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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 59380 ***
+
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+
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+Transcriber Note
+
+Text emphasis denoted by _Italics_ and =Bold.= Whole and fractional parts
+of numbers as 12-3/4.
+
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+
+
+                                BUILDING
+
+                                with LOGS
+
+
+
+
+                    Miscellaneous Publication No. 579
+
+                     U. S. Department of Agriculture
+
+                             Forest Service
+
+
+The art of log construction is relatively simple, once a few basic
+principles are understood. The pioneers who opened the lands beyond the
+eastern seaboard did not have boards with which to build such shelter as
+they needed. Logs were so plentiful in the forested area of our country
+that, with their resourceful ingenuity, the settlers built their homes in
+conformity with those principles of log construction which prevailed in
+the countries from which they migrated. Those principles have remained
+the same down through the years.
+
+The pioneer had but an ax for a tool and consequently made only those
+articles which could be hewed out of wood. Today there are many tools
+available, and to do a first class job of log construction one must know
+how to handle the double-bitted or single-bitted ax, the broadax, saw,
+adz, chisel, slick, ship auger, and drawknife. In this bulletin it is
+assumed that the reader is familiar with the ordinary frame building
+methods used where wood is the principal construction material.
+
+Washington, D. C. Issued September 1945
+
+
+
+
+BUILDING WITH LOGS
+
+
+
+By Clyde P. Fickes, _Engineer_, and W. Ellis Groben, _Chief Architect,
+Forest Service_
+
+
+
+
+Contents
+
+
+                                                   Page
+
+  Building the foundation                             1
+  Preparing the logs                                  1
+  Dimensions of the building                          2
+  Framing the corners                                 3
+    Round-notch corner                                4
+    Other log corners                                 7
+  Door and window jambs                              12
+  Floor joists                                       12
+  Laying the wall logs                               12
+  Window and door openings                           14
+  Window and door frames                             16
+  Roof framing                                       22
+    Shake roofs                                      23
+  Partitions                                         23
+  Flooring                                           24
+  Interior wood finishing                            25
+  Calking                                            25
+  Chinking                                           27
+  Chinkless log cabin construction                   28
+    Milled-log construction                          31
+  Hewing timbers                                     31
+  Fireplace framing                                  31
+  Oiling and painting                                35
+  The finished structure                             35
+  Furniture                                          39
+    Chairs and stools                                39
+    Bed and bunk                                     39
+    Chest and buffet                                 47
+    Settee                                           47
+    Dining table                                     49
+    Table, bench, book rack, and wood hod            50
+  Building plans                                     53
+  Additional information                             56
+
+
+
+BUILDING THE FOUNDATION
+
+
+A building should have a good foundation, and a log structure is no
+exception to the rule. For the sake of economy in labor and material it
+is sufficient, in some instances, to place small buildings on piers of
+concrete or rough native stone, but usually it will be more satisfactory
+to use continuous walls of stone masonry or concrete to provide
+uninterrupted support for the logs and thus avoid their tendency to sag.
+These walls, however, should be provided with small openings for the
+circulation of air to prevent the wood from dry rotting. Furthermore, the
+continuous foundation wall has the additional advantage of preventing
+rodents from getting under the building. In no case should the logs be
+placed directly upon the ground since wood tends to decay when in contact
+with the earth.
+
+The two end walls of the exterior foundation should be higher than the
+side walls in order to offset the difference in level of the logs on
+adjacent walls, the end-wall logs being half their thickness higher than
+those on the side walls.
+
+In building a log wall the chief problem is in closing the opening
+between each pair of logs. There are various ways of doing this, but
+only those regarded as most satisfactory will be described in this
+publication. The width of such openings is affected by several factors:
+(1) The manner of placing the logs upon each other; (2) the type of
+corner used where two walls meet; (3) the openings for doors and windows;
+and (4) the natural shrinkage of wood in the process of drying.
+
+
+
+
+PREPARING THE LOGS
+
+
+The selection of straight, smooth, even-sized logs is the prime
+consideration (fig. 1). Top diameters should be as uniform as possible,
+but as a rule not less than 10 nor more than 12 inches. (Slightly
+smaller or larger dimensions may be used if no others are available.) The
+taper should be as slight as possible. For logs longer than 40 feet, the
+top diameter may be less than 10 inches in order to avoid an excessive
+diameter at the large or butt end.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 1.--Starting to build the log cabin--laying the
+foundation.]
+
+Cedar, pine, fir, and larch, in the order named, are most desirable
+for log construction. All knots, limbs, or bumps should be trimmed off
+carefully when the log is peeled. It is best to cut the logs in late fall
+or winter, for two important reasons: (1) Logs cut in spring or summer
+peel easier, but crack or check to an undesirable degree while seasoning.
+(2) Insect activity is dormant during the winter months; hence, if the
+logs are cut and seasoned then, they are less liable to damage by insects
+or rot-producing fungi.
+
+Logs should be cut, peeled, and laid on skids well above the ground
+for at least 6 months before being placed in the building. This may
+not always be possible, but it is a good rule to follow. Logs should
+be stored in a single deck with 2 or 3 inches between them to permit
+complete exposure to the air. Logs having a sweep or curve should
+be piled with the curve uppermost so that their weight will tend
+to straighten them while they are drying. Where the skidding space
+is limited, logs may be double-decked, using poles between tiers.
+Unrestricted air circulation materially aids seasoning.
+
+Sort the logs carefully before starting construction, using the better
+ones in the front or other conspicuous walls of the building. If the logs
+are not uniform in size, the larger ones should be placed at the bottom
+of the walls.
+
+
+
+
+DIMENSIONS OF THE BUILDING
+
+
+For practical reasons the dimensions of a log building are the inside
+measurements taken from one log to the corresponding log in the opposite
+wall. Outside dimensions vary somewhat with the size of the logs, thus
+accounting for the use of inside measurements. Where projecting corners
+are desired, logs should be at least 6 feet longer than the inside
+dimensions of the building. In erecting the walls, the logs should be
+kept even or plumb on the inside faces if it is desired to finish the
+interior with wallboard or plaster.
