrow arm of the Sognefjord, in order to punish
+the inhabitants of Sogn for having killed his prefect, Ivar Darre,
+and some other officers. Magnus sailed in after him with his greatly
+superior force, and a fierce battle was fought at Fimreite, June 15,
+1184. The Birchlegs fought with great heroism, and a large number of
+men fell. The battle commenced in the afternoon. At sundown the first
+Heklungs turned to flee, and at midnight the battle was finished. The
+Heklungs had been completely routed. Two thousand men had fallen, among
+them King Magnus himself and the most prominent chieftains, the flower
+of the aristocracy of Gulathingslag and Viken. Among the slain were
+Harald, the son of King Inge; Orm King's-Brother and his son, Ivar
+Steig; Aasbiorn Jonson of Thiorn; Ragnvald, the son of Jon Hallkelson;
+Eindride Torve, Jon Kutiza's son, and many other prominent men.
+
+King Magnus was twenty-eight years old at the time of his death, having
+borne the title of king for twenty-three years. His body was found two
+days after the battle, and was brought to Bergen, where it was buried
+with great ceremony.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVIII
+
+_Sverre Sigurdson (1184-1202)_
+
+
+After the fall of Magnus Erlingson, King Sverre brought the whole
+country under his control, and no one dared to refuse him obedience.
+The same sagacity that he had shown in his struggles to gain the power,
+he also used in his efforts to maintain and strengthen it. He knew that
+he could expect nothing from the magnates of the powerful families, who
+resided on the largest estates throughout the country, and who looked
+with contempt upon the poor and lowly people that had constituted
+his following and helped him into power. He had to try to weaken the
+influence of this higher class and to look to the common people for
+his main support. The changes which King Sverre introduced in the
+domestic conditions of the country were in close coherence with the
+development of the country since the time of Harald the Fairhaired and
+Olaf the Saint. The kingdom of his predecessor had been upheld by the
+clergy and the aristocracy, the latter endeavoring to strengthen its
+power and dignity by united action, while the clergy tried to enforce
+the hierarchical principles of the time in the Church of Norway. King
+Sverre, on the other hand, depended upon the masses of the people,
+with their traditions and customs. For their benefit King Sverre
+appointed a new class of officers, who were called lawmen. They were
+to be learned in the law, and their duty was to see that the law was
+justly administered at the Things, and to aid the peasants in all legal
+matters. There had been a similar class of officers before, bearing the
+same title, but they had been elected at the Things, while from now
+on they were appointed by the king, especially for the benefit of the
+poorer classes, who themselves had little knowledge of the law, and
+often needed protection against the rich and powerful. Another class of
+officers whose functions were changed in such a manner as to greatly
+strengthen the king's power were the prefects (_Sysselmen_), whom the
+king appointed throughout the country. These prefects did not have
+the inherited dignity of the liegemen (_lendermen_), who were royal
+vassals and exercised independent authority, but were servants of the
+king and the representatives of his power. They supplanted the liegemen
+in their executive and judicial functions, and gradually transferred to
+the crown a great part of the power of the aristocracy.
+
+Sverre was too shrewd to break entirely or too suddenly with the old
+influences, and where they had been loyal, he selected men from the
+high old families for his officers. This was especially the case in
+the Throndhjem country, where his party was strongest. But he found
+positions enough with which to reward the faithful men who had followed
+him through his struggles. Some were made chiefs in the army, and some
+were appointed prefects; some were given landed estates, and others
+were helped to rich marriages. Baard Guthormson of Rein was married to
+the king's own sister, Cecilia, after her marriage with Folkvid Lawman
+had been declared void. King Sverre himself married Margreta, a sister
+of the Swedish king, Knut Erikson. Before this marriage King Sverre
+had four children, namely, two sons, Sigurd (called Lavard) and Haakon,
+and two daughters, Cecilia and Ingeborg. With Queen Margreta he had
+only a daughter, Kristina.
+
+The peace was not of long duration. The remnants of the Heklung party,
+which had been broken up by the battle in Norefjord, with several
+leading men, only waited for a favorable opportunity to start a revolt,
+and the opportunity soon offered itself. A monk, who called himself Jon
+and claimed to be a son of King Inge the Hunchback, left the cloister
+on the island near Oslo, and soon gathered about him a numerous band.
+He first went to Tunsberg, where, in September, 1185, he attacked and
+killed one of Sverre's prefects together with thirty men, and then
+summoned a Thing and was proclaimed king. The Birchlegs called this new
+party the Kuvlungs or Cowlmen, because their leader had worn a monk's
+hood or cowl. The Kuvlungs continued the rebellion for three years with
+varying success. They made several attacks on Bergen and Nidaros, and
+at times their strength was quite formidable. Finally their band was
+destroyed in Bergen, in December, 1188, and their leader was killed.
+After his death it appears to have been satisfactorily proven that Jon
+Kuvlung was not the son of King Inge the Hunchback, as he had claimed.
+
+The rebellious spirit had become quite general, and King Sverre
+had many of these revolts to suppress. After the Kuvlung party had
+been broken up, a new band, called the Varbelgs (Wolf Skins), was
+organized by the chief, Simon Kaareson, who had brought from Denmark,
+as a pretender to the throne, a boy named Vikar, said to be a son
+of King Magnus Erlingson. This party was badly defeated in a battle
+near Tunsberg, where Simon Kaareson and the little Vikar were both
+killed. Another band, under the leadership of Thorleif Breidskegg,
+who claimed to be a son of King Eystein Haraldson, was next destroyed
+in Viken (1191). The next party that made war on King Sverre were the
+Oyskeggs (the Islanders), so called because they received considerable
+aid from the Orkney Islands, where Earl Harald favored them. Their
+leaders were Hallkel Jonson, who was married to King Magnus Erlingson's
+sister Ragnhild, and Olaf, a brother-in-law of Earl Harald of the
+Orkneys. They chose Sigurd, a son of King Magnus, as their king. The
+Oyskeggs developed a considerable strength in Viken, and from there
+made piratical expeditions to the Danish waters and the Baltic, and
+therefore boastingly called themselves the Goldlegs (_Gullbeiner_).
+One of the men, whom King Sverre sent against them, Sigurd Jarlson
+(earl's son), an illegitimate son of Erling Skakke, turned traitor,
+and became one of the leaders of Sverre's enemies. In the fall of 1193
+the Oyskeggs captured Bergen without much resistance, King Sverre
+being then in Throndhjem. In the spring King Sverre came south with a
+fleet, and a bloody battle was fought at Florevaag, near Bergen (April
+3, 1194). The Oyskeggs were finally defeated, a great number of them,
+including Hallkel Jonson, Olaf (Earl Harald's brother-in-law), and
+Sigurd Magnusson, the pretender, being slain. King Sverre had thus
+gained a victory, but at great cost, for many of his best men had
+fallen, or died from the wounds they had received in the battle. Among
+the latter was Baard Guthormson of Rein.
+
+While King Sverre was almost constantly engaged in quelling rebellion,
+he was also carrying on a hard struggle with the hierarchy. Archbishop
+Eystein had been obliged to make peace with King Sverre; but when
+Eystein died (1188), Bishop Erik of Stavanger, a man with strong
+hierarchical tendencies, became his successor. Archbishop Erik named
+as his own successor to the bishopric of Stavanger one of Sverre's
+bitter enemies, Nicholas Arneson, a half-brother of King Inge the
+Hunchback. King Sverre refused to recognize this selection, because
+he had not been consulted, and named another in his place. Finally,
+through the mediation of Queen Margreta, who was a relative of Nicholas
+Arneson, the matter was compromised, and Sverre consented to Nicholas
+being installed as bishop in Oslo. The fight between the king and the
+hierarchy was, however, continued in other matters. Archbishop Erik
+was constantly trying to extend the prerogatives of his office. He
+claimed the exclusive right to the control of all church property;
+he wanted the tribute to the church paid according to actual weight
+in silver instead of in current coin, whereby he would about double
+the tax, and, finally, he wanted to surround himself with a court
+and keep ninety men-at-arms in his service, while the law allowed
+only thirty men altogether, and only twelve of them armed. During his
+stay in Nidaros, in 1191-92, King Sverre summoned a Thing to have
+these matters settled. The law was read, and the case was decided in
+favor of the king. Archbishop Erik now found the surroundings too
+uncomfortable, and hurried away from the town, taking with him all the
+goods he could collect. He proceeded to Denmark, where he was cordially
+received by Archbishop Absalon. Shortly after his arrival in Denmark he
+prepared a letter to the pope, in which he complained of King Sverre's
+infringements on the rights of the Church. In response to this letter,
+Pope Celestinus III., on the 15th of June, 1194, declared King Sverre
+in the ban of the church. Before the papal bull reached Norway,
+however, King Sverre had compelled the bishops to crown him at Bergen,
+June 29, 1194. For some time King Sverre treated the papal bull with
+contempt, and even intimated that it was an invention of the bishops in
+Denmark; but later he sent ambassadors, under the leadership of Bishop
+Thore of Hamar, with a message to the Pope, in which he put matters in
+a different light from that given them by Archbishop Erik. The fate
+of these ambassadors is enveloped in mystery. They remained in Rome
+till the end of 1196, and then started for home. During their homeward
+journey they were suddenly taken sick in Denmark and died, having
+probably been poisoned. Some time afterward some Danes came to King
+Sverre with letters bearing the seal of the Pope, and which, they said,
+had been pawned with them by the ambassadors for a certain amount of
+money. Sverre redeemed the documents, which purported to revoke the ban
+against the king, and had them publicly read in the churches. Whether
+King Sverre knew that these documents were not genuine does not appear.
+
+By the united efforts of King Sverre's enemies among the clergy and
+the aristocracy a rebellious band was organized in 1196, which was
+to become more dangerous than all the enemies he had heretofore had
+to fight. The principal leader of this movement was Bishop Nicholas
+Arneson, who was prepared to do anything to overthrow King Sverre. A
+favorable opportunity offered itself. The Byzantine emperor, Alexios
+Komnenos, had sent a Norwegian named Reidar the Messenger (_Sendemand_)
+to Norway to ask King Sverre to send him 1,200 good mercenaries for
+the service of the emperor. King Sverre replied that he had no troops
+to spare; but he was persuaded to allow Reidar to enlist such sons of
+peasants and traders as might wish to enter the service of the emperor.
+After Reidar had collected a considerable force, he was induced by
+Bishop Nicholas to enter into a league with him against King Sverre. At
+a fair in Halland he met Bishop Nicholas and Archbishop Erik, who had
+with them a large body of Norwegians, mostly from Viken. With them was
+also a young man named Inge, said to be a son of King Magnus Erlingson.
+The two armies united and proclaimed Inge king, and then made an
+invasion in Viken, where they were soon joined by Sigurd Jarlson, the
+former Oyskegg chief, and many other prominent men. The new rebel army
+was called _Baglers_, from the word _bagall_, a bishop's crosier, to
+signify that Bishop Nicholas was considered the real founder and chief
+leader of the party.
+
+During the last six years of his life King Sverre had a continual war
+with the Baglers. His first encounter with them was in Saltoe Sound, in
+Viken. After an indecisive battle there he returned with his ships to
+Bergen and proceeded to Nidaros, where he spent the winter 1196-97. The
+Baglers meanwhile summoned the Borgar-Thing, where Inge was proclaimed
+king. The next year King Sverre gathered a strong force and proceeded
+to Viken, and defeated the Baglers at Oslo, July 26, 1197. After the
+battle Bishop Nicholas sent a messenger to King Sverre that he was
+willing to make peace; but Sverre, who knew how little Bishop Nicholas
+was to be depended upon, sent word back that he would only treat with
+him if he would come in person. Bishop Nicholas did not go to meet the
+king, but instead hastened with the chiefs and the remaining force of
+the Baglers overland to Nidaros, where the wooden citadel (blockhouse)
+"Zion" fell into their hands by the treason of its commander,
+Thorstein Kugad. They destroyed some of the fortifications and burned
+a number of Sverre's ships and took possession of the remainder. A
+part of the Bagler force went aboard the captured ships, and sailed
+southward under the leadership of Sigurd Jarlson. The others returned
+to Viken the same way they had come. King Sverre spent the following
+winter in Bergen, and in the spring (1198) sailed north and met the
+Baglers in battle at Thorsberg, near the mouth of the Throndhjem Fjord.
+After a hard fight the Birchlegs were defeated with great loss. The
+king then hastened back to Bergen, which had in the meantime been
+occupied by the Bagler chief Sigurd Jarlson. The latter, however,
+having, by a clever trick of one of the Birchlegs, been led to believe
+that King Sverre was approaching with a much superior force, left the
+town before Sverre arrived.
+
+During the summer of 1198, which for a long time afterward was called
+the Bergen-summer, there was continual skirmishing in and about Bergen.
+On the night after August 10th the Baglers, led by Bishop Nicholas,
+rowed up to the landings with two ships full of wood. At the bishop's
+command they set fire to the town in three different places, and soon
+the greater part of it, including six churches, was laid in ashes. The
+Birchlegs had all they could do to save the wooden citadel (_Sverre's
+Borg_). The inhabitants of Bergen could never afterward forgive Bishop
+Nicholas and his party for the loss they suffered by this fire; but as
+heartily as they had heretofore hated the Birchlegs they now hated the
+Baglers. Sverre found his position untenable after the town had been
+burned, and proceeded with his men overland to Throndhjem. Meanwhile
+the Baglers, who had many ships, were masters on the coasts. Many
+deserted the king and supported the Baglers; but there were also some
+of their men who went over to Sverre. Among the latter was Thorstein
+Kugad, who had surrendered his garrison in Nidaros, and who now
+returned to Sverre and begged his pardon. This was given, and Thorstein
+became one of Sverre's useful men.
+
+King Sverre spent the winter 1198-99 in Nidaros. His position was a
+desperate one. Outside of the Throndhjem country he had very little
+power, and the Baglers were masters at sea. Then, furthermore, a
+terrible blow was dealt Sverre, as Pope Innocent III., in October,
+1198, issued his bull declaring Sverre to be in the ban of the Church,
+and laying the whole country under interdict, closing all churches and
+forbidding the administration of the sacraments wherever the people
+acknowledged King Sverre. It is easily understood what horror such a
+papal bull would create at that time. Sverre did not lose courage,
+however, but called the Throndhjem people together and asked them to
+help him. They showed their usual loyalty, and with their help he set
+to work to build a new, strong fleet and to improve the fortifications
+of the town. In the spring the Baglers appeared in the Throndhjem Fjord
+with a strong fleet, and, after some skirmishing, the two fleets met
+in battle at Strindsö, June 18, 1199. It was a desperate fight, where
+no quarter was given. The result was a victory for King Sverre and
+the Birchlegs, who returned to town with most of the enemy's ships.
+The prisoners taken on this occasion were nearly all slain. Bishop
+Nicholas, who watched the beginning of the battle from a safe distance,
+fled with his ship when he saw that the Baglers were losing, and Sigurd
+Jarlson and Reidar the Messenger followed his example.
+
+The Baglers who escaped from the battle of Strindsö proceeded to
+Denmark. Sverre, with his fleet, pursued them a part of the way,
+but gave up the chase and proceeded to Oslo, where he intended to
+go into winter-quarters. In January, 1200, the Baglers came up from
+Denmark with a number of small ships under the leadership of Reidar
+the Messenger and Inge Bagler-King. Some of them landed near Oslo
+and killed Sverre's kinsman, Earl Philip. Not feeling strong enough,
+however, to attack King Sverre's forces they withdrew during the night
+and sailed to Bergen. Afterward they made a sudden but unsuccessful
+attack on Nidaros, which was defended by an army of 1,800 peasants.
+
+During the winter King Sverre attempted to make a levy of troops in
+Viken, intending to send home some of his Throndhjem people; but the
+inhabitants, who had never been greatly attached to King Sverre,
+murmured at this, and the result was a great uprising of the peasants
+in Viken and the Uplands. On the day secretly appointed, March 1st,
+Sverre's prefects at Tunsberg and several other places were killed,
+and a few days later a force many times as large as Sverre's marched
+against him from three different directions. On this occasion Sverre
+displayed a masterly leadership, and his men fought like heroes. During
+the day there were eight desperate encounters, and, in spite of the
+seemingly overwhelming force of the rebels, Sverre won the day. He
+afterward punished the peasants by exacting large fines in money and
+provisions.
+
+Sverre had a few indecisive battles with the Baglers the same year, and
+spent the following winter in Bergen. In the spring of 1201 he called
+a new levy from the north, and, during the summer, sailed to Viken.
+Reidar the Messenger, with several chiefs and two hundred and forty
+men, had fortified himself on the _Slotsberg_ (Castle Mountain) at
+Tunsberg, and defied any attack. King Sverre organized a regular siege,
+determined not to abandon it until he had conquered this dangerous
+enemy. Finally, when the Baglers were nearly starved to death, Reidar
+and his little band surrendered to Sverre, who not only spared their
+lives, but gave them the best of treatment. He advised them not to eat
+much in the beginning; but several of them disregarded this advice and
+died. This remarkable siege had lasted for twenty weeks, or from the
+first week in September, 1201, to the fourth week in January, 1202.
+
+At last King Sverre's physical strength succumbed to the hardships
+and cares which night and day he had had to endure. During his stay
+in Tunsberg he had been ailing, but, at first, his illness did not
+seem to be serious. When he left Tunsberg, however, he was obliged to
+keep his bed. He had his bed placed on the raised deck in the stern
+of his ship, and here also stood the bed of the Bagler chief, Reidar.
+During the journey the king found much pleasure in talking with the
+intelligent old chief, who could tell him of his crusades and other
+journeys in distant countries. They arrived in Bergen toward the end
+of February, and the king was carried to the royal residence, where
+his bed was placed in the large hall. When he understood that death
+was near, he called the priests and his trusted friends to him. He
+first let them read and seal a letter which he had prepared, to his
+son Haakon in Throndhjem, about the management of the affairs of the
+government after his death. Then he solemnly declared that he had only
+one son living, namely Haakon (his other son, Sigurd Lavard, having
+died the year before), so that if any one else should claim after
+his death to be his son he would be an impostor. Then he desired to
+be lifted into his high-seat, and seated there he received the last
+ointment. Afterward he said: "I have had more strife, disturbance, and
+adversity than quiet and peaceful days during my reign, and, so far as
+I can judge, many have been my maligners only from enmity toward me.
+God forgive them all, and judge between them and me in my whole cause."
+Soon after, on Saturday, March 9, 1202, King Sverre expired. His body
+was buried in the Christ Church, and on his tombstone was engraved the
+following epitaph: "Here lies one who was the ornament of kings, the
+support, picture and paragon of faith, honor and bravery, his country's
+defence, the vindication of justice, the delight of all his men." After
+his death even those who had been his enemies said that such a man as
+Sverre had not lived in Norway in their time.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIX
+
+_Haakon Sverreson (1202-1204), Guthorm Sigurdson (1204), and Inge
+Baardson (1204-1217)_
+
+
+After Sverre's death his only son, Haakon, who was then twenty-eight or
+thirty years old, was proclaimed king of Norway. In the letter which
+Sverre wrote to his son on his death-bed, he advised him to make peace
+with the Church, and Haakon lost no time in calling the archbishop
+back to the country and in reconciling himself with the bishops. The
+clergy seemed to be very eager for peace, and each bishop returned to
+his bishopric, while the archbishop revoked the ban and the interdict
+without even taking time to obtain the consent of the pope. For this
+haste in making peace with the king the archbishop was afterward
+sharply reprimanded by the pope; but in the meanwhile the good
+relations between king and clergy had strengthened Haakon's position,
+and the people in general readily acknowledged him. The Bagler party
+gradually lost most of its support, and after their so-called king,
+Inge Magnusson, had been killed by one of his own men on an island
+in Lake Miosen (1202), the party was, for the time being, broken up.
+Some went to King Haakon and begged for mercy, the remainder fled
+either to Sweden or Denmark, and there was again peace in the country.
+The peace, however, did not last very long, this time probably on
+account of strained relations between the king and his stepmother, the
+queen-dowager Margreta. During the festivities in Bergen at Christmas,
+1203, King Haakon was taken suddenly ill, and on January 1, 1204, he
+died, with all the symptoms of having been poisoned. It was the general
+opinion that Queen Margreta was the cause of his death. She was obliged
+to leave the country, and returned to her old home in Sweden. The death
+of King Haakon caused great sorrow, for he had been very popular;
+besides, it was generally supposed that he left no issue.
+
+Two days after Haakon's death, a council was held by Bishop Martin
+and the chiefs of the Birchlegs, and it was decided to elect Haakon's
+nearest heir, his nephew, Guthorm Sigurdson, a son of Sigurd Lavard,
+as his successor, although he was only four years old. Haakon Galen,
+a son of Sverre's sister Cecilia and Folkvid Lawman, was to conduct
+the government under the title of earl. When this hasty election of a
+king was reported throughout the country, the Bagler party reorganized
+themselves under the leadership of Erling Steinvegg (Stonewall), who
+claimed to be a son of King Magnus Erlingson. This new pretender soon
+had a large following and also obtained substantial support from the
+Danish king, Valdemar II. Bishop Nicholas at first opposed him, as he
+wanted his own nephew, Philip, a grandson of Harald Gille's queen,
+Ingerid, elected king; but they finally came to an agreement, Erling
+promising to make Philip earl and to otherwise favor the bishop. With
+the aid of the bishop, Erling then proved his right to the throne by
+the ordeal of fire, the event taking place with great ceremony in
+Tunsberg in the presence of the Danish king and a large assemblage
+of people. King Valdemar made Erling a present of thirty-five fully
+equipped ships. The following day a Thing was summoned, and Erling was
+proclaimed king. He immediately appointed Philip as his earl. Both
+solemnly acknowledged the Danish king as their overlord and gave him
+hostages. The whole of Viken had soon acknowledged Erling as king, and
+the few Birchlegs who were there fled to the northern or western part
+of the country.
+
+The child king, Guthorm Sigurdson, died suddenly in Nidaros, August
+11, 1204, and there was a strong suspicion that he had been poisoned
+by Christina, the mistress of Haakon Galen. The Thing was immediately
+convened, and the people elected Inge Baardson of Rein as king. Inge
+was a younger half-brother of Haakon Galen, being a son of King
+Sverre's sister, Cecilia, and her husband, Baard of Rein. For some
+time there was again continual warfare between the Baglers and the
+Birchlegs. In the summer of 1205, King Inge and Earl Haakon made a
+cruise to Viken and had some encounters with the Baglers, and in
+the fall King Inge returned to Nidaros, while Earl Haakon went into
+winter-quarters in Bergen.
+
+Shortly after Christmas it was reported in Nidaros that a body of
+warriors had come across the mountain from the south, and that they
+had the son of a king with them. It was feared that a new band of
+rebels was coming, and King Inge called all his men to arms. Two of
+his court-men, who were sent out to ascertain the object of the coming
+warriors, were met by some messengers, who had been sent ahead to
+inform King Inge of their errand. It was quite true that they had the
+son of a king with them, but he was as yet only a babe. It was learned
+that the approaching warriors were a number of good Birchlegs, and that
+the prince who was with them was the infant son of their late beloved
+master, King Haakon Sverreson.
+
+During his visit in Sarpsborg, in 1203, King Haakon Sverreson had
+become enamored of a handsome girl of high birth, Inga of Varteig.
+She reciprocated his affection, and the intimacy that grew up between
+them was no secret to the king's friends. Soon after the king's death,
+Inga, who was then at the parsonage Folkisberg (in the present Eidsberg
+parish), gave birth to a son. The priest, Thrond, who well knew who the
+father was, baptized the boy and named him Haakon, after his father.
+Thrond kept the child at his home, but did all he could to keep the
+matter secret. Later he took Erlend of Huseby, a distant relative of
+King Haakon, into his confidence, and it was decided to get the child
+away from Viken, on account of the constant danger from the Baglers.
+Toward Christmas, 1205, when the boy was about a year and a half old,
+his mother, Inga of Varteig, the priest Thrond, and Erlend of Huseby
+started out on the dangerous journey. They arrived at Hamar Christmas
+eve, but were afraid to stay there long, and therefore continued their
+journey as soon as possible. They first came to Lillehammer, where a
+number of Birchlegs joined them, and then proceeded across the mountain
+to Oesterdalen, and thence north to Nidaros. During the journey across
+the mountain they suffered untold hardships on account of snow and
+cold, being often obliged to spend the night in the wilderness. Once
+the storm had become so severe that they did not know where they were.
+The royal child was then given to the two best ski-runners in the
+party, Thorstein Skevla and Skervald Skrukka, who started ahead of the
+others in order to find shelter if possible. They did not succeed in
+reaching any settlement that night, but struck a mountain hay-shed,
+where they made fire and prepared a couch for the child. The remainder
+of the party reached the place later in the night. In the morning the
+snow was so deep that it was only with the greatest difficulty that
+they could proceed. When they reached the settlements, however, they
+were well received, and many Birchlegs joined them on their journey
+northward.
+
+When King Inge and his men heard of the journey of the royal child and
+of the hardships which the party had suffered, they all thanked God
+for having saved the child. The king and his whole court set out to
+meet the party at the blockhouse, and, on their arrival, he took the
+little boy in his arms and kissed him. The boy and his mother were
+given the best of care in Nidaros. The child became very popular with
+the old Birchlegs who had served under his father and his grandfather.
+They came often to see how he was getting along, and would sometimes
+playfully take him between them and stretch his arms and legs in order,
+as they said, to make him grow faster.
+
+In the spring of 1206 Erling Steinvegg collected a fleet and proceeded
+north to Throndhjem, in order to attack King Inge in his stronghold
+in Nidaros. On Saturday, April 22, there were great festivities in
+Nidaros, for King Inge was celebrating the wedding of his sister
+Sigrid, daughter of Baard of Rein, to the liegeman, Thorgrim of
+Ljaanes. All the prominent men in the surrounding country had come to
+the wedding. There was much drinking during the night, and the king,
+as well as his chiefs and warriors, went to bed intoxicated. Toward
+morning the Baglers suddenly attacked the sleeping town and effected
+a general massacre. Many of the prominent Birchlegs, who had been
+with King Sverre in many of his battles, were killed by the Baglers
+on this occasion. King Inge, who was not at the royal residence, but
+was sleeping in the house of his mistress, was with some difficulty
+awakened by the latter's servants. He escaped to a neighboring roof,
+where he lay until the Baglers had passed the house; then he ran down
+to the docks and threw himself in the icy river in order to swim
+across. The strong current made this a very difficult task. Out in the
+stream he caught hold of the anchor cable of a ship, to which he clung
+for a while, but a man, who was keeping guard on board, pushed him off
+with a pole, and he was obliged to swim further. He finally reached
+the other shore, but was then so exhausted from cold and exertion that
+he would probably have succumbed, if one of his faithful men, Reidulf
+Baardsbrother, had not happened to come to his assistance. Reidulf took
+off his cloak and wrapped the king in it, and carried him on his back
+to Skyaas, where they obtained a horse and sled and escaped to Klæbu.
+
+In the meanwhile the Baglers continued their dreadful work in Nidaros.
+They searched all the churches and killed those who had taken refuge
+there, and committed numerous acts of plunder and depredation. King
+Inge's half-brother, the seventeen year old Skule Baardson, escaped as
+by a miracle. He crept along the house walls and reached the river,
+where the chief, Jon Usle, and forty Birchlegs were just going across
+in some boats they had secured. They crossed in safety, and later
+proceeded to Klæbu, where Skule found the king with a hundred Birchlegs
+and peasants, who had gathered about him.
+
+King Inge was greatly changed after the experiences of that awful
+night. The light-hearted and social young man became gloomy and
+melancholy. He never felt really at ease except on board his ship and
+in the solitude of his room. He was averse to seeing new faces, and
+only his nearest and dearest men were admitted to his presence.
+
+King Inge soon returned to Nidaros with a force of Birchlegs, while
+the Baglers withdrew to Bergen with their large booty. Here they were
+soon afterward overtaken by Earl Haakon and the Birchlegs, who defeated
+them and took back the greater part of the spoil. Thus the two parties,
+from time to time, continued to surprise and attack each other with no
+other result than that the country suffered. Early in the year 1207
+the Bagler king, Erling Steinvegg, died, and Bishop Nicholas at last
+succeeded in having his nephew, Philip, chosen as the third king of the
+Baglers.
+
+In the summer of 1208 negotiations for peace were commenced. The manner
+in which the war had lately been conducted indicates that the strength
+of both parties was practically exhausted. The whole warfare was only
+a sort of hide-and-seek play, or a continual cruising back and forth
+between Bergen and Viken, in which they do not even seem to have tried
+to meet in decisive battle, but only to forestall each other, attack
+singly some one of the hostile party, and otherwise do as much damage
+as possible by plunder and depredation. Everybody began to realize
+that the resources of the country were thus being wasted, and that,
+whichever party finally won, there would only be an impoverished land
+and people to rule over. Bishop Nicholas saw this as well as any one,
+and consulted the archbishop in Nidaros. The result was a meeting
+of the chiefs of both parties at Hvitings Island (Hvitingsö), near
+Stavanger, where the king of the Baglers, Philip, swore allegiance to
+King Inge, and was, in return, made earl of Viken and the Uplands, and
+was given Christina, the daughter of Sverre, in marriage.
+
+The war between the Baglers and the Birchlegs was thus ended, and
+comparative peace was restored. One of the disturbing elements that
+remained was the jealousy of Earl Haakon Galen and his ambitious wife.
+As the nephew of King Sverre, he thought he had been as much entitled
+to the throne as his half-brother, Inge. An open revolt was avoided;
+but, probably by the intervention of Archbishop Thore, a compact was
+made between the earl and the king (1212), by which it was decided that
+illegitimate children were to be excluded from the succession to the
+throne. This agreement was especially aimed against the young Haakon
+Haakonson and Inge's own illegitimate child, Guthorm, and gave the
+succession to Haakon Galen's own offspring. This agreement, however,
+was not approved by the old warriors among the Birchlegs, who were
+greatly attached to King Sverre's direct descendant, the young Haakon.
+
+In the evening, after the agreement had been made, the boy came home
+from school to the court of Earl Haakon, by whom he was being raised,
+and he hurried to the old veteran, Helge Hvasse, who was especially
+fond of the boy, and used to give a great deal of attention to him.
+This time, however, he turned away and would not speak to the child.
+
+"Why are you angry with me?" asked the boy.
+
+"Begone!" said Helge. "I will have nothing to do with you. You were
+disinherited to-day."
+
+"How did that happen, and who did it?" asked little Haakon.
+
+"It was done at Oere-Thing," said Helge, "and it was done by the two
+brothers, King Inge and Earl Haakon."
+
+"Be not angry with me, my own Helge," said the boy, "and do not care
+anything about this; for this decision cannot possibly be valid. My
+representatives were not present to answer in my behalf."
+
+"And who are your representatives?" asked Helge.
+
+"My representatives are God, the holy Virgin, and Saint Olaf," answered
+Haakon; "in their hands have I left my case, and they will guard my
+interests in the best possible way, as you will see, both as to the
+division of the country and in my other welfare."
+
+Deeply moved, the old Birchleg took the boy in his arms and kissed him,
+and said:
+
+"That was better said than unsaid, my prince, and I thank you for those
+words."
+
+What this boy of eight years had said was soon reported among the
+Birchlegs, who all greatly admired him. The story also soon reached
+Earl Haakon and his wife Christina. The earl did not say much; but
+Christina got very angry, and from that day treated the boy more
+harshly than she had done before.
