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diff --git a/59531-8.txt b/59531-0.txt index 8dfbe8b..1ad8a36 100644 --- a/59531-8.txt +++ b/59531-0.txt @@ -1,31 +1,7 @@ -Project Gutenberg's The World's Best Histories--Norway, by Sigvart Sörensen +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 59531 *** -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. -Title: The World's Best Histories--Norway -Author: Sigvart Sörensen - -Release Date: May 18, 2019 [EBook #59531] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE WORLD'S BEST HISTORIES--NORWAY *** - - - - -Produced by D A Alexander and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net. Thanks to the -Natrona County Library System, Casper, Wyoming, USA, for -donating the source book. @@ -41,7 +17,7 @@ donating the source book. BY - SIGVART SÖRENSEN + SIGVART SÖRENSEN EDITOR "MINNEAPOLIS TIDENDE" @@ -78,7 +54,7 @@ great work of Snorre Sturlason: "The Heimskringla, or The Sagas of the Norse Kings," and I have used the English translation of the same by Samuel Laing, Esq., revised edition by Rasmus B. Anderson (Scribner & Welford, New York, 1889). I have also found much assistance in O. A. -Överland's "Norges Historie." Among many other works used as sources or +Överland's "Norges Historie." Among many other works used as sources or consulted, are: J. E. Sars's "Udsigt over den Norske Historie"; Jacob Aall's "Erindringer"; F. Winkel Horn's "History of the Literature of the Scandinavian North," translated by R. B. Anderson (S. C. Griggs @@ -376,7 +352,7 @@ CONTENTS Florevaag--Sverre's Struggle with the Hierarchy--Bishop Nicholas Arneson--Sverre Excommunicated--Sverre Crowned in Bergen--Organization of the Bagler Party--Burning of Bergen--Papal Interdict against - Norway--The Baglers Defeated at Strindsö--Uprising in Viken--The + Norway--The Baglers Defeated at Strindsö--Uprising in Viken--The Siege at Tunsberg--Sverre's Sickness and Death 178 @@ -448,7 +424,7 @@ CONTENTS Magnus Smek Becomes King of Norway and Sweden--Erling Vidkunson Appointed Regent--Haakon Magnusson Acknowledged as King of - Norway--Battle at Enköping--Death of Magnus--Flood in the Gaula + Norway--Battle at Enköping--Death of Magnus--Flood in the Gaula Valley--The Black Death 219 @@ -547,7 +523,7 @@ CONTENTS The Popular King--Frequent Visits to Norway--The Laws Improved--War with Sweden--The Scotch War--Colonel Sinclair Killed--Peace at - Knaeröd--The Peace of Lubeck--Second War with Sweden--Peace at + Knaeröd--The Peace of Lubeck--Second War with Sweden--Peace at Bromsebro--The Hannibal's Feud--The City of Christiania 255 @@ -567,7 +543,7 @@ CONTENTS Extravagance at Court--German Manners Introduced--A new Nobility--Peter (Schumacher) Griffenfeld--The Scania War--The - Gyldenlöve Feud--A new Code of Laws 267 + Gyldenlöve Feud--A new Code of Laws 267 CHAPTER XLIX @@ -575,9 +551,9 @@ CONTENTS FREDERICK IV. (1699-1730) War with the Duke of Holstein--The Great Northern War - (1709-1720)--Naval Battle in Kjögebugt--Charles XII. Invades - Norway--The Heroic Anna Kolbjörnsdatter--King Charles at - Frederickshald--Peter and Hans Kolbjörnson--Peter Wessel + (1709-1720)--Naval Battle in Kjögebugt--Charles XII. Invades + Norway--The Heroic Anna Kolbjörnsdatter--King Charles at + Frederickshald--Peter and Hans Kolbjörnson--Peter Wessel Tordenskiold--The Battle of Dynekilen--King Charles XII. Killed before Frederickssteen--The Peace of Fredericksborg--The Sale of Norwegian Church Property--Hans Egede, Greenland's Apostle 272 @@ -619,7 +595,7 @@ CONTENTS War with Sweden--Battles at Lier, Toverud, Trangen, and Prestebakke--Armistice, December, 1808--Gustavus IV. Deposed--Christian August becomes Crown Prince of Sweden--Peace - of Jönköping--The Society for Norway's Welfare--The University + of Jönköping--The Society for Norway's Welfare--The University of Norway--Famine and Distress in Norway 293 @@ -627,7 +603,7 @@ CONTENTS MARSHAL BERNADOTTE - Candidates for the Swedish Succession--Baron Mörner goes to + Candidates for the Swedish Succession--Baron Mörner goes to Paris--Marshal Bernadotte--Crown Prince Charles John--Rupture with Napoleon--Agreement with Russia--Norway Promised to Sweden--Treaty of Kiel--Norway ceded to the Swedish King 298 @@ -659,7 +635,7 @@ CONTENTS The Rigsakt of 1815--Charles XIV. John ascends the Throne--Nobility Abolished--The Storthing rejects the King's Propositions--Independence - Day--The Storthing Dissolved in 1836--Minister Lövenskiold + Day--The Storthing Dissolved in 1836--Minister Lövenskiold Impeached--Oscar I. becomes King--Norway gets her own Flag--The German-Danish War--Charles XV.--Norway Prosperous--A Union Committee--Oscar II. ascends the Throne--The Office of Statholder @@ -695,7 +671,7 @@ _The Northmen_ Norway (in the old Norse language _Noregr_, or _Nord-vegr_, i.e._, -the North Way), according to archæological explorations, appears to +the North Way), according to archæological explorations, appears to have been inhabited long before the historical time. The antiquaries maintain that three populations have inhabited the North: a Mongolian race and a Celtic race, types of which are to be found in the Finns and @@ -794,7 +770,7 @@ on whose milk he lives. From Ymer descends the evil race of Yotuns or frost-giants. As the cow licked the briny hoar-frost, the large, handsome and powerful Bure came into being. His son was Bur, who married a daughter of a Yotun and became the father of _Odin_, Vile, -and Ve. Odin became the father of the kind and fair _Æsir_, the gods +and Ve. Odin became the father of the kind and fair _Æsir_, the gods who rule heaven and earth. Bur's sons killed Ymer, and in his blood the whole race of Yotuns @@ -812,7 +788,7 @@ Midgard as a defence for the inner earth. But from heaven to earth they suspended the quivering bridge called Bifrost, or the rainbow. The Yotun woman Night, black and dark as her race, met Delling (the -Dawn) of the Æsir race, and with him became the mother of Day, who +Dawn) of the Æsir race, and with him became the mother of Day, who was bright and fair as his father. Odin placed mother and son in the heavens and bid them each in turn ride over the earth. Night rides ahead with her horse Hrimfaxe, from whose foaming bit the earth is @@ -846,7 +822,7 @@ future). They pour water from the well over the roots of the tree. The Norns distribute life and govern fate, and nothing can change their decision. -The dwelling in heaven of the _Æsir_ or gods is called Asgard. In its +The dwelling in heaven of the _Æsir_ or gods is called Asgard. In its middle was the field of Ida, the gathering place of the gods, with Odin's throne, Lidskialv, from which he views the whole world. Odin is the highest and the oldest of the gods, and all the others honor @@ -857,7 +833,7 @@ fallen in battle, and he is therefore called Valfather, _i.e._, the father of the fallen. The invited fallen heroes are called _Einherier_; their sport and pastime is to go out every day and fight and kill each other; but toward evening they awake to life again and ride home as -friends to Valhalla, where they feast on pork of the barrow Særimner, +friends to Valhalla, where they feast on pork of the barrow Særimner, and where Odin's maidens, the Valkyrias, fill their horns with mead. These Valkyrias were sent by Odin to all battles on earth, where they selected those who were to be slain and afterward become the honored @@ -929,7 +905,7 @@ by two cats. The name of her dwelling is Folkvang. There were also a number of other goddesses, who were in the service of either Frigg or Freya. -Æger, the ruler of the turbulent and stormy sea, is a Yotun, but he +Æger, the ruler of the turbulent and stormy sea, is a Yotun, but he is a friend of the gods. When they visit him his hall is lighted with shining gold. His wife is Ran, and their daughters are the waves. @@ -1199,7 +1175,7 @@ the common name of all the districts about the Throndhjem (Drontheim) Fjord. Here he procured ships, sailed southward along the coast