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<body>
<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 59331 ***</div>
<h1 class="pg">The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Origin and Growth of the Healing Art, by
Edward Berdoe</h1>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
<table border="0" style="background-color: #ccccff;margin: 0 auto;" cellpadding="10">
  <tr>
    <td valign="top">
      Note:
    </td>
    <td>
      Images of the original pages are available through
      Internet Archive. See
      <a href="https://archive.org/details/origingrowthofhe00berduoft">
      https://archive.org/details/origingrowthofhe00berduoft</a>
    </td>
  </tr>
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<p>&nbsp;</p>
<hr class="full" />
<p>&nbsp;</p>
<p>&nbsp;</p>

<p class="half-title">THE HEALING ART.</p>

<p class="center"><i><big>WORKS BY THE SAME AUTHOR.</big></i></p>


<p><big>THE BROWNING CYCLOPÆDIA.</big></p>

<blockquote>

<p>A Guide to the Study of the Works of Robert Browning, with copious Explanatory
Notes and References on all difficult passages. Second Edition.
Pp. xx., 572. Price 10<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p></blockquote>


<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Some Opinions of the Press.</span></p>

<ul>
<li>“Conscientious and painstaking.”—<i>Times.</i></li>
<li>“A serviceable book, and deserves to be widely bought.”—<i>The Spectator.</i></li>
<li>“A book of far-reaching research and careful industry.”—<i>Scotsman.</i></li>
<li>“A most learned and creditable piece of work.”—<i>Vanity Fair.</i></li>
<li>“A monument of industry and devotion.”—<i>Bookman.</i></li>
</ul>


<p><big>BROWNING’S MESSAGE TO HIS TIME:</big></p>

<blockquote>

<p>His Religion, Philosophy, and Science. With Portrait and Facsimile Letters.
Third Edition. Price 3<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i><br />

<span class="right">
[Dilettante Library.]</span>
</p></blockquote>

<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Opinions of the Press.</span></p>

<p>“Full of admiration and sympathy.”—<i>Saturday Review.</i></p>

<p>“Should have a wide circulation; it is interesting and stimulative.”—<i>Literary
World.</i></p>

<p>“We have no hesitation in strongly recommending this little volume to any who
desire to understand the moral and mental attitude of Robert Browning....
We are much obliged to Dr. Berdoe for his volume.”—<i>Oxford University Herald.</i></p>

<hr class="chap" />
<div class="chapter"></div>


<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/frontis.jpg" alt="" />
<div class="caption"><p class="center">EXPELLING THE DISEASE-DEMON.</p>
<p class="psig">[<i>Frontispiece.</i></p></div>
</div>

<hr class="chap" />
<div class="chapter"></div>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_v">v</span></p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/title.jpg" alt="Title Page" />

</div>

<hr class="chap" />
<div class="chapter"></div>


<h1>
THE ORIGIN AND GROWTH<br />

<small>OF</small><br />

<big>THE HEALING ART</big></h1>

<p class="center"><i>A POPULAR HISTORY OF MEDICINE<br />
IN ALL AGES AND COUNTRIES.</i></p>

<p class="center small">BY</p>

<p class="center">EDWARD BERDOE,<br />
<span class="xs">
<i>Licentiate of the Royal College of Physicians, Edinburgh; Member of the Royal College of<br />
Surgeons, England; Licentiate of the Society of Apothecaries, London, etc., etc.<br />
Author of “The Browning Cyclopædia,” etc., etc.</i></span></p>




<p class="center"><small>London</small><br />
SWAN SONNENSCHEIN &amp; CO.<br />
<small>PATERNOSTER SQUARE<br />
1893</small></p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_vi">vi</span></p>


<p class="center spaced small">
<span class="smcap">Butler &amp; Tanner,<br />
The Selwood Printing Works,<br />
Frome, and London.</span></p>

<hr class="chap" />
<div class="chapter"></div>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_vii">vii</span></p>


<h2 id="PREFACE">PREFACE.</h2>


<p>The History of Medicine is a <i>terra incognita</i> to the general reader,
and an all but untravelled region to the great majority of medical men.
On special occasions, such as First of October Addresses at the opening
of the Medical Schools, or the Orations delivered before the various
Medical Societies, certain periods of medical history are referred to,
and a few of the great names of the founders of medical and surgical
science are held up to the admiration of the audience. From time
to time excellent monographs on the subject appear in the <i>Lancet</i> and
<i>British Medical Journal</i>. But with the exception of these brilliant
electric flashes, the History of Medicine is a dark continent to English
students who have not made long and tedious researches in our great
libraries. For it is a remarkable fact that the History of Medicine has
been almost completely neglected by English writers. This cannot be
due either to the want of importance or interest of the subject. Next
to the history of religion ranks in interest and value that of medicine,
and it would not be difficult to show that religion itself cannot be
understood in its development and connections without reference to
medicine. The priest and the physician are own brothers, and the
Healing Art has always played an important part in the development
of all the great civilisations. The modern science of Anthropology
has placed at the disposal of the historian of medicine a great number
of facts which throw light on the medical theories of primitive and
savage man. But most of these have hitherto remained uncollected,
and are not easily accessible to the general reader.</p>

<p>Although English writers have so strangely neglected this important
field of research, the Germans have explored it in the most exhaustive
manner. The great works of Sprengel, Haeser, Baas, and Puschmann,
amongst many others of the same class, sustain the claim that Germany
has created the History of Medicine, whilst the well-known but incomplete<span class="pagenum" id="Page_viii">viii</span>
treatise of Le Clerc shows what a great French writer could do to
make this <i>terra incognita</i> interesting.</p>

<p>Not that Englishmen have entirely neglected this branch of literature.
Dr. Freind, beginning with Galen’s period, wrote a <i>History of Physic
to the Commencement of the Sixteenth Century</i>. Dr. Edward Meryon
commenced a <i>History of Medicine</i>, of which Vol. I. only appeared
(1861). In special departments Drs. Adams, Greenhill, Aikin, Munk,
Wise, Royle, and others have made important contributions to the
literature of the subject; but we have nothing to compare with the
great German works whose authors we have mentioned above. The
encyclopædic work of Dr. Baas has been translated into English by
Dr. Handerson of Cleveland, Ohio.</p>

<p>Sprengel’s work is translated into French, and Dr. Puschmann’s
admirable volume on Medical Education has been given in English by
Mr. Evan Hare.</p>

<p>None of these important and interesting works, valuable as they
are to the professional man, are quite suitable for the general reader,
who, it seems to the present writer, is entitled in these latter days to
be admitted within the inner courts of the temple of Medical History,
and to be permitted to trace the progress of the mystery of the Healing
Art from its origin with the medicine-man to its present abode in our
Medical Schools.</p>

<p>With the exception of an occasional note or brief reference in his
text-books of medicine and surgery, the student of medicine has little
inducement to direct his attention to the work of the great pioneers of
the science he is acquiring.</p>

<p>One consequence of this defect in his education is manifested in the
common habit of considering that all the best work of discoverers in
the Healing Art has been done in our own times. “History of medicine!”
exclaimed a hospital surgeon a few months since. “Why, there
was none till forty years ago!” This habit of treating contemptuously
the scientific and philosophical work of the past is due to
imperfect acquaintance with, or absolute ignorance of, the splendid
labours of the men of old time, and can only be remedied by devoting
some little study to the records of travellers who have preceded us on
the same path we are too apt to think we have constructed for ourselves.
Professor Billroth declared, “that the great medical faculties should
make it a point of honour to take care that lectures on the history of
medicine are not missing in their curricula.” And at several German<span class="pagenum" id="Page_ix">ix</span>
universities some steps in this direction have been taken. In England,
however—so far as I am aware—nothing of the sort has been attempted,
and a young man may attain the highest honours of his profession without
the ghost of an idea about the long and painful process through
which it has become possible for him to acquire his knowledge.</p>

<p>Says Dr. Nathan Davis,<a id="FNanchor_1_1" href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">1</a> “A more thorough study of the history of
medicine, and in consequence, a greater familiarity with the successive
steps or stages in the development of its several branches, would enable
us to see more clearly the real relations and value of any new fact,
induction, or remedial agent that might be proposed. It would also
enable us to avoid a common error of regarding facts, propositions, and
remedies presented under new names, as really new, when they had
been well known and used long before, but in connection with other
names or theories.” He adds that, “The only remedy for these popular
and unjust errors is a frequent recurrence to the standard authors of the
past generation, or in other words, an honest and thorough study of
the history of medicine as a necessary branch of medical education.”</p>

<p>In these times, when no department of science is hidden from the
uninitiated, especially when medical subjects and the works of medical
men are freely discussed in our great reviews and daily journals, no
apology seems necessary for withdrawing the professional veil and
admitting the laity behind the scenes of professional work.</p>

<p>Medicine now has no mysteries to conceal from the true student of
nature and the scientific inquirer. Her methods and her principles are
open to all who care to know them; the only passport she requires is
reverence, her only desire to satisfy the yearning to know. In this spirit
and for these ends this work has been conceived and given to the
world. “The proper study of mankind is man.”</p>

<p class="psig">
EDWARD BERDOE.</p>
<p>
<small><span class="smcap">Tynemouth House,<br />
<span style="margin-left: 2em">Victoria Park Gate,</span><br />
<span style="margin-left: 4em">London</span>, <i>April 22nd, 1893</i>.</span></small>
</p>

<hr class="chap" />
<div class="chapter"></div>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_x">x</span></p>


<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Sprengel gives the following Table of the Great Periods in
the History of Medicine</span>:—</p>


<div class="center small">
<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
 <tr>
  <td class="tdrt">I.</td>
  <td class="tdht">Expedition of the Argonauts.</td>
  <td class="tdct">1273-1263 <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span></td>
  <td class="tdrt">I.</td>
  <td class="tdht">First traces of Greek Medicine.</td>
</tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="tdrt">II.</td>
  <td class="tdht">Peloponnesian War.</td>
  <td class="tdct">432-404 <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span></td>
  <td class="tdrt">II.</td>
  <td class="tdht">Medicine of Hippocrates.</td>
</tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="tdrt">III.</td>
  <td class="tdht">Establishment of the</td>
  <td class="tdct">30 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span></td>
  <td class="tdrt">III.</td>
  <td class="tdht">School of the Methodists. Christian Religion.</td>
</tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="tdrt">IV.</td>
  <td class="tdht">Emigration of the hordes of Barbarians.</td>
  <td class="tdct">430-530</td>
  <td class="tdrt">IV.</td>
  <td class="tdht">Decadence of the Science.</td>
</tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="tdrt">V.</td>
  <td class="tdht">The Crusades.</td>
  <td class="tdct">1096-1230</td>
  <td class="tdrt">V.</td>
  <td class="tdht">Arabian medicine at its highest point of splendour.</td>
</tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="tdrt">VI.</td>
  <td class="tdht">Reformation.</td>
  <td class="tdct">1517-1530</td>
  <td class="tdrt">VI.</td>
  <td class="tdht">Re-establishment of Greek medicine and anatomy.</td>
</tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="tdrt">VII.</td>
  <td class="tdht">Thirty Years War.</td>
  <td class="tdct">1618-1648</td>
  <td class="tdrt">VII.</td>
  <td class="tdht">Discovery of the circulation of the blood and reform of Van Helmont.</td>
</tr>
 <tr>
  <td class="tdrt">VIII.</td>
  <td class="tdht">Reign of Frederick the Great.</td>
  <td class="tdct">1640-1786</td>
  <td class="tdrt">VIII.</td>
  <td class="tdht">Haller.</td>
</tr>
</table></div>

<p>Renouard<a id="FNanchor_2_2" href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">2</a> arranges the periods of the growth of the art of medicine
as follows:—1st. The Primitive or Instinctive Period, lasting from
the earliest recorded treatment to the fall of Troy. 2nd. The Sacred
or Mystic Period, lasting till the dispersion of the Pythagorean Society,
500 <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 3rd. The Philosophical Period, closing with the foundation
of the Alexandrian Library, <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 320. 4th. The Anatomical Period,
which continued till the death of Galen, <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 200.</p>



<hr class="chap" />
<div class="chapter"></div>
<h2 id="ILLUSTRATIONS">ILLUSTRATIONS.</h2>


<div class="center">
<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
<tr>
  <td align="left"><span class="smcap">Expelling the Disease-Demon</span></td>
  <td align="right" colspan="2"><i>Frontispiece</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Medicine-Dance of the North American Indians</span></td>
  <td align="center"><i>To face p.</i></td>
  <td align="right"><a href='#Page_32'>32</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td align="left"><span class="smcap">Examples of Ancient Surgery</span></td>
  <td align="center">„</td>
  <td align="right"><a href='#Page_204'>204</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td align="left"><span class="smcap">Ancient Surgical Instruments</span></td>
  <td align="center">„</td>
  <td align="right"><a href='#Page_246'>246</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td align="left"><span class="smcap">Interior of a Doctor’s House</span></td>
  <td align="center">„</td>
  <td align="right"><a href='#Page_340'>340</a></td>
</tr>
</table></div>

<hr class="chap" />
<div class="chapter"></div>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xi">xi</span></p>




<h2 id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS.</h2>




<div class="center small">
<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
<tr>
  <td class="tdbook" colspan="3">BOOK I.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td align="center" colspan="3"><i>THE MEDICINE OF PRIMITIVE MAN.</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td align="left"><small>CHAPTER</small></td>
  <td align="right" colspan="2"><small>PAGE</small></td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td align="right">I.</td>
  <td align="left"><span class="smcap">Primitive Man a Savage</span></td>
  <td align="right"><a href='#Page_3'>3</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td> </td>
  <td class="tdcontent">The Medicine and Surgery of the Lower Animals.—Poisons and
Animals.—Observation amongst Savages.—Man in the Glacial Period.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td align="right">II.</td>
  <td align="left"><span class="smcap">Animism</span></td>
  <td align="right"><a href='#Page_7'>7</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td> </td>
  <td class="tdcontent">Who discovered our Medicines?—Anthropology can assist us to
answer the Question.—The Priest and the Medicine-man originally
one.—Disease the Work of Magic.—Origin of our Ideas of the Soul
and Future Life.—Disease-demons.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td align="right">III.</td>
  <td align="left"><span class="smcap">Savage Theories of Disease</span></td>
  <td align="right"><a href='#Page_12'>12</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td> </td>
  <td class="tdcontent">Demoniacal.—Witchcraft.—Offended Dead Persons.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td align="right">IV.</td>
  <td align="left"><span class="smcap">Magic and Sorcery in the Treatment of Disease</span></td>
  <td align="right"><a href='#Page_26'>26</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td> </td>
  <td class="tdcontent">These originated partly in the Desire to cover Ignorance.—Medicine-men.—Sucking
out Diseases.—Origin of Exorcism.—Ingenuity
of the Priests.—Blowing Disease away.—Beelzebub cast
out by Beelzebub.—Menders of Souls.—“Bringing up the Devil.”—Diseases
and Medicines.—Fever Puppets.—Amulets.—Totemism
and Medicine.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td align="right">V.</td>
  <td align="left"><span class="smcap">Primitive Medicine</span></td>
  <td align="right"><a href='#Page_33'>33</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td> </td>
  <td class="tdcontent">Bleeding.—Scarification.—Use of Medicinal Herbs amongst the
Aborigines of Australia, South America, Africa, etc.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td align="right">VI.</td>
  <td align="left"><span class="smcap">Primitive Surgery</span></td>
  <td align="right"><a href='#Page_40'>40</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td> </td>
  <td class="tdcontent">Arrest of Bleeding.—The Indian as Surgeon.—Stretchers, Splints,
and Flint Instruments.—Ovariotomy.—Brain Surgery.—Massage.—Trepanning.—The
Cæsarean Operation.—Inoculation.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td align="right">VII.</td>
  <td align="left"><span class="smcap">Universality of the Use of Intoxicants</span></td>
  <td align="right"><a href='#Page_46'>46</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td> </td>
  <td class="tdcontent">Egyptian Beer and Brandy.—Mexican Pulque.—Plant-worship.—Union
with the Godhead by Alcohol.—Soma.—The Cow-religion.—Caxiri.—Murwa
Beer.—Bacchic Rites.—Spiritual Exaltation by Wine.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td align="right">VIII.</td>
  <td align="left"><span class="smcap">Customs connected with Pregnancy and Child-bearing</span></td>
  <td align="right"><a href='#Page_51'>51</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td> </td>
  <td class="tdcontent">The Couvade, its Prevalence in Savage and Civilized Lands.—Pregnant
Women excluded from Kitchens.—The Deities of the Lying-in Chamber.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td class="tdbook" colspan="3">BOOK II.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td align="center" colspan="3"><i>THE MEDICINE OF THE ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS.</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td align="right">I.</td>
  <td align="left"><span class="smcap">Egyptian Medicine</span></td>
  <td align="right"><a href='#Page_57'>57</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td> </td>
  <td class="tdcontent">Antiquity of Egyptian Civilization.—Surgical Bandaging.—Gods
and Goddesses of Medicine.—Medical Specialists.—Egyptians
claimed to have discovered the Healing Art.—Medicine largely
Theurgic.—Magic and Sorcery forbidden to the Laity.—The Embalmers.—Anatomy.—Therapeutics.—Plants>
in use in Ancient Egypt.—Surgery and Chemistry.—Disease-demons.—Medical
Papyri.—Great Skill of Egyptian Physicians.
<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xii">xii</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td align="right">II.</td>
  <td align="left"><span class="smcap">Jewish Medicine</span></td>
  <td align="right"><a href='#Page_73'>73</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td> </td>
  <td class="tdcontent">The Jews indebted to Egypt for their Learning.—The only Ancient
People who discarded Demonology.—They had no Magic of their
own.—Phylacteries.—Circumcision.—Sanitary Laws.—Diseases in
the Bible.—The Essenes.—Surgery in the Talmud.—Alexandrian
Philosophy.—Jewish Services to Mediæval Medicine.—The Phœnicians.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td align="right">III.</td>
  <td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Medicine of Chaldæa, Babylonia, and Assyria</span></td>
  <td align="right"><a href='#Page_86'>86</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td> </td>
  <td class="tdcontent">The Ancient Religion of Accadia akin to Shamanism.—Demon
Theory of Disease in Chaldæan Medicine.—Chaldæan Magic.—Medical
Ignorance of the Babylonians.—Assyrian Disease-demons.—Charms.—Origin
of the Sabbath.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td align="right">IV.</td>
  <td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Medicine of the Hindus</span></td>
  <td align="right"><a href='#Page_96'>96</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td> </td>
  <td class="tdcontent">The Aryans.—Hindu Philosophy.—The Vedas.—The Shastres
of Charaka and Susruta.—Code of Menu.—The Brahmans.—Medical
Practitioners.—Strabo on the Hindu Philosophers.—Charms.—Buddhism
and Medicine.—Jíwaka, Buddha’s Physician.—The
Pulse.—Knowledge of Anatomy and Surgery in Ancient Times.—Surgical
Instruments.—Decadence of Hindu Medical Science.—Goddesses
of Disease.—Origin of Hospitals in India.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td align="right">V.</td>
  <td align="left"><span class="smcap">Medicine in China, Tartary, and Japan</span></td>
  <td align="right"><a href='#Page_125'>125</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td> </td>
  <td class="tdcontent">Origin of Chinese Culture.—Shamanism.—Disease-demons.—Taoism—Medicine
Gods.—Mediums.-Anatomy and Physiology of
the Chinese.—Surgery.—No Hospitals in China.—Chinese Medicines.—Filial
Piety.—Charms and Sacred Signs.—Medicine in
Thibet, Tartary, and Japan.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td align="right">VI.</td>
  <td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Medicine of the Parsees</span></td>
  <td align="right"><a href='#Page_141'>141</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td> </td>
  <td class="tdcontent">Zoroaster and the <i>Zend-Avesta</i>.—The Heavenly Gift of the Healing
Plants.—Ormuzd and Ahriman.—Practice of the Healing Art
and its Fees.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td class="tdbook" colspan="3">BOOK III.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td align="center" colspan="3"><i>GREEK MEDICINE.</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td align="right">I.</td>
  <td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Medicine of the Greeks before the Time of
Hippocrates</span></td>
  <td align="right"><a href='#Page_147'>147</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td> </td>
  <td class="tdcontent">Apollo, the God of Medicine.—Cheiron.—Æsculapius.—Artemis.—Dionysus.—Ammon.—Hermes.—Prometheus.—Melampus.—Medicine
of Homer.—Temples of Æsculapius.—The Early Ionic
Philosophers.—Empedocles.—School of Crotona.—The Pythagoreans.—Grecian
Theory of Diseases.—School of Cos.—The Asclepiads.—The Aliptæ.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td align="right">II.</td>
  <td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Medicine of Hippocrates and his Period</span></td>
  <td align="right"><a href='#Page_172'>172</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td> </td>
  <td class="tdcontent">Hippocrates first delivered Medicine from the Thraldom of
Superstition.—Dissection of the Human Body and Rise of
Anatomy.—Hippocrates, Father of Medicine and Surgery.—The Law.—Plato.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td align="right">III.</td>
  <td align="left"><span class="smcap">Post-Hippocratic Greek Medicine.—The Schools of
Medicine</span></td>
  <td align="right"><a href='#Page_187'>187</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td> </td>
  <td class="tdcontent">The Dogmatic School.—Praxagoras of Cos.-Aristotle.—The
School of Alexandria.—Theophrastus the Botanist.—The great
Anatomists, Erasistratus and Hierophilus, and the Schools they
founded.—The Empiric School.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td align="right">IV.</td>
  <td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Earlier Roman Medicine</span></td>
  <td align="right"><a href='#Page_205'>205</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td> </td>
  <td class="tdcontent">Disease-goddesses.—School of the Methodists.—Rufus and
Marinus.—Pliny.—Celsus.
<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xiii">xiii</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td align="right">V.</td>
  <td align="left"><span class="smcap">Later Roman Medicine</span></td>
  <td align="right"><a href='#Page_227'>227</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td> </td>
  <td class="tdcontent">The Eclectic and Pneumatic Sects.—Galen.—Neo-Platonism.—Oribasius
and Ætius.—Influence of Christianity and the Rise of
Hospitals.—Paulus Ægineta.—Ancient Surgical Instruments.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td align="right">VI.</td>
  <td align="left"><span class="smcap">Amulets and Charms in Medicine</span></td>
  <td align="right"><a href='#Page_247'>247</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td> </td>
  <td class="tdcontent">Universality of the Amulet.—Scarabs.—Beads.—Savage Amulets.—Gnostic
and Christian Amulets.—Herbs and Animals as
Charms.—Knots.—Precious Stones.—Signatures.—Numbers.—Saliva.—Talismans.—Scripts.—Characts.—Sacred
Names.—Stolen Goods.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td class="tdbook" colspan="3">BOOK IV.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td align="center" colspan="3"><i>CELTIC, TEUTONIC, AND MEDIÆVAL MEDICINE.</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td align="right">I.</td>
  <td align="left"><span class="smcap">Medicine of the Druids, Teutons, Anglo-Saxons, and
Welsh</span></td>
  <td align="right"><a href='#Page_269'>269</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td> </td>
  <td class="tdcontent">Origin of the Druid Religion.—Druid Medicine.—Their Magic.—Teutonic
Medicine.—Gods of Healing.—Elves.—The Elements.—Anglo-Saxon
Leechcraft.—The Leech-book.—Monastic Leechdoms.—Superstitions.—Welsh
Medicine.—The Triads.—Welsh Druidism.—The Laws of the Court Physicians.—Welsh Medical
Maxims.—Welsh Medical and Surgical Practice and Fees.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td align="right">II.</td>
  <td align="left"><span class="smcap">Mohammedan Medicine</span></td>
  <td align="right"><a href='#Page_287'>287</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td> </td>
  <td class="tdcontent">Sources of Arabian Learning.—Influence of Greek and Hindu
Literature.—The Nestorians.—Baghdad and its Colleges.—The
Moors in Spain.—The Mosque Schools.—Arabian Inventions and
Services to Literature.—The great Arab Physicians.—Serapion,
Rhazes, Ali Abbas, Avicenna, Albucasis, and Averroes.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td align="right">III.</td>
  <td align="left"><span class="smcap">Rise of the Monasteries</span></td>
  <td align="right"><a href='#Page_300'>300</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td> </td>
  <td class="tdcontent">Alchemy the Parent of Chemistry.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td align="right">IV.</td>
  <td align="left"><span class="smcap">Rise of the Universities</span></td>
  <td align="right"><a href='#Page_303'>303</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td> </td>
  <td class="tdcontent">School of Montpellier.—Divorce of Medicine from Surgery.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td align="right">V.</td>
  <td align="left"><span class="smcap">The School of Salerno</span></td>
  <td align="right"><a href='#Page_308'>308</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td> </td>
  <td class="tdcontent">The Monks of Monte Cassino.—Clerical Influence at Salerno.—Charlemagne.—Arabian
Medicine gradually supplanted the Græco-Latin
Science.—Constantine the Carthaginian.—Archimatthæus.—Trotula.—Anatomy
of the Pig.—Pharmacopœias.—The Four
Masters.—Roger and Rolando.—The Emperor Frederick.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td align="right">VI.</td>
  <td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Thirteenth Century</span></td>
  <td align="right"><a href='#Page_319'>319</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td> </td>
  <td class="tdcontent">The Crusades.—Astrology.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td align="right">VII.</td>
  <td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Fourteenth Century</span></td>
  <td align="right"><a href='#Page_325'>325</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td> </td>
  <td class="tdcontent">Revival of Human Anatomy.—Famous Physicians of the Century.—Domestic
Medicine in Chaucer.—Fellowship of the Barbers
and Surgeons.—The Black Death.—The Dancing Mania.—Pharmacy.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td align="right">VIII.</td>
  <td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Fifteenth Century</span></td>
  <td align="right"><a href='#Page_333'>333</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td> </td>
  <td class="tdcontent">Faith-healing.—Charms and Astrology in Medicine.—The Revival
of Learning.—The Humanists.—Cabalism and Theology.—The
Study of Natural History.—The Sweating Sickness.—Tarantism.—Quarantine.—High
Position of Oxford University.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td align="right">IX.</td>
  <td align="left"><span class="smcap">Medicine in Ancient Mexico and Peru</span></td>
  <td align="right"><a href='#Page_341'>341</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td> </td>
  <td class="tdcontent">Hospitals in Mexico.—Anatomy and Human Sacrifices.—Midwives
as Spiritual Mothers.—Circumcision.—Peru.—Discovery of Cinchona Bark.
<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xiv">xiv</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td class="tdbook" colspan="3">BOOK V.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td align="center" colspan="3"><i>THE DAWN OF MODERN SCIENTIFIC MEDICINE.</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td align="right">I.</td>
  <td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Sixteenth Century</span></td>
  <td align="right"><a href='#Page_345'>345</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td> </td>
  <td class="tdcontent">The Dawn of Modern Science.—The Reformation of Medicine.—Paracelsus.—The
Sceptics.—The Protestantism of Science.—Influenza.—Legal
Recognition of Medicine in England.—The
Barber-Surgeons.—The Sweating Sickness.—Origin of the Royal
College of Physicians of London.—“Merry Andrew.”—Origin of
St. Bartholomew’s Hospital.—Caius.—Low State of Midwifery.—The
Great Continental Anatomists.—Vesalius.—Servetus.—Paré.—Influence
of the Reformation.—The Rosicrucians.—Touching for the
Evil.—Vivisection of Human Beings.—Origin of Legal Medicine.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td align="right">II.</td>
  <td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Seventeenth Century</span></td>
  <td align="right"><a href='#Page_377'>377</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td> </td>
  <td class="tdcontent">Bacon and the Inductive Method.—Descartes and Physiology.—Newton.—Boyle
and the Royal Society.—The Founders of the
Schools of Medical Science.—Sydenham, the English Hippocrates.—Harvey
and the Rise of Physiology.—The Microscope in Medicine.—Willis
and the Reform of Materia Medica.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td align="right">III.</td>
  <td align="left"><span class="smcap">Skatological Medicine and the Reform of Pharmacology</span></td>
  <td align="right"><a href='#Page_394'>394</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td> </td>
  <td class="tdcontent">Loathsome Medicines.—Sympathetical Cures.—Weapon Salve.—Superstitions.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td align="right">IV.</td>
  <td align="left"><span class="smcap">Baths and Mineral Waters</span></td>
  <td align="right"><a href='#Page_400'>400</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td> </td>
  <td class="tdcontent">Miraculous Springs.—The Pool of Bethesda.—Herb-baths.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td align="right">V.</td>
  <td align="left"><span class="smcap">Witchcraft and Medicine</span></td>
  <td align="right"><a href='#Page_403'>403</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td> </td>
  <td class="tdcontent">Comparative Witchcraft.—Laws against Sorcery.—Magic in Virgil
and Horace.—Demonology.—Images of Wax and Clay.—Transference
of Disease.—Witchcraft in the Koran.—White Magic and
Black.—Coral and the Evil Eye.—“Overlooking” People.—Exorcism
in the Catholic Church.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td align="right">VI.</td>
  <td align="left"><span class="smcap">Medical Superstitions</span></td>
  <td align="right"><a href='#Page_413'>413</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td> </td>
  <td class="tdcontent">Death and the Grave.—Sorcerer’s Ointment.—Teeth-worms.—Disease
Transference.—Doctrine of Signatures.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td align="right">VII.</td>
  <td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Eighteenth Century</span></td>
  <td align="right"><a href='#Page_418'>418</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td> </td>
  <td class="tdcontent">The Sciences accessory to Medicine.—The Great Schools of Medical
Theory.—Boerhaave and his System.—Stahl.—Hoffman.—Cullen.—Brown.—Hospitals.—Bichat
and the New Era of Anatomy.—Mesmer and Mesmerism.—Surgery.—The Anatomists,
Physiologists, and Scientists of the Period.—Inoculation and Vaccination.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td class="tdbook" colspan="3">BOOK VI.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td align="center" colspan="3"><i>THE AGE OF SCIENCE.</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td align="right">I.</td>
  <td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Nineteenth Century.—Physical Science Allied
to Medicine</span></td>
  <td align="right"><a href='#Page_443'>443</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td> </td>
  <td class="tdcontent">Exit the Disease-demon.—Medical Systems again.—Homœopathy.—The
Natural Sciences.—Chemistry, Electricity, Physiology,
Anatomy, Medicine and Pathology.—Psychiatry.—Surgery.—Ophthalmology.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td align="right">II.</td>
  <td align="left"><span class="smcap">Medical Reforms</span></td>
  <td align="right"><a href='#Page_464'>464</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td> </td>
  <td class="tdcontent">Discovery of Anæsthetics.—Medical Literature.—Nursing Reform.—History
of the Treatment of the Insane.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td align="right">III.</td>
  <td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Germ Theory of Disease</span></td>
  <td align="right"><a href='#Page_471'>471</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td> </td>
  <td class="tdcontent">The Disease-demon reappears as a Germ.—Phagocytes.—Ptomaines.—Lister’s
Antiseptic Surgery.—Sanitary Science or Hygiene.—Bacteriologists.—Faith
Cures.—Experimental Physiology and the Latest System of Medicine.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td class="tdbook" colspan="3">APPENDIX.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td align="left" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">On Some of the More Important Minerals Used in Medicine</span></td>
  <td align="right"><a href='#Page_486'>486</a></td>
</tr>
</table></div>

<hr class="chap" />
<div class="chapter"></div>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">1</span></p>
<h2 id="BOOK_I">BOOK I.<br />

<small><i>THE MEDICINE OF PRIMITIVE MAN.</i></small></h2>

<hr class="chap" />
<div class="chapter"></div>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">3</span></p>


<p class="half-title">A POPULAR HISTORY OF MEDICINE.</p>

<hr class="small" />
<h3 id="CHAPTERI_I">CHAPTER I.<br />

<small>PRIMITIVE MAN A SAVAGE.</small></h3>

<p>The Medicine and Surgery of the Lower Animals.—Poisons and Animals.—Observation
amongst Savages.—Man in the Glacial Period.</p>


<p>There is abundant proof from natural history that the lower animals
submit to medical and surgical treatment, and subject themselves in
their necessities to appropriate treatment. Not only do they treat themselves
when injured or ill, but they assist each other. Dogs and cats
use various natural medicines, chiefly emetics and purgatives, in the
shape of grasses and other plants. The fibrous-rooted wheat-grass,
<i>Triticum caninum</i>, sometimes called dog’s-wheat, is eaten medicinally
by dogs. Probably other species, such as <i>Agrostis caninia</i>, brown
bent-grass, are used in like manner.<a id="FNanchor_3_3" href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">3</a></p>

<p>Mr. George Jesse describes another kind of “dog-grass,” <i>Cynosurus
cristatus</i>, as a natural medicine, both emetic and purgative, which is
resorted to by the canine species when suffering from indigestion and
other disorders of the stomach. Every druggist’s apprentice knows
how remarkably fond cats are of valerian root (<i>Valeriana officinalis</i>).
This strong-smelling root acts on these animals as an intoxicant, and
they roll over and over the plant with the wildest delight when brought
into contact with it. Cats are extravagantly fond of cat-mint (<i>Nepeta
cataria</i>). It has a powerful odour, like that of pennyroyal. There is
no evidence, however, that these plants have any medicinal properties
for which they are used by cats, they are merely enjoyed by them on
account of their perfume.</p>

<p>Dr. W. Lauder Lindsay, in his <i>Mind in the Lower Animals</i>, says that
the Indian mongoose, poisoned by the snake which it attacks, uses the
antidote to be found in the <i>Mimosa octandra</i>.<a id="FNanchor_4_4" href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">4</a></p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">4</span></p>
<p>“Its value both as a cure and as a preventive is said to be well known
to it. Whenever in its battles with serpents it receives a wound, it at
once retreats, goes in search of the antidote, and having found and
devoured it, returns to the charge, and generally carries the day, seeming
none the worse for its bite.”<a id="FNanchor_5_5" href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">5</a> This, however, is probably a fable of the
Hindus.</p>

<p>“A toad, bit or stung by a spider, repeatedly betook itself to a plant
of <i>Plantago major</i> (the Greater Plantain), and ate a portion of its leaf,
but died after repeated bites of the spider, when the plant had been
experimentally removed by man.”<a id="FNanchor_6_6" href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">6</a></p>

<p>The medicinal uses of the hellebore were anciently believed to have
been discovered by the goat.</p>

<p>“Virgil reports of dittany,” says More, in his <i>Antidote to Atheism</i>,
“that the wild goats eat it when they are shot with darts.” The ancients
said that the art of bleeding was first taught by the hippopotamus, which
thrusts itself against a sharp-pointed reed in the river banks, when it
thinks it needs phlebotomy.</p>