+
+Earl Haakon was taken sick and died in Bergen in January, 1214, and
+his wife, Christina, who understood that she had made herself very
+unpopular, hastened to leave the country with her young son, Knut, and
+returned to Sweden. Young Haakon Haakonson was transferred to King
+Inge's court. He and Guthorm, King Inge's son, were sent to school
+together, and they were in every way treated alike.
+
+In the winter of 1216-17 King Inge was taken sick, and when he could
+no longer attend to the public affairs he appointed his half-brother,
+Skule Baardson, as regent with the title of earl. King Inge died April
+23, 1217, and Earl Skule had him buried with great ceremony in Christ
+Church in Nidaros.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXX
+
+_Haakon Haakonson the Old (1217-1263)_
+
+
+After the death of King Inge, the discord which had been fermenting
+began to show itself. The ambitious Earl Skule, while pretending to
+favor King Inge's young son, Guthorm, really considered himself the
+successor to the throne, while a few, who had been special friends
+of the late Earl Haakon Galen, favored the latter's son Knut, who
+was with his mother in Sweden. Earl Skule had the aid and sympathy
+of Archbishop Guthorm and the other dignitaries of the cathedral at
+Nidaros, and advocated a postponement of the election of a king, until
+the archbishop, who was absent on a journey, should return. In spite
+of all intriguing, however, the Birchlegs summoned the Oere-Thing and
+proclaimed Haakon Haakonson king of Norway, and he swore fidelity to
+the laws of the country, although he could not, according to usage, do
+so on the shrine of Saint Olaf, because the canons of the cathedral
+refused to allow the shrine to be taken out of the church and carried
+to the Thing. The next day all the court-men and the delegates present
+took the oath of allegiance to Haakon as king and to Skule as earl. The
+king and the earl now proceeded to Bergen, where the Gula-Thing was
+summoned, in order that Haakon might also be proclaimed king there. The
+day before the Thing a meeting was held by the king and the earl and
+their advisers. The king's advisers suggested that Earl Skule should
+swear an oath of allegiance to King Haakon; but this the earl bluntly
+refused to do, unless he was given in fief one-third of the kingdom
+and of its dependencies. As it was learned that the earl had been
+negotiating with the so-called Bagler king, Philip, in Viken, and the
+king's party was hardly strong enough to fight a combination of that
+kind, it was thought that there was nothing to do but to acquiesce
+in the earl's demands. The next day, at the Thing, King Haakon made
+his oath to uphold the laws, but the wily earl had made use of his
+position as the king's guardian to insert in the oath a pledge to keep
+the agreement already made between the king and the earl. Shortly
+after this, news was received that the Bagler king, Philip, was dead.
+King Haakon and Earl Skule immediately proceeded to Viken, where, at
+the suggestion of Bishop Nicholas, negotiations were opened with the
+Baglers. It was finally decided that the Baglers should retain, during
+the coming winter, one-half of the fiefs which Philip had held as
+earl, and that both parties should send men north to the archbishop
+to request him, next summer, to arrange a permanent peace. The other
+half of Viken was given up to King Haakon and Earl Skule, who appointed
+prefects there. Thereupon they summoned the Hauga-Thing, where Haakon
+was acknowledged as the rightful king.
+
+King Haakon had several enemies to contend with, and the most dangerous
+among them were by no means those who were in open rebellion. A new
+band of rebels was organized under the leadership of a chaplain by
+the name of Benedict, or Bene Skinkniv (Skin knife), as the peasants
+called him, who claimed to be a son of King Magnus Erlingson. His
+followers were originally mostly thieves and bandits, who only sought
+an opportunity for robbery and plunder. On account of their ragged
+appearance they were called the "Slitungs" (vagabonds or "tramps").
+After a short campaign against the Slitungs, the king and the earl
+returned northward. When they arrived in Nidaros, the earl was received
+with the utmost courtesy by the archbishop, but the latter refused to
+show the proper honor to the king; and the reason being given that
+there was some doubt as to whether Haakon was really the son of Haakon
+Sverreson, it was agreed that his mother, Inga of Varteig, was to
+submit to the ordeal of fire. This was done in Bergen in the presence
+of the king, the earl, the archbishop, and other bishops and chiefs.
+The result was in every way satisfactory. The church declared that King
+Haakon had proved his paternity, and Earl Skule was for the time being
+apparently reconciled with the king.
+
+The strained relations between Earl Skule and the king soon came to the
+surface again, however, and there were frequent conflicts between the
+"earl's-men" and the "king's-men." The friends of both finally came to
+the conclusion that something ought to be done to bind them together
+by common interests, and as the best means to this end they proposed
+a marriage between King Haakon and the earl's daughter, Margreta. The
+plan was accepted by both parties, and the betrothal took place in
+September, 1219. The actual marriage was preliminarily postponed on
+account of the tender age of both parties, the king being then about
+fourteen years and the bride scarcely more than nine years old.
+
+During the next winter a new band of rebels was organized in Viken
+by Gudolf of Blakkestad, a former prefect, who had been discharged
+from office on account of his harsh treatment of the peasants. The
+Slitungs joined the new party, which was commonly called the Ribbungs
+(robbers). They chose as their leader and candidate for the throne
+a young man by the name of Sigurd, who claimed to be the son of the
+former Bagler king, Erling Steinvegg. They seem to have had the secret
+support of Bishop Nicholas, in spite of the fact that the latter had
+professed friendship for King Haakon. After having fought this party
+for about two years and defeated it several times, Earl Skule induced
+Bishop Nicholas to assist in ending the struggle. In the spring of
+1223, Sigurd Ribbung made overtures for peace, but had the audacity to
+demand as a condition for laying down his arms one third of the kingdom
+and the earl's daughter in marriage. The earl answered that he would
+not give his daughter away to live in the woods, and as for the third
+of the kingdom he would have to apply to King Haakon; but he promised
+Sigurd and his men amnesty and safe conduct, in case Sigurd wished
+to apply personally to the king. Although these conditions were more
+severe than expected, Sigurd Ribbung surrendered. The earl was greatly
+praised for having gained this victory without a battle, in having
+induced such a mighty force to lay down their arms, and thus secured
+peace throughout the country. This peace, however, was not as complete
+as it was thought; for the earl was at this time cherishing more
+far-reaching plans than ever before. It appears that he had made a levy
+of troops and taxes outside of his own fiefs, and had been reprimanded
+for this in a letter from King Haakon. After having made peace with
+the Ribbungs, he immediately sailed for Denmark, it being no doubt his
+intention to renounce his allegiance to King Haakon, and, with the aid
+of the Danish king, take possession of the country and hold it in fief
+from him. Upon arriving in Copenhagen he learned that King Valdemar
+(the Victorious) had been taken prisoner by Count Henry of Schwerin and
+brought to Mecklenburg. Earl Skule, therefore, was obliged to return
+and continue to feign friendship for King Haakon. At a state meeting
+in Bergen in the fall of 1223, where the archbishop, the bishops, and
+other leading men of the country were present, Haakon's right to the
+throne was reaffirmed, and Earl Skule agreed to take the northern third
+of the country in fief instead of the southern part, which he had held
+before.
+
+By the agreement at the state meeting in Bergen, Norway was divided
+into two domains, of which that of the king included Viken, the
+Uplands, and the Gulathingslag, except Söndmöre, while that of
+the earl included everything north of the king's domain, and this
+division remained in force for over fifteen years. The earl made his
+headquarters in Nidaros, while the king took up his residence in Oslo.
+Sigurd Ribbung remained with the earl, who had promised to watch him,
+but escaped during the summer of 1224, and again organized a band of
+rebels who resumed their old guerilla warfare. Whenever they were met
+by a superior force, they would make their escape across the frontier
+into the Swedish province of Vermeland, where they had many adherents.
+At last King Haakon found it necessary to invade Vermeland with an
+army of 2,400 men, early in 1225, in order to punish the inhabitants.
+He burned a great number of houses, but did not succeed in meeting the
+Ribbungs in any decisive battle.
+
+In April, King Haakon proceeded to Bergen, in order to celebrate his
+marriage with Earl Skule's daughter, Margreta. The earl received him
+apparently with great cordiality, and grand preparations were made for
+the wedding, which took place May 25, 1225. This marriage had been
+dictated by political considerations; but Earl Skule derived no direct
+benefits from it, for during all the later struggles Margreta stood
+faithfully by her husband, in spite of the fact that the principal
+opponent was her own father.
+
+The Ribbungs continued their guerilla warfare, secretly aided by Bishop
+Nicholas. The latter died in Oslo, November 7, 1225, after having
+asked and obtained the king's forgiveness for all his treachery. He
+was between seventy and eighty years old at the time of his death.
+During the winter Earl Skule and the archbishop at Nidaros attempted
+to negotiate peace between the Ribbungs and the king, but without any
+success. In the spring of 1226 Sigurd Ribbung was taken sick and died,
+and Squire Knut, the son of Haakon Galen and Christina, was induced
+to become the chief of the Ribbungs. The Ribbungs suffered several
+reverses, and in the following year Squire Knut disbanded his army and
+submitted to King Haakon, whose devoted friend he ever remained.
+
+Earl Skule continued his intriguing for the ultimate overthrow of
+the king, and, while strengthening himself at home, negotiated with
+the king of Denmark for aid from that quarter. Meanwhile King Haakon
+did everything to retain the earl's allegiance. In 1233 a meeting
+was held in Bergen, where a new compact was made, only to be broken
+shortly afterward by the earl. When the king discovered that the earl
+had tried to involve him in a conflict with the Church, and had sent
+damaging reports about him to Rome, he again summoned him to a meeting
+in Bergen. This time Earl Skule did not see fit to come to the meeting,
+but proceeded with an army across the mountains to the Uplands, thus
+entering the reserved territory of the king. Through the mediation
+of the archbishop peace was patched up for the coming winter, on the
+condition that the earl was to have one-third of all the prefectures.
+The following year a new agreement was made, by which Skule was to
+retain the privileges thus obtained in the southern part of the
+country, besides which he was raised to the rank of duke, a title which
+no one so far had held in Norway.
+
+Nothing, however, seemed to satisfy Skule short of the dignity of
+king. He prepared himself in every way for an open conflict--built
+and equipped ships, and steadily increased his force of warriors. His
+followers were called the "Varbelgs," the same name that a rebellious
+party during the reign of King Sverre had carried. In November, 1239,
+Duke Skule convened the Oere-Thing, where he had his friends proclaim
+him king of Norway, whereupon he made the usual oath of fidelity to the
+laws, with his hand upon Saint Olaf's shrine, which had been forcibly
+taken from the cathedral and carried to the Thing.
+
+There was now open war between Duke Skule and King Haakon. The duke
+proceeded south to the Uplands with an army of six hundred men. At
+Laaka, Raumarike, he met and defeated the king's forces under Squire
+Knut, who had been appointed earl in Skule's place. After this victory
+he proceeded to Oslo, but here he was soon afterward attacked by King
+Haakon and was badly defeated. A great many of the Varbelgs fell in
+the battle, while others surrendered to the king and were pardoned.
+Duke Skule with a few men escaped and fled north to Nidaros. Shortly
+afterward the town was suddenly attacked by the Birchlegs, who, after
+the battle of Oslo, had been sent north by King Haakon with a fleet
+under the command of Aasulf of Austraat, one of Skule's bitter enemies.
+Duke Skule, awoke by the alarm, armed himself and sent his messengers
+around in the town to call the Varbelgs together; but they would not
+obey orders, and his men took refuge in the churches. Skule himself
+crossed the Nid River and hid himself with a few men in a forest near
+by. Two days later the monks at Elgeseter Cloister sent them cloaks,
+and thus disguised they reached the cloister. The Birchlegs, however,
+discovered the duke's whereabout, and, proceeding to the cloister,
+demanded that he be delivered up. This being refused they set fire
+to the building. Skule then came out with his men, and they were all
+slain, May 24, 1240.
+
+After the fall of Skule the rebellion of the Varbelgs died out
+completely, the power of King Haakon was undisputed, and the country
+could at last enjoy peace and order. On Saint Olaf's Day, July 29,
+1247, King Haakon was crowned with grand ceremonies in Christ Church
+in Bergen by Cardinal William of Sabina, whom the Pope had sent north
+for that purpose. At the grand feast that followed there were so many
+people present that there was not room enough in the king's mansion,
+and the king therefore had a huge boat-house temporarily fitted out as
+a festival hall, the walls being covered with colored cloth, and the
+hall furnished with costly benches with gold-embroidered silk cushions.
+This feast lasted for three days, and after that the king gave a party,
+lasting five days, in the royal home for the cardinal and the most
+prominent men. When the cardinal departed from Norway, the king sent
+with him 15,000 marks sterling as a gift to the Pope, and also gave the
+cardinal personally fine presents.
+
+The reign of King Haakon, after peace had been restored, was very
+beneficial to the country. He improved the laws, and, among other
+changes, abolished the ordeal of fire. This was done after consultation
+with the visiting cardinal, who declared that it was not proper for
+Christians to challenge God to give his verdict in human affairs. It
+was decided that at the death of a king the oldest legitimate son
+was to succeed to the throne, and the kingdom was not to be divided
+between two or more princes. In architecture great progress was made,
+and a great deal of money was spent for the erection of monasteries,
+churches and royal mansions. A wall was built around the royal mansion
+in Bergen; this wall was the beginning of the fort afterward called
+Bergenhus. King Haakon also built the grand royal hall in Bergen and
+a hospital for lepers. In Tunsberg he built a monastery, and the
+strong wall of the fort is still to be seen. He began to Christianize
+the Finns and built churches for them. The church which he built at
+Tromsoe was the northernmost Christian church in the world.
+
+King Haakon gained a high reputation in foreign countries. The Russian
+grand-duke, Vasilij, asked for the hand of his daughter Christina,
+and the Spanish king, Alfonso X. of Castile, wooed her for one of his
+brothers. The latter suit was accepted, and Christina was married to
+the Spanish prince, Don Philip, in 1257. The pope wanted Haakon for
+emperor of Germany, and the French king, Louis IX., urged him to take
+the command of a crusade.
+
+During the reign of King Haakon, in 1261, Greenland was made a
+dependency of Norway, and the next year Iceland acknowledged the
+supremacy of Norway. The Icelanders agreed to pay the king of Norway a
+tribute; but they were to retain their own laws and their own officers.
+
+
+In the summer of 1263 King Haakon sailed with a strong fleet and a
+large army westward to make war on Alexander III. of Scotland, who had
+tried to annex the Norwegian possessions west and north of Scotland.
+King Haakon proceeded to the Sudr Islands (the Hebrides), where he met
+with terrible storms, during which his fleet suffered considerable
+loss. In a battle at Largs, near the entrance to the Firth of Clyde,
+some of Haakon's best men fell. Scotch and Norwegian accounts differ
+as to which side was really defeated; but even from Scotch sources it
+appears that there was for some time afterward a great dread of the
+reappearance of "the black fleet of Norway." A contemporary Scotch poet
+and soothsayer, Thomas of Erceldoune, wrote:
+
+    It will be seen upon a day
+    Between the Bass and Bay,
+    Craigin and Fidderay,
+    The black fleet of Norroway.
+    Quhen the black fleet is come and gane,
+    Then may they bigg thair burgh of lime and stane
+    Quhilk they biggit of straw and hay--
+    That will stand till doomes day.
+
+Shortly after the battle at Largs, King Haakon retired to the Orkneys,
+intending to winter there and to renew the attack in the spring. In
+the town of Kirkevaag (Orkneys) he was taken seriously ill; dying
+December 15, 1263. During his illness he had his men read aloud to him
+portions of the Bible and several books in Latin. Afterward he had
+Norwegian books read to him, first the stories of holy men (legends)
+and afterward the sagas of his ancestors, from Halfdan the Black down
+to his grandfather, King Sverre. During the reading of Sverre's saga
+he sank rapidly, and toward midnight, when King Sverre's saga was
+finished, he expired.
+
+King Haakon was fifty-nine years old when he died. He had been king of
+Norway forty-six years. His body was temporarily entombed in Kirkevaag,
+and, in the following spring, was brought back to Norway and buried in
+the Christ Church in Bergen.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXI
+
+_Snorre Sturlason_
+
+
+During the reign of Haakon Haakonson lived the renowned author of
+sagas, Snorre Sturlason. He was born in the year 1178 at Hvam (or
+Kvam), in the western province of Iceland. His family traced their
+lineage from the old Norse kings. In his third year Snorre was sent
+to the rich and learned Jon Loftson to be fostered. Jon Loftson's
+grandfather was Saemund Frode, the contemporary of Are, who first
+committed the historical sagas to writing; Jon's mother, Thora, was
+an illegitimate daughter of King Magnus Barefoot. In such a family,
+says Mr. Laing, we may presume the literature of the country would be
+cultivated, and the sagas of the historical events in Norway, and of
+the transactions of her race of kings, would be studied with great
+interest. Jon Loftson died when Snorre was nineteen years of age, but
+he continued to live with his foster-brothers a couple of years after
+that. He was quite poor, his mother having wasted his patrimony; but
+marrying Herdis, the daughter of a wealthy priest, he obtained with
+her a considerable fortune, which he afterward greatly increased. We
+are told that he owned six large farms and had so many men under him
+that he could appear at the Things with an armed body of six hundred
+or eight hundred men. He fortified his main residence at Reykholt, and
+also constructed there a bathing-house of cut stone, into which the
+water was led from a neighboring geyser. This bath-house was called
+Snorrelaug (Snorre's bath), and ruins of it are still to be seen.
+
+Snorre Sturlason held some important offices in Iceland. On a visit
+to Norway he won the friendship of Duke Skule and King Haakon, and
+the latter even appointed him a king's chamberlain. He is said to
+have promised the king to induce the people of Iceland to submit to
+the supremacy of the king of Norway; but if this promise was given
+he seems to have forgotten it. When afterward, during the conflict
+between Duke Skule and King Haakon, Snorre was said to be a friend or
+adherent of Duke Skule, the king declared him to be a traitor, and, in
+a letter, requested Snorre's son-in-law and bitterest enemy, Gissur
+Torvaldson, to bring Snorre to Norway, dead or alive. On this authority
+Gissur, and other relatives of Snorre, who were his enemies on account
+of differences about the division of property, came on the night of
+September 22, 1241, with seventy armed men to Snorre's residence at
+Reykholt and murdered him in the sixty-third year of his age. It was
+the same party which, two years afterward, brought Iceland under
+subjection to the crown of Norway.
+
+Snorre Sturlason's famous work, the sagas (chronicles) of the kings
+of Norway, reaches from the earliest times to the fall of Eystein
+Meyla, in the battle at Ree, in 1177. The book is also called the
+"Heimskringla"--the world's circle--from the first word of the
+manuscript. It is written in the old Norse language. Snorre also wrote
+a book called the "Edda,"[13] which treats of the old Norse mythology
+and contains rules for the writing of poetry.
+
+[13] The word _Edda_ means great-grandmother.
+
+Snorre's nephew (his brother's son), Sturla Thordson, afterward wrote
+the saga of King Haakon Haakonson.
+
+During the reign of King Haakon, another remarkable book was written,
+"The King's Mirror." In the form of a dialogue between a father and
+his son, it contains information about the seas and the countries
+that Norway had communication with, especially Ireland, Iceland and
+Greenland. It also gives the rules of life and conduct for traders and
+for men at the royal court.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXII
+
+_Magnus Law-Mender (1263-1280)_
+
+
+Haakon's son Magnus now became king of Norway. He had been crowned
+six years before his father's death, and there was no one to dispute
+his right, King Haakon having declared on his death-bed that he left
+no other son. Magnus was twenty-five years old when he assumed the
+government in his own name. He was a wise and peaceable ruler, and soon
+made up his mind that it was not for the benefit of Norway to continue
+the war with Scotland about the islands which were so distant and had
+been of so little value to the country. He opened negotiations with
+Alexander III., and on July 2, 1266, peace was finally concluded. The
+Norwegian king ceded the Isle of Man and the Hebrides to Scotland,
+although retaining the rights belonging to the Nidaros archbishopric.
+On the other hand, the Scotch king agreed to pay the Norwegian king
+4,000 marks sterling, besides a permanent annual tribute of one hundred
+marks.
+
+When King Magnus had succeeded in ending the conflict with Scotland,
+he turned his whole attention to the improvement of the domestic
+affairs of the country. He undertook a thorough revision of the laws,
+and, on account of his efforts in this direction, was given the
+surname _lagaböter_, _i.e._, law-mender. He had a common code of laws
+compiled for the whole country, while formerly there had been four
+different laws administered respectively at the four Things; viz., the
+Frosta-Thing for the Throndhjem country, the Gula-Thing for the western
+coast, the Eidsiva-Thing for the Uplands, and the Borgar-Thing for the
+country around Viken. The new general law, as codified by King Magnus,
+remained in force for nearly four hundred years, and some of it is law
+even yet. Among the new provisions was the one that, in the future,
+changes in the laws were to be made only by the king and his "good men"
+at a state meeting or state council. Thus the Things were deprived of
+the privilege to make laws.
+
+Magnus also compiled a law for the cities and towns, and a new court
+law (_Hirdskraa_) for his vassals and courtiers. This court law
+prescribed rules for the proclamation of kings and described the duties
+and rights of the courtiers, liegemen, etc. Among new offices created
+were those of ensign (bearer of the colors), the chancellor, who kept
+the royal seal, and the master of ceremonies.
+
+Toward the bishops King Magnus was very submissive. At a meeting in
+Tunsberg, in 1277, he made a number of humiliating concessions to the
+ambitious Archbishop Jon the Red. Thus the king agreed to abstain from
+all interference in the selection of bishops, and surrendered to the
+latter the right of filling all clerical offices.
+
+King Magnus granted the city of Lubeck and other North-German
+cities--the Hanseatic League--a number of commercial privileges in
+Norway, and from that time a great part of the commerce of Norway
+gradually came to be controlled by the Hansa towns.
+
+In his legislation, King Magnus showed a disposition to abandon former
+democratic characteristics of the institutions. He was fond of pomp
+and ceremony, and adopted foreign, especially English, court customs.
+In 1277 he ordained that the liegemen were to be called barons, and
+the court officials, knights and squires. They were given a partial
+immunity from taxes, but were to render additional services to the king
+in case of war. The knights and their families soon began to adopt
+coats-of-arms, and a kind of nobility was gradually formed.
+
+King Magnus died May 9, 1280, at the age of forty-two years.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXIII
+
+_Erik Priest-Hater (1280-1299)_
+
+
+At the death of King Magnus only two of his children were alive, Erik,
+who had already been proclaimed king, and Haakon, who had been made
+duke at the same time. Erik was twelve, and Haakon ten years old. The
+royal counsellors, among whom were the barons Hallkell Agmundson, Audun
+Hugleikson, and Biarne Erlingson of Biarkoe and Giske, thought that
+King Magnus had made too great concessions to the church and attempted
+to curtail the power of the bishops. On account of their activity
+against the clergy they were put in the ban of the church; but they
+did not seem to pay much attention to this; and, as a result of the
+struggle, Archbishop Jon the Red and two other bishops were outlawed
+and compelled to leave the country (1282).
+
+The epithet "Priest-Hater," which, after this, was given King Erik,
+does not seem to have been well deserved; for he always sought to
+mediate in the conflicts with the archbishop, and he himself had no
+ill-feeling toward the bishops, but rather seemed to be too kindly
+disposed toward them.
+
+King Erik was only a very young man when he commenced a war with
+Denmark, which lasted for twenty years, and was not terminated until
+in the time of his successor. His mother, the queen-dowager Ingeborg,
+was the daughter of the Danish king, Erik Plowpenny, and as her
+inheritance, consisting of landed estates, had not been turned over
+to the Norwegian king according to agreement, she induced her son
+to make war on Denmark. The war was principally a naval war. One
+who especially distinguished himself was the Norwegian baron, Alf
+Erlingson of Tornberg (now Tanberg, Ringerike), a great favorite of the
+queen-dowager. He captured a number of the enemy's ships, and preyed
+upon the commerce in Danish waters. But the principal sufferers by this
+warfare were the Hanseatic League, whose members, by the concessions of
+King Magnus Lawmender, had practically a monopoly of the foreign trade
+of Norway. Many ditties were composed about Alf Erlingson, and one
+verse reads thus:
+
+    Sailing Germans are northward bound
+      Carrying malt and meal;
+    But Alf is lying in Oere Sound
+      And robs them of all their weal.
+
+The conflict with the Hanseatic towns came to an end, through the
+arbitration of the Swedish king, by the peace of Kalmar (1285), by
+which the privileges of the Hansa towns were considerably extended.
+
+The hostilities with Denmark were continued, and the queen-dowager
+was so well pleased with Alf Erlingson's piratical conduct of the war
+that she had him created an earl, and induced the king to send him
+as special ambassador to England. In 1286 a conspiracy was formed
+in Denmark against King Erik Glipping, and he was murdered during a
+hunting trip by Marshal Stig, Count Jacob of Halland and others. The
+murderers, who were outlawed in Denmark, were well received by the
+Norwegian king, and afterward accompanied him on his campaigns against
+Denmark.
+
+By the death of Queen Ingeborg (1287), Earl Alf Erlingson lost his
+special protector, and when he had committed extraordinary outrages
+in Viken and murdered the commander of Oslo Castle, Baron Hallkell
+Agmundson, he was sentenced as an outlaw and compelled to flee to
+Sweden, where, for some time, he took refuge in a cloister. Later he
+attempted piracy on his own account in Danish waters, but was captured,
+and, by the command of Queen Agnes, executed on the rack (1290).
+
+King Erik made several successful cruises to Denmark, and that
+country might have fared badly if his attention had not been drawn in
+other directions. At an early age he had been married to Margaret of
+Scotland, a daughter of his grandfather's enemy, King Alexander III.
+This young queen died a year after the marriage, after having given
+birth to a daughter, who was christened Margaret. When Alexander III.
+died in 1286, without leaving any sons, the Scotch leaders acknowledged
+King Erik's young daughter, Margaret, as the rightful heir to the
+throne. In 1290 she was proclaimed queen of Scotland, and the young
+princess--the "Maid from Norway," as she was called--accompanied by the
+bishops of Bergen and other prominent persons, sailed for Scotland.
+She was taken sick on the voyage, however, and died at the Orkneys.
+King Erik afterward claimed the crown of Scotland as the heir of
+his daughter, but was compelled to abandon the claim upon the armed
+intervention of King Edward I. of England.
+
+King Erik died July 13, 1299, at the age of thirty-one years.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXIV
+
+_Haakon V. Magnusson (1299-1319)_
+
+
+At the death of King Erik the throne of Norway was inherited by his
+brother Haakon, who had, during his brother's reign, under the title of
+duke, ruled his part of the country with royal authority. Shortly after
+his succession to the throne, the knight, Audun Hugleikson Hestakorn of
+Hegranes, who during the reign of King Erik had been highly esteemed
+and had conducted negotiations with foreign powers, was imprisoned
+in Bergen and tried for high treason, and, after three years of
+imprisonment, was executed. The real nature of this man's crime is not
+known. By some it was thought that he had insulted the king's bride;
+but the actual crime was probably some frauds in connection with the
+negotiation of a treaty with France. Apparently without any reason,
+rumor has connected his case with another affair, which transpired
+about the same time. In 1300 a woman arrived from Lubeck and created a
+great deal of excitement by claiming to be the Princess Margaret--"The
+Maid from Norway"--who had died at the Orkneys when on her journey to
+Scotland to assume the Scotch throne. She was proven to be an impostor,
+and was condemned and burned at the stake in 1301, and her husband,
+who accompanied her, was beheaded.
+
+During Haakon's reign the war with Denmark, which had lasted for
+twenty-eight years, was finally ended by the Peace of Copenhagen
+(1309), by which Haakon obtained the province of Northern Halland in
+settlement of his maternal inheritance. His rule was also in other
+respects firm and prudent. He curtailed some of the privileges of the
+Hansa towns and reduced the power of the bishops. He abolished the
+positions of earls and liegemen, and adopted stricter regulations for
+other officers, holding them to a faithful compliance with the laws. He
+built the fortress of Akershus, near Oslo, where he resided much of the
+time.
+
+King Haakon had no sons, but only a daughter, Ingeborg. In 1302 he
+therefore proclaimed a new law of succession extending the right of
+inheritance to the female line. By the same law a council of twelve
+men were to conduct the government during the minority of an heir to
+the throne. The king's daughter, Ingeborg, was afterward married to
+Duke Erik of Sweden, and, in the year 1316, she bore a son, who was
+christened Magnus. This caused great joy in Norway, and the king on
+this occasion conferred knighthood on twenty-five men. But the joy
+was of short duration. Duke Erik and his brother, Duke Valdemar, had
+been quarrelling with their brother, King Birger of Sweden. The latter
+pretended to desire a reconciliation and invited them to a feast at the
+castle of Nyköping. During the night the sleeping-room of the dukes was
+entered, and they were thrown into prison, where soon afterward they
+died. Rumor said that they were starved to death. The tidings of this
+tragedy so affected King Haakon that it hastened his death. He died at
+Tunsberg, May 8, 1319, and with him the male line of the royal house of
+Harald the Fairhaired became extinct.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXV
+
+_Magnus Erikson "Smek" (1319-1374)--Haakon VI. Magnusson (1355-1380)_
+
+
+Magnus, the son of King Haakon V.'s daughter Ingeborg and Duke Erik of
+Sweden, was only three years old at the death of his mother's father.
+While he was in his minority the affairs of the government were managed
+by a regency, the members of which had been selected by King Haakon.
+In Sweden King Birger, who had become generally hated on account of
+his treatment of his brothers, was deposed, and Magnus was proclaimed
+king of Sweden. Thus, for the first time, Norway and Sweden were united
+under one king. Both countries retained their own government and laws,
+and the king was to divide his time equally between the two countries.
+The Norwegians soon became dissatisfied with the government, which was
+conducted mainly by the king's mother, Duchess Ingeborg, who caused
+great scandal by her recklessness and wasted much of the revenue on her
+lover, Knut Porse, duke of Halland, whom she afterward married. At a
+general Thing, in Oslo, February 20, 1323, the regency was abrogated,
+and the knight Erling Vidkunson of Biarkoe and Giske was appointed
+regent.
+
+When King Magnus, who, by the Swedes, was surnamed "Smek" (the
+fondling), reached his majority, in 1332, he himself assumed the
+government in both countries. He was a good and kind man, but too weak
+to govern two countries. Sweden took up most of his time, and he did
+not come to Norway as often as he was expected to, and made no proper
+arrangement for the government during his absence. This caused general
+discontent, and a virtual separation of the countries was finally
+arranged. At a great meeting in Varberg, August 15, 1343, King Magnus's
+oldest son, Erik, was declared heir-apparent and co-regent in Sweden,
+and his other son, Haakon, in Norway. On the same day the Norwegian
+state counsellors acknowledged Haakon, who had been educated in Norway,
+as their king, with the understanding that King Magnus was to conduct
+the government until his son became of age. The separation of the
+countries was further confirmed in 1350 in Bergen, where King Magnus
+placed Haakon in the royal seat and arranged a separate court for him.
+According to public documents, however, Haakon's reign dates only from
+1355, when probably he had reached his majority.