and conquered one district after another in the western part of the country. Finally, the remaining kings gathered their men and ships and -met Harald in naval battle in Hafrsfjord, a little inlet in Jæderen, +met Harald in naval battle in Hafrsfjord, a little inlet in Jæderen, near the present city of Stavanger. The battle was fierce and long, but Harald finally gained the day. After this battle, which occurred in 872, King Harald met no opposition, and was acknowledged as king of @@ -1281,7 +1257,7 @@ the trading-place Tunsberg, and who was called Biorn Farmand, or Biorn the Merchant, because he cared little for war, but more for trading expeditions. As he refused to pay tribute to Erik, the latter attacked and killed him, and plundered his house. King Biorn lies buried in the -Seaman's Mound (Farmandshaugen) at Sæheim (in the present Sem's parish) +Seaman's Mound (Farmandshaugen) at Sæheim (in the present Sem's parish) in Jarlsberg. Halfdan the Black, who ruled in Throndhjem, resolved to avenge his brother Biorn's death, and collected a great force of men and ships. Erik sought the aid of his father Harald, who also equipped @@ -1323,7 +1299,7 @@ servant-girl, for at that time, as the Saga says, "many were subject to service to the king who were of good birth, both men and women." Sigurd Ladejarl, or Earl of Lade (near Throndhjem), was a friend of Thora's family, and when she was about to be confined he brought her in -his ship from Moster northward to Sæheim, where King Harald was then +his ship from Moster northward to Sæheim, where King Harald was then living. They spent the night at the shore south of the Alv-island, and here Thora bore her child, on a stone near the ship's gangway. It was a male child, and Earl Sigurd baptized him in heathen fashion, and @@ -1352,7 +1328,7 @@ plan, however, was frustrated by Haakon, the youngest son of Harald. When Haakon, Athelstan's foster-son, heard of his father's death, he immediately prepared to leave England, and was given men and ships -by King Athelstan. He sailed north to Tröndelagen, where he found +by King Athelstan. He sailed north to Tröndelagen, where he found the mighty Sigurd, Earl of Lade, who had been his mother's friend and his guardian in early childhood. Sigurd received him well, and Haakon promised him great power if he became king. They assembled a great @@ -1365,7 +1341,7 @@ to give them back the udal-right (allodium), which Harald had taken from them. His speech was so well received that the people cheered wildly, and with great enthusiasm they proclaimed him their king. He immediately started southward, and the other districts followed the -example of Tröndelagen and swore allegiance to Haakon. +example of Tröndelagen and swore allegiance to Haakon. Erik made a desperate attempt to raise an army, but not succeeding, he had to leave the country with his wife Gunhild, his children, @@ -1375,7 +1351,7 @@ of Northumberland from King Athelstan on the condition that he was to defend the country against Norwegian and Danish vikings. Erik remained in England under shifting conditions, until he was killed in a battle in 954. After his death Queen Gunhild had a poem written in his honor, -the so-called Eriksmál, of which a beautiful fragment still exists. +the so-called Eriksmál, of which a beautiful fragment still exists. Shortly after Erik's death Queen Gunhild went to Denmark with her sons, and was well received by the Danish king, Harald Bluetooth (Blaatand), the son of Gorm the Old. The children of Erik Blood-Axe and Gunhild @@ -1583,7 +1559,7 @@ his residence in Throndhjem. King Harald Bluetooth was greatly incensed at Earl Haakon's action, and decided to take an awful revenge. He collected a great fleet, which he brought to Norway. He burned and destroyed the settlements and killed a -great number of people wherever he came. In Lærdal in Sogn, it is said +great number of people wherever he came. In Lærdal in Sogn, it is said that only five dwellings were left unburned. The inhabitants fled to the woods with such movable goods as they could save. As soon, however, as it was reported that Earl Haakon was coming southward with a fleet, @@ -1630,7 +1606,7 @@ with an army to South More, and Erik was to follow with what army he could collect from the north. Meanwhile, the Joms-vikings sailed slowly northward, plundering the -coasts. Christmas night they were at Jæderen. At Hjorungavaag (on the +coasts. Christmas night they were at Jæderen. At Hjorungavaag (on the island Hareidland in South More) they met Earl Haakon and his sons Erik, Svein, Sigurd and Erling. The earl had 180 ships and boats, fully manned and equipped, and the Joms-vikings had 60 ships. A bloody and @@ -1874,7 +1850,7 @@ people heard of this they sent out war-tokens and collected a great force, with which they intended to attack the king. In the meantime Olaf sailed with his men out of the fjord along the coast northward, intending to proceed to Halogaland and baptize there. But when he came -out to Bjarnaurar (Björnör), he heard from Halogaland that a force was +out to Bjarnaurar (Björnör), he heard from Halogaland that a force was assembled there to defend the country against the king. The chiefs of this force were Harek of Thiotta, Thorer Hiort from Vagar, and Eyvind Kinrifa. At the same time he learned that the peasants in Throndhjem @@ -1922,7 +1898,7 @@ spared their lives on the condition that they should be baptized, take an oath to support the true faith, and renounce all sacrifices to the heathen gods. They were then baptized, and had to send their sons, brothers or other near relations as hostages. Later on, King Olaf came -with his men to Mærin, where the people were assembled. He promised to +with his men to Mærin, where the people were assembled. He promised to go into their temple to look at their ceremonies; but while there, he and his men knocked down and demolished the images of the gods, while the chief of the peasants, Jernskegge, was killed outside of the temple @@ -2042,7 +2018,7 @@ might attack King Olaf Trygvason. He also sent Earl Sigvald to Vendland to spy out Olaf Trygvason's movements, and by pretending friendship gain his confidence and lead him into a trap. -Between the island of Rügen and the mainland of the present Prussian +Between the island of Rügen and the mainland of the present Prussian province of Pomerania lies a little island called Greifswalder Oie, or Svolder, as it was called at that time. Here lay on the 9th of September, in the year 1000, a fleet of eighty ships. Sixty of them @@ -2132,7 +2108,7 @@ CHAPTER XII _The Discovery of America_ -During the reign of Earl Haakon a man from Jæderen, called Erik the +During the reign of Earl Haakon a man from Jæderen, called Erik the Red, being obliged to leave Norway because he had killed a man, proceeded to the western part of Iceland. Here he committed a similar offence and was condemned at Thorsnes Thing to banishment. He had @@ -2203,7 +2179,7 @@ Keelness."