<p>If man had not yet learned the medicinal properties of salt, he
could discover them by the greedy licking of it by buffaloes, horses,
and camels. “On the Mongolian camels,” says Prejevalsky, “salt, in
whatever form, acts as an aperient, especially if they have been long
without it.” Rats will submit to the gnawing off of a leg when caught
in a trap, so that they may escape capture (Jesse). Livingstone says that
the chimpanzee, soko, or other anthropoid apes will staunch bleeding
wounds by means of their fingers, or of leaves, turf, or grass stuffed
into them. Animals treat wounds by licking—a very effectual if tedious
method of fomentation or poulticing.</p>

<p>Cornelius Agrippa, in his first book of Occult Philosophy, says that we
have learned the use of many remedies from the animals. “The sick
magpie puts a bay-leaf into her nest and is recovered. The lion, if he
be feverish, is recovered by the eating of an ape. By eating the herb
dittany, a wounded stag expels the dart out of its body. Cranes medicine
themselves with bulrushes, leopards with wolf’s-bane, boars with ivy;
for between such plants and animals there is an occult friendship.”<a id="FNanchor_7_7" href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">7</a></p>

<p>Some interesting observations relating to the surgical treatment of
wounds by birds were recently brought by M. Fatio before the Physical
Society of Geneva. He quotes the case of the snipe, which he has often
observed engaged in repairing damages. With its beak and feathers it
makes a very creditable dressing, applying plasters to bleeding wounds,
and even securing a broken limb by means of a stout ligature. On one
occasion he killed a snipe which had on the chest a large dressing com<span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">5</span>posed
of down taken from other parts of the body, and securely fixed
to the wound by the coagulated blood. Twice he has brought home
snipe with interwoven feathers strapped on to the site of fracture of one
or other limb. The most interesting example was that of a snipe, both
of whose legs he had unfortunately broken by a misdirected shot. He
recovered the animal only the day following, and he then found that
the poor bird had contrived to apply dressings and a sort of splint to
both limbs. In carrying out this operation, some feathers had become
entangled around the beak, and, not being able to use its claws to get
rid of them, it was almost dead from hunger when discovered. In a
case recorded by M. Magnin, a snipe, which was observed to fly away
with a broken leg, was subsequently found to have forced the fragments
into a parallel position, the upper fragment reaching to the knee, and
secured them there by means of a strong band of feathers and moss
intermingled. The observers were particularly struck by the application
of a ligature of a kind of flat-leafed grass wound round the limb in a
spiral form, and fixed by means of a sort of glue.</p>

<p>Le Clerc thought that the stories of animals teaching men the use of
plants, herbs, etc., meant that men tried them first upon animals before
using them for food or medicine. There is no probability of this having
been so. If men had observed with Linnæus that horses eat aconite
with impunity, and had in consequence eaten it themselves, the result
would have been fatal. Birds and herbivorous animals eat belladonna
with impunity,<a id="FNanchor_8_8" href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">8</a> and it has very little effect on horses and donkeys.
Goats, sheep, and horses are said by Dr. Ringer to eat hemlock without
ill effects, yet it poisoned Socrates. Henbane has little or no
effect on sheep, cows, and pigs. Ipecacuanha does not cause vomiting
in rabbits,<a id="FNanchor_9_9" href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">9</a> and so on.</p>

<p>Probably from the earliest times man would be led to observe the
behaviour of animals when suffering from disease or injury. If he
could not learn much from them in the way of medicine, they could
teach him many useful arts. In savage man we must seek the
beginnings of our civilization, and it is in the lowest tribes and
those which have not yet felt the influences of superior races that we
must search for the most primitive forms of medical ideas and the
earliest theories and treatment of disease.</p>

<p>Sir John Lubbock says:<a id="FNanchor_10_10" href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">10</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">6</span> “It is a common opinion that savages
are, as a general rule, only the miserable remnants of nations once
more civilized; but although there are some well-established cases of
natural decay, there is no scientific evidence which would justify us
in asserting that this applies to savages in general.”</p>

<p>Dr. E. B. Tylor, in his fascinating work on <i>Primitive Culture</i>, says:<a id="FNanchor_11_11" href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">11</a>
“The thesis which I venture to sustain, within limits, is simply this—that
the savage state in some measure represents an early condition of
mankind, out of which the higher culture has gradually been developed
or evolved by processes still in regular operation as of old, the result
showing that, on the whole, progress has far prevailed over relapse.
On this proposition the main tendency of human society during its long
term of existence has been to pass from a savage to a civilized state.
It is mere matter of chronicle that modern civilization is a development
of mediæval civilization, which again is a development from civilization
of the order represented in Greece, Assyria, or Egypt. Then
the higher culture being clearly traced back to what may be called the
middle culture, the question which remains is, whether this middle
culture may be traced back to the lower culture, that is, to savagery.”</p>

<p>Providing we can find our savage pure and uncontaminated, it matters
little where we seek him; north, south, east, or west, he will be practically
the same for our purpose.</p>

<p>Dr. Robertson says: “If we suppose two tribes, though placed
in the most remote regions of the globe, to live in a climate nearly of
the same temperature, to be in the same state of society, and to resemble
each other in the degree of their improvement, they must feel the same
wants, and exert the same endeavours to supply them.... In
every part of the earth the progress of man has been nearly the same,
and we can trace him in his career from the rude simplicity of savage
life, until he attains the industry, the arts, and the elegance of polished
society.”<a id="FNanchor_12_12" href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">12</a></p>

<p>Writing of the primitive folk, the Eastern Inoits, Elie Reclus tells us
that,<a id="FNanchor_13_13" href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">13</a> “shut away from the rest of the world by their barriers of ice,
the Esquimaux, more than any other people, have remained outside
foreign influences, outside the civilization whose contact shatters and
transforms. They have been readily perceived by prehistoric science
to offer an intermediate type between man as he is and man as he was
in bygone ages. When first visited, they were in the very midst of the
stone and bone epoch,<a id="FNanchor_14_14" href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">14</a> just as were the Guanches when they were
discovered; their iron and steel are recent, almost contemporary importations.
The lives of Europeans of the Glacial period cannot have
been very different from those led amongst their snow-fields by the
Inoits of to-day.”</p>

<hr class="chap" />
<div class="chapter"></div>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">7</span></p>
<h3 id="CHAPTERI_II">CHAPTER II.<br />

<small>ANIMISM.</small></h3>

<blockquote>

<p>Who discovered our Medicines?—Anthropology can assist us to answer the Question.—The
Priest and the Medicine-man originally one.—Disease the Work of Magic.—Origin
of our Ideas of the Soul and Future Life.—Disease-demons.</p></blockquote>


<p>Cardinal Newman, in his sermon on “The World’s Benefactors,” asks,
“Who was the first cultivator of corn? Who first tamed and domesticated
the animals whose strength we use, and whom we make our food?
Or who first discovered the medicinal herbs, which from the earliest
times have been our resource against disease? If it was mortal man
who thus looked through the vegetable and animal worlds, and discriminated
between the useful and the worthless, his name is unknown
to the millions whom he has thus benefited.</p>

<p>“It is notorious that those who first suggest the most happy inventions
and open a way to the secret stores of nature; those who weary themselves
in the search after truth; strike out momentous principles of
action; painfully force upon their contemporaries the adoption of
beneficial measures; or, again, are the original cause of the chief events
in national history,—are commonly supplanted, as regards celebrity and
reward, by inferior men. Their works are not called after them, nor
the arts and systems which they have given the world. Their schools
are usurped by strangers, and their maxims of wisdom circulate among
the children of their people, forming perhaps a nation’s character,
but not embalming in their own immortality the names of their original
authors.”</p>

<p>The reflection is an old one; the son of Sirach said, “And some
there be, which have no memorial; who are perished, as though they
had never been; and are become as though they had never been born;
and their children after them. But these were merciful men, whose
righteousness hath not been forgotten” (<i>Ecclesiasticus</i> xliv. 9, 10).
Cardinal Newman has framed his question, so far as the healing art is
concerned, in a manner to which it is impossible to make a satisfactory
answer. No one man first discovered the medicinal herbs; probably the
discovery of all the virtues of a single one of them was not the work of any
individual. No man<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">8</span> “looked through the vegetable and animal worlds
and discriminated between the useful and the worthless”; all this has
been the work of ages, and is the outcome of the experience of thousands
of investigators. The medical arts have played so important a part in
the development of our civilization, that they constitute a branch of study
second to none in utility and interest to those who would know something
of the work of the world’s benefactors. Probably at no period in the
world’s history have medical men occupied a more honourable or a
more prominent position than they do at the present time, and it would
almost seem that the rewards which an ignorant or ungrateful civilization
denied in the past to medical men are now being bestowed on
those who in these latter days have been so fortunate as to inherit the
traditions and the acquirements of a forgotten ancestry of truth-seekers
and students of the mysteries of nature. As the earliest races of mankind
passed by slow degrees from a state of savagery to the primitive
civilizations, we must seek for the beginnings of the medical arts in the
representatives of the ancient barbarisms which are to be found to-day
in the aborigines of Central Africa and the islands of Australasian seas.
The intimate connection which exists between the magician, the sorcerer,
and the “medicine man” of the present day serves to illustrate
how the priest, the magician, and the physician of the past were so
frequently combined in a single individual, and to explain how the
mysteries of religion were so generally connected with those of medicine.</p>

<p>Professor Tylor has explained how death and all forms of disease
were attributed to magic, the essence of which is the belief in the
influence of the spirits of dead men. This belief is termed Animism,
and Mr. Tylor says: “Animism characterizes tribes very low in the
scale of humanity, and thence ascends, deeply modified in its transmission,
but from first to last preserving an unbroken continuity, into
the midst of high culture. Animism is the groundwork of the philosophy
of religion, from that of the savages up to that of civilized men;
but although it may at first seem to afford but a meagre and bare
definition of a minimum of religion, it will be found practically sufficient;
for where the roots are, the branches will generally be produced. The
theory of animism divides into two great dogmas, forming parts of one
consistent doctrine: first, concerning souls of individual creatures,
capable of continued existence after death; second, concerning other
spirits, upward to the rank of powerful deities. Spiritual beings are
held to affect or control the events of the material world, and man’s
life here and hereafter; and it being considered that they hold intercourse
with men and receive pleasure or displeasure from human actions,
the belief in their existence leads naturally, sooner or later, to active
reverence and propitiation.” There is no doubt that the belief in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">9</span>
soul and in the existence of the spirits of the departed in another
world arose from dreams. When the savage in his sleep held converse,
as it seemed to him, with the actual forms of his departed relatives and
friends, the most natural thing imaginable would be the belief that these
persons actually existed in a spiritual shape in some other world than
the material one in which he existed. Those who dreamed most frequently
and most vividly, and were able to describe their visions most
clearly, would naturally strive to interpret their meaning, and would
become, to their grosser and less poetical brethren, more important
personages, and be considered as in closer converse with the spiritual
world than themselves. Thus, in process of time, the seer, the prophet,
and the magician would be evolved.</p>

<p>How did primitive man come by his ideas? When he saw the effects
of a power, he could only make guesses at the cause; he could only
speak of it by some such terms as he would use concerning a human
agent. He saw the effects of fire, and personified the cause. With the
Hindus Agni was the giver of light and warmth, and so of the life of
plants, of animals, and of men; and so with thunder, lightning, and
storm, primitive man looked upon these phenomena as the conflicts of
beings higher and more powerful than himself. Thus it was that the
ancient people of India formed their conceptions of the storm-gods, the
Maruts, <i>i.e.</i> the Smashers. Amongst the Esthonians, as Max Müller tells
us,<a id="FNanchor_15_15" href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">15</a> prayers were addressed to thunder and rain as late as the seventeenth
century. “Dear Thunder, push elsewhere all the thick black clouds.
Holy Thunder, guard our seed-field.” (This same thunder-god, <i>Perkuna</i>,
says Max Müller, was the god <i>Parganya</i>, who was invoked in India a
thousand years before Alexander’s expedition.) We say <i>it</i> rains, <i>it</i>
thunders. Primitive folk said the rain-god poured out his buckets, the
thunder-god was angry.</p>

<p>What did primitive man think when he observed the germination of
seeds; the chick coming out of the egg; the butterfly bursting from the
chrysalis; the shadow which everywhere accompanies the man; the
shadows of the tree; the leaves which vibrate in the breeze; when he
heard the roaring of the wind; the moaning of the storm, and the
strange, mysterious echo which, plainly as he heard it, ceased as he
approached the mountain-side which he conceived to be its home?
He could but believe that all nature was living, like himself; and that,
as he could not understand what he saw in the seed, the egg, the
chrysalis, or the shadow, so all nature was full of mystery, of a life that
he in vain would try to comprehend. Many savages regard their own
shadows as one of their two souls,—a soul which is always watching<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">10</span>
their actions, and ready to bear witness against them. How should it
be otherwise with them? The shadow is a reality to the savage, and so
is the echo. The ship which visits his shores, the watch and the compass,
which he sees for the first time, are alive; they move, they must
be living!</p>

<p>Mr. Tylor, in his chapter on Animism, in his <i>Primitive Culture</i>, says
(vol. ii. pp. 124, 125):—</p>

<p>“As in normal conditions the man’s soul, inhabiting his body, is held
to give it life, to think, speak, and act through it, so an adaptation
of the self-same principle explains abnormal conditions of body or
mind, by considering the new symptoms as due to the operation of a
second soul-like being, a strange spirit. The possessed man, tossed
and shaken in fever, pained and wrenched as though some live creature
were tearing or twisting him within, pining as though it were devouring
his vitals day by day, rationally finds a personal spiritual cause for his
sufferings. In hideous dreams he may even sometimes see the very
ghost or nightmare-fiend that plagues him. Especially when the
mysterious, unseen power throws him helpless to the ground, jerks and
writhes him in convulsions, makes him leap upon the bystanders with a
giant’s strength and a wild beast’s ferocity, impels him, with distorted
face and frantic gesture, and voice not his own, nor seemingly even
human, to pour forth wild incoherent raving, or with thought and
eloquence beyond his sober faculties, to command, to counsel, to foretell—such
a one seems to those who watch him, and even to himself, to
have become the mere instrument of a spirit which has seized him or
entered into him—a possessing demon in whose personality the patient
believes so implicitly that he often imagines a personal name for it,
which it can declare when it speaks in its own voice and character
through his organs of speech; at last, quitting the medium’s spent and
jaded body, the intruding spirit departs as it came. This is the savage
theory of demoniacal possession and obsession, which has been for
ages, and still remains, the dominant theory of disease and inspiration
among the lower races. It is obviously based on an animistic interpretation,
most genuine and rational in its proper place in man’s intellectual
history, of the natural symptoms of the cases. The general doctrine of
disease-spirits and oracle-spirits appears to have its earliest, broadest,
and most consistent position within the limits of savagery. When we
have gained a clear idea of it in this its original home, we shall be able
to trace it along from grade to grade of civilization, breaking away
piecemeal under the influence of new medical theories, yet sometimes
expanding in revival, and, at least, in lingering survival holding its place
into the midst of our modern life. The possession-theory is not merely<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">11</span>
known to us by the statements of those who describe diseases in accordance
with it. Disease being accounted for by attacks of spirits,
it naturally follows that to get rid of these spirits is the proper means of
cure. Thus the practices of the exorcist appear side by side with the
doctrine of possession, from its first appearance in savagery to its survival
in modern civilization; and nothing could display more vividly
the conception of a disease or a mental affliction as caused by a personal
spiritual being than the proceedings of the exorcist who talks to
it, coaxes or threatens it, makes offerings to it, entices or drives it out
of the patient’s body, and induces it to take up its abode in some
other.”</p>

<hr class="chap" />
<div class="chapter"></div>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">12</span></p>




<h3 id="CHAPTERI_III">CHAPTER III.<br />

<small>SAVAGE THEORIES OF DISEASE.</small></h3>

<p>Demoniacal.—Witchcraft.—Offended Dead Persons.</p>


<p>We find amongst savages three chief theories of disease; that it is caused
by—</p>

<p>I. The anger of an offended demon.</p>

<p>II. Witchcraft, or</p>

<p>III. Offended dead persons.</p>


<h4><span class="smcap">I. Anger of Offended Demons.</span></h4>

<p>Disease and death are set down to the influences of spirits in the
Australian-Tasmanian district, where demons are held to have the power
of creeping into men’s bodies, to eat up their livers, and sometimes to
work the wicked will of a sorcerer by inflicting blows with a club on the
back of the victim’s neck.<a id="FNanchor_16_16" href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">16</a> The Mantira, a low race of the Malay
Peninsula, believe in the theory of disease-spirits in its extreme form;
their spirits cause all sorts of ailments. The “Hantu Kalumbahan”
causes small-pox; the “Hantu Kamang” brings on inflammation and
swelling of the hands and feet; the blood which flows from wounds is
due to the “Hantu-pari,” which fastens on the wound and sucks. So
many diseases, so many Hantus. If a new malady were to appear
amongst the tribes, a new Hantu would be named as its cause.<a id="FNanchor_17_17" href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">17</a> When
small-pox breaks out amongst these people, they place thorns and
brush in the paths to keep the demons away. The Khonds of Orissa try
to defend themselves against the goddess of small-pox, Jugah Pensu,
in the same way. Among the Dayaks of Borneo, to have been ill is to
have been smitten by a spirit; invisible spirits inflict invisible wounds
with invisible spears, or they enter bodies and make them mad.
Disease-spirits in the Indian Archipelago are conciliated by presents<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">13</span>
and dances. In Polynesia, every sickness is set down to deities which
have been offended, or which have been urged to afflict the sufferer by
their enemies.<a id="FNanchor_18_18" href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">18</a> In New Zealand disease is supposed to be due to a
baby, or undeveloped spirit, which is gnawing the patient’s body.
Those who endeavour to charm it away persuade it to get upon a flax-stalk
and go home. Each part of the body is the particular region of
the spirit whose office it is to afflict it.<a id="FNanchor_19_19" href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">19</a></p>

<p>The Prairie Indians treat all diseases in the same way, as they must
all have been caused by one evil spirit.<a id="FNanchor_20_20" href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">20</a></p>

<p>Among the Betschvaria disease may be averted if a painted stone or
a crossbar smeared with medicine be set up near the entrance of the
residence or approach to a town.<a id="FNanchor_21_21" href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">21</a></p>

<p>Amongst the Bodo and Dhimal peoples, when the exorcist is called
to a sick man he sets thirteen loaves round him, to represent the gods,
one of whom he must have offended; then he prays to the deity, holding
a pendulum by a string. The offended god is supposed to cause
the pendulum to swing towards his loaf.<a id="FNanchor_22_22" href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">22</a></p>

<p>The New Zealanders had a separate demon for each part of the body
to cause disease. Tonga caused headache and sickness; Moko-Tiki
was responsible for chest pains, and so on.<a id="FNanchor_23_23" href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">23</a></p>

<p>The Karens of Burmah and the Zulus both say, “The rainbow is
disease. If it rests on a man, something will happen to him.”<a id="FNanchor_24_24" href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">24</a> “The
rainbow has come to drink wells.” They say, “Look out; some one or
other will come violently by an evil death.”</p>

<p>The Tasmanians lay their sick round a corpse on the funeral pile,
that the dead may come in the night and take out the devils that cause
the diseases.<a id="FNanchor_25_25" href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">25</a></p>

<p>The Zulus believe that spirits, when angry, seize a living man’s
body and inflict disease and death, and when kindly disposed give
health and cattle. In Madagascar, Mr. Tylor tells us, the spirits of the
Vazimbas, the aborigines of the island, inflict diseases, and the Malagasy
accounts for all sorts of mysterious complaints by the supposition
that he has given offence to some Vazimba. The Gold Coast negroes
believe that ghosts plague the living and cause sickness. The Dayaks
of Borneo think that the souls of men enter the trunks of trees, and the
Hindus hold that plants are sometimes the homes of the spirits of the
departed. The Santals of Bengal believe that the spirits of the good<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">14</span>
enter into fruit-bearing trees.<a id="FNanchor_26_26" href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">26</a> It is but another step to the belief that
beneficent medicinal plants are tenanted by good spirits, and poisonous
plants by evil spirits. The Malays have a special demon for each kind
of disease; one for small-pox, another for swellings, and so on.<a id="FNanchor_27_27" href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">27</a></p>

<p>The Dayaks of Borneo acknowledge a supreme God, although, as
we have said, they attribute all kinds of diseases and calamities to the
malignity of evil spirits. Their system of medicine consists in the application
of appropriate charms or the offering of conciliatory sacrifices.<a id="FNanchor_28_28" href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">28</a>
Yet they are an intelligent and highly capable race, and their steel instruments
far surpass European wares in strength and fineness of edge.<a id="FNanchor_29_29" href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">29</a></p>

<p>The Javanese, nominally Mahometans, are really believers in the primitive
animism of their ancestry. They worship numberless spirits; all
their villages have patron saints, to whom is attributed all that happens
to the inhabitants, good or bad. Mentik causes the rice disease; Sawan
produces convulsions in children; Dengen causes gout and rheumatism.<a id="FNanchor_30_30" href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">30</a></p>

<p>The religion of Siam is a corrupted Buddhism; spirits and demons
(nats or phees) are worshipped and propitiated. Some of these malignant
beings cause children to sicken and die. Talismans are worked
into the ornamentation of the houses to avert their evil influence.<a id="FNanchor_31_31" href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">31</a></p>

<p>The Rev. J. L. Wilson<a id="FNanchor_32_32" href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">32</a> says: “Demoniacal possessions are common,
and the feats performed by those who are supposed to be under
such influence are certainly not unlike those described in the New
Testament. Frantic gestures, convulsions, foaming at the mouth, feats
of supernatural strength, furious ravings, bodily lacerations, grinding of
teeth, and other things of a similar character, may be witnessed in most
of the cases.”</p>

<p>In Finnish mythology, which introduces us to ideas of extreme antiquity,
we find the disease-demon theory in all its force.</p>

<p>The <i>Tietajat</i>, “the learned,” and the <i>Noijat</i>, or sorcerers, claimed the
power to cure diseases by expelling the demons which caused them, by
incantations assisted by drugs; these magicians were the only physicians
of the nation. The <i>Tietajat</i> and the <i>Noijat</i>, however, were not
magicians of the same class: the former practised “white magic,” or
“sacred science”; the latter practised “black magic,” or sorcery.
Evil spirits, poisons, and malice were the chief aids to practice in
the latter; while <i>Tietajat</i>, by means of learning and the assistance of
benevolent supernatural beings, devote themselves to the welfare of the
people. The three highest deities of Finnish mythology, Ukko, Wäinä<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">15</span>möinen,
and Ilmarinen, corresponded to three superior gods of the
Accadian magic collection, Ana, Hea, and Mut-ge. Wäinämöinen was
the great spirit of life, the master of favourable spells, conqueror of evil,
and sovereign possessor of science. The sweat which dropped from his
body was a balm for all diseases. It was he alone who could conquer
all the demons. Every disease was itself a demon. The invasion of
the disorder was an actual possession. Finnish magic was chiefly
medical, being used to cure diseases and wounds.<a id="FNanchor_33_33" href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">33</a> The Finns believed
diseases to be the daughters of Louhiatar, the demon of diseases.
Pleurisy, gout, colic, consumption, leprosy, and the plague were all distinct
personages. By the help of conjurations, these might be buried
or cooked in a brazen vessel. When the priest made his diagnosis he
had to be in a state of divine ecstasy, and then by incantation, assisted
by drugs, he proceeded to exorcise the demon. The Finnish incantations
belonged to the same family as those of the Accadians. Professor
Lenormant translates from the great Epopee of the <i>Kalevala</i> one of
the incantations:—</p>

<p>“O malady, disappear into the heavens; pain, rise up to the clouds;
inflamed vapour, fly into the air, in order that the wind may take thee
away, that the tempest may chase thee to distant regions, where neither
sun nor moon give their light, where the warm wind does not inflame
the flesh.</p>

<p>“O pain, mount upon the winged steed of stone, and fly to the mountains
covered with iron. For he is too robust to be devoured by disease,
to be consumed by pains.</p>

<p>“Go, O diseases, to where the virgin of pains has her hearth, where
the daughter of Wäinämöinen cooks pains,—go to the hill of pains.</p>

<p>“These are the white dogs, who formerly hurled torments, who
groaned in their sufferings.”</p>

<p>Another incantation against the plague was discovered by Ganander,
and is given by Lenormant:—</p>

<p>“O scourge, depart; plague, take thy flight, far from the bare flesh.</p>

<p>“I will give thee a horse, with which to escape, whose shoes shall
not slide on ice;” and so on.</p>

<p>The Jewish ceremony expelled the scapegoat to the desert; the
Accadian banished the disease-demons to the desert of sand; the
Finnish magician sent his disease-demons to Lapland.</p>

<p>The goddess Suonetar was the healer and renewer of flesh:—</p>

<p>“She is beautiful, the goddess of veins, Suonetar, the beneficent
goddess! She knits the veins wonderfully with her beautiful spindle,
her metal distaff, her iron wheel.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">16</span></p>

<p>“Come to me, I invoke thy help; come to me, I call thee. Bring
in thy bosom a bundle of flesh, a ball of veins to tie the extremity of
the veins.”<a id="FNanchor_34_34" href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">34</a></p>

<p>“All diseases are attributed by the Thibetans to the four elements,
who are propitiated accordingly in cases of severe illness. The winds
are invoked in cases of affections of the breathing; fire in fevers and
inflammations; water in dropsy, and diseases whereby the fluids are
affected; and the god of earth when solid organs are diseased, as in
liver complaints, rheumatism, etc. Propitiatory offerings are made to
the deities of these elements, but never sacrifices.”<a id="FNanchor_35_35" href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">35</a></p>

<p>Hooker tells of a case of apoplexy which was treated by a Lama, who
perched a saddle on a stone, and burning incense before it, scattered
rice to the winds, invoking the various mountain peaks in the neighbourhood.</p>

<p>In Hottentot mythology Gaunab is a malevolent ghost, who kills
people who die what we call a “natural” death. Unburied men
change into this sort of vampire.<a id="FNanchor_36_36" href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">36</a></p>

<p>The demoniacal theory of at least one class of disease is found in
the Bible, although the New Testament in one passage distinguishes
between lunatics and demoniacs. In Matthew iv. 24 we read that they
brought to Jesus “those which were possessed with devils, and those
which were lunatick.” Epilepsy is evidently the disease described in
Mark ix. 17-26, though the symptoms are attributed to possession by
a dumb spirit.</p>


<h4>II. <span class="smcap">Witchcraft as a Cause of Disease.</span></h4>

<p>Sorcerers and magicians not only use evil words and cast evil glances
at the persons whom they wish to afflict, but they endeavour to obtain
possession of some article which has belonged to the individual, or
something connected more closely with his personality, as parings of
the nails or a few of his hairs, and through these he professes to be
able to operate more effectually on the object of his malice. It is to
this use of portions of the body that ignorant persons, even at the
present day, insist that nail-parings, hair-cuttings, and the like, shall be
at once destroyed by fire. Such superstitions are found at work all
over the world. Mr. Black tells us<a id="FNanchor_37_37" href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">37</a> that the servants of the chiefs of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">17</span>
South Sea Islanders carefully collect and bury their masters’ spittle in
places where sorcerers are not likely to find it. He says also it is
believed in the West of Scotland that if a bird used any of the hair of
a person’s head in building his nest, the individual would be subject to
headaches and become bald. Of course the bird is held to be the
embodiment of an evil spirit or witch. Images of persons to be
bewitched are sometimes made in wood or wax, in which has been
inserted some of the hair of the victim of the enchantment; the image
is then buried, and before long some malady attacks the part of the
bewitched person corresponding to that in which the hair has been
placed in his effigy. Disease-making is a profession in the island of
Tanna in the New Hebrides; the sorcerers collect the skins and shells
of the fruits eaten by any one who is to be punished, they are then
slowly burned, and the victims sicken. Disease-demons are driven away
from patients in Alaska by the beating of drums. The size of the drum
and the force of the beating are directly proportioned to the gravity of
the disease. A headache can be dispelled by the gentle tapping of a toy
drum; concussion of the brain would require that the big drum should
be thumped till it broke; if that failed to expel the evil spirit, there
would be nothing left but to strangle the patient.</p>

<p>The wild natives of Australia are exceedingly superstitious. Sorcery
enters into every relation of life, and their great fear is lest they should
be injured by the mysterious influence called <i>boyl-ya</i>. The sorcerers
have power to enter the bodies of men and slowly consume them; the
victim feels the pain as the <i>boyl-ya</i> enters him, and it does not leave him
till it is extracted by another sorcerer. While he is sleeping, he may be
attacked and bewitched by having pointed at him a leg-bone of a kangaroo,
or the sorcerer may steal away his kidney-fat, where the savage
believes that his power resides, or he may secretly slay his victim by a
blow on the back of his neck. The magician may dispose of his victim
by procuring a lock of his hair and roasting it with fat; as it is consumed,
so does his victim pine away and die.</p>

<p><i>Wingo</i> is a superstition which some Australian tribes have, that with
a rope of fibre they can partially choke a man, by putting it round his
neck at night while he is asleep, without waking him; his enemy then
removes his caul-fat from under his short rib, leaving no mark or wound.
When the victim awakes he feels no pain or weakness, but sooner or
later he feels something break in his inside like a string. He then goes
home and dies at once.<a id="FNanchor_38_38" href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">38</a></p>

<p>Dr. Watson thus describes the typical medicine-men:—</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">18</span></p>
<p>“The Tla-guill-augh, or man of supernatural gifts, is supposed to be
capable of throwing his good or bad medicine, without regard to distance,
on whom he will, and to kill or cure by magic at his pleasure.
These medicine-men are generally beyond the meridian of life; grave,
sedate, and shy, with a certain air of cunning, but possessing some skill
in the use of herbs and roots, and in the management of injuries and
external diseases. The people at large stand in great awe of them, and
consult them on every affair of importance.”<a id="FNanchor_39_39" href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">39</a></p>

<p>Dr. O. L. Möller, Medical Director-General of the Danish army,
describes a certain wise woman near Lögstör, who used in her prescriptions
for the sick people who consulted her a charm of willow twigs
tied together amongst other mystic things, and whose therapeutics were
of a bloodthirsty character, as she would advise her patients to strike
the first person they met after returning home, until they drew blood,
for that person would be the cause of the disease.<a id="FNanchor_40_40" href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">40</a></p>

<p>The fact that ghosts and demons are everywhere believed to cause
diseases, and that sorcery is practised more or less by most of the
races of man in connection with the causation or cure of disease, has
been used as a factor in the argument for the origin of primitive man
from a single pair in accordance with the orthodox belief. Dr. Pickering,
the ethnologist, says: “Superstitions also appear to be subject to
the same laws of progression with communicated knowledge, and the
belief in ghosts, evil spirits, and sorcery, current among the ruder East
Indian tribes, in Madagascar, and in a great part of Africa, seems to
indicate that such ideas may have elsewhere preceded a regular form
of mythology.”<a id="FNanchor_41_41" href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">41</a></p>

<p>There has long been practised in the West Indies a species of
witchcraft called <i>Obeah</i> or <i>Obi</i>, supposed to have been introduced
from Africa, and which is in reality an ingenious system of poisoning.
Mr. Bowrey, Government chemist in Jamaica, connects Obeah-poisoning
with a plant which grows abundantly in Jamaica and other West Indian
islands, called the “savannah flower,” or “yellow-flowered nightshade”
(<i>Urechites suberecta</i>).<a id="FNanchor_42_42" href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">42</a></p>

<p>Mr. Bowrey concludes that there is some truth in the stories told of
the poisoning by Obeah-men, and that minute doses, frequently administered,
might cause death without suspicion being aroused. The
<i>British Medical Journal</i>, June 18th, 1892, has the following interesting
notes on Obeah (p. 1296):—</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">19</span></p>
<p>“It is difficult to obtain detailed information regarding Obeah practices.
They rest largely on the credence given to superstitious practices
and vulgar quackery by the uneducated in every country, but there
seems little doubt that among them secret poisoning is included. Benjamin
Moseley (<i>Medical Tracts</i>, London, 1800) states that Obi had its
origin, like many customs among the Africans, from the ancient Egyptians,
<i>Ob</i> meaning a demon or magic. Villiers-Stuart (<i>Jamaica Revisited</i>,
1891) says that Obeah in the West African dialects signifies serpent,
and that the Obeah-men in Jamaica carry (but in greatest secrecy, for
fear of the penal laws) a stick on which is carved a serpent, the emblem
being a relic of the serpent worship once universal among mankind,
and also that they sacrifice cocks at their religious rites. Moseley gives
the following account: ‘Obi, for the purposes of bewitching people
or consuming them by lingering illness, is made of grave-dirt, hair,
teeth of sharks and other animals, blood, feathers,’ and so on. Mixtures
of these are placed in various ways near the person to be bewitched.
‘The victims to this nefarious art in the West Indies among the negroes
are numerous. No humanity of the master nor skill in medicine can
relieve the poor negro labouring under the influence of Obi. He will
surely die, and of a disease that answers no description in nosology.
This, when I first went to the colonies, perplexed me. Laws have been
made in the West Indies to punish the Obian practice with death, but
they have been impotent and nugatory. Laws constructed in the West
Indies can never suppress the effect of ideas, the origin of which is in
the centre of Africa.’ ‘A negro Obi-man will administer a baleful dose
from poisonous herbs, and calculate its mortal effects to an hour, day,
week, month, or year.’ The missionaries Waddell (<i>Twenty-nine Years
in the West Indies and Central Africa</i>, 1863) and Blyth (<i>Reminiscences
of Missionary Life</i>, 1851) confirm this account. They are all agreed
that similar practices prevail in West and Central Africa, and that
Jamaican Obeah-men use poisons. Mr. Bowrey informs me that he
has examined many Obeah charms, and confirms Moseley’s account of
them. He thinks, however, that among the negroes the knowledge of
poisons has been rapidly dying out, ‘doctor’s medicine’ and the much-advertised
patent medicines having largely replaced the drugs of the
native practitioners. The belief in Obeah is still, however, almost
universal among the black population. According to Sir Spencer St.
John (<i>Hayti, or the Black Republic</i>, second edition, London, 1889)
secret poisoning is a lucrative occupation in the neighbouring island of
Hayti, certain of the people having an intimate knowledge of indigenous
poisonous plants and being expert poisoners.”<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">20</span></p>


<h4>III. <span class="smcap">Offence to the Dead as a Cause of Disease.</span></h4>