+
+The Swedes were no more satisfied with King Magnus than the Norwegians
+were. He succeeded in annexing the provinces of Scania, Halland and
+Blekinge, which he bought for 34,000 marks silver from Duke John of
+Holstein, who held them as a pledge; but the taxes he had to levy, in
+order to raise this sum, caused great dissatisfaction.
+
+The king's recklessness and the great influence wielded by his vain and
+malicious queen, Blanca of Namur, and his favorite, the young Swedish
+knight, Bengt Algotson, increased the dissatisfaction to such a degree
+that Prince Erik took up arms and declared Bengt to be a public enemy.
+Erik died shortly afterward, but quiet was not restored. King Magnus's
+ambiguous and pusillanimous action in allowing the wily King Valdemar
+Atterdag of Denmark to seize the dearly-bought provinces of Scania,
+Halland and Blekinge, created great discontent, which was increased
+when his son, Haakon, married King Valdemar's eleven year old daughter
+Margaret, although the Swedes, who expected Haakon to become their
+future king, had decided upon another bride for him. When, after an
+uprising, King Magnus banished forty of the most turbulent magnates,
+the latter offered the crown to Albrecht of Mecklenburg, a nephew of
+King Magnus, and returned with him to Sweden, where Magnus was deposed
+and Albrecht elected king of Sweden (1363). Haakon, who shortly before
+that had been elected king of Sweden, did not intend to give up the
+kingdom without a fight, especially as he had several fortresses and
+provinces in his possession. Both sides armed themselves, and a battle
+was fought at Enköping, March 3, 1365. Magnus was taken prisoner and
+brought to Stockholm, and Haakon, severely wounded, had to flee to
+Norway. The war was continued with varying success until the Hanseatic
+League interfered in the struggle, because Haakon had attempted to
+expel the Germans from the country. The German merchants had obtained
+great power in the country and shamefully abused it; they refused to
+receive the king's coin, monopolized all trade, and defied the laws.
+Haakon finally made peace with them, but only after granting them
+some new privileges. After that he collected a great army and invaded
+Sweden; even marching against Stockholm. An agreement was reached in
+1371 with King Albrecht, by which Haakon was to pay 12,000 marks and
+surrender the Swedish fortresses for the liberation of his father.
+The latter had to give up all claim to the Swedish throne, but was to
+have for his support Skara Stift, West Gautland and Vermeland. Haakon
+afterward inherited these provinces. Magnus was drowned three years
+later in the Hardanger Fjord at the age of fifty-eight years. His son
+survived him only six years. He died at Oslo in June, 1380, about
+forty-two years old, after having had the pleasure to see his only son
+Olaf chosen king of Denmark.
+
+Great calamities befell the country during the reigns of Magnus and
+Haakon. On April 4, 1328, the great cathedral in Throndhjem, the Christ
+Church, was destroyed by fire. In 1344 the Gaula River suddenly changed
+its course, owing to a mountain slide, flooded the Gaula Valley, and
+caused great destruction. Forty-eight farms and some churches were
+destroyed, and two hundred and fifty people and a great number of
+cattle were drowned. Iceland suffered from earthquakes, and in 1341
+the sixth eruption of the volcano Hekla spread alarm and desolation.
+In 1323 and 1346 the winters were so severe that a great number of
+people froze to death. But the greatest calamity occurred in 1349, when
+the Black Death, a terrible pestilence, after having ravaged Southern
+Europe, was brought to Bergen by a merchant vessel from England. Before
+the cargo of the vessel had been discharged, the whole crew died, and
+immediately the pestilence spread with great rapidity over the whole
+country. In a single day ninety persons were buried from a church in
+Bergen, including fourteen priests and six deacons. In Throndhjem,
+Archbishop Arne and the whole chapter, with the exception of a single
+canon, died. Only one bishop in Norway, Salemon in Oslo, survived the
+plague. In many districts the entire population was swept away. The
+cattle died from hunger. For want of horses and laborers the farmers
+were unable to cultivate their farms, and famine and distress resulted.
+Many districts which had been fertile and populous were laid waste, and
+were in time covered by a new growth of forests. Industries, trade and
+commerce stagnated, and Norway sank into a state of debility from which
+it took her centuries to recover.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXVI
+
+_Olaf Haakonson the Young (1381-1387)_
+
+
+Olaf, the only son of King Haakon Magnusson and the Danish Margaret,
+was, at the death of his maternal grandfather, Valdemar Atterdag
+(1376), proclaimed king of Denmark under the guardianship of his
+parents, and at the death of his father four years later, when he was
+ten years old, he inherited the throne of Norway. His mother proceeded
+to Oslo, where a meeting of the Norwegian chiefs was held early in
+January, 1381. Here it was arranged that Queen Margaret was to be
+the guardian of her son and conduct the government in his name, when
+she was in the country, but in her absence the administration should
+be conducted by the chieftain Ogmund Finnson, as leader of the state
+council. Olaf was crowned in Nidaros on Saint Olaf's Day, July 29,
+1381. Thus commenced the union between Norway and Denmark, which lasted
+for over four hundred years and proved so unfortunate for Norway. To
+the great sorrow of the Norwegians, King Olaf, when scarcely seventeen
+years old, was taken suddenly sick at Falsterbro Castle, Scania, and
+died August 3, 1387.
+
+Fifteen years after Olaf's death an adventurer appeared who claimed to
+be King Olaf, and the rumor soon spread that Olaf had escaped from his
+mother shortly before the time of his alleged death. It was proven,
+however, that the pretender was a German, and that some merchants, who
+had noticed the great likeness he bore to Olaf, had induced him to make
+the claim. The impostor was condemned to death and burned.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXVII
+
+_Margaret (1387-1389)--Erik of Pomerania (1389-1442)--The Kalmar Union
+(1397)_
+
+
+As young Olaf left no offspring, it was quite generally supposed
+in Norway that the kingdom would be given to his nearest relative,
+Haakon Jonson, a grandson of King Haakon V.'s illegitimate daughter
+Agneta; but the wily Queen Margaret (who had already been acknowledged
+as reigning queen of Denmark), induced Archbishop Vinald and the
+majority of the clergy to take her part, and, at the state council in
+Oslo, February 2, 1388, she was, as Haakon's widow and Olaf's mother,
+declared to be the rightful ruler of Norway and its dependencies.
+According to law, however, the Norwegians were to be ruled by a king,
+and could not long be satisfied with having the government conducted
+in the name of a woman. She therefore induced the council to choose
+her grandnephew, Erik of Pomerania, as king of Norway (1389), she to
+continue the regency during his minority.
+
+King Albrecht of Mecklenburg, who was at this time reigning in Sweden,
+had caused a great deal of discontent among the Swedish nobility,
+because he had surrounded himself with Germans, whom he had given
+places of influence and honor. The ambitious Queen Margaret, who hated
+Albrecht deeply, because he had laid claim to the Danish throne, made
+overtures to the Swedish magnates, with the result that they chose
+her as "the mistress and rightful ruler of Sweden," and transferred
+several fortified places to her, while she promised to reunite West
+Gautland and Vermeland with Sweden. Albrecht proceeded to Germany to
+collect an army, and swore that he would not put his hood on before he
+had conquered Norway and Denmark. He sent Margaret several insulting
+messages, called her "Queen Breechless," and sent her a whetstone on
+which to sharpen her scissors and needles, saying that the good woman
+ought to remain quietly at her spinning wheel. The queen's chiefs, Ivar
+Lykke and Henrik Parow, invaded Sweden with an army, and won a battle
+at Falköping in West Gautland. Albrecht was taken prisoner and was
+brought before the queen, who reminded him of his insults. She gave him
+a long fool's-cap to wear instead of the crown of Denmark, and sent him
+to prison in the castle of Lindholm in Scania, where he remained six
+years.
+
+Queen Margaret soon won the whole of Sweden except Stockholm, where the
+German merchants and the hood-brothers made a determined resistance.
+They received aid from the North German cities Rostock and Wismar,
+whose rulers proclaimed that any one who would harry the coasts of
+the Scandinavian countries could find refuge in their harbors; and
+the result was a number of pirates, the so-called Victualia-Brethren,
+made the northern waters unsafe for several years, and plundered many
+of the coast towns. Thus they twice attacked and plundered Bergen. In
+order to gain his liberty, Albrecht, in 1395, made an agreement that
+within three years he would either pay 60,000 marks silver or release
+Stockholm. He could not pay the money, and Stockholm's gates were
+opened to Queen Margaret.
+
+In 1397 Queen Margaret's sixteen-year-old grandnephew, Erik of
+Pomerania, was crowned in Kalmar as king of Sweden, Denmark and Norway,
+in the presence of prominent men from the three countries. A document
+was drafted containing the provisions regarding the triple union, and
+it was signed on Margaret's Day, July 20, 1397. It could scarcely be
+considered binding upon the three countries, as it was signed by only
+seventeen of the gentlemen present, and they had not been given power
+to act for their countrymen. The main stipulations of the agreement
+were the following:
+
+1. The three countries were always hereafter to have the same king.
+
+2. One king was to be elected by authorized delegates from the three
+countries.
+
+3. The countries were to help each other against foreign foes.
+
+4. Each country was to be governed by its own laws.
+
+Queen Margaret died at Flensborg, October 27, 1412, aged fifty-nine
+years, leaving the government in the weak hands of King Erik.
+
+In the union Denmark soon assumed the position of the chief country.
+In Sweden and Norway the people complained that the revenues of
+the countries went to pay the expenses of the war with the Counts
+of Holstein about Schleswig, although this war, which lasted for
+twenty-six years, concerned only Denmark. The counts received aid
+from the Hansa towns, which hated King Erik, because he encouraged
+the Dutch trade with the northern countries. In 1427 he defeated the
+Hanseatic fleet in Oere Sound, and in 1428, when they tried to attack
+Copenhagen, the city was saved by his brave queen, Philippa of England.
+She armed the citizens and the peasants, and the Germans were obliged
+to withdraw. The final outcome of the war was, however, that King Erik
+had to cede Schleswig to Count Adolph of Holstein by the peace at
+Vordingborg (1435).
+
+Norway had occasion to feel the effects of King Erik's weakness. The
+inhabitants of Finmark and Halogaland were attacked by Russians and
+other enemies from the northeast, who did great damage and abducted
+men and women, and the town of Bergen was left defenceless against the
+attacks of the daring Victualia-Brethren. Thus in 1428 the pirate from
+Wismar, Bartholomew Vot, came to Bergen with six hundred men, just as
+the English traders were waiting there for the vessels from Northern
+Norway to bring herring, stock-fish and other goods. The Englishmen,
+believing that the whole fighting force of the Hansa towns was coming,
+hastened aboard their ships and took flight. The bishop of Bergen,
+who was seized with a similar fear, left everything behind for the
+enemy and fled with the Englishmen. The robbers then went ashore and
+plundered the town. At the bishopric they forced the iron doors to the
+book-room and took away all the books, besides many other valuables. As
+the traders from the north arrived with their full cargoes, the booty
+of the pirates became so much larger, as they took possession of their
+fish, furs and other goods. This success encouraged the robbers to
+renew their attack on Bergen next year, when they again plundered the
+bishopric, and then laid a great part of the town in ashes.
+
+In all three countries the people were dissatisfied with King Erik;
+he coined bad money, levied new taxes, and appointed foreigners,
+especially Germans, to the chief offices. In Sweden the first uprising
+started. The peasants in Dalarne twice sent the gallant Engelbrekt
+Engelbrektsson to Denmark to complain of the cruel prefects, but he
+could obtain no redress. On his return he placed himself at the head of
+a rebellion, which spread itself to the whole country. Engelbrekt was
+murdered (1435); but in his place Carl Knutsson Bonde became the leader
+of the rebellion and regent.
+
+In Norway the people followed the example of the Swedes. The peasants
+in Viken revolted under Amund Sigurdson Bolt, captured Oslo, and drove
+some of the Danish and other foreign officers out of the country. In
+a proclamation issued, after this uprising, by the Norwegian Council
+of State, calling upon the people to be loyal to King Erik (1436),
+the council promised to request the king in the future not to appoint
+foreigners to the high offices unless they had married into Norwegian
+families.
+
+In Denmark also the people complained of the heavy taxes and the many
+Germans who were imported and given high positions. Wearied of all
+these complaints, and taking with him his mistress, Cecilia, the money
+left in the treasury, and a number of important documents, King Erik
+left the country and took up his residence on the island of Gotland,
+where he had a fortified castle (1438). Shortly after this he was
+formally deposed in Denmark and in Sweden, while in Norway they still,
+for a time, remained loyal to him. As regent in Norway, during his
+absence, the king appointed the influential Norwegian, Sigurd Jonson.
+The latter descended from a powerful old family; he had inherited
+Biarkoe, Giske and other estates, and was the richest man in the
+country. For ten years King Erik lived in his castle in Gottland,
+supporting himself by piracy, but was finally driven away by the
+Swedes. He returned to his native country, Pomerania, where he ended
+his long but inglorious life in 1459.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXVIII
+
+_Christopher of Bavaria (1442-1448)_
+
+
+According to the provisions of the Kalmar Union, a new king was to
+be elected by the authorized delegates of the three countries; but,
+instead of that, the Danish Council of State summoned Erik's nephew
+(sister's son), Christopher of Bavaria, who was first elected regent
+and shortly afterward (1440) proclaimed king. In Sweden, Carl Knutsson
+Bonde endeavored to prevent a renewal of the Union; but, with the aid
+of the clergy, the rights of Christopher were acknowledged, and he was
+proclaimed king of Sweden at Morasten, September 14, 1441. In Norway,
+King Erik had many adherents, and his favorite, Bishop Thorleif, did
+all in his power to retain Erik, or his cousin, Bugislav, as king; but
+when it appeared that neither of them was coming to assert his claim,
+the Norwegians finally also acknowledged Christopher, and he was
+hailed as king of Norway, in Oslo, in 1442. He had thus succeeded in
+reuniting the three countries, although he was crowned separately in
+each of them.
+
+Christopher was a good-natured and jolly man, who wished everybody
+well. In Sweden, there was naturally objection to the piracy committed
+by his uncle from the island of Gottland; but when the Swedes
+complained of this to the king, he answered merrily: "Our uncle is
+sitting on a rock, and he, too, must have something to live off."
+
+In Norway, the administration of public affairs was fairly good. There
+were no complaints against the king, and the country's own people had
+their share in the government. The king made an effort to restrict
+the Hanseatic League, which, together with the "Victualia-Brethren,"
+caused so much damage to Norway. For this purpose he tried to give
+them commercial rivals by giving the citizens of Amsterdam trading
+privileges in Norway. In 1444 he gave the town of Bergen new privileges
+and announced several restrictions of the privileges of the Hansa
+towns. The power and influence of the latter was shown by the fact that
+this ordinance was repealed the next year, and the king was obliged to
+confirm their old and "just" privileges. King Christopher, however, did
+not abandon his purpose; but, just as he was about to bring new plans
+into execution, death overtook him, January 6, 1448, when he was about
+thirty-two years old.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXIX
+
+_The Union with Denmark--Christian I. (1450-1481)_
+
+
+After the death of King Christopher, the Swedes elected Carl Knutsson
+Bonde king of Sweden, while the Danes elected Count Christian of
+Oldenborg, at the age of twenty-two, because he was heir to Schleswig
+and Holstein, and it was generally desired to have Schleswig reunited
+with Denmark. In the Norwegian Council of State there was dissension.
+The regent, Sigurd Jonson, the commander at Bergen, Olaf Nilsson, and
+the commander at Akershus, Hartvig Krumedike, who was from the duchy
+of Holstein, wanted to elect the Danish king, Christian, who was
+remotely related to the old Norse kings, while another more popular
+party, led by the Archbishop, Aslak Bolt, preferred the Swedish king,
+Carl Knutsson. The council finally elected Christian, at Oslo, in
+the spring of 1449; but, after his return to Nidaros, the archbishop
+declared the election void, not having been voluntary, and joined the
+people of the Throndhjem country and the Uplands in inviting King
+Carl to come to Norway. With a mounted force of five hundred men,
+King Carl proceeded through Vermeland and Solver to Hamar, where he
+was proclaimed king of Norway, October 25, 1449, and a month later he
+was crowned in Throndhjem by the archbishop. Early in 1450, however,
+when King Carl attempted to capture Oslo, he was defeated, and an
+armistice was arranged. The archbishop died shortly afterward, and,
+at a meeting in Halmstad, in May, 1450, between Swedish and Danish
+magnates, the Swedish delegates, in the name of King Carl, relinquished
+all claims to Norway. Thus, when Christian came to Norway in the
+summer, he was acknowledged by everybody, and was crowned in Throndhjem
+on Saint Olaf's day, July 29, 1450. He then went to Bergen, where, on
+the 29th of August, 1450, a closer union between Norway and Denmark
+was concluded. The main provisions of the agreement were: 1. That
+both countries were hereafter to be united in brotherly love, neither
+country being the superior of the other; 2. That each country should be
+governed by native-born officials, and enjoy their own laws, liberties
+and privileges; 3. That both countries should henceforth remain under
+one lord and king forever; 4. When the king died the councils of both
+kingdoms were to meet at Halmstad and elect a new king from among the
+late king's legitimate heirs.
+
+Thus the house of Oldenborg acquired the throne of Norway and continued
+to rule the country for three hundred and sixty-four years.
+
+For several years there was war between Kings Carl and Christian, and
+in this war Norway was also involved. In 1452 King Carl invaded Norway
+with an army and captured Throndhjem; but he was afterward driven back
+across the frontier by the commander in Bergen, Sir Olaf Nilsson.
+
+The German merchants (Hansa, Hanseatic League), who, after the war
+under King Erik, had returned to Bergen, had become more powerful
+and insolent than ever before. They drove the citizens of the town
+away from the wharves and continually increased their own number by
+importations. The commander, Olaf Nilsson, was very severe with the
+Germans, and made them pay heavy taxes. They complained to the king,
+and, as he feared that the Hansa might aid his enemy, King Carl, he
+removed Olaf. The latter now set out as a pirate against the Hansa
+towns, and captured several of their ships at sea. He also succeeded
+in capturing the Swedish fort, Elfsborg, at the mouth of the Gaut
+River, and offered it to the king if he were reinstated as commander at
+Bergen. This offer was accepted, and Olaf returned to Bergen. Enraged
+at this, the Germans armed themselves to the number of over 2,000,
+intent upon killing the commander. Olaf sought refuge in the cloister
+of Munkeliv, where his friend, Bishop Thorleif, tried in vain to
+appease the Germans. They burned the cloister, killed the bishop--who
+came out carrying the Sacrament--and three other priests, besides Olaf
+Nilsson and his brother, with families and children; in all, sixty
+people. This was the 1st of September, 1455. The king, who needed the
+help of the Hansa towns, neither would nor could punish this great
+crime. But the Pope placed the murderers in the ban of the church, and
+compelled them to pay heavy fines for the murder of the bishop and to
+rebuild the cloister.
+
+Internal dissensions in Sweden, involving a struggle between the king,
+the bishops and the nobility, resulted in the expulsion of Carl and the
+acceptance of Christian as the king of Sweden. Thus the three countries
+again became united under one king (1457), and the next year the state
+councils promised that, after the death of Christian, his son Hans was
+to be king of all three countries. But King Christian made himself
+hated by his oppression, and when he caused the imprisonment of the
+powerful archbishop, Jens Bengtson Oxenstierna, the latter's nephew,
+Ketil Carlsson Wasa, bishop of Linköping, swore that he would not put
+on his bishop's robes until his country had been rid of its oppressor,
+and he kept his word. Carl was recalled, and died, as king of Sweden,
+in 1470, after several unsuccessful attempts by Christian to regain the
+Swedish crown. In 1471 Christian was defeated in battle at Brunkeberg
+(now a part of Stockholm) by King Carl's nephew, Sten Sture, whom the
+Swedes had elected regent. After that King Christian made no further
+attempts to recover Sweden.
+
+King Christian was a reckless spendthrift, and was always financially
+embarrassed. The annual tribute for the Hebrides, which Scotland was to
+pay to the king of Norway according to the peace made with King Magnus
+the Law-Mender, had not been paid for some time, and King Christian
+in vain demanded payment. In order to settle the matter peaceably
+it was arranged that Christian's daughter Margaret was to marry the
+Scotch king, James III., and her dowry was fixed at 60,000 gulden.
+As Christian could not raise this amount, he obtained the consent of
+the Norwegian Council of State to pawn the Orkneys for 50,000 gulden,
+besides remitting the tribute for the Hebrides. Not being able to pay
+the balance, he also, without consent, pawned the Shetland Isles. Thus
+these ancient dependencies were lost to Norway, for they were never
+redeemed, although each new king solemnly promised to do so.
+
+King Christian died May 21, 1481, at the age of fifty-five years, and
+lies buried at the Cathedral of Roskilde.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XL
+
+_Hans (1483-1513)_
+
+
+Christian's eldest son, Hans, or Johannes, had already as a child been
+proclaimed as his father's successor in all three countries, but after
+the death of Christian neither the Norwegians nor the Swedes showed
+any great disposition to renew the union. The Norwegian Council of
+State entered into a league with the Swedish regent, Sten Sture, at
+Oslo, February 1, 1482, where it was agreed that hereafter Norway and
+Sweden were to act together and mutually support each other for the
+maintenance of their liberties, rights and welfare. But as Sten Sture
+hesitated in openly declaring himself against Denmark, the Norwegians
+again turned to that country and agreed to a joint election of a king
+at Halmstad (January 13, 1483), where King Hans succeeded in inducing
+Archbishop Gaute and the other delegates to acknowledge him as king
+of Norway, after having promised to redress all wrongs and otherwise
+comply with the wishes of the people. He was crowned in Throndhjem,
+July 20, 1483.
+
+The king's chief efforts were now directed toward effecting the
+submission of Sweden. The authorized delegates of the three countries
+assembled at Kalmar, where the union was renewed, and the Kalmar Recess
+was published (November, 1483); but through the influence of Sten Sture
+the acknowledgment of King Hans was postponed from year to year.
+Finally, in 1497, Hans invaded Sweden with a strong army, defeated
+Sten Sture, and was proclaimed king of Sweden. Thus Hans had become
+ruler of the three countries, and his son Christian was proclaimed
+his successor. This power, however, was not of long duration. In the
+western part of Holland there lived a people called the Ditmarshers,
+whom the emperor had transferred to King Christian, although they had
+always formerly been a free people. King Hans wished to subdue them,
+and, in the year 1500, he and his younger brother, Duke Frederick
+of Schleswig-Holstein, invaded the country with a large army. They
+suffered a terrible defeat, however, as the inhabitants opened the
+dikes and called in the ocean as their ally. The king and his brother
+escaped with a loss of 4,000 slain or drowned, while enormous treasures
+were lost. No sooner did the news of this disaster reach Sweden than
+the Swedes took up arms. Sten Sture was again made regent, and King
+Hans's own queen was made a prisoner in Stockholm.
+
+At the same time the Norwegians also revolted. The most powerful man
+in Norway at that time was Sir Knut Alfson, owner of Giske and many
+other estates. He had long been commander at Akershus; but had had a
+quarrel with Henrik Krummedike, the commander at Bahus, and the king,
+suspecting him of being friendly to the Swedes, had removed him. Now
+that the Swedes had revolted, Sir Knut joined them and defeated the
+Danes, after which he invaded Norway and captured the fortresses
+Akershus and Tunsberghus. Henrik Krummedike proceeded with a strong
+army to Oslo, in order to besiege Akershus. Negotiations were opened
+for peace, and Henrik invited Sir Knut to a conference on board his
+ship under safe conduct, but, on his arrival, foully murdered him
+and threw his body into the water. The struggle of the discontented
+Norwegians was continued under the leadership of Knut Alfson's widow,
+the brave Lady Mette Dyre; but when the Danes received reinforcements
+from Denmark the rebellion was soon suppressed, and Lady Mette was
+obliged to flee to Sweden. Knut Alfson's large estates were confiscated
+to the crown.
+
+The attempt to subdue the Swedes was not so successful, although some
+strong attacks were made. The able regent, Sten Sture, died in 1503,
+but his successor, Svante Nilsson Sture, who married Knut Alfson's
+widow, defended his country's independence with courage and ability. He
+died in 1512, and was succeeded by Sten Sture the Younger.
+
+In the year 1506 King Hans sent his son Christian to Norway to rule the
+country in his name. Christian tried to rule as an autocratic king,
+and to place Norway entirely under Danish rule. He installed Danes as
+commanders of the fortresses, and also had Danes elected bishops. His
+faithful servant and chancellor, Erik Valkendorf, was made archbishop
+in Throndhjem. He understood that it was detrimental to the country
+that the Hansa towns had a monopoly of the trade, and therefore tried
+to restrict their privileges and to encourage the competition by the
+merchants from Holland, and took many steps to help the Norwegian
+towns. But in dealing with revolts he was very severe. An uprising by
+the peasants of Hedemarken, under the leadership of Herlog Hudfat, was
+promptly crushed, and the leaders were beheaded outside of Akershus.
+Some of the captured peasants were tortured until they confessed that
+Bishop Carl of Hamar was the real instigator of the rebellion. The
+bishop was captured and held in prison until his death, and Christian
+took possession of his estate.
+
+The Hansa towns were greatly enraged against Christian; but they hated
+King Hans even more, because he interfered with their trade with Sweden
+and encouraged the Dutch traders. It finally came to open war, and
+the traders of Lubeck attacked and plundered the Danish islands. King
+Hans, however, returned the attack with a strong fleet, defeated the
+Lubeckers, and compelled them to make peace and to pay 30,000 gulden
+in war indemnity. This was the first time that a Scandinavian king had
+dared to go to war with the powerful Hansa towns.
+
+King Hans died at Aalborg, February 20, 1513, fifty-eight years old.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XLI
+
+_Christian II. (1513-1523)_
+
+
+After the death of King Hans, his only son, the cruel Christian,
+mounted the throne; but the Council of State and the nobility, well
+knowing that he would be a less compliant monarch than his father,
+sought to secure their alleged rights by a new charter, which he was
+compelled to sign before he was crowned.
+
+During his stay in Norway as viceroy, Christian had become acquainted
+with a Dutch girl in Bergen, the beautiful Dyveke. They first met at
+a ball, which he gave for the most prominent citizens in Bergen, and
+where they fell in love with each other. He afterward brought the girl
+and her wily mother, Sigbrit Willums, with him to Oslo and later to
+Copenhagen, where Sigbrit continued to wield a great influence during
+the whole of Christian's reign. Two years after his accession to the
+throne, Christian married the wealthiest princess of Europe, Isabella,
+a sister of Charles V., who afterward became emperor of Germany
+and king of Spain. The wedding was celebrated with great pomp at
+Copenhagen. The young queen brought him a dower of 250,000 gulden, and
+she was as good and lovely as she was rich. Archbishop Erik Valkendorf
+had brought the bride to the country, and had promised Charles V. to
+see that Dyveke was kept out of the way. Sigbrit Willums heard of
+this, and henceforth was the archbishop's bitter enemy. Neither did
+the king listen to the archbishop's advice. Dyveke retained the favor
+of the king until, a year and a half later, she suddenly died, and the
+king's passionate love for her now led him to a cruel and unjust act.
+The governor of the castle in Copenhagen, Torben Ox, had also fallen
+in love with Dyveke, and, as she died shortly after having eaten some
+cherries, it was rumored that the cherries had been poisoned, and that
+Torben Ox had caused her death. The king summoned Torben before the
+Council of State, which acquitted him. The king became enraged when he
+heard the decision, and said: "If we had had as many friends in the
+council as Torben had, the judgment would have been different; but even
+if this ox has a neck as thick as that of a bull, he shall yet lose
+it." Although, according to law, a nobleman could only be tried by the
+Council of State, the king summoned twelve peasants to retry the case.
+They found him guilty, and although the counsellors and the nobility,
+the queen and the court ladies, all begged for mercy, the king was
+unmoved, and Torben Ox was executed.
+
+The crown of Sweden was the great object of King Christian's ambition;
+but it took years before he reached this goal. The Swedish regent, Sten
+Sture the Younger, was very popular and had undisputed power, until
+he was antagonized by the newly-elected archbishop at Upsala, Gustaf
+Trolle, who, with many members of the old nobility, became jealous of
+the power enjoyed by the Sture family and preferred to support King
+Christian. Sten Sture defeated Gustaf Trolle, who was deprived of his
+see and compelled to flee from his castle. Afterward Sten Sture was
+placed in the ban of the church, and the archbishop received aid from
+Denmark. King Christian made several expeditions to Sweden, and finally
+his general, Otto Krumpen, defeated Sten Sture's army in a battle on
+the ice at Bogesund, where Sten Sture was mortally wounded (February,
+1520). Sture's widow, the courageous Christina Gyldenstierna, tried to
+hold the party together, and, for a few months, defended Stockholm;
+but finally had to surrender the city. The Swedes now acknowledged
+Christian as hereditary king, and, on the 4th of November, 1520, he was
+crowned by Gustaf Trolle in the Grand Church in Stockholm. After the
+coronation great festivities were held for three days. On the fourth
+day a number of the Swedish nobles were summoned to meet at the palace.
+While the king was surrounded by his court, the representatives of
+Gustaf Trolle stepped forward and demanded reparation for the wrongs
+committed against the archbishop. Christian, who wished to subdue the
+Swedish nobles, availed himself of the opportunity and followed the
+bad advice given him. The document by which Gustaf Trolle had been
+deposed was produced, and all who had signed it were arrested on the
+spot. The following day, November 8, 1520, the accused were brought
+before a court consisting of eleven Swedish priests and one Danish
+bishop. The only question asked was whether men who had raised their
+hands against the Pope and the Holy Church were heretics. The members
+of the court answering in the affirmative, the accused were declared to
+be heretics, and the king fixed the punishment at death. The condemned
+were at once conveyed to the great market-place, where two bishops,
+thirteen Counsellors of State and knights, and many other prominent
+men, in all about fifty, were beheaded. This was the notorious Carnage
+of Stockholm.
+
+After having left the conduct of the fight in Sweden in the hands
+of his able admiral, Soefren Norby, King Christian now returned to
+Denmark, where, during the next two years, he introduced several
+excellent laws for the improvement of commerce, industry and culture.
+But he also tried to establish himself as an autocratic king. He
+abolished several of the privileges of the nobility and the bishops,
+and planned the gradual extinction of the Council of State, by not
+appointing any successors to members who died.