[3] Then they sailed eastward along the country and landed on a headland, which Thorvald liked so well that he said he would like to make his home there. On going on board they saw three little hills on the sandy shore. They went up to them and found they were three canoes, -made of skin, with three natives--or _Skrælings_, as the Northmen +made of skin, with three natives--or _Skrælings_, as the Northmen called them--under each canoe. They killed eight of them, while one made his escape in his canoe. Afterward a great number of the natives attacked Thorvald's party. They were repulsed, but Thorvald was wounded @@ -2221,9 +2197,9 @@ to undertake an expedition to Vinland and establish a colony there. In the spring (1007) they set out with three ships, 160 men, and all kinds of live stock, and sailed to Vinland. Some time after their arrival there Gudrid bore a son, who was named Snorre. The colonists -occasionally traded with the _Skrælings_, giving them pieces of cloth +occasionally traded with the _Skrælings_, giving them pieces of cloth and dairy products for their skins; but when they refused to sell them -weapons, the _Skrælings_ became hostile to the settlers and attacked +weapons, the _Skrælings_ became hostile to the settlers and attacked them repeatedly. These constant hostilities so disheartened the settlers that they resolved to leave the country, and, after three years' sojourn in Vinland, Thorfin Karlsefne and his party returned @@ -2410,7 +2386,7 @@ _Olaf the Saint (1015-1028)_ Leaving his long-ships (battleships) behind him at Northumberland, Olaf sailed, in the fall of 1015, with two merchant-ships and 120 well-armed men, across the North Sea to Norway. After a stormy voyage he landed on -the west coast of Norway, near a small island called Sæla. King Olaf +the west coast of Norway, near a small island called Sæla. King Olaf thought this was a good omen, because that word means luck. He sailed southward to Ulfasund, where he heard that Earl Haakon was south in Sogn, and was expected north with a single ship as soon as the wind was @@ -2607,7 +2583,7 @@ men; Olaf hardly had half the number of ships, but his ships were considerably larger, so that the number of men was probably about the same. Toward the end of Easter he entered Viken with his fleet and put in at Nesiar (Nesje), a headland on the east side of the bay (near -Fredriksværn). +Fredriksværn). On Palm Sunday, March 25, 1016, the two fleets met in battle. Before opening the battle Olaf had his ships tied together, his own ship, @@ -2816,7 +2792,7 @@ to the heathen gods for peace and a good season, and that Olver of Eggja, a mighty man in that neighborhood, presided over these sacrifice-feasts, although he had twice assured the king that the people were loyal Christians. Learning that they were preparing such -a feast at Mæren, the king proceeded to that place one night with +a feast at Mæren, the king proceeded to that place one night with three hundred and sixty armed men, captured Olver of Eggja, and had him killed together with many others, and severely punished all the peasants who had taken a leading part in the sacrifices. In this way he @@ -2975,7 +2951,7 @@ left the country with a great force and several ships, and had sailed westward to England to Canute the Great. King Olaf proceeded eastward and then south to Denmark, where he first ravaged the coast of Seeland, and afterward met King Anund Jacob of Sweden, and with him harried -the coast of Skåne (Scania, then a part of Denmark, now belonging to +the coast of SkÃ¥ne (Scania, then a part of Denmark, now belonging to Sweden). They proclaimed to the people that they intended to conquer Denmark, and asked the support of the people for this purpose. Many men entered the service of the kings, and agreed to submit to them. @@ -3238,7 +3214,7 @@ _King Svein Alfifuson (1030-1035)_ When King Canute the Great heard that Earl Haakon had been lost in a shipwreck on his way to Norway, he concluded to put his natural son -Svein on the throne of Norway. Svein's mother was Ælfgifa, a daughter +Svein on the throne of Norway. Svein's mother was Ælfgifa, a daughter of an English chieftain in Northampton, but the Norwegians called her Alfifa and her son Svein Alfifuson. Svein had, a couple of years before, been appointed by King Canute to govern Jomsborg in Vendland; @@ -3439,7 +3415,7 @@ which one of them should inform the king of the discontent of the people, and the lot fell upon Sigvat the Skald. Sigvat then composed a poem, which he called "The Free-speaking Song" -(_Bersöglisvísur_), in which he reminded the king of the promises +(_BersöglisvÃsur_), in which he reminded the king of the promises he made when he was proclaimed king, and advised him to be guided by that respect for the laws and the rights of the people which his predecessors had shown. He blamed him for his severity, and warned him @@ -3887,7 +3863,7 @@ He preserved law and order with firmness, and did a great deal to promote commerce and the prosperity of the towns. Before his time there were three towns in Viken (Tunsberg, Oslo, and Sarpsborg), and one in Throndhjem (Nidaros). King Olaf founded the merchant town of Bergen -(then Björgvin), where many wealthy people settled down, and the place +(then Björgvin), where many wealthy people settled down, and the place was soon regularly frequented by merchants from foreign countries. The other towns also made good progress. @@ -4710,7 +4686,7 @@ King Inge then led his army out on the ice, and drew it up in order of battle. The king and his brother Orm took their places under the banner in the centre. On the right wing, toward the nunnery, was Gudrod, the exiled king of the South Hebrides, and Jon Sveinson, a grandson of -Bergthor Buk. On the left wing, toward Thrælaberg, stood the chiefs +Bergthor Buk. On the left wing, toward Thrælaberg, stood the chiefs Simon Skalp and Gudbrand Skafhoggson, who was married to King Eystein Magnusson's daughter Maria. When Haakon and his army came near to King Inge's array, both sides raised a war shout. But then it appeared that @@ -4824,7 +4800,7 @@ government; but his liegemen governed in his name. Many of the adherents of the late King Inge refused to acknowledge King Haakon. Among them was the powerful and wily chieftain Erling Skakke. He was of a distinguished family, which resided on the Studla estate -in Söndhordland. In his youth he had made a crusade to the Holy Land. +in Söndhordland. In his youth he had made a crusade to the Holy Land. On his way back through the Mediterranean he had a fight with pirates and was wounded in the neck, which compelled him afterward to carry his head on one side; hence his surname (_skakke_, wry). By the assistance @@ -4943,14 +4919,14 @@ son of King Eystein Magnusson's daughter Maria, in her marriage with the chief Gudbrand Skafhoggson, who fell with King Inge in the battle at Oslo. Olaf was brought up by an influential man named Sigurd Agn-Hat. Probably from the latter's surname the adherents of Olaf were called -Hat-Swains (Hættesveiner). The Hat-Swains proclaimed Olaf king, and +Hat-Swains (Hættesveiner). The Hat-Swains proclaimed Olaf king, and went through the Uplands, and sometimes down to Viken, or east to the forest settlements. At Rydjokel, near Lake Oiern, they surprised Erling Skakke and his men early one morning, and in the fight that followed killed several of Erling's men and drove the remainder down to their ships. Because Olaf did not succeed in capturing Erling, although the odds were all in his favor, he was afterward called Olaf -the Unlucky (Ugæva). The following spring the Hat-Swains met Erling +the Unlucky (Ugæva). The following spring the Hat-Swains met Erling in battle at Stanger, in the eastern part of Viken, where Erling won a decisive victory. Sigurd Agn-Hat and many others of Olaf's men fell here. Olaf escaped by flight, went south to Denmark, and spent the @@ -5510,7 +5486,7 @@ help him. They showed their usual loyalty, and with their help he set to work to build a new, strong fleet and to improve the fortifications of the town. In the spring the Baglers appeared in the Throndhjem Fjord with a strong fleet, and, after some skirmishing, the two fleets met -in battle at Strindsö, June 18, 1199. It was a desperate fight, where +in battle at Strindsö, June 18, 1199. It was a desperate fight, where no quarter was given. The result was a victory for King Sverre and the Birchlegs, who returned to town with most of the enemy's ships. The prisoners taken on this occasion were nearly all slain. Bishop @@ -5518,7 +5494,7 @@ Nicholas, who watched the beginning of the battle from a safe distance, fled with his ship when he saw that the Baglers were losing, and Sigurd Jarlson and Reidar the Messenger followed his example. -The Baglers who escaped from the battle of Strindsö proceeded to +The Baglers who escaped from the battle of Strindsö proceeded to Denmark. Sverre, with his fleet, pursued them a part of the way, but gave up the chase and