<p>How comes it that all the races of man of which we have any accurate
information have some belief or other in spirits good or bad, and of
some other life than the actual one which they live in their waking
hours? The theologian answers it in his own way, the anthropologist
in his, and perhaps a simpler one. With the religious aspect of the
question we are not here concerned, we have merely to consider the
scientific points involved. When the most ignorant savage of the lowest
type falls asleep, he is as sure to dream as his more favoured civilized
brother. To his companions he appears as though he were dead, he
is motionless and apparently unconscious. He awakes and is himself
again. What has his spirit or thinking part been doing while his body
slept? The man has seen various things and places, has even conversed
with friend or foe in his slumbers, has engaged in fights, has
taken a journey, has had adventures, and yet his body has not stirred.
Naturally enough the explanation most satisfactory is, that his soul has
temporarily left his body, and has met other souls in a similar condition.
He has seen and conversed with his dead friends or relatives, has been
comforted by their presence or alarmed at the visitation. Here, then,
we have the anthropologist’s “theory of souls where life, mind, breath,
shadow, reflexion, dream, vision, come together and account for one
another in some such vague, confused way as satisfies the untaught
reasoner.”<a id="FNanchor_43_43" href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">43</a></p>

<p>But the savage goes further than this: he has seen his horse, his dog,
his canoe, and his spear in his dream, they too must have souls; and
thus he invests with a spiritual essence every material object by which
he is surrounded. And so we find funeral sacrifices and ceremonies all
over the world which testify to this universal belief of primitive man.
The ornaments and weapons which are found with the bones of chiefs,
the warrior’s horses slain at his burial place, the food and drink and
piece of money left with the dead, are intelligible on this theory, and on
no other. The savage’s idea of a demon or evil spirit is usually that of
a soul of a malevolent dead man. The man was his enemy during life, he
remains his enemy after death; or he owed some acknowledgment and
reward to a spirit who had helped him, he has neglected to pay his debt,
and he has offended the spirit in consequence. In cases of fainting,
delirium from fever, hysteria, epilepsy, or insanity, the savage sees the
partial absence of the patient’s soul from his body, or the work of a
tormenting demon. Demoniacal possession and the ceremonies of
exorcism are theories readily explainable by facts with which the an<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">21</span>thropologist
is familiar. “The sick Australian will believe that the
angry ghost of a dead man has got into him, and is gnawing his liver;
in a Patagonian skin hut the wizards may be seen dancing, shouting,
and drumming, to drive out the evil demon from a man down with
fever.”<a id="FNanchor_44_44" href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">44</a></p>

<p>When Prof. Bartram, the anthropologist, was in Burma, his servant
was seized with an apopleptic fit. The man’s wife, of course, attributed
the misfortune to an angry demon, so she set out for him little heaps
of rice, and was heard praying, “Oh, ride him not! Ah, let him go!
Grip him not so hard! Thou shalt have rice! Ah, how good that
tastes!”</p>

<p>The exorcist may so delude himself that he may believe that he has
power to make the demon converse with him. There may be a falsetto
voice like that of the mediums of modern civilization issuing from the
patient’s mouth, and the exorcist’s questions and commands may be
answered, and the evil spirit may consent to leave the sufferer in peace.
In nervous or mental disorders, in cases of defective power of assimilating
food, such a process may exert a soothing and highly beneficial
influence on the patient who is actively co-operating by his faith in his
own cure, and so the error both as to the cause of the malady and its
treatment is perpetuated.</p>

<p>Primitive folk think that life is indestructible; what is called death
is but a change of condition to them; even mites and mosquitos
are immortal.<a id="FNanchor_45_45" href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">45</a></p>

<p>The Tasmanian, when he suffers from a gnawing disease, believes
that he has unwittingly pronounced the name of a dead man, who, thus
summoned, has crept into his body, and is consuming his liver. The
sick Zulu believes that some dead ancestor he sees in a dream has
caused his ailment, wanting to be propitiated with the sacrifice of an ox.
The Samoan thinks that the ancestral souls can get into the heads and
stomachs of living men, and cause their illness and death. These are
examples of human ghosts having become demons.<a id="FNanchor_46_46" href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">46</a></p>

<p>In the Samoan group people thought that if a man died bearing ill-will
towards any one, he would be likely to return to trouble him, and
cause sickness and death, taking up his abode in the sufferer’s head,
chest, or stomach. If he died suddenly, they said he had been eaten
by the spirit that took him. In the Georgian and Society Islands evil
demons cause convulsions and hysterics, or twist the bowels till the
sufferers die writhing in agony. Madmen are thought to be entered<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">22</span>
by a god, so they are treated with great respect; idiots are considered
to be divinely inspired.<a id="FNanchor_47_47" href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">47</a> Many other races believe in the inspiration
of mentally feeble or insane persons. Amongst the Dacotas spirits
of animals, trees, stones, or deceased persons are believed to enter the
patient and cause his disease. The medicine-man recites charms over
him, and making a symbolic representation of the intruding spirit in
bark, shoots it ceremonially; he sucks over the seat of the pain to
draw the spirit out, and fires guns at it as it escapes.</p>

<p>This is just what happened in the West Indies in the time of Columbus.
Friar Roman Paul tells of a native sorcerer who pretended to pull the
disease from the legs of his patients, blowing it away, and telling it
to begone to the mountain or the sea. He would then pretend to extract
by sucking some stone or bit of flesh, which he declared had been
put into the patient to cause the disease by a deity in punishment for some
religious neglect.<a id="FNanchor_48_48" href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">48</a> The Patagonians believed that sickness was caused
by spirits entering the patient’s body; they considered that an evil demon
held possession of the sick man’s body, and their doctors always carried
a drum which they struck at the bedside to frighten away the demons
which caused the disorder.<a id="FNanchor_49_49" href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">49</a> The Zulus and Basutos in Africa teach that
ghosts of dead persons are the causes of all diseases. Congo tribes
believe also that the souls of the dead cause disease and death amongst
men.</p>

<p>The art of medicine in these lands therefore is, for the most part,
merely an affair of propitiating some offended and disease-causing
spirit. In several parts of Africa mentally deranged persons are worshipped.
Madness and idiocy are explained by the phrase, “he has
fiends.” The Bodo and Dhimal people of North-east India ascribe all
diseases to a deity who torments the patient, and who must be appeased
by the sacrifice of a hog. With these people naturally the doctor is a
sort of priest. As Mr. Tylor says, “Where the world-wide doctrine of
disease-demons has held sway, men’s minds, full of spells and ceremonies,
have scarce had room for thought of drugs and regimen.”<a id="FNanchor_50_50" href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">50</a></p>

<p>A forest tribe of the Malay Peninsula, called the Original People,
are said to have no religion, no idea of any Supreme Being, and no
priests; yet their Puyung, who is a sort of general adviser to the tribe,
instructs them in sorcery and the doctrine of ghosts and evil spirits. In
sickness they use the roots and leaves of trees as medicines. Amongst<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">23</span>
the Tarawan group of the Coral Islands, Pickering says: “Divination
or sorcery was also known, and the natives paid worship to the manes
or spirits of their departed ancestors.”<a id="FNanchor_51_51" href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">51</a> Probably on careful investigation
we should find that in these cases the doctrine of ghosts and the
worship of spirits has some connection with the causation of disease.</p>

<p>The Malagasy profess a religion which is chiefly fetishism. They
believe in the life of the spirit, which they call “the essential part of
me,” apart from the body; and they believe that this spirit exists when
the body dies. Such “ghosts” they consider can do harm in various
ways, especially by causing diseases; consequently they endeavour, as
the chief means of cure, to appease the offended ghost. Witchcraft
and belief in charms naturally flourish amongst these people.<a id="FNanchor_52_52" href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">52</a></p>

<p>Mr. A. W. Howitt says that the Kŭrnai of Gippsland, Australia,
believe that a man’s spirit (<i>Yambo</i>) can leave the body during sleep, and
hold converse with other disembodied spirits. Another tribe, the Woi-worŭng,
call this spirit Mūrŭp, and they suppose it leaves the body in a
similar manner, the exact moment of its departure being indicated by
the “snoring” of the sleeper. As a theory of the soul, Mr. Howitt says:
“It may be said of the aborigines I am now concerned with, and probably
of all others, that their dreams are to them as much realities in one
sense, as are the actual events of their waking life. It may be said that
in this respect they fail to distinguish between the subjective and objective
impressions of the brain, and regard both as real events.”<a id="FNanchor_53_53" href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">53</a></p>

<p>They believe that these ghosts live upon plants, that they can revisit
their old haunts at will, and communicate with the wizards or medicine-men
on being summoned by them. A celebrated wizard amongst the
Woi-worŭng caught the spirit of a dying man, and brought it back under
his ’possum rug, and restored it to the still breathing body just in time
to save his life. The ghosts can kill game with spiritually poisoned
spears. Even the tomahawk has a spirit, and this belief explains many
burial customs. One of the Woi-worŭng people told Mr. Howitt that
they buried the weapon with the dead man, “so that he might have it
handy.” Other tribes bury with the corpse the amulets and charms
used by the deceased during life, in case they may be required in the
spirit-world. The Woi-worŭng believe that their wizards could send
their deadly magical yark, or rock crystal, against a person they desired
to kill, in the form of a small whirlwind. They believe that their
wizards “go up” at night to the sky, and obtain such information as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">24</span>
they require in their profession. They can also bring away the magical
apparatus by which some one of another tribe might be injuring the
health of a member of his own tribe. It is highly probable that in these
Australian beliefs we have the counterparts of those which were everywhere
held by primitive man. Good spirits are very little worshipped
by savages; they are already well disposed, and need no invocation; it
is the bad ones who must be propitiated by an infinite variety of rites
and sacrifices. “Thus,” as Professor Keane says, “has demonology
everywhere preceded theology.”<a id="FNanchor_54_54" href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">54</a></p>

<p>Mr. Edward Palmer, in <i>Notes on Some Australian Tribes</i>, says that
the Gulf tribes believe in spirits which live inside the bark of trees, and
which come out at night to hold intercourse with the doctors, or
“mediums.” These spirits work evil at times. The Kombinegherry
tribe are much afraid of an evil-working spirit called <i>Tharragarry</i>, but
they are protected by a good spirit, <i>Coomboorah</i>. The Mycoolon people
believe in an invisible spear which enters the body, leaving no outward
sign of its entry. The victim does not even know that he is hurt; he
goes on hunting, and returns home as usual; in the night he becomes
ill, delirious, or mad, and dies in the morning. <i>Thimmool</i> is a pointed
leg-bone of a man, which, being held over a blackfellow when asleep,
causes sickness or death. The <i>Marro</i> is the pinion-bone of a hawk, in
which hair of an enemy has been fixed with wax. To work a charm on
him a fire circle is made round it. With this charm they can make
their enemy sick, or, by prolonging their magic, kill him. When they
think they have done harm enough, they place the Marro in water,
which removes the charm.<a id="FNanchor_55_55" href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">55</a></p>

<p>Mr. H. H. Johnstone says that the tribes on the Lower Congo bury
with any one of consequence bales of cloth, plates, beads, knives, and
other things required to set the deceased up in the spirit-life on which
he has entered. The plates are broken, the beads are crushed, and the
knives bent, so as to kill them, that they too may “die,” and go to the
spirit-land with their owner.<a id="FNanchor_56_56" href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">56</a></p>

<p>This is a valuable confirmation of the doctrine of animism.</p>

<p>As Mr. Herbert Spencer says:<a id="FNanchor_57_57" href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">57</a> “It is absurd to suppose that uncivilized
man possesses at the outset the idea of ‘natural explanation.’”
At a great price has civilized man purchased the power of giving a
natural explanation to the phenomena by which he is surrounded. As
societies grow, as the arts flourish, as painfully, little by little, his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">25</span>
experiences accumulate, so does man learn to correct his earlier impressions,
and to construct the foundations of science. It is the
natural, or it would not be the universal, process for primitive man to
explain phenomena by the simplest methods, and these always lead
him to his superstitions. It is the only process open to him. The
activity which he sees all around him is controlled by the spirits of the
dead, and by spirits more or less like those which animate his fellow-men.</p>

<p>Clement of Alexandria says that all superstition arises from the
inveterate habit of mankind to make gods like themselves. The deities
have like passions with their worshippers, “and some say that plagues,
and hailstorms, and tempests, and the like, are wont to take place, not
alone in consequence of material disturbance, but also through the
anger of demons and bad angels. These can only be appeased by
sacrifice and incantations. Yet some of them are easily satisfied, for
when animals failed, it sufficed for the magi at Cleone to bleed their own
fingers.”<a id="FNanchor_58_58" href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">58</a></p>

<p>“The prophetess Diotima, by the Athenians offering sacrifice previous
to the pestilence, effected a delay of the plague for ten years.”<a id="FNanchor_59_59" href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">59</a></p>

<hr class="chap" />
<div class="chapter"></div>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">26</span></p>




<h3 id="CHAPTERI_IV">CHAPTER IV.<br />

<small>MAGIC AND SORCERY IN THE TREATMENT OF DISEASE.</small></h3>

<blockquote>

<p>These originated partly in the Desire to cover Ignorance.—Medicine-men.—Sucking
out Diseases.—Origin of Exorcism.—Ingenuity of the Priests.—Blowing Disease
away.—Beelzebub cast out by Beelzebub.—Menders of Souls.—”Bringing up the
Devil.“—Diseases and Medicines.—Fever Puppets.—Amulets.—Totemism and
Medicine.</p></blockquote>


<p>Dr. Robertson tells us that the ignorant pretenders to medical skill
amongst the North American Indians were compelled to cover their
ignorance concerning the structure of the human body, and the causes
of its diseases, by imputing the origin of the maladies which they failed
to cure to supernatural influences of a baleful sort. They therefore
“prescribed or performed a variety of mysterious rites, which they gave
out to be of such efficacy as to remove the most dangerous and
inveterate malice. The credulity and love of the marvellous natural to
uninformed men favoured the deception, and prepared them to be the
dupes of those impostors. Among savages, their first physicians are a
kind of conjurers, or wizards, who boast that they know what is past,
and can foretell what is to come. Thus, superstition, in its earliest
form, flowed from the solicitude of man to be delivered from present
distress, not from his dread of evils awaiting him in a future life, and
was originally ingrafted on medicine, not on religion. One of the first
and most intelligent historians of America was struck with this alliance
between the art of divination and that of physic among the people of
Hispaniola. But this was not peculiar to them. The <i>Alexis</i>, the
<i>Piayas</i>, the <i>Autmoins</i>, or whatever was the distinguishing name of the
diviners and charmers in other parts of America, were all physicians of
their respective tribes, in the same manner as the <i>Buhitos</i> of Hispaniola.
As their function led them to apply to the human mind when enfeebled
by sickness, and as they found it, in that season of dejection, prone to
be alarmed with imaginary fears, or assured with vain hopes, they easily
induced it to rely with implicit confidence on the virtue of their spells
and the certainty of their predictions.”<a id="FNanchor_60_60" href="#Footnote_60_60" class="fnanchor">60</a></p>

<p>The aborigines of the Amazon have a kind of priests called <i>Pagés</i>,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">27</span>
like the medicine-men of the North American Indians. They attribute
all diseases either to poison or to the charms of some enemy. Of
course, diseases caused by magic can only be cured by magic, so these
powerful priest-physicians cure their patients by strong blowing and
breathing upon them, accompanied by the singing of songs and by
incantations. They are believed to have the power to kill enemies, and
to afflict with various diseases. As they are much believed in, these
<i>pagés</i> are well paid for their services. They are acquainted with the
properties of many poisonous plants. One of their poisons most frequently
used is terrible in its effects, causing the tongue and throat, as
well as the intestines, to putrefy and rot away, leaving the sufferer to
linger in torment for several days.<a id="FNanchor_61_61" href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor">61</a></p>

<p>Amongst many savage tribes their medicine-men pretend to remove
diseases by sucking the affected part of the body. They have previously
placed bits of bone, stones, etc., in their mouths, and they pretend they
have removed them from the patient, and exhibit them as proofs of their
success. The Shaman, or wizard-priest of the religion still existing
amongst the peoples of Northern Asia, who pretends to have dealings
with good and evil spirits, is the successor of the priests of Accad;
thus is the Babylonian religion reduced to the level of the heathenism
of Mongolia.</p>

<p>The aborigines of the Darling River, New South Wales, believe that
sickness is caused by an enemy, who uses certain charms called the
<i>Yountoo</i> and <i>Molee</i>. The <i>Yountoo</i> is made from a piece of bone taken
from the leg of a deceased friend. This is wrapped up in a piece of the
dried flesh from the body of another deceased friend. The package is
tied with some hair from the head of a third friend. When this charm
is used against an enemy, it is taken to the camp where he sleeps, and
after certain rites are performed it is pointed at the person to be injured.
The doctor of the tribe attributes disease to this sort of enchantment,
and pretends to suck out of his patient the piece of bone which he declares
has entered his body and caused the mischief. The <i>Molee</i> is a
piece of white quartz, which is pointed at the victim with somewhat
similar ceremonies and consequences. The possessors of these powerful
charms take care to hide them from view. When the doctor, or
<i>Maykeeka</i>, sucks out the <i>Yountoo</i>—bone chip—from his patient, he must
throw it away. The <i>Molee</i> must be cast into water.</p>

<p>Mr. F. Bonney read a paper on “Some Customs of the Aborigines of
the River Darling,” before the Anthropological Society of Great Britain,
May 8th, 1883, in which the process of curing diseases is described.
He says:<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">28</span> “On one occasion, when I was camped in the Purnanga
Ranges, I watched by the light of a camp-fire a doctor at work, sucking
the back of a woman who was suffering from pains in that part.
While she sat on a log a few yards distant from the camp-fire, he moved
about her, making certain passes with boughs which he held, and then
sucked for some time the place where pain was felt; at last he took
something from his mouth, and, holding it towards the firelight, declared
it to be a piece of bone. The old women sitting near loudly
expressed their satisfaction at his success. I asked to be allowed to
look at it, and it was given to me. I carelessly looked at it, and then
pretended to throw it into the fire, but, keeping it between my fingers,
I placed it in my pocket, when I could do so unobserved; and on the
following morning, when I examined it by daylight, it proved to be a
small splinter of wood, and not bone. At the time the patient appeared
to be very much relieved by the treatment.” Another mode of treatment
described by Mr. Bonney is that of sucking poison, supposed to
have been sent into the patient by an enemy, through a string. The
patient complained of sickness in the stomach; the woman doctor
placed the patient on her back on the ground, tied a string round the
middle of her naked body, leaving a loose end about eighteen inches
long. The doctress then began sucking the string, passing the loose
end through her mouth, from time to time spitting blood and saliva into
a pot. She repeated this many times, until the patient professed to be
cured.</p>

<p>The people of Timor-laut, near the island of New Guinea, scar themselves
on the arms and shoulders with red-hot stones, in imitation of
immense small-pox marks, in order to ward off that disease.<a id="FNanchor_62_62" href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">62</a></p>

<p>Among the Kaffirs diseases are all attributed to three causes—either
to being enchanted by an enemy, to the anger of certain beings whose
abode appears to be in the rivers, or to the power of evil spirits.<a id="FNanchor_63_63" href="#Footnote_63_63" class="fnanchor">63</a></p>

<p>“Among the Kalmucks,” says Lubbock, “the cures are effected by
exorcising the evil spirit. This is the business of the so-called ‘priests,’
who induce the evil spirit to quit the body of the patient and enter
some other object. If a chief is ill, some other person is induced to
take his name, and then, as is supposed, the evil spirit passes into his
body.”<a id="FNanchor_64_64" href="#Footnote_64_64" class="fnanchor">64</a></p>

<p>Pritchard tells us that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">29</span> “the priests of the Negroes are also the
physicians, as were the priests of Apollo and Æsculapius. The notions
which the Negroes entertain of the causes of diseases are very different.
The Watje attribute them to evil spirits whom they call Dobbo. When
these are very numerous, they ask of their sacred cotton-tree permission
to hunt them out. Hereupon a chase is appointed, and they do not
cease following the demons with arms and great cries until they have
chased them beyond their boundaries. This chase of the spirits of
disease is very customary among many nations of Guinea, who universally
believe that many diseases arise from enchantment, and
others by the direction of the Deity.”<a id="FNanchor_65_65" href="#Footnote_65_65" class="fnanchor">65</a></p>

<p>It is interesting to note, as showing the ingenuity of the priests, that
during the extremely dangerous rainy season the doctors’ remedies are
of very little use; then the priests say this is because the gods at this
particular season are obliged to appear at the court of the superior
deity. During their absence at court, the priests cannot obtain access
to them; and as without their advice they could not efficaciously prescribe,
such medicines as they offer have little good effect.</p>

<p>The Antilles Indians in Columbus’s time went through the pretence
of pulling the disease off the patient and blowing it away, telling it to
begone to the sea or the mountains.</p>

<p>That the disease-demon may often be blown away by a plentiful
supply of fresh air is now an article of every hygienist’s creed.</p>

<p>The Badaga folk, mountaineers of the Neilgherries, insure their
children against accidents and sickness by talismans made of the earth
and ashes of funeral pyres. They think the souls of the departed are so
vexed at finding themselves in a novel condition that they are liable to
kill people even without a motive. When an epidemic breaks out, they
lay the blame on the person who died last, who is going about the
country taking vengeance on his kindred.<a id="FNanchor_66_66" href="#Footnote_66_66" class="fnanchor">66</a></p>

<p>Monier Williams says they endeavour to induce the demon of
pestilence, of typhoid fever, of the plague of rats or caterpillars, to enter
into the body of a dancer, who acts as a medium and has power to
exorcise the angry spirit. He has power to let loose rot or farcy amongst
the flocks and herds, so the medium has to be conciliated. The
Corumba of these mountain people is a wizard, the sicknesses of men
and animals are all set down to his account. “Gratified by the evil
reputation the Corumba enjoy, they offer to undo what they are supposed
to have done, to remove the spells they are accused of having cast.
The wheat is smutty, the flocks have the scab? Somebody’s head
aches, some one’s stomach is out of order? One of these rogues turns
up, offers to eject the demon; as it happens, the evil spirit is one of his
particular cronies! He will cast out Beelzebub by Beelzebub.”<a id="FNanchor_67_67" href="#Footnote_67_67" class="fnanchor">67</a></p>

<p>Amongst the Western Inoits, says Elie Reclus,<a id="FNanchor_68_68" href="#Footnote_68_68" class="fnanchor">68</a> the magician of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">30</span>
people is called <i>Angakok</i>, signifying the “Great” or “the Ancient,”
and he is guide, instructor, wonder-worker, physician, and priest. He
accumulates in himself all influences; “he is public counsellor, justice
of the peace, arbitrator in public and private affairs, artist of all kinds,
poet, actor, buffoon.” Supposed to be in contact and close communication
with the superior beings of the world of spirits, and to
harbour in his body many demons of various kinds, he is supposed
to be invested with omnipotence, he can chase away the disease-demons,
and put even death itself to flight. The <i>angakok</i> defends his
people from the demons who take the form of cancers, rheumatism,
paralysis, and skin diseases. He exorcises the sick man with stale urine,
like the Bochiman poison-doctors.<a id="FNanchor_69_69" href="#Footnote_69_69" class="fnanchor">69</a></p>

<p>The Cambodians exorcise the small-pox demon with the urine of a
white horse.<a id="FNanchor_70_70" href="#Footnote_70_70" class="fnanchor">70</a></p>

<p>Thiers (<i>Des Superstitions</i>), quoted by Reclus, says that Slavonic
rustics asperse their cattle with herbs of St. John boiled in urine to
keep ill-luck away from them; and that French peasant women used
to wash their hands in their own urine, or in that of their husbands
and children, to prevent evil enchantments doing them harm. Reclus
says: “When a diagnosis puzzles an <i>angakok</i>, he has recourse to a truly
ingenious proceeding. He fastens to the invalid’s head a string, the
other end of which is attached to a stick; this he raises, feels, balances
on his hand, and turns in every direction. Various operations follow,
having for their object the forcible removal of the spider from the luckless
wretch whose flesh it devours. He will cleanse and set to rights
as much as he is able—whence his name ‘Mender of Souls.’ A
wicked witch, present though invisible, can undo the efforts of the
conjurer, and even communicate to him the disease, rendering him the
victim of his devotion; black magic can display more power than white
magic. Then, seeing the case to be desperate, the honest <i>angakok</i>
summons, if possible, one or more brethren, and the physicians of
souls strive in concert to comfort the dying man; with a solemn voice
they extol the felicities of Paradise, chanting softly a farewell canticle,
which they accompany lightly upon the drum.”<a id="FNanchor_71_71" href="#Footnote_71_71" class="fnanchor">71</a></p>

<p>The superstitious natives of the Lower Congo have a singular custom,
when anybody dies, of compelling some victim or other to drink a
poison made from the bark of the <i>Erythrophlœum guineensis</i>. It
usually acts as a powerful emetic, and is administered in the hope that
it may “bring up” the devil. Their medicine-man is called <i>nganga</i>,
and he is taught a language quite different from the ordinary tongue,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">31</span>
and this is kept secret from females. “No one,” says Mr. H. H.
Johnston (“On the Races of the Congo”),<a id="FNanchor_72_72" href="#Footnote_72_72" class="fnanchor">72</a> “has yet been able to examine
into their sacred tongue.” The use of Latin by civilized doctors is not
unlike this African custom.</p>

<p>The mountaineers of the Neilgherries endeavour to induce the demon
they invoke to enter into the body of the “medium,” a dancer who
pretends to the intoxication of prophecy. If they can persuade the
demon of pestilence or typhoid fever to enter into the medium, it
becomes possible to act upon and influence him.<a id="FNanchor_73_73" href="#Footnote_73_73" class="fnanchor">73</a></p>

<p>The people of Tartary make a great puppet when fever is prevalent,
which they call the Demon of Intermittent Fevers, and which when
completed they set up in the tent of the patients.</p>

<p>Mr. Forbes, in his account of the tribes of the island of Timor, says
that the natives believe all diseases to be the result of sorcery, and they
carry a variety of herbs and charms to avert its influence. He says:
“I had as a servant an old man, who one morning complained of being
in a very discomposed and generally uncomfortable state, and of being
afraid he was going to die. He had seen, he said, the spirit of his
mother in the night, she had been present by him and had spoken with
him. He feared, therefore, that he was about to die. He begged of me
some tobacco and rice to offer to her, which I gave him. He retired a
little way to a great stone in the ground, and laying on it some betel
and pinang, with a small quantity of chalk, along with a little tobacco
and rice, he repeated for some eight or ten minutes an invocation which
I did not understand. The rice and the chalk he left on the stone, which
were very shortly after devoured by my fowls; the tobacco, betel, and
pinang he took away again, to be utilised by himself.”<a id="FNanchor_74_74" href="#Footnote_74_74" class="fnanchor">74</a></p>

<p>When the medicine-man of these tribes calls to see a patient, he
looks very closely at him, to endeavour to perceive the sorcerer who is
making him ill. Then he returns to his home and makes up some
medicines, which the happy patient has not however to swallow, but the
drugs having been packed by the doctor into a bundle with a small
stone, are thrown away as far as possible from the sick man; the stone
finds out the sorcerer and returns to the doctor, who gives it to his
patient and tells him it will cure him if he will wear it about his neck.
This affords another illustration of the universal belief of the value of
amulets in medicine.</p>

<p>Medicine amongst certain tribes has a connection with the adoration
of particular objects and animals believed to be related to each<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">32</span>
separate stock or blood-kindred of human beings, and which is known
in anthropology as totemism. The Algonquin Indians use the name,
Bear, Wolf, Tortoise, Deer, or Rabbit to designate each of a number of
clans into which the race is divided. The animal is considered as an
ancestor or protector of the tribe.</p>

<p>In considering the institutions of “totemism” and “medicine,” we
must not forget that savage “medicine” has a function somewhat different
from that of medicine in our sense of the word. Some doubt if
there be any real distinction between the totem and the medicine.<a id="FNanchor_75_75" href="#Footnote_75_75" class="fnanchor">75</a></p>

<p>Schoolcraft says that among the Sioux a clan consists of individuals
who use the same roots for medicine, and they are initiated into the
clan by a great <i>medicine-dance</i>. The Sioux and other tribes make a
bag out of the skin of the medicine (totem?) animal, which acts as a
talisman, and is inherited by the son. Here we have an instance of the
reverence inspired by an inherited medicine. It is a little surprising
that we have so few evidences of the worship of healing herbs and
drugs.</p>

<p>Demon-worship is the explanation of the mysteries of Dionysus
Zagreus and the Chthonic and Bacchic orgies. M. Reclus says: “If
we knew nothing otherwise of these orgies, we could obtain a sufficiently
correct idea of them by visiting the Ghâts, the Neilgherries, and the
Vindhyas.”<a id="FNanchor_76_76" href="#Footnote_76_76" class="fnanchor">76</a></p>


<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/i_p032a.jpg" alt="" />
<div class="caption"><p class="center">THE MEDICINE-DANCE OF THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS.</p>
<p class="psig">[<i>Face p.</i> 32.</p></div>
</div>

<hr class="chap" />
<div class="chapter"></div>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">33</span></p>




<h3 id="CHAPTERI_V">CHAPTER V.<br />

<small>PRIMITIVE MEDICINE.</small></h3>

<blockquote>

<p>Bleeding.—Scarification.—Use of Medicinal Herbs amongst the Aborigines of Australia,
South America, Africa, etc.</p></blockquote>


<p>The Healing Craft of many of the northern tribes of Australia is thus
described by Mr. Palmer:—</p>

<p>“Among the northern tribes many devices and charms are resorted
to in the cases of pains and sickness. The doctors are men who, it is
supposed, possess great powers of healing, some of which they obtain
from the spirits. They use stones and crystals to put away sickness
from any one, and sometimes they bandage the afflicted part with string
tightly till no part of the skin is visible. One common plan of alleviating
pain is by bleeding, supposing that the pain comes away with
the blood. For this minute cuts are made through the skin with pieces
of broken flint, or the edge of a broken mussel-shell, over the part
affected, and the blood is wiped off with a stick. Sometimes the doctor
ties a string from the sick place, say the chest, and rubs the end of
it across his gums, spitting into a kooliman of water, and passing the
string through also; he then points to the blood in the water as evidence
of his skill in drawing it from the sick person. Stones are sucked
out with the mouth, and exhibited as having been taken from the body.
A good number of plants are used in sickness as drinks, and for external
application. A broken arm is cured with splints made of bark
and wound round tightly. Snake-bite is cured by scarifying and sucking
the wound, and by then using a poultice of box-bark, bruised and
heated.”<a id="FNanchor_77_77" href="#Footnote_77_77" class="fnanchor">77</a></p>

<p>Mr. E. Palmer says that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">34</span> “the Australian aborigines possessed a considerable
knowledge of indigenous plants, and their acquaintance with
natural history was very accurate. They could only have obtained this
knowledge by close observation and generations of experience. With
the extermination of the blacks this information has completely died
out, and it can only now be obtained in far-distant places like North
Queensland, where the aborigines have not been killed off by contact
with civilization. They have much experience in the healing virtues
and properties of plants, as also of the kinds best suited for poisoning
fish.”<a id="FNanchor_78_78" href="#Footnote_78_78" class="fnanchor">78</a> Great skill is exhibited by their mode of preparing plants by
fire and water and other processes, before using them as food; if partaken
of in their natural state, many of them would be very deleterious,
if not actually poisonous. The <i>Dioscorea sativa</i>, or karro plant, has large
tubers, which are first roasted, then broken in water and strained or
squeezed through fine bags made of fibre into long bark troughs, then
the product is washed in many waters, the sediment is well stirred
while the water is poured in; by this means the bitter principle is extracted,
and a yellow fecula like hominy is produced. <i>Careya australis</i>
has a root which is used to poison fish, though its fruit is eaten uncooked
by the natives. Manna is gathered from <i>Eucalyptus terminalis</i>.
<i>Cymbidium caniculatum</i> is used for dysentery and other bowel disorders.
The nuts of the <i>Cycas media</i> are very poisonous unless prepared
by fire and water, and then they can be used as food. The seeds
of <i>Entada scandens</i> are only fit for eating after baking and pounding,
as is the case with many other plants cleverly manipulated by the
blacks. The leaves of <i>Ocimum sanctum</i> are infused in water and
drunk for sickness. A wash is made from the bruised bark of the
gutta-percha tree, <i>Excæcaria parviflora</i>. The leaves of <i>Loranthus
quandong</i>, the mistletoe of the <i>Acacia hemalophylla</i>, are infused in water
and drunk for fevers, ague, etc.; it is doubtful whether they have any
virtue, but mistletoe was once a very highly prized medicine in Europe,
though now wholly obsolete. The leaves of <i>Melaleuca leucadendron</i>
are used in infusion for headache, colds, and general sickness. The
<i>melaleuca</i> is the cajeput tree, and cajeput oil is undoubtedly a valuable
medicine. Stillé says, “It is of marked utility in cases of nervous
vomiting, nervous dysphagia, dyspnœa, and hiccup.”<a id="FNanchor_79_79" href="#Footnote_79_79" class="fnanchor">79</a> Externally it is
valuable in nervous headache and neuralgia.</p>

<p>The natives make great use medicinally of the various species of
eucalyptus. The leaves of <i>Eucalyptus tetradonta</i> are made into a drink
for fevers and sickness with headache, etc. The <i>Eucalyptus globulus</i> recently
introduced into civilized medicine comes from Australia. <i>Plectranthus
congestus</i>, <i>Pterocaulon glandulosus</i>, <i>Gnaphalium luteo-album</i>
(several of this species are used in European medicine in bronchitis
and diarrhœa, and one of them is called “Life Everlasting”), <i>Heliotropium
ovalifolium</i>, and <i>Moschosma polystachium</i>, are all used in the
medical practice of these despised aborigines, and are probably quite
as valuable as the majority of the herbs recommended in our old
herbals and pharmacopœias.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">35</span></p>

<p>The aborigines of the north-western provinces of South America have
long been famous for their extensive knowledge of the properties of
medicinal plants, and even now they possess secrets for which we may
envy them.<a id="FNanchor_80_80" href="#Footnote_80_80" class="fnanchor">80</a></p>

<p>The arrow-poison used by the Indians of the interior is made from
a plant of the strychnos family. Those of the Pacific coast prepare a
poison from the secretion exuding from the skin of a small frog; this by
a certain process of decomposition they convert into a powerful blood-poison.
It is said that when these tribes were preparing poisons for
use in time of war, it was their ancient practice to test their efficacy
on the old women of the tribe, and not on the lower animals, exhibiting
in this respect a superior knowledge of toxicology than is shown by
those pharmacologists of our own day who test on animals the drugs
they propose administering to man. Mr. R. B. White, in his notes on
these aboriginal tribes, says that the Indians in the State of Antioquia
were in the habit of poisoning the salt springs in the time of the
Spanish invasion; they covered the spring with branches of a tree
called the “Doncel,” which imparted such venomous properties to the
water that after a lapse of three hundred years it still retains its deadly
properties; when animals now get at the water, as many as three horses
have been known to be killed in one night by drinking it.<a id="FNanchor_81_81" href="#Footnote_81_81" class="fnanchor">81</a></p>