+
+The Swedes did not long endure the rule of King Christian and the
+insolence of his officers. The people of the province of Dalarne
+(Dalecarlia) rose under the leadership of Gustavus Eriksson Wasa, a
+young nobleman whose father was among those beheaded in the Carnage
+of Stockholm. They successfully fought the Danes and captured one
+town after another, and elected Gustavus Wasa regent of Sweden. King
+Christian prohibited all trade by the Hansa towns with Sweden, and let
+his men capture their ships; thus he incensed the people of Lubeck,
+who declared war against him and helped the Swedes. King Christian
+then levied a new tax to cover the war expenses and summoned a meeting
+of nobles. But now the nobles of Jutland rose against him and offered
+to proclaim his uncle, Duke Frederick, king. Frederick accepted the
+offer, and the nobles sent Christian a letter revoking their allegiance
+to him. An inexplicable faint-heartedness now seized Christian, and,
+instead of summoning his many faithful adherents to his support, he
+commenced to negotiate with his enemies, and when that proved of no
+avail, he embarked, April 20, 1523, with his queen, his children, Lady
+Sigbrit and others, and sailed to Holland in order to seek the aid of
+his powerful brother-in-law, Emperor Charles V. Duke Frederick was
+now proclaimed king, but he had to divide the power with the Council
+of State and sign a charter which gave the nobility many improper
+privileges. Shortly afterward the Swedes elected Gustavus Wasa king,
+and thus ended the union of the three countries. Both kings were
+obliged to restore to the Hansa towns all trading privileges, in order
+to be assured that they would not help King Christian to return.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XLII
+
+_Frederick I. (1524-1533)_
+
+
+Norway had taken no part in the expulsion of King Christian, and for
+a time remained loyal to him. The newly-elected archbishop, Olaf
+Engelbrektson, proceeded to Rome in order to obtain the recognition of
+the Pope. During his absence Norway was to be governed by the Council
+of State, which consisted of the bishops and a few noblemen. The
+mightiest among the latter was Nils Henrikson of Oestraat, whose wife,
+Inger Ottesdatter, was related to the old Norwegian royal house. This
+ambitious woman, commonly called Lady Inger of Oestraat, took quite a
+prominent part in public affairs, three of her daughters being married
+to prominent Danes.
+
+King Frederick soon gained a number of influential adherents in Norway.
+He sent to Bergen the Danish nobleman, Vincentz Lunge, who married
+one of the daughters of Nils Henrikson and Inger of Oestraat. After
+the death of Nils, Vincentz became a member of the Council of State
+and commander at the fortress of Bergenhus. He used his influence
+in favor of King Frederick; but he wanted the Council of State to be
+as powerful in Norway as the Danish council was in Denmark. He was
+supported by Archbishop Olaf, and the Council of State finally elected
+Frederick king of Norway; but the king had to grant the council, and
+especially Vincentz Lunge, great authority. The king issued a "Recess,"
+by which he pledged himself: 1. In the future not to sign himself heir
+to Norway, as the country was a free elective kingdom; 2. To redeem the
+Orkneys and the Shetland Isles, which his father had illegally pawned;
+3. That the coronation was hereafter to take place in Throndhjem. The
+king did not care so much about keeping these promises as about filling
+the most important offices with Danish noblemen, who conducted public
+affairs to suit themselves. Among those who were specially favored
+were: Mogens Gyldenstierne, who became commandant at Akershus; Eske
+Bilde, who was placed in command at Bergenhus, relinquished by Vincentz
+Lunge in consideration of having the nunnery at Bergen (afterward
+called Lungegaarden) deeded to him; Vincentz's brother-in-law, Nils
+Lykke, and Henrik Krummedike, notorious from the slaying of Knut Alfson.
+
+King Frederick was an adherent of the doctrines of Luther, which had
+now been commonly accepted in Northern Germany, and from thence were
+introduced into Denmark. He compelled the Danish bishops to acknowledge
+him as the head of the Church instead of the Pope, and took possession
+of a number of cloisters, which he either kept for himself or gave
+to the nobles. In Norway, too, he gave away some of the cloisters,
+which, of course, caused great dissatisfaction among the clergy. The
+discontent in Norway took a very definite form, when, contrary to the
+Recess, the king sent his son Christian to Norway to be proclaimed heir
+to the throne. Archbishop Olaf Engelbrektson and a majority of the
+Council of State then declared that this could not be done, inasmuch
+as Norway was an elective kingdom; and here the king was obliged to
+let the matter rest. Meanwhile, the exiled King Christian, encouraged
+by messages from Norway and Sweden, thought he saw a chance to regain
+his lost throne. With the aid of Charles V., and some private parties,
+he gathered an army and a fleet in Holland, and sailed for Norway in
+October, 1531, with twenty-five ships and 7,000 men. On the way he
+suffered by great storms and lost ten of his ships, but landed in
+Norway with the remnants of his fleet. He gained a large number of
+adherents, and, proceeding to Oslo, laid siege to the fortress of
+Akershus. Mogens Gyldenstierne, however, defended it well, and when,
+in the spring (1532), reinforcements arrived, in the form of a strong
+army of Danes and Lubeckers, Christian made an agreement with Mogens,
+by which he was to proceed, under a safe conduct, to Copenhagen, in
+order to personally conduct peace negotiations with his uncle. Upon
+his arrival in Denmark, however, the agreement was shamefully broken,
+and the unfortunate king was thrown into prison at Sonderborg. He was
+placed in a cell having a small barred window high up; the entrance was
+closed with masonry, and the food was sent in through a hole in the
+wall. Here he remained for eighteen years. In 1550 he was transferred,
+by Frederick's successor, to a milder prison in Kallundborg
+Castle, where he remained until he died, in the beginning of 1559,
+seventy-eight years old.
+
+The Norwegians were severely punished for their alliance with
+Christian. The chieftains of the Danish party, Bishop Olaf in Bergen
+and the Danish noblemen, Eske Bilde, Vincentz Lunge and Nils Lykke,
+held a meeting in Bergen shortly after Christian's defeat and levied a
+heavy tax on the whole country. The archbishop was fined 15,000 Danish
+marks. The Norwegians were compelled to relinquish any right, through
+the Council of State, to elect any other king than the one elected for
+Denmark.
+
+Shortly after Frederick had been again recognized by the Norwegians
+as their king, he died, without being missed, at the age of sixty-two
+years, April 10, 1533. During his reign the Lutheran faith was preached
+throughout Denmark, but only in a few towns in Norway; for instance, in
+Bergen.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XLIII
+
+_Interregnum (1533-1537)_
+
+
+At the death of Frederick I. an interregnum occurred, as the Danish
+estates were unable to agree upon the election of a new king. The
+nobles favored the late king's oldest son, Duke Christian, but he being
+devoted to Protestantism, the clergy wanted his younger brother, Hans,
+who was only a child, and whom they hoped to win for the Catholic
+faith. The bourgeoisie and the peasants desired to have the imprisoned
+Christian II. reinstated. Under the pretext that a new king could not
+be elected without the presence of the Norwegian Council of State, the
+clergy succeeded in having the election postponed to a joint meeting
+of the councils of both countries, to be held the following year. In
+the meantime, the so-called "Count's Feud" broke out. The Lubeckers,
+who were dissatisfied on account of the trading privileges granted to
+the Dutch, sent an army to Denmark, under command of Christopher of
+Oldenborg, who desired to recover the Danish throne for his cousin,
+the captive king, Christian II. The count discovered the lower estates
+to be such bitter enemies of the nobility, and ardent adherents of the
+captive king, that he found no great difficulty in taking possession
+of the Danish Isles and Scania. The Council of State, or a part of it,
+now hastened to elect Frederick's son, Duke Christian, king (July 4,
+1534). An alliance was formed with the Swedish king, Gustavus Wasa,
+against the Lubeckers, and the fortunes of war soon turned in favor of
+the new king. His brave general, Johan Rantzau, defeated the enemy at
+Aalborg, crossed over to Fyn, and won a complete victory over the count
+at Oexneberg, while Gustavus Wasa helped the king's party to retake
+Scania. After the capture of Copenhagen, July 29, 1536, King Christian
+III. was recognized by the whole of Denmark.
+
+While the Count's Feud was going on in Denmark, there was also strife
+and disorder in Norway. Both parties had tried to win the support of
+the powerful archbishop in Throndhjem, Olaf Engelbrektson, and through
+him the control of Norway; but, while for several reasons he could not
+recognize Christian III., he was for a time uncertain whom to support.
+It was decided to hold a meeting in Throndhjem at Christmas, 1535,
+for the purpose of electing a king; but the followers of Vincentz
+Lunge and Eske Bilde in the southern and western parts of the country
+held a meeting at Oslo, shortly before Whitsuntide, 1535, where they
+proclaimed Christian III. king of Norway. A special embassy from the
+queen-regent of Holland visited Archbishop Olaf, and, in the name of
+Emperor Charles V., promised him powerful support if he would persevere
+in his old loyalty to the captive king, Christian II.; and when the
+agents of Christian III. arrived in Throndhjem, about Christmas
+time, there was an uprising of the people, said to be instigated by
+the archbishop, and many of the Danish magnates were imprisoned and
+otherwise maltreated. Two of them, the counsellors Vincentz Lunge and
+Nils Lykke--who were not only public opponents, but personal enemies,
+of the archbishop--were murdered.
+
+The archbishop now adopted a vigorous policy, and tried to get
+possession of the fortresses of Bergenhus and Akershus, but his
+armies were defeated. When the adversity of Christian II.'s party in
+Denmark further convinced the archbishop that the cause was hopeless,
+he released the imprisoned agents and requested them to mediate with
+the king, offering allegiance to Christian III. on condition that he
+be allowed to retain his rank and property. The king, however, did
+not accept the offer, but, in the spring of 1537, sent a fleet of
+fourteen ships and 1,500 men, under the command of Truit Ulfstand and
+Christopher Hvitfeld, to Throndhjem. Foreseeing the destruction of his
+party, Archbishop Olaf Engelbrektson gathered the treasures of the
+cathedral and fled to Holland, where this last champion of Norwegian
+independence died the following year.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XLIV
+
+_Christian III. (1537-1559)--The Reformation Introduced_
+
+
+At the great Diet, held in Copenhagen, in 1536, it was decided that
+the Catholic faith should be abolished, the property of the bishops
+and the cloisters was confiscated to the crown, and the Lutheran faith
+was introduced into Denmark. A new ecclesiastical law was adopted,
+called the Ordinance. The king also promised the rapacious nobility of
+Denmark that henceforth Norway was to be, and remain, under the crown
+of Denmark as any other part of the country, and not to be called a
+separate kingdom, but a province of the Danish crown. The Norwegian
+Council of State was abolished, the Catholic bishops were removed, and
+Danish noblemen were installed at the fortresses to rule the country
+in the king's name. From this time the Danish Council of State exerted
+great influence in the government of Norway; but, in spite of all this,
+Norway remained a separate state; it retained its old laws, and the
+chancellor was still to be the supreme judge.
+
+After the flight of the archbishop, and the submission of Norway, the
+Danish Church Ordinance was also made to apply to Norway; but the new
+faith was little known there, and the Norwegians long clung to the old
+faith. When the bishops had been removed, Danish magnates were sent
+around in the country to take possession of "the silver, treasures
+and goods of the old idolatry." In performing this function the Danish
+magnates showed especial reformatory zeal. Thus, in Bergen, the church
+robber, Eske Bilde, spared neither churches nor the graves of the
+departed kings, while in Throndhjem Otto Stigson burned the library
+and archives of the cathedral chapter, and Thord Roed committed havoc
+in the same manner in Stavanger. Saint Olaf's costly shrine--which
+stood on the high altar in the cathedral of Throndhjem, and was
+ornamented with precious stones--as well as many other treasures of the
+church, were sent to Copenhagen. Lutheran superintendents or bishops
+were installed in place of the Catholic bishops; but the government
+could not at once remove all the Catholic priests, because there
+were not Lutheran ministers enough to put in their places, and, when
+Lutheran ministers were appointed, they were generally treated with
+ill-will, and sometimes even driven away or killed. The majority of
+the Lutheran ministers were Danes, and Danish became the language of
+the Church. The ablest of the new Lutheran bishops was Geble Pederson
+in Bergen, who showed great zeal in educating Lutheran ministers.
+Theological seminaries were established at each of the episcopal sees
+of Throndhjem, Bergen, Stavanger and Oslo. The bishopric of Hamar was
+consolidated with that of Oslo.
+
+The Hansa towns, in making peace with Christian III. after the Count's
+Feud, had succeeded in retaining their trading privileges in Norway,
+and, during the greater part of this reign, acted in their old insolent
+and oppressive manner. In Bergen they made themselves especially
+obnoxious, so that the people complained bitterly to the king. He
+finally appointed, as commander in Bergen, the able Danish nobleman,
+Christopher Walkendorf, who commenced to put limits to the arbitrary
+and violent conduct of the Germans, and subdued them in such a way that
+they never regained their old power. After this the Norwegian citizens
+of Bergen gradually asserted themselves, and soon had the control of
+the whole fishery trade with the northern districts.
+
+Christian III. died on the 1st of January, 1559, at the age of
+fifty-five years. Although he reigned for twenty-three years, he never
+visited Norway as king.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XLV
+
+_Frederick II. (1559-1588)_
+
+
+Christian III. was succeeded by his oldest son, Frederick II., who was
+then twenty-five years old. This vain and worthless monarch commenced
+his reign with a successful war on the liberty-loving Ditmarshers.
+Later he waged war on the Swedish king, Erik XIV. The causes of this
+disastrous war, the so-called Northern Seven Years' War (1563-1570),
+were apparently trivial. Both kings wanted to carry the three crowns
+in their coats-of-arms, and some Swedish messengers, who were on their
+way to Germany, had been arrested in Denmark; but the real reasons were
+the jealousy between the two kings and the desire of the Danes to again
+unite the three countries under a Danish king. At sea the Danes were
+unsuccessful, although they had very able admirals in Herluf Trolle and
+Otto Rud. On land they fared no better in the beginning; but, in 1565,
+the hero, Daniel Rantzau, won a great victory over a much larger army
+than his own in the battle of Svarteraa in Halland.
+
+Norway, whose defences had been sadly neglected, suffered greatly,
+during this war, from Swedish incursions. A Swedish army of 4,000 men,
+under the command of the Frenchman, Claude Collart, conquered Jemteland
+and Herjedalen and crossed the mountains to Throndhjem. The fortress
+Stenviksholm was forced to surrender, and the people of Throndhjem
+and the surrounding districts submitted without resistance and paid
+homage to the Swedish king. Later, however, Claude Collart was defeated
+by a fleet sent against him by the governor at Bergenhus, the rich
+and highly-esteemed Erik Rosenkrands. Claude Collart took refuge in
+the fortress Stenviksholm; but here he was besieged, and was finally
+obliged to surrender. He was sent in irons to Copenhagen. Especially
+hard for the Norwegians was the year 1567, when the Swedes harried
+Hedemarken, Romerike and Soloer, and captured Hamar. The cathedral
+of Hamar was burned, and the Swedes marched against Akershus, which
+was bravely defended by the commander, Kristen Munk. The citizens of
+Oslo burned their town in order to prevent the Swedes from obtaining
+a foothold there. On this occasion the Swedes lay encamped on the
+mountain side above the town, on a plain afterward called the "Swedish
+plain." The Norwegians were hard pressed; but Erik Rosenkrands again
+sent assistance from Bergen, and the Swedes were obliged to leave the
+country with considerable loss. The incursions of the Swedes were,
+however, repeated from time to time, and, during one of them, the town
+of Sarpsborg was burned, January, 1570. Finally, in December, 1570,
+peace was concluded at Stettin, and the terms were, on the whole,
+favorable to Denmark. In return for relinquishing her claims to Sweden,
+which could never have been established, she secured an acknowledgment
+of her rights to Norway, Scania, Halland and Blekinge, while Sweden
+returned the Norwegian provinces of Herjedalen and Jemteland, and paid
+150,000 Rigsdalers for war expenses. Both countries retained the right
+to carry the "three crowns" in their coats-of-arms.
+
+The Seven Years' War was not the only cause of suffering in Norway
+during the reign of Frederick II. From 1572 Norway was given its own
+_Statholder_ or viceroy, always a Danish nobleman, who was to reside
+at Akershus, the fortress near Oslo. But the viceroy did not not have
+the power, if indeed he desired it, to prevent the prefects and other
+officers from subjecting the people to cruelties and extortions. They
+arbitrarily levied taxes, conducted illegal trading, and treated the
+peasants in a shameful manner. For ten years Erik Munk continued his
+violent rule in Nedenes. At last, on complaint of the people, he was
+sentenced to return illegal taxes and indemnify a peasant, whose
+property he had taken. Later he was deprived of his office and placed
+in a prison, where he committed suicide. Ludvig Munk, prefect in
+Throndhjem, even became viceroy, although his conduct as prefect had
+been such as to cause a conspiracy, which cost the instigators their
+lives.
+
+The city of Fredericksstad, which was built to replace the ancient
+Sarpsborg, was named after King Frederick.
+
+During his reign of twenty-nine years, Frederick II. was only once
+in Norway on a short visit, and knew little of the distress of the
+country. He amused himself at the palace of Copenhagen, where he led a
+dissolute life, shortened by drink. He died, April 4, 1588, at the age
+of fifty-four years.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XLVI
+
+_Christian IV. (1588-1648)_
+
+
+Frederick II. was succeeded by his son, Christian IV., a king who
+became very popular with the Norwegians. Christian was only eleven
+years of age at his father's death. According to the desire of the late
+king, his widow, Sophia of Mecklenburg, was to act as regent during
+Christian's minority, but the powerful Council of State refused to
+confirm such regency, and appointed four members of their own body,
+Chancellor Niels Kaas, Admiral Peder Munk, and the Counsellors Jorgen
+Rosenkrands and Christopher Walkendorf, as regents and guardians of
+the prince. Christian was given an excellent education by competent
+teachers. He early showed great love for the sea, and Admiral Munk
+caused a little frigate to be built expressly for him, and had it
+launched in a lake in Jutland, where he was taught by expert sailors
+how to navigate his ship.
+
+When he was nineteen years old, Christian assumed the government in his
+own name, and was crowned, with great ceremony, in Copenhagen, 1596.
+None of the other Danish kings have been so zealous for the welfare
+of Norway. He frequently visited the country, and once even (1599)
+sailed along the northernmost coast into the White Sea, as he wished
+to acquaint himself with the circumstances of the northern boundary
+conflict with Sweden. On his return voyage he came to Bergen, where he
+witnessed a trial in court, visited the German wharf and watched the
+games of the Germans. He attended a jolly party at the apothecary's,
+where the guests smashed the windows; the king's crowned monogram was
+painted on the new panes. He also visited the peasants and drank toasts
+with them, according to their custom. King Christian listened to the
+complaints from Norway of the extortions of the Danish prefects, who,
+one after another, were deposed from office or compelled to pay heavy
+fines. He made the Norwegian-born nobleman, Hans Pederson Basse (or
+Little), Chancellor of Norway.
+
+The old Norwegian laws, which were written in the old Norse language,
+and therefore now hard to understand, were abolished, and, in their
+stead, the king directed the learned chancellor, Hans Pederson Basse,
+with the assistance of other experienced men, to elaborate a new code
+of laws. Hans Pederson died (November, 1602) before this work was
+completed, but his assistant and successor as Chancellor of Norway,
+Anders Green, continued it, and the new laws were published in 1604. A
+Norwegian ecclesiastical law (Ordinance) was also given, because the
+Danish one was not suited for Norway.
+
+Christian IV. had three wars during his long reign, two with Sweden and
+one with the Catholics in Germany.
+
+The first Swedish war (1611-1613) was fought principally for Norway's
+sake. The Swedish king, Charles IX., called himself, at his coronation,
+King of the Lapps, and laid claim to the Norwegian province of Finmark.
+There was also a renewal of a conflict about "the three crowns" in
+the coats-of-arms. Christian made a successful attack, destroyed the
+newly-founded town of Gothenburg, and captured Elfsborg and the town
+and fortress of Kalmar; hence this war is called the Kalmar War.
+During the war, the old king, Charles IX., died, and was succeeded by
+his son, the great Gustavus Adolphus. The war was largely conducted
+with foreign mercenaries, as it was not yet usual to have standing
+armies. Gustavus Adolphus had secured two such hired armies, which
+were to try to proceed across Norway in order to reach Sweden, as
+the Kattegat was closed with Danish ships. Colonel Munchaven landed
+with eight hundred men from Holland in Söndmöre, where he plundered
+the country, then tried in vain to attack Throndhjem, and afterward
+proceeded through Stjördalen, where the people had become so
+frightened, on account of his depredations, that they did not dare to
+offer any resistance. Ravaging and plundering he made his way across
+the mountain ridge Kjölen into the province of Jemteland, which he
+conquered before joining the army in Sweden. The second foreign army
+was given a different reception. It consisted of nine hundred men, who
+came from Scotland under the command of Colonel George Sinclair. They
+landed at Veblungsnes in Romsdal and proceeded up to Gudbrandsdal.
+Under the leadership of Bailiff Lauritz Gram, the brave peasants of
+the Gudbrandsdal armed themselves as best they could. The peasants
+from the parishes of Lesje, Vaage, Fron, and Ringebu, gathered at the
+narrow mountain pass, Kringen, near the river Laugen, to await the
+arrival of the enemy. The advance guard was allowed to pass; but on the
+arrival of the main body, with Colonel Sinclair himself, the Norwegians
+suddenly attacked the Scotchmen, who were all shot down or driven into
+the river. The advance guard was then overtaken and killed. Of the
+whole force of nine hundred men, not one man, it is said, escaped. At
+Kvam's Church a grave is still pointed out as being that of Colonel
+Sinclair, and at Kringen there is a plain stone monument bearing this
+inscription: "Here Colonel George Sinclair was shot, August 26, 1612."
+After the Scotchmen the Norwegians call this war the "Scotch War."
+
+Peace was finally concluded at Knaeröd, January 26, 1613. Gustavus
+Adolphus abandoned his claim to the Norwegian Finmark, and Christian
+relinquished the captured fortresses upon being paid a million
+Rigsdalers. Both countries were again allowed to use the three crowns
+in their coats-of-arms.
+
+In his second war Christian IV. was not successful. This was his
+participation in the Thirty Years' War as the ally of the German
+Protestants against Emperor Ferdinand II. and the Catholics
+(1625-1629). After his defeat in the battle of Lutter am Barenberge,
+the imperial armies, under Tilly and Wallenstein, overran Holstein,
+Schleswig, and Jutland, and, at the Peace of Lubeck, Christian was
+obliged to pledge himself not to take any further part in the war.
+
+King Christian's third war was with Sweden. The Swedish king, Gustavus
+Adolphus, had been fighting for the cause of the Protestants in
+Germany, and, after his fall in 1632, the Swedes continued the war
+under his able generals with much success. King Christian viewed with
+alarm the growing power of the Swedes, and secretly allied himself with
+the enemies of Sweden. The Swedes, however, anticipated his designs,
+and, in December, 1643, the Swedish general, Torstensson, left the
+scene of war in Bohemia and suddenly invaded Holstein, while another
+Swedish army attacked the province of Scania; a Swedish and a Dutch
+fleet were to convey these armies over to the Danish isles. The duchies
+and Jutland were in a very short time conquered by the Swedes, and it
+was only by Christian's wise and prompt proceedings that Funen and the
+other islands were saved from falling into the hands of the enemy.
+Although King Christian was then an old man of sixty-seven years,
+he took command of his fleet, won a battle at Listerdyk, and fought
+valiantly in the terrible naval battle of Kolbergheide, Femern, July
+1, 1644, where he himself was badly wounded. On account of a lack of
+vigilance on the part of the old Danish admiral Galt, the Swedish fleet
+succeeded in escaping and uniting with the Dutch, and this combined
+fleet, of sixty-four ships, thereupon attacked the Danish one of
+seventeen ships, between Lolland and Falster. Unfortunately, a number
+of the sailors were ashore, and some of the commanders took to hasty
+flight. The remainder gathered around their admiral, the Norwegian,
+Pros Nilson Mund, who would neither flee nor surrender, but fought to
+the last man against the overwhelming force of the enemy. This defeat
+placed Denmark in such a dangerous position that an immediate peace
+became an absolute necessity. The peace was concluded at Bromsebro,
+August 13, 1645, and King Christian was compelled to cede the Norwegian
+provinces of Herjedalen and Jemteland, and the island of Gottland to
+Sweden.
+
+In Norway, where the king had lately established a standing army, this
+war had been conducted with some success. It was named the Hannibal's
+Feud, after the viceroy, Hannibal Sehested, who, with the assistance of
+the brave warrior, the clergyman in Ullensaker, Kield Stub, not only
+kept the enemy out of Norway, but also collected heavy tributes from
+the nearest Swedish provinces. After peace had been concluded, Kield
+Stub returned to his pastorate, which he managed to his death, in 1663.
+
+Christian IV. did a great deal to promote the industries and commerce
+of Norway. The Hanseatic office in Bergen was held in check, and
+Norwegian trading enterprises were encouraged. The mining industry,
+which had heretofore been neglected, became quite active. When silver
+had been discovered in Sandsvaer, in 1623, he founded the mining-town
+of Kongsberg. He also established the copper-works at Röros, where
+copper was accidentally discovered by the peasant, Hans Aasen, in
+1640. Oslo having been destroyed by fire, King Christian requested
+the inhabitants to move across the bay, closer to the fortress of
+Akershus, where he laid out the new town, the present capital of
+Christiania (1624). At the mouth of the Otter River he founded the town
+of Christianssand (1643), which afterward became the seat of the bishop
+instead of Stavanger.
+
+King Christian was very often in Norway. The last time was during the
+year following the Peace of Bromsebro. After a pleasant sojourn of
+seven weeks he returned to Denmark, where, shortly afterward, he died
+(February 28, 1648), in the seventy-first year of his life.
+
+Christian IV. was first married to Anna Katherina of Brandenburg,
+who died in 1612. In 1615 he entered into a morganatic marriage with
+Kristine Munk, a lady of noble family, to whom he gave the title of
+Countess of Schleswig-Holstein, and with whom he lived happily many
+years. They had several children, among whom was the highly gifted
+Eleonora Kristine, who was married to the Danish nobleman, Corfitz
+Ulfeld, and who, with her ambitious husband, exerted a great influence
+over the king during the latter years of his life.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XLVII
+
+_Frederick III. (1648-1670)--Absolutism Introduced (1660)_
+
+
+After the death of Christian IV. some months elapsed before the Council
+of State would agree to elect his son, Frederick III., to the throne.
+He was finally elected toward the end of the year 1648, after having
+given the nobility still greater power, by signing a more humiliating
+charter than any king had yet granted; but it also became the last one.
+The conditions were such that he could not exercise any of the powers
+of a king without the consent of the council.
+
+During the first nine years of Frederick's reign the country had peace;
+but the war which then broke out was most fatal in its result. The
+Swedish king, Charles X. Gustavus, was at war with Poland, and rumor
+had it that he had suffered serious defeats. Although the country
+highly needed peace, the army and navy, as well as the finances,
+being in a miserable condition, King Frederick believed there was an
+opportunity to recover the lost provinces, and war against Sweden
+was declared, 1657. But King Charles hastily left Poland and invaded
+Denmark, and, before the year was closed, he had conquered Holstein,
+Schleswig and Jutland. The winter being unusually severe, he could
+march across the ice to the islands of Langeland, Lolland, and
+Falster, and, in February, he stood with his whole army in Zealand
+(Sjælland) and threatened Copenhagen. King Frederick was obliged to
+sign the peace at Roskilde (February 26, 1658), by which he ceded to
+Sweden the Norwegian provinces of Bahus-Len and Throndhjem Stift and
+the Danish provinces of Scania, Halland, Blekinge, and the island of
+Bornholm. Thus Norway was again deprived of some territory, although
+the Norwegians, under Iver Krabbe (after whom the war was called the
+Krabbe War), had repulsed the attacks of the Swedes, while General
+Jorgen Bjelke had conquered Jemteland, which, however, had to be
+evacuated when peace was concluded.
+
+Having discovered the great weakness of Denmark, King Charles thought
+he saw a chance to place the three crowns on his head, and five months
+later he broke the peace, under some pretext, and again landed with
+a well-equipped army, with which he besieged Copenhagen. He captured
+the castle of Kronborg and other points of defence, and arrogantly
+declared, to the Danish messengers sent to him, that "it could matter
+little whether the king of the Danes was called Charles or Frederick,
+and that he would explain the causes of the war after Denmark had been
+taken." At Copenhagen, however, King Charles met a stronger resistance
+than he had expected. A Dutch fleet, under Admiral Opdam, succeeded
+in forcing its way past Kronborg and the Swedish fleet, and brought
+provisions and help to the starving citizens. When Charles, during the
+night of February 10, 1659, tried to take the city by assault, he was
+repulsed after a desperate conflict, leaving 2,000 dead and wounded
+in the hands of the Danes. Later in the year King Frederick succeeded
+in securing the assistance of France, England and Holland. After a
+conference held at the Hague, a Dutch fleet, under Admiral de Ruyter,
+was sent to aid the Danes, and in November, 1659, the Swedish army was
+defeated at Nyborg.
+
+King Charles, after this defeat, turned his principal attention to
+Norway, where his forces needed reinforcements. The able Major-General
+Reichwein had proceeded to Throndhjem, shortly after the renewal
+of the war, with a force of soldiers from the southern part of
+Norway, and, with the aid of the inhabitants, had driven the Swedes
+out of Throndhjem Stift. In the south, the citizens of Halden (now
+Frederickshald) had especially distinguished themselves under the
+brave Colonel Tonne Hvitfeld, the commandant at the fortress, and
+the merchant, Peter Olafson Normand. Halden was twice visited by the
+Swedes, and both attacks were heroically repelled by the citizens. In
+the beginning of 1660 King Charles sent an army of 5,000 men, under
+Field-Marshal Kagg, against Halden, and a vigorous siege was commenced.
+For six weeks one assault after another was repulsed. About half of the
+able-bodied citizens had fallen, the town was partly destroyed, and
+the fortifications were badly damaged. But the Swedish army had also
+suffered great losses, and on February 23d the siege was discontinued
+and the army returned home, upon learning of the death of Charles
+X. at Gothenburg (February 13). The Swedes now desired peace, and
+King Frederick had no reason to wish to continue the war. He readily
+concluded a peace with the queen-regent of Sweden, which was signed
+at Copenhagen, May 27, 1660. The Swedes relinquished Throndhjem Stift
+and the island of Gottland; but otherwise the terms of the Peace of
+Roskilde were confirmed.
+
+Denmark was in a miserable condition at the end of the war, without
+fleet, without money, and hopelessly in debt. In his great need the
+king summoned the nobles, the clergy, and the burgher class to a diet
+at Copenhagen. The nobles, as usual, asserted their special privilege
+of exemption from taxation; but the other estates joined in an appeal
+to the king for the curtailment of the privileges of the nobles, and
+proposed a disposal of the crown fiefs to the highest bidders without
+regard to rank. While these propositions were made, the gates of the
+city were closed by order of the burgomaster, Hans Nansen, and a
+strong guard was placed at the doors of the hall where the meeting was
+held. The nobles, being taken by surprise, were obliged to agree to
+the payment of the taxes demanded of them. Later, by similar means,
+the nobles were compelled to assent to an important change in the
+government. The charter signed by the king at the time of his election
+was declared void, the Council of State was abolished, and Denmark was
+declared henceforth to be a hereditary kingdom. Thus, by a bloodless
+and sudden revolution, King Frederick had become perfect master of
+the situation. He was authorized to draft a new constitution, which
+might be for the benefit of all classes; but this constitution never
+appeared. He prepared a charter setting forth the absolute power of
+the king, and this document was signed by all classes throughout
+Denmark. Later he published the so-called Royal Law, which confirmed
+the absolute power of the king. The only unconditional demands upon him
+were, that he must belong to the Lutheran Church, that he must reside
+within the country, and that he must not divide his countries.
+
+The effect of the establishment of absolutism in Norway was at first
+only that the country was placed under one master, the king, instead
+of the many who had composed the Danish Council of State. Having,
+since 1537, been ruled principally by Danish nobles, the country
+gained by having absolutism introduced, as it was placed on an equal
+footing with Denmark. The king now ruled with the same absolute power
+in both countries, and the power of the Danish nobles was abolished or
+greatly reduced. They were obliged to take their share of the burden of
+taxation, and they suffered a great loss by the abolition of the fiefs.