+
+
+
+
+FRAMING THE CORNERS
+
+
+The corner is one of the most important aspects of log construction. On
+it the appearance and stability of the structure depend. Different types
+of corner construction are in use in the United States, each varying in
+accordance with local building customs or individual taste.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 2.--The round-notch or saddle corner. This is
+an unusually fine example of scribing and fitting logs together. The
+square-cut logs have yet to be dressed and shaped with the ax to give
+them a pleasing appearance.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 3.--Ranger station, Gallatin National Forest,
+Mont., illustrating effective use of round-notch corners. _A_, and _B_,
+Dwelling under construction; _C_, barn.]
+
+
+Round-Notch Corner
+
+The round-notch, or saddle, corner (fig. 2) is generally considered the
+most satisfactory from every standpoint. This type of corner gives the
+most distinctive appearance because the logs project sufficiently beyond
+the corner not to appear dubbed off (fig. 3). It is a good, self-locking,
+mechanical joint, relatively easy to construct, and holds the logs
+rigidly in place.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 4.--Method of marking saddle corners.]
+
+In cutting the saddle, the material is taken out of the under side of the
+upper log without disturbing the top surface of the bottom log. All the
+moisture thus drains out at the corner and, consequently, the wood is
+much less subject to decay than if other types of corners were used. The
+shrinkage in the outer area of the log's circumference tends to open up
+the space between the logs. Finally, in the round-notch corner, one-half
+of the shrinkage between the logs is allowed to remain in the corner. The
+separation, therefore, is not as great as if each log had been cut down
+to the heartwood, a disadvantage common to most other types of corners.
+
+The tools required to make a round-notch or saddle corner are: A pair
+of log dogs to hold the log in place, 10- or 12-inch wing dividers with
+pencil holder and level-bubble attachment, sharp ax, 2-inch gouge chisel
+with outside bevel, crosscut saw, spirit level, and plumb board. The
+framing of this corner, described in figure 4, should be relatively easy.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 5.--Chopping the notch in a saddle corner.]
+
+First, the bottom logs should be set in place on opposite sides of the
+foundation. Hew a flat face of 2 to 3 inches in width on the under side
+of the log where it rests on the foundation, so that it will lay in
+place. Then place the bottom log on each end-wall and accurately center
+it so that the inside face of all four logs is to the exact interior
+dimensions of the building. Dog the logs into place so they will not
+move while being marked for the corner notch. The wing divider is now
+set for one-half the diameter of the side log. With the lower leg of the
+divider resting on the side of the under log and the other leg, with the
+level-bubble uppermost, resting against the bottom of the upper log and
+directly above the lower log, start moving the divider upward, with a
+side motion, so that the lower leg follows the curvature of the under
+log. The pencil point of the upper leg makes a mark on the surface of the
+upper log which will be the intersection of the surfaces of the two logs
+when the notch has been cut from the upper one. Repeat this operation
+four times to mark all four sides of the corner. A little practice will
+make you adept at keeping the points of the divider perpendicular to each
+other.
+
+After the notch has been marked at both ends of the log, turn it over
+on its back. It is a good idea to intensify the divider mark with an
+indelible pencil so that it will be easily followed. Chop the notch
+out roughly, as illustrated in figure 5, then chip down as closely as
+possible to the mark, supplying the finishing touches with a gouge
+chisel. The finished notch should be cupped out just enough to allow the
+weight of the log to come on the outside edges, thus insuring a tight
+joint.
+
+When the next side log is rolled into place, the dividers should be set
+apart for the width of the space between the top of the first and the
+bottom of the following log, and the marking repeated as before. If you
+wish to have the upper log "ride" the lower one a little, so that an
+especially tight joint is obtained, the dividers should be set a little
+wider apart than the space actually requires.
+
+
+Other Log Corners
+
+The dovetail, or box, corner (figs. 6 and 7) is a strong corner, and
+considerable experience is required in order to make a neat-looking
+job. This type has several undesirable features: (1) The logs are apt
+to develop a wide crack because the corner is framed from the part of
+the log in which the least shrinkage occurs, and (2) since the logs are
+hewed down to form the corner, the wood has a tendency to collect and
+retain moisture which soon results in decay. Also, this corner detracts
+noticeably from the "loggy" appearance so characteristic and desirable in
+log structures. The drawings in figure 6 show the most practical methods
+of marking and framing the dovetail, or box, corner.
+
+The flat, or plain, tenon corner (fig. 8), is also common. It may be
+made in two ways. In one, only the bearing surfaces are framed, while in
+the other, all four sides of the tenon are framed flat. The plain tenon
+corner does not have the highly desirable feature of being self-locking.
+However, it is simple to make and economical, and therefore especially
+suitable for temporary structures. The logs must be pinned together, as
+shown in figure 11. All the framing can be done on the ground, before the
+logs are put in place. Carefully fitted, this makes a neat-looking job.
+
+_Directions for constructing the flat, or plain, tenon corner._--Square
+one end of log, as in figure 8, at point _A_, then measure required
+length and saw the opposite end square, at _B_. If the log has any
+curvature, turn it on the skids until its back is up. Determine the
+thickness of the tenons, based upon the average top and butt diameters
+of the log. Then take an 18-inch length of board the same width as the
+thickness of the tenons, driving a nail through its center and into the
+center of the log. Place the spirit level on top of the board and mark
+lines on the log at the top and bottom edges. The width of a tenon
+varies with the diameter of the logs; 8- to 10-inch diameters will
+produce 6- to 7-inch wide tenons.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 6.--Marking and framing the dovetail, or box,
+corner.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 7.--Ranger Station, Lolo National Forest, Mont.
+Note the meticulous construction of box corners.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 8.--Framing the flat, or plain, tenon corner.]
+
+Nail a 1 inch by 1 inch cleat on the pattern board to points _C_ and _D_
+and then make saw cuts on each end, cut chip off and smooth the surface.
+Turn log over and repeat on the other side. After framing out the sides
+of the tenon, the log is ready to be placed on the wall. Some fitting
+between corners is usually necessary but, if the logs are fairly straight
+and smooth, the work will be minimized.
+
+The upright, or groove-and-tenon, corner (fig. 9) is used to a
+considerable extent in the West. It has desirable features from a
+mechanical standpoint: (1) The weight of the building is carried on
+the full length of the logs and does not rest solely on the corners,
+as in other types, and (2) it makes a tight wall because no openings
+will develop between the logs. Although not difficult to construct, the
+upright corner requires considerable mechanical skill and accuracy.