<p>The study of the means of capturing fish by poisoning the water—a
practice which is universal amongst savages—must have led to many
observations on the properties of poisonous plants. Some considerable
knowledge of the risks and uses of various leaves and berries must have
been acquired in this way. The people of Timor-laut intoxicate fish
with rice steeped in poisonous climbing plants.<a id="FNanchor_82_82" href="#Footnote_82_82" class="fnanchor">82</a></p>

<p>The aborigines of the River Darling, New South Wales, feed their
very sick and weak patients upon blood drawn from the bodies of their
male friends. It is generally taken raw by the invalid, sometimes however
it is slightly cooked by putting hot ashes in it.<a id="FNanchor_83_83" href="#Footnote_83_83" class="fnanchor">83</a></p>

<p>The practice is disgusting, but scarcely more so than one which was
prescribed a few years ago by the great physicians of Paris, who ordered
their anæmic patients to drink hot blood from the slaughtered oxen at
the <i>abattoirs</i>. Mr. Bonney says that the aborigines referred to willingly
bleed themselves till they are weak and faint to provide the food
they consider necessary for the sick person.</p>

<p>The acacias are very abundant in Australia, in India, and Africa. This
order of plants produces gum arabic and gum Senegal. The Tasmanians
use the gum of <i>Acacia sophora</i> as a food.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">36</span></p>

<p>The eucalyptus or blue-gum tree grows on the hills of Tasmania and
in Victoria on the mainland of Australia; it was introduced into Europe
in 1856, and has been very extensively used as a remedy for intermittent
fever, influenza, and as a powerful disinfectant.</p>

<p>“As in all similar cases,” says Stillé, “the discovery of its virtues was
accidental. It is alleged that more than forty years ago the crew of a
French man-of-war, having lost a number of men with ‘pernicious
fever,’ put into Botany Bay, where the remaining sick were treated with
eucalyptus, and rapidly recovered. It is also said that the virtues of
the tree were well known to the aboriginal inhabitants.”</p>

<p>A good illustration of the ways in which the properties of plants
have been discovered, and of the relation of poisonous to harmless
herbs, may be found in the practice of the American Indians in their
use of the <i>manioc</i>, a large shrub producing roots somewhat like parsnips.
They carefully extract the juice, which is a deadly poison, and then
grate the dried roots to a fine powder, which they afterwards convert
into the <i>cassava</i> bread. How was this treatment of the root discovered?
It was simply due to the fact that one species of the shrub
is devoid of any poisonous property, and has only to be washed and
may then be eaten with impunity. No doubt this non-poisonous root
was the first which was used for food; then when the supply ran
short they were driven by necessity to find out the way to use the
almost identical root of the poisonous variety, which when divested of
its juice is even better for food than the harmless root. Probably this
was only discovered after many experiments and fatalities. “Necessity,
the mother of invention,” in this as in most other things, ultimately
directed the natives to the right way of dealing with this article of diet.</p>

<p>The male fern is a very ancient remedy for tape-worm, and to the
present day physicians have found nothing so successful for removing
this parasite. The plant is indigenous to Canada, Mexico, South
America, India, Africa, and Europe. The negroes of South America
have long used worm-seed (<i>Chenopodium anthelminticum</i>) as a vermifuge
for lumbricoid worms. The plant grows wild in the United States, and
has been introduced into the Pharmacopœia as a remedy especially
adapted for the expulsion of the round-worms of children. Kousso
(<i>Brayera anthelmintica</i>) has been employed from time immemorial in
Abyssinia for the expulsion of tape-worm. It has been introduced
into the British Pharmacopœia.</p>

<p>Some tribes of the Upper Orinoco, Rio Negro, etc., have been
known to subsist for months on no other food than an edible earth,
a kind of clay containing oxide of iron, and which is of a reddish-brown
colour.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">37</span></p>

<p>M. Cortambert, at a meeting of the Geographical Society in 1862,
described this singular food, and said it seemed to be rather a stay for
the stomach than a nourishment. Some white people in Venezuela
have imitated the earth-eaters, and do not despise balls of fat earth.<a id="FNanchor_84_84" href="#Footnote_84_84" class="fnanchor">84</a></p>

<p>Savages require much larger doses of drugs than civilized people.
Mr. Bonney relates<a id="FNanchor_85_85" href="#Footnote_85_85" class="fnanchor">85</a> that he usually gave the aborigines of New South
Wales half a pint or more of castor oil for a dose. Another man took
three drops of croton oil as an ordinary dose.</p>

<p>Professor Bentley in 1862-63 contributed to the <i>Pharmaceutical
Journal</i> a series of articles on New American Remedies which have
been introduced into medical practice in consequence of their reputation
amongst the Indians. Yellow-root (<i>Xanthorrhiza apiifolia</i>) has
long been employed by the various tribes of North American Indians
as a tonic, and may be compared to quassia or calumba root. It is
included in the United States Pharmacopœia. Its active principle
seems to be <i>berberine</i>.</p>

<p>The blue Cohosh plant (<i>Caulophyllum thalictroides</i>) has for ages
been used by the aborigines of North America as a valuable remedy
for female complaints. A tea of the root is employed amongst the
Chippeway Indians on Lake Superior as an aid to parturition. The
earliest colonists obtained their knowledge of the virtues of the blue
cohosh from the natives, and it has for many years been a favourite
diuretic remedy in the States. Its common names are pappoose-root,
squaw-root, and blueberry-root. Its active principle is called <i>caulophyllin</i>.</p>

<p>Twin-leaf (<i>Jeffersonia diphylla</i>) is a popular remedy in Ohio and
other North American States in rheumatism. It is called <i>rheumatism-root</i>.
In chemical composition it is similar to senega.</p>

<p>Blood-root, or puccoon (<i>Sanguinaria canadensis</i>), has been used for
centuries by North American Indians as a medicine. It has been
introduced into the United States Pharmacopœia. It is an alterative,
and is useful in certain forms of dyspepsia, bronchitis, croup, and
asthma. Its physiological action, however, bears no relation to its
medicinal uses (<i>Stillé and Maisch</i>). Its active principle is <i>sanguinarina</i>.</p>

<p><i>Sarracenia purpurea</i>, Indian cup, or side-saddle plant, is a native of
North America, and much used by the Indians in dyspepsia, sick headache,
etc.</p>

<p>The valuable bitter stomachic and tonic calumba-root comes to us
from the forests of Eastern Africa, between Ibo and the Zambesi. Its<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">38</span>
African name is <i>kalumb</i>; it depends for its therapeutic value on the
berberine which it contains, and which is found in several other plants.
The natives of tropical Africa, the North American Indians, and the
semi-barbarian tribes of Hindostan and China have all been impressed
with the medicinal value of berberine. Before quinine was commonly
used in medicine, this valuable drug was estimated most highly for its
very similar properties. There can be no doubt that it was introduced
into medicine by savages.</p>

<p>Jalap comes to us from Mexico. It was named from the city of
Xalapa.</p>

<p>Cinchona bark was used by the savages of Peru long before it was
introduced into European medicine.</p>

<p>Guaiacum, so valuable in chronic rheumatism, was introduced into
European medicine from the West India Islands and the northern
coasts of South America.</p>

<p>The excellent and popular tonic, quassia-wood, reaches us from
Jamaica.</p>

<p>Logwood, a valuable astringent, largely used in diarrhœa, is a native
of Campeachy and other parts of Central America, and grows in the
West India Islands and India.</p>

<p>Copaiba, an oleo-resin from the copaiva tree, comes from the West
Indies and tropical parts of America, chiefly from the valley of the
Amazon. It is one of our most valuable remedies in diseases of the
genito-urinary organs.</p>

<p>Turkey corn, or Turkey pea (<i>Dicentra</i>, <i>Corydalis formosa</i>) grows in
Canada and as far south as Kentucky. It has a reputation as a tonic,
diuretic and alterative medicine, and is used in skin diseases, syphilis,
etc.</p>

<p>The negroes use the prickly ash, or toothache shrub (<i>Xanthoxylum
fraxineum</i>), as a blood purifier, especially in the spring. It has long
been officinal in the United States Pharmacopœia, and is considered
highly serviceable in chronic rheumatism.</p>

<p>The shrubby trefoil (<i>Ptelea trifoliata</i>) is a North American shrub,
much valued in dyspepsia, and as a stimulant in the typhoid state. Its
active principle is <i>berberine</i>.</p>

<p>The above are merely a few examples taken at random of the valuable
medicinal plants used by savages and primitive peoples.</p>

<p>Thus, as might have been expected, the discovery of the Americas
led to the introduction of many new drugs into medical practice.</p>

<p>Savages eat enormously.</p>

<p>Wrangel says each of the Yakuts ate in a day six times as many fish
as he could eat. Cochrane describes a five-year-old child of this race<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">39</span>
as devouring three candles, several pounds of sour frozen butter, and a
large piece of yellow soap, and adds: “I have repeatedly seen a Yakut,
or a Yongohsi, devour forty pounds of meat in a day.”<a id="FNanchor_86_86" href="#Footnote_86_86" class="fnanchor">86</a></p>

<p>Yet the savage is less powerful than the civilized man. “He is unable,”
says Spencer, “to exert suddenly as great an amount of force,
and he is unable to continue the expenditure of force for so long a
time.”</p>

<hr class="chap" />
<div class="chapter"></div>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">40</span></p>

<h3 id="CHAPTERI_VI">CHAPTER VI.<br />

<small>PRIMITIVE SURGERY.</small></h3>

<blockquote>

<p>Arrest of Bleeding.—The Indian as Surgeon.—Stretchers, Splints, and Flint Instruments.—Ovariotomy.—Brain
Surgery.—Massage.—Trepanning.—The Cæsarean
Operation.—Inoculation.</p></blockquote>


<p>Primitive man, from the earliest ages, must have been a diligent
student of medicine; it has indeed been wisely said that the first man
was the first physician. That is to say, he must have been at least as
careful to avoid noxious things and select good ones as the beasts,
and, as in the lowest scale, he must have been able in some degree to
observe, reflect, and compare one thing with another, and so find out
what hurt and what healed him, he would at once begin to practise
the healing art, either that branch of it which is directed towards maintaining
the health or that of alleviating suffering. When his fellow-men
were sick and died, he would be led to wonder why they perished;
and when other men stricken in like manner recovered, he would
speculate as to the causes of their cure. It is probable that at first little
attention was paid to the loss of blood when an artery was severed.
Soon, however, it would be remarked that under such conditions the
man would faint, and perhaps die. In process of time it would be
observed that when the injured blood-vessel was by any means, natural
or artificial, closed, the man quickly recovered. Then some one wiser
than the other would bind a strip of fibre or a piece of the skin of a
beast around the bleeding limb, and the hæmorrhage would cease, and
the operator would gain credit and reward. He would then, naturally,
give himself airs, and pretend, in course of time, to some importance,
and so become a healer by profession. It would soon be noticed that
those who, in the search for berries in the woods, ate of certain kinds,
more or less promptly died, and those who had abstained from their
use survived. It would be understood that such berries must not be
eaten. Or again, a man suffering from some pain in his stomach would
eat of a particular plant that seemed good for food, and his pain would
be relieved: it might be ages before primitive man would arrive at
the conclusion that there was some connection between the pain and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">41</span>
its disappearance after eating of the plant in question; but in process
of time the two things would be associated, and everybody would
use the curative plant for the particular pain.</p>

<p>It is natural to suppose that many such things would happen, and
we know as a fact that they have so happened in numberless instances.</p>

<p>Probably empirical medicine, in the most ancient times and amongst
the most savage tribes, had an armoury of weapons against pain and
sickness not greatly inferior to our own Materia Medica. The origin
of the use of most of our valuable medicines cannot be discovered.</p>

<p>“As no man can say who it was that first invented the use of clothes
and houses against the inclemency of the weather, so also can no investigation
point out the origin of medicine—mysterious as the sources
of the Nile. There has never been a time when it was not.”<a id="FNanchor_87_87" href="#Footnote_87_87" class="fnanchor">87</a></p>

<p>The origin of surgery is probably much older than that of medicine,
if by the term surgery we mean the application of herbs to wounds, either
as bandages or on account of their healing properties, and the use of
medicinal baths the like. Mr. Gladstone, in an address to a society of
herbalists, which was reported in the <i>Daily News</i>, 27th March, 1890,
said that an accident which occurred to himself, when cutting down a
tree, illustrated the very beginning of the healing art. He cut his
finger with the axe, and found that he had no handkerchief with him
with which to bind up the wound, so he took a leaf of the tree nearest
to him, and fastened it round his injured finger. The bleeding stopped
at once, and the wound, he declared, healed much more quickly and
favourably than previous injuries treated in a more scientific manner.
There is no doubt whatever that this is a good example of the
primitive manner of treating cuts and other flesh wounds. The cooling
properties of leaves would be recognised by the most primitive
peoples; and as a cut or other wound, by the process of inflammation,
at once begins to burn and throb, a cooling leaf would be the most
natural thing to apply. Some leaves which possess styptic and resinous
properties would staunch bleeding very effectually, and the mere act of
binding round the cut an application like a leaf would serve to draw
together the edges of the wound, and afford an antiseptic plaster of
the most scientific nature. It was, in fact, by just such means that
the valuable styptic properties of the matico leaves were first discovered
by Europeans.</p>

<p>If, in the depths of the forest, an Indian breaks his leg or arm (said
Dr. Kingston in his address at the British Medical Association meeting
at Nottingham, 1892), splints of softest material are at once improvised.
Straight branches are cut, of uniform length and thickness. These are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">42</span>
lined with down-like moss, or scrapings or shavings of wood; or with
fine twigs interlaid with leaves, if in summer; or with the curled-up
leaves of the evergreen cedar or hemlock, if in winter; and the whole
is surrounded with withes of willow or osier, or young birch. Occasionally
it is the soft but sufficiently unyielding bark of the poplar or
the bass-wood. Sometimes, when near the marshy margin of our lakes
or rivers, the wounded limb is afforded support with wild hay or reeds
of uniform length and thickness.</p>

<p>To carry a patient to his wigwam, or to an encampment, a stretcher
is quickly made of four young saplings, interwoven at their upper ends,
and on this elastic springy couch the injured man is borne away by
his companions. When there are but two persons, and an accident
happens to one of them, two young trees of birch or beech or hickory
are used. Their tops are allowed to remain to aid in diminishing the
jolting caused by the inequalities of the ground. No London carriage-maker
ever constructed a spring which could better accomplish the
purpose. A couple of crossbars preserve the saplings in position, and
the bark of the elm or birch, cut into broad bands, and joined to either
side, forms an even bed. In this way an injured man is brought by
his companion to a settlement, and often it has been found, on arrival,
that the fractured bones are firmly united, and the limb is whole again.
This is effected in less time than with the whites, for the reparative
power of these children of the forest is remarkable. In their plenitude
of health, osseous matter is poured out in large quantity, and firm union
is soon effected.</p>

<p>The reparative power of the aborigines, when injured, is equalled
by the wonderful stoicism with which they bear injuries, and inflict
upon themselves severest torture. They are accustomed to cut into
abscesses with pointed flint; they light up a fire at a distance from the
affected part (our counter-irritation); they amputate limbs with their
hunting-knives, checking the hæmorrhage with heated stones, as surgeons
were accustomed to do in Europe in the time of Ambroise Paré;
and sometimes they amputate their own limbs with more <i>sang froid</i>
than many young surgeons will display when operating on others. The
stumps of limbs amputated in this primitive manner are well formed,
for neatness is the characteristic of all the Indian’s handiwork.</p>

<p>The aborigines are familiar with, and practise extensively, the use of
warm fomentations. In every tribe their old women are credited with
the possession of a knowledge of local bathing with hot water, and
of medicated decoctions. The herbs they use are known to a privileged
few, and enhance the consideration in which their possessors are
held.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">43</span></p>

<p>The Turkish bath, in a simpler but not less effective form, is well
known to them. If one of their tribe suffers from fever, or from the
effects of long exposure to cold, a steam bath is readily improvised.
The tent of deer-skin is tightly closed; the patient is placed in one
corner: heated stones are put near him, and on these water is poured
till the confined air is saturated with vapour. Any degree of heat and
any degree of moisture can be obtained in this way. Europeans often
avail themselves of this powerful sudatory when suffering from rheumatism.</p>

<p>The aborigines have their herbs—a few, not many. They have their
emetics and laxatives, astringents and emollients—all of which are
proffered to the suffering without fee or reward. The “Indian teas,”
“Indian balsams,” and other Indian “cure-alls”—the virtues of which
it sometimes takes columns of the daily journals to chronicle—are not
theirs. To the white man is left this species of deception.<a id="FNanchor_88_88" href="#Footnote_88_88" class="fnanchor">88</a></p>

<p>Mr. E. Palmer says that there is a tribe of Australian aborigines,
called “Kalkadoona,” adjoining the Mygoodano tribe of the Cloncurry,
who practise certain surgical operations at their <i>Bora</i> initiations of
youths. They operate on the urethra with flint knives. The same
custom can be traced from the Cloncurry River to the Great Australian
Bight in the south. The females are in some of the south-western
tribes operated on in some manner to prevent conception. It is
supposed that the ovary is taken out, as in the operation of spaying.<a id="FNanchor_89_89" href="#Footnote_89_89" class="fnanchor">89</a></p>

<p>Such operations are sometimes performed with a mussel-shell.</p>

<p>Sir John Lubbock says of the Society Islanders that “they had no
knowledge of medicine as distinct from witchcraft; but some wonderful
stories are told of their skill in surgery. I will give perhaps the most
extraordinary. ‘It is related,’ says Mr. Ellis, ‘although,’ he adds with
perfect gravity, ‘I confess I can scarcely believe it, that on some occasions,
when the brain has been injured as well as the bone, they have
opened the skull, taken out the injured portion of the brain, and, having
a pig ready, have killed it, taken out the pig’s brains, put them in the
man’s head and covered them up.’”<a id="FNanchor_90_90" href="#Footnote_90_90" class="fnanchor">90</a></p>

<p>Massage in one form or another has been practised from immemorial
ages by all nations. Captain Cook tells us, in his narrative of the people
of Otaheite, New Holland, and other parts of Oceania, that they practise
massage in a way very similar to that which is employed by more
civilized nations. For the relief of muscular fatigue they resort to a
process which they call toogi-toogi, or light percussion regularly applied<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">44</span>
for a long time. They also employ kneading and friction under the
names of Miti and Fota. African travellers inform us that the medicine-men
use these processes for the relief of injuries to the joints, fractures,
and pain of the muscles. Our word shampooing is said to have been
derived from the Hindu term chamboning. Dr. N. B. Emerson, in
1870, gave an account of the lomi-lomi of the Sandwich Islanders. He
says that, “when footsore and weary in every muscle, so that no position
affords rest, and sleep cannot be obtained, these manipulations
relieve the stiffness and soothe to sleep, so that the unpleasant effects
of excessive exercise are not felt the next day, but an unwonted suppleness
of joint and muscle comes instead.”<a id="FNanchor_91_91" href="#Footnote_91_91" class="fnanchor">91</a></p>

<p>When we receive a blow or strike our bodies against a hard substance,
we instinctively rub the affected part. This is one of the
simplest and most effectual examples of natural surgery. When the
emollient properties of oil were discovered, rubbing with oil, or inunction,
was practised. The use of oil for this purpose in the East is
extremely ancient. Amongst the Greeks there was a class of rubbers
who anointed the bodies of the athletes. The oil was very thoroughly
rubbed in, so that the pores of the skin were closed and the profuse
perspiration thereby prevented. After the contest the athlete was
subjected to massage with oil, so as to restore the tone of the strained
muscles. These aliptae came to be recognised as a sort of medical
trainers. A similar class of slaves attended their masters in the Roman
baths, and they were also possessed of a certain kind of medical knowledge.</p>

<p>Discussing the origin of the operation of trepanning, Sprengel says
that “nothing is more instructive, in the history of human knowledge,
than to go back to the origin, or the clumsy rough sketch of the discoveries
to which man was conducted by accident or reflection, and to
follow the successive improvements which his methods and his instruments
undergo.”<a id="FNanchor_92_92" href="#Footnote_92_92" class="fnanchor">92</a> The name of the inventor of this operation is lost in
the night of time. Hippocrates gives us the first account of trepanning
in his treatise on Wounds of the Head. We know, however, that it was
performed long before his time. Dr. Handerson, the translator of
Baas’ <i>History of Medicine</i>, says that human skulls of the neolithic period
have been discovered which bear evidences of trepanning.<a id="FNanchor_93_93" href="#Footnote_93_93" class="fnanchor">93</a></p>

<p>The operation of cutting for the stone, like many other of the most
difficult operations of surgery, was for a long time given over to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">45</span>
ignorant persons who make a speciality of it. Sprengel attributes this
injurious custom to the ridiculous pride of the properly instructed
doctors, who disdained to undertake operations which could be successfully
performed by laymen.<a id="FNanchor_94_94" href="#Footnote_94_94" class="fnanchor">94</a></p>

<p>The Bafiotes, on the coast of South Guinea, practise cupping. They
make incisions in the skin, and place horns over the wounds, and then
suck out the air, withdrawing the blood by these means.<a id="FNanchor_95_95" href="#Footnote_95_95" class="fnanchor">95</a></p>

<p>“Felkin saw a case of the Cæsarean operation in Central Africa performed
by a man. At one stroke an incision was made through both
the abdominal walls and the uterus; the opening in the latter organ was
then enlarged, the hæmorrhage checked by the actual cautery, and the
child removed. While an assistant compressed the abdomen, the operator
then removed the placenta. The bleeding from the abdominal walls
was then checked. No sutures were placed in the walls of the uterus,
but the abdominal parietes were fastened together by seven figure-of-eight
sutures, formed with polished iron needles and threads of bark.
The wound was then dressed with a paste prepared from various roots,
the woman placed quietly upon her abdomen, in order to favour perfect
drainage, and the task of this African Spencer Wells was finished. It
appears that the patient was first rendered half unconscious by banana
wine. One hour after the operation the patient was doing well, and
her temperature never rose above 101° F., nor her pulse above 108.
On the eleventh day the wound was completely healed, and the woman
apparently as well as usual.”<a id="FNanchor_96_96" href="#Footnote_96_96" class="fnanchor">96</a></p>

<p>The South Sea Islanders perform trepanning, and some Australian
tribes perform ovariotomy.<a id="FNanchor_97_97" href="#Footnote_97_97" class="fnanchor">97</a></p>

<p>The missionary d’Entrecolles was the first to inform the Western
world of the method of inoculation for the small-pox, which the Chinese
have followed for many centuries.<a id="FNanchor_98_98" href="#Footnote_98_98" class="fnanchor">98</a></p>

<p>In many countries, and from the earliest times, says Sprengel,<a id="FNanchor_99_99" href="#Footnote_99_99" class="fnanchor">99</a> it has
been customary to inoculate children with small-pox, because experience
has shown that a disease thus provoked assumes a milder and more
benign form than the disease which comes naturally.</p>

<hr class="chap" />
<div class="chapter"></div>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">46</span></p>




<h3 id="CHAPTERI_VII">CHAPTER VII.<br />

<small>UNIVERSALITY OF THE USE OF INTOXICANTS.</small></h3>

<blockquote>

<p>Egyptian Beer and Brandy.—Mexican Pulque.—Plant-worship.—Union with the
Godhead by Alcohol.—Soma.—The Cow-religion.—Caxiri.—Murwa Beer.—Bacchic
Rites.—Spiritual Exaltation by Wine.</p></blockquote>


<p>One of the strongest desires of human nature is the passion for some
kind or another of alcoholic stimulants. Intoxicating liquors are made
by savages in primeval forests, and travellers in all parts of the world
have found the natives conversant with the art of preparing some sort
of stimulating liquor in the shape of beer, wine, or spirit. The ancient
Egyptians had their beer and brandy, the Mexicans their aloe beer or
pulque. Probably the art of preparing fermented drinks was in each
nation discovered by accident. Berries soaked in water, set aside
and forgotten, saccharine roots steeped in water and juices preserved
for future use, have probably taught primitive man everywhere to
manufacture stimulating beverages. The influence of alcoholic drinks
on the development of the human mind must have been very great. If
primitive man has learned so much from his dreams, what has he not
learned from the exaltation produced by medicinal plants and alcoholic
infusions? If the savage conceives the leaves of a tree waving in the
breeze to be influenced by a spirit, it is certain that a medicinal plant
or a fermented liquor would be believed to be possessed by a beneficent
or evil principle or being. A poison would be possessed by a
demon, a healing plant by a good spirit, a stimulating liquor by a god.
Plant-worship would on these principles be found amongst the earliest
religious practices of mankind, and so we find it, although not to the
extent we might have expected.</p>

<p>Some savage peoples worship plants and make offerings to the
spirits which dwell in certain trees. It would seem that it is not the
plant or tree itself which is thus venerated, but the ghost which makes
it its dwelling. In classic times “the ivy was sacred to Osiris and
Bacchus, the pine to Neptune, herb mercury to Hermes, black hellebore
to Melampus, centaury to Chiron, the laurel to Aloeus, the hyacinth to
Ajax, the squill to Epimenes,” etc.<a id="FNanchor_100_100" href="#Footnote_100_100" class="fnanchor">100</a></p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">47</span></p>

<p>Herbert Spencer thinks that plant-worship arose from the connection
between plants and the intoxication which they produce. It is
very remarkable that almost all peoples of whom we have any knowledge
produce from the maceration of various vegetable substances
some kind of intoxicating liquor, beer, wine, or spirit. As the excitement
produced by fainting, fever, hysteria, or insanity is ascribed
amongst savages and half-civilized peoples to a possessing spirit, so
also is any exaltation of the mind, by whatever means produced, attributed
to a similar cause. Supernatural beings they consider may be
swallowed in food or drink, especially the latter.<a id="FNanchor_101_101" href="#Footnote_101_101" class="fnanchor">101</a></p>

<p>Vambery speaks of opium-eaters who intoxicated themselves with
the drug; that they might be nearer the beings they loved so well.
The Mandingoes think that intoxication brings them into relation with
the godhead. A Papuan Islander hearing about the Christian God
said, “Then this God is certainly in your arrack, for I never feel
happier than when I have drunk plenty of it.”<a id="FNanchor_102_102" href="#Footnote_102_102" class="fnanchor">102</a></p>

<p>Any one who reads the sacred books of the East for the first time,
especially the Vedic hymns, will be puzzled to say whether the <i>Soma</i>,
which is referred to so often, is a deity or something to drink. If we
turn up the word in the index volume of the <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>,
we are astonished to find such an entry as this: “Soma, a drink, in
Brahminical ritual, iv. 205; as a deity, iv. 205; vii. 249.” The soma,
speaking scientifically, is an intoxicating liquor prepared from the juice
of a kind of milk-weed, <i>Asclepias acida</i>, sometimes called the moon-plant.
In the <i>Rig-Veda</i> and the <i>Zend Avesta</i> (where it is called
<i>Haoma</i>) it appears as a mighty god endowed with the most wonderful
exhilarating properties. Herbert Spencer, in the chapter of the <i>Sociology</i>
entitled “Plant-Worship,” gives some of the expressions used in
the <i>Rig-Veda</i> concerning this fermented soma-juice.</p>

<p>“This [Soma] when drunk, stimulates my speech [or hymn]; this
called forth the ardent thought.” (R.V. vi. 47, 3.)</p>

<p>“The ruddy Soma, generating hymns, with the powers of a poet.”
(R.V. ix. 25, 5.)</p>

<p>“We have drunk the Soma, we have become immortal, we have
entered into light, we have known the gods,” etc. (R.V. viii. 48, 3.)</p>

<p>“The former [priests] having strewed the sacred grass, offered up a
hymn to thee, O Soma, for great strength and food.” (R.V. lx. 110, 7.)</p>

<p>“For through thee, O pure Soma, our wise forefathers of old performed
their sacred rites.” (R.V. ix. 96, 11.)</p>

<p>“Soma—do thou enter into us,” etc.</p>

<p>Dr. Muir calls Soma<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">48</span> “the Indian Dionysus.”</p>

<p>In Peru tobacco “has been called the sacred herb.”</p>

<p>Markham says, “The Peruvians still look upon coca with feelings of
superstitious veneration.” In the time of the Incas it was sacrificed to
the sun. In North Mexico, Bancroft says that some of the natives
“have a great veneration for the hidden virtues of poisonous plants,
and believe that if they crush or destroy one, some harm will happen to
them.” “And at the present time,” says Mr. Spencer, “in the Philippine
Islands, the ignatius bean, which contains strychnia and is used
as a medicine, is worn as an amulet and held capable of miracles.”
The Babylonians seem to have held the palm-tree as sacred, doubtless
because fermented palm-juice makes an intoxicating drink.</p>

<p>The Palal, the supreme pontiff of the cow-religion of the Toda
people of the Neilgherries, is initiated with incantations, and the smearing
of his body with the juice of a sacred shrub called the tude.<a id="FNanchor_103_103" href="#Footnote_103_103" class="fnanchor">103</a></p>

<p>He also drinks some of the extract mixed with water. He is purified
by soaking himself with the juice of this plant, and in a week has
become a god; he is the supreme being of the Todas. This transmutation
is suggestive of the sacred soma.<a id="FNanchor_104_104" href="#Footnote_104_104" class="fnanchor">104</a></p>

<p>The aborigines of the Amazon make an intoxicating drink from wild
fruits, which they use at their dances and festivals.<a id="FNanchor_105_105" href="#Footnote_105_105" class="fnanchor">105</a> The people on the
Rio Negro use a liquor called “xirac” for the same purpose. The
Brazilian Indians have their “caxiri,” which is the same thing; it is a
beer made from mandiocca cakes. This mandiocca is chewed by the
old women, spat into a pan, and soaked in water till it ferments. The
Marghi people of North Africa have an intoxicating liquor called
“Komil,” made of Guinea-corn, which Barth said tastes like bad beer,
and is very confusing to the brain.<a id="FNanchor_106_106" href="#Footnote_106_106" class="fnanchor">106</a></p>

<p>The Apaches make an intoxicating liquor from cactus juice, or with
boiled and fermented corn. Their drunkenness is a preparation for
religious acts.<a id="FNanchor_107_107" href="#Footnote_107_107" class="fnanchor">107</a></p>

<p>The Kolarians of Bengal believe that the flowers of the maowah
tree (<i>Bassia latifolia</i>) will cure almost every kind of sickness. “Not a
cot,” says Reclus,<a id="FNanchor_108_108" href="#Footnote_108_108" class="fnanchor">108</a> “but distils a heady liquor from the petals; not a
Khond man who does not get royally drunk.”</p>

<p>The people of the Nepal Himalayas make a beer from half-fermented
millet, which they call <i>Murwa</i>; it is weak, but very refreshing. Hooker
says the millet-seed is moistened, and ferments for two days; it is then
put into a vessel of wicker-work, lined with india-rubber gum to make<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">49</span>
it water tight; and boiling water is poured in it with a ladle of gourd,
from a cauldron that stands all day over the fire. The fluid, when
fresh, tasted like negus.<a id="FNanchor_109_109" href="#Footnote_109_109" class="fnanchor">109</a></p>

<p>The fermented juice of the cocoa-nut palm makes an intoxicating
toddy, of which some birds in the forests round Bombay are as fond as
are the natives themselves.<a id="FNanchor_110_110" href="#Footnote_110_110" class="fnanchor">110</a></p>

<p>The natives of Tahiti made an intoxicating drink by chewing the fresh
root of the “ava,” a plant of the pepper tribe (<i>Piper methysticum</i>), long
before Europeans taught them to ferment the fruits of the country about
the year 1796. The chewed root was rinsed in water, and by fermentation
a drowsy form of intoxicating liquor was produced of which the
natives were extremely fond. They now prefer gin and brandy. The
effects of ava or kava intoxication are said to be somewhat similar to
those of opium. The Nukahivans drink kava as a remedy for phthisis;
it would seem to be of real value in bronchitis, as a chemical examination
of the root shows it to contain an oleo-resin probably somewhat
akin to balsam of Peru or tolu. It is an ally of the matico, and in its
nature and operation closely resembles cubeb and copaiba, which are
used to produce a constriction of the capillary vessels.</p>

<p>Cascarilla bark and other barks of the various species of croton, of
the Bahama and West India Islands, have valuable stimulant properties
universally recognised in modern medicine. They are used in the
treatment of dyspepsia and as a mild tonic.</p>

<p>The Carib races were fully conversant with the valuable properties of
these drugs; the native priests or doctors used the dried plants for fumigations
and in religious ceremonies; and curiously enough at the present
day cascarilla bark is one of the ingredients of incense. An infusion
of the leaves was used internally in Carib medicine, and the dried bark
was mixed with tobacco and smoked, as is often done in civilized lands.</p>

<p>Anacreontic poetry and Bacchic rites were merely intellectual developments
of sentiments which the savage feels and expresses in a
coarse animal way, just as the alderman’s sense of gratification and perfect
contentment after a civic banquet is not altogether different in kind
from that felt by a replete quadruped.</p>

<p>Alcoholic intoxication must have produced in primitive man visions
far surpassing those of his pleasantest dreams, and his brain must have
been filled with images, sometimes pleasant, sometimes horrible, of a
more pronounced character than those which visited him in sleep.
At such times would come some of the visitants from the world of
imagination to the mind of primitive man which have had the most<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">50</span>
important influence on his intellectual development. The drinking
customs of our working classes of the present day are in a great
degree prompted by the longing which man in every condition has to
escape for a while from the squalid, material surroundings of daily
life into the ideal world of intellectual pleasures, however low these
may often be. “A national love for strong drink,” says a competent
authority,<a id="FNanchor_111_111" href="#Footnote_111_111" class="fnanchor">111</a> “is a characteristic of the nobler and more energetic populations
of the world; it accompanies public and private enterprise,
constancy of purpose, liberality of thought, and aptitude for war.”
Tea, haschish, hops, alcohol, and tobacco stimulate in small doses and
narcotise in larger; there have been cases known of tea intoxication.<a id="FNanchor_112_112" href="#Footnote_112_112" class="fnanchor">112</a></p>

<p>The desire of escaping from self into an ideal world, a world of
novelty and pleasures unimaginable, had much to do with the festivals
in Greece in honour of Dionysus; it was in some places considered a
crime to remain sober at the Dionysia; to be intoxicated on such occasions
was to show one’s gratitude for the gift of wine.</p>