+The fiefs were changed into _Amts_, or counties, to be administered by
+officers appointed and paid regular salaries by the king. The revenues
+of the state were increased almost fivefold. In the new government
+"colleges," which superseded the Council of State, citizens without
+rank of nobility might become members. Thus able citizens, who were not
+noblemen, obtained a chance to rise to power and dignity. Among those
+who thus rose to high positions were Peter Schumacher and Kort Adeler.
+
+Kort Syvertson Adeler was born in Brevig, Norway, December 26, 1622,
+learned seamanship in Holland under the famous Admiral Tromp, and
+distinguished himself as a brave fighter, first in Dutch, and afterward
+in Venetian service, against the Turks, where he performed great
+heroic deeds. Once he forced his way, with a single ship, through a
+line of seventy-seven Turkish galleys, and another time he boarded the
+Turkish admiral's ship, fought single-handed with Admiral Ibrahim, and
+beheaded the admiral with his own sword. Several powers desired to get
+the experienced naval hero in their service; but Frederick III. called
+him home and made him admiral in the Danish navy. For twelve years he
+labored with great zeal in establishing an efficient navy for Denmark
+and Norway, but died in 1675 without having had a chance to make use of
+it.
+
+Frederick III., who had not inherited his great father's affection for
+Norway, visited this country only once in great haste. He died February
+9, 1670, about sixty years old. During his last years he busied himself
+a great deal with alchemy, and an itinerant Italian, who claimed to
+know the mystic art, helped him to squander a couple of millions of
+Danish dollars on this foolishness.
+
+The fortress of Frederickssteen and the city of Frederickshald
+(formerly Halden) were named after Frederick III.
+
+Frederick III. was married to the proud and ambitious Sophie Amalie of
+Hesse-Cassel, who, on account of her jealousy and hatred, caused the
+king's half-sister, Eleonore Kristine Ulfeld, to be tried on some false
+and absurd charges, and imprisoned in Blaataarn (the Blue Tower) in
+Copenhagen, where she remained for twenty-two years. She was liberated
+on the death of her enemy in 1685. King Frederick's and Sophie Amalie's
+children were, besides Crown Prince Christian, George, who was married
+to Queen Anna of England; Anne Sophie, who was married to John
+George III. of Saxony, and became the mother of Augustus II.; Ulrike
+Eleonore, who was married to the Swedish king Charles XI., and became
+the mother of the famous Charles XII.; Frederikke Amalie, married to
+Duke Christian Albrecht of Gottorp, and Wilhelmina, married to Prince
+Charles of the Palatinate.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XLVIII
+
+_Christian V. (1670-1699)_
+
+
+Christian V., who succeeded his father, Frederick III., in 1670, was
+the first Danish-Norwegian king who mounted the throne by hereditary
+right, and was not obliged to sign a charter, dictated by the nobles,
+in order to be elected. He was a brave and vigorous young man; but
+he early disappointed those who had placed great hopes in him, as he
+wasted his time and strength on hunting and other amusements, and left
+the government to the care of his favorites, who were often incapable
+and selfish men. He loved pomp and splendor, and sought to imitate
+the extravagant Louis XIV. of France, spending much more money than
+the treasury could afford. He especially fancied everything that was
+German, and surrounded himself with indigent German noblemen, whom
+he helped to make their fortunes in Denmark. At court the language
+spoken was the German, the ministers preached in German, actors played
+in German, and the highest officers were Germans. As many of the old
+noble families had withdrawn from the capital, where they no longer
+exercised their old influence, and had retired to their estates, where
+they were still powerful on account of their wealth, King Christian,
+determined to secure other support for the throne, created a new and
+higher nobility, and established the titles and ranks recognized
+in Germany. Thus he filled his court with counts and barons, and
+adopted the strict etiquette and ceremonies of the French court. He
+also established two orders of knighthood, the order of Dannebrog
+and the order of the Elephant. In Norway, the earldom (county) of
+Laurvik was established (1671) for the benefit of the king's friend
+and half-brother, Ulrik Frederick Gyldenlöve, whose descendants, the
+Counts of Danneskiold-Laurvik, and later Ahlefeldt-Laurvik, for a long
+time owned this beautiful county. The old royal estate Sem, together
+with the deanery of Tunsberg, was made into another earldom (1673)
+for the then very powerful Minister of State Griffenfeld, who called
+himself Count of Griffenfeld and Tunsberg; after he had fallen from
+grace, this county was transferred to his rival, Gyldenlöve, who,
+with the permission of the king, sold a part of it--afterward called
+Jarlsberg--to the German-born field-marshal of Norway, Gustav Wilhelm
+Wedel, the progenitor of the family of Wedel-Jarlsberg. Rosendal, the
+only barony in Norway, was founded, in 1678, by Ludvig-Rosenkrands, a
+Danish nobleman, who, by marriage, had come into possession of large
+estates in Bergen Stift.
+
+King Christian's adviser was, for some years, the eminent Danish
+statesman, Peter Griffenfeld. His original name was Peter Schumacher,
+and he was the son of a wine-seller in Copenhagen. His father died in
+poverty, after which Bishop Brochmann took him into his home. Here King
+Frederick saw him and had him sent abroad for six years at his expense.
+After his return he became librarian to the king, and occasionally
+assisted the king in state affairs. On his death-bed the king asked
+his son to take care of Peter Schumacher, saying: "Make a great man
+of him, but not too rapidly." Christian did not exactly follow this
+advice: in the following year he made him Count of Tunsberg, with the
+name of Griffenfeld, and appointed him great chancellor of the realm.
+Griffenfeld became greatly renowned. The emperor made him an imperial
+count, and Louis XIV. called him one of the greatest statesmen in the
+world. But, on account of this, he soon had many jealous rivals at
+the court, who aroused the king's suspicions as to his loyalty; he
+was deposed and accused of several great crimes, although some of the
+acts construed as crimes were acts of statesmanship for which he had
+deserved the greatest praise. He was condemned to death and brought
+to the scaffold; but, at the last moment, a message arrived from the
+king, that the sentence had been commuted to imprisonment for life.
+"This mercy is more cruel than death," exclaimed Griffenfeld. He was
+first imprisoned in the castle of Copenhagen, and remained there for
+four years; but as the king missed his able services, and his enemies
+feared that he might again be put in power, they caused him to be
+removed to the fortress of Munkholmen at Throndhjem, where he remained
+for eighteen years. At first he whiled away the time by reading and
+writing; but later they cruelly took away pen and ink. He wrote
+numerous apothegms in the margins of his books with little bits of
+lead, which he tore from the window-panes, or with coals on the wall.
+He was given his liberty in 1698, but died the following year (March
+11, 1699), in Throndhjem, at the age of sixty-four years.
+
+As the ally of the Elector of Brandenburg, but principally in the
+hope of recovering the lost provinces, King Christian, against the
+advice of Griffenfeld, commenced war against the Swedish king, Charles
+XI. This war, which lasted from 1675 to 1679, was called the Scania
+War, because that province was the principal scene of action. The
+Danes captured Wismar and some places in Scania, but lost the battles
+of Halmstad, Lund, and Landskrona. At sea, however, the Danes were
+generally successful. Admiral Kort Adeler had put the navy in good
+condition and had a worthy successor in the naval hero, Niels Juel,
+who won victories at Oeland and Kolbergerheide, and especially in the
+great naval battle of Kjögebugt (October 4, 1677). As Griffenfeld
+had foreseen, however, the Danes could accomplish little against the
+allies of France, and Christian was obliged to accede to peace proposed
+by Louis XIV. The peace was concluded at Lund (1679), and all that
+Christian V. obtained, for his efforts during an expensive four years'
+war, was permission to take with him ten cannons from each of the
+conquered fortresses.
+
+During this war, which the Norwegians called the Gyldenlöve Feud, after
+their leader, the brave Ulrik Frederick Gyldenlöve, the Norwegians
+several times defeated the Swedes. In February, 1676, Gyldenlöve
+marched into Bahus Len with 11,000 men, conquering Udevalla and
+Wenersborg. The following year he took the fortified town of Marstrand
+by storm and compelled the fortress of Carlsten to surrender. In
+order to prevent the Norwegians from making further progress, the
+Swedish chancellor, Magnus de la Gardie, hastened into Bahus Len with
+8,000 men, but was defeated by a much smaller Norwegian army, under
+Major-General Hans Lövenhjelm, at Udevalla, August 28, 1677. About
+1,500 Swedes were slain and two hundred were captured, together with
+fourteen pieces of artillery and all the supplies. The following year
+the ever-active Gyldenlöve attacked Bahus Castle, which, however,
+he was unable to capture, as it was defended with great heroism and
+perseverance. The war ended, on the part of Norway, with an incursion
+by Gyldenlöve into Sweden in 1679, in order to avenge a similar
+expedition which the Swedish General Sparre had made into the region
+of Throndhjem the previous year, on which occasion the copper works at
+Röros had been burned.
+
+The Norwegian code of laws, which is yet partly in force, was
+elaborated by direction of Christian V., dated April 15, 1687, and
+published April 14, 1688. He abolished Latin singing in the churches,
+introduced a new church ritual and a Danish hymn-book.
+
+Christian V. visited Norway only once (1685). On Dovre Mountain he
+laid the foundation for a monument, with an inscription in the German
+language. He died August 25, 1699, leaving a debt of 1,110,000 Danish
+dollars, although he had tried to replenish his treasury by hiring out
+Norwegian and Danish soldiers as mercenaries to other countries. He was
+married to the gentle Charlotte Amalie of Hesse-Cassel.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XLIX
+
+_Frederick IV. (1699-1730)_
+
+
+At the death of Christian V., his oldest son ascended the throne under
+the title of Frederick IV. His education had been sadly neglected; but,
+by untiring industry and energy after his accession to the throne,
+he gained considerable practical knowledge of the affairs of the
+government. He gave especial attention to the finances of the country,
+and, by a careful reduction of all unnecessary expenses, he succeeded
+in almost obliterating the great public debt. To his discredit,
+however, it must be admitted that this result was obtained partly with
+the blood of his subjects, as he secured large sums for the treasury
+by hiring out to the emperor 8,000, and to England and Holland 12,000,
+of the soldiers of Denmark and Norway, for service in the Spanish war
+about the order of succession. These soldiers distinguished themselves
+and fought with honor in many battles.
+
+From his father, King Frederick had inherited certain disputes with
+Duke Frederick of Holstein, which led to a war; but the duke received
+aid from his brother-in-law, the Swedish king, Charles XII., who
+invaded Zealand (Sjælland) and marched against Copenhagen, and King
+Frederick was obliged to accept a hasty peace at Traventhal, Holstein,
+August 18, 1700, on unfavorable terms.
+
+After the peace at Traventhal Charles XII. turned his forces against
+Russia and Poland, where he won victory after victory, until finally,
+on the 27th of June, 1709, he lost the battle of Pultowa. On account of
+the dangerous position in which this defeat placed the Swedish king,
+King Frederick thought the opportunity had come to recover the lost
+provinces. He renewed his old allegiance with Russia and Poland, and
+began the Great Northern War (1709-1720). With 16,000 men he invaded
+Scania and captured several towns; but the Swedish field-marshal,
+Magnus Stenbock, hastily gathered an army of undisciplined peasants
+and defeated the Danes at the battle of Helsingborg (1710). In this
+war also the Danish-Norwegian fleet rendered great service, fighting
+the Swedish fleet with success in the Baltic and especially in the
+North Sea. On October 4, 1710, it was attacked by the Swedish fleet
+in Kjögebugt. The Norwegian, Ivar Hvitfeld (a son of Tonne Hvitfeld,
+who had distinguished himself at Frederickshald), commanded the ship
+"Dannebrog," which took fire early in the fight. He might have saved
+himself by beaching the ship, but there was danger of thus spreading
+the fire to the rest of the Danish fleet and to the town. He therefore
+stayed where he was, drew closer to the enemy and fired volley after
+volley from the forward guns, until the fire reached the powder
+magazine. The ship was blown up, and he and his five hundred men
+perished.
+
+In the latter part of 1715, Charles XII. returned to Sweden, after an
+absence of fifteen years, and succeeded in giving new courage to the
+Swedes, who were exhausted from the hardships of the long war. The
+winter was very severe, so that the Sound was frozen over, and, in
+January, 1716, Charles intended to lead his army of 20,000 men across
+the ice and invade the Danish islands; but, just as he was ready for
+this exploit, a thaw suddenly set in, so that he could not effect the
+crossing, and, not having sufficient transports, Charles decided to
+direct his attacks against Norway.
+
+The defences of Norway were in a miserable condition. The trained
+regiments had been sent south to Denmark, so that the army consisted
+almost wholly of the National Guards, which were without training,
+poorly clothed, and without the necessary supplies. The fortresses
+were short of provisions, arms, and ammunition, and there was no money
+in the treasury. The commanding general, the old and feeble Barthold
+von Lützow, had to confine his operations to garrisoning the silver
+works at Kongsberg and the principal passes. The natural advantages
+of the country and the patriotism and perseverance of the inhabitants
+constituted the principal defence.
+
+By three different routes the Swedes invaded Norway. Charles himself
+entered Höland in March, 1716. At the Riser farm the Swedish advance
+guard was attacked by two hundred Norwegian dragoons under the brave
+Colonel Ulrich Christian Kruse, and, during the fight, the colonel
+himself killed fifteen men and wounded Charles's brother-in-law, the
+prince of Hesse. After a desperate fight, and the fall of the brave
+Captain Michelet, Colonel Kruse, who was so severely wounded that he
+could not hold his sword, surrendered to King Charles with twenty men;
+sixty lay dead or wounded, and the remainder had escaped. The Swedes
+had one hundred and seventy killed and wounded. Charles highly praised
+his brave opponent, had his own surgeon attend to his wounds, gave him
+a sword, and asked him if his brother, King Frederick, had many such
+officers. Kruse answered: "Of them he has many, and I am far from
+being among the ablest."
+
+Charles thereupon occupied Christiania and commenced to besiege the
+fortress of Akershus, but could not accomplish much for lack of heavy
+artillery. While he lay in camp there he sent out expeditions in
+different directions. The Swedish colonel, Axel Löwen, was sent out
+with six hundred dragoons to destroy Kongsberg silver works. He was to
+proceed by way of Ringerike, because the road from Drammen was blocked
+by the Norwegians; and, on the evening of March 28, 1716, he arrived
+with his force at the Norderhov parsonage, Ringerike. The parson, the
+learned Jonas Ramus, was confined to his bed by sickness, but his wife,
+the intrepid Anna Kolbjörnsdatter, received the soldiers well in order
+to avoid plundering. Having learned, by paying close attention to her
+guests, that it was their intention early the next morning to surprise
+a number of Norwegian dragoons, who lay encamped at the Steen farm and
+knew nothing of the arrival of the Swedes, she asked and obtained the
+permission of the colonel to send her servant-girl out to a neighboring
+farm for something that was needed for the table. Thus she was enabled
+to send warning to the Norwegians about the plans of the enemy. Under
+the leadership of Captain Sehested and Sergeant Thor Hovland the
+Norwegians set out at midnight, and, guided by the fires which Anna had
+started under pretext of warming the chilly soldiers, they surprised
+and overpowered the Swedish force. Colonel Löwen was captured, together
+with one hundred and sixty men; thirty were killed, and the remainder
+escaped.
+
+In April a Swedish force, under Colonel Falkenberg, was attacked and
+defeated at Moss by the Norwegians, under the command of Major-General
+Vincents Budde and Colonel Hvitfeld, who took four hundred prisoners
+and captured a large quantity of supplies. At the parsonage of Skieberg
+the Swedish general, Ascheberg, lay with 2,000 men and could hear the
+shooting at Moss; but the parson, Peter Rumohr, who had intercepted the
+correspondence between the Swedes at the parsonage and those at Moss,
+gave such exaggerated accounts of the defeat of the Swedes and of large
+reinforcements to the Norwegians, that General Ascheberg hastily broke
+camp and returned to Sweden. When King Charles, some time afterward,
+heard of this, he became so enraged at the minister that he caused him
+to be captured and brought to Sweden, where he died in prison.
+
+As the roads were becoming very bad, and Charles feared that the
+Norwegians contemplated cutting off his retreat, he suddenly
+withdrew from Christiania and shortly afterward attacked the city
+of Frederickshald. Here the citizens had armed themselves under the
+brave brothers Peter and Hans Kolbjörnson, nephews of Kield Stub,
+and half-brothers of Anna Kolbjörnsdatter, and the Swedes had to buy
+every step with blood. Charles captured the city on the night between
+the 3d and 4th of July, 1716, and the Norwegians had to retire to
+the fortress, Frederickssteen. That the enemy might not find shelter
+behind the houses against the shots from the fortress, the citizens
+put fire to the town. Peter Kolbjörnson commenced with his own house,
+and soon the whole city was in flames. Charles had to withdraw from
+Frederickssteen, with a loss of 1,500 men and three generals, to his
+headquarters at Torpum, intending to renew the siege as soon as he
+could get his heavy artillery from his transport ships at Dynekilen,
+near Svinesund. But in this hope he was disappointed, as the Norwegian
+naval hero, Peter Tordenskiold, by a daring attack shortly afterward,
+succeeded in capturing or destroying the whole transport fleet at
+Dynekilen.
+
+Peter Wessel, afterward ennobled under the name of Tordenskiold, was
+born November 7, 1691, in Throndhjem, where his father, Jan Wessel, was
+a merchant. As he showed no disposition for college studies, he was
+placed with a tailor as apprentice; but he ran away from his master,
+came to Copenhagen, where he hired out as a sailor, and made journeys
+to the West Indies and to India. Afterward he became a naval cadet,
+made another trip to India, and on his return came to Bergen just
+as the Great Northern War had broken out. He immediately proceeded
+overland to Christiania, where the commanding general, Waldemar
+Lövendahl, took a fancy to him and gave him the command of a ship of
+four guns, "Ormen" (the Serpent), with which he made cruises along the
+Swedish coast. He soon became renowned for his courage, and was given a
+better ship called "Lövendahl's galley," a frigate of twenty guns. By
+his heroic deeds and brilliant bravery he rose, in the comparatively
+short time of ten years, from cadet to vice-admiral, and was ennobled
+by King Frederick IV. "For your rare courage and loyalty," the king
+said to him, "we have raised you to our nobility. Your name shall
+hereafter be Tordenskiold (Thunder-shield)." "Well, then," answered the
+young man, "I will so thunder in the ears of the Swedes that they will
+say you have not given me the name without reason."
+
+The entrance to the harbor of Dynekilen is at most places only four
+hundred to four hundred and fifty feet wide. On a little peninsula in
+the inlet the Swedes had erected a battery of six twelve-pounders, and
+on each side of the narrow inlet 4,000 infantry were stationed. On the
+evening of July 7th, when Tordenskiold lay with two frigates, three
+galleys and two other vessels outside of Stromstad, he learned from
+some Swedish fishermen, who were brought aboard as prisoners, where
+the Swedish fleet lay, and also that a number of the officers had been
+invited to a wedding, while the admiral was to have a banquet on board
+for the others. He concluded that the officers, therefore, would be in
+poor condition for fighting, and at daybreak he weighed anchor, and
+cried over to the brave Lieutenant Peter Grib, who was commanding the
+other frigate: "I am informed that the Swedish admiral is going to have
+a carousal on his fleet to-day. Would it not be advisable if we went in
+with our ships and became his unbidden guests? The pilot says we have
+favorable wind." Peter Grib was ready, and Tordenskiold at once steered
+into the harbor. Without firing a shot he ran his ship in through a
+heavy fire from all sides. It was not till he came so near that his
+six-pounders could be of effect, and when he had reached the widest
+part of the inlet where he could arrange his ships with the broadsides
+toward the enemy, that he commenced to fire. After three hours of
+uninterrupted cannonading the Swedish fire began to slacken, and at
+one o'clock (July 8, 1716) the Swedish flag was lowered. The Swedes
+had then beached as many of their ships as possible, and soldiers
+and sailors were trying to save themselves by flight. Tordenskiold's
+victory was complete; forty-four ships, carrying sixty guns, were
+either burned or sunk. Not a single ship was saved, and the next day
+King Charles was on his retreat to Sweden.
+
+In September, 1718, King Charles again attacked Norway. He sent
+General Armfeldt with 14,000 men into Throndhjem Stift, where the
+commanding general, W. Budde, had to confine himself to the defence
+of the city of Throndhjem. King Charles himself moved against
+Frederickssteen with 20,000 men and began a vigorous siege. The outer
+redoubt was stormed and taken after a brave resistance, and the Swedish
+trenches were only two hundred and fifty paces from the fortress
+when King Charles was killed in one of the trenches by a bullet from
+the fortress, December 11, 1718. A few days later the Swedish army
+withdrew and returned to Sweden. General Armfeldt, on receiving this
+intelligence, retreated from Throndhjem and started to return to the
+frontier across the Tydal Mountains. On the mountain his army was
+overtaken by a fearful snowstorm; many hundreds froze to death, and
+many of those who escaped became cripples for life.
+
+Frederick IV. now proceeded to Norway himself, and invaded Sweden
+with 15,000 men and occupied Stromstad, while Tordenskiold, by daring
+strategy, took possession of Marstrand and captured the fortress
+Carlsten. The war, which had lasted eleven years, was ended by a peace,
+which Charles's sister, Ulrika Eleonora, concluded at Fredericksborg
+Castle, 1720. By this peace Sweden was compelled to agree never to help
+the Duke of Holstein to recover Schleswig, to pay 600,000 Rigsdalers,
+and to relinquish its right to exemption from tolls in the Oere Sound,
+a right which Sweden had had since 1645.
+
+Peter Tordenskiold lived only a few months after peace had been
+concluded. He was allowed to make a journey abroad, and at Hanover he
+thrashed a gambler, Colonel Stahl, who had cheated one of his friends.
+For this he was challenged to a duel with the colonel, and in their
+encounter he was killed, November 12, 1720, being then a little over
+twenty-nine years of age.
+
+The interests of Norway were often neglected during the reign of
+Frederick IV. In order to raise money the government sold all the
+Norwegian churches, and the lands belonging to them, to private
+parties, because the people, who from time immemorial had owned the
+churches, could not produce deeds or other documents showing title. The
+northern districts of Norway were especially neglected. The trade with
+Finmarken had, to the great detriment of that part of the country, for
+a long time been leased to the citizens of Bergen; in 1720 it was sold
+to three citizens of Copenhagen, and the result was greatly increased
+distress among the people.
+
+During the reign of Frederick IV., two Norwegians distinguished
+themselves by missionary work. One of them was Thomas von Westen from
+Throndhjem, who worked with great zeal for the cause of Christianity
+in Finmarken. The other was Hans Egede, a clergyman from Vaagen
+in Nordland, who proceeded to Greenland, where, for years, he
+indefatigably devoted himself to the work of promoting the spiritual
+and material welfare of the inhabitants.
+
+Frederick IV. died in 1730, fifty-nine years old.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER L
+
+_Christian VI. (1730-1746)_
+
+
+Christian VI., who succeeded his father, Frederick IV., in 1730,
+commenced his reign by discharging the most of his father's experienced
+advisers and friends. The very able Bartholomew Deichmann, bishop at
+Akershus, who was most highly esteemed during the former reign, was
+deposed and indicted, but died shortly after his degradation, April,
+1731. The king allowed himself to be controlled by his German queen,
+the proud and extravagant Sophie Magdalena. The language and customs of
+the country were banished from the court, and a proud and haughty tone
+introduced. The king rarely spoke with any of his subjects unless they
+belonged to the higher nobility or were Germans. The queen had a mania
+for building, and large sums were expended on costly palaces in and
+about Copenhagen.
+
+The Danish-Norwegian Church had also been affected by the pietistic
+revivalism brought about in the German Protestant Church by Spener
+and Francke. Christian himself was a pious man, but his religion was
+mournful and morbid. He was, to a great extent, controlled by his
+pietistic court-chaplain, Bluhme. A Sabbath ordinance was enacted
+(1735), by which several preposterous rules about church-going were
+introduced and some antiquated laws were again put in force. Neglect
+of attendance at church was punished in the cities by money fines, and
+in the country by being placed in the stocks, which, for that purpose,
+were erected outside of every church door. Public amusements hitherto
+considered harmless--dancing, games and festivities--were forbidden;
+weddings and social parties were not to be held on a holiday or the
+evening before. A general Church Inspection College was established in
+1737, a kind of Court of Inquisition, whose duty it was to watch over
+the proper performance of church services. The result of this unwise
+zeal for religion was a general state of hypocrisy and intolerance.
+Unscrupulous people, who feigned holiness and imitated the pietists at
+court, were given offices, while those who were sincere and independent
+were left out.
+
+One of the beneficial results of the pietism which ruled during the
+reign of Christian VI. was the introduction of the Confirmation in the
+Lutheran faith. This was introduced upon the advice of court chaplain
+Bluhme, by the ordinance of January 13, 1736; the same year in which
+the second centennial of the introduction of the Reformation was
+celebrated. The Confirmation led to an improved Christian education
+of the people, and indirectly compelled all classes of the people to
+read. Great zeal was also shown in the printing of Bibles and other
+religious books, and some improvement was made in the Norwegian Church
+organization by an ordinance of August 13, 1734. The Latin schools were
+reorganized in 1739, the teachers being given better salaries, while
+more suitable text-books were introduced.
+
+Some efforts were also made to improve the trade, manufactures and
+navigation of Norway, but these efforts were not always well directed.
+The trade with Finmarken, Iceland and Greenland was leased to
+companies, whose aim seemed to be the greatest possible extortion. Very
+unwise and harmful to the country was the king's decree forbidding the
+people of southern Norway to buy grain from any other country than
+Denmark. The navy was greatly improved under the supervision of Count
+Frederick Danneskiold-Samsoe, Admiral Suhm and Constructor Benstrup;
+but their work took large sums of money.
+
+Toward the close of this reign Norway suffered a great deal from hard
+times and famine, in common with the greater part of Northern Europe.
+During the years 1720 and 1741 there died in Norway 31,346 more persons
+than were born. Many died of starvation, and, in many districts, the
+people had to make meal from bark, bones and straw. A collection
+amounting to about 14,000 Rigsdalers (Danish dollars) was made in
+Denmark in order to help some of the most needy.
+
+During the reign of Christian VI. lived "the father of the
+Danish-Norwegian literature," the witty and very productive author,
+Ludvig Holberg (born in Bergen, 1684, died 1754); also the active
+and eloquent Peter Hersleb (born in Throndhjem, 1689), who from 1730
+to 1737 was bishop at Akershus, and from 1737, until his death in
+1757, bishop of Zealand, and who may be considered the father of the
+public school system. Two Danish bishops of this time who are held
+in respectful memory by the Norwegians are Erik Pontoppidan, who
+was bishop in Bergen from 1747 to 1755,--author of "Explanation of
+Luther's Catechism," which is still extensively used in the Norwegian
+schools--and Hans Brorson (bishop in Ribe, 1694-1764), the author of
+many church hymns.
+
+Christian VI., during his reign of sixteen years, only visited
+Norway once, in the summer of 1733. He died August 6, 1746, in his
+forty-seventh year. In spite of the long peace, a flourishing trade,
+and large subsidies from foreign powers for mercenaries, which he had
+furnished from Norway and Denmark, he left a debt of over two million
+Rigsdalers.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER LI
+
+_Frederick V. (1746-1766)_
+
+
+When Christian VI. died, his eldest son, Frederick V., ascended
+the throne. He was a man of limited intelligence, but of a kindly
+disposition. By his affability and his taste for the language of the
+country he stood in sharp contrast with his late father, and he and his
+lovely young queen, Louisa, daughter of George II. of England, soon
+won the hearts of the people. He abolished all the harsh ordinances
+against amusements, the national theatre was opened again, and Ludvig
+Holberg had the pleasure, in his old age, to again see his comedies
+played and received with great applause. The change was at first
+beneficial, especially as long as Queen Louisa lived; but, after her
+death, in 1751, when her place had been taken by Juliana Marie of
+Brunswick, the liberal tone at court often degenerated into giddiness
+and license, and, in an attempt to imitate the French manners, a luxury
+was introduced which was too expensive for the ordinary resources of
+the crown.
+
+The reign of Frederick V. was, like that of his father, peaceful,
+although a war with Russia seemed very imminent, when one of the
+Holstein-Gottorp princes, Charles Peter Ulrik, had ascended the throne
+of Russia, under the title of Peter III., and laid claim to a part
+of the duchy of Schleswig. A Russian army was sent into Mecklenburg
+with orders to advance on Holstein, where an army of 70,000 Danish and
+Norwegian soldiers had been drawn together. The armies lay within a few
+miles of each other, when the conflict was suddenly averted by the news
+that Peter III. had been deposed, and, shortly afterward, murdered by
+his wife (July, 1762). The empress, Catherine II., who succeeded her
+husband, had always been averse to the war, and a treaty of peace was
+concluded with her, principally as the result of the able diplomacy of
+the king's adviser, Count Johan Hartvig Bernstorf.
+
+The great preparations for this threatened conflict had, however,
+necessitated an increase of taxation. The so-called "extra-tax" was
+felt as a great burden; every person above twelve years of age had to
+pay a tax of one Rigsdaler (about fifty-five cents) per year. This
+was especially felt as a burden by the common people in the districts
+around Bergen, where the fisheries had been a failure, and a revolt
+was the result. About 4,000 peasants armed themselves and made an
+assault upon the city, maltreated the magistrates, and plundered about
+8,000 Rigsdalers of the public means. Quiet was soon restored, and the
+participants in the revolt were punished. A few years afterward the
+"extra-tax" was abolished.
+
+A great deal was done during this reign for the promotion of science
+and art, trade, manufactures and agriculture. At Kongsberg a mineral
+school was established and two hundred German experts employed as
+teachers. The bishop at Throndhjem, Johan Gunnerus, Rector Gerhard
+Schöning, and the Danish scholar, Peter Suhm (who had married the
+daughter of a merchant at Throndhjem), established the Royal Academy
+of Sciences in Throndhjem. A free school of mathematics, afterward
+reorganized as the Norwegian Military Academy, was founded in
+Christiania.
+
+Frederick V., who shortened his life by all kinds of excesses, died in
+his forty-third year, January 14, 1766. He left a public debt of about
+twenty millions. By his first wife he had one son, Christian, and three
+daughters; his second wife became the mother of Prince Frederick.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER LII
+
+_Christian VII. (1766-1808)_
+
+
+At the death of Frederick V., his son Christian, who was hardly
+seventeen years of age, ascended the throne; and, shortly afterward,
+married the fifteen year old Caroline Mathilde, a sister of the English
+king, George III. Christian led a most dissipated life, eventually
+resulting in insanity. In 1768 the king made a journey abroad, during
+which his body physician, the German free-thinker, Johan Frederick
+Struensee, became his dearest favorite, and got him completely under
+his influence. Upon their return the king's old counsellors, including
+the experienced and deserving Bernstorf, were discharged and replaced
+by a privy council, in which the strong and ambitious Struensee soon
+became the real master. By the influence which he had gained over the
+debilitated, and at times insane, king, and the queen, he succeeded in
+reaching the highest positions. He was made a count and prime minister
+and became an almost absolute ruler, the cabinet orders being given
+the force of royal commands simply by being signed by Struensee. His
+power lasted only sixteen months; but during this time he introduced
+many reforms, which were in themselves commendable, but, in many
+cases, came too abruptly and without preparation. On account of the
+violent changes, and his contempt for the Danish language and customs,
+he soon had many enemies, chief among whom was the queen-dowager,
+Juliana Maria, who wished to get her son, the king's half-brother,
+Prince Frederick, into power. With the aid of the prince's teacher, the
+learned Ove Hoeg Guldberg, she formed a conspiracy against Struensee
+and obtained the signature of the insane king to an order for his
+arrest, together with that of others. On the night of January 17,
+1772, after a ball at the palace, Queen Caroline Mathilde, Struensee,
+Count Brandt, and others, were arrested. The queen was imprisoned
+at Kronborg, and afterward at Celle, Hanover, where she died in her
+twenty-fourth year (1775). The others were accused of high treason and
+condemned to death. Struensee was cruelly executed, April 28, 1772.