proceeded to Oslo, where he intended to go into winter-quarters. In January, 1200, the Baglers came up from @@ -5740,7 +5716,7 @@ the other shore, but was then so exhausted from cold and exertion that he would probably have succumbed, if one of his faithful men, Reidulf Baardsbrother, had not happened to come to his assistance. Reidulf took off his cloak and wrapped the king in it, and carried him on his back -to Skyaas, where they obtained a horse and sled and escaped to Klæbu. +to Skyaas, where they obtained a horse and sled and escaped to Klæbu. In the meanwhile the Baglers continued their dreadful work in Nidaros. They searched all the churches and killed those who had taken refuge @@ -5749,7 +5725,7 @@ Inge's half-brother, the seventeen year old Skule Baardson, escaped as by a miracle. He crept along the house walls and reached the river, where the chief, Jon Usle, and forty Birchlegs were just going across in some boats they had secured. They crossed in safety, and later -proceeded to Klæbu, where Skule found the king with a hundred Birchlegs +proceeded to Klæbu, where Skule found the king with a hundred Birchlegs and peasants, who had gathered about him. King Inge was greatly changed after the experiences of that awful @@ -5780,7 +5756,7 @@ that the resources of the country were thus being wasted, and that, whichever party finally won, there would only be an impoverished land and people to rule over. Bishop Nicholas saw this as well as any one, and consulted the archbishop in Nidaros. The result was a meeting -of the chiefs of both parties at Hvitings Island (Hvitingsö), near +of the chiefs of both parties at Hvitings Island (Hvitingsö), near Stavanger, where the king of the Baglers, Philip, swore allegiance to King Inge, and was, in return, made earl of Viken and the Uplands, and was given Christina, the daughter of Sverre, in marriage. @@ -5972,7 +5948,7 @@ before. By the agreement at the state meeting in Bergen, Norway was divided into two domains, of which that of the king included Viken, the -Uplands, and the Gulathingslag, except Söndmöre, while that of +Uplands, and the Gulathingslag, except Söndmöre, while that of the earl included everything north of the king's domain, and this division remained in force for over fifteen years. The earl made his headquarters in Nidaros, while the king took up his residence in Oslo. @@ -6236,7 +6212,7 @@ When King Magnus had succeeded in ending the conflict with Scotland, he turned his whole attention to the improvement of the domestic affairs of the country. He undertook a thorough revision of the laws, and, on account of his efforts in this direction, was given the -surname _lagaböter_, _i.e._, law-mender. He had a common code of laws +surname _lagaböter_, _i.e._, law-mender. He had a common code of laws compiled for the whole country, while formerly there had been four different laws administered respectively at the four Things; viz., the Frosta-Thing for the Throndhjem country, the Gula-Thing for the western @@ -6413,7 +6389,7 @@ this occasion conferred knighthood on twenty-five men. But the joy was of short duration. Duke Erik and his brother, Duke Valdemar, had been quarrelling with their brother, King Birger of Sweden. The latter pretended to desire a reconciliation and invited them to a feast at the -castle of Nyköping. During the night the sleeping-room of the dukes was +castle of Nyköping. During the night the sleeping-room of the dukes was entered, and they were thrown into prison, where soon afterward they died. Rumor said that they were starved to death. The tidings of this tragedy so affected King Haakon that it hastened his death. He died at @@ -6487,7 +6463,7 @@ and Albrecht elected king of Sweden (1363). Haakon, who shortly before that had been elected king of Sweden, did not intend to give up the kingdom without a fight, especially as he had several fortresses and provinces in his possession. Both sides armed themselves, and a battle -was fought at Enköping, March 3, 1365. Magnus was taken prisoner and +was fought at Enköping, March 3, 1365. Magnus was taken prisoner and brought to Stockholm, and Haakon, severely wounded, had to flee to Norway. The war was continued with varying success until the Hanseatic League interfered in the struggle, because Haakon had attempted to @@ -6603,7 +6579,7 @@ messages, called her "Queen Breechless," and sent her a whetstone on which to sharpen her scissors and needles, saying that the good woman ought to remain quietly at her spinning wheel. The queen's chiefs, Ivar Lykke and Henrik Parow, invaded Sweden with an army, and won a battle -at Falköping in West Gautland. Albrecht was taken prisoner and was +at Falköping in West Gautland. Albrecht was taken prisoner and was brought before the queen, who reminded him of his insults. She gave him a long fool's-cap to wear instead of the crown of Denmark, and sent him to prison in the castle of Lindholm in Scania, where he remained six @@ -6841,7 +6817,7 @@ councils promised that, after the death of Christian, his son Hans was to be king of all three countries. But King Christian made himself hated by his oppression, and when he caused the imprisonment of the powerful archbishop, Jens Bengtson Oxenstierna, the latter's nephew, -Ketil Carlsson Wasa, bishop of Linköping, swore that he would not put +Ketil Carlsson Wasa, bishop of Linköping, swore that he would not put on his bishop's robes until his country had been rid of its oppressor, and he kept his word. Carl was recalled, and died, as king of Sweden, in 1470, after several unsuccessful attempts by Christian to regain the @@ -7450,12 +7426,12 @@ with foreign mercenaries, as it was not yet usual to have standing armies. Gustavus Adolphus had secured two such hired armies, which were to try to proceed across Norway in order to reach Sweden, as the Kattegat was closed with Danish ships. Colonel Munchaven landed -with eight hundred men from Holland in Söndmöre, where he plundered +with eight hundred men from Holland in Söndmöre, where he plundered the country, then tried in vain to attack Throndhjem, and afterward -proceeded through Stjördalen, where the people had become so +proceeded through Stjördalen, where the people had become so frightened, on account of his depredations, that they did not dare to offer any resistance. Ravaging and plundering he made his way across -the mountain ridge Kjölen into the province of Jemteland, which he +the mountain ridge Kjölen into the province of Jemteland, which he conquered before joining the army in Sweden. The second foreign army was given a different reception. It consisted of nine hundred men, who came from Scotland under the command of Colonel George Sinclair. They @@ -7474,7 +7450,7 @@ Sinclair, and at Kringen there is a plain stone monument bearing this inscription: "Here Colonel George Sinclair was shot, August 26, 1612." After the Scotchmen the Norwegians call this war the "Scotch War." -Peace was finally concluded at Knaeröd, January 26, 1613. Gustavus +Peace was finally concluded at Knaeröd, January 26, 1613. Gustavus Adolphus abandoned his claim to the Norwegian Finmark, and Christian relinquished the captured fortresses upon being paid a million Rigsdalers. Both countries were again allowed to use the three crowns @@ -7532,7 +7508,7 @@ of Norway. The Hanseatic office in Bergen was held in check, and Norwegian trading enterprises were encouraged. The mining industry, which had heretofore been neglected, became quite active. When silver had been discovered in Sandsvaer, in 1623, he founded the mining-town -of Kongsberg. He also established the copper-works at Röros, where +of Kongsberg. He also established the copper-works at Röros, where copper was accidentally discovered by the peasant, Hans Aasen, in 1640. Oslo having been destroyed by fire, King Christian requested the inhabitants to move across the bay, closer to the fortress of @@ -7583,7 +7559,7 @@ Denmark, and, before the year was closed, he had conquered Holstein, Schleswig