<hr class="chap" />
<div class="chapter"></div>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">51</span></p>




<h3 id="CHAPTERI_VIII">CHAPTER VIII.<br />

<small>CUSTOMS CONNECTED WITH PREGNANCY AND CHILD-BEARING.</small></h3>

<blockquote>
<p>The Couvade, its Prevalence in Savage and Civilized Lands.—Pregnant Women
excluded from Kitchens.—The Deities of the Lying-in Chamber.</p></blockquote>


<p>Dr. Tylor<a id="FNanchor_113_113" href="#Footnote_113_113" class="fnanchor">113</a> gives the following account of the Carib couvade in the
West Indies from the work of Du Tertre:<a id="FNanchor_114_114" href="#Footnote_114_114" class="fnanchor">114</a>—</p>

<p>“When a child is born, the mother goes presently to her work, but
the father begins to complain, and takes to his hammock, and there he
is visited as though he were sick, and undergoes a course of dieting
which would cure of the gout the most replete of Frenchmen. How
they can fast so much and not die of it,” continues the narrator,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">52</span> “is
amazing to me, for they sometimes pass the five first days without eating
or drinking anything, then up to the tenth they drink <i>oüycou</i>, which
has about as much nourishment in it as beer. These ten days passed,
they begin to eat cassava only, drinking <i>oüycou</i>, and abstaining from
everything else for the space of a whole month. During this time,
however, they only eat the inside of the cassava, so that what is left
is like the rim of a hat when the block has been taken out, and all the
cassava rims they keep for the feast at the end of forty days, hanging
them up in the house with the cord. When the forty days are up they
invite their relations and best friends, who being arrived, before they
set to eating, hack the skin of this poor wretch with agouti-teeth, and
draw blood from all parts of his body in such sort that from being sick
by pure imagination they often make a real patient of him. This is,
however, so to speak, only the fish, for now comes the sauce they
prepare for him; they take sixty or eighty large grains of pimento or
Indian pepper, the strongest they can get, and after well washing it in
water they wash with this peppery infusion the wounds and scars of
the poor fellow, who I believe suffers no less than if he were burnt
alive; however, he must not utter a single word if he will not pass for
a coward and a wretch. This ceremony finished, they bring him back
to his bed, where he remains some days more, and the rest go and
make good cheer in the house at his expense. Nor is this all; for
through the space of six whole months he eats neither birds nor fish,
firmly believing that this would injure the child’s stomach, and that it
would participate in the natural faults of the animals on which its father
had fed; for example, if the father ate turtle, the child would be deaf
and have no brains like this animal, if he ate manati, the child would
have little round eyes like this creature, and so on with the rest. It
seems that this very severe fasting is only for the first child, that for the
others being slight.”</p>

<p>Among the Arawaks of Surinam a father must kill no large game
for some time after his child is born. When a wife has borne a child,
amongst the Abipones, the husband is put to bed and well wrapped up
and kept as though he had had the child. Among the Land Dayaks
of Borneo, after the birth of his child the father is kept in seclusion
indoors for several days and dieted on rice and salt to prevent the
child’s stomach from swelling. All this is due to a belief in a bodily
union between father and child; different persons with these savages
are not necessarily separate beings.</p>

<p>Tylor says<a id="FNanchor_115_115" href="#Footnote_115_115" class="fnanchor">115</a> that Venegas mentions the couvade among the Indians
of California; Zuccheli in West Africa; Captain Van der Hart in Bouro,
in the Eastern Archipelago; and Marco Polo in Eastern Asia in the
thirteenth century. In Europe even in modern times it existed in the
neighbourhood of the Pyrenees. Strabo said,<a id="FNanchor_116_116" href="#Footnote_116_116" class="fnanchor">116</a> that among the Iberians
of the North of Spain, the women, after the birth of a child, tend their
husbands, putting them to bed instead of going themselves. Among
the Basques, says Michel, “in valleys whose population recalls in its
usages the infancy of society, the women rise immediately after childbirth
and attend to the duties of the household, while the husband goes
to bed, taking the baby with him, and thus receives the neighbours’
compliments.” Diodorus Siculus mentions the same thing of the
Corsicans (v. 14). Hudibras says,<a id="FNanchor_117_117" href="#Footnote_117_117" class="fnanchor">117</a>—</p>

<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"><div class="stanza">
  <div class="verse">“For though Chineses go to bed</div>
  <div class="verse">And lie in, in their ladies’ stead,</div>
  <div class="verse">And, for the pains they took before,</div>
  <div class="verse">Are nurs’d and pamper’d to do more.”</div>
</div></div></div>

<p>On this remarks Dr. Zachary Grey<a id="FNanchor_118_118" href="#Footnote_118_118" class="fnanchor">118</a>:—</p>

<p>“The Chinese men of quality, when their wives are brought to bed,
are nursed and tended with as much care as women here, and are supplied
with the best strengthening and nourishing diet in order to qualify
them for future services.” This is the custom of the Brazilians, if we<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">53</span>
may believe Masseus, who observes, “that women in travail are delivered
without great difficulty, and presently go about their household
business: the husband in her stead keepeth his bed, is visited by his
neighbours, hath his broths made him, and junkets sent to comfort
him.”</p>

<p>“Among the Iroquois, a mother who shrieks during her labour is
forbidden to bear other children, and some of the South American Indians
killed the children of the mothers who shrieked, from the belief
that they will grow up to be cowards.”<a id="FNanchor_119_119" href="#Footnote_119_119" class="fnanchor">119</a></p>

<p>The origin of the couvade is not to be traced to the father and
mother, says Starcke; it has to do simply with the well-being of the
child. The father’s powers of endurance, tested so severely as we
have seen, are believed to be assured to the child.<a id="FNanchor_120_120" href="#Footnote_120_120" class="fnanchor">120</a></p>

<p>Max Müller traces the origin of the couvade to the derision of friends
of both sexes.</p>

<p>Dobrizhoffen says of the Abipones:<a id="FNanchor_121_121" href="#Footnote_121_121" class="fnanchor">121</a> “They comply with this custom
with the greater care and readiness because they believe that the
father’s rest and abstinence have an extraordinary effect on the well-being
of new-born infants, and is, indeed, absolutely necessary for
them. For they are quite convinced that any unseemly act on the
father’s part would injuriously affect the child on account of the sympathetic
tie which naturally subsists between them, so that in the event of
the child’s death the women all blame the self-indulgence of the father,
and find fault with this or that act.”</p>

<p>Badaga nursing-women physic themselves with ashes and pieces of
sweet-flag (<i>Acorus calamus</i>), an aromatic plant, with the idea of communicating
medicinal properties to the milk. They also administer
to the baby assafœtida and a certain sacred confection taken from the
entrails of a bull and similar to the bezoar stones so celebrated in the
middle ages.<a id="FNanchor_122_122" href="#Footnote_122_122" class="fnanchor">122</a></p>

<p>The Badaga folk do not permit a pregnant woman to enter the room
where the provisions are kept and the fireplace stands; it would be
feared that her condition, her supposed uncleanness, might lessen the
virtues of the fire or diminish the nutritious value of the food.<a id="FNanchor_123_123" href="#Footnote_123_123" class="fnanchor">123</a></p>

<p>Pliny says, “there is no limit to the marvellous powers attributed to
females.”<a id="FNanchor_124_124" href="#Footnote_124_124" class="fnanchor">124</a> At certain times, according to him, a woman can scare
away hailstorms, whirlwinds, and lightnings, by going about in scanty
costume. If she walk round a field of wheat at such times, the caterpillars,
worms, beetles, and other vermin will fall from the ears of corn.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">54</span>
If she touch “young vines, they are irremediably injured, and both rue
and ivy, plants possessed of highly medicinal virtues, will die instantly
upon being touched by her.” Bees, he says, will forsake their hives if
she touches them, linen boiling in a cauldron will turn black, and the
edge of a razor will become blunted. The bitumen that is found in
Judæa will yield to nothing but this, and Tacitus says the same thing.
Marvellous to say, poisonous and injurious as Pliny and other writers,
and even popular belief at the present day, consider the catamenial
fluid to be, a host of writers on medical and magical subjects have
attributed certain remedial properties to it. Pliny says it is useful, as a
topical application, for gout, the bite of a mad dog (what has <i>not</i> been
recommended for this!), for tertian or quartan fevers and for epilepsy.
Reduced to ashes and mixed with soot and wax, it is a cure for ulcers
upon all kinds of beasts of burden; mixed in the same way with oil of
roses and applied to the forehead, it cured the migraine of Roman
ladies. Applied to the doorposts, it neutralises all the spells of the
magicians—a set of men which even the credulous Pliny characterizes
as the most lying in existence.</p>

<p>Both savages and classical peoples had the same curious notions
about the touch of catamenial women. There may possibly be some
foundation in bacteriology to account for them.</p>

<p>St. Augustine says:<a id="FNanchor_125_125" href="#Footnote_125_125" class="fnanchor">125</a> “The woman in child-bed must have three gods
to look to her after her deliverance, lest Sylvanus come in the night
and torment her: in signification whereof, three men must go about the
house in the night, and first strike the thresholds with an hatchet, then
with a pestle, and then sweep them with besoms, that by these signs of
worship they may keep Sylvanus out.”</p>

<p>Lying-in women in Germany in the seventeenth century were simply
crammed with food about every two hours, and they seem to have
taken no harm from the practice.</p>

<hr class="chap" />
<div class="chapter"></div>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">55</span></p>


<h2 id="BOOK_II">BOOK II.<br />

<small><i>THE MEDICINE OF THE ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS.</i></small></h2>

<hr class="chap" />
<div class="chapter"></div>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">57</span></p>


<h3 id="CHAPTERII_I">CHAPTER I.<br />

<small>EGYPTIAN MEDICINE.</small></h3>

<blockquote>

<p>Antiquity of Egyptian Civilization.—Surgical Bandaging.—Gods and Goddesses of
Medicine.—Medical Specialists.—Egyptians claimed to have discovered the Healing
Art.—Medicine largely Theurgic.—Magic and Sorcery forbidden to the Laity.—The
Embalmers.—Anatomy.—Therapeutics.—Plants in use in Ancient Egypt.—Surgery
and Chemistry.—Disease-demons.—Medical Papyri.—Great Skill of
Egyptian Physicians.</p></blockquote>


<p>So far as we are able to judge from the records of the past which recent
investigations have made familiar to us, the civilization of Egypt is the
most ancient of which we have accurate knowledge. The contending
claims of India to a higher antiquity for its civilization cannot here be
discussed, and for the purposes of this work the oldest place in the
civilization of the world must be assigned to Egypt.</p>

<p>It is highly probable that the first kingdom of Egypt existed eight
thousand years back. The history of Egypt as we have it in her
monuments and records is far more trustworthy than the stories which
the Chinese and other ancient peoples tell of their past. Assyria, Babylonia,
and Chaldæa have histories reaching back to the twilight of the
ages; but for practical purposes we must content ourselves with tracing
the rise and progress of civilization as we decipher it on the banks of
the Nile. So far as medicine and chemistry are concerned, we shall
discover abundant matter to interest us. We require no other proof
than the mummies in our museums to convince us that the Egyptians
from the period at which those interesting objects date must have
possessed a very accurate knowledge of anatomy, of pharmacy, and a
skill in surgical bandaging very far surpassing that possessed now-a-days
by even the most skilful professors of the art. Dr. Granville says:
“There is not a single form of bandage known to modern surgery, of
which far better and cleverer examples are not seen in the swathings of
the Egyptian mummies. The strips of linen are found without one
single joint, extending to 1000 yards in length.” It is said that there
is not a fracture known to modern surgery which could not have been
successfully treated by the priest-physicians of ancient Egypt. The great<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">58</span>
divinities of Egypt were Isis and Osiris; the former was the goddess of
procreation and birth. As it was she who decreed life and death, and
decided the fate of men, it is not surprising to find her the chief of the
divinities of the healing art; she had proved her claims as the great
chief of physicians by recalling to life her son Horus.</p>

<p>The Æsculapius of the Egyptians was Imhotep; he was the god of the
sciences, and was the son of Ptah and Pakht. The gods of Egypt were
worshipped in triads or trinities, and many of the great temples were
devoted to the worship of one or other of these trinities, that of Memphis
consisted of Ptah, Pakht, and Imhotep. Thoth or Tauut was similar
to Imhotep; he was the god of letters, and, as the deity of wisdom, he
aids Horus against Set, the representative of physical evil. By many
writers he is considered to be the Egyptian Æsculapius. He has some
evident relationship to the Greek Hermes. “Thoth,” says Dr. Baas
(<i>Hist. Med.</i>, p. 14), “is supposed to have been the author of the oldest
Egyptian medical works, whose contents were first engraved upon pillars
of stone. Subsequently collected into the book <i>Ambre</i> or <i>Embre</i> (a
title based upon the initial words of this book, viz. ‘Ha em re em
per em hru,’ <i>i.e.</i> ‘Here begins the book of the preparation of drugs
for all parts of the human body’), they formed a part of the so-called
‘Hermetic Books,’ from whose prescriptions no physician might
deviate, unless he was willing to expose himself to punishment in case
the patient died. This punishment was threatened because the substance
of the medical, as well as the religious works of the Egyptians—and
the science of the priests united in itself medicine, theology, and
philosophy—was given, according to their view, by the gods themselves,
and a disregard of their prescriptions would be nothing less than
sacrilege.” The Hermetic books, says Clement of Alexandria, were
forty-two in number, of which six “of the pastophor” were medical.
The famous <i>Book of the Dead</i> is supposed by Bunsen to have been
one of the Hermetic books. The papyrus of Ebers, believed by that
Egyptologist to date from the year 1500 <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>, is considered to have
been of the number of the medical books of Hermes Trismegistus.
The Papyrus Ebers is preserved in Leipsic, and, though at present only
partially deciphered, abundantly shows the great advance already made
at so distant a period as the fourth millennium before the Christian era
in the arts of medicine and surgery.</p>

<p>One of the authors mentioned in the papyrus is an oculist of Byblos
in Phœnicia. This proves not only that there were specialists in
diseases of the eye at that period, but that neighbouring nations contributed
of their store of scientific knowledge to enrich that of the
Egyptians.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">59</span></p>

<p>Dr. Baas informs us that this papyrus describes “remedies for
diseases of the stomach, the abdomen, and the urinary bladder; for the
cure of swellings of the glands in the groin (buboes) and the ‘kehn-mite’;
‘the Book of the Eyes’; remedies for ulcers of the head, for
greyness of the hair, and promotion of its growth; ointments to heal
and strengthen the nerves; medicines to cure diseases of the tongue, to
strengthen the teeth, to remove lice and fleas; remedies for the hearing
and for the organs of smell; the preparation of the famous Kyphi; ‘The
Secret Book of the Physician’ (the science of the movement of the heart,
and the knowledge of the heart, according to the priestly physician
Nebsuchet); prescriptions for the eyes according to the views of the
priest Chui, a Semite of Byblos; ‘Book of the Banishing of Pains,’
recipes for mouth-pills for women, to render the odour of the mouth
agreeable; the various uses of the tequem tree, etc. The papyrus
has marginal notes, like <i>nefer</i> (good), etc., which Lauth assigns to the
year <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 1469—an evidence that its prescriptions had been tested in
practice.”<a id="FNanchor_126_126" href="#Footnote_126_126" class="fnanchor">126</a></p>

<p>Osiris (who would appear to be the same deity as Apis or Serapis)
and the goddess Isis, who was his wife and sister, were held by the
Egyptians to have been the inventors of the medical arts. A very
ancient inscription on a column says: “My father is Chronos, the
youngest of all the gods. I am the king Osiris, who has been through
all the earth; even to the habitable lands of the Indies, to those which
are under the Bear, even to the sources of the Danube, and besides to
the Ocean. I am the eldest son of Chronos, and the scion of a beautiful
and noble race; I am the parent of the day, there is no part of the
world where I have not been, and I have filled all the world with my
benefactions.” Another column has these words: “I am Isis, queen
of all this country, who has been instructed by Thoth; no one is able
to unbind what I have bound; I am the eldest daughter of Chronos,
the youngest of the gods. I am the wife and the sister of King Osiris.
It is I who first taught mankind the art of agriculture. I am the mother
of King Horus. It is I who shine in the dog-star. It is I who built
the city of Bubastis. Farewell, farewell, Egypt, where I have been
reared.” It appears from these inscriptions that Isis and Osiris were
contemporary with Thoth or Hermes.</p>

<p>Diodorus says that Isis was believed by the Egyptian priests to have
invented various medicines and to have been an expert practitioner of
the healing art, and that she was on this account raised to the ranks of
the gods, where she still takes interest in the health of mankind. She
was supposed to indicate appropriate remedies for diseases in dreams,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">60</span>
and such remedies were always efficacious, even in cases where
physicians had failed to do any good.</p>

<p>The inscription informs us that Osiris had filled the earth with his
benefactions. The Egyptian priests believed that Thoth was the inventor
of the arts and sciences in general, and the king Osiris and the
queen Isis invented those which were necessary to life. Isis therefore
invented agriculture, and Osiris is credited with having invented
medicine. Apis, who is evidently the same person as Osiris, is said by
Clement of Alexandria to have discovered medicine before Io went to
Egypt.</p>

<p>Cyril of Alexandria says that Apis was the first to invent the art of
medicine, or who exercised it with more success than his predecessors,
having been instructed by Æsculapius.<a id="FNanchor_127_127" href="#Footnote_127_127" class="fnanchor">127</a></p>

<p>Plutarch says<a id="FNanchor_128_128" href="#Footnote_128_128" class="fnanchor">128</a> that Apis and Osiris were, according to Egyptian traditions,
two names of one and the same person, and this is confirmed by
Strabo and Theodoret. Others say that Serapis was a third name of
Osiris, though some consider that Serapis was a name of Æsculapius.</p>

<p>Horus, the son of Isis and Osiris, was the Egyptian sun-god, and was
the same as the Apollo of the Greeks. He was born with his finger on
his mouth, indicative of mystery and secrecy; and so, probably, was
for this reason connected with medicine. In the mystical works of
Hermes Trismegistus, he plays an important part. Diodorus attributes
to Horus the invention of medicine. He says that Isis having found
in the water her son Horus, who had been killed by the Titans, restored
him to life and made him immortal. Diodorus adds that he was the
same god as Apollo, and that he learned the arts of medicine and
divination from his mother, in consequence of which instruction he had
been of great service to mankind by his oracles and his remedies. It
is difficult to see how on this account Horus can be considered as the
inventor of medicine, a title which was surely due to his mother.</p>

<p>In the judgment scene in the Book of the Dead on the papyrus of
Ani we have the god Thoth, under the symbol of the cynocephalus,
or dog-headed ape. Anubis examines the indicator of the Balance.
Before Anubis stands Destiny, behind him are Fortune and the Goddess
of Birth. Above Destiny is a symbol of the cradle. The human-headed
bird is the soul of the deceased. On the right of the scene,
Thoth, the medicine-god and scribe of the gods (with the head of
an ibis), notes the result of the trial. Behind Thoth is the monster
Amemit, the devourer, with the head of a crocodile, the middle parts
of a lion, and the hind-quarters of a hippopotamus. Thoth pronounces
judgment:<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">61</span> “The heart of Ani is weighed, and his soul standeth in
evidence thereof; his case is straight upon the great Balance.” The
gods reply, “Righteous and just is Osiris, Ani, the triumphant.”<a id="FNanchor_129_129" href="#Footnote_129_129" class="fnanchor">129</a></p>

<p>Eusebius, Psellus, and others say that Hermes Trismegistus was a
priest and philosopher who lived a little after the time of Moses. He
taught the Egyptians mathematics, theology, medicine, and geography.
Of the forty-two most useful books of Hermes six treated of medicine,
anatomy, and the cure of disease.<a id="FNanchor_130_130" href="#Footnote_130_130" class="fnanchor">130</a></p>

<p>Pliny says<a id="FNanchor_131_131" href="#Footnote_131_131" class="fnanchor">131</a> that the Egyptians claimed the honour of having invented
the art of curing diseases. Wilkinson points out<a id="FNanchor_132_132" href="#Footnote_132_132" class="fnanchor">132</a> that “the study of
medicine and surgery appears to have commenced at a very early
period in Egypt, since Athothes, the second king of the country, is
stated to have written upon the subject of anatomy, and the schools of
Alexandria<a id="FNanchor_133_133" href="#Footnote_133_133" class="fnanchor">133</a> continued till a late period to enjoy the reputation and display
the skill they had inherited from their predecessors. Hermes was
said to have written six books on medicine, the first of which related to
anatomy; and the various recipes known to have been beneficial were
recorded, with their peculiar cases, in the memoirs of physic, inscribed
among the laws, which were deposited in the principal temple of the
place, as at Memphis in that of Ptah, or Vulcan.” We are told in
Genesis l. 2 that “Joseph commanded his servants the physicians to
embalm his father: and the physicians embalmed Israel.” It is not
probable that the embalmers were regular practising physicians. The
dissectors of the human body were not held in honour amongst the
Egyptians, and for sanitary reasons it is highly improbable that doctors
in attendance upon the sick would have engaged in this work; but as
the art of embalming demanded considerable anatomical knowledge,
it is more likely that a class of men similar to our dissecting-room
assistants at the medical schools and hospitals were employed for this
purpose.</p>

<p>The art of medicine in ancient Egypt consisted of two branches—the
higher, which was the theurgic part, and the lower, which was the art of
the physician proper. The theurgic class devoted themselves to magic,
counteracting charms by prayers, and to the interpretation of the dreams
of the sick who had sought their aid in the temples. The inferior class
were practitioners who simply used natural means in their profession as
healers. Amongst the Egyptian Platonists, theurgy was an imaginary
science, which is thus described by Murdock:<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">62</span> “it was supposed to have
been revealed to men by the gods themselves in very ancient times, and
to have been handed down by the priests; [it was] also the ability, by
means of certain acts, words, and symbols, to move the gods to impart
secrets which surpass the powers of reason to lay open the future.”
The higher physicians were priest-magicians, the lower class were priests
who were called Pastophori; as Isis and the priests were connected with
the healing art, the Pastophori were highly esteemed for their medical
skill apart from magic. These officials were so called from the fact
that they had to bear, in the ceremonies in the temples, the παστός, or
sacred shawl, to raise it at appropriate times, and so discover the god in
the adytum.<a id="FNanchor_134_134" href="#Footnote_134_134" class="fnanchor">134</a></p>

<p>It was their duty to study the last six of the Hermetic books, as it
was that of the higher grade to study the first thirty-six.</p>

<p>Professor Ebers explained to Dr. Puschmann<a id="FNanchor_135_135" href="#Footnote_135_135" class="fnanchor">135</a> that the Pastophori
“constituted a class of priests who held by no means so low a rank as
is attributed to them in historical works. The doctors were bound to
maintain a spiritual character, and allowed themselves therefore to rank
with the Pastophori, although the higher priestly dignities probably
remained open to them. On the other hand, the Pastophori were by
no means likewise doctors, as many think, but had as a body quite other
functions, as their name indeed indicates. The relation of the Pastophori
to the doctors was doubtless the same as that of the scholar to the
cleric in the Christian middle ages; all scholars did not belong to
the clergy, but at the same time all clergymen might be considered
scholars.”</p>

<p>The principle of authority was paramount in Egyptian medicine. So
long as the doctor faithfully followed the instructions of the ancient
exponents of his art, he could do as he liked with his patient; but if he
struck out a path for himself, and his patient unhappily died, he forfeited
his own life. Diodorus Siculus leads us to suppose that the physicians
formed their diagnosis according to the position occupied by the patient
in his bed. This is singularly like the method of diagnosing diseases in
use amongst the ancient Hindus. Medicine in Egypt, after all, was only
an art; the absurd reverence for authority prevented any real progress.
Kept back by these fixed regulations, its freedom was restricted on every
side; otherwise, with the unbounded facility for making post-mortem
examinations, Egyptian medicine would have made immense advance.</p>

<p>Concerning the specialism which prevailed amongst Egyptian doctors,
Herodotus says:<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">63</span> “The art of medicine is thus divided amongst them:
each physician applies himself to one disease only, and not more. All
places abound in physicians; some physicians are for the eyes, others
for the head, others for the teeth, others for the parts about the belly,
and others for internal disorders.”<a id="FNanchor_136_136" href="#Footnote_136_136" class="fnanchor">136</a></p>

<p>With reference to the teeth, it is interesting to observe that some of
the dental work found in opening mummies is equal to our own.</p>

<p>Sir J. Wilkinson says<a id="FNanchor_137_137" href="#Footnote_137_137" class="fnanchor">137</a> that the embalmers were probably members
of the medical profession as well as of the class of priests. Pliny states
that, during this process, certain examinations took place, which enabled
them to study the disease of which the patient had died. They appear
to have been made in compliance with an order from the government,<a id="FNanchor_138_138" href="#Footnote_138_138" class="fnanchor">138</a>
as he says the kings of Egypt had the bodies opened after death to
ascertain the nature of their diseases, by which means alone the remedy
for phthisical complaints was discovered. Indeed, it is reasonable to
suppose that a people so advanced as were the Egyptians in knowledge
of all kinds, and whose medical art was so systematically arranged
that they had regulated it by some of the very same laws followed by
the most enlightened and skilful nations of the present day, would not
have omitted so useful an inquiry, or have failed to avail themselves of
the means which the process adopted for embalming the body placed
at their disposal. And nothing can more clearly prove their advancement
in the study of human diseases than the fact of their assigning
to each his own peculiar branch, under the different heads of oculists,
dentists, those who cured diseases in the head, those who confined
themselves to intestinal complaints, and those who attended to secret
and internal maladies. They must have possessed an intimate knowledge
of drugs, to have enabled them to select those of an antiseptic
character suitable for the preservation of the mummies. That their
practical knowledge of anatomy must have been considerable is proved
by the skill with which they removed the more perishable parts of the
body in the process of embalming. The embalmers, says Ebers, were
all enrolled in a guild which existed down to Roman times, as is shown
in various Greek papyri.</p>

<p>In the wall-cases 30-33 in the upper floor of the second Egyptian
room of the British Museum, there is a set of Canopic jars which held
the intestines of the human body, which were always embalmed separately.
They were placed near the bier and were four in number, each
one being dedicated to one of the four children of Horus, the genii of
the dead. The stomach and large intestines were dedicated to Amset,
the smaller intestines to Hâpi, the lungs and heart to Tuamâvtef, and
the liver and gall-bladder to Kebhsenuf. Poor people had to be content
with mere models of these vases.<a id="FNanchor_139_139" href="#Footnote_139_139" class="fnanchor">139</a></p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">64</span></p>

<p>The dissectors were the <i>paraschistes</i>, who cut open as much of the
body as the law permitted with an Ethiopian stone. As soon as one of
them had made the requisite incision he had to fly, pursued by those
present, who cursed him bitterly, and flung stones at him. It was considered
hateful to inflict any wound on a human body; and however
necessary the act might be, the agent incurred the greatest odium.</p>

<p>The Egyptian doctors knew very little of anatomy as a science; they
were, however, acquainted with the fact that the blood-vessels had their
origin from the heart, and that the blood was distributed to the body
from that organ. There is an interesting treatise on the heart in the
Papyrus Ebers. In another medical papyrus we find the following
anatomical details concerning the blood-vessels:—</p>

<p>“The head of man has thirty-two vessels; they carry the breath to
his heart; they give inspiration to all his members. There are two
vessels to the breasts; they give warmth to the lungs—for healing them,
one must make a remedy of flour of fresh wheat, herb haka, and
sycamore <i>teput</i>—make a decoction and let the patient drink it; she will
be well. There are two vessels to the legs. If any one has a disease
of the legs, if his arms are without strength, it is because the secret
vessel of the leg has taken the malady,—a remedy must be made....
There are two vessels to the arms; if a man’s arm is suffering, if he has
pains in his fingers, say that this is a case of shooting pains....
There are two vessels of the occiput, two of the sinciput, two of the
interior, two of the eyelids, two of the nostrils, and two of the left ear.
The breath of life enters by them. There are two vessels of the right
ear; the breath enters by them.”</p>

<p>It is uncertain whether by the term vessels the Egyptians understand
the arteries, the veins, the nerves, or some imaginary conduits.<a id="FNanchor_140_140" href="#Footnote_140_140" class="fnanchor">140</a></p>

<p>The ancient Egyptians were zealous students of medicine; yet, as Dr.
Ebers tells us, they also thought that the efficacy of the treatment was
enhanced by magic formulæ. The prescriptions in the famous Ebers
Papyrus are accompanied by forms of exorcism to be used at the same
time; “and yet many portions of this work,” says Ebers, “give evidence
of the advanced knowledge of its authors.”<a id="FNanchor_141_141" href="#Footnote_141_141" class="fnanchor">141</a></p>

<p>Origen says<a id="FNanchor_142_142" href="#Footnote_142_142" class="fnanchor">142</a> that the Egyptians believed there were thirty-six
demons, or thirty-six gods of the air, who shared amongst them the
body of man, which is divided into as many parts. He adds that the
Egyptians knew the names of those demons, and believed that if they
invoked the proper demon of the affected part they would be cured.
Magic and sorcery were arts which were forbidden to the laity.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">65</span></p>

<p>Many magical rites and animistic customs connected with the Egyptian
religion closely resemble those which prevail over the whole continent
of Africa. The basis of the Egyptian religion is supposed by some
authorities to be of a purely Nigritian character; on which has been
superimposed certain elevated characteristics due to Asiatic settlers and
conquerors. The worship of the negroes proper is simply fetishism
combined with tree and animal worship and a strong belief in sorcery.</p>

<p>The great and peculiar feature of Egyptian magic lay in the fact that
its formulæ were intended to assimilate to the gods those who sought
protection from the evils of life. The incantation was not in the nature
of a prayer. As M. Lenormant says:<a id="FNanchor_143_143" href="#Footnote_143_143" class="fnanchor">143</a> “The virtue of the formulæ lay not
in an invocation of the divine power, but in the fact of a man’s proclaiming
himself such or such a god; and when he, in pronouncing the
incantation, called to his aid any one of the various members of the
Egyptian Pantheon, it was as one of themselves that he had a right to
the assistance of his companions.” In the Harris Papyrus is a fragment
of one of the magical tracts of the medicine-god Thoth, in which is an
incantation for protection against crocodiles:—</p>

<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"><div class="stanza">
  <div class="verse">“Do not be against me! I am Amen.</div>
  <div class="verse">I am Anhur, the good guardian;</div>
  <div class="verse">I am the great master of the sword.</div>
  <div class="verse">Do not erect thyself! I am Month.</div>
  <div class="verse">Do not try to surprise me! I am Set.</div>
  <div class="verse">Do not raise thy two arms against me! I am Sothis.</div>
  <div class="verse">Do not seize me! I am Sethu.”<a id="FNanchor_144_144" href="#Footnote_144_144" class="fnanchor">144</a></div>
</div></div></div>

<p>Disease-demons recognised the power of the gods, and obeyed their
commands. An inscription on a monument of the time of Ramses XII.
tells how the Princess Bint-resh, sister of Queen Noferu-ra, was cured
in a serious illness by the image of the god Khonsu being sent to her
after the “learned expert” Thut-emhib had failed to do her any good.
When the god appeared at her bedside, she was cured on the spot;
the evil spirit of the disease acknowledged the superior power of
Khonsu, and came out of her after making an appropriate speech.<a id="FNanchor_145_145" href="#Footnote_145_145" class="fnanchor">145</a></p>

<p>In the records of a trial about a harem conspiracy in the reign of
Ramses III., we learn that a house steward had used some improper
enchantments. In some fragments of the Lee and Rollin Papyrus, we
read:<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">66</span> “Then he gave him a writing from the rolls of the books of
Ramses III., the great god, his lord. Then there came upon him a
divine magic, an enchantment for men. He reached [thereby?] to the
side of the women’s house, and into that other great and deep place.
He formed figures of wax, with the intention of having them carried
in by the hand of the land-surveyor Adiroma, to alienate the mind of
one of the girls, and to bewitch others.... Now, however, he
was brought to trial on account of them, and there was found in them
incitation to all kinds of wickedness, and all kinds of villainy which
it was his intention to do.... He had made some magic
writings to ward off ill-luck; he had made some gods of wax, and some
human figures to paralyse the limbs of a man; and he had put these
into the hand of Bokakamon without the sun-god Ra having permitted
that he should accomplish this,” etc.<a id="FNanchor_146_146" href="#Footnote_146_146" class="fnanchor">146</a></p>

<p>The actual medicaments used in Egyptian medical practice were
not considered effectual without combination with magical remedies.
The prescription might contain nitre, or cedar chips, or deer horn, or
it might be an ointment or application of some herbs; but it would
not be efficacious without some charm to deal with the spiritual mischief
of the case. In administering an emetic, for example, it was
necessary to employ the following appeal to the evil spirit of the
disorder: “Oh, demon, who art lodged in the stomach of M., son of
N., thou whose father is called Head-Smiter, whose name is Death,
whose name is cursed for ever,” etc. It was not the natural remedy
which called the supernatural to its aid; but in cultivated Egypt, this
combination was due to the theurgic healer availing himself of natural
remedies to assist his magic. Science was beginning to work for man’s
benefit, but could not yet afford to discard sentimental aids which, by
calming the mind of the sufferer, assisted its beneficent work. The
different parts of the human body were confided to the protection of a
special divinity. A calendar of lucky and unlucky days was devised,
by which it could be ascertained what was proper to be medically done,
or left undone, at certain times. Barth, in his <i>Travels in Africa</i>, in
the border region of the desert, tells of a native doctor who followed
such a system. He used to treat his patients according to the days of
the week on which they came: one day was a calomel day, another was
devoted to magnesia, and a third to tartar emetic; and everybody requiring
medicine had to take that appropriate to the day.</p>

<p>The Egyptians distinguished between black and white magic. The
learned priests practised the curative acts of magic; but it was held to
be a great crime to use black magic whereby to injure men or assist
unlawful passions.</p>

<p>Homer sings the praises of the medicinal herbs of prolific Egypt,
where Pæon imparts to all the Pharian race his healing arts;<a id="FNanchor_147_147" href="#Footnote_147_147" class="fnanchor">147</a> and in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">67</span>
Jeremiah,<a id="FNanchor_148_148" href="#Footnote_148_148" class="fnanchor">148</a> the daughter of Egypt is told that “in vain” she shall “use
<i>many medicines</i>,” for she shall not be cured.</p>

<p>The ancient Egyptians depended greatly upon clysters in the treatment
of many diseases besides those of the intestines. They were
composed of a mixture of medicinal herbs, with milk, honey, sweet
beer, salt, etc. The use of clysters by the Egyptians was remarked by
Pliny and Diodorus Siculus, and the invention was attributed by the
former to the ibis, who, with its long bill, performed the necessary
operation.<a id="FNanchor_149_149" href="#Footnote_149_149" class="fnanchor">149</a></p>