+A good carpenter can frame the entire building on the ground before
+any logs are placed on the foundation, after which it can be erected
+in a very short time. Next to the round-notch corner the upright, or
+groove-and-tenon corner, probably has the best appearance.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 9.--Framing the upright, or groove-and-tenon,
+corner.]
+
+
+
+
+DOOR AND WINDOW JAMBS
+
+
+Door and window jambs should be framed just like the corners except that
+only the back should be grooved. The door side, or face, may be rabbeted
+or left smooth so that a separate wood door stop may be nailed in place.
+If the logs are reasonably dry, from 3 to 4 inches should be left at each
+corner for settlement due to shrinkage; otherwise, more or less space
+should be allowed, as conditions require. In about 6 months the cap log
+will come down and close this gap. Similar provisions should be made for
+settlement over door and window openings.
+
+
+
+
+FLOOR JOISTS
+
+
+As soon as the first round or tier of logs is laid, the floor joists
+should be set in place, notching them into the bottom side logs. If the
+building has a continuous masonry foundation, the joists may be set on
+top of it, as in a frame building.
+
+In order that the ends of the joists may have sufficient bearing on the
+wall, it is necessary either to notch the ends into the side logs or
+hew the latter off on the inside. A simple method is to cut the notches
+in the side logs before they are rolled into place. Pole joists should
+be from 4 to 8 inches in diameter and hewed level on the upper side to
+provide a solid bearing for nailing the flooring. Several different ways
+of framing the floor joists are shown in figure 10.
+
+
+
+
+LAYING THE WALL LOGS
+
+
+In laying the successive rounds of logs in the walls, several details
+must be observed to keep them lined up so that the top logs form a
+level seat for the roof framing. The corners should be kept as level as
+possible as each round is laid. This can be done by measuring vertically
+from the top of the floor joists, from time to time, as a check. A
+variation of 1 inch in height will not cause a serious difficulty.
+
+The height of the corner's is regulated in two ways: (1) By increasing or
+decreasing the depth of the notch, and (2) by reversing the top and butt
+ends of the logs when laying them in the wall.
+
+The logs should be fitted together as tightly as possible. In the case
+of somewhat irregularly surfaced logs, it may be necessary to smooth off
+certain portions of the under side of the upper log to secure a tight
+fit. Only in exceptional instances, however, should this be done to the
+top of the lower log.
+
+The face of the logs on the inside of the building must be kept plumb,
+that is, in the same vertical plane. An ordinary carpenter's, or spirit,
+level may be used, but a 6- to 8-foot plumb board is considered most
+satisfactory because of its greater length.
+
+The logs should be pinned together with a wooden pin or large spike (fig.
+11). Spiking is done by boring a 3/4-inch hole halfway through the upper
+log and continuing with a 7/16-inch hole through the bottom half. Then
+drive a 10- or 12-inch spike into place, or until it penetrates half the
+next log below. The spikes should be staggered in alternate rounds or
+tiers of logs. If wooden pins are used, fir or oak logs are preferable.
+Neither wooden pins nor spikes, however, offer interference to the
+settling of the walls.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 10.--Framing floor joists.]
+
+The spike method is easier and quicker, and just as satisfactory as
+the wooden pin. The logs should be pinned approximately 2 feet from
+each corner and at each side of the window and door openings. For small
+structures, where the alignment of the walls is not so important, pinning
+may be eliminated, but it is essential to align larger buildings
+accurately in order to prevent individual logs from springing out of
+place.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 11.--Pinning logs together.]
+
+Where the use of logs having a decided curve, or sweep, is unavoidable
+they should be set in the wall with the bow or back up. Such logs may
+be straightened by making enough saw cuts in the upper side of the
+curved surface to allow them to straighten out. The cuts should be
+from one-third to one-half the depth of the log, or slightly more, if
+necessary (fig. 12).
+
+[Illustration: Figure 12.--Straightening a curved log.]
+
+
+
+
+WINDOW AND DOOR OPENINGS
+
+
+Early American log structures were characterized by relatively dark
+interiors because window openings, designed for protective purposes,
+were small and far apart. Since protection is no longer a consideration,
+window frames may be of standard size and located where they are most
+suitable for adequate day lighting.
+
+As soon as the first round of logs and the floor joists are laid in
+place, mark the location of door and window openings on the inside face.
+Next saw out the door openings and chop out the notch in the doorsill log
+to within an inch of the true or finished line, as shown in figure 13.
+Leave final cutting of the openings to the exact dimensions until the
+window and door frames are to be placed in position, thus insuring a good
+finished wood surface. Also, determine the height of the openings above
+the floor line and mark them in figures on the bottom log for reference
+from time to time. The necessary cuts should be made in the log directly
+over each opening before placing it in position. When the log which
+carries the window frame is reached, a notch must be made for it as for
+the doors.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 13.--Cutting window and door openings.]
+
+To provide the necessary doors and windows, openings must be cut in the
+walls after the logs have been placed in position. As soon as a log in
+the wall is cut in two, the problem arises of how to hold the loose ends
+in place. Also, the doors and windows require the proper kind of frames
+to insure airtight closure between the latter and the ends of the wall
+logs. The most practicable and satisfactory method is to frame a vertical
+notch in the ends of the wall logs, into which can be fitted a spline
+attached to the back of the jamb or side-pieces of the door and window
+frames. This method of framing holds the wall logs in place, allows them
+to shrink and settle without hindrance, and makes a weathertight joint
+between them and the door and window frames. The vertical notch in the
+end of the wall logs may be framed by boring a 2-inch auger hole in each
+log as it is laid in place. The hole should be located so that, when the
+wall logs are sawed out for the opening, the saw cut passes down through
+the edge of the hole nearest the opening. It is then a simple matter to
+frame the notch to take the spline. The inside face of the notch can be
+left rounded and the spline chamfered to fit. To keep the holes in line
+from log to log, use the plumb board illustrated in figure 14.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 14.--Method of marking openings.]
+
+
+
+
+WINDOW AND DOOR FRAMES
+
+
+There are two ways of making window and door frames--in three pieces
+(two side jambs and one head jamb), or in four pieces (two side jambs,
+one head jamb, and a sill piece). When a three-piece frame is used, the
+bottom log of the opening is cut or shaped to make the window or doorsill
+and the jamb pieces are then fitted to the sill. If the jambs are framed
+from pieces of log slabbed on two opposite sides, a presentable frame in
+keeping with the log character of the structure is obtained. The window
+or door face of the jamb pieces may be rabbeted for the windows and
+doors, respectively, or they may have separate wooden pieces, known as
+stops, nailed on. The spline on the back of the jamb may be rabbeted out,
+or a 2 inch by 2 inch piece of straight-grained wood nailed on. The head
+jamb can be framed in the same way; it does not require a spline on the
+back. Each side jamb has a dowel framed on each end. The bottom dowel
+fits into a mortise in the sill and the top dowel into a similar mortise
+in the head jamb.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 15.--Window frames.]