+
+During the following twelve years (1772-1784) Prince Frederick's
+teacher, Ove Guldberg, virtually conducted the government, and this
+period has therefore been called the Guldberg period. A great many of
+Struensee's reforms were revoked, and former rules were re-established.
+The liberty of the press, which Struensee had granted, was curtailed
+and a censorship again introduced. The plan of establishing a
+university in Norway, which had been promised, was given up. Everything
+was now to be "Danish," even Norway. Guldberg even wished to abolish
+the very name of Norwegian, and wrote: "No Norwegian exists; all are
+citizens of the Danish state."
+
+Many of the strong men, whom Struensee had made use of, were removed,
+and mediocrity was again raised to dignity. In spite of the large
+revenues which flowed into the treasury during the flourishing
+commercial period, the public debt, which had been reduced to sixteen
+millions, rose to twenty-nine millions. Still, there are some things to
+the credit of the Guldberg ministry. Thus the foreign minister, Andreas
+Bernstorf, by his negotiations, succeeded in removing any cause for
+conflict with the powerful Russia, when the Russian grand-duke, Paul,
+relinquished his part of Holstein to the king of Denmark, in return for
+Oldenborg and Delmenhorst. On February 15, 1776, the so-called _native
+right_ was published, an ordinance providing that hereafter only native
+citizens could be appointed to office under the government. Finally, it
+was ordained that the Danish language should be used both in the army
+and as a business language.
+
+During the long period of peace (since 1720) Norway had made great
+progress in commerce, shipping and population. The population, which,
+in 1660, was only 450,000, had reached about 723,000 in 1767, and the
+merchant marine had grown from fifty to 1,150 ships, many of them large
+and engaged in trade with distant countries. The peasant class had
+advanced considerably, as a consequence of the sale of the estates of
+the crown in order to raise revenue; the number of freeholders was now
+nearly double that of the tenant farmers. The officials sent their sons
+to be educated at the University of Copenhagen, so that the country
+was gradually furnished with a native class of officials, who could
+replace the Danish and advocate the cause of their countrymen.
+
+In 1784 Crown Prince Frederick was confirmed, and immediately took
+charge of the government as regent for his insane father. He had the
+sense to surround himself with able counsellors, and the foremost among
+them was Andreas Bernstorf, a nephew of the elder Bernstorf. While he
+was at the head of the government (1784-1797), the united countries had
+happy and prosperous days. He succeeded in maintaining an honorable
+neutrality, while the French Revolution, which commenced in 1789,
+shook Europe and involved nearly all the countries of Europe in war.
+Much was done for Norway during this period. The trade of Finmarken
+was made free, and the cities of Tromsoe, Hammerfest and Vardoe
+were founded. In order to expedite judicial matters four superior
+courts were established, and, in order to avoid litigation as much as
+possible, courts of conciliation were introduced in all parts of the
+country.
+
+During Bernstorf's administration, Norway was involved in a short war
+with Sweden, the Swedish king, Gustavus III., having attacked Russia,
+whereupon the Russian empress, Catherine II., demanded, according to
+agreement, an attack upon Sweden by Denmark. A Norwegian army of 10,000
+men, under Prince Charles of Hesse, invaded Sweden in the fall of 1788,
+and, after some successful encounters, marched against Gothenburg;
+but an armistice was concluded, which was changed into a convention,
+November 5th, the Norwegians agreeing to retire from Sweden.
+
+England continued the war with France with great vigor, and, in order
+to weaken the enemy as much as possible, raised the point with neutral
+powers that meat, flour and grain must be considered as contraband
+of war, and should not, therefore, be shipped to France or any other
+enemy of England. In order to protect their commerce, Denmark-Norway
+then, in 1800, together with Russia and Sweden, renewed the so-called
+"Armed Neutrality," which, through the untiring efforts of Andreas
+Bernstorf, had been agreed upon in 1780, based upon the principle that
+"free ship carries free cargo." After an unsuccessful attempt, through
+negotiations, to persuade Denmark to withdraw from this alliance,
+England declared war against her, and sent a fleet, under the command
+of Admirals Parker and Nelson, to Oere Sound. On April 2, 1801, a
+battle was fought in the roadstead of Copenhagen. Although the Danish
+and Norwegian sailors defended themselves with great bravery, they
+finally had to yield to superior force. An armistice was concluded,
+which, at the death of the Russian emperor, Paul, ended with a peace,
+by which Denmark consented to withdraw from the Armed Neutrality.
+
+The country now enjoyed peace until 1807, when a new war with England
+broke out. At the peace of Tilsit, July 7, 1807, Emperor Napoleon and
+Alexander I. of Russia made certain arrangements of European affairs
+with a view to helping Napoleon in his conflict with England. Russia
+was to be allowed to conquer Finland from Sweden, and Napoleon was
+to take possession of the Danish fleet, by means of which he might
+dispute the dominion of England at sea. Although this agreement was to
+be kept strictly secret, the English government, in some way, heard
+of it, and decided to anticipate the action of Napoleon. A strong
+fleet was sent to Copenhagen, where the British commanders demanded
+that Denmark should surrender its fleet to England, where it was to
+remain until peace was concluded between England and France. The demand
+was answered by the Danish minister, who protested that there was no
+cause for it, since Denmark had no idea of letting Napoleon have the
+fleet. The British, however, would not listen to any assurances of
+Denmark's peaceful attitude. An army of about 38,000 men was landed
+and defeated the Danish force outside of Copenhagen, which, all told,
+hardly amounted to 10,000 men. Thereafter preparations were made for
+bombarding the city. The bombardment commenced on September 2d and
+lasted for three days. During this bombardment the cathedral and three
+hundred and five other buildings were burned, and 1,200 buildings were,
+more or less, damaged. Valuable libraries, and collections of art
+and other valuable property, were destroyed by fire, 1,100 soldiers
+and citizens were killed and eight hundred wounded. The Danes had
+to surrender their whole fleet, which was then brought to England.
+The English government now gave Denmark the choice between three
+conditions: neutrality, an alliance, or war. In case of war Denmark
+was threatened with destruction of the Danish and Norwegian merchant
+marine, the occupation of Copenhagen by the Swedes, and, possibly,
+the forcible transfer of Norway to England's ally, Sweden. Crown
+Prince Frederick answered that, after what had taken place, peace was
+impossible, and so the war was continued, Denmark entering into a close
+alliance with France.
+
+When it became difficult to maintain communication between Norway
+and Denmark, the Danish government, in August, 1807, established a
+"Government Commission" for Norway, consisting of Prince Christian
+August of Augustenborg as chairman, "Stiftamtmand" Gerhard Moltke,
+Justice Enevold Falsen, and Chamberlain Marcus Rosenkrantz. Prince
+Christian August was commander of the troops in the southern part of
+Norway, having been appointed as such in 1805. He was greatly beloved
+by the Norwegians. After having performed its arduous duties for three
+months, the commission lost its ablest member, Enevold Falsen, whose
+body was found in the bay, November 17, 1807. His health had been
+greatly impaired, and he had probably been driven to suicide by his
+sufferings. While performing his duties on the Government Commission,
+he also edited the journal "Budstikken," in which he did much to
+arouse and maintain the courage and perseverance of the people. He was
+succeeded, in January, 1808, by Count Herman Wedel Jarlsberg, who had
+gained the high respect of his countrymen by the zeal and vigor which
+he had shown in his efforts to provide the famine-threatened country
+with the necessary grain by importation from Denmark, which numerous
+British cruisers tried to prevent.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER LIII
+
+_Frederick VI. (1808-1814)_
+
+
+When, on the death of his insane father, Frederick VI. changed his
+title of regent to that of king of Denmark, his domains were in a
+sad condition. They were at war with England, but had no fleet.
+The finances were in great disorder, which became still worse when
+the Danish government tried to improve the situation by issuing a
+large amount of paper currency. The English men-of-war blocked the
+navigation, and hundreds of Danish and Norwegian trading-ships,
+together with their cargoes, were seized by the enemy. In Norway, all
+industries were paralyzed, there had been failures of crops, and there
+was a great deal of want and suffering. When the Danish government,
+as the ally of France and Russia, also declared war on Sweden, the
+situation was most desperate. The Government Commission was daily
+begged, by petition, to open the public grain magazines to relieve the
+distress of the people, and it taxed their judgment and firmness to the
+utmost to control the situation and distribute aid where the need was
+most pressing. In this condition Norway was attacked, in April, 1808,
+by a large Swedish army under the command of General Armfeldt, and
+threatened by a British army and fleet, which lay at Gothenburg. In the
+hour of distress and danger, however, the Norwegians had awakened to a
+consciousness of the fact that they had only themselves to rely upon,
+and, during their struggles, they showed a patriotism which shunned
+no sacrifice. Men like Marcus Rosenkrantz, Peter Anker, Herman Wedel,
+Jacob Aall, Severin Lövenskiold, Thygesen, John Collett, Ludvig Maribo,
+and many other patriots, offered their time, energy, and fortunes to
+the service of the country, and the popular commander, Prince Christian
+August, was strengthened and aided by a strong national spirit among
+all classes, when he made his preparations to meet the enemy.
+
+General Armfeldt, on April 17, 1808, advanced toward the fortress of
+Kongsvinger, and a battle was fought at Lier, near that place. The
+Swedes were at first repulsed, but later received reinforcements and
+compelled the Norwegians to retreat across the Glommen River. It is
+said that some of the Norwegian troops had to cease firing, during the
+battle, for want of ammunition. About the same time a Swedish force
+captured the Blaker Redoubt, about twenty-five miles to the southwest
+of Kongsvinger, but this position they soon afterward abandoned, upon
+hearing of the approach of a Norwegian force which had been hurriedly
+despatched against them by Christian August. The Norwegians proceeded
+beyond Blaker, and at Toverud (in Urskog Parish, Romerike) surrounded,
+and, after a sharp fight, captured a Swedish force under Count Axel
+Mörner. On April 24th a Swedish force, under Colonel Gahn, crossed
+the frontier and marched along the left bank of the Flisen River, a
+tributary of the Glommen. Near Trangen, in Aasnes Parish, Soloer,
+they were attacked by the Norwegians, and, after a fight of three
+hours and a half, the Swedes surrendered, having suffered a loss of
+two hundred killed and wounded. About three hundred and thirty men,
+including Colonel Gahn, were taken prisoners. The Norwegians were also
+successful in a battle fought on June 10th at Prestebakke in Enningdal,
+in the southern part of Smaalenene, near Svinesund. The attack was
+made early in the morning, and, after a desperate fight, the Swedes
+were forced to surrender; four hundred and forty-five men, including
+twenty-seven officers, being taken prisoners. A large amount of arms
+and ammunition was also taken. A few days later the Swedish force which
+was commanded by General Armfeldt's aide-de-camp, George Adlersparre,
+received large reinforcements and recaptured the lost positions in
+Enningdal; but, shortly afterward, the Swedish troops again retreated,
+the Swedish government desiring to give more attention to the war in
+Finland. Negotiations were now opened for an armistice. King Frederick
+VI. several times requested Christian August to invade Sweden with
+his army; but the prince, as well as his tried advisers, considered
+an invasion very unwise, the army being destitute of all necessary
+supplies. An armistice was finally entered into on December 7, 1808. A
+definite peace was not concluded till a year later.
+
+Great changes took place in Sweden during the following year. King
+Gustavus IV. Adolphus had shown great incompetence in the management
+of the affairs of Sweden, and after the reverses in Finland, resulting
+in the loss of this province, the feeling against the king became very
+strong. Early in 1809 rumors began to circulate of the renewal of an
+old project, by which Napoleon and Alexander I. had agreed to divide
+Sweden between Denmark and Russia, and great excitement was created
+among the leading men in Sweden. A conspiracy was formed by a number
+of influential men, including George Adlersparre, who marched with
+his army toward Stockholm. On March 13, 1809, the king was arrested
+and brought to the castle of Drotningholm, and a few days later to
+Gripsholm Castle, where finally he was induced to write and sign an
+unconditional abdication. He was later transported to Pomerania, and
+from there proceeded to Switzerland. When King Gustavus had abdicated,
+his aged uncle, Charles, duke of Södermanland, was prevailed upon to
+take charge of the government as regent. The Swedish Diet, which met
+in May, 1809, confirmed the deposition of King Gustavus and elected
+Charles king under the title of Charles XIII. The newly-elected king
+being old and childless, a successor to the throne also had to be
+chosen, and the choice fell upon the general-in-chief of the Norwegian
+army, Prince Christian August, whom the Swedes also had learned to
+respect during the war, and whose election, it was supposed by many,
+would eventually result in uniting Norway with Sweden. After peace had
+been concluded between Denmark and Sweden, at Jönköping, December 10,
+1809, Prince Christian August accepted the election as Crown Prince of
+Sweden, his name being changed to Charles (or Carl) August. No royal or
+princely person had ever, to such a degree, won the affection of the
+Norwegians. He left Norway for Sweden January 4, 1810, accompanied by
+the blessings and well-wishes of the whole people. Only a few months
+later, May 28, 1810, he suddenly died during a military review.
+
+Shortly before the prince's departure from Norway, and at the
+suggestion of Count Wedel and other patriotic men, a society was
+founded in Christiania under the name of the Society for Norway's
+Welfare, which did much to encourage the feeling of independence and
+the national spirit in the country and to advocate the wishes of the
+people. Thus the long-felt want of a national university was strongly
+set forth by Count Wedel. The government having pointed to the lack of
+money, such an amount was collected by voluntary subscriptions from
+the whole country, especially the cities, that King Frederick at last
+yielded, and, by royal decree, the Norwegian University was established
+September 2, 1811, and given the name of the king. This event was
+celebrated with great joy by the Norwegian people by a national
+festival, December 11, 1811.
+
+The condition of the country, however, became very serious during
+the next year. Failure of the crops caused a famine, and the use of
+bark-bread became quite general throughout the country. The paper
+currency became more and more depreciated, and the government was
+finally obliged to partially default payment. The British continued to
+prevent all importation, and the distress was increased by the breaking
+out of a new war between Denmark and Sweden.
+
+During the distressing years of war, when a foreign fleet intercepted
+the communication with Denmark, many Norwegians had become convinced
+that the union with Denmark was a very unnatural one. Many able and
+patriotic men believed that a union or a strong defensive alliance with
+Sweden would be much more advantageous to the country, and no doubt
+many considered such a union among the future probabilities, when the
+beloved Prince Christian August was elected Crown Prince of Sweden.
+The sorrow that was felt in Norway at the sudden death of Christian
+August was universal. A rumor, probably unfounded, that he had been
+poisoned by some of his opponents in Sweden, was, for a time at least,
+generally believed in Norway, and extinguished, for the time being,
+any desire that may have existed in Norway for a union of the two
+countries. In Sweden, however, the plan grew in strength, especially
+after the election of the new Crown Prince.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER LIV
+
+_Marshal Bernadotte_
+
+
+The election of a new successor to the Swedish throne was no easy
+problem. Under the conditions prevailing in Europe it was thought
+necessary to make a choice that would be approved by Napoleon, and it
+had even been suggested that it might be necessary to elect one of
+Napoleon's marshals. Among the different candidates considered, the
+most popular one was the Duke of Augustenborg, an elder brother of
+Prince Christian August. His election was opposed by King Frederick VI.
+of Denmark, who hoped to be chosen himself, and held out as inducement
+a promise to give each of the three countries a constitution. King
+Frederick at first had the support of quite a party in the Swedish
+Diet; but his opponents strongly argued that to make the Danish king
+successor to the Swedish throne would eventually result in Sweden
+becoming a province of Denmark, and the Duke of Augustenborg, who was
+supported by King Charles XIII., was the choice of a majority in the
+Swedish Diet. A messenger, Baron Mörner, was sent to Paris to ascertain
+whether such an election would have the approval of Napoleon; but upon
+arriving in Paris he was told that, according to the latest reports,
+the election of the Danish king was being seriously considered, and
+believing that this would be a great misfortune, the baron took upon
+himself to open negotiations with one of Napoleon's marshals, Jean
+Baptiste Bernadotte, Prince of Pontecorvo, and requested him to
+become a candidate for the Swedish succession. After a conference
+with Napoleon and a consultation with the Swedish minister in Paris,
+Bernadotte declared himself willing to accept the election, if it were
+offered to him.
+
+When Baron Mörner returned to Sweden and reported the result of his
+unauthorized step, he caused great surprise, and the king ordered
+his arrest; but, on second thought, the plan to elect Bernadotte was
+generally favorably considered by leading men in Sweden. Count Platen
+had a consultation with his Norwegian friend, Count Wedel, and the
+latter, who had made the personal acquaintance of Bernadotte, advised
+the Swedes to elect him in preference to the Duke of Augustenborg.
+The result was that in August, 1810, the Swedish Diet, with practical
+unanimity, elected Bernadotte Crown Prince of Sweden, and King Charles
+XIII. adopted him as his son, under the name of Charles John (Carl
+Johan). When, in September, 1810, Bernadotte was about to leave Paris
+for Sweden, and Napoleon asked him to promise never to wage war on
+France, he declined to bind himself by such a promise, but assured the
+emperor of his sincere friendship. "Go, then," said Napoleon, "and let
+us fulfil our several destinies."
+
+Crown Prince Charles John, on his arrival in Sweden, immediately
+assumed the chief control of the government, and set about the very
+difficult task of raising the country from the wretched and defenceless
+condition into which it had fallen. Sweden was at the time practically
+at the mercy of the great Powers. Napoleon forced Sweden to declare
+war on England, and when, a year later, he found that this war was
+not carried on with satisfactory vigor, he sent an army into Swedish
+Pomerania, which he occupied, while two Swedish regiments were sent as
+prisoners to France (January, 1812). This caused Charles John to look
+around for other alliances, which would be of greater benefit to his
+adopted country. He once more offered Napoleon the faithful services of
+Sweden, on condition that Sweden was to receive Norway in compensation;
+but Napoleon would not listen to any proposition to take anything from
+his faithful ally, Denmark.
+
+Charles John immediately opened negotiations with Russia, and the
+result was a secret treaty, concluded at St. Petersburg, April 18,
+1812, by which Russia promised to help Sweden, by negotiations or force
+of arms, to acquire Norway, and Russia was guaranteed the possession of
+Finland, while Charles John was to take an active part in the military
+operations in Germany against Napoleon. This agreement was confirmed
+at a personal meeting between the Russian emperor Alexander and Crown
+Prince Charles John at Åbo, Finland, August 27, 1812. The stipulation
+that Norway was to be united with Sweden was afterward also agreed to
+by the other Powers at war with France. Charles John took an active
+part in the great campaign against Napoleon in Germany. After the
+complete defeat of Napoleon's army at Leipsic, October 16-19, 1813,
+Charles John marched with an army of 40,000 men into Holstein in order
+to compel Denmark to cede Norway. The Danish-Norwegian army in Holstein
+and Schleswig made a brave defence; but the resistance against the
+overwhelming force of the enemy could not last long, and Frederick VI.
+was compelled to conclude peace at Kiel, January 14, 1814, where Norway
+was ceded to Sweden. The Norwegian dependencies, Iceland, the Faroe
+Islands, and Greenland, were not included in the cession. Four days
+later King Frederick VI., for himself and his successors, relinquished
+all his rights to the kingdom of Norway to the Swedish king, Charles
+XIII., and his successors. In his proclamation to the Norwegians, King
+Frederick released them from their oath of allegiance, and requested
+them to peaceably and quietly transfer their allegiance to the Swedish
+king.
+
+Thus ended the union between Denmark and Norway, which had lasted for
+more than four hundred years.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER LV
+
+_Norway Declares Her Independence_
+
+
+Prince Christian Frederick, a cousin of King Frederick VI. and heir
+presumptive to the Danish-Norwegian throne, had, in May, 1813, been
+sent up to Norway as viceroy (_Statholder_), and had become very
+popular with the Norwegians. When, on January 24, 1814, he received
+the message from the king, informing him of the treaty of Kiel and
+commanding him to transfer the forts and the public offices to the
+Swedes and return to Denmark, Christian Frederick became highly
+indignant and resolved not to obey the commands. In his diary the
+prince wrote:
+
+"That the king could believe that the Norwegian people will voluntarily
+surrender, and that he could believe me base enough to desert them
+now--indeed, I do not understand it. People would be justified in
+throwing stones after me, if ever I were able to deceive a nation which
+loves me and places its trust in me. I should leave it now without so
+much as trying to defend it--never in the world, while I live!"
+
+On a journey, which the prince made north to Throndhjem, he found
+that the people all wished to defend the independence of Norway, and
+on the 16th and 17th of February he held a conference with notables
+at Eidsvold in order to discuss the needs of the hour. It was at
+first the idea of the prince that, since the king had relinquished
+the throne, he, as the legal heir, might ascend the throne of Norway
+as absolute monarch; but the members of the meeting at Eidsvold,
+especially Professor George Sverdrup, convinced him that, as King
+Frederick, contrary to law, had relinquished Norway, the sovereignty
+had now reverted to the Norwegian people, who thus recovered their
+natural right to adopt their own constitution and choose their
+executive. According to his diary the prince said at the meeting:
+"I have heard with great pleasure a speech made to me at a private
+audience by Professor Sverdrup, in which he conjured me not to place
+the crown on my head in a manner which was contrary to the views of the
+most enlightened men of the nation. The rights which Frederick VI. has
+relinquished revert to the people, and it is from their hands that you
+must receive a crown which will be far more glorious when you owe it to
+the love of the people." The result was that Christian Frederick took
+temporary charge of the government as regent, and issued a call for a
+constitutional convention or diet, consisting of representatives of the
+people from all parts of the country.
+
+In all his efforts, by the aid of the great Powers and by force of arms
+against Denmark, to secure Norway for the king of Sweden, Charles John
+had never taken the will or desire of the Norwegians themselves into
+consideration. While Count Wedel, who considered a union with Sweden
+desirable or necessary, had emphatically declared that Norway would
+never consent to a union attempted by force, Crown Prince Charles John
+said that a people which for centuries had tolerated the supremacy of
+a foreign power without a murmur would not seriously resist a change
+of masters. The Swedish king issued a proclamation to the Norwegians,
+in which he promised to give them a constitution, and he appointed a
+viceroy for Norway; but his offers were rejected. The Swedish army
+being occupied in Germany, with the war against Napoleon, there was
+no force available with which to enforce the Swedish demands, and
+this gave the Norwegians time to arrange their own affairs; but there
+was considerable suffering in the country, because the British, upon
+learning that the Norwegians would not accept the treaty of Kiel, sent
+their fleet to prevent the importation of grain to Norway.
+
+The diet, which met at Eidsvold, April 10, 1814, consisted of one
+hundred and twelve representatives. There were thirty-three army
+officers, fourteen clergymen, twenty-six other officials, twenty-three
+farmers, twelve merchants, and four mine-owners and landed proprietors.
+There were two parties in the convention. The most numerous one was the
+so-called "party of independence," whose principal leaders were Judge
+Christian Magnus Falsen, Professor George Sverdrup, Judge Christie,
+and Captain Motzfeldt. The other party, which numbered about thirty
+members, favored a union with Sweden, and was called the Swedish party,
+although hardly any of them advocated their policy from any love for
+the Swedes, but rather from what they considered a necessity, believing
+that Norway would not, under the circumstances, be able single-handed
+to maintain her independence. The prominent men of this party were
+Count Wedel-Jarlsberg, Chamberlain Peter Anker, Mine-owner Jacob Aall,
+_Amtmand_ (prefect) Lövenskiold, and the Reverend Nicolai Wergeland.
+But all members agreed in the demand that Norway must henceforth
+have a liberal constitution. The following were agreed upon as the
+fundamental principles of the constitution:
+
+1. Norway shall be a limited, hereditary monarchy; it shall be a free,
+independent and indivisible kingdom, and the ruler shall have the title
+of king.
+
+2. The people shall exercise the legislative power through their
+representatives.
+
+3. The people shall alone have the right to levy taxes through their
+representatives.
+
+4. The right to declare war and to make peace rests with the king.
+
+5. The king shall have the right of pardon.
+
+6. The judicial power shall be separate from the legislative and
+executive power.
+
+7. There shall be liberty of the press.
+
+8. The evangelical Lutheran religion shall remain the religion of the
+state and of the king.
+
+9. Personal or mixed hereditary privileges shall not be granted to
+anybody in the future.
+
+10. All citizens, irrespective of station, birth, or property, shall be
+required to render military service for a certain length of time.
+
+Upon the basis of these principles the constitution was drawn and
+finally adopted on the 17th day of May, 1814. On the same day Christian
+Frederick was elected king of Norway. He accepted the election and
+solemnly made oath to the constitution, May 19, whereupon the members
+of the diet swore allegiance to the constitution and to the new king.
+They held their last meeting on May 20, in order to sign the record of
+the proceedings. That done, they formed a circular chain, each person
+giving his right hand to his neighbor on the left, and his left hand to
+his neighbor on the right, and standing thus, hand in hand, they all
+exclaimed in chorus: "United and true, until Dovre (mountain) falls!"
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER LVI
+
+_War With Sweden--Union of November 4, 1814_
+
+
+After the final defeat of Napoleon, the allied powers, Russia, Prussia,
+Austria, and England, granted the request of Charles John and promised
+to urge Norway to accept the supremacy of Sweden. The special envoys
+of the powers arrived in Christiania, June 30, 1814, bringing with
+them, besides their instructions from their respective governments, a
+letter from the Danish king to Christian Frederick, in which the latter
+was again commanded, under pain of being disinherited and otherwise
+punished, to abdicate and return to Denmark. The day after their
+arrival the commissioners had an audience with King Christian Frederick
+and acquainted him with the intention of the powers to demand the
+acceptance of the provisions in the treaty of Kiel. The king declared
+himself willing to convene the Storthing (Parliament) in extra session,
+in order to open negotiations for a peaceable union, if, in the
+meantime, the powers would guarantee an armistice and allow the free
+importation of breadstuffs; but when the commissioners demanded that
+the Norwegians should surrender to the mercy of the Swedish king, and
+allow the forts to be occupied by Swedish soldiers, the king declined
+to accept their propositions, and war commenced. The Norwegian army,
+which stood along the frontier, was poorly equipped and ill-provided
+with clothing and provisions. The king himself was no great soldier,
+and the information that all the foreign powers were against Norway
+had considerably lessened his courage. The Swedish fleet, under the
+personal command of Charles XIII., took up a position outside of
+Fredericksstad, which was insufficiently defended and was compelled
+to surrender, August 4. About the same time, the main Swedish army,
+under Charles John, crossed the frontier south of Frederickshald. One
+division of it laid siege to the fortress of Frederickssteen, which
+was bravely defended by General Ohme. The Norwegian army was eager
+for a general action; but the king, who thought this would be unwise,
+ordered a retreat across the Glommen River. North in Soloer, where
+Lieutenant-Colonel Krebs had the command, the Norwegian forces were
+much more successful. A Swedish force, under General Gahn, crossed the
+frontier and marched in the direction of Kongsvinger, but was defeated
+by the Norwegians at Lier, August 2. The Norwegians, under Col. Krebs,
+afterward attacked the Swedes at Matrand and drove them back across the
+frontier, August 5. The battle at Matrand was the most bloody encounter
+during this war. General Gahn's loss, in killed, wounded, or captured,
+was sixteen officers, seven non-commissioned officers and three hundred
+and twelve men. The Norwegian loss, in killed, wounded or captured,
+was five officers, four non-commissioned officers and one hundred and
+thirty men. The number of dead was about equal on both sides, about
+fifty men; of the wounded there was sixty-four on the Norwegian, and
+one hundred and twenty-six on the Swedish side.
+
+On August 5, Charles John took steps to communicate with the
+Norwegians with a view to the arrangement of an armistice, offering
+to recognize the Norwegian Constitution of May 17, if Norway would
+agree to a union with Sweden. The result at these negotiations was the
+Convention signed at Moss, August 14, by which Christian Frederick
+promised to call an extra session at the Storthing to negotiate with
+the Swedish king through commissioners appointed by him; he also
+solemnly agreed to surrender the executive power intrusted to him into
+the hands of the nation; in the meantime the country east of the river
+Glommen and the fortress of Frederickssteen were to be occupied by
+Swedish troops. According to a secret agreement Christian Frederick
+was, under some pretext, to immediately transfer the executive power
+to the ministers, who were to conduct the necessary functions of the
+government until the Storthing had definitely decided upon the future
+form of government. This ended the war, which had not been a very
+bloody one. The loss, in killed, wounded, and captured, was about equal
+on both sides; namely, about four hundred dead and wounded and three
+hundred prisoners.
+
+On the 16th day of August Christian Frederick issued a proclamation
+ordering elections to an extraordinary Storthing to be opened at
+Christiania, October 7, and on August 19 he ordered the cabinet to
+take charge of the executive power, signing all executive acts "by
+high command." The Storthing met at the time designated, the number of
+representatives being eighty, of whom about twenty had been members of
+the diet at Eidsvold. The Storthing was solemnly opened by the oldest
+minister in the name of King Christian Frederick. Two days later a
+committee of the Storthing, at the request of the king, had an audience
+with him at his residence on Bygdö, when he surrendered the Norwegian
+crown into the hands of the people, and for himself and his descendants
+relinquished all rights to the country. On the same day he went on
+board a ship and sailed from Norway.[14] The Storthing now, under the
+presidency of Judge Christie, began negotiations with the commissioners
+of the Swedish king, and on the 20th day of October it was decided,
+by seventy-two votes in the affirmative to five in the negative, that
+Norway as an independent state, upon certain conditions, was to be
+united with Sweden under the same king. The changes in the Constitution
+made necessary by reason of the union with Sweden were then made and
+finally ratified, November 4, 1814, and, on the same day, Charles XIII.
+was unanimously elected king of Norway.
+
+[14] During the next twenty-five years Christian Frederick led an
+unnoticed life in Denmark and was soon forgotten by the Norwegian
+people. In 1839 he ascended the Danish throne as Christian VIII. He
+died in 1848.