and Jutland. The winter being unusually severe, he could march across the ice to the islands of Langeland, Lolland, and Falster, and, in February, he stood with his whole army in Zealand -(Sjælland) and threatened Copenhagen. King Frederick was obliged to +(Sjælland) and threatened Copenhagen. King Frederick was obliged to sign the peace at Roskilde (February 26, 1658), by which he ceded to Sweden the Norwegian provinces of Bahus-Len and Throndhjem Stift and the Danish provinces of Scania, Halland, Blekinge, and the island of @@ -7750,13 +7726,13 @@ adopted the strict etiquette and ceremonies of the French court. He also established two orders of knighthood, the order of Dannebrog and the order of the Elephant. In Norway, the earldom (county) of Laurvik was established (1671) for the benefit of the king's friend -and half-brother, Ulrik Frederick Gyldenlöve, whose descendants, the +and half-brother, Ulrik Frederick Gyldenlöve, whose descendants, the Counts of Danneskiold-Laurvik, and later Ahlefeldt-Laurvik, for a long time owned this beautiful county. The old royal estate Sem, together with the deanery of Tunsberg, was made into another earldom (1673) for the then very powerful Minister of State Griffenfeld, who called himself Count of Griffenfeld and Tunsberg; after he had fallen from -grace, this county was transferred to his rival, Gyldenlöve, who, +grace, this county was transferred to his rival, Gyldenlöve, who, with the permission of the king, sold a part of it--afterward called Jarlsberg--to the German-born field-marshal of Norway, Gustav Wilhelm Wedel, the progenitor of the family of Wedel-Jarlsberg. Rosendal, the @@ -7806,7 +7782,7 @@ of Halmstad, Lund, and Landskrona. At sea, however, the Danes were generally successful. Admiral Kort Adeler had put the navy in good condition and had a worthy successor in the naval hero, Niels Juel, who won victories at Oeland and Kolbergerheide, and especially in the -great naval battle of Kjögebugt (October 4, 1677). As Griffenfeld +great naval battle of Kjögebugt (October 4, 1677). As Griffenfeld had foreseen, however, the Danes could accomplish little against the allies of France, and Christian was obliged to accede to peace proposed by Louis XIV. The peace was concluded at Lund (1679), and all that @@ -7814,25 +7790,25 @@ Christian V. obtained, for his efforts during an expensive four years' war, was permission to take with him ten cannons from each of the conquered fortresses. -During this war, which the Norwegians called the Gyldenlöve Feud, after -their leader, the brave Ulrik Frederick Gyldenlöve, the Norwegians -several times defeated the Swedes. In February, 1676, Gyldenlöve +During this war, which the Norwegians called the Gyldenlöve Feud, after +their leader, the brave Ulrik Frederick Gyldenlöve, the Norwegians +several times defeated the Swedes. In February, 1676, Gyldenlöve marched into Bahus Len with 11,000 men, conquering Udevalla and Wenersborg. The following year he took the fortified town of Marstrand by storm and compelled the fortress of Carlsten to surrender. In order to prevent the Norwegians from making further progress, the Swedish chancellor, Magnus de la Gardie, hastened into Bahus Len with 8,000 men, but was defeated by a much smaller Norwegian army, under -Major-General Hans Lövenhjelm, at Udevalla, August 28, 1677. About +Major-General Hans Lövenhjelm, at Udevalla, August 28, 1677. About 1,500 Swedes were slain and two hundred were captured, together with fourteen pieces of artillery and all the supplies. The following year -the ever-active Gyldenlöve attacked Bahus Castle, which, however, +the ever-active Gyldenlöve attacked Bahus Castle, which, however, he was unable to capture, as it was defended with great heroism and perseverance. The war ended, on the part of Norway, with an incursion -by Gyldenlöve into Sweden in 1679, in order to avenge a similar +by Gyldenlöve into Sweden in 1679, in order to avenge a similar expedition which the Swedish General Sparre had made into the region of Throndhjem the previous year, on which occasion the copper works at -Röros had been burned. +Röros had been burned. The Norwegian code of laws, which is yet partly in force, was elaborated by direction of Christian V., dated April 15, 1687, and @@ -7871,7 +7847,7 @@ and fought with honor in many battles. From his father, King Frederick had inherited certain disputes with Duke Frederick of Holstein, which led to a war; but the duke received aid from his brother-in-law, the Swedish king, Charles XII., who -invaded Zealand (Sjælland) and marched against Copenhagen, and King +invaded Zealand (Sjælland) and marched against Copenhagen, and King Frederick was obliged to accept a hasty peace at Traventhal, Holstein, August 18, 1700, on unfavorable terms. @@ -7888,7 +7864,7 @@ and defeated the Danes at the battle of Helsingborg (1710). In this war also the Danish-Norwegian fleet rendered great service, fighting the Swedish fleet with success in the Baltic and especially in the North Sea. On October 4, 1710, it was attacked by the Swedish fleet -in Kjögebugt. The Norwegian, Ivar Hvitfeld (a son of Tonne Hvitfeld, +in Kjögebugt. The Norwegian, Ivar Hvitfeld (a son of Tonne Hvitfeld, who had distinguished himself at Frederickshald), commanded the ship "Dannebrog," which took fire early in the fight. He might have saved himself by beaching the ship, but there was danger of thus spreading @@ -7914,13 +7890,13 @@ almost wholly of the National Guards, which were without training, poorly clothed, and without the necessary supplies. The fortresses were short of provisions, arms, and ammunition, and there was no money in the treasury. The commanding general, the old and feeble Barthold -von Lützow, had to confine his operations to garrisoning the silver +von Lützow, had to confine his operations to garrisoning the silver works at Kongsberg and the principal passes. The natural advantages of the country and the patriotism and perseverance of the inhabitants constituted the principal defence. By three different routes the Swedes invaded Norway. Charles himself -entered Höland in March, 1716. At the Riser farm the Swedish advance +entered Höland in March, 1716. At the Riser farm the Swedish advance guard was attacked by two hundred Norwegian dragoons under the brave Colonel Ulrich Christian Kruse, and, during the fight, the colonel himself killed fifteen men and wounded Charles's brother-in-law, the @@ -7937,13 +7913,13 @@ being among the ablest." Charles thereupon occupied Christiania and commenced to besiege the fortress of Akershus, but could not accomplish much for lack of heavy artillery. While he lay in camp there he sent out expeditions in -different directions. The Swedish colonel, Axel Löwen, was sent out +different directions. The Swedish colonel, Axel Löwen, was sent out with six hundred dragoons to destroy Kongsberg silver works. He was to proceed by way of Ringerike, because the road from Drammen was blocked by the Norwegians; and, on the evening of March 28, 1716, he arrived with his force at the Norderhov parsonage, Ringerike. The parson, the learned Jonas Ramus, was confined to his bed by sickness, but his wife, -the intrepid Anna Kolbjörnsdatter, received the soldiers well in order +the intrepid Anna Kolbjörnsdatter, received the soldiers well in order to avoid plundering. Having learned, by paying close attention to her guests, that it was their intention early the next morning to surprise a number of Norwegian dragoons, who lay encamped at the Steen farm and @@ -7954,7 +7930,7 @@ to send warning to the Norwegians about the plans of the enemy. Under the leadership of Captain Sehested and Sergeant Thor Hovland the Norwegians set out at midnight, and, guided by the fires which Anna had started under pretext of warming the chilly soldiers, they surprised -and overpowered the Swedish force. Colonel Löwen was captured, together +and overpowered the Swedish force. Colonel Löwen was captured, together with one