<p>This absurd idea arose from a confusion between the hieroglyph
for the ibis, and the god Thoth, the name of each having the same
sign.<a id="FNanchor_150_150" href="#Footnote_150_150" class="fnanchor">150</a></p>

<p>A comparison of the prescriptions of the medical papyri with those
of the ancient Greek physicians, especially Galen and Dioscorides, shows
a considerable family likeness of the Greek system of therapeutics to
that of the Egyptians. Chabas particularizes the following facts:—Honey
was used in place of sugar in many recipes by Egyptians and
Greeks. Wine was mixed with honey, and human milk was administered
in the form of clysters by Egyptians and by Galen and Dioscorides.
The use of barley drink, palm wine, nitre, or sal ammoniac, incense as
an external application, blood mixed with wine, urine as a liniment,
<i>Lapis memphites</i>, and several other drugs is prescribed for the same
disorders and in the same manner in the land of the Pharaohs and in
ancient Greece.</p>

<p>The famous “Ebers Papyrus” was purchased in 1874 by Dr. Ebers,
at Thebes. “This papyrus contains one hundred and ten pages, each
page consisting of about twenty-two lines of bold hieratic writing. It
may be described as an Encyclopædia of Medicine, as known and
practised by the Egyptians of the eighteenth dynasty; and it contains
prescriptions for all kinds of diseases—some borrowed from Syrian
medical lore, and some of such great antiquity that they are ascribed
to the mythologic ages, when the gods yet reigned personally upon earth.
Among others, we are given the recipe for an application whereby Osiris
cured Ra of the headache.”<a id="FNanchor_151_151" href="#Footnote_151_151" class="fnanchor">151</a> This is the oldest of all the medical
papyri hitherto discovered. It comes down to us, says Dr. Ebers,<a id="FNanchor_152_152" href="#Footnote_152_152" class="fnanchor">152</a> from
the eighteenth dynasty. The “Medical Papyrus” of Berlin is second in
point of antiquity; and a Hieratic MS. in London, the third.<a id="FNanchor_153_153" href="#Footnote_153_153" class="fnanchor">153</a></p>

<p>In the Ebers Medical Papyrus is an example of old Egyptian<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">68</span>
diagnosis and therapeutics: “When thou findest any one with a hardness
in his <i>re-het</i> (pit of the stomach), and when after eating he feels a
pressure in his intestines, his stomach (<i>het</i>) is swollen, and he feels bad
in walking, like one who suffers from heat in his back; then observe
him when he lies stretched out, and if thou findest his intestines hot,
and a hardness in his <i>re-het</i>, say to thyself, this is a disease of the liver.
Then prepare for thyself a remedy, according to the secrets of the
(botanical) science, from the plant <i>pa-che-test</i> and dates; mix them, and
give in water” (Ebers).<a id="FNanchor_154_154" href="#Footnote_154_154" class="fnanchor">154</a></p>

<p>The famous medical papyrus roll in the Museum of Berlin is described
by M. Chabas in the chapter on “The Medicine of the Ancient
Egyptians,” in his work entitled <i>Mélanges Égyptologiques</i>. From this
papyrus we learn that plaisters, ointments, liniments, and friction were
employed as external remedies. Many of the names of the herbs and
medicaments employed cannot be translated, but are merely transcribed.
We find a number of recipes for tumours of the breast, for pimples,
for “dissipating divinely parts injured by bruises,” for destroying the
bites of vermin, for cuts (common salt the chief ingredient), etc. The
prescriptions seem very simple and brief.</p>

<p>Magical invocations were frequently employed in the treatment of
disease. Chabas thinks that one of the maladies so treated was
intestinal inflammation, with a feeling of heaviness, and hardness, and
a griping pain. He translates the diagnosis of such a malady: “His
belly is heavy, the mouth of his heart (<i>os ventriculi</i>) is sick, his heart
(his stomach) is burning, ... his clothes are heavy upon him.
Many clothes do not warm him; he is thirsty at night; the taste of his
heart is perverted, like a man who has eaten sycamore figs; his flesh
is deadened as a man who finds himself sick; if he goes to stool, his
bowels refuse to act. Pronounce on his case that he has a nest of
inflammation in his belly; the taste of his heart is sick, ... if he
raises himself, he is as a man who is unable to walk.” The text of the
papyrus gives the remedies to be used in such a case. “Apply to him
the means of curing inflammation by warmth; also the means of destroying
the inflammation in the belly.” The diagnosis and treatment
here described apply very well to what we term peritonitis; but Dr.
Baas suggests that gastric cancer may be indicated.</p>

<p>There is a medical papyrus in the Berlin Museum, which was discovered
in the necropolis of Memphis, and which is described by
Brugsch<a id="FNanchor_155_155" href="#Footnote_155_155" class="fnanchor">155</a> as containing a quantity of recipes for the cure of many diseases,
including some of the nature of leprosy. There is also what the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">69</span>
great Egyptologists term “a simple, childish exposition of the construction
and mechanism of the body. The writing explained the number
and use of the numerous ‘tubes.’” The origin of part of this work is
traced to the time of the fifth king of the table of Abydos, though the
composition of the whole work is of the period of Ramses II. The text
says of the more ancient portion: “This is the beginning of the collection
of recipes for curing leprosy. It was discovered in a very ancient
papyrus, enclosed in a writing-case, under the feet (of a statue) of the
god Anubis, in the town of Sochem, at the time of the reign of his
majesty the defunct King Sapti. After his death, it was brought to the
majesty of the defunct King Senta, on account of its wonderful value.
And, behold, the book was placed again at the feet, and well secured
by the scribe of the temple, and the great physician, the wise Noferhotep.
And when this happened to the book at the going down of the sun, he
consecrated a meat, and drink, and incense offering to Isis, the lady;
to Hor, of Athribis; and the god Khonsoo-Thut, of Amkhit.”</p>

<p>Human brains are prescribed for a disease of the eyes in the Ebers
Papyrus. Pharmacy must have made considerable progress at the time
this work was written, as it contains two prescriptions for pills—one
made with honey for women, and one without it for men.</p>

<p>Chabas says that a severe discipline reigned in the schools of the
ancient Egyptians, and that the eloquence of the master was frequently
supplemented by the rod of his assistants. He gives in his translations
of papyri one of the exhortations to a pupil.<a id="FNanchor_156_156" href="#Footnote_156_156" class="fnanchor">156</a></p>

<p>“Oh, scribe,<a id="FNanchor_157_157" href="#Footnote_157_157" class="fnanchor">157</a> give not thyself to idleness, or thou shalt be smartly
chastised; abandon not thy heart to pleasure, or thou wilt let thy books
slip out of thy hands; practise conversation; discuss with those who
are wiser than thyself; do the works of an elevated man. Yes, when
thou shalt be advanced in years, thou wilt find this to be profitable.
A scribe, skilful in every kind of work, will become powerful. Neglect
not thy books; do not take a dislike to them.”</p>

<p>Sir J. Gardner Wilkinson, in his <i>Manners and Customs of the Egyptians</i>,
gives a list of plants (from Pliny) which were known to the
Egyptians and used in medicine or the arts. Ladanum (<i>Cistus ladaniferus</i>)
was introduced into Egypt by the Ptolemies. Myrobalanum
(<i>Moringa aptera?</i>) produced a fruit from which an ointment was made.
Cypros (<i>Lawsonia spinosa et inermis</i>) was cooked in oil to make the
ointment called cyprus; the leaves were used to dye the hair.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">70</span>
Elate (Abies?), palma or spathe was of use in ointments. Oil of bitter
almonds. Olives and figs were much esteemed. The castor-oil plant
(<i>Ricinus communis</i>). A medicinal oil was extracted from what was probably
one of the nettle tribe (<i>Urtica pilulifera</i>). Tea (<i>Triticum zea?</i>),
olyra (<i>Holcus sorghum?</i>), and tiphe (<i>Triticum spelta</i>), were used in
decoctions; opium was extracted from <i>Papaver somniferum</i>.</p>

<p>Cnicus or atractylis (<i>Carthamum tinctorium?</i>) was a remedy against
the poison of scorpions and other reptiles. Pliny says: “Homer attributes
the glory of herbs to Egypt. He mentions many given to Helen
by the wife of the Egyptian king, particularly the Nepenthes, which
caused oblivion of sorrow.” Opium was well known to the ancients, as
well as various preparations of that drug. Sir J. Wilkinson thinks that
nepenthe was perhaps the <i>burt</i> or <i>hasheesh</i>, a preparation of the <i>Cannabis
sativa</i> or Indian hemp.</p>

<p>The Egyptians, says Ebers, thought that the kindly healing plants
sprung up from the blood and tears of the gods.<a id="FNanchor_158_158" href="#Footnote_158_158" class="fnanchor">158</a></p>

<p>Upon the ceilings and walls of the temples at Tentyra, Karnac,
Luxor, and other places, basso-relievos have been discovered representing
limbs that have been amputated with instruments very similar
to those which are employed in such operations in our own time.
Such instruments are also found in the hieroglyphics, and Larrey says<a id="FNanchor_159_159" href="#Footnote_159_159" class="fnanchor">159</a>
that there are vestiges of other surgical operations which have been
discovered in Egyptian ruins which abundantly prove that the art of
surgery was practised with great skill in the land of the Pharaohs.</p>

<p>Mr. Flinders Petrie, excavating at the Pyramid of Medum, says of
the skeletons he discovered there: “The mutilations and diseases that
come to light are remarkable. One man had lost his left leg below the
knee; another had his hand cut off and put in the tomb; others seem
to have had bones excised, and placed separately with the body. In
one case acute and chronic inflammation and rheumatism of the back
had united most of the vertebræ into a solid mass down the inner side.
In another case there had been a rickety curvature of the spine. To
find so many peculiarities in only about fifteen skeletons which I
collected is strange. These are all in the Royal College of Surgeons
now, for study.”<a id="FNanchor_160_160" href="#Footnote_160_160" class="fnanchor">160</a></p>

<p>“Among the six hermetic books of medicine mentioned by Clement
of Alexandria, was one devoted to surgical instruments; otherwise the
very badly set fractures found in some of the mummies do little honour
to the Egyptian surgeons” (Ebers).</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">71</span></p>

<p>Flint instruments were always used for opening bodies, for circumcision
and other surgical operations. How far this was dictated by
religious respect for antiquity, or by sanitary reasons, cannot be said;
probably, however, the reverence for the ancient flint knife had much
to do with its retention.</p>

<p>Our word chemistry is derived from the name of Egypt, <i>Khem</i> or
<i>Khemit</i>, the “Black Land,” meaning the rich, dark soil of the Nile
valley. The god Khem, also known as Min and Am, was the same as
the Pan of the Greeks and Priapus of the Romans. He presided
over productiveness and the kindly fruits of the earth. In this sense
he was also the god of curative herbs and simples, and so became
associated in the popular mind with the arts of healing.<a id="FNanchor_161_161" href="#Footnote_161_161" class="fnanchor">161</a> Thus we
obtain the words chemist, chemistry, and alchemy. Plutarch says that
the Greek word χημία for Egypt, was bestowed on the land on account
of the black colour of its soil.</p>

<p>The Egyptians must have had considerable practical knowledge of
chemistry, or they could not have succeeded so well in the manufacture
of glass, in dyeing, and the use of mordants, etc. Metallurgy must have
been understood, as is evidenced by their process of gold manufactures
represented in several of the royal tombs. They made gold wire, and
excelled in the art of gilding. Their methods of embalming also exhibit
some chemical knowledge. Dr. Pettigrew says,<a id="FNanchor_162_162" href="#Footnote_162_162" class="fnanchor">162</a> his friend Professor
Reuvens, of Leyden, examined a papyrus which contained upwards
of one hundred chemical and alchemical formulæ.</p>

<p>In the Ebers Papyrus there are several recipes for the preparation
of hair dye. “The earliest of all the recipes preserved to us is a prescription
for dyeing the hair.”<a id="FNanchor_163_163" href="#Footnote_163_163" class="fnanchor">163</a></p>

<p>Recipes for exterminating vermin and noxious creatures are found in
the same work.</p>

<p>In anatomy, physiology, surgery, therapeutics, and chemistry it is
evident that Egypt was far in advance of any other nation of the same
period of which we have authentic accounts.</p>

<p>The Persian kings were glad to employ the Egyptian physicians,
whose skill gained them high renown in the ancient world. Dr.
Brugsch, in his account of the Egyptians in the Persian service, gives
a translation of the inscriptions of Uza-hor-en-pi-ris, of the period of
the conquest of Egypt by Cambyses.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">72</span> “O ye gods who are in Saïs!
Remember all the good that has been done by the president of the
physicians, Uza-hor-en-pi-ris. In all that ye are willing to requite him
for all his benefits, establish for him a great name in this land for ever.
O Osiris! thou eternal one! The president of the physicians, Uza-hor-en-pi-ris,
throws his arms around thee, to guard thy image; do for him
all good according to what he has done, (as) the protector of thy shrine
for ever.”<a id="FNanchor_164_164" href="#Footnote_164_164" class="fnanchor">164</a> The last words addressed to Osiris refer to the form of
the statue. The chief physician of Saïs is standing upright, with his
hands embracing a shrine which holds the mummy of Osiris.</p>

<p>Whether the ancient Greeks derived their knowledge of medicine
from Egypt or from India has often been debated; the evidence seems
to show that Greece was indebted to India rather than to Egypt in this
respect.</p>

<p>Mr. Flinders Petrie concludes “that Europe had an indigenous
civilization, as independent of Egypt and Babylonia as was the indigenous
Aryan civilization of India; that this civilization has acquired
arts independently, just as much as India has, and that Europe has
given to the East as much as it has borrowed from there.”<a id="FNanchor_165_165" href="#Footnote_165_165" class="fnanchor">165</a></p>

<p>Amongst the Egyptian fellahs some curious observances, says Mr.
Flinders Petrie, are connected with accidental deaths. “Fires of straw
are lighted, one month after the death, around the ground where the
body has lain; and where blood has been shed, iron nails are driven
into the ground, and a mixture of lentils, salt, etc., is poured out.
These look like offerings to appease spirits, and the fires seem as if to
drive away evil influences. Funeral offerings are still placed in the
tombs for the sustenance of the dead, just as they were thousands of
years ago.”<a id="FNanchor_166_166" href="#Footnote_166_166" class="fnanchor">166</a></p>

<p>Modern Egyptians, like the ancient, wear written charms against
sickness and disease. “Magical preparations of all sorts are frequently
used as remedies in illness, and in even serious cases the patient is
made to swallow pieces of paper inscribed with texts from the Koran,
and to try various similar absurd means, before a physician is applied
to.”<a id="FNanchor_167_167" href="#Footnote_167_167" class="fnanchor">167</a></p>

<hr class="chap" />
<div class="chapter"></div>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">73</span></p>




<h3 id="CHAPTERII_II">CHAPTER II.<br />

<small>JEWISH MEDICINE.</small></h3>

<blockquote>

<p>The Jews indebted to Egypt for their Learning.—The only Ancient People who discarded
Demonology.—They had no Magic of their own.—Phylacteries.—Circumcision.—Sanitary
Laws.—Diseases in the Bible.—The Essenes.—Surgery
in the Talmud.—Alexandrian Philosophy.—Jewish Services to Mediæval Medicine.—The
Phœnicians.</p></blockquote>


<p>That division of the Hebrew peoples which afterwards developed into
Israel, left its home in the extreme south of Palestine some fifteen centuries
before the Christian era to occupy the pasture lands of Goshen,
in the territory of the Pharaohs, where they continued to retain their
nomadic habits, their ancient language and patriarchal institutions.
In process of time, however, the Egyptian sovereigns began to deal
severely with their self-invited guests; they were forced to labour on
the public works of Goshen; and though bitterly resenting this attempt
to destroy their identity and reduce them to mere slavery, the proud
and noble race was powerless to resist, and continued to labour on in
despair until a deliverer arose in Moses, who led them out of Egypt to
the land of Palestine which they had originally left. Moses was a
pupil of the Egyptian priests, versed in all their wisdom, and imbued
with the loftiest sentiments of the religion of Egypt. We shall expect
to find in the medicine of the Jews abundant traces of their long residence
in the land of the Pharaohs. Our sources for the history of the
healing art and the theory of disease which obtained with the people of
Israel are two—the Bible and the Talmud. Therein we shall see the
influences, both external and internal, which made Jewish medicine
what it was; and we shall be astonished, on comparing the theory of
disease with that of all the other nations and peoples of the earth, to
find that it stands by itself, is absolutely unique in its loftiness of idea,
its absolute freedom from the absurd and degrading superstitions of
the great and civilized nations amongst which they dwelt or by which
they were surrounded. When we reflect on the religions of Egypt,
Assyria, and Chaldæa, and compare their many gods with the one God
of the Jews, their demonology, sorcery, and witchcraft with the pure
and elevated faith of these nomads of the Sinaitic Peninsula, and re<span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">74</span>member
that in all the earth at that time there was no other nation
which had formulated such a pure theism, no other people which
had broken away from the degrading and corrupting demonology
which possessed the whole earth, we are compelled to recognise in
God’s ancient people the Jews the evidence of a teaching totally
unlike anything which had preceded it. If the Bible, the Talmud,
and the Koran are all three merely specimens of ancient literature,
how comes it that the Bible is so infinitely superior, not only in its
noble monotheism, but in its remarkable freedom from so many of the
superstitions which, as we have seen, were everywhere intermixed with
the noblest religious systems and the most advanced civilizations?
Magic in the Bible is everywhere passed by with contempt. Whatever
may be the precise date of the Psalms, they must have been written
when all nations were sunk in the grossest superstition, and had resort
to magical practices on the slightest pretence; yet there is a total
absence of all superstition in the Psalms. Granting that the Book of
Ecclesiastes is a mere piece of cynical philosophy, it contains no evidence
of superstitious belief. The more ancient is a literature, the
greater is the certainty that it will contain some reference to superstitious
usages; yet how gloriously the oldest books of the Bible shine
in their freedom from contamination with the demon-worship and conjuring
arts of the nations surrounding the children of Israel.</p>

<p>As the author of the learned article on “Medicine” in Smith’s <i>Dictionary
of the Bible</i> says: “But if we admit Egyptian learning as an
ingredient, we should also notice how far exalted above it is the standard
of the whole Jewish legislative fabric, in its exemption from the
blemishes of sorcery and juggling pretences. The priest, who had to
pronounce on the cure, used no means to advance it, and the whole
regulations prescribed exclude the notion of trafficking in popular superstition.
We have no occult practices reserved in the hands of the
sacred caste. It is God alone who doeth great things—working by the
wand of Moses or the brazen serpent; but the very mention of such instruments
is such as to expel all pretence of mysterious virtues in the
things themselves.” It is always God alone who is the healer: “I am
the Lord that healeth thee” (Exod. xv. 26); “Heal me, O Lord, and I
shall be healed” (Jer. xvii. 14); “For I will restore health unto thee,
and I will heal thee of thy wounds, saith the Lord” (Jer. xxx. 17);
“Who healeth all thy diseases” (Ps. ciii. 3); “He healeth the broken
in heart, and bindeth up their wounds” (Ps. cxlvii. 3); “The Lord
bindeth up the breach of His people, and healeth the stroke of their
wound” (Isa. xxx. 26).</p>

<p>The priestly caste had no monopoly of the healing art; it might be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">75</span>
practised by any one who was competent to afford medical aid. Physicians
are mentioned in several passages.</p>

<p>Although the Hebrews had no magic of their own, and notwithstanding
the stern severity with which it was prohibited in their law, there
would naturally be many who transgressed their law and imported the
superstitious practices from the surrounding peoples.</p>

<p>The teraphim of Laban which were stolen by Rachel<a id="FNanchor_168_168" href="#Footnote_168_168" class="fnanchor">168</a> is the earliest
example in the Bible of magical instruments. It seems that these
objects were a kind of idols in the shape of a human figure; their use
was condemned by the prophets, but they were for ages used in popular
worship, both domestic and public. Hosea says:<a id="FNanchor_169_169" href="#Footnote_169_169" class="fnanchor">169</a> “The children of
Israel shall abide many days without a king, and without a prince, and
without a sacrifice, and without an image, and without an ephod, and
<i>without</i> teraphim.” In this passage the teraphim and ephod are
classed with the sacrifice, as though equally essential for worship.
Some students think that the teraphim were the Kabeiri gods;<a id="FNanchor_170_170" href="#Footnote_170_170" class="fnanchor">170</a> whatever
they were, they were worshipped or used superstitiously by
Micah, by the Danites, and others.<a id="FNanchor_171_171" href="#Footnote_171_171" class="fnanchor">171</a> They were used magically for
the purpose of obtaining oracular answers, and were associated with
the practice of divination.<a id="FNanchor_172_172" href="#Footnote_172_172" class="fnanchor">172</a></p>

<p>The phylacteries of the Jews were charms or amulets in writing.
They were believed to avert all evils, but were especially useful in driving
away demons. They put faith, also, in precious stones. To this
day one may see at the door of every Jewish house the mezûza—a scrap
of sacred writing—affixed diagonally on the right doorpost, enclosed
in a metal case. The texts contained are inscribed on parchment, and
the words are from Deuteronomy vi. 4-9; xi. 13-21. In the Targum
on Canticles viii. 3, we learn that the phylactery and mezûza were supposed
to keep off hurtful demons. This is merely the corruption of a
perfectly innocent idea; it is an example of the way in which harmless
things become degraded to superstitious uses. The scapular of little
squares of brown cloth worn by Catholics originally meant no more
than the investiture, in a secret and unassuming manner, with the
habit of the Carmelite order, and allowed pious persons living “in
the world” to feel that they were affiliated to a famous and saintly
community. When the Catholic wore it, he knew that he assumed the
badge of the Blessed Virgin; there was no more in it than that.
Amongst the ignorant and superstitious it is now commonly believed
that the wearer is protected from death by fire and drowning, and that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">76</span>
Our Lady will liberate him from purgatory on the first Saturday after
his arrival there.</p>

<p>“To the mind of the Israelite,” says Mr. Tylor, “death and pestilence
took the personal form of the destroying angel who smote the
doomed.”<a id="FNanchor_173_173" href="#Footnote_173_173" class="fnanchor">173</a></p>

<p>God is plainly declared, in Exodus xv. 26, to send diseases upon
men as a punishment for the breach of His commandments, and this
has been adduced to show that the Jews traced their maladies to the
anger of an offended Deity; and thus it has been argued that their
etiology of disease was not higher than that of the other nations. But
this argument is unfair. The Mosaic law was to a great extent a
sanitary code, and even in the light of modern science we are compelled
to admire the wisdom of the laws which have for so many
centuries made the Jews the healthiest and most macrobiotic of peoples.</p>

<p>The rite of circumcision was not peculiar to the Jews; and just as
baptism was an initiatory rite borrowed from another religion, yet made
distinctive of Christianity, so circumcision has come to be considered a
peculiarly Jewish practice. It may have been with the Israelites a protest
against the phallus worship which is of such remote antiquity, and
which was the foundation of the myth of Osiris. Wunderbar<a id="FNanchor_174_174" href="#Footnote_174_174" class="fnanchor">174</a> asserts
that it distinctly contributed to increase the fruitfulness of the race and
to check inordinate desires in the individual. There are excellent
surgical reasons for both these suppositions, in addition to which we
may add that it contributed to cleanliness and prevented irritation.
Wunderbar, moreover, seems to have established his statement that
after circumcision there is less probability of the absorption of syphilitic
virus, and he has instanced the fact that such specific disease is
less frequent with Jewish than with Christian populations.<a id="FNanchor_175_175" href="#Footnote_175_175" class="fnanchor">175</a></p>

<p>“Circumcision,” says Pickering, speaking of the Polynesian practice,
“was now explained; and various other customs, which had previously
appeared unaccountable, were found to rest on physical causes, having
been extended abroad by the process of imitation.”<a id="FNanchor_176_176" href="#Footnote_176_176" class="fnanchor">176</a></p>

<p>The same writer states that the practice is “common to the ancient
inhabitants of the Thebaid, and also to the modern Abyssinians and
their neighbours in the South.”<a id="FNanchor_177_177" href="#Footnote_177_177" class="fnanchor">177</a></p>

<p>Ewald<a id="FNanchor_178_178" href="#Footnote_178_178" class="fnanchor">178</a> says that circumcision was practised by various Arabian
tribes, in Africa, amongst Ethiopic Christians and the negroes of the
Congo. It was also practised on girls by Lydian, Arabian, and African<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">77</span>
tribes, as Philo and Strabo inform us. Ewald considers it originated as
an offering of one’s own flesh and blood in sacrifice to God, and may
have been considered as a substitute for the whole body of a human
being.</p>

<p>Circumcision is practised amongst Australian savages on the Murray
River, as also another incredible ceremonial, as Lubbock terms it.<a id="FNanchor_179_179" href="#Footnote_179_179" class="fnanchor">179</a></p>

<p>Castration is hinted at in Matthew xix. 12 as an operation well
understood.</p>

<p>In hot climates extra precautions for cleanliness have to be adopted
beyond those which would amply suffice in northern lands. Captain
Burton says:<a id="FNanchor_180_180" href="#Footnote_180_180" class="fnanchor">180</a>—</p>

<p>However much the bath may be used, the body-pile and hair of the
armpits, etc., if submitted to a microscope, will show more or less
sordes adherent. The axilla hair is plucked, because if shaved the
growing pile causes itching, and the depilatories are held to be deleterious.</p>

<p>Sometimes Syrian incense or fir-gum, imported from Scio, is melted
and allowed to cool in the form of a pledget. This is passed over the
face, and all the down adhering to it is pulled up by the roots. He
adds that many Anglo-Indians adopt the same precautions.</p>

<p>Ewald, referring to the laws concerning women, says:<a id="FNanchor_181_181" href="#Footnote_181_181" class="fnanchor">181</a> “The
monthly period of the woman brought with it the second grade of uncleanness,
which lasted the space of seven days, but without rendering
necessary the use of specially prepared water. Everything on which
the woman sat or lay during this time, and every one who touched such
things or her, incurred the uncleanness of the first grade.”</p>

<p>We find the demon-theory of disease in force in the time of Josephus.
He says:<a id="FNanchor_182_182" href="#Footnote_182_182" class="fnanchor">182</a>—</p>

<p>“Now within this place there grew a sort of rue, that deserves our
wonder on account of its largeness, for it was no way inferior to any fig-tree
whatsoever, either in height or in thickness; and the report is that
it had lasted ever since the time of Herod, and would probably have
lasted much longer had it not been cut down by those Jews who took
possession of the place afterward; but still in that valley which encompasses
the city on the north side, there is a certain place called Baaras,
which produces a root of the same name with itself; its colour is like
to that of flame, and towards evening it sends out a certain ray like
lightning; it is not easily taken by such as would do it, but recedes
from their hands; nor will yield itself to be taken quietly, until either<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">78</span>
οὖρον γυναικὸς ἢ τὸ ἔμμηνον αἵμα be poured upon it; nay, even then it is
certain death to those that touch it, unless any one take and hang the
root itself down from his hand, and so carry it away. It may also be
taken another way, without danger, which is this: they dig a trench
quite round about it, till the hidden part of the root be very small; they
then tie a dog to it, and when the dog tries hard to follow him that tied
him, this root is easily plucked up, but the dog dies immediately, as if
it were instead of the man that would take the plant away; nor after
this need any one be afraid of taking it into their hands. Yet, after all
this pains in getting, it is only valuable on account of one virtue it hath—that
if it be only brought to sick persons, it quickly drives away those
called Demons, which are no other than the spirits of the wicked, that
enter into men that are alive and kill them, unless they can obtain
some help against them.”</p>

<p>If we may consider Josephus as a fair type of the learned and
liberally educated men of his time, we are compelled to admit that
the theory of disease held by the Hebrews of the period was not much,
if at all, in advance of the rest of the world. It was undoubtedly
largely the demoniacal theory of sickness. In the <i>Antiquities of the
Jews</i><a id="FNanchor_183_183" href="#Footnote_183_183" class="fnanchor">183</a> Josephus, in his description of the sagacity and wisdom of
Solomon, says: “God also enabled him to learn the skill that expels
demons, which is a science useful and sanative to men. He composed
such incantations also by which distempers are alleviated. And he left
behind him the manner of using exorcisms, by which they drive away
demons so that they never return; and this method of cure is of great
force unto this day; for I have seen a certain man of my own country,
whose name was Eleazar, releasing people that were demoniacal.”
He goes on to describe the process of extracting the demon from the
sick man through his nostrils.</p>

<p>So again, in telling the story of Saul’s possession by the evil spirit
from the Lord, he says:<a id="FNanchor_184_184" href="#Footnote_184_184" class="fnanchor">184</a> “The physicians could find no other remedy
but this—that if any person could charm those passions by singing
and playing upon the harp, they advised them to inquire for such a
one.” He seems to imply that David cured Saul by an incantation; and
Spanheim, commenting upon the story, says that the Greeks had such
singers of hymns, and that usually children or youths were picked out
for that service, and that they were called singers to the harp.<a id="FNanchor_185_185" href="#Footnote_185_185" class="fnanchor">185</a></p>

<p>Whether David merely influenced Saul in the natural and touching
way so beautifully described by Robert Browning in his poem “Saul,”
we must bear in mind that an “incantation” was precisely of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">79</span>
character of the Bible story, and that the demon theory of Saul’s
malady is plainly stated.<a id="FNanchor_186_186" href="#Footnote_186_186" class="fnanchor">186</a></p>

<p>Herzog<a id="FNanchor_187_187" href="#Footnote_187_187" class="fnanchor">187</a> enumerates the following as the diseases of the Bible:—1.
<i>Fever and ague</i> (Lev. xxvi. 16). 2. <i>Dysentery</i> (Acts xxviii. 8), with,
probably, <i>prolapsus ani</i>, as in Jehoram’s case (2 Chron. xxi. 15, 19).
3. <i>Inflammation of the eyes</i>, due to heat, night dews, sea breeze, flying
sand, injuries, etc. (Lev. xix. 14; Deut. xxvii. 18; Matt. xii. 22, etc.).
4. <i>Congenital blindness</i> (John ix. 1). 5. <i>Disease of the liver</i>. 6.
<i>Hypochondria</i>. 7. <i>Hysteria</i>. 8. <i>Rheumatism and gout</i> (John v. 2, 3).
9. <i>Consumption</i>, a general term, including hectic, typhoid, and other
fevers (Lev. xxvi. 16; Deut. xxviii. 22, etc.). 10. <i>Phthisis</i> (?), indicated
by leanness (Isa. x. 16). 11. <i>Atrophy of muscles</i>, “withered
hand,” being due either to rheumatism, plugging up of the main artery
of the limb, or paralysis of the principal nerve, etc. (Matt. xii. 10;
1 Kings xiii. 4-6, etc.). 12. <i>Fevers</i> in general (Matt. viii. 14, etc.).
13. <i>Pestilence</i> (Deut. xxxii. 24). 14. <i>Oriental pest</i>, the so-called
“bubonenpest,” characterised by swellings in the groins, armpits, etc.;
a very fatal disorder (Lev. xxvi. 25; Deut. xxviii. 21, 27, 60, etc.).
15. <i>Boils</i> (2 Kings xx. 7, etc.). 16. <i>Sunstroke</i> (2 Kings iv. 19, etc.).
17. <i>Gonorrhœa</i> (Lev. xv. 2). 18. <i>Metrorrhagia</i>, or uterine hemorrhage
(Lev. xv. 25; Luke viii. 43, etc.). 19. <i>Sterility</i> (Gen. xx. 18, etc.).
20. <i>Asa’s foot disease</i>, either œdema or gout (2 Chron. xvi. 12). 21.
<i>Elephantiasis</i> (?) (Job ii. 7). 22. <i>Dropsy</i> (Luke xiv. 2). 23. <i>Cancer</i>
(2 Tim. ii. 17). 24. <i>Worms</i>; may have been phthiriasis (lice) (2 Macc.
ix. 5-9). 25. <i>Leprosy</i>. 26. <i>Itch</i> and other skin diseases (Deut xxviii.
27). 27. <i>Apoplexy</i> (1 Sam. xxv. 37, etc.). 28. <i>Lethargy</i> (Gen. ii. 21;
1 Sam. xxvi. 12). 29. <i>Paralysis</i>, palsy (Matt. iv. 24; Acts iii. 2, etc.).
30. <i>Epilepsy</i>, the so-called “possession of devils” (Matt. iv. 24, etc.).
31. <i>Melancholia</i>, madness (Deut. xxviii. 28, etc.). 32. <i>Nervous exhaustion</i>
(1 Tim. v. 23). 33. <i>Miscarriage</i> (Exod. xxi. 22). 34. “<i>Boils
and blains</i>,” erysipelatous (Exod. ix. 9). 35. <i>Gangrene and mortification</i>
(2 Tim. ii. 17). 36. <i>Poisoning by arrows</i> (Job vi. 4). <i>Poisoning from
snake-bite</i> (Deut. xxxii. 24). 37. <i>Scorpions and centipedes</i> (Rev. ix. 5,
10). 38. <i>Old age</i>, as described in Eccles. xii. I am inclined to add to
this list <i>Syphilis</i>, which seems to me to be clearly indicated by several
verses in Proverbs xii., in the warnings against the strange woman, <i>e.g.</i>
verses 22, 23, 26, and 27.</p>

<p>The law forbade a Levite who was blind to act as a physician.
Anatomy and pathology were not understood, as it was considered
pollution even to touch the dead.</p>

<p>The surgical instruments of the Bible are the sharp stone or flint<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">80</span>
knives with which circumcision was performed, and the awl with which
a servant’s ear was bored by his master (Exod. iv. 25; Josh. v. 2;
Exod. xxi. 6). Roller bandages are referred to for fractures (Ezek. xxx.
21). Job used a scraper when he was smitten with boils (Job ii. 8).
The materia medica of the Bible is meagre. A poultice of figs—a
favourite remedy in ancient times—is ordered in 2 Kings xx. 7.</p>

<p>Fish galls (Tobit xi. 4-13) and fasting saliva are used (Mark viii. 23).</p>

<p>The only regular prescription mentioned is that in Exodus xxx.
23-25.</p>

<p>Midwives were regularly employed to assist Hebrew mothers.</p>

<p>The “bearing stool” was employed.</p>

<p>There is a very beautiful figurative description of the disease of old
age or senile decay given by Solomon in the Book of Ecclesiastes:—</p>