+
+In a four-piece frame, the sill log is cut with a slope, in the customary
+way, and the jambs are fitted as for a three-piece frame. Figure 15
+illustrates the installation of three- and four-piece window frames.
+
+When the head jamb or top log over the opening is reached, the frames are
+ready for installation. The opening is now cut out, the sill fashioned,
+the vertical spline slot framed, and the head jamb log cut out to fit
+over the opening. At this point, the amount of settlement resulting from
+the shrinkage of the wall logs, as they dry out, must be determined and a
+corresponding allowance provided in the opening. This allowance is made
+between the upper side of the headpiece of the frame and the bottom of
+the log directly over the opening, and should be from 2-1/2 to 4 inches
+for a door 6 feet 8 inches to 7 feet in height, or 1-1/2 to 3 inches
+for an ordinary double hung window. The log over the opening should be
+notched out on the under side so that it can be dropped in place after
+the frame has been set in position.
+
+When the type of window or door frame here described is used, neither
+outside nor inside casings, sometimes called wood trim, are required. The
+logs selected for the jamb material should be from 2 to 3 inches larger
+in diameter than the wall logs, in order to fit properly. Also, they will
+be much easier to work if well-seasoned (fig. 16).
+
+[Illustration: Figure 16.--Log jamb window frame.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 17.--Typical log-wall section, taken through
+window.]
+
+If standard mill work frames are used, false side jambs of sawed
+material, usually 2-inch planks, should be fitted in the openings to hold
+the logs in place. For a wall made of 10-inch logs, a plank 2 inches by
+10 inches should be used for the jambs and the standard frame fitted in
+place between them after providing the necessary allowance for the wall
+logs to shrink or settle. The head casing ordinarily will cover the space
+allowed for shrinkage.
+
+Some kind of insulating material which will take compression, such as
+crumpled newspapers, asbestos wool fiber, or rock wool, may be used to
+fill the space over the head allowed for settlement. Insulating material
+must be installed loosely, so as not to take any weight as the headlog
+gradually settles.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 18.--Various ways of framing eaves. Despite the
+fact that sawed rafters, as shown above, are often used for convenience
+in framing the roof, sawed or milled material is incongruous in
+appearance in the exterior of log buildings Hence, pole rafters,
+hand-made shakes, and similar hand-riven features are preferred.]
+
+For the log-type frame, copper or galvanized steel flashing should be
+fastened to the bottom of the cut in the top log, leaving the lower edge
+of the flashing free to slide on the face of the log head jamb. As the
+wall settles, the bottom of the flashing can be trimmed off if too much
+of the face of the head jamb is covered. This makes a weathertight joint
+and protects the insulating material with which the shrinkage space has
+been filled. See figure 17, Head section.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 19.--Framing log purlins for shakes.]
+
+
+
+
+ROOF FRAMING
+
+
+Roofs may be framed in several ways, depending upon the kind of material
+available and the appearance desired. The framing for a shingle roof,
+whether of sawed material or round poles, is done in the same way as that
+of a frame building. The top log on the wall may be cut with a flat seat
+for the rafters to rest upon, as at _Y_, in figure 18, _A_ or notched out
+to receive them as at _Z_ in figure 18, _B_. The gable ends may be run
+up with the logs, which is preferable for architectural appearance, or
+framed like the gables of a frame structure, and then covered with wood
+siding, shingles, or shakes (fig. 19).
+
+The shingles may be laid over sheathing boards in the usual manner or on
+shingle strips placed across the roof rafters, parallel with the ridge
+and exactly spaced to receive them, commonly known as "barn-fashion."
+
+The particular method to be followed in framing the eaves depends largely
+upon their projection. Where the effect of a considerable overhang is
+desired, an eave purlin log may be used to support the projecting shakes
+as shown in figure 19, _A_. To support 30- to 36-inch long shakes having
+a 6-inch lap, the log purlins should be spaced at approximately 24-inch
+intervals, as in figure 19. In regions of heavy snows, the eave log may
+be placed slightly forward to help support the overhang, or an additional
+eave log may be placed in position, as shown in figure 19, _B_. The gable
+logs should be run up at the same time as the roof logs, and both rigidly
+framed together.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 20.--Splitting shakes with the froe.]
+
+
+
+
+Shake Roofs
+
+It is often desirable to use hand-split shakes for the roof covering.
+These are usually made from cedar, but may be of any straight-grained
+wood, free from knots, which splits easily. First, the logs are cut in
+lengths of 30 to 36 inches and then the shakes are split off with a tool
+called a froe (fig. 20).
+
+After the log cuts are set on end, the froe is held on the upper end of
+the block and then struck a blow with a wooden maul which causes a piece
+of the block or shake to split off. Being hand-split, the thickness
+varies somewhat; the minimum is 1/2 inch. A roof of thin shingles,
+lacking sufficient scale, is never as effective as a rough textured one,
+using 3/4- to 1-1/4-inch thick shakes, to harmonize with the sturdy
+appearance of the log walls. The width, normally 6 to 8 inches, is
+governed by the size of the blocks of wood and varies accordingly, while
+the length is governed by the spacing of the roof logs or purlins. Shakes
+are always laid on the purlins in single courses, lapping the sides 1-1/2
+to 2 inches and over-lapping the ends at least 6 inches, as illustrated
+in figure 19. Nailing is usually done with six- or eight-penny galvanized
+box nails. Copper nails may be used for greater permanence. A good shake
+roof will not leak although from the inside of the building it may appear
+to have many holes.
+
+The ordinary, uninteresting, straight-line effect at the butts may
+be broken up by staggering them from 1 to 2 inches, as is often done
+with shingles. This method produces an effect more in keeping with the
+log walls. Although involving greater care and additional labor it is
+preferable, from an architectural point of view, to the more common
+custom of laying them to uniformly straight lines.