hundred and sixty men; thirty were killed, and the remainder escaped. @@ -7975,13 +7951,13 @@ As the roads were becoming very bad, and Charles feared that the Norwegians contemplated cutting off his retreat, he suddenly withdrew from Christiania and shortly afterward attacked the city of Frederickshald. Here the citizens had armed themselves under the -brave brothers Peter and Hans Kolbjörnson, nephews of Kield Stub, -and half-brothers of Anna Kolbjörnsdatter, and the Swedes had to buy +brave brothers Peter and Hans Kolbjörnson, nephews of Kield Stub, +and half-brothers of Anna Kolbjörnsdatter, and the Swedes had to buy every step with blood. Charles captured the city on the night between the 3d and 4th of July, 1716, and the Norwegians had to retire to the fortress, Frederickssteen. That the enemy might not find shelter behind the houses against the shots from the fortress, the citizens -put fire to the town. Peter Kolbjörnson commenced with his own house, +put fire to the town. Peter Kolbjörnson commenced with his own house, and soon the whole city was in flames. Charles had to withdraw from Frederickssteen, with a loss of 1,500 men and three generals, to his headquarters at Torpum, intending to renew the siege as soon as he @@ -8000,10 +7976,10 @@ to the West Indies and to India. Afterward he became a naval cadet, made another trip to India, and on his return came to Bergen just as the Great Northern War had broken out. He immediately proceeded overland to Christiania, where the commanding general, Waldemar -Lövendahl, took a fancy to him and gave him the command of a ship of +Lövendahl, took a fancy to him and gave him the command of a ship of four guns, "Ormen" (the Serpent), with which he made cruises along the Swedish coast. He soon became renowned for his courage, and was given a -better ship called "Lövendahl's galley," a frigate of twenty guns. By +better ship called "Lövendahl's galley," a frigate of twenty guns. By his heroic deeds and brilliant bravery he rose, in the comparatively short time of ten years, from cadet to vice-admiral, and was ennobled by King Frederick IV. "For your rare courage and loyalty," the king @@ -8240,7 +8216,7 @@ A great deal was done during this reign for the promotion of science and art, trade, manufactures and agriculture. At Kongsberg a mineral school was established and two hundred German experts employed as teachers. The bishop at Throndhjem, Johan Gunnerus, Rector Gerhard -Schöning, and the Danish scholar, Peter Suhm (who had married the +Schöning, and the Danish scholar, Peter Suhm (who had married the daughter of a merchant at Throndhjem), established the Royal Academy of Sciences in Throndhjem. A free school of mathematics, afterward reorganized as the Norwegian Military Academy, was founded in @@ -8454,7 +8430,7 @@ hour of distress and danger, however, the Norwegians had awakened to a consciousness of the fact that they had only themselves to rely upon, and, during their struggles, they showed a patriotism which shunned no sacrifice. Men like Marcus Rosenkrantz, Peter Anker, Herman Wedel, -Jacob Aall, Severin Lövenskiold, Thygesen, John Collett, Ludvig Maribo, +Jacob Aall, Severin Lövenskiold, Thygesen, John Collett, Ludvig Maribo, and many other patriots, offered their time, energy, and fortunes to the service of the country, and the popular commander, Prince Christian August, was strengthened and aided by a strong national spirit among @@ -8472,7 +8448,7 @@ hearing of the approach of a Norwegian force which had been hurriedly despatched against them by Christian August. The Norwegians proceeded beyond Blaker, and at Toverud (in Urskog Parish, Romerike) surrounded, and, after a sharp fight, captured a Swedish force under Count Axel -Mörner. On April 24th a Swedish force, under Colonel Gahn, crossed +Mörner. On April 24th a Swedish force, under Colonel Gahn, crossed the frontier and marched along the left bank of the Flisen River, a tributary of the Glommen. Near Trangen, in Aasnes Parish, Soloer, they were attacked by the Norwegians, and, after a fight of three @@ -8510,7 +8486,7 @@ and brought to the castle of Drotningholm, and a few days later to Gripsholm Castle, where finally he was induced to write and sign an unconditional abdication. He was later transported to Pomerania, and from there proceeded to Switzerland. When King Gustavus had abdicated, -his aged uncle, Charles, duke of Södermanland, was prevailed upon to +his aged uncle, Charles, duke of Södermanland, was prevailed upon to take charge of the government as regent. The Swedish Diet, which met in May, 1809, confirmed the deposition of King Gustavus and elected Charles king under the title of Charles XIII. The newly-elected king @@ -8519,7 +8495,7 @@ chosen, and the choice fell upon the general-in-chief of the Norwegian army, Prince Christian August, whom the Swedes also had learned to respect during the war, and whose election, it was supposed by many, would eventually result in uniting Norway with Sweden. After peace had -been concluded between Denmark and Sweden, at Jönköping, December 10, +been concluded between Denmark and Sweden, at Jönköping, December 10, 1809, Prince Christian August accepted the election as Crown Prince of Sweden, his name being changed to Charles (or Carl) August. No royal or princely person had ever, to such a degree, won the affection of the @@ -8586,7 +8562,7 @@ Diet; but his opponents strongly argued that to make the Danish king successor to the Swedish throne would eventually result in Sweden becoming a province of Denmark, and the Duke of Augustenborg, who was supported by King Charles XIII., was the choice of a majority in the -Swedish Diet. A messenger, Baron Mörner, was sent to Paris to ascertain +Swedish Diet. A messenger, Baron Mörner, was sent to Paris to ascertain whether such an election would have the approval of Napoleon; but upon arriving in Paris he was told that, according to the latest reports, the election of the Danish king was being seriously considered, and @@ -8598,7 +8574,7 @@ with Napoleon and a consultation with the Swedish minister in Paris, Bernadotte declared himself willing to accept the election, if it were offered to him. -When Baron Mörner returned to Sweden and reported the result of his +When Baron Mörner returned to Sweden and reported the result of his unauthorized step, he caused great surprise, and the king ordered his arrest; but, on second thought, the plan to elect Bernadotte was generally favorably considered by leading men in Sweden. Count Platen @@ -8636,7 +8612,7 @@ of arms, to acquire Norway, and Russia was guaranteed the possession of Finland, while Charles John was to take an active part in the military operations in Germany against Napoleon. This agreement was confirmed at a personal meeting between the Russian emperor Alexander and Crown -Prince Charles John at Åbo, Finland, August 27, 1812. The stipulation +Prince Charles John at Ã…bo, Finland, August 27, 1812. The stipulation that Norway was to be united with Sweden was afterward also agreed to by the other Powers at war with France. Charles John took an active part in the great campaign against Napoleon in Germany. After the @@ -8738,7 +8714,7 @@ the Swedes, but rather from what they considered a necessity, believing that Norway would not, under the circumstances, be able single-handed to maintain her independence. The prominent men of this party were Count Wedel-Jarlsberg, Chamberlain Peter Anker, Mine-owner Jacob Aall, -_Amtmand_ (prefect) Lövenskiold, and the Reverend Nicolai Wergeland. +_Amtmand_ (prefect) Lövenskiold, and the Reverend Nicolai Wergeland. But all members agreed in the demand that Norway must henceforth have a liberal constitution. The following were agreed upon as the fundamental principles of the constitution: @@ -8862,7 +8838,7 @@ representatives being eighty, of whom about twenty had been members of the diet at Eidsvold. The Storthing was solemnly opened by the oldest minister in the name of King Christian Frederick. Two days later a committee of the Storthing, at the request of the king, had an audience -with him at his residence on Bygdö, when he surrendered the Norwegian +with him at his residence on Bygdö, when he surrendered the Norwegian crown into the hands of the people, and for himself and his descendants relinquished all rights to the country. On the same day he went on board a ship and sailed from Norway.