<p>“Remember now thy Creator in the days of thy youth, while the
evil days come not, nor the years draw nigh, when thou shalt say, I
have no pleasure in them; while the sun, or the light, or the moon, or
the stars, be not darkened, nor the clouds return after the rain: in the
day when the keepers of the house shall tremble, and the strong men
shall bow themselves, and the grinders cease because they are few, and
those that look out of the windows be darkened, and the doors shall be
shut in the streets, when the sound of the grinding is low, and he
shall rise up at the voice of the bird, and all the daughters of musick
shall be brought low; also <i>when</i> they shall be afraid of <i>that which is</i>
high, and fears <i>shall be</i> in the way, and the almond tree shall flourish,
and the grasshopper shall be a burden, and desire shall fail: because
man goeth to his long home, and the mourners go about the streets:
or ever the silver cord be loosed, or the golden bowl be broken, or
the pitcher be broken at the fountain, or the wheel broken at the
cistern. Then shall the dust return to the earth as it was: and the
spirit shall return unto God who gave it.”</p>

<p>Dr. Mead, in his treatise on the diseases of old age,<a id="FNanchor_188_188" href="#Footnote_188_188" class="fnanchor">188</a> thus explains
the curious figurative phrases. By the darkening of the sun, moon, and
stars, he says we are to understand the obscuration of the mental faculties,
which is so common in advanced life. The clouds returning after rain
symbolise the cares and troubles which oppress the aged; especially when
the vigour of the mind is lessened, so that they cannot cast them off.
From the mind we pass to the body: “the keepers of the house shall
tremble,” etc. That is to say, the limbs which support the body grow
feeble and relaxed, and are incapable of defending us against injuries.
The grinders are the molar teeth. The failing sight is compared to the
darkness which meets those who look out of the windows. By dimin<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">81</span>ished
appetite the mouth, which is the door of the body, is less frequently
opened than in youth. The sound of the grinding of the teeth
is low, because old people have, in the absence of them, to eat with
their gums. The rising up at the voice of the bird signifies the short
and interrupted sleep of the aged. By the daughters of music we are to
understand the ears, which no longer administer to our pleasure in
conveying harmonious sounds. The sense of feeling is diminished, and
the aged are fearful of stumbling in the way. The early flowers of
spring shall flourish in vain. The phrase, the grasshopper shall become
a burden, according to Dr. Mead, is the modest Hebrew mode of
describing the effects of scrotal rupture. He says the grasshopper is
made up chiefly of belly, and when full of eggs bears some resemblance
to a scrotum smitten by a rupture. “Desire shall be lost” is like
Ovid’s <i>Turpe senilis amor</i>, and does not refer to appetite for food. The
loosened silver cord is the vertebral column; the medulla oblongata is
of a silver or whitish colour. The golden bowl expresses the dignity of
the head, from which in old age come defluxions to the nose, eyes, and
mouth. Incontinence of urine is a common trouble of the aged, well
expressed by the figure of the pitcher broken at the fountain; and the
wheel at the cistern, to those who knew nothing of the circulation of
the blood, fairly describes the failing heart, no longer capable of propelling
the stream of life through the vessels.</p>

<p>Referring to the words, “The sun shall not smite thee by day, nor
the moon by night” (Psalm cxxi. 6), Captain Burton says<a id="FNanchor_189_189" href="#Footnote_189_189" class="fnanchor">189</a> that he
has seen a hale and hearty Arab, after sitting an hour in the moonlight,
look like a man fresh from a sick-bed; and he knew an Englishman
in India whose face was temporarily paralysed by sleeping with it
exposed to the moon.</p>

<p>The captivity at Babylon brought the Jews into contact with a nobler
and very high civilization. In many ways there is no doubt that Jewish
thought was greatly developed and enlarged by association with the
peoples of Babylonia and Assyria. What precise influences the Jews
became subject to in this captivity we have not the means to determine;
but the fact that the Greek physician Democedes visited the court of
Darius, proves that Eastern lands had in some measure fallen under the
influence of Greek thought, about the time of Ezra. The Book of
Ecclesiasticus is supposed to belong to the period of the Ptolemies,
and in that work we find practitioners of medicine held in high esteem.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">82</span>
“Honour a physician with the honour due unto him for the uses which
ye may have of him; for the Lord hath created him.... The
skill of the physician shall lift up his head; and in the sight of great
men he shall be in admiration. The Lord hath created medicines out of
the earth; and he that is wise will not abhor them.... Then
give place to the physician, for the Lord hath created him; let him
not go from thee, for thou hast need of him.”<a id="FNanchor_190_190" href="#Footnote_190_190" class="fnanchor">190</a></p>

<p>A very interesting but mysterious sect of the Jews was the <span class="smcap">Essenes</span>
(<span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 150). Our knowledge of this ancient community is chiefly derived
from Josephus,<a id="FNanchor_191_191" href="#Footnote_191_191" class="fnanchor">191</a> who says that they studied the ancient writers principally
with regard to those things useful to the body and the soul, that they
thus acquired knowledge of remedies for diseases, and learned the
virtues of plants, stones, and metals. Another name for the Essenes
was the Therapeutists, or the Healers.<a id="FNanchor_192_192" href="#Footnote_192_192" class="fnanchor">192</a></p>

<p>They lived somewhat after the fashion of monks, and had a novitiate
of three years. Some of their principles and rules suggest a connection
with Pythagorism and Zoroastrianism. De Quincey finds in
Essenism a saintly scheme of Ethics, a “Christianity before Christ,
and consequently without Christ.”<a id="FNanchor_193_193" href="#Footnote_193_193" class="fnanchor">193</a> Recent scholarship, says Professor
Masson, will not accept his conclusions concerning this remarkable
secret society.<a id="FNanchor_194_194" href="#Footnote_194_194" class="fnanchor">194</a></p>

<p>The surgery of the Talmud includes a knowledge of dislocations of
the thigh, contusions of the head, perforation of the lungs and other
organs, injuries of the spinal cord and trachea, and fractures of the
ribs. Polypus of the nose was considered to be a punishment for past
sins. In sciatica the patient is advised to rub the hip sixty times with
meat-broth. Bleeding was performed by mechanics or barbers.</p>

<p>The pathology of the Talmud ascribes diseases to a constitutional
vice, to evil influences acting on the body from without, or to the effect
of magic.</p>

<p>Jaundice is recognised as arising from retention of the bile, dropsy
from suppression of the urine. The Talmudists divided dropsy into
anasarca, ascites, and tympanites. Rupture and atrophy of the kidneys
were held to be always fatal. Hydatids of the liver were more favourably
considered. Suppuration of the spinal cord, induration of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">83</span>
lungs, etc., are incurable. Dr. Baas<a id="FNanchor_195_195" href="#Footnote_195_195" class="fnanchor">195</a> says that these are “views which
may have been based on the dissection of [dead] animals, and may be
considered the germs of pathological anatomy.” Some critical symptoms
are sweating, sneezing, defecation, and dreams, which promise a
favourable termination of the disease.</p>

<p>Natural remedies, both external and internal, were employed. Magic
was also Talmudic. Dispensations were given by the Rabbis to permit
sick persons to eat prohibited food. Onions were prescribed for
worms; wine and pepper for stomach disorders; goat’s milk for difficulty
of breathing; emetics in nausea; a mixture of gum and alum for
menorrhagia (not a bad prescription); a dog’s liver was ordered for the
bite of a mad dog. Many drugs, such as assafœtida, are evidently
adopted from Greek medicine. The dissection of the bodies of animals
provided the Talmudists with their anatomy. It is, however, recorded
that Rabbi Ishmael, at the close of the first century, made a skeleton by
boiling of the body of a prostitute. We find that dissection in the
interests of science was permitted by the Talmud. The Rabbis counted
252 bones in the human skeleton.</p>

<p>It was known that the spinal cord emerges from the foramen
magnum, and terminates in the cauda equina. The anatomy of the
uterus was well understood. A very curious point in their anatomy was
the assumption of the existence of a fabulous bone, called “Luz,”
which they held to be the nucleus of the resurrection of the body.<a id="FNanchor_196_196" href="#Footnote_196_196" class="fnanchor">196</a></p>

<p>(The Arabians call this bone “Aldabaran.”)</p>

<p>They discovered that the removal of the spleen is not necessarily
fatal.</p>

<p>According to the Talmudists, the elementary bodies are earth, air,
fire, and water. Pregnancy, they held, lasts 270 to 273 days (280 days
is the modern calculation), and that it cannot be determined before
the fourth month.</p>

<p>Alexandrian philosophic thought received a new impulse in consequence
of the conciliatory policy which the Ptolemies pursued towards
the Jews. Under Soter they were encouraged to settle in Alexandria,
and soon their numbers became very great. Egypt at one time contained
altogether some 200,000 Jews. Alexandria became for several
centuries the centre of Jewish thought and learning. But the learning<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">84</span>
of the Rabbis became a shallow pedantry in the course of time, and
their faith in the inspiration of their scriptures ultimately degenerated
into a Cabalism, which in its turn lent itself to jugglery and magic-mongering,
and infected the medicine of the Roman world, just as the
healing art had emancipated itself from superstition, theurgy, and
philosophical sophistries.</p>

<p>Kingsley has told us how this Jewish magic arose.<a id="FNanchor_197_197" href="#Footnote_197_197" class="fnanchor">197</a> “If each word
[of the Scriptures] had a mysterious value, why not each letter? And
how could they set limits to that mysterious value? Might not these
words, even rearrangements of the letters of them, be useful in protecting
them against the sorceries of the heathen, in driving away these evil
spirits, or evoking those good spirits who, though seldom mentioned in
their early records, had, after their return from Babylon, begun to form
an important part of their unseen world?”</p>

<p>Jewish Cabalism formed itself into a system at Alexandria. It was
there, as Kingsley goes on to say, that the Jews learnt to become the
magic-mongers which Claudius had to expel from Rome as pests to
rational and moral society.</p>

<p>According to the Jewish doctors, three angels preside over the art of
medicine. Their names, according to Rabbi Elias, are Senoi, Sansenoi,
and Sanmangelof.<a id="FNanchor_198_198" href="#Footnote_198_198" class="fnanchor">198</a></p>

<p>In the Middle Ages the Jews rendered the greatest services to the
healing art, and had a large share in the scientific work connected with
the Arab domination in Spain. The great names of <span class="smcap">Moses Maimonides</span>
and <span class="smcap">Ibn Ezra</span> attest the dignity of Jewish intellectual life in the Dark
Ages. The Golden Age of the modern Jews, as Milman<a id="FNanchor_199_199" href="#Footnote_199_199" class="fnanchor">199</a> designates
it, begins with the Caliphs and ends with Maimonides. The Hebrew
literature was eminently acceptable to the kindred taste of the Saracens,
and the sympathy between Arab and Jewish practitioners and students
of medicine was fraught with the greatest benefit to the healing art.
The Golden Age of the Jews was at its height in the time of Charlemagne,
when kings could not write their names. Their intelligence
and education fitted them to become the physicians and the ministers
of nobles and monarchs. During the reign of Louis the Debonnaire
the Jews were all-powerful at his court. His confidential adviser was
the Jewish physician Zedekiah, who was a profound adept in magic.
In an age when monkish historians could relate “with awe-struck sincerity,”
as Milman describes it,<a id="FNanchor_200_200" href="#Footnote_200_200" class="fnanchor">200</a> the tales of his swallowing a cartload of
hay, horses and all, it is not difficult to understand that an acquaintance
with the best knowledge of his time would account for the estimation in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">85</span>
which a man of science was held. Maimonides lived at the court of
the Sultan of Egypt as the royal physician, in the highest estimation.</p>

<p>The Phœnicians were devoted to phallic-worship. The instrument
of procreative power was the chief symbol of their religion. Astarte
was their great goddess. Baal-Zebub, the Beelzebub of the Bible, was
their god of medicine, and the arbiter of health and disease. The
Cabiri, or Corybantes, considered by some authorities to be identical
with the Titans, by others with the sons of Noah, were considered as
the discoverers of the properties of the medicinal herbs, and the
teachers of the art of healing to mortals.<a id="FNanchor_201_201" href="#Footnote_201_201" class="fnanchor">201</a></p>

<hr class="chap" />
<div class="chapter"></div>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">86</span></p>




<h3 id="CHAPTERII_III">CHAPTER III.<br />

<small>THE MEDICINE OF CHALDÆA, BABYLONIA, AND ASSYRIA.</small></h3>

<blockquote>

<p>The Ancient Religion of Accadia akin to Shamanism.—Demon Theory of Disease in
Chaldæan Medicine.—Chaldæan Magic.—Medical Ignorance of the Babylonians.—Assyrian
Disease-Demons.—Charms.—Origin of the Sabbath.</p></blockquote>


<p>Chaldæa was probably only second to Egypt in the antiquity of its
civilization. The founders of the Babylonian and Assyrian empires
were a Semitic tribe, and were the first people who worked in metals, and
their knowledge of astronomy proves them to have been possessed of
some amount of scientific attainments. Their practice of medicine was
inextricably mixed with conjurations of spirits, magic, and astrology.</p>

<p>The name now given to the primitive inhabitants of Babylon is
Accadians. Sayce considers them to have been the earliest civilizers
of Eastern Asia. From the Accadians, he thinks the Assyrians, Phœnicians,
and Greeks derived their knowledge of philosophy and the arts.
Their libraries existed seventeen centuries <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span></p>

<p>The ancient religion of Accad was very similar to the Shamanism
professed by Siberian and Samoyed tribes at the present time. There
was believed to be a spirit in every object. Good or bad spirits swarmed
in the world, and there was scarcely anything that could be done which
might not risk demoniacal possession. These good and bad spirits
were controlled by priests and sorcerers. All diseases were caused
by evil spirits, and the bulls and other creatures which guarded the
entrance to houses were there to protect them from their power.
The priests were magicians. There were at one period of the development
of the Babylonian mythology three hundred spirits of heaven
and six hundred spirits of earth; the most dreadful of these latter
were the “seven spirits,” who were born without father and mother, and
brought plague and evil on the earth. Magic formulæ for warding off
the attacks of demons were commonly used, and charms and talismans
were extensively employed. The phylacteries of the Jews were
talismans, and were of Accadian origin. The sorcerer bound his charm,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">87</span>
“knotted with seven knots, round the limbs of the sick man, and this,
with the further application of holy water, would, it was believed,
infallibly produce a cure; while the same result might be brought about
by fixing a sentence out of a good book on the sufferer’s head as he lay
in bed.”<a id="FNanchor_202_202" href="#Footnote_202_202" class="fnanchor">202</a></p>

<p>Accadian literature, Mr. George Smith tells us, is rich in collections
of charms and formulæ of exorcism belonging to the very earliest period
of Babylonian history. There are magic formulæ of all kinds, some to
ward off sorcery, some to bewitch other persons.</p>

<p>The following is a specimen of the exorcisms used to drive away evil
spirits, and to cure the diseases which were believed to be caused by
their agency:—</p>

<p>“The noxious god, the noxious spirit of the neck, the spirit of the
desert, the spirit of the mountain, the spirit of the sea, the spirit of the
morass, the noxious cherub of the city, this noxious wind which seizes
the body (and) the health of the body: O, spirit of heaven, remember!
O, spirit of earth, remember!</p>

<p>“The burning spirit of the neck which seizes the man, the burning
spirit which seizes the man, the spirit which works evil, the creation
of the evil spirit: O, spirit of heaven, remember! O, spirit of earth,
remember!</p>

<p>“Wasting, want of health, the evil spirit of the ulcer, spreading
quinsey of the gullet, the violent ulcer, the noxious ulcer: O, spirit of
heaven, remember! O, spirit of earth, remember!</p>

<p>“Sickness of the entrails, sickness of the heart, the palpitation of a
sick heart, sickness of bile, sickness of the head, noxious colic, the
<i>agitation</i> of terror, flatulency of the entrails, noxious illness, lingering
sickness, nightmare: O, spirit of heaven, remember! O, spirit of earth,
remember!”<a id="FNanchor_203_203" href="#Footnote_203_203" class="fnanchor">203</a></p>

<p>In the great magic collection of invocations copied by the order of
Asurbanipal, we have a long litany on the “Spirit of Fever”; the lords
and ladies of the earth, stars, the light of life, the spirit of Hurki and
his talismanic ship, the spirit of Utu, umpire of the gods, and many
others are implored to “conjure it.”<a id="FNanchor_204_204" href="#Footnote_204_204" class="fnanchor">204</a></p>

<p>Professor Lenormant considers that the idea of punishment of sin
by means of disease was a dogma of a later school of Chaldæan
thought. The old religion of spirits upon which Chaldæan magic was
originally founded was independently the doctrine of the priests of
magic, so that there were two sets of priests in later Chaldæan civilization—the
old class who composed incantations to the spirits who<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">88</span>
fought with and replaced the disease-demons, and the theological
priests who urged repentance for sin as the only means of the cure of
disease.<a id="FNanchor_205_205" href="#Footnote_205_205" class="fnanchor">205</a></p>

<p>In the Accadian philosophy there was in everything a dualism of
spirits. Innumerable hosts of them caused all the phenomena of
nature, from the movements of the stars to the life and death, the health
and disease of every human being. This dualism was as marked as
that of the religion of Zoroaster; everywhere and in everything the
good spirits fought against the evil ones, discord prevailed throughout
the universe; and on this conception rested the whole theory of sacred
magic. Man’s only help against the attacks of bad spirits, and the
plagues and diseases which they brought upon him, lay in the invocation
of good spirits by means of priests, sacred rites, talismans, and
charms. These could put to flight the demons by helping the good
spirits in their constant warfare with them. Magic therefore became
a system elaborated with scientific exactness, and a vast pantheon of
gods became necessary. Hea was the great god of conjurational
magic; he was the supreme protector of men and of nature in the
war between good and evil. When neither word, nor rite, nor talisman,
nor help of the other divinities of heaven availed to help mankind,
Hea was all-powerful; and this was because, as Lenormant says,<a id="FNanchor_206_206" href="#Footnote_206_206" class="fnanchor">206</a>
Hea was alone acquainted with the awful power of the supreme name.
“Before this name everything bows in heaven and in earth and in
Hades, and it alone can conquer the <i>Maskim</i> (a species of evil demon),
and stop their ravages. The gods themselves are enthralled by this
name, and render it obedience.”</p>

<p>Images of demons were used by the Chaldæans as talismans against
the attacks of demons. In a magical hymn to the sun against sorcery
and witchcraft, and their influence on the worshipper, the sun is reminded
that the images of the bad spirits have been shut up in heaps
of corn. The invocation concludes:—</p>

<p>“May the great gods, who have created me, take my hand! Thou
who curest my face, direct my hand, direct it, lord, light of the
universe, Sun.”<a id="FNanchor_207_207" href="#Footnote_207_207" class="fnanchor">207</a></p>

<p>In a hymn composed for the cure of some disease, the priest, addressing
the god, speaks of the invalid in the third person:—</p>

<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"><div class="stanza">
  <div class="verse">“As for me, the lord has sent me, the great lord, Hea, has sent me.———</div>
  <div class="verse">Thou, at thy coming, cure the race of man, cause a ray of health to shine upon him, cure his disease.</div><span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">89</span>
  <div class="verse">The man, son of his god, is burdened with the load of his omissions and transgressions.</div>
  <div class="verse">His feet and his hands suffer cruelly, he is painfully exhausted by the disease.</div>
  <div class="verse">Sun, at the raising of my hands, come at the call, eat his food, absorb his victim, turn his weakness into strength.”<a id="FNanchor_208_208" href="#Footnote_208_208" class="fnanchor">208</a></div>
</div></div></div>

<p>In the “War of the Seven Wicked Spirits against the Moon,” we
have an incantation which was destined to cure the king of a disease
caused by the wicked spirits.<a id="FNanchor_209_209" href="#Footnote_209_209" class="fnanchor">209</a></p>

<p>In the Chaldæan creed all diseases were the work of demons. This
is why Herodotus found no physicians in Babylon and Assyria. There
was no science of medicine; “it was simply a branch of magic, and
was practised by incantations, exorcism, the use of philters and enchanted
drinks.”<a id="FNanchor_210_210" href="#Footnote_210_210" class="fnanchor">210</a></p>

<p>Of course the priests made it their business to compound their
drinks of such drugs as they had discovered to possess therapeutic
virtue. In ancient times magic and medicine were thus closely united.
It could not have been always faith alone which cured the patient, but
faith plus a little poppy juice would work wonders in many cases. It
became therefore greatly to the interest of the priests and magicians to
learn the properties of herbs, and the value of the juices and extracts
of plants. Out of evil, therefore, mankind reaped this great and valuable
knowledge. The two gravest and most fatal diseases with which the
Chaldæans were acquainted, says M. Lenormant,<a id="FNanchor_211_211" href="#Footnote_211_211" class="fnanchor">211</a> were the plague and
fever, the <i>Namtar</i> and the <i>Idpa</i>. Naturally they were represented as
two demons, the strongest and most formidable who afflict mankind.
An old fragment says:—</p>


<ul><li>The execrable <i>Idpa</i> acts upon the head of man,</li>
<li>The malevolent <i>Namtar</i> upon the life of man,</li>
<li>The malevolent <i>Utug</i> upon the forehead of man,</li>
<li>The malevolent <i>Alal</i> upon the chest of man,</li>
<li>The malevolent <i>Gigim</i> upon the bowels of man,</li>
<li>The malevolent <i>Telal</i> upon the hand of man.<a id="FNanchor_212_212" href="#Footnote_212_212" class="fnanchor">212</a></li>
</ul>


<p>The use of magic knots as a cure for diseases was firmly believed in
by the ancient Chaldees. M. Lenormant<a id="FNanchor_213_213" href="#Footnote_213_213" class="fnanchor">213</a> gives a translation of one of
the formulæ supposed to have been used against diseases of the head.</p>

<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"><div class="stanza">
  <div class="verse">Knot on the right and arrange flat in regular bands, on the left a woman’s diadem;</div>
  <div class="verse">divide it twice in seven little bands; ...</div><span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">90</span>
  <div class="verse">gird the head of the invalid with it;</div>
  <div class="verse">gird the forehead of the invalid with it;</div>
  <div class="verse">gird the seat of life with it;</div>
  <div class="verse">gird his hands and his feet;</div>
  <div class="verse">seat him on his bed;</div>
  <div class="verse">pour on him enchanted waters.</div>
  <div class="verse">Let the disease of his head be carried away into the heavens like a violent wind; ...</div>
  <div class="verse">may the earth swallow it up like passing waters!</div>
</div></div></div>

<p>Sir Henry Rawlinson has discovered that there were three classes of
Chaldæan doctors, exactly in accordance with the enumeration of the
prophet Daniel. These were the <i>Khartumim</i>, or conjurors, the <i>Chakamim</i>,
or physicians, and the <i>Asaphim</i>, or theosophists (see Daniel ii.
2; v. ii).</p>

<p>The Babylonian doctrine of disease was that the hosts of evil spirits
in the air entered man’s body, and could only be expelled by the incantations
of the exorcist. These disease-demons were addressed as “the
noxious neck spirit,” “the burning spirit of the entrails which devours
the man.” Headache was caused by evil spirits which were commanded
by the charmer to fly away “like grasshoppers” into the sky.<a id="FNanchor_214_214" href="#Footnote_214_214" class="fnanchor">214</a></p>

<p>Herodotus says of the Babylonians: “The following custom seems to
me the wisest of their institutions. They have no physicians, but when a
man is ill, they lay him in the public square, and the passers-by come up
to him, and if they have ever had his disease themselves, or have known
any one who has suffered from it, they give him advice, recommending
him to do whatever they found good in their own case, or in the case
known to them; and no one is allowed to pass the sick man in silence
without asking him what his ailment is.”<a id="FNanchor_215_215" href="#Footnote_215_215" class="fnanchor">215</a></p>

<p>A Babylonian exorcism of disease-demons has been found in the
following terms: the translation is by Prof. Sayce.<a id="FNanchor_216_216" href="#Footnote_216_216" class="fnanchor">216</a></p>

<p>“On the sick man, by means of sacrifice, may perfect health shine
like bronze; may the sun-god give this man life; may Merodach, the
eldest son of the deep, give him strength, prosperity, and health; may
the king of heaven preserve, may the king of earth preserve.”</p>

<p>A curse against a sorcerer declares that “by written spells he shall
not be delivered.”</p>

<p>The elementary spirits were supposed to be seven baleful winds,
which were considered general causes of disease. One of the formulæ<span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">91</span>
of exorcising these dreadful seven is translated by Mr. Smith from a
great collection of hymns to the gods which was compiled <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 2000.</p>

<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"><div class="stanza">
  <div class="verse">“Seven (are) they, seven (are) they.</div>
  <div class="verse">In the abyss of the deep seven (are) they.</div>
  <div class="verse">In the brightness of heaven seven (are) they.</div>
  <div class="verse">In the abyss of the deep in a palace (was) their growth.</div>
  <div class="verse">Male they (are) not, female they (are) not.</div>
  <div class="verse">Moreover the deep (is) their pathway.</div>
  <div class="verse">Wife they have not, child is not born to them.</div>
  <div class="verse">Law (and) kindness know they not.</div>
  <div class="verse">Prayer and supplication hear they not.</div>
  <div class="verse">(Among) the thorns of the mountain (was) their growth.</div>
  <div class="verse">To Hea (the god of the sea) (are) they hostile.</div>
  <div class="verse">The throne-bearers of the gods (are) they.</div>
  <div class="verse">Disturbing the watercourse in the canal are they set.</div>
  <div class="verse">Wicked (are) they, wicked (are) they.</div>
  <div class="verse">Seven (are) they, seven (are) they, seven twice again are they.”<a id="FNanchor_217_217" href="#Footnote_217_217" class="fnanchor">217</a></div>
</div></div></div>

<p>M. Lenormant gives a translation of a very long Accadian incantation
against disease-demons; it is in the form of a litany, and each verse
ends with the words:—</p>

<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"><div class="stanza">
  <div class="verse">“Spirit of the heavens, conjure it! Spirit of the earth, conjure it!”</div>
</div></div></div>

<p>There are some twenty-eight verses in all, and a great number of
diseases are mentioned. I have only space for a few of these.</p>

<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"><div class="stanza">
  <div class="verse">“Ulcers which spread, malignant ulcers.”</div>
</div></div></div>

<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"><div class="stanza">
  <div class="verse">“Disease of the bowels, the disease of the heart, the palpitation of the diseased heart,</div>
  <div class="verse">Disease of the vision, disease of the head,” etc.</div>
</div></div></div>

<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"><div class="stanza">
  <div class="verse">“Painful fever, violent fever,</div>
  <div class="verse">The fever which never leaves man,</div>
  <div class="verse">Unremitting fever,</div>
  <div class="verse">The lingering fever, malignant fever.</div>
  <div class="verse">Spirit of the heavens, conjure it,” etc., etc.</div>
</div></div></div>

<p>In the Assyrian version it seems to be hinted that the expectoration
of phthisical patients was as dangerous as our modern bacteriologists
declare it to be, for we have these words:—</p>

<p>
“The poisonous consumption which in the mouth malignantly ascends.”<a id="FNanchor_218_218" href="#Footnote_218_218" class="fnanchor">218</a><br />
</p>

<p>In the course of Layard’s excavations at Nineveh, a divining chamber
was discovered, at the entrance to which figures of the magi were
found. One of the orders of these magicians was the “Mecasphim,”
translated by Jerome and the Greeks “enchanters,” such as used
noxious herbs and drugs, the blood of victims, and the bones of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">92</span>
dead for their superstitious rites. Another class was the “Casdim,”
who were a sort of philosophers, who were exempt from all employment
except the duty of studying physic, astrology, the foretelling of future
events, the interpretation of dreams by augury, etc.<a id="FNanchor_219_219" href="#Footnote_219_219" class="fnanchor">219</a></p>

<p>The Assyrians had different demons for different diseases—some
injured the head, others attacked the hands and feet.<a id="FNanchor_220_220" href="#Footnote_220_220" class="fnanchor">220</a></p>

<p>The Assyrians believed that seven evil spirits might enter a man at
the same time; and there is a tablet which tells of the protection
afforded by a god against such demons. When the deity stands at the
sick man’s bedside, “those seven evil spirits he shall root out, and
shall expel them from his body, and those seven shall never return to
the sick man again.”<a id="FNanchor_221_221" href="#Footnote_221_221" class="fnanchor">221</a></p>

<p>“Sometimes images of the gods were brought into the sick-room,
and written texts from the holy books were put on the walls, and bound
round the sick man’s brains. Holy texts were spread out on each side
of the threshold.”<a id="FNanchor_222_222" href="#Footnote_222_222" class="fnanchor">222</a></p>

<p>In Mr. George Smith’s <i>History of Assyria from the Monuments</i>, there
is a translation of an Assyrian tablet from Assur-bani-pal’s library. The
tablet is on the charms to expel evil curses and spells. “It is supposed
in it,” says Mr. Smith, “that a man was under a curse, and Merodach,
one of the gods, seeing him next to the god Hea, his father, enquired
how to cure him. Hea, the god of wisdom, in answer related the
ceremonies and incantations for effecting his recovery, and these are
recorded in the tablet for the benefit of the faithful in after times.”</p>


<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Translation of Tablet.</span></p>


<ul><li style="margin-left: 0.5em;">1. The evil curse like a demon fixes on a man</li>
<li style="margin-left: 0.5em;">2. a raging voice over him is fixed</li>
<li style="margin-left: 0.5em;">3. an evil voice over him is fixed</li>
<li style="margin-left: 0.5em;">4. the evil curse is a great calamity</li>
<li style="margin-left: 0.5em;">5. that man the evil curse slaughters like a lamb</li>
<li style="margin-left: 0.5em;">6. his god from over him departs</li>
<li style="margin-left: 0.5em;">7. his goddess stands angry at his side</li>
<li style="margin-left: 0.5em;">8. the raging voice like a cloak covers him and bears him away</li>
<li style="margin-left: 0.5em;">9. the god Merodach saw him and</li>
<li>10. to his father Hea into the house he entered and said
<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">93</span></li>
<li>11. My father, the evil curse like a demon fixes on a man</li>
<li>12. And a second time he spake to him</li>
<li>13. To cure that man I am not able, explain to me how to do it.</li>
<li>14. Hea to his son Merodach answered</li>
<li>15. My son, thou knowest not how, I will recount to thee how to do it,</li>
<li>16. Merodach, thou knowest not how, I will reveal to thee how to do it,</li>
<li>17. What I know, thou shalt know.</li>
<li>18. Go my son Merodach.</li>
<li>19. pure — — — carry to him</li>
<li>20. that spell break, and that spell remove.</li>
<li>21. From the curse of his father</li>
<li>22. from the curse of his mother</li>
<li>23. from the curse of his elder brother</li>
<li>24. from the curse of the incantation which the man does not know</li>
<li>25. the spell in the words of the lips of the god Hea</li>
<li>26. Like a plant break</li>
<li>27. like a fruit crush</li>
<li>28. like a branch split.</li>
<li>29. For the spell the invocation of heaven may he repeat the invocation of earth may he repeat</li>
<li>30. Thus: Like unto this plant which is broken may be the spell.</li>
<li>31. In the burning flames it burns</li>
<li>32. in fragments it shall not be collected</li>
<li>33. together or divided it shall not be used</li>
<li>34. its fragments the earth shall not take</li>
<li>35. its seeds shall not produce and the sun shall not raise them</li>
<li>36. for the festival of god and king it shall not be used</li>
<li>37. — — — — — — — — — — — — —</li>
<li>38. the evil invocation, the finger pointing, the marking, the cursing, the sinning,</li>
<li>39. the evil which in my body, my limbs and my teeth is fixed,</li>
<li>40. like this plant may it be broken and</li>
<li>41. in this day may the burning flames consume,</li>
<li>42. may it drive out the spell and I shall be free</li>
<li>43. Thus: Like unto this fruit which is crushed may be the spell,</li>
<li>44. in the burning flames it burns</li>
<li>45. to its severed stalk it shall not return</li>
<li>46. for the banquet of god and king it shall not be used</li>
<li>47. — — — — — — — — — — — — —
<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">94</span>48. the evil invocation, the finger pointing, the marking, the cursing, the sinning.</li>
<li>49. the evil which in my body, my limbs and my teeth is fixed</li>
<li>50. like this fruit may it be crushed and</li>
<li>51. in this day may the burning flames consume,</li>
<li>52. may it drive out the spell and I shall be free</li>
<li>53. Thus: Like unto this branch which is split may be the spell,</li>
<li>54. in the burning flames it burns</li>
<li>55. its fibres to the trunk shall not return</li>
<li>56. to satisfy a wish it shall not come</li>
<li>57. — — — — — — — — — — — — —</li>
<li>58. the evil invocation, the finger pointing, the marking, the cursing, the sinning.</li>
<li>59. the evil which in my body, my limbs and my teeth is fixed</li>
<li>60. like this branch may it be split and</li>
<li>61. in this day may the burning flames consume_</li>
<li>62. may it drive out the spell and I shall be free</li>
<li>63. Thus: Like unto this wool which is torn may be the spell,</li>
<li>64. in the burning flames it burns</li>
<li>65. to the back of the sheep it shall not return</li>
<li>66. for the clothing of god and king it shall not be used</li>
<li>67. — — — — — — — — — — — — —</li>
<li>68. the evil invocation, the finger pointing, the marking, the cursing, the sinning.</li>
<li>69. the evil which in my body, my limbs and my teeth is fixed</li>
<li>70. like this wool may it be torn and</li>
<li>71. in this day may the burning flames consume</li>
<li>72. may it drive out the spell and I shall be free</li>
<li>73. Thus: Like unto this flag which is torn may be the spell,</li>
<li>74. in the burning flames it burns</li>
<li>75. on to its mast it shall not return</li>
<li>76. to satisfy a wish it shall not come</li>
<li>77. — — — — — — — — — — — — —</li>
<li>78. the evil invocation, the finger pointing, the marking, the cursing, the sinning.</li>
<li>79. the evil which in my body, my limbs and my teeth is fixed</li>
<li>80. like this flag may it be torn and</li>
<li>81. in this day may the burning flames consume</li>
<li>82. may it drive out the spell and I shall be free</li>
<li>83. Thus: Like unto this thread which is broken may be the spell,</li>
<li>84. in the burning flames it burns</li>
<li>85. the weaver into a cloak shall not weave it</li>
<li>86. for the clothing of god and king it shall not be used</li>
<li><span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">95</span>87. — — — — — — — — — — — — —</li>
<li>88. the evil invocation, the finger pointing, the marking, the cursing, the sinning.</li>
<li>89. the evil which in my body, my limbs and my teeth is fixed.</li>
<li>90. like this thread may it be broken and</li>
<li>91. in this day may the burning flames consume</li>
<li>92. may it drive out the spell and I shall be free.</li>
</ul>