+
+A committee of the Storthing, headed by Count Wedel-Jarlsberg, was sent
+to Crown Prince Charles John at Frederickshald, to inform him of the
+action of the Storthing; whereupon Charles John and his son, Prince
+Oscar, proceeded to Christiania and delivered to the Storthing the
+king's written oath to the Constitution. As soon as the report of the
+action of the Norwegian Storthing had reached Stockholm, the Swedish
+Minister of Foreign Affairs, Lars von Engeström, despatched a circular
+to each of the Swedish representatives at the foreign courts, informing
+them of the union of Norway and Sweden. In this circular the minister
+said:
+
+"The Norwegian Storthing having, of its own accord and by a free
+election, chosen his Swedish majesty as king of Norway, it is plain
+that it is not to the provisions of the treaty of Kiel, but to the
+confidence of the Norwegian people, that we owe the Union of Norway
+with Sweden."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER LVII
+
+_The Union With Sweden_
+
+
+The first Storthing (Parliament), after the union had been
+accomplished, remained in session a year, and together with the Swedish
+Diet adopted the "Act of Union," or Rigsakt (1815), based upon the
+Norwegian Constitution and defining the terms of the union. At the
+same time the Supreme Court of Norway was established in Christiania.
+The Bank of Norway was established at Throndhjem in 1816. At the death
+of Charles XIII., in 1818, Charles John ascended the throne of both
+countries as Charles XIV. John.
+
+On several occasions there was friction between the king and the
+Norwegian Storthing. At the treaty of Kiel, Charles John had promised
+that Norway would assume a part of the Norwegian-Danish public debt;
+but as the Norwegians had never acknowledged this treaty, they held
+that it was not their duty to pay any part of the debt, and declared
+besides that Norway was not able to do so. But as the powers had agreed
+to help Denmark to enforce her claims, a compromise was effected in
+1821, by which the Storthing agreed to pay three million dollars, the
+king relinquishing his civil list for a certain number of years. The
+same Storthing adopted the law abolishing the nobility in Norway. This
+step was also strongly opposed by Charles John, but as it had been
+adopted by three successive Storthings, the act under the Constitution
+became a law in spite of any veto. It was believed by many that the
+manoeuvres of Norwegian and Swedish troops and the Swedish fleet,
+which was collected at Christiania at the time that these matters were
+under consideration, had been called together by the king in order to
+intimidate the Storthing.
+
+For a number of years there existed a want of confidence between the
+king and the Norwegian people. The king did not like the democratic
+spirit of the Norwegians, and the reactionary tendencies of his
+European allies had quite an influence upon his actions. In 1821 he
+proposed ten amendments to the Constitution, looking to an increase
+of the royal power, among which was one giving the king an absolute
+instead of a suspensive veto; another giving him the right to appoint
+the presidents of the Storthing, and a third authorizing him to
+dissolve the Storthing at any time. But these amendments met the
+most ardent opposition in the Storthing, especially from the former
+cabinet-minister, Christian Krogh, and were unanimously rejected by the
+Storthing in 1824. The king renewed these propositions before several
+successive Storthings, but they were each time rejected.
+
+When the Norwegians commenced to celebrate the anniversary of the
+adoption of the Constitution (May 17), the king thought he saw in this
+a sign of a disloyal spirit, because they did not rather celebrate the
+union with Sweden, and he forbade the public celebration of the day.
+The result of this was that "Independence Day" was celebrated with so
+much greater eagerness. The students at the university especially took
+an active part under the leadership of that champion of liberty, the
+poet Henrik Wergeland (born 1808, died 1845). The unwise prohibition
+was the cause of the "market-place battle" in Christiania, May 17,
+1829, when the troops were called out, and General Wedel dispersed
+the crowds that had assembled in the market-place. There was also
+dissatisfaction in Norway, because a Swedish viceroy (Statholder) was
+placed at the head of the government, and because their ships had to
+sail under the Swedish flag.
+
+The French July Revolution of 1830, which started the liberal movement
+throughout Europe, also had its influence in Norway. Liberal newspapers
+were established at the capital, and the democratic character of the
+Storthing became more pronounced, especially after 1833, when the
+farmers commenced to take an active part in the elections. Prominent
+among them was Ole Gabriel Ueland. The king was so displeased with
+the majority in the Storthing of 1836 that he suddenly dissolved it;
+but the Storthing answered this action by impeaching the Minister of
+State, Lövenskiold, for not having dissuaded the king from taking such
+a step. Lövenskiold was sentenced to pay a fine. The king then yielded
+and reconvened the Storthing. He also took a step toward conciliating
+the Norwegians by appointing their countryman, Count Wedel-Jarlsberg,
+as viceroy. This action was much appreciated in Norway. During the last
+years of this reign there existed the best of understanding between
+the king and the people. Charles John's great benevolence tended to
+increase the affection of the people, and he was sincerely mourned at
+his death, March 8, 1844, Charles XIV. John being then eighty years old.
+
+Charles John was succeeded by his son, Oscar I., who very soon won
+the love of the Norwegians. One of his first acts was to give Norway
+her own commercial flag and other outward signs of her equality
+with Sweden. His father had always signed himself "King of Sweden
+and Norway"; but King Oscar adopted the rule to sign all documents
+pertaining to the government of Norway as "King of Norway and Sweden."
+During the war between Germany and Denmark, King Oscar gathered a
+Swedish-Norwegian army in Scania, and he succeeded in arranging the
+armistice of Malmoe in 1848. The war broke out anew, however, the
+following year, and he then occupied northern Schleswig with Norwegian
+and Swedish troops, pending the negotiations for peace between Germany
+and Denmark. During the Crimean War, King Oscar made a treaty with
+England and France (1855), by which the latter powers promised to
+help Sweden and Norway in case of any attack from Russia. General
+contentment prevailed during the happy reign of King Oscar, and the
+prosperity, commerce and population of the country increased steadily.
+These satisfactory conditions did not, however, result in any weakening
+of the national feeling, and the Storthing, in 1857, declined to
+promote a plan, prepared by a joint Swedish and Norwegian commission,
+looking to a strengthening of the union. After a sickness of two years,
+during which his eldest son, Crown Prince Charles, had charge of the
+government as prince-regent, King Oscar I. died in July, 1859, at
+the age of sixty years. He was married to Josephine of Leuchtenberg,
+daughter of Napoleon's stepson, Engene Beauharnais.
+
+Charles XV. was thirty-three years old when he ascended the throne. The
+progress in the material welfare of the country was continued during
+his reign, and, like his father, he was very popular. Numerous roads
+and railways were started, all parts of the country were connected by
+telegraph, and the merchant marine grew to be one of the largest in the
+world. In 1869 a law was passed providing for annual sessions of the
+Storthing instead of triennial as heretofore.
+
+The first Storthing under Charles XV., with only two negative votes,
+resolved to abolish the right of the king to appoint a viceroy
+(Statholder) for Norway. This action of the Storthing enraged the
+ruling party in the Swedish Diet, who claimed a right to be consulted
+in this matter, in which they considered that Sweden had an interest,
+and they demanded a revision of the terms of the union. A serious
+conflict was avoided for the time being, the king vetoing the
+resolution of the Storthing. Not till 1865 were negotiations opened for
+a revision. A joint committee was appointed to prepare a plan; but the
+question was not solved, for the Storthing, in 1870, rejected the plan
+proposed by the committee.
+
+Charles XV. died September 18, 1872, and, having no sons, was succeeded
+by his younger brother, Oscar II. The king and the Storthing at first
+showed themselves mutually accommodating. The Storthing appropriated
+the necessary funds for the expense of the coronation at Throndhjem
+(July 18, 1873), while the king sanctioned the bill abolishing the
+office of Statholder. But in 1880 the difference between the Storthing
+and the ministry had brought on a sharp conflict. The liberal majority
+of the Storthing, in order to introduce parliamentarism, had three
+times adopted an amendment to the Constitution admitting the cabinet
+ministers to participation in the debates of the Storthing, and each
+time the measure had been vetoed by the king. The king, supported by
+the conservative party and by the opinion of the faculty of law of
+the university, claimed that the Constitution was a contract between
+the people and the royal house, and could not, therefore, be changed
+without the sanction of the king, who thus had an absolute veto in the
+matter of amendments to the Constitution. The liberal party claimed
+that in constitutional amendments, as well as in the matter of ordinary
+laws, the king had only a suspensive veto; and on the 9th of June,
+1880, the Storthing adopted a resolution declaring that the amendment
+providing for the attendance of the cabinet ministers at the meetings
+of the Storthing was law in spite of the veto. The conflict steadily
+grew sharper, and in 1883 the members of the ministry (headed by
+Minister of State Selmer) were impeached for failure to promulgate
+the resolution of June 9, 1880. The ministers were found guilty and
+removed from office in the spring of 1884. The king once more tried a
+ministry which was not in accord with the majority of the Storthing,
+the so-called April Ministry, headed by Schweigaard; but the latter
+soon resigned, and in June, 1884, the king finally called upon Johan
+Sverdrup, the acknowledged leader of the liberal majority (the Left),
+to form a ministry.
+
+The king now signed the constitutional amendment, and Sverdrup and
+his colleagues took their seats in the Storthing. For a time the
+legislative and the executive power worked in harmony, and several
+liberal reforms were introduced. A reorganization of the army in
+accordance with the views of the majority was brought about, the
+suffrage was extended, and trial by jury was introduced. In 1887,
+however, when the government introduced a bill for a new church-law, a
+division in the party of the left had taken place, and Sverdrup found
+himself without a majority in the Storthing. He retained office
+until after the elections of 1888, which resulted in three legislative
+parties, the "Left," the "Moderate," and the Conservative, or "Right."
+Neither of them had a majority in the Storthing. Sverdrup resigned
+(July, 1889), and the Conservative leader, Emil Stang, formed a new
+ministry. At the elections in 1891, the "pure left," having made a
+separate consular service independent of Sweden the main issue of the
+campaign, again obtained a majority, and their leader, Rector Steen,
+became the chief of the new ministry. The principal occasion of this
+movement was the rapid increase in Norwegian commercial interests,
+which, as was claimed, were imperfectly protected by a joint consular
+service.
+
+The Steen Ministry resigned in May, 1893, and a ministry from the
+minority was formed by Stang. On June 7, 1895, the Storthing adopted a
+resolution declaring that, with a ministry possessing the confidence
+of the Storthing, it would be willing to negotiate with Sweden for a
+peaceable settlement of the matters in dispute. A coalition ministry,
+consisting of members from each of the three political groups and
+headed by Hagerup, was appointed in October, 1895, and a joint Swedish
+and Norwegian Union Committee was chosen to adjust disputed points.
+This committee, having failed to reach any agreement, was discharged in
+1897.
+
+At the elections of 1897 the left obtained an increased majority in
+the Storthing, and, in February, 1898, the Hagerup Ministry resigned,
+and Steen was again placed at the head of a ministry. The Storthing of
+1898-99 adopted a constitutional amendment extending the suffrage to
+all male citizens who have attained the age of twenty-five years. A
+bill was also passed, for the third time, removing from the Norwegian
+merchant flag the "union jack," the symbol of the union with Sweden.
+This bill was twice vetoed by the king; but, after its third passage,
+was promulgated, having been passed, according to the Constitution,
+over the royal veto.
+
+The secession movement was largely in abeyance during the years
+1900-1902, owing to the popular fear of a Russian invasion. However,
+in 1903, the anti-union sentiment again came strongly to the front,
+reaching an acute stage in March, 1905, when a new cabinet, headed
+by Peter Christian Michelson, was formed. A bill demanding separate
+consular service was again passed by the Storthing, only to be vetoed
+by the Swedish crown. Compromise measures were proposed and rejected.
+In June the cabinet offered its resignation, which was refused by the
+King on the ground that a new ministry could not be formed in the
+existing state of feeling in Norway. The cabinet, thereupon, delegated
+its powers to the Storthing, which immediately passed a resolution
+declaring the dissolution of union between Sweden and Norway on the
+ground of the King's inability to conduct the government and his
+constructive relinquishment of authority. At the same time a letter
+was addressed to the King of Sweden expressing Norway's desire for
+the continuation of peaceful relations, and asking that a prince of
+the royal house of Sweden be designated as King of Norway. The latter
+request was refused, but other matters were adjusted by a joint
+commission.
+
+The crown was finally offered to Charles, Crown Prince of Denmark, and
+son-in-law of King Edward of England, who was elected by a popular
+majority of 259,563 against 69,264, and assumed the throne November
+20th under the name Haakon VII.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER LVIII
+
+_Norwegian Literature_
+
+
+The people who emigrated from Norway and settled in Iceland, after
+Harald the Fairhaired had subdued the many independent chiefs and
+established the monarchy (872), for the most part belonged to the
+flower of the nation, and Iceland naturally became the home of the old
+Norse literature. Among the oldest poetical works of this literature
+is the so-called "Elder Edda," also called Sæmund's Edda, because for
+a long time it was believed to be the work of the Icelander Sæmund.
+"The Younger Edda," also called Snorre's Edda, because it is supposed
+to have been written by Snorre Sturlason (born 1178, died 1241),
+contains a synopsis of the old Norse religion and a treatise on the art
+of poetry. Fully as important as the numerous poetical works of that
+period was the old Norse Saga-literature.[15] The most prominent work in
+this field is Snorre Sturlason's "Heimskringla," which gives the sagas
+of the kings of Norway from the beginning down to 1177. A continuation
+of the "Heimskringla," to which several authors have contributed, among
+them Snorre Sturlason's relative, Sturla Thordson, contains the history
+of the later kings down to Magnus Law-Mender.
+
+[15] The word saga means a historical tale.
+
+The literary development above referred to ceased almost entirely
+toward the end of the fourteenth century, and later, during the union
+with Denmark, the Danish language gradually took the place of the old
+Norse as a book-language, and the literature became essentially Danish.
+Copenhagen, with its court and its university, was the literary and
+educational centre, where the young men of Norway went to study, and
+authors born in Norway became, to all intents and purposes, Danish
+writers. But Norway furnished some valuable contributors to this common
+literature. One of the very first names on the records of the Danish
+literature, Peder Claussön (1545-1614), is that of a Norwegian, and
+the list further includes such illustrious names as Holberg, Tullin,
+Wessel, Steffens, etc.
+
+One of the most original writers whom Norway produced and kept at
+home during the period of the union with Denmark was the preacher and
+poet, Peder Dass (1647-1708). The best known among his secular songs
+is "Nordlands Trompet," a beautiful and patriotic description of the
+northern part of Norway.
+
+Ludvig Holberg was born in Bergen, Norway, December 3, 1684. His
+father, Colonel Holberg, had risen from the ranks and distinguished
+himself, in 1660, at Halden. Shortly after his death the property of
+the family was destroyed by fire, and at the age of ten years Ludvig
+lost his mother. It was now decided to have him educated for the
+military service; but he showed a great dislike for military life, and,
+at his earnest request, was sent to the Bergen Latin School. In 1702
+he entered the University of Copenhagen. Being destitute of means,
+he took a position as private tutor. As soon as he had saved a small
+sum he went abroad. He was first in Holland, and afterward studied
+for a couple of years at Oxford, where he supported himself by giving
+instruction in languages and music. Upon his return to Copenhagen he
+again took a position as private tutor and had an opportunity to travel
+as teacher for a young nobleman. In 1714 he received a stipend from the
+king, which enabled him to go abroad for several years, which he spent
+principally in France and Italy. In 1718 he became a regular professor
+at the Copenhagen University. Among Holberg's many works the following
+are the most prominent: "Peder Paars," a great comical heroic poem,
+containing sharp attacks on many of the follies of his time; about
+thirty comedies in Molière's style, and a large number of historical
+works. Holberg, who was ennobled in 1747, died in January 29, 1754, and
+was buried in Sorö Church. His influence on the literature and on the
+whole intellectual life of Denmark was very great. He is often called
+the creator of the Danish literature.
+
+Christian Baumann Tullin (1728-1765), a genuine poetical genius,
+who has been called the Father of Danish lyrical verse, was born in
+Christiania, and his poetry, which was mainly written in his native
+city, breathes a national spirit. From his day, for about thirty
+years, Denmark obtained the majority of her poets from Norway. The
+manager of the Danish national theatre, in 1771, was a Norwegian, Niels
+Krog-Bredal (1733-1778), who was the first to write lyrical dramas in
+Danish. A Norwegian, Johan Nordal Brun (1745-1816), a gifted poet,
+wrote tragedy in the conventional French taste of the day. It was a
+Norwegian, Johan Herman Wessel (1742-1785), who, by his great parody,
+"Kjærlighed uden Strömper" (Love without Stockings), laughed this
+taste out of fashion. Among the writers of this period are also Claus
+Frimann (1746-1829), Peter Harboe Frimann (1752-1839), Claus Fasting
+(1746-1791), Johan Wibe (1748-1782), Edward Storm (1749-1794), C. H.
+Pram (1756-1821), Jonas Rein (1760-1821), and Jens Zetlitz (1761-1821),
+all of them Norwegians by birth.
+
+Two notable events led to the foundation of an independent Norwegian
+literature: the one was the establishment of a Norwegian university at
+Christiania in 1811, and the other was the separation of Norway from
+Denmark in 1814. At first the independent Norwegian literature appeared
+as immature as the conditions surrounding it. The majority of the
+writers had received their education in Copenhagen, and were inclined
+to follow in the beaten track of the old literature, although trying to
+introduce a more national spirit. All were greatly influenced by the
+political feeling of the hour. There was a period when all poetry had
+for its subject the beauties and strength of Norway and its people, and
+"The Rocks of Norway," "The Lion of Norway," etc., sounded everywhere.
+Three poets, called the Trefoil, were the prominent writers of this
+period. Of these, Conrad Nicolai Schwach (1793-1860) was the least
+remarkable. Henrik A. Bjerregaard (1792-1842) was the author of "The
+Crowned National Song," and of a lyric drama, "Fjeldeventyret" (The
+Adventure in the Mountains). The third member of the Trefoil, Mauritz
+Chr. Hansen (1794-1842), wrote a large number of novels and national
+stories, which were quite popular in their time. His poems were among
+the earliest publications of independent Norway.
+
+The time about the year 1830 is reckoned as the beginning of the new
+Norwegian literature, and Henrik Wergeland is called its creator.
+Henrik Arnold Wergeland was born in 1808. His father, Nicolai
+Wergeland, a clergyman, was a member of the Constitutional Convention
+at Eidsvold. Henrik studied theology, but did not care to become
+a clergyman. In 1827, and the following years, he wrote a number
+of satirical farces under the signature "Siful Sifadda." In 1830
+appeared his lyric dramatic poem, "Skabelsen, Mennesket og Messias"
+(The Creation, Man and Messiah), a voluminous piece of work, in which
+he attempted to explain the historical life of the human race. As
+a political writer he was editorial assistant on the "Folkebladet"
+(1831-1833), and edited the opposition paper "Statsborgeren"
+(1835-1837). He worked with great zeal for the education of the
+laboring class, and from 1839 until his death edited a paper in the
+interest of the laborer. The prominent features of his earliest
+efforts in literature are an unbounded enthusiasm and a complete
+disregard of the laws of poetry. At an early age he had become a power
+in literature, and a political power as well. From 1831 to 1835 he
+was subjected to severe satirical attacks by the author Welhaven and
+others, and later his style became improved in every respect. His
+popularity however decreased as his poetry improved, and in 1840 he had
+become a great poet but had no political influence. Among his works may
+be named "Hasselnödder," "Jöden" (The Jew), "Jödinden" (The Jewess),
+"Jan van Huysums Blomsterstykke" (Jan van Huysum's Flower-piece),
+"Den engelske Lods" (The English Pilot), and a great number of lyric
+poems. The poems of his last five years are as popular to-day as ever.
+Wergeland died in 1845.
+
+The enthusiastic nationalism of Henrik Wergeland and his young
+following brought on a conflict with the conservative element, which
+was not ready to accept everything as good simply because it was
+Norwegian. This conservative element maintained that art and culture
+must be developed on the basis of the old association with Denmark,
+which had connected Norway with the great movement of civilization
+throughout Europe. As the poetical leader of this "Intelligence" party,
+as it was called, appeared J. S. Welhaven.
+
+Johan Sebastian Cammermeyer Welhaven was born in Bergen in 1807,
+entered the university in 1825, became a "Lector" in 1840, and
+afterward Professor of Philosophy. "His refined æsthetic nature," says
+Fr. Winkel Horn, "had been early developed, and when the war broke out
+between him and Wergeland he had reached a high point of intellectual
+culture, and thus was in every way a match for his opponent. The
+fight was inaugurated by a preliminary literary skirmish, which was,
+at the outset, limited to the university students; but it gradually
+assumed an increasingly bitter character, both parties growing more
+and more exasperated. Welhaven published a pamphlet, 'Om Henrik
+Wergelands Digtekunst og Poesie,' in which he mercilessly exposed the
+weak sides of his adversary's poetry. Thereby the minds became still
+more excited. The 'Intelligence' party withdrew from the students'
+union, founded a paper of their own, and thus the movement began to
+assume wider dimensions. In 1834 appeared Welhaven's celebrated poem
+'Norges Dæmring,' a series of sonnets, distinguished for their beauty
+of style. In them the poet scourges, without mercy, the one-sided,
+narrow-minded patriotism of his time, and exposes, in striking and
+unmistakable words, the hollowness and shortcomings of the Wergeland
+party. Welhaven points out, with emphasis, that he is not only going
+to espouse the cause of good taste, which his adversary has outraged,
+but that he is also about to discuss problems of general interest. He
+urges that a Norwegian culture and literature cannot be created out of
+nothing; that to promote their development it is absolutely necessary
+to continue the associations which have hitherto been common to both
+Norway and Denmark, and thus to keep in _rapport_ with the general
+literature of Europe. When a solid foundation has in this manner been
+laid, the necessary materials for a literature would surely not be
+wanting, for they are found in abundance, both in the antiquities and
+in the popular life of Norway." Welhaven continued his effective work
+as a poet and a critic. Through a series of lyrical and romantic poems,
+rich in contents and highly finished in style, he developed a poetical
+life, which had an important influence in the young Norwegian literary
+circles. He died in 1873.
+
+Andreas Munch (1811-1884), an able and industrious poetical writer,
+took no part in the controversy between Wergeland and Welhaven, but
+followed his Danish models independently of either. His "Poems, Old and
+New," published in 1848, were quite popular. His best work is probably
+"Kongedatterens Brudefart" (The Bridal Tour of the King's Daughter),
+1861.
+
+In the period of about a dozen years following the death of Wergeland,
+the life, manners and characteristics of the Norwegian people were
+given the especial attention of the literary writers. Prominent in this
+period was Peter Christian Asbjörnsen (1812-1885), who, partly alone
+and partly in conjunction with Bishop Jörgen Moe (1813-1882), published
+some valuable collections of Norwegian folk tales and fairy tales.
+Moe also published three little volumes of graceful and attractive
+poems. Among other writers of this period may be named Hans H. Schultze
+("Fra Lofoten og Solör"), N. Östgaard ("En Fjeldbygd"), Harald Meltser
+("Smaabilleder af Folkelivet"), M. B. Landstad (hymns), and the
+linguist Sophus Bugge.
+
+The efforts to bring out the national life and characteristics of the
+people in the literature also led to an attempt to nationalize the
+language in which the literature was written. The movement was the
+so-called "Maalstræv," and had in view the introduction of a "pure
+Norwegian" book-language, based upon the peasant dialects. The most
+prominent supporter of this movement was Ivar Aasen (1813-1898),
+the author of an excellent dictionary of the Norwegian language. A
+prominent poetical representative of this school was Aasmund Olafson
+Vinje (1818-1870), while Kristofer Janson (born 1841) has also written
+a number of stories and poems in the _Landsmaal_ (country tongue).
+
+A new and grand period in the Norwegian literature commenced about
+1857, and the two most conspicuous names in this period--and in the
+whole Norwegian literature--are those of Henrik Ibsen and Björnstjerne
+Björnson.
+
+Henrik Ibsen was born in Skien in 1828. He has written many beautiful
+poems; but his special field is the drama, where he is a master. His
+first works were nearly all historical romantic dramas. His first
+work, "Catilina," printed in 1850, was scarcely noticed until years
+afterward, when he had become famous. In 1856 appeared the romantic
+drama, "Gildet paa Solhaug" (The Feast at Solhaug), followed by
+"Fru Inger til Oestraat," 1857, and "Hærmændene paa Helgeland" (The
+Warriors on Helgeland), 1858. In 1863 he wrote the historical tragedy
+"Kongsemnerne" (The Pretenders), in which the author showed his great
+literary power. Before this play was published, he had been drawn into
+a new channel. In 1862 he began a series of satirical and philosophical
+dramas with "Kjærlighedens Komedie" (Love's Comedy), which was
+succeeded by two masterpieces of a similar kind, "Brand," in 1866, and
+"Peer Gynt," in 1867. These works were written in verse; but in "De
+Unges Forbund" (The Young Men's League), 1869, a political satire, he
+abandoned verse, and all his subsequent dramas have been written in
+prose. In 1873 came "Keiser og Galilæer" (Emperor and Galilean). Since
+then he has published a number of social dramas which have attracted
+world-wide attention. We mention: "Samfundets Stötter" (The Pillars
+of Society), "Et Dukkehjem" (A Doll's House), "Gengangere" (Ghosts),
+"En Folkefiende" (An Enemy of the People), "Rosmerholm," "Fruen fra
+Havet" (The Lady from the Sea), "Little Eyolf," "Bymester Solnes"
+(Masterbuilder Solnes), "John Gabriel Borkman."
+
+Björnstjerne Björnson (born in Österdalen in 1832) is the more popular
+of the two giants in the Norwegian literature of to-day. His works are
+more national in tone. It has been said that to mention his name is to
+raise the Norwegian flag. His first successes were made in the field of
+the novel, and the first two, "Synnöve Solbakken" (1857), and "Arne"
+(1858), made his name famous. These, and his other peasant stories,
+will always retain their popularity. He soon, however, entered the
+dramatic field, and has since published a great number of dramas and
+novels. "Halte Hulda," 1858; "Mellem Slagene," 1859; "Kong Sverre,"
+1861; "Sigurd Slembe," 1862; "Maria Stuart," 1863; "De Nygifte" (The
+Newly-married Couple), 1865; "Kongen," 1877; "Leonarda," 1879; "Det ny
+System," 1879; "Over Ærne," 1883; "En Fallit," "Det flager," etc., and
+many others.
+
+In the field of belles-lettres there is, at the present time, a number
+of other talented authors. Jonas Lie (born 1833) has produced a number
+of excellent novels. Then there are Alexander Kielland (born 1849),
+Magdalene Thoresen (born 1819), Arne Garborg, Gunnar Heiberg, and a
+number of young authors.
+
+In the field of science, also, modern Norway has a rich literature
+with many prominent names, such as the historians Peter Andreas Munch
+(1810-1863), Rudolph Keyser (1803-1864), Johan Ernst Sars (born 1835),
+and O. A. Överland.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER LIX
+
+_The Constitution of Norway_
+
+
+The following is the Constitution adopted at the Convention at Eidsvold
+on the 17th day of May, 1814, and amended and ratified by the Storthing
+on the 4th day of November, 1814, with all the subsequent amendments
+incorporated:
+
+
+A. RELIGION AND FORM OF GOVERNMENT:
+
+Article 1. The Kingdom of Norway is a free, independent, indivisible
+and inalienable state, united with Sweden under one king. Its form of
+government is a limited, hereditary monarchy.
+
+Article 2. The Evangelical Lutheran religion shall continue the
+established religion of the state. Such inhabitants as profess the same
+shall educate their children therein. Jesuits shall be excluded.
+
+
+B. THE EXECUTIVE POWER, THE KING, AND THE ROYAL FAMILY:
+
+Article 3. The executive power shall be vested in the King.
+
+Article 4. The King shall constantly profess, maintain and defend the
+Evangelical Lutheran religion.
+
+Article 5. The King's person is sacred; he shall neither be censured
+nor impeached. His Ministry shall, however, be accountable.
+
+Article 6. The succession shall be lineal and agnatic as prescribed
+in the ordinance of succession of September 26, 1810, adopted by the
+Legislative Assembly of Sweden and accepted by the King, a translation
+of which is attached to this Constitution. A posthumous child shall
+be deemed in the line of succession, and shall take his appropriate
+place therein as soon as born. When a prince, who is heir to the United
+Crowns of Norway and Sweden, is born, his name and time of birth shall
+be reported to the next Storthing in session and entered in its journal.
+
+Article 7. If no Prince, heir to the Crowns, be living, the King may
+propose a successor to the Storthing of Norway, at the same time as to
+the Legislative Assembly of Sweden; and, as soon as the King has made
+his nomination, the legislative bodies of both nations shall appoint
+a committee from their midst, with power to choose a successor, in
+case the nominee of the King is not confirmed by a majority in each
+legislative body. The number of members of this Committee, which must
+be equal from each kingdom, and the manner in which the choice shall be
+made, shall be determined by a law, simultaneously proposed by the King
+to the next Storthing and to the Legislative Assembly of Sweden. One
+member shall withdraw, by lot, from the assembled committee.
+
+Article 8. The age of majority of the King shall be prescribed by a
+law, to be enacted pursuant to an agreement between the Storthing of
+Norway and the Legislative Assembly of Sweden, or, in case they cannot
+agree concerning the same, by a committee appointed by the legislative
+bodies of both kingdoms, conformable to the provisions of the
+preceding Article 7. The King shall publicly proclaim himself of age as
+soon as he has attained his majority.
+
+Article 9. As soon as the King, on coming of age, assumes the
+government, he shall take the following oath before the Storthing: "I
+promise and depose that I will govern the Kingdom of Norway conformable
+to its Constitution and laws, so help me God and His Holy Writ." If no
+Storthing is then in session, the oath shall be deposited in writing
+with the Ministry, and shall solemnly be renewed by the King at the
+next Storthing, either orally or in writing through his representative.
+
+Article 10. The King shall be crowned and anointed, when he is of age,
+in Throndhjem's Cathedral, at such time and with such ceremonies as he
+himself may prescribe.
+
+Article 11. The King shall reside in Norway a part of each year, if not
+prevented by serious obstacles.
+
+Article 12. The King shall appoint a Ministry of Norwegian citizens,
+who shall not be less than thirty years of age. The Ministry shall
+consist of two Ministers of State, and not less than seven Secretaries
+of State. The King shall apportion the public business among the
+members of the Ministry in such manner as he deems best. The King,
+or, in his absence, the Minister of State, in conjunction with the
+Secretaries of State, may, on extraordinary occasions, in addition to
+the regular members of the Ministry, summon other Norwegian citizens,
+not members of the Storthing, to a seat in the Ministry. Father and
+son, or two brothers, shall not have a seat in the Ministry at the same
+time.
+
+Article 13. The King shall commit, during his absence, the
+administration of the domestic affairs of the realm, in such cases as
+he may prescribe, to one of the Ministers of State, and not less than
+five of the Secretaries of State, who shall carry on the government
+in the name, and on behalf, of the King. They shall sacredly conform
+as well to the provisions of this Constitution as to the several
+instructions in harmony therewith, prescribed to them by the King.
+They shall present to the King a respectful application concerning the
+affairs they resolve upon. Their transactions shall be determined by
+vote, and in case of an equal division the Minister of State, or, in
+his absence, the senior Secretary of State, shall have two votes.
+
+Article 14. (Repealed.)
+
+Article 15. One of the Ministers of State, and two of the Secretaries
+of State, the latter to be changed yearly, shall constantly remain
+with the King while he resides in Sweden. They shall be subject to the
+same obligations and to the same constitutional accountability as the
+governing Ministry, named in Article 13, existing in Norway, and only
+in their presence shall Norwegian affairs be disposed of by the King.