+
+At the ridge of the roof, where the shingles or shakes intersect,
+provisions must be made for weatherproofing. The shingled Boston ridge,
+comb intersection, or pole ridge, shown in figure 21 are practical and
+much more satisfactory from the standpoint of architectural effect than
+stock metal ridges, ridge boards, and other methods.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 21.--Ridge treatments.]
+
+
+PARTITIONS
+
+
+If the log building is to be divided into several rooms, at least two
+different methods may be used to construct the partition walls. If the
+log construction plan is to be carried throughout the structure by using
+interior log-wall partitions, these should be laid out and framed in,
+and the door openings cut in the same manner as previously described for
+exterior walls. If a log partition comes at a place in a cross wall where
+it is not considered desirable to have the log ends project into the room
+beyond the opposite face of the wall, they may be sawed off flush with
+the face of the cross wall, as shown at _X_, figure 22, Plan _A_. This
+will not weaken the joint since the logs are both pinned and locked in
+place.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 22.--Interior partitions.]
+
+Where frame partitions are used, they should be constructed as in a frame
+building. A gain or a 3- to 4-inch deep groove should be cut in the log
+wall into which the end studding of the frame partition is to be set
+(fig. 22, Plan _B_). The cut should be made in each log before it is
+placed in the wall. In no case should the studding at the ends of the
+partitions be nailed to the log walls which they intersect in order not
+to interfere with or be affected by their shrinkage and settlement.
+
+
+
+
+FLOORING
+
+
+A subfloor should be laid first using shiplap or sheathing. Over this a
+finished floor of such hardwoods as maple or oak, or the harder softwood
+species such as Douglas-fir, western larch, or southern pine, may be
+laid. Vertical grain and flat grain may be had in both softwood and
+hardwood, but the vertical grain shrinks and swells less than the flat,
+is more uniform in texture, wears more evenly, and the joints open much
+less. Finished flooring consists or tongue-and-groove material of various
+thicknesses and widths.
+
+Despite a slight tendency to splinter and wear irregularly over a period
+of years, plain wide planking of random-width boards makes an appropriate
+floor for a log building. An attractive effect may be had by using screws
+instead of nails, countersunk to a depth of 1/2 inch and concealed by
+inserting false wooden dowels glued in place as shown in figure 23, _B_.
+Keying the boards together with wood keys, at random along the edges,
+adds to the attractiveness of the flooring.
+
+
+
+
+INTERIOR WOOD FINISHING
+
+
+Hanging doors and windows, and many other customary details of building
+construction should be done in the usual manner in building with logs.
+Whenever cupboards or other built-in units are constructed, they must
+be framed to be independent or entirely free of the log walls, like the
+furniture. However, such fixtures as lavatories may be attached to two
+adjacent logs without any subsequent structural complications.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 23.--Flooring. _A_, Plain tongue and groove; _B_,
+random-width planking.]
+
+
+
+
+CALKING
+
+
+When round logs are laid up in a wall there is always an opening between
+them unless they are grooved on the under side to saddle the one below,
+as described later under chinkless log cabin construction. In exterior
+walls, this opening, or crack, must be closed in order to make the
+structure weathertight. There are several methods of doing this. If
+the logs are reasonably straight and uniform in size and the corners
+carefully made, the opening between them will be small, often barely
+perceptible. When this is the case, the openings should be filled with
+some sort of calking compound applied with either a pressure gun or a
+trowel (fig. 24).
+
+[Illustration: Figure 24.--Examples of tight joints well calked. _A_,
+Interior calking; _B_, exterior calking.]
+
+In recent years several kinds of calking material have been put on the
+market. They are applied best with a gun having a pressure-release
+trigger whereby the calking compound is forced through a nozzle made in
+various shapes and sizes to meet different requirements. These calking
+compounds are not adversely affected by heat or cold, retain their
+natural flexibility, and have an adhesive property which causes them to
+adhere to the surface to which they are applied.
+
+A good plastic compound will adhere to the logs under all conditions
+and can be patched easily by simply applying more material. A black
+fiber seal is not objectionable and, at the same time, gives a practical
+finish. The seal should be applied to both sides of the exterior and
+interior log walls, producing an almost hermetically sealed building.
+When applied with a pressure gun having a 3/8-inch nozzle, 1 gallon will
+fill about 300 linear feet of opening. If applied in cold weather, the
+material should be heated to a temperature of 60°F.
+
+
+
+
+CHINKING
+
+
+When using logs that are somewhat rough and irregular in shape, the
+resulting space between them may be so large that the calking material
+cannot be used satisfactorily to fill the opening. In such cases, it
+will be necessary to insert "chinking," which usually is applied to the
+interior and exterior walls in one of two ways:
+
+1. _Split chinking._--Segments of a log are split out in sizes which fit
+the opening and, after being carefully shaped with the ax to make a tight
+fit, are securely nailed in position. This kind of chinking requires
+considerable work and patience to secure a good appearance.
+
+2. _Pole chinking._--Small round poles may be used to fill the openings
+(fig. 25). Usually they are cut in sizes and lengths to fill the opening
+from wall to wall. This sort of chinking may be applied rapidly to either
+inside or outside walls and makes a neater job than the preceding method.
+Unless the logs are thoroughly seasoned these small poles sometimes
+have a tendency to pull away from the nails. When the chinking has been
+completed, the openings will have been reduced sufficiently in width to
+allow the calking material to be applied successfully.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 25.--Pole chinking.]
+
+It is always a serious problem in log construction to devise a practical
+method for permanently fastening the plaster daubing in place on both
+inside and outside walls. In some instances, shingle nails may be driven
+into the logs 2 to 3 inches apart for the full length of the opening or
+2-inch wide strips of metal lath may be used and the plaster applied to
+fill it. Cattle hair may be added to the plaster to increase its adhesive
+consistency and thereby hold it more rigidly in place. Sometimes, wood
+strips are nailed on the lower log to hold the plaster in position, as
+shown in figure 26, but they are unsightly.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 26.--Wood daubing strips.]
+
+
+
+
+CHINKLESS LOG CABIN CONSTRUCTION
+
+
+Chinkless construction, associated with the building of log structures in
+Scandinavian countries, eliminates the chinking and mudding so prevalent
+in many log buildings. It consists of grooving the under side of every
+log in each tier so that it saddles the log beneath, making a close
+joint for its entire length. The groove is marked by a tool which, for
+convenience, may be called a cabin scribe or a drag (fig. 27).