[14] The Storthing now, under the @@ -8886,7 +8862,7 @@ action of the Storthing; whereupon Charles John and his son, Prince Oscar, proceeded to Christiania and delivered to the Storthing the king's written oath to the Constitution. As soon as the report of the action of the Norwegian Storthing had reached Stockholm, the Swedish -Minister of Foreign Affairs, Lars von Engeström, despatched a circular +Minister of Foreign Affairs, Lars von Engeström, despatched a circular to each of the Swedish representatives at the foreign courts, informing them of the union of Norway and Sweden. In this circular the minister said: @@ -8969,8 +8945,8 @@ farmers commenced to take an active part in the elections. Prominent among them was Ole Gabriel Ueland. The king was so displeased with the majority in the Storthing of 1836 that he suddenly dissolved it; but the Storthing answered this action by impeaching the Minister of -State, Lövenskiold, for not having dissuaded the king from taking such -a step. Lövenskiold was sentenced to pay a fine. The king then yielded +State, Lövenskiold, for not having dissuaded the king from taking such +a step. Lövenskiold was sentenced to pay a fine. The king then yielded and reconvened the Storthing. He also took a step toward conciliating the Norwegians by appointing their countryman, Count Wedel-Jarlsberg, as viceroy. This action was much appreciated in Norway. During the last @@ -9136,8 +9112,8 @@ Harald the Fairhaired had subdued the many independent chiefs and established the monarchy (872), for the most part belonged to the flower of the nation, and Iceland naturally became the home of the old Norse literature. Among the oldest poetical works of this literature -is the so-called "Elder Edda," also called Sæmund's Edda, because for -a long time it was believed to be the work of the Icelander Sæmund. +is the so-called "Elder Edda," also called Sæmund's Edda, because for +a long time it was believed to be the work of the Icelander Sæmund. "The Younger Edda," also called Snorre's Edda, because it is supposed to have been written by Snorre Sturlason (born 1178, died 1241), contains a synopsis of the old Norse religion and a treatise on the art @@ -9160,7 +9136,7 @@ educational centre, where the young men of Norway went to study, and authors born in Norway became, to all intents and purposes, Danish writers. But Norway furnished some valuable contributors to this common literature. One of the very first names on the records of the Danish -literature, Peder Claussön (1545-1614), is that of a Norwegian, and +literature, Peder Claussön (1545-1614), is that of a Norwegian, and the list further includes such illustrious names as Holberg, Tullin, Wessel, Steffens, etc. @@ -9189,9 +9165,9 @@ principally in France and Italy. In 1718 he became a regular professor at the Copenhagen University. Among Holberg's many works the following are the most prominent: "Peder Paars," a great comical heroic poem, containing sharp attacks on many of the follies of his time; about -thirty comedies in Molière's style, and a large number of historical +thirty comedies in Molière's style, and a large number of historical works. Holberg, who was ennobled in 1747, died in January 29, 1754, and -was buried in Sorö Church. His influence on the literature and on the +was buried in Sorö Church. His influence on the literature and on the whole intellectual life of Denmark was very great. He is often called the creator of the Danish literature. @@ -9205,7 +9181,7 @@ Krog-Bredal (1733-1778), who was the first to write lyrical dramas in Danish. A Norwegian, Johan Nordal Brun (1745-1816), a gifted poet, wrote tragedy in the conventional French taste of the day. It was a Norwegian, Johan Herman Wessel (1742-1785), who, by his great parody, -"Kjærlighed uden Strömper" (Love without Stockings), laughed this +"Kjærlighed uden Strömper" (Love without Stockings), laughed this taste out of fashion. Among the writers of this period are also Claus Frimann (1746-1829), Peter Harboe Frimann (1752-1839), Claus Fasting (1746-1791), Johan Wibe (1748-1782), Edward Storm (1749-1794), C. H. @@ -9254,7 +9230,7 @@ was subjected to severe satirical attacks by the author Welhaven and others, and later his style became improved in every respect. His popularity however decreased as his poetry improved, and in 1840 he had become a great poet but had no political influence. Among his works may -be named "Hasselnödder," "Jöden" (The Jew), "Jödinden" (The Jewess), +be named "Hasselnödder," "Jöden" (The Jew), "Jödinden" (The Jewess), "Jan van Huysums Blomsterstykke" (Jan van Huysum's Flower-piece), "Den engelske Lods" (The English Pilot), and a great number of lyric poems. The poems of his last five years are as popular to-day as ever. @@ -9271,7 +9247,7 @@ as it was called, appeared J. S. Welhaven. Johan Sebastian Cammermeyer Welhaven was born in Bergen in 1807, entered the university in 1825, became a "Lector" in 1840, and -afterward Professor of Philosophy. "His refined æsthetic nature," says +afterward Professor of Philosophy. "His refined æsthetic nature," says Fr. Winkel Horn, "had been early developed, and when the war broke out between him and Wergeland he had reached a high point of intellectual culture, and thus was in every way a match for his opponent. The @@ -9284,7 +9260,7 @@ weak sides of his adversary's poetry. Thereby the minds became still more excited. The 'Intelligence' party withdrew from the students' union, founded a paper of their own, and thus the movement began to assume wider dimensions. In 1834 appeared Welhaven's celebrated poem -'Norges Dæmring,' a series of sonnets, distinguished for their beauty +'Norges Dæmring,' a series of sonnets, distinguished for their beauty of style. In them the poet scourges, without mercy, the one-sided, narrow-minded patriotism of his time, and exposes, in striking and unmistakable words, the hollowness and shortcomings of the Wergeland @@ -9314,19 +9290,19 @@ New," published in 1848, were quite popular. His best work is probably In the period of about a dozen years following the death of Wergeland, the life, manners and characteristics of the Norwegian people were given the especial attention of the literary writers. Prominent in this -period was Peter Christian Asbjörnsen (1812-1885), who, partly alone -and partly in conjunction with Bishop Jörgen Moe (1813-1882), published +period was Peter Christian Asbjörnsen (1812-1885), who, partly alone +and partly in conjunction with Bishop Jörgen Moe (1813-1882), published some valuable collections of Norwegian folk tales and fairy tales. Moe also published three little volumes of graceful and attractive poems. Among other writers of this period may be named Hans H. Schultze -("Fra Lofoten og Solör"), N. Östgaard ("En Fjeldbygd"), Harald Meltser +("Fra Lofoten og Solör"), N. Östgaard ("En Fjeldbygd"), Harald Meltser ("Smaabilleder af Folkelivet"), M. B. Landstad (hymns), and the linguist Sophus Bugge. The efforts to bring out the national life and characteristics of the people in the literature also led to an attempt to nationalize the language in which the literature was written. The movement was the -so-called "Maalstræv," and had in view the introduction of a "pure +so-called "Maalstræv," and had in view the introduction of a "pure Norwegian" book-language, based upon the peasant dialects. The most prominent supporter of this movement was Ivar Aasen (1813-1898), the author of an excellent dictionary of the Norwegian language. A @@ -9336,8 +9312,8 @@ a number of stories and poems in the _Landsmaal_ (country tongue). A new and grand period in the Norwegian literature commenced about 1857, and the two most conspicuous names in this period--and in the -whole Norwegian literature--are those of Henrik Ibsen and Björnstjerne -Björnson. +whole Norwegian literature--are those of Henrik Ibsen and Björnstjerne +Björnson. Henrik Ibsen was born in Skien in 1828. He has written many beautiful poems; but his special field is the drama, where he is a master. His @@ -9345,36 +9321,36 @@ first works were nearly all historical romantic dramas. His first work, "Catilina," printed in 1850, was scarcely noticed until years afterward, when he had become famous. In 1856 appeared the romantic drama, "Gildet paa Solhaug" (The Feast at Solhaug), followed by -"Fru Inger til Oestraat," 1857, and "Hærmændene paa Helgeland" (The +"Fru Inger til Oestraat," 1857, and "Hærmændene paa Helgeland" (The Warriors on Helgeland), 1858. In 1863 he wrote the historical tragedy "Kongsemnerne" (The Pretenders), in which the author showed his great literary power. Before this play was published, he had been drawn into a new channel. In 1862 he began a series of satirical and philosophical -dramas with "Kjærlighedens Komedie" (Love's Comedy), which was +dramas with "Kjærlighedens Komedie" (Love's Comedy), which was succeeded by two masterpieces of a similar kind, "Brand," in 1866, and "Peer Gynt," in 1867. These works were written in verse; but in "De Unges Forbund" (The Young Men's League), 1869, a political satire, he abandoned verse, and all his subsequent dramas have been written in -prose. In 1873 came "Keiser og Galilæer" (Emperor and Galilean). Since +prose. In 1873 came "Keiser og Galilæer" (Emperor and Galilean). Since then he has published a number of social dramas which have attracted -world-wide attention. We mention: "Samfundets Stötter" (The Pillars +world-wide attention. We mention: "Samfundets Stötter" (The Pillars of Society), "Et Dukkehjem" (A Doll's House), "Gengangere" (Ghosts), "En Folkefiende" (An Enemy of the People), "Rosmerholm," "Fruen fra Havet" (The Lady from the Sea), "Little Eyolf," "Bymester Solnes" (Masterbuilder Solnes), "John Gabriel Borkman." -Björnstjerne Björnson (born in Österdalen in 1832) is the more popular +Björnstjerne Björnson (born in Österdalen in 1832) is the more popular of the two giants in the Norwegian literature of to-day. His works are more national in tone. It has been said that to mention his name is to raise the Norwegian flag. His first successes were made in the field of -the novel, and the first two, "Synnöve Solbakken" (1857), and "Arne" +the novel, and the first two, "Synnöve Solbakken" (1857), and "Arne" (1858), made his name famous. These, and his other peasant stories, will always retain their popularity. He soon, however, entered the dramatic field, and has since published a great number of dramas and novels. "Halte Hulda," 1858; "Mellem Slagene," 1859; "Kong Sverre," 1861; "Sigurd Slembe," 1862; "Maria Stuart," 1863; "De Nygifte" (The Newly-married Couple), 1865; "Kongen," 1877; "Leonarda," 1879; "Det ny -System," 1879; "Over Ærne," 1883; "En Fallit," "Det flager," etc., and +System," 1879; "Over Ærne," 1883; "En Fallit," "Det flager," etc., and many others. In the field of belles-lettres there is, at the present time, a number @@ -9386,7 +9362,7 @@ number of young authors. In the field of science, also, modern Norway has a rich literature with many prominent names, such as the historians Peter Andreas Munch (1810-1863), Rudolph Keyser (1803-1864), Johan Ernst Sars (born 1835), -and O. A. Överland. +and O. A. Överland. @@ -9812,16 +9788,16 @@ the other qualified voters in their electoral district, thirty-eight representatives, to meet and sit in the Storthing. Of this number, unless otherwise constitutionally provided, one shall be elected from Aalesund and Molde combined, one from Arendal and Grimstad combined, -four from Bergen, one from Brevig, four from Christiania, Hónefas and +four from Bergen, one from Brevig, four from Christiania, Hónefas and Kongsvinger combined, two from Christianssand, one from Christianssund, two from Drammen, one from Flekkefjord, one from Frederickshald, one -from Fredericksstad, one from Hammerfest, Vardó and Vadsó combined, -one from Holmestrand, one from Kongsberg, one from Krageró, one from -Laurvig and Sandefjord combined, one from Lillehammer, Hamer and Gjóvik -combined, one from Moss and Dróbak combined, one from Porsgrund, one +from Fredericksstad, one from Hammerfest, Vardó and Vadsó combined, +one from Holmestrand, one from Kongsberg, one from Krageró, one from +Laurvig and Sandefjord combined, one from Lillehammer, Hamer and Gjóvik +combined, one from Moss and Dróbak combined, one from Porsgrund, one from Sarpsborg, one from Skien, two from Stavanger and Haugesund -combined, one from Tromsö, four from Throndhjem and Levanger combined, -one from Tunsberg, and one from Osterrisór. When a town, not herein +combined, one from Tromsö, four from Throndhjem and Levanger combined, +one from Tunsberg, and one from Osterrisór. When a town, not herein named, shall have fifty or more inhabitants, who are qualified voters, it shall be attached to the nearest town-electoral district. The same rule shall apply to towns that may hereafter be founded. A town @@ -9840,11 +9816,11 @@ high sheriff of the county, and shall then elect, either from their own number or from the other qualified voters in their county, seventy-six Representatives, to meet and sit in the Storthing, of whom five shall be chosen from the county of Agershus, five from the county of Nordre -Bergenhus, five from the county of Sóndre Bergenhus, five from the +Bergenhus, five from the county of Sóndre Bergenhus, five from the county of Christians, two from the county of Finmarken, five from the county of Hedemarken, five from the county of Nordland, five from the county of Romsdalen, five from the county of Stavanger, two from the -county of Tromsö, and four from each of the other eight counties of +county of Tromsö, and four from each of the other eight counties of the kingdom. Ex-Ministers or ex-Secretaries of State shall be eligible for Representatives in any electoral district, if, barring residence, they are qualified voters and have not already been elected in some @@ -10243,369 +10219,6 @@ to conform to a single, rather than multiple spellings. End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The World's Best Histories--Norway, by -Sigvart Sörensen - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE WORLD'S BEST HISTORIES--NORWAY *** - -***** This file should be named 59531-8.txt or 59531-8.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/9/5/3/59531/ - -Produced by D A Alexander and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net. 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You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The World's Best Histories--Norway - -Author: Sigvart Sörensen - -Release Date: May 18, 2019 [EBook #59531] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE WORLD'S BEST HISTORIES--NORWAY *** - - - - -Produced by D A Alexander and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net. Thanks to the -Natrona County Library System, Casper, Wyoming, USA, for -donating the source book. - - - - - - -</pre> +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 59531 ***</div> <div class="figcenter hide" style="width:400px;"> @@ -12195,382 +12159,7 @@ to conform to a single, rather than multiple spellings.</p></div></div> -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The World's Best Histories--Norway, by -Sigvart Sörensen - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE WORLD'S BEST HISTORIES--NORWAY *** - -***** This file should be named 59531-h.htm or 59531-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/9/5/3/59531/ - -Produced by D A Alexander and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net. 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