+All applications from Norwegian citizens to the King shall first be
+presented to the governing Ministry in Norway, and supplemented with
+their opinion, before passed upon. As a rule, except where serious
+obstacles prevent, no Norwegian affairs shall be disposed of without
+obtaining the advice of the governing Ministry in Norway. The Minister
+of State shall move the consideration of public business, and shall be
+responsible for the due expedition of all resolutions taken.
+
+Article 16. The King shall prescribe rules for all public religious
+and church service, and for all meetings and conventions relating to
+religious affairs, and he shall take care that the public instructors
+of religion adhere to the standards prescribed them.
+
+Article 17. The King may enact and repeal ordinances relating to
+commerce, customs, industrial pursuits and public order, not, however,
+in conflict with the Constitution or the laws of the Storthing,
+passed pursuant to the provisions of Article 77, 78 and 79 of this
+Constitution. Such acts of the King shall remain provisionally in force
+until the next Storthing.
+
+Article 18. The King shall, ordinarily, cause the taxes and imposts,
+levied by the Storthing, to be collected. The Norwegian Treasury shall
+remain in Norway, and its revenue shall be devoted to the requirements
+of Norway alone.
+
+Article 19. The King shall take care that the estates and regalia
+of the State be used and managed in the manner prescribed by the
+Storthing, and for the greatest advantage of the public.
+
+Article 20. The King shall have power, in council, to pardon offenders
+after conviction. The offender shall, however, have the option to
+accept the pardon of the King or to suffer the punishment adjudged.
+No pardon or reprieve, except the remission of the death penalty,
+shall be granted in cases prosecuted by the Odelsthing in the Court of
+Impeachment.
+
+Article 21. The King, after hearing his Ministry in Norway, shall
+appoint and induct all civil, ecclesiastical and military officials,
+who shall take an oath of obedience and fealty to the Constitution and
+the King, or who, if relieved by law from such an oath, shall solemnly
+declare their fealty to the same. Royal Princes shall hold no civil
+office.
+
+Article 22. The King may, after taking the advice of the Ministry,
+without the warrant of judicial decree, remove from office the
+Ministers and Secretaries of State, together with officials in the
+bureaus of the Ministry, Ambassadors and Consuls, the chief civil and
+ecclesiastical officials, and the chiefs of fortifications and ships of
+war. Whether pensions shall be granted to officials thus removed shall
+be determined by the next Storthing, but, in the meantime, they shall
+continue to receive two-thirds of their former salary. Other officials
+are only liable to suspension by the King, and, when suspended, shall
+at once be proceeded against in the courts, and shall not, without
+judgment, be removed, nor transferred without their consent.
+
+Article 23. The King, at his pleasure, may confer orders of merit, in
+recognition of distinguished services, to be publicly announced, but
+no other rank or title than that conferred by an office occupied. Such
+orders shall relieve no one from the duties and burdens common to all
+citizens, nor shall they confer any preference in securing admission
+to the public service. Officials, honorably discharged, shall retain
+the title and rank of the office they occupied. No personal or mixed
+hereditary prerogatives shall hereafter be conferred on any one.
+
+Article 24. The King may, at pleasure, select and dismiss the employees
+and officers of his royal household.
+
+Article 25. The King shall be Commander-in-Chief of the land and naval
+forces of the realm. These forces shall neither be increased nor
+diminished without the consent of the Storthing. They shall not be
+placed in the service of foreign powers, nor shall the military forces
+of any foreign powers, except auxiliary troops to repel hostile attack,
+be brought within the realm without the consent of the Storthing.
+In times of peace, none but Norwegian troops shall be stationed in
+Norway, and no Norwegian troops shall be stationed in Sweden. The King,
+however, may retain in Sweden a Norwegian guard of volunteers, and he
+may, for a short time not exceeding six weeks in any year, assemble
+for manoeuvres, within the limits of either country, the nearest
+troops of the armies of both realms; but in no case, in times of peace,
+shall more than three thousand soldiers, of all arms combined, of the
+military force of one country, be brought within the limits of the
+other country. Norway's troops and coast flotilla shall not be employed
+in offensive war without the consent of the Storthing. The Norwegian
+fleet shall have its dock yards, and in times of peace its stations or
+havens in Norway. The ships of war of one country shall not be manned
+with sailors of the other country, except by voluntary enlistment. The
+home guard and the other Norwegian troops, not classed as troops of the
+line, shall never be employed outside of the boundaries of Norway.
+
+Article 26. The King shall have power to call out the troops, to
+commence war and make peace, to enter into treaties, and to abrogate
+the same, and to send and receive diplomatic representatives. When the
+King intends to commence war, he shall communicate his purpose to the
+governing Ministry in Norway, and obtain their judgment concerning the
+same, together with a full report upon the condition of the country
+in respect to its finances, means of defence, and other matters. When
+these steps have been taken, the King shall convene the Norwegian
+Minister of State and the Norwegian Secretaries of State stationed
+in Sweden, together with the members of the Swedish Ministry, in
+an extraordinary cabinet council, and shall present to them the
+grounds and circumstances which should in such cases be taken into
+consideration, and shall also place before them the report of the
+Norwegian Ministry concerning the condition of that country, and a like
+report concerning the condition of Sweden. The King shall thereupon
+demand their judgment in the premises, which each of them for himself
+shall give and have entered in the journal of the proceedings, to be
+accountable for as provided in the Constitution. When this has been
+done, the King shall have the power to take and execute such resolution
+as he deems for the best interest of the country.
+
+Article 27. All members of the Ministry, without valid excuse, shall
+attend the cabinet councils, and no action shall be taken when not
+more than half of the members are present. No action shall be taken in
+those Norwegian affairs, disposed of in Sweden, pursuant to Article
+15, unless the Norwegian Minister of State and one of the Norwegian
+Secretaries of State, or both of the Secretaries, be present.
+
+Article 28. Communications concerning appointments to office and other
+matters of importance, except diplomatic affairs and military commands,
+shall be presented for consideration to the Ministry by the member
+thereof in whose department the business belongs, and he shall dispose
+of the same conformable to the resolve of the Ministry.
+
+Article 29. In case a member of the Ministry is unable, for valid
+cause, to attend and present for consideration the matters pertaining
+to his department, the same shall be presented by another member of the
+Ministry, appointed for that purpose by the King, if present, or, in
+his absence, by the presiding member of the Ministry, in conjunction
+with the other members of the Ministry. If, for valid cause, so many
+are absent that not more than half of the regular members are in
+attendance, then other officials shall be appointed, in the mode
+aforesaid, to sit in the Ministry, in which case a report thereof shall
+at once be made to the King, who shall determine whether the officials
+thus appointed shall continue to serve.
+
+Article 30. The Ministry shall keep a record of all business
+transacted. It shall be the duty of every person who has a seat in
+the Ministry to express his opinion fearlessly, to which the King
+shall listen, but he may resolve according to his own judgment. In
+case any member of the Ministry finds that the resolve of the King
+is in conflict with the form of government or the laws of the realm,
+or is manifestly detrimental to the country, then it is his duty to
+vigorously protest against the same, and to enter his objections in the
+record. He who does not thus protest, shall be deemed to have concurred
+with the King, and shall be accountable therefor, as subsequently
+determined, and may be impeached by the Odelsthing in the Court of
+Impeachment.
+
+Article 31. All decrees issued by the King himself, except military
+commands, shall be countersigned by one of the Ministers of State.
+
+Article 32. Resolutions taken by the Ministry in Norway, during the
+absence of the King, shall be issued in his name, and attested by the
+Ministry.
+
+Article 33. All communications relative to Norwegian affairs, as well
+as the expedition of the same, shall be in the Norwegian language.
+
+Article 34. The heir apparent, if son of the reigning King, shall bear
+the title of Crown Prince. The other royal heirs shall be known as
+Princes, and the royal daughters as Princesses.
+
+Article 35. As soon as the heir apparent has filled his eighteenth
+year, he shall be entitled to take his seat in the Ministry, but
+without vote or accountability.
+
+Article 36. No Prince of the blood shall marry without the consent of
+the King. If he violates this rule he shall forfeit his right to the
+crown of Norway.
+
+Article 37. The royal Princes and Princesses shall personally only be
+answerable to the King, or to such judge as he may ordain for them.
+
+Article 38. The Norwegian Minister of State, as well as the two
+Norwegian Secretaries of State, remaining with the King, shall have
+a seat and deliberative voice in the Swedish Ministry when matters
+affecting both kingdoms are there considered. The views of the Ministry
+in Norway shall also be obtained, in such cases, unless the urgency for
+immediate action is so great that there is no time therefor.
+
+Article 39. If the King dies and his successor is still under age,
+the Norwegian and Swedish Ministries shall immediately assemble, and
+jointly issue a call convening the Storthing in Norway and the Rigsdag
+in Sweden.
+
+Article 40. Until the legislative bodies of both realms are convened
+and have provided for the government during the minority of the King,
+the administration of the kingdoms, conformable to their respective
+Constitutions, shall be conducted by a Ministry composed of an equal
+number of Norwegian and Swedish members. The Norwegian and Swedish
+Ministers of State, having a seat in this Ministry, shall determine, by
+lot, who shall preside.
+
+Article 41. The provisions of Articles 39 and 40, aforesaid, shall also
+be complied with in all those cases in which, under the Constitution
+of Sweden, the Swedish Ministry, as such, is entitled to conduct the
+government. When, however, the King, by reason of travels abroad or
+sickness, is unable to conduct the administration, the Prince, entitled
+to the succession, if of age, shall conduct the administration as the
+temporary representative of the King, with the same power as belongs to
+an ad interim government.
+
+Article 42. The King shall submit to the next Storthing in Norway and
+the next Rigsdag in Sweden a bill, based on the principles of perfect
+equality between both kingdoms, to carry out the provisions of Articles
+39, 40 and 41, aforesaid.
+
+Article 43. The election of a Regency, to conduct the administration
+for the King during his minority, shall take place according to the
+same rules and in the same manner prescribed in Article 7, aforesaid,
+for the election of a successor to the Crown.
+
+Article 44. The Norwegian members of the joint Ministry, to conduct
+the administration in the cases provided for in Articles 40 and 41,
+aforesaid, shall take the following oath before the Storthing:
+
+"I promise and depose that I will conduct the administration of the
+government conformable to the Constitution and the laws, so help me
+God and His Holy Writ," and the Swedish members shall take an oath
+before the Legislative Assembly of Sweden. If the Storthing or Rigsdag
+is not at that time in session, the oath shall be deposited, with the
+Ministry, in writing, and shall be renewed before the next Storthing or
+Rigsdag.
+
+Article 45. As soon as the administration of the joint Ministry shall
+cease, they shall render an account of the same to the King and the
+Storthing.
+
+Article 46. If those, on whom it is incumbent, pursuant to Articles
+39 and 41, fail to immediately convene the Storthing, it shall be the
+peremptory duty of the Supreme Court, after a lapse of four weeks, to
+convene the same.
+
+Article 47. The management of the education of the King, under age,
+shall, if his father has left no written directions concerning the
+same, be provided for in the manner prescribed in Articles 7 and 43.
+It shall be the invariable rule to give the King, during his minority,
+ample instructions in the Norwegian language.
+
+Article 48. If the royal male line be extinct, and no successor has
+been selected, a new line of kings shall be chosen in the manner
+prescribed in Article 7; and in the meantime provision shall be made
+for the executive power as prescribed in Article 43 (40).
+
+
+C. CITIZENSHIP AND THE LAW-MAKING POWER:
+
+Article 49. The people shall exercise the legislative power through a
+Storthing, composed of two bodies, a Lagthing and an Odelsthing.
+
+Article 50. All Norwegian citizens, dwelling within the realm, who have
+attained the age of twenty-five years, and have been residents of the
+country for five years, shall be qualified voters.
+
+Article 51. All qualified voters shall be registered, in every city
+by the magistrate, and in every rural parish by the parson and
+tax collector. Changes that in the course of time may occur shall
+immediately be noted in the registry. Every voter shall, before he
+is registered, publicly in court, take an oath of fealty to the
+Constitution.
+
+Article 52. The right of suffrage shall be suspended by:
+
+(_a_) Indictment for an offence subject to the punishment described in
+Article 53; by
+
+(_b_) Being placed under guardianship; by
+
+(_c_) Assignment or bankruptcy, not caused by loss of fire or other
+evident misfortune, until the debtor, through full liquidation or
+composition, shall again regain control over his estate; and by
+
+(_d_) Being supported, or having during the year immediately preceding
+the election been supported, as a public pauper.
+
+Article 53. The right of suffrage shall be forfeited by:
+
+(_a_) Having been sentenced to hard labor, removal from office, or
+imprisonment for an offence described in any of the chapters of the
+Criminal Code, relating to perjury, larceny, robbery or fraud; by
+
+(_b_) Entering the service of a foreign power, without the consent of
+the government; by
+
+(_c_) Acquiring citizenship in a foreign country; and by
+
+(_d_) Being convicted of buying votes, or selling one's own vote, or of
+voting in more than one election precinct.
+
+Article 54. Elections and electoral meetings shall be held every third
+year. They shall be concluded before the end of the month of December.
+
+Article 55. Elections shall be held, at the chief church of the parish,
+in the rural districts, and at a church, the town hall, or other
+suitable place, in the towns. The parish priest and his vestrymen shall
+be the judges of election in the rural districts, the magistrate and
+selectmen in the towns. The vote shall be taken in the order the names
+appear on the registry. Controversies about the right to vote shall be
+determined by the judges of election, whose decision may be appealed
+from to the Storthing.
+
+Article 56. The Constitution shall be audibly read, in the towns by the
+chief magistrate, and in the rural districts by the priest, before the
+polls are opened.
+
+Article 57. In the towns, one elector shall be chosen for every fifty
+inhabitants qualified to vote. Within eight days after their election,
+the electors shall assemble at the place designated therefor by the
+magistracy, and shall elect, either from their own number or from
+the other qualified voters in their electoral district, thirty-eight
+representatives, to meet and sit in the Storthing. Of this number,
+unless otherwise constitutionally provided, one shall be elected from
+Aalesund and Molde combined, one from Arendal and Grimstad combined,
+four from Bergen, one from Brevig, four from Christiania, Hónefas and
+Kongsvinger combined, two from Christianssand, one from Christianssund,
+two from Drammen, one from Flekkefjord, one from Frederickshald, one
+from Fredericksstad, one from Hammerfest, Vardó and Vadsó combined,
+one from Holmestrand, one from Kongsberg, one from Krageró, one from
+Laurvig and Sandefjord combined, one from Lillehammer, Hamer and Gjóvik
+combined, one from Moss and Dróbak combined, one from Porsgrund, one
+from Sarpsborg, one from Skien, two from Stavanger and Haugesund
+combined, one from Tromsö, four from Throndhjem and Levanger combined,
+one from Tunsberg, and one from Osterrisór. When a town, not herein
+named, shall have fifty or more inhabitants, who are qualified voters,
+it shall be attached to the nearest town-electoral district. The
+same rule shall apply to towns that may hereafter be founded. A town
+attached to a town-electoral district shall choose one elector, even
+though the number of inhabitants qualified to vote shall become less
+than fifty. In no case shall less than three electors be chosen in a
+town which, by itself alone, constitutes one representative district.
+
+Article 58. In every parish in the rural districts, the inhabitants
+qualified to vote shall choose, in proportion to their numbers,
+electors as follows: One hundred or less shall choose one; from one
+hundred to two hundred, two; from two hundred to three hundred, three,
+and so on in the same proportion. The electors shall, within a month
+after their election, assemble at a place designated therefor by the
+high sheriff of the county, and shall then elect, either from their own
+number or from the other qualified voters in their county, seventy-six
+Representatives, to meet and sit in the Storthing, of whom five shall
+be chosen from the county of Agershus, five from the county of Nordre
+Bergenhus, five from the county of Sóndre Bergenhus, five from the
+county of Christians, two from the county of Finmarken, five from the
+county of Hedemarken, five from the county of Nordland, five from the
+county of Romsdalen, five from the county of Stavanger, two from the
+county of Tromsö, and four from each of the other eight counties of
+the kingdom. Ex-Ministers or ex-Secretaries of State shall be eligible
+for Representatives in any electoral district, if, barring residence,
+they are qualified voters and have not already been elected in some
+other district. But no district shall elect more than one non-resident
+Representative.
+
+Article 59. (Repealed.)
+
+Article 60. Qualified voters, being within the country, who, by reason
+of sickness, military service, or other valid excuse, are unable to
+attend the polls, may, in writing, transmit their votes to the judges
+of election before the polls are closed.
+
+Article 61. No one shall be elected Representative unless he is thirty
+years of age and has resided ten years within the realm.
+
+Article 62. Members of the Ministry, the officials employed in its
+bureaus, and the officials and pensionaries of the Court, are all
+ineligible for Representatives.
+
+Article 63. Whoever is elected Representative, except ex-members of the
+Ministry elected under the last clause in Article 58, shall be required
+to accept the office, unless prevented by an excuse deemed valid by the
+electors, whose decision may be reviewed by the Storthing. Whoever has
+served as a Representative in three regular sessions of the Storthing
+succeeding the same election, shall not be bound to accept election to
+the next Storthing. If a Representative is prevented by valid excuse
+from attending the Storthing, the person receiving the next highest
+vote shall take his place, unless an alternate was elected at the
+district electoral meeting, in which case he shall take the place of
+the Representative.
+
+Article 64. Immediately after their election, the Representatives shall
+be furnished with certificates of election, subscribed in the rural
+districts by the magistracy, in the towns by the chief magistrate, and
+in both cases by several electors, as evidence that they have been
+elected in the manner prescribed in the Constitution. The validity of
+these credentials shall be passed upon by the Storthing.
+
+Article 65. Each Representative shall be entitled to compensation, from
+the State Treasury, for expenses of travel to and from the Storthing,
+and for subsistence during attendance.
+
+Article 66. Representatives shall, except when apprehended in public
+offences, be privileged from arrest during their attendance at the
+Storthing, and in going to and returning from the same; and they shall
+not be answerable, outside of the sessions of the Storthing, for the
+expression of their views therein; but every Representative shall
+conform to the established rules of procedure.
+
+Article 67. The Representatives, elected in the manner aforesaid, shall
+constitute the Storthing of the Kingdom of Norway.
+
+Article 68. The Storthing shall, as a rule, convene on the first
+week-day in the month of February in each year, at the capital of
+the Kingdom, except when the King, on account of extraordinary
+circumstances, such as hostile invasion or contagious disease, shall
+designate another town in the realm therefor. Timely notice of such
+designation shall, in such case, be published.
+
+Article 89. The King may, on extraordinary occasions, convene the
+Storthing at other than the usual time. In such case the King shall
+issue a proclamation, which shall be read in all the churches of the
+Episcopal towns at least fourteen days before the members of the
+Storthing shall assemble at the place prescribed.
+
+Article 70. Such special Storthing may be adjourned by the King at his
+pleasure.
+
+Article 71. The members of the Storthing shall serve as such for three
+successive years, as well at all special, as at all regular, sessions
+that may in the meantime be held.
+
+Article 72. If a special Storthing be in session at the time a regular
+Storthing convenes, the former shall adjourn before the latter
+assembles.
+
+Article 73. The Storthing shall select from its members one-fourth who
+shall constitute the Lagthing; the other three-fourths shall constitute
+the Odelsthing. The selection shall be made at the first regular
+Storthing which convenes after an election, and thereafter the Lagthing
+shall remain unchanged in all Storthings assembled after the same
+election, except in cases of vacancy, which shall be filled by special
+election. Each Thing shall hold its sessions separately, and appoint
+its own President and Secretary. Neither Thing shall be in session
+unless two-thirds of its members are present.
+
+Article 74. As soon as the Storthing has organized, the King, or
+whoever he may appoint therefor, shall open its proceedings with a
+speech from the throne, wherein he shall give information touching
+the condition of the kingdom and the matters to which he especially
+desires to direct the Storthing's attention. No deliberation shall take
+place in the presence of the King. After the session of the Storthing
+has been opened, the Minister of State and the Secretaries of State
+shall be entitled to sit in the Storthing and both branches thereof,
+and to participate in its proceedings, without the right to vote, in
+open session on a footing of equality with the members, and in secret
+session only to the extent permitted by the Thing.
+
+Article 75. The Storthing shall have power:
+
+(_a_) To enact and repeal laws; to levy taxes, imposts, duties, and
+other public assessments, but such levy shall not remain in force
+beyond the first day of July in the year in which the next regular
+Storthing convenes, unless expressly revived by the latter;
+
+(_b_) To borrow money on the credit of the Kingdom;
+
+(_c_) To regulate the currency of the Kingdom;
+
+(_d_) To appropriate the money necessary for the expenditures of the
+government;
+
+(_e_) To determine the amount which shall yearly be paid the King for
+the maintenance of his royal household, and to settle the appanage of
+the royal family, which shall not, however, consist of landed estates;
+
+(_f_) To cause to be laid before them the Journal of the Ministry
+in Norway and all official reports and documents, not pertaining to
+exclusive military commands, then on file, together with verified
+copies and extracts of the Journals, on file with the King, kept by the
+Norwegian Minister of State and the two Norwegian Secretaries of State
+remaining in Sweden, as well as the public documents on file with them;
+
+(_g_) To cause to be communicated to them the Alliances and Treaties,
+which the King, on behalf of the state, has entered into with foreign
+powers, except secret articles, which must not, however, conflict with
+those that are public;
+
+(_h_) To require any person to appear before them, in state affairs,
+except the King and royal family; but this exception shall not apply to
+royal princes holding office;
+
+(_i_) To revise temporary salary and pension lists, and to make such
+changes therein as they find necessary;
+
+(_k_) To appoint five auditors who shall yearly audit the accounts
+of the state and publish printed extracts of the same; and for this
+purpose the accounts shall be submitted to the auditors within six
+months from the expiration of the year for which the appropriations of
+the Storthing has been made; and
+
+(_l_) To naturalize foreigners.
+
+Article 76. Every bill shall first be introduced in the Odelsthing,
+either by a member thereof or by the Ministry, through one of its
+members. If the bill is there passed, it shall be sent to the Lagthing,
+which may concur in or reject it; in the latter case it shall be
+returned with objections appended, and the same shall be considered
+by the Odelsthing, which may either indefinitely postpone the bill or
+return it to the Lagthing with or without amendment. When a bill, from
+the Odelsthing, has been twice presented to the Lagthing and has been
+returned a second time rejected, the entire Storthing shall assemble
+in one body, and, by a two-thirds vote, dispose of the bill. At least
+three days must intervene between every such distinct consideration of
+the bill.
+
+Article 77. When a measure, passed by the Odelsthing, has been
+concurred in by the Lagthing or the united Storthing, it shall be sent
+by a committee of both bodies of the Storthing to the King, if he is
+present, or if not present, to the Norwegian Ministry, with the request
+for the sanction of the King.
+
+Article 78. If the King approve the measure, he shall affix his
+signature thereto, whereby it becomes a law. If he disapprove the same,
+he shall return it to the Odelsthing with the statement that, for the
+time being, he does not find it expedient to sanction the same.
+
+Article 79. If a measure has been passed without amendment, by three
+regular Storthings, convened after three separate and successive
+elections, and separated from each other by not less than two
+intervening regular Storthings, and no measure in conflict therewith
+having, in the meantime, from the first to the last passage, been
+passed by any Storthing, and the measure is then presented to the King
+with the request that his Majesty will not refuse his sanction to a
+measure which the Storthing, after the most mature consideration, deem
+beneficial, it shall become a law, notwithstanding the King fails to
+sanction the same before the adjournment of the Storthing.
+
+Article 80. The Storthing may remain in session so long as it deems
+necessary, not, however, over two months, without the permission of
+the King. When, after having finished its proceedings, or after having
+been in session the time limited, it is adjourned by the King, he shall
+communicate to it his action upon the measures passed, by approving or
+rejecting the same. All measures not expressly approved by him shall be
+deemed rejected.
+
+Article 81. All laws shall be promulgated in the Norwegian language,
+and, except those passed pursuant to Article 79, in the name of the
+King, and under the seal of the Kingdom of Norway, in the following
+words:
+
+"We--N. N.--make known that there has been presented to us an Act of
+the Storthing of the following tenor: (here follows the Act), which we
+have accepted and approved and hereby accept and approve, as law, under
+our hand and the seal of the realm."
+
+Article 82. The sanction of the King shall not be required for those
+resolutions of the Storthing whereby:
+
+(_a_) It declares itself convened as Storthing pursuant to the
+Constitution;
+
+(_b_) It determines its own rules of procedure;
+
+(_c_) It approves or rejects the credentials of the members present;
+
+(_d_) It affirms or reverses decisions in election controversies;
+
+(_e_) It naturalizes foreigners;
+
+(_f_) And finally, not for the resolution whereby the Odelsthing shall
+impeach members of the Ministry, or others.
+
+Article 83. The Storthing shall have the right to procure the opinion
+of the Supreme Court upon judicial subjects.
+
+Article 84. The Storthing shall sit in open session and its proceedings
+shall be printed and published, except in cases where otherwise
+determined by a majority vote.
+
+Article 85. Whoever shall obey a command, the purpose of which is to
+interfere with the freedom and safety of the Storthing, is guilty of
+treason against the Fatherland.
+
+
+D. THE JUDICIAL POWER:
+
+Article 86. The members of the Lagthing, together with the Supreme
+Court, shall constitute the Court of Impeachment, which shall try,
+without appeal, cases instituted by the Odelsthing, against members
+of the Ministry and members of the Supreme Court for malfeasance in
+office, and against members of the Storthing for offences committed by
+them in their official capacity. The President of the Lagthing shall
+preside in the Court of Impeachment.
+
+Article 87. The accused may, without cause, challenge as many as
+one-third of the members of the Court of Impeachment, but not so many,
+however, as to leave the Court with less than fifteen members.
+
+Article 88. The Supreme Court shall be the tribunal of last resort.
+It shall consist of not less than one Chief-Justice and six associate
+judges. This article shall not prohibit the final disposal of criminal
+cases, pursuant to law, without appeal to the Supreme Court.
+
+Article 89. In times of peace, the Supreme Court, together with two
+high military officers to be appointed by the King, shall constitute
+a court of appeal and of final resort in all court-martial cases,
+involving life, honor, or loss of liberty for a longer period than
+three months.
+
+Article 90. The decisions of the Supreme Court shall in no case be
+appealed or reviewed.
+
+Article 91. No one shall be appointed a member of the Supreme Court
+before he is thirty years of age.
+
+
+E. GENERAL PROVISIONS:
+
+Article 92. Public offices shall be filled only by Norwegian citizens
+who speak the language of the country and:
+
+(_a_) Who are born within the realm of parents who are citizens of the
+country; or
+
+(_b_) Who are born in foreign countries of Norwegian parents, not
+citizens of another nation; or
+
+(_c_) Who shall hereafter reside ten years within the realm; or
+
+(_d_) Who shall be naturalized by the Storthing. But persons without
+these qualifications may be appointed physicians, instructors in the
+university and grammar schools, and consuls in foreign places. No one
+shall be appointed a high magistrate before he is thirty years of
+age, nor an inferior judge, magistrate, or tax collector before he is
+twenty-five years of age. No one shall be a member of the Ministry
+unless he professes the established religion of the state; and the same
+rule shall apply to the other offices of the state, until otherwise
+provided by law.
+
+Article 93. Norway shall not be liable for any other than its own
+national debt.
+
+Article 94. Measures shall be taken to enact, at the next regular
+Storthing, or, if this is not possible, at the following one, a new
+general civil and criminal code. In the meantime the existing laws of
+the state shall remain in force so far as they are not in conflict
+with this Constitution or temporary ordinances meanwhile issued.
+Permanent taxes now existing shall continue as laid until the next
+Storthing.
+
+Article 95. No dispensations, writs of protection, or letters of
+respite or reparation, shall be granted after the new general code
+takes effect.
+
+Article 96. No one shall be tried except pursuant to law, nor punished
+except pursuant to judgment. Examination, by means of torture, is
+prohibited.
+
+Article 97. No law shall be given retroactive effect.
+
+Article 98. Fees paid to officials of Courts of Justice shall not be
+subject to any state tax.
+
+Article 99. No one shall be arrested except in the case and manner
+prescribed by law. Whoever causes an unauthorized arrest, or unlawful
+detention, shall be answerable therefor to the person confined. The
+government shall have no right to employ military force against the
+citizens otherwise than pursuant to law, except in the case of an
+assembly disturbing the public peace and not immediately dispersing
+after the civil magistrate has thrice audibly read to them the articles
+in the public code relating to riot.
+
+Article 100. The liberty of the press shall remain inviolate. No one
+shall be punished for any writing, printed or published, irrespective
+of its context, unless he has intentionally and clearly manifested,
+or urged others to manifest, disobedience to the laws, contempt for
+religion, morality, and the constitutional authorities, or resistance
+to the commands of the same, or has made false and defamatory charges
+against any person. Every person shall be permitted to express freely
+his opinion upon the administration of public affairs, or on any other
+subject whatsoever.
+
+Article 101. New and permanent special privileges in industrial
+pursuits shall not be granted to any one hereafter.
+
+Article 102. Domiciliary visits shall not be permitted except in
+criminal cases.
+
+Article 103. No sanctuary shall be allowed to persons who hereafter
+become insolvent.
+
+Article 104. Estates of inheritance, or distributive shares, shall in
+no case be subject to confiscation.
+
+Article 105. If public necessity requires any person to relinquish
+his real or personal property for public use, he shall receive full
+compensation therefor from the State Treasury.
+
+Article 106. The proceeds, as well as the income, of church estates,
+shall be devoted exclusively to the benefit of the church and the
+promotion of education. The property of charitable institutions shall
+be devoted exclusively to their use.
+
+Article 107. Allodial tenure and statutory entailment shall not be
+abolished; but the conditions under which--for the good of the state
+and the advantages of the people--the same shall continue, shall be
+prescribed by the next or the following Storthing.
+
+Article 108. No earldoms, baronies, or entailed manorial estates, shall
+hereafter be established.
+
+Article 109. Every citizen, without regard to birth or fortune, shall,
+without exception, render military service to his country for a limited
+time. The application of this rule, the limitations to be placed on it,
+and whether it will be for the good of the country that liability to
+such service shall terminate with the twenty-fifth year, shall be left
+to the determination of the next regular Storthing, after a committee
+has obtained full information on the subject; and in the meantime all
+existing provisions in the premises shall remain in force.
+
+Article 110. Norway shall have its own bank and its own currency and
+coinage, to be established by law.
+
+Article 111. Norway shall be entitled to have its own Merchant Flag.
+Its naval ensign shall be a union flag.
+
+Article 112. If experience demonstrates that any part of this
+Constitution of the Kingdom of Norway requires amendment, the
+proposition therefor shall be presented at a regular Storthing
+first succeeding an election, and notice thereof shall be given by
+publication; but no action shall be taken thereon until at one of
+the regular Storthings succeeding the next election. Such amendment
+shall not contravene the principles of this Constitution, and shall
+only relate to such modifications in single provisions as will not
+change the spirit of this Constitution, and shall be concurred in by
+two-thirds of the Storthing.
+
+
+THE END
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Notes:
+
+Minor changes have been made to correct printer's errors and to
+regularize hyphenatation.
+
+Names of some places and persons, where obvious, have been changed
+to conform to a single, rather than multiple spellings.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The World's Best Histories--Norway, by 
+Sigvart Sörensen
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 59531 ***