+
+_Directions for chinkless log cabin construction._---Mark and cut out
+the notch just as is done for a round-notch corner. Next, dog the log in
+place and scribe, making the additional mark shown by dash line (_X_,
+fig. 27). Then, cut to line and, finally, drop log in position.
+
+The scribe is 12 inches long, made preferably of 3/8-inch square steel
+or iron bent in much the same manner as the spring in a steel trap; the
+two ends are turned down about 1-1/2 inches like two fingers, diverging
+to about 3/4 of an inch at the points, and then sharpened with a flat
+surface on the inside of the point toward the loop. The loop should be
+hammered out thin to provide sufficient flexibility to allow the points
+to spread or close easily. A ring is welded around the two halves of the
+tool which, when slipped up or down, makes it possible to adjust the
+points and thereby prevent any further spreading while the tool is in
+use. A link from a small chain, placed over the legs before the points
+are turned, will serve the same purpose and, to prevent the points from
+springing together, a small piece of wood may be forced between them.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 27.--Chinkless log cabin construction.]
+
+To fit a log, first frame it at the ends and then fit it down to within
+about 2 inches of the lower log where the opening is the widest It is
+difficult to do a good job of scribing when the logs are too close
+together. The scribe must then be adjusted at the point where the
+opening is the widest so that, when holding the tool parallel to the
+opening, the lower point of the scribe will ride on the surface of the
+bottom log. By exerting sufficient pressure, the upper point will score
+the top log. Repeat this operation to score the upper log on the other
+side. The corner tenons must be marked likewise. Next, turn the log over,
+work the tenons down and then cut a =V=-shaped groove to the marked lines
+in the remaining portion of the log, using a double-bitted ax. This
+groove should be cut deep enough along its center to permit the outer
+edge of the groove to rest continuously on the lower log. By removing the
+least amount of wood to make the smallest possible groove, the closest
+fit is obtained with the least effort.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 28.--Fine example of milled-log
+construction--ranger's dwelling, Whitman National Forest, Oreg.]
+
+The principle of the scribe is based on parallel lines, and it can
+readily be seen that if there is a hump on the lower log there will
+have to be a gouge in the upper one. When the work is done carefully,
+the space remaining is negligible. Where an airtight wall is desired,
+a strip of plumber's oakum should be laid on the bottom log before the
+upper log is dropped into place. If this material is not available, dry
+moss is a fairly practical substitute.
+
+
+Milled-Log Construction
+
+Sometimes it is feasible to take advantage of a portable mill to face the
+logs on three sides rather than to hew them by hand. The level beds seat
+the logs so well that calking is minimized, the smooth interior surfaces
+permit of easy finishing, particularly where wood wainscoting or plaster
+is used, while the round-log exterior effect is undisturbed, except where
+the logs project at the corners. Figure 28 illustrates a structure built
+in this way.
+
+
+
+
+HEWING TIMBERS
+
+
+The facing or hewing of round timbers to obtain one or two sides surfaced
+flat for framing purposes, as shown in figure 29, requires considerable
+skill in the use of the ax and broadax. There are, however, a number of
+mechanical aids (fig. 30) which should be used by anyone undertaking
+log construction in order to simplify the work as much as possible. The
+carpenter's spirit level, the steel square, and chalk line and chalk are
+necessary for laying off the lines to be followed in hewing timbers. In
+framing logs they should be laid up on skids, or sawhorses, dogged fast
+in place with iron dogs, and the dimensions laid off on each end of the
+log with the level and square to insure that the lines are parallel to
+each other. Then, with the chalk line, carefully snap lines on the side
+of the log connecting corresponding points at each end. For squaring the
+ends of a log and cutting pole rafters, use the miter box to guide the
+saw. To measure lengths accurately the steel tape, or a board pattern cut
+to the exact length, may be used.
+
+
+
+
+FIREPLACE FRAMING
+
+
+The living-room fireplace, invariably the most prominent interior
+feature, harmonizes best with a log interior if built of stone and
+provided with a crude log shelf. The fireplace itself may be either the
+traditional masonry type or the more modern metal-lined one equipped with
+a heatilator.
+
+The masonry of the fireplace and its chimney should always start on
+solid earth, below the frost line, like the foundations of the building
+itself. Masonry does not settle, unlike the surrounding log construction.
+Consequently, it is recommended that a self-supporting log framing be
+built around and entirely free of the masonry of the fireplace and
+chimney, as illustrated in figure 31. The opening should be framed in
+the same way as window and door openings. The fireplace and chimney
+masonry should not be erected until the opening has been framed for it.
+Upon completion, the intersection between the stone and wood should be
+thoroughly calked to make an airtight, weatherproof job. This method
+allows the wall logs to settle, because of the unavoidable shrinkage,
+without structural failure.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 29.--Framing hewed timbers.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 30.--Mechanical aids in cutting timbers. Method:
+Cut both miter boxes at angle _X_ for 1/3 pitch. Fasten them securely to
+the floor or to a log, used as a sawhorse, and space exactly the required
+distance apart to insure that all rafters are cut alike. Then place each
+rafter in the boxes, back down if any curvature exists, dog rigidly in
+place and saw to the pattern.
+
+Line A represents the exterior wall face and, if sawed off on line _B_,
+parallel with the wall face, overhang of eave will be 1 foot, 6 inches.
+Any desired overhang may be had and sawing eliminated by fixing the
+distance _C_. The irregularly hewed rafter end is preferable to the
+uniform elliptical saw-cut ends. Finally, hew the upper surface of the
+rafters to a smooth even bearing to receive the roof sheathing boards.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 31.--Framing around the fireplace. Framing logs
+around fireplace and chimney varies with the effect desired: (1) By using
+an exposed vertical slabbed log and spline, as at _A_, with space _X_, to
+allow for the shrinkage settling of the logs above the mantel, or (2) by
+using a concealed vertical slabbed log and spline, as at _B_, where the
+masonry is exposed above the mantel.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 32.--A useful type of modern log dwelling--ranger
+station, Gallatin National Forest, Mont.]
+
+In building an ordinary fireplace, the firebox and inner hearth should
+be made of firebrick to withstand intense heat and the various parts
+proportioned in accordance with standard practice to insure efficient
+operation.[1]
+
+[1] For this purpose the following publication will be found useful:
+Farmers' Bulletin 1889, Fireplaces and Chimneys.
+
+The heatilator is a built-in recirculating steel unit consisting of metal
+sides and back to form a heating chamber, adjacent to the fire pit, which
+draws cold air through a register at each side near the floor and after
+the air is heated ejects it through similar registers above. It should be
+installed in conformity with the manufacturer's directions, taking care
+to select a stock-size unit suitable for the dimensions of the fireplace
+opening and to erect the surrounding masonry accordingly.
+
+
+
+
+OILING AND PAINTING
+
+
+After all the openings have been properly calked and the logs brushed
+clean, it is often desirable, although not absolutely necessary, to treat
+the log surfaces with some sort of preservative material. Logwood oil is
+excellent for the exterior. The colorless variety is preferable in most
+cases but, if some color is desired, add just enough burnt umber, or raw
+sienna paste, to give the proper shade. For interior finish, apply a coat
+of clear shellac and then one or two coats of dull varnish. The trim can
+be treated in a similar manner to preserve the pleasing effect produced
+by the natural surface and color of the wood.
+
+
+
+
+THE FINISHED STRUCTURE
+
+
+Examples of modern log construction are shown in figures 32, 33, and 34.
+Early types of log structures are illustrated in figure 35.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 33.--Modern structures showing effective use of log
+construction in recreation buildings on national forests in Montana. _A_,
+Dude ranch; _B_ and _C_, recreational and mess hall, Seely Lake.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 34.--Organization camp at Seely Lake showing log
+work In greater detail. _A_, Entrance wing; _B_, cabin group. Note the
+wedges under porch post to provide for settling of walls. Wedges are
+gradually driven out as necessary.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 35.--Early types of log structures built by the U.
+S. Forest Service in the West. _A_, Ranger station, Gallatin National
+Forest, Mont.; _B_, ranger's dwelling, Nezperce National Forest, Idaho;
+_C_, log cabin in Arizona.]
+
+
+
+
+FURNITURE
+
+
+The matter of interior furnishings is always of great concern to those
+who build log cabins. Odds and ends or too many "what-nots" may prove
+to be misfits. Pieces of Early American design are perhaps the most
+appropriate ready-made furniture, but sturdy, rustic pieces yield the
+greatest satisfaction.
+
+Many cabin owners have found a great deal of pleasure in making essential
+furniture, such as bunks, beds, tables, chairs, settees, and similar
+items. In the East, birch is preferred as a material, and in the West,
+lodgepole pine is most satisfactory. Other native species, however,
+will do just as well. In making furniture it is advisable to remove
+the bark from the logs because bark collects insects, causes the wood
+to deteriorate and eventually falls off, leaving imperfect, unsightly
+surfaces. Figures 36 and 37 show types of furniture suitable for log
+residences.
+
+For rustic effects, the use of a stain of the following proportions gives
+a satisfactory appearance: 2 quarts turpentine, 2 quarts raw linseed oil,
+and 1 pint liquid drier, to which add 1/2 pint of raw sienna, 1/2 pint
+of burnt umber, and a touch of burnt sienna. The top surfaces of tables,
+buffets, chests, and rawhide seats should have two coats of spar varnish.
+Where countersunk screws are used in connection with a stain finish,
+insert false wood, dowel-like plugs in preference to plastic wood to
+conceal the screwheads.
+
+Simplicity, both in construction and appearance, is the keynote for
+producing the most harmonious effects in furniture, in keeping with log
+interiors.
+
+
+Chairs and Stools
+
+Armchairs can be built with well-seasoned lodgepole or eastern pine, or
+birch (fig. 38). The cornerpieces should be mortised and tenoned to the
+frame and rail and anchored in place with 3/8- by 15-inch lag screws. The
+arms should be fastened to the cornerpieces with 3/8- by 5-inch carriage
+bolts and to the slab support with 3/8- by 4-inch lag screws. The
+vertical slab support should be rigidly secured to the frame with 3/8-
+by 3-inch carriage bolts. Cushions may be of the filler type, without
+springs, and covered with homespun fabric. Use 2-inch wide heavy canvas
+strips, securely fastened with furniture tacks, to support the cushions.
+
+Upright chairs and stools (fig. 39) can be made from the same material as
+the armchair. Cross the poles to impale the legs rigidly. The crosspieces
+of the chair back should be curved to fit the human back. The joints must
+be tightly glued, mortised, and tenoned.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 36.--Furniture suitable for log cabins--convenient,
+sturdy, and easy to make. _A_, Bed; _B_, bed and armchair.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 37.--_A_, Dining table appropriate for log cabin;
+_B_, book rack and hod.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 38.--Plan for making an armchair suitable for log
+residence.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 39.--Plan for making an upright chair and stool.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 40.--Plan for making a double bed for log
+residence.]
+
+
+Bed and Bunk
+
+Birch or well-seasoned lodgepole or eastern pine is suitable for making
+a bed or bunk. In making a bed (fig. 40) the crosspieces should impale
+the corner posts tightly; the joints should be glued and toe-nailed from
+below. Do not cut the side or end pieces until the bedspring has been
+measured and then allow for a slight play in both directions in setting
+the angle irons, in order to facilitate the insertion and removal of the
+mattress. Use 14- by 3-inch carriage bolts to fasten the angle irons
+to the wood frame. Figure 40 is a plan for making a double bed 5 for a
+single bed, reduce the width accordingly.
+
+A double-deck bunk is made in much the same way as a bed (fig. 41).
+
+[Illustration: Figure 41.--Plan for building a double-deck bunk.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 42.--Plan for making a combination chest and
+buffet.]
+
+
+Chest and Buffet
+
+No log residence is complete without furniture for storing clothes. A
+combination chest and buffet suitable for log cabins can be made from
+well-seasoned lodgepole or eastern pine, tamarack, or birch (fig. 42).
+The ends, doors, shelves, and drawer fronts should be cut from No. 2
+tongue-and-groove commercial pine lumber.
+
+
+Settee
+
+A settee can be made from well-seasoned pine or birch (fig. 43). Join the
+corner poles to the slab frame and rail with mortise-and-tenon joints;
+then anchor the joints by means of 3/8- by 6 -inch lag screws. Fasten the
+arms to the corner poles with 3/8- by 5-inch carriage bolts and to the
+slab support with 3/8- by 4-inch lag screws. Use 3/8- by 3-inch carriage
+bolts to fasten the slab support to the frame. The 1- by 2-inch hardwood
+crosspieces should be securely fastened at the top ends and notched into
+the legs at the bottom ends, held by 2-inch wood screws, driven into
+place at an angle. Back slats should be mortised and tenoned to the rail
+and frame. The cushions should be the filler type, without springs if so
+desired, and covered with homespun fabric.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 43.--Plan for making a living-room settee.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 44.--Dining table plan.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 45.--Plan for making benches.]
+
+
+Dining Table
+
+Peeled pine or birch is ideal material for building a dining table (fig.
+44). Make a tight saddle joint between _B_ and the legs. Cross poles to
+impale the legs tightly. Notch _E_ for the cross poles. Upper surface
+of _C_ should be slab-faced and fitted between _D_ and cross poles, all
+rigidly braced together. Top pieces of tables should be doweled at places
+indicated in the drawing with 1/2- by 4-inch wood dowels, glued and
+clamped to insure tight joints. Notch top pieces A 1-inch deep to receive
+_B_ and _D_. Top outside edges of _A_, _C,_ and _E_ should be hewed.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 46.--Plan for a book rack.]
+
+
+Table, Bench, Book Rack, and Wood Hod
+
+Well-seasoned lodgepole or eastern pine, tamarack, cedar, or birch are
+suitable for benches (fig. 45). The joints should be glued. Countersink
+any screws, then conceal the heads with false wooden dowel-like plugs.
+If the furniture is to be painted, use plastic wood. A book rack may be
+made of the same material used for the bench, except cedar, which is
+unsuitable (fig. 46). The sides and bottom shelf should be rabbeted and
+thoroughly glued. The two intermediate shelves can be made adjustable by
+boring 3 holes in each side-piece 2 inches apart, above and below the
+position shown for the shelves in figure 46, into which loose wooden pins
+may be inserted for their support. Screw the top in place, countersink
+screwheads and insert wood cover plugs or false dowels for concealment
+where stained finish is used. If painted, plastic wood may be used.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 47.--Plan for a fireplace wood hod.]
+
+A fireplace wood hod (fig. 47) may be made of wood and metal. Use
+well-seasoned lodgepole or eastern pine, tamarack, or birch. Make a tight
+cradle joint between horizontal and vertical side-pieces, using 14- by
+2-inch carriage bolts except that by 3-inch lag screws should be used
+for fastening the lower side-pieces and bottom. Secure the wrought-iron
+handle to each side toppiece with 3- by 1-1/2-inch carriage bolts. The
+wood sides should have hewed edges of 3/4 inch minimum thickness.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 48.--Floor plan for a four-room log residence.]
+
+
+
+
+BUILDING PLANS
+
+
+Selection of the site and preparation of building plans varies with
+individual taste. In choosing a location one must consider availability
+of transportation, shopping centers, water supply, sewage disposal,
+electric facilities, and kindred factors.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 49.--Floor plan for a four-room log residence with
+somewhat different orientation than that shown in figure 48.]
+
+Before undertaking construction it may be desirable to consult an
+architect or competent builder to make sure that (1) your desires are
+satisfied with respect to the necessary accommodations; (2) rules and
+regulations enforced by local authorities will be observed; and (3)
+provisions are made for installing telephone, electricity, water, and
+plumbing facilities. Failure to take these precautions may necessitate
+costly changes after construction has begun.
+
+Plans for suitable four-room log residences are given in figures 48 and
+49, and for a five-room structure in figure 50. Figure 51 shows the
+layout of a United States Forest Service two-room guard cabin adaptable
+for summer residence use.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 50.--Floor plan for a five-room log residence,
+including three bedrooms, living-room, kitchen, and two porches.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 51.--U. S. Forest Service two-room fireguard cabin
+adaptable for summer residence use.]
+
+
+ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
+
+
+Additional useful information on building log cabins may be obtained from
+the following publications:
+
+
+UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
+
+FIREPLACES AND CHIMNEYS. Farmers' Bul. 1889, 52 pp., illus. 1940.
+
+PROTECTION OF LOG CABINS, RUSTIC WORK, AND UNSEASONED WOOD FROM INJURIOUS
+INSECTS. Farmers' Bul. 1582, 20 pp., illus. 1929.
+
+USE OF LOGS AND POLES IN FARM CONSTRUCTION. Farmers' Bul. 1660, 26 pp.,
+illus. 1931.
+
+
+OTHER SOURCES
+
+LOG BUILDINGS. Wis. Agr. Col. Ext. Stencil Cir. 158, 39 pp., illus. 1940.
+
+LOG CABIN CONSTRUCTION. A. B. Bowman. Mich. State Col. Ext. Bul. 222, 54
+pp., illus. 1941.
+
+LOG CABINS AND COTTAGES; HOW TO BUILD AND FURNISH THEM. W. A. Bruette,
+ed. 96 pp., illus. New York.
+
+THE REAL LOG CABIN. C. D. Aldrich. 278 pp., illus. 1934. New York.
+
+SHELTERS, SHACKS, AND SHANTIES. D. C. Beard. 243 pp., illus 1932. New
+York.
+
+
+
+                 U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1954
+
+
+
+              For sale by the Superintendent of Documents,
+                    U. S. Government Printing Office
+
+                 Washington 25, D. C. -- Price 25 cents
+
+                    *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+TO KEEP THE TREES GROWING
+
+Here in the United States we are cutting trees faster than new ones are
+growing for the future. And because science is showing us how to use wood
+better and in new ways we are likely to want more trees in the future
+than we use today. In fact we must double the annual growth of usable
+wood. This can't be done easily or quickly. It will require decades of
+good forestry. So we must take steps now--
+
+  To protect all our forests well from fire, insects, and disease;
+
+  To stop wasteful and destructive cutting;
+
+  To keep plenty of trees of all sizes growing to replace those we cut;
+
+  To restore commercial tree growth on millions of acres of forests
+      that have been badly treated or burned;
+
+  To give farmers and other small owners more help in growing,
+      harvesting, and marketing their tree crops;
+
+  To put wild land into public forests when private owners cannot take
+      care of it or the public interest calls for special treatment.
+
+
+                    *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+Transcriber Notes
+
+
+All illustrations were moved so as to not split paragraphs.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of USDA Miscellaneous Publication No.
+579: Building with Logs, by Clyde P. Fickes
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 59380 ***