<p>The image of Hea placed in the doorway kept away the disease-demons.</p>

<p>In the Babylonian and Assyrian rooms of the British Museum there
is a collection of bowls inscribed with charms in Chaldee, Syriac, and
Mandaitie. It is supposed that they were used by sick persons, who
drank their physic from them, trusting that it would thereby be more
efficacious. As they drank they recited the formulæ and names of the
archangels, Michael, Raphael, Ariel, Shaltiel, Malkiel, etc., which were
inscribed upon them. The catalogue says that the earliest of these
bowls were made about <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 200. Many are from Tell-Ibrahim
(Cutha). It may be mentioned in this connection that Catholics frequently
make the sign of the cross over medicinal potions before taking
them.</p>

<p>The origin of the Sabbath as a day of cessation from all labour is
evidently Accadian. In the following translation of an Assyrian tablet<a id="FNanchor_223_223" href="#Footnote_223_223" class="fnanchor">223</a>
we find the Sabbatarian principle in full force.</p>

<p>“The seventh day, feast of Merodach and Zir: Panibu, a great
feast, a day of rest. The prince of the people will eat neither the flesh
of birds nor cooked fruits. He will not change his clothing. He will
put on no white robe. He will bring no offering. The king will not
ascend into his chariot. He will not perform his duties as royal law-giver.
In a garrison city the commander will permit no proclamations
to his soldiers. The art of the physician will not be practised.”
This is another proof that the Jews derived many of their religious
customs from the Assyrians and Accadians. The Assyrian Sabbath
was evidently observed as strictly as under the Mosaic code. It is
curious to note that the physician was not permitted to exercise his
merciful calling on that day, and it throws light on the objection of the
Jews to Christ that it was not lawful to heal on the Sabbath-day.</p>

<hr class="chap" />
<div class="chapter"></div>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">96</span></p>




<h3 id="CHAPTERII_IV">CHAPTER IV.<br />

<small>THE MEDICINE OF THE HINDUS.</small></h3>

<blockquote>

<p>The Aryans.—Hindu Philosophy.—The Vedas.—The Shastres of Charaka and
Susruta.—Code of Menu.—The Brahmans.—Medical Practitioners.—Strabo on
the Hindu Philosophers.—Charms.—Buddhism and Medicine.—Jíwaka,
Buddha’s Physician.—The Pulse.—Knowledge of Anatomy and Surgery in
Ancient Times.—Surgical Instruments.—Decadence of Hindu Medical Science.—Goddesses
of Disease.—Origin of Hospitals in India.</p></blockquote>


<p>The Hindus are considered by Max Müller to be much older even
as regards their civilization than the Egyptians. This belief is based
on his study of their language, which he says existed “before there
was a single Greek statue, a single Babylonian bull, or a single Egyptian
sphinx.” According to him, the noble Indo-Germanic or Aryan people,
from whom have descended the Brahman, the Rájput, and the Englishman,
had their earliest home, not in Hindustan, but in Central Asia.
(Max Müller’s theory is now superseded by anthropological researches
so far as the Europeans are concerned.) This splendid race drove
before them into the mountains or reduced to slavery the <i>Dasyus</i>,
the obscure aborigines, the non-Aryan primæval peoples. The earliest
Aryan poets composed the <i>Rig-Veda</i> at least three thousand, perhaps
even four thousand years ago. The handsome Aryan fair-complexioned
conquerors spoke with the utmost contempt of “the noseless” or
“flat-nosed” Mongolian aborigines, who, in the Vedic poems, from
being “gross feeders on flesh,” “lawless,” “non-sacrificing” tribes, were
afterwards described as “monsters” and “demons.”<a id="FNanchor_224_224" href="#Footnote_224_224" class="fnanchor">224</a></p>

<p>It is necessary, if we wish to understand the principles of Hindu
medicine, to glance at the philosophy and religion of the Brahmans and
Buddhists. The Aryan conquerors descending through the Himalayas
were a sober, industrious, courageous people, who lived a pastoral life,
and knowing nothing of the enervating attractions of great cities, required
no other medical treatment than simple folk medicine everywhere
affords. Their earliest literature is found in the “Vedic Hymns,”
the “Sacred Books of the Hindus,” which were composed by the
wisest and best of the men, who were warriors and husbandmen, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">97</span>
the priests and physicians of their own households. They gradually
acquired priestly supremacy over a wider range. Thus arose the
Brahmans, the “Offerers of Potent Prayer.” The <i>Rig-Veda</i> refers to
physicians, and speaks of the healing power of medicinal herbs; and
the <i>Atharva-Veda</i> contains an invocation against the fever-demon, so
that medical matters began very early to receive attention after the
conquest of India by the Aryans.</p>

<p>“Hinduism,” says Professor Monier Williams, “is a creed which
may be expressed by the two words, spiritual pantheism.”<a id="FNanchor_225_225" href="#Footnote_225_225" class="fnanchor">225</a> Of all
beliefs this is the simplest. Nothing really exists but the One Universal
Spirit; man’s soul is identical with that Spirit. Separate existence
apart from the Supreme is mere illusion; consequently every man’s
highest aim should be to get rid for ever of doing, having, and being,
and strive to consider himself a part of the One Spirit. This in a
few words is esoteric Hinduism. When we attempt to study the endless
ramifications of the exoteric, or popular belief, the system, so
far from being simple, is infinitely complicated. God may amuse
Himself by illusory appearances. Light in the rainbow is one, but it
manifests itself variously. All material objects, and the gods, demons,
good and evil spirits, men, and animals are emanations from the One
Universal Spirit; though temporarily they exist apart from him, they
will all ultimately be reabsorbed into their source. In the Sanskrit
language, which is the repository of <i>Veda</i>, or “knowledge,” we have
the vehicle of Hindu philosophy. The systems of Hindu philosophy
which grew out of the third division of the <i>Vedas</i>, called the
<i>Upanishads</i>, are six, and are given in Professor Monier Williams’ work
already referred to as—</p>


<ul><li>1. The Nyāya, founded by Gotama.</li>
<li>2. The Vais’eshika, by Kanāda.</li>
<li>3. The Sānkhya, by Kapila.</li>
<li>4. The Yoga, by Pantanjali.</li>
<li>5. The Mīmānsā, by Jaimini.</li>
<li>6. The Vedānta, by Bādarāyana or Vyāsa.</li>
</ul>

<p>We know neither the dates of these systems, nor which of them
preceded the other.</p>

<p>Oriental scholars tell us that, 500 years before Christ, in India, China,
Greece, and Persia men began to formulate philosophical systems of
religious belief, and to elaborate scientific ideas of the world in which
they lived. Williams considers the <i>Vais’eshika</i> system of philosophy
the most interesting of all the systems, from the parallels it offers to
European philosophical ideas. This system goes more correctly than<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">98</span>
the others into the qualities of all substances. It is therefore more
scientific, as we should say. It is most interesting to discover how
nearly the doctrine of the atoms approaches our Western teaching.
The following is Professor Williams’ account of these views:—</p>

<p>“First, then, as to the formation of the world, this is supposed to
be effected by the aggregation of <i>Anus</i>, or ‘Atoms.’ These are innumerable
and eternal, and are eternally aggregated, disintegrated, and
re-integrated by the power of Adrishta. According to the Kanādas
Sūtras, an atom is ‘something existing, having no cause, eternal.’
They are, moreover, described as less than the least, invisible, intangible,
indivisible, imperceptible by the senses, and as having each
of them a <i>Vis’esha</i> or eternal essence of its own. The combination
of these atoms is first into an aggregate of two, called <i>Duy-anuka</i>.
Three of them, again, are supposed to combine into a <i>Trasa-renu</i>,
which, like a mote in a sunbeam, has just magnitude enough to be
perceptible.”<a id="FNanchor_226_226" href="#Footnote_226_226" class="fnanchor">226</a></p>

<p>In the Sānkhya philosophy we find something very like Darwinism.
“There cannot be the production of something out of nothing; that
which is not cannot be developed into that which is. The production
of what does not already exist (potentially) is impossible, like a horn
on a man; because there must of necessity be a material out of which
a product is developed; and because everything cannot occur everywhere
at all times; and because anything possible must be produced
from something competent to produce it.” (<i>Aphorisms</i>, i. 78, 114-117).<a id="FNanchor_227_227" href="#Footnote_227_227" class="fnanchor">227</a></p>

<p>The <i>Upa-Vedas</i>, or secondary <i>Vedas</i>, treat of various sciences, one
of which, <i>Ayur-Veda</i>, is the “science of life,” or medicine. By some
this is considered to belong to the <i>Atharva-Veda</i>; by others to the
<i>Rig-Veda</i>. By <i>Ayur-Veda</i> we are to understand something derived
immediately from the gods. The supplementary revelation known as
<i>Upa-Vedas</i> dates about 350 <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>, and there we find Brahmanical
medicine already developing.<a id="FNanchor_228_228" href="#Footnote_228_228" class="fnanchor">228</a></p>

<p>“Of all ancient nations,” says Elphinstone, “the Egyptians are the
one whom the Hindus seem most to have resembled.”<a id="FNanchor_229_229" href="#Footnote_229_229" class="fnanchor">229</a></p>

<p>There is good reason for believing that the ancient Greeks derived
much of their philosophy and religion from the Egyptians, who seem
in their turn to have taken both in great measure from India. Says
Elphinstone:<span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">99</span> “It is impossible not to be struck with the identity of
the topics discussed by the Hindu philosophers with those which
engaged the attention of the same class in ancient Greece, and with
the similarity between the doctrines of schools subsisting in regions of
the earth so remote from each other.”<a id="FNanchor_230_230" href="#Footnote_230_230" class="fnanchor">230</a></p>

<p>Here we find the doctrines of the eternity of matter, the derivation
of all souls from God and their return to Him, the doctrine of atoms
and a whole system similar to that of Pythagoras. The Greek philosopher
taught that intermediate between God and mankind are a host
of aerial beings who exercise various influences on the condition of
mankind and the affairs of the world. Enfield<a id="FNanchor_231_231" href="#Footnote_231_231" class="fnanchor">231</a> and Stanley<a id="FNanchor_232_232" href="#Footnote_232_232" class="fnanchor">232</a> say that
Pythagoras learned his doctrine from the Magi or Oriental philosophers.</p>

<p>Max Müller says that Zarathustra and his followers, the Zoroastrians,
had been settled in India before they immigrated into Persia. “That
the Zoroastrians and their ancestors started from India during the
Vaidik period, can be proved as distinctly as that the inhabitants of
Massilia started from Greece.... Many of the gods of the Zoroastrians
come out ... as mere reflections and deflections of the
primitive and authentic gods of <i>Veda</i>.”<a id="FNanchor_233_233" href="#Footnote_233_233" class="fnanchor">233</a></p>

<p>The Hindus say that when their four immortal Vedas, named Rig,
Yajur, Sáma, and Atharva, were originally given to man by Brahma,
there was no disease or sin; but when mankind fell away from this
virtuous and happy state, life was shortened and disease introduced.
Brahma, in his compassion for the sufferings of mankind, then gave a
second class of sacred books, the <i>Upavédas</i>; one of these, named
<i>Ayur-Veda</i>, treats of the prevention and cure of diseases. Some say
this work really came from Siva; it is the sacred medical authority of
the Hindus, and is of the highest antiquity. It was originally of great
length, but Brahma in mercy to mankind shortened it. Fragments now
only remain, and these in the works of commentators. Two divisions
treat of surgery. 1st, <i>Salya</i> treats of the surgery of the removal of
foreign bodies, pus, and the dead child from the uterus; of healing
wounds caused by knives, etc.; of bandaging, operations, blistering,
and the treatment of abscesses and inflammations. 2nd, <i>Sálákya</i> treats
of diseases of the eyes, ears, mouth, and nose. 3rd, <i>Káyachikitsá</i>
describes diseases affecting the whole body, as fevers, dysentery, etc.
This section may be considered as constituting the practice of medicine.
4th, <i>Bhutavidya</i> deals with the art of restoring the deranged faculties
of the mind produced by demoniacal possession, as by the anger of
the gods, devils, giants, or spirits of dead men. They can only be
removed by prayers, medicines, ablution, and offerings to the offended
deity. 5th, <i>Kaumárabhritya</i> comprises the treatment of infants and
such diseases as in them were caused by the displeasure of demons.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">100</span>
6th, <i>Agadatantra</i> is concerned with the administration of antidotes.
7th, <i>Rasáyanatantra</i> treats of the medicines proper for restoring youth,
beauty, and happiness; it embraced chemistry or alchemy, and its
intention was to discover the universal medicine. 8th, <i>Vájíkaranatantra</i>
deals with the best means of increasing the human race: an
illusory research, which, like the search for the elixir of life, has even
in modern times occupied the attention of physicians. The sacred
<i>Ayur-Veda</i> contained a description of the structure of the human body
as learned from dissection, and a complete system of preventive and
curative medicine.</p>

<p>In the Shastres (Charaka, Susruta), we learn that the <i>Ashwins</i>, or
offspring of the Sun (Surja), were the physicians of the gods; they
wrote books on medicine, and wrought wonderful cures. When the
fifth head of Brahma was cut off by Bayraba, it was united again by
the <i>Ashwins</i>, so skilled were they in surgery. They also cured the
wounds which the gods received in the battle with the giants. They
healed also the paralysed arm of Indra. When mankind became
wicked, and consequently diseased, <i>Bharadwaja</i> went to Indra in
heaven to acquire a knowledge of medicine, and the thousand-eyed
god taught him the healing art. With this knowledge the sage <i>Bharadwaja</i>
returned to earth, and taught the <i>Rishis</i> the principles he had
acquired. So the sages learned to distinguish diseases and the
medicines suitable for their cure; they lived to a very great age, writing
books called by their own names. <i>Charaka</i> became the instructor
of practitioners upon earth, and his is the most ancient and famous
work on Hindu medicine. Charaka, whom we may term the Hindu
Hippocrates, flourished at Benares, probably about <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 320. The
most celebrated and ancient collection of Hindu laws and precepts
is that which is known as “the Code of Menu,” or “Institutes of
Menu.” It is probably the oldest and most sacred Sanskrit work after
the Veda and its Sutras, and presents us with a faithful picture of the
customs and institutions of the Hindus.</p>

<p>The Code of Menu lays it down that diseases are the consequences
of sinful acts in previous states of existence.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">101</span> “Men of evil manners
receive an alteration of form, some through evil (deeds) committed
(by them) in this life, some also through (acts) formerly committed. A
thief of gold (receives) the disease of bad nails; a drinker of intoxicating
liquor (the disease of) black teeth; a slayer of a Brahman, consumption;
he who violates the couch of the Guru, a skin disease; a slanderer, a
foul-smelling nose; a false informer, a foul-smelling mouth; a stealer of
grain, the loss of a limb, and one who mixes (grain) a superfluity (of
limbs); one who takes food, dyspepsia; a thief of the voice, dumbness;
a thief of clothes, leprosy; a horse-thief, lameness; a stealer of a lamp
would (in the next birth) become blind; an extinguisher (of a lamp), one-eyed;
by (committing) injury (one would get) a condition of disease;
by not (committing) injury, the condition of not being diseased. Thus,
according to the difference in their acts, (men who are) blamed by the
good are born dull, dumb, blind, and deformed in appearance. Regularly,
then, penance should be practised for purification, since those
whose sins have not (thus) been done away with are (re)born with
(these) disgraceful marks attached.”<a id="FNanchor_234_234" href="#Footnote_234_234" class="fnanchor">234</a></p>

<p>Physicians are referred to several times in the <i>Ordinances of Menu</i>.
In Lect. iv. 179 we are advised that “we should never have a dispute
with a physician.” We are to avoid eating the “food of a physician and
hunter, if a cruel man,” etc. (Lect. iv. 212). “The food of a physician
is pus” (<i>Ibid.</i> 220). In Lect. ix. 284, “A fine (is set) for all physicians
treating (a case) incorrectly: in (the case of creatures) not
human (this is) the first, but in (the case of) human beings the medium
(fine).”<a id="FNanchor_235_235" href="#Footnote_235_235" class="fnanchor">235</a></p>

<p>The Brahmans believed there was a remedy for every disease, in
consequence of which they made a very careful examination of the vegetable
kingdom, and so discovered a great number of medicines. If a
medicine were efficacious in curing the patient, they invariably supposed
it was due to the sanctity of the individual, and the divine pleasure
which endowed him with it. It is therefore exceedingly difficult to
obtain information, as it is believed that the medicine would lose its
effect if the secret of the cure were divulged to others. From these
selfish motives, the knowledge of the properties of many valuable
remedies have been lost. Dr. Wise says, according to the Brahmans,
there are nine secrets which should not be revealed to any one: these
are the age of a person; his wealth; family occurrences; his bad actions,
or those which reflect shame or dishonour upon him; his relations with
his wife; his prayers to his tutelar gods; his charities; and the virtues
of nostrums, the ingredients of which are known to him.</p>

<p>Yet priests, says Baas, from the Brahman caste, and the sub-castes,
the Vaisya and Vaidya, officiated for a long time as teachers of medicine<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">102</span>
and as physicians. The Vaidyas, as the higher of the two sub-castes,
included the physicians proper; while the Vaisyas, or lower caste,
furnished nurses.<a id="FNanchor_238_238" href="#Footnote_238_238" class="fnanchor">238</a></p>

<p>When Buddhism passed into modern Hinduism (750-1000 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span>)
the rules of caste became stricter, and the old fetters were reimposed,
and the Brahmans returned to their ancient principles which forbade
them to contaminate themselves with blood or morbid matter; they
withdrew from all practice of medicine, and left it entirely to the
Vaidyas. After a time these also shrank from touching dead bodies.
Then public hospitals were abolished when Buddhism fell. The
Mohammedan conquests which began about 1000 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> introduced
foreign practitioners of physic, who derived their knowledge from
Arabic translations of Sanskrit medical classics and monopolised the
patronage of the Mohammedan aristocracy.<a id="FNanchor_239_239" href="#Footnote_239_239" class="fnanchor">239</a></p>

<p>The only remains of the Buddhist hospitals now existing are the
various institutions for animals, supported principally by the Jains, a
sort of Protestants against Brahmanism.<a id="FNanchor_240_240" href="#Footnote_240_240" class="fnanchor">240</a></p>

<p>The Mohammedan medical practitioners were called “Hukeems,”
who followed the principles of Arabian medicine derived from Greek
sources. As a rule these practitioners only attended on nobles and
chiefs. There is no evidence even that the Mohammedan invaders
employed medical men for their armies.<a id="FNanchor_241_241" href="#Footnote_241_241" class="fnanchor">241</a></p>

<p>Dr. Benjamin Heyne, in his <i>Tracts on India</i>, says,<a id="FNanchor_242_242" href="#Footnote_242_242" class="fnanchor">242</a>—</p>

<p>“The medical works of the Hindus are neither to be regarded as
miraculous productions of wisdom, nor as repositories of nonsense.
Their practical principles, as far as I can judge, are very similar to our
own; and even their theories may be reconciled with ours, if we make
allowance for their ignorance of anatomy, and the imperfections of
their physiological speculations.”</p>

<p>In surgery they attained to high proficiency, and our modern
surgeons have even been able to borrow from them the operation of
rhinoplasty.<a id="FNanchor_243_243" href="#Footnote_243_243" class="fnanchor">243</a></p>

<p>Concerning the medicinal properties of minerals (stones and metals),
plants, animal substances, and the chemical analysis and decomposition
of these, we have also learned much that is extremely valuable from
the Hindus. Their <i>Materia Medica</i> is so important, and has played
so large a part in Western medical science, that we cannot afford to
despise it, though the Hindus have contributed so little to the study
of natural science.<a id="FNanchor_244_244" href="#Footnote_244_244" class="fnanchor">244</a> Veterinary medicine, so far as the diseases of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">103</span>
horses and elephants are concerned, has received special attention
from the Hindus.</p>

<p>Charaka counsels youths who desire to study medicine to “seek a
teacher whose precepts are sound and whose practical skill is generally
approved, who is clever, dexterous, upright, and blameless; who knows
also how to use his hands, has the requisite appliances, and all his
senses about him; is confident with simple cases, and sure of his treatment
in difficult ones; of genuine learning, unaffected, not morose or
passionate, patient and kind to his pupils.” The pupils should spring
from a family of doctors, and should have lost none of their limbs
and none of their senses. “They are to be taught to be chaste and
temperate, to speak the truth, to obey their teacher in all things, and
to wear a beard.” They are advised to read medical treatises, attend
to the personal instruction of their teacher, and to associate with
other doctors. When the doctor visits his patient he should wear good
clothes, incline his head, be thoughtful but of firm bearing, and observe
all possible respect. Once within the house, word, thought, and
attention should be directed to nothing else than the examination of
the patient and all that concerns his case. He must not be a boaster.
“Many recoil even from a man of skill if he loves to boast.” As
medicine is difficult to learn, the doctor must practise carefully and
incessantly. He must seek every opportunity for conversation with a
colleague. This will remove doubts, if he have them, and fortify his
opinion.</p>

<p>When an operation is decided on, a fortunate moment, says Dr. Wise,
is to be selected, and the Brahmans and the surgeons are to be
“propitiated” with gifts. The operating room is to be clean and well
lighted, milk, oil, herbs, hot and cold water are to be at hand, and
strong attendants to hold the patient. The knife should be wet with
water before being used. The sky must be clear, and the time should
be near the new moon. The surgeon must be strong and a rapid
operator, and he must neither perspire, shake, nor make exclamations.
The palms of the hands and soles of the feet, vessels, tendons, joints,
and bones are to be avoided. During the operation, care must be
taken to keep a fire burning in the patient’s room, on which sweet-scented
substances are to be burnt, in order to prevent devils entering
the patient by the wound made by the surgeon. After the operation
holy water is to be sprinkled on the sufferer, and prayer addressed to
Brahma. The bandages are to remain till the third day, and clean ones
substituted.<a id="FNanchor_245_245" href="#Footnote_245_245" class="fnanchor">245</a></p>

<p>Susruta was the son of <i>Visámitra</i>, a contemporary of Rama, and was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">104</span>
chosen by Dhanwantari, who was the Hindu Æsculapius, to abridge the
Ayur-Veda for the cure of diseases and the preservation of the health,
so that it might be more easily committed to memory. Susruta’s book
is still preserved, and after Charaka’s it is the oldest book on medicine
which the Hindus possess. Surgery was considered by Susruta to be
“the first and best of the medical sciences; less liable than any other
to the fallacies of conjectural and inferential practice; pure in itself,
perpetual in its applicability; the worthy produce of heaven, and certain
source of fame.”</p>

<p>Wise says,<a id="FNanchor_246_246" href="#Footnote_246_246" class="fnanchor">246</a> “Dhanwantari asked his pupils, On what shall I first
lecture? They answered, On surgery; because formerly there were no
diseases among the gods, and wounds were the first injuries which
required treatment. Besides, the practice of surgery is more respected,
as affording immediate relief, and is connected with the practice of
medicine; although the latter has no connection with surgery.” This
was agreed to; and we find the explanation of the eight parts of Ayur-Veda,
in six books of Susruta, as follows:—</p>

<p>1st. Surgery (Sútra Sthána), in which is considered the origin of
medicine; the rules of teaching, the duty of practitioners, the selection
and uses of instruments and medicines, the influence of the weather on
health, and the practice to be followed after surgical operations. Then
follows the description of the diseases of the humours and surgical
diseases; the restoration of defective ears and noses; and the removal
of extraneous substances which have entered the body; the different
stages of inflammation, with their treatment; different forms of wounds
and ulcers, and the regimen of patients labouring under surgical
diseases; the description of good and bad diet; of prognosis; the kind
of messengers to be employed by the sick; and of diseases produced by
the deranged actions of the senses, and of incurable diseases. Then
follows the preparations required for accompanying a rajah in war, the
duty of practitioners, the difference of climates, the different classes
of medicines according to their sensible qualities, a description of the
fluids, and of the different preparations, and articles of food. These
subjects are treated of in thirty-six chapters.</p>

<p>2nd. Nosology (Nidána Sthána). The description and diagnosis of
diseases produced by vitiated humous, or derangements of blood, bile,
wind, and phlegm; the symptoms and causes of rheumatic diseases, of
piles, of stone, fistula-in-ano, leprosy, diabetes, gonorrhœa, and ascites;
the symptoms of unnatural presentations in midwifery, large internal
abscesses, erysipelas, scrofula, hydrocele, venereal diseases, and diseases
of the mouth. These subjects are considered in sixteen chapters.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">105</span></p>

<p>3rd. Anatomy (Saríra Sthána), or structure of the body. The description
of the soul, and the elementary parts of the body; of puberty;
of conception; of the growth of the different parts of the body; of
bleeding; of the treatment of pregnancy, and of infants. This division
has ten chapters.</p>

<p>4th. Therapeutics (Chikitsa Sthána), in which the exhibition of
medicines, the history of inflammations, the treatment of fractures,
rheumatic diseases, piles, fistula-in-ano, leprosy, diabetes, and dropsy are
given; the manner of extracting the child in unusual positions, the
remedies for restoring health and strength, and for prolonging life; the
means of preventing diseases; the use of clysters, and of errhines, and
the use of the smoke of different substances. These are considered in
forty chapters.</p>

<p>5th. Toxicology (Kalpa Sthána). The means of distinguishing
poisoned food, and descriptions of different mineral, vegetable, and
animal poisons, with their antidotes, is given under this head. This
division is treated of in eight chapters.</p>

<p>6th. The supplementary section, Locales (Uttara Sthána), includes
various local diseases; as those of the eye, nose, ears and head, with
their treatment; the symptoms and treatment of fever, and its varieties;
dysentery, consumption; <i>gulma</i>; diseases of the heart; jaundice;
discharges of blood, and fainting. This is followed by the treatment of
intoxication, of cough, hiccough, asthma, hoarseness of voice, worms,
stercoraceous vomiting, cholera, dyspepsia, and dysuria. It also treats
of madness, epilepsy, apoplexy; the different tastes of substances, with
their effects; the means of retaining health, and the different opinions
of practitioners regarding the humours. These subjects are treated
in sixty-six chapters.</p>

<p>According to Susruta a pupil had to be initiated into the Science of
Medicine. “A medical man should initiate a pupil who is either a
Brahmana, Kshatriya, or Vaishya, the members of whose body are
sound, of an amiable disposition, active, well-conducted, mild, healthy,
vigorous, talented, courageous, of a retentive memory, good judgment
and rank, whose tooth-ends, tongue, and lips are small, whose eyes, nose,
and mouth are straight, of a pleasant mind, talk, and behaviour, and
able to bear fatigue; other such should not be initiated.”</p>

<p>Many ceremonies follow; an altar is to be erected having four angles
in some conspicuous direction, which is to be washed with infusion of
cow-dung and spread with kúsa grass; precious stones and rice are to be
scattered upon it, and a fire is to be kindled with a number of
precious woods, an oblation of ghee is to be made, and the mystic
words Bhúr Bhuvah Svar and Om are to be said.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">106</span> “After this hail
each divinity (Brahma, Agni, Dhanvantari, Prajápati, Asvins, and
Indra) and each Sage (the Rishis), and make the pupil do the same.”</p>

<p>Stenzler and others have thought it possible that Susruta borrowed
his system of medicine largely from the Greeks, and they say that so
far as chronology is affected by it there would be nothing surprising
in the circumstance. But Weber asserts<a id="FNanchor_247_247" href="#Footnote_247_247" class="fnanchor">247</a> that no grounds whatever
exist for this supposition; on the contrary, there is much to tell against
such an idea. None of the contemporaries of Susruta has a name
with a foreign sound, and the cultivation of medicine is assigned by
Susruta and other writers to the city of Benares. The weights and measures
to be employed by the physician are those of the eastern provinces,
which never came into close contact with the Greeks, and it was first
in these parts where medicine received its special cultivation.</p>

<p>In the general treatment of disease, the Hindus paid great attention
to diet, so as to promote the just balance of the elements and humours,
as they considered that the generality of diseases are produced by
derangements in the humours. Many of their statements on dietetics
show a keen observation. If management of diet failed to cure the
disorder, the patient was directed to abstain from food altogether for a
time. Should this also fail, recourse was had to ejecting the corrupted
humours by emetics, purgatives, or bleeding. Even the healthy were
advised to take an emetic once a fortnight, a purgative once a month,
and to be bled twice a year at the change of the seasons. The Hindus
observed the “critical days” which have long been recognised by physicians
everywhere. Pythagoras says the Egyptians observed them, and
Hippocrates employed the term κρασις when the humoral pathology
was in vogue. The Hindus thought that all diseases divide naturally
into two classes of the sthenic and asthenic types. In the one there was
excess, in the other deficiency of excitement. Health consists in a
happy medium. All the Asiatic nations hold this opinion. Their
remedies consequently were stimulating or cooling, as the type of the
malady demanded. Pepper, bitters, and purgatives were stimulants.
Stomachics, as <i>chiraitá</i>, paun mixed with lime, bathing and cold were
cooling remedies.<a id="FNanchor_248_248" href="#Footnote_248_248" class="fnanchor">248</a></p>

<p>The sages of antiquity have handed down to us the qualities which
constitute a good physician. He must be strictly truthful, and of the
greatest sobriety and decorum; he must have no dealings with any women
but his own wife; he must be a man of sense and benevolence, of a
charitable heart, and of a calm temper, constantly studying how to do
good. Such a man is a good physician if, in addition to this, he constantly
endeavours to improve his mind by the study of good books.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">107</span>
He is not to be peevish with an irritable patient; he must be courageous
and hopeful to the last day of his patient’s life; always frank, communicative,
and impartial, he is yet to be rigid in seeing that his orders are
carried out.</p>

<p>Hindu physicians make their prognosis a strong point in their practice;
there are, they say, certain signs which to the experienced eye enable
the doctor to prognosticate the favourable or fatal termination of a
disorder. And in the first place a good deal is to be learned from the
messenger who summons him to the patient, and so he notes his
appearance, his dress, his manner of speaking; he notes the time of
day and other circumstances, as these are all considered to have an
influence on the result of the illness. It is considered unfavourable if
many people follow each other to call the doctor. If the messenger
sees a man arrive riding on an ass, or if he has a stick, string, or fruit
in his hand, if he is dressed in red, black, or net clothes, if he sneezes,
is deformed, agitated, crying, or scratching himself,—all these are bad
signs. Not less so is it unfavourable when the physician is called
at noonday or midnight, when he has his face turned towards the
south, when he is eating, or when he is asleep or fatigued.<a id="FNanchor_249_249" href="#Footnote_249_249" class="fnanchor">249</a></p>

<p>When the doctor arrives at the bedside, it is an unfavourable sign
if the patient rubs one hand against another, scratches his back, or
constantly moves his head. There are eight most severe forms of
disease—the nervous class, tetanus and paralysis; leprosy; piles, fistula-in-ano,
stone; unnatural presentations in labour; and dropsy of the
abdomen. These are cured with great difficulty, say the Hindus.</p>

<p>It is a good sign when the patient’s voice remains unaltered, when he
awakes from sleep without starting, when he remains cool after food,
and when he does not forget his god, but is prayerful and resigned.</p>

<p>“When the messenger finds the physician sitting in a clean place,
with his face towards the east, and the messenger has in his hands
a water-pot full of water, with an umbrella, they are favourable
signs.”</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">108</span></p>
<p>“In Ceylon it is affirmed by the Shastree Brahmans that the Science
of Medicine was communicated by <i>Măhă Brăhma</i> to the <i>Brăhma
Dăkshă Prajapatí</i>; by <i>Prajapatí</i> it was communicated to the <i>Aswins</i>
(the physicians of heaven): the two <i>Aswins</i> communicated it to <i>Satora</i>,
the chief of the gods inhabiting the six lower heavens, by whom it was
communicated to the nine sages, mentioned, on their going to him
with one accord to seek a remedy for the evils brought upon mankind
by their iniquities; they communicated it to the King of Casi (<i>Benares</i>),
whose descendants caused it to be committed to writing.”<a id="FNanchor_250_250" href="#Footnote_250_250" class="fnanchor">250</a></p>

<p>Arrianus, in his history of Alexander’s expedition to India, says that
“speckled snakes of a wonderful size and swiftness” are found in that
country, and that “The Grecian physicians found no remedy against
the bite of these snakes; but the Indians cured those who happened to
fall under that misfortune; for which reason, Nearchus tells us, Alexander
having all the most skilful Indians about his person, caused proclamation
to be made throughout the camp that whoever was bit by
one of these snakes, should forthwith repair to the royal pavilion for
cure. These physicians also cure other diseases; but as they have a
very temperate clime, the inhabitants are not subject to many. However,
if any among them feel themselves much indisposed, they apply
themselves to their sophists, who by wonderful, and even more than
human means, cure whatever will admit of it.”<a id="FNanchor_251_251" href="#Footnote_251_251" class="fnanchor">251</a></p>

<p>Strabo speaks of the Hindu philosophers or sages, and the physicians.
“Of the Garmanes, the most honourable,” he says, “are the Hylobii,
who live in the forests, and subsist on leaves and wild fruits; they are
clothed with garments made of the bark of trees, and abstain from commerce
with women and from wine. The kings hold communication
with them by messengers concerning the causes of things, and through
them worship and supplicate the Divinity. Second in honour to the
Hylobii are the physicians, for they apply philosophy to the study of
the nature of man. They are of frugal habits, but do not live in the
fields, and subsist upon rice and bread, which every one gives when
asked, and receive them hospitably. They are able to cause persons to
have a numerous offspring, and to have either male or female children,
by means of charms. They cure diseases by diet, rather than by medicinal
remedies. Among the latter, the most in repute are ointments
and plasters. All others they suppose partake greatly of a noxious
nature.”<a id="FNanchor_252_252" href="#Footnote_252_252" class="fnanchor">252</a> They had enchanters and diviners versed in the arts of
magic, who went about the villages and towns begging.</p>

<p>Arrianus said of the Hindus that their women were deemed marriageable
at seven years of age; but the men, not till they arrive at the age
of forty.<a id="FNanchor_253_253" href="#Footnote_253_253" class="fnanchor">253</a></p>

<p>Many charms, imprecations, and other superstitious usages of ancient
India are contained in the Atharva-veda-Samhitâ. This body of literature
dates, according to Max Müller, from 1000 to 800 <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> (the Mantra<span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">109</span>
period).<a id="FNanchor_254_254" href="#Footnote_254_254" class="fnanchor">254</a> In this Samhitâ a number of songs are addressed to illnesses,
and the healing herbs appropriate for their cure. Sarpa-vidyá (serpent-science)
possibly dealt with medical matters also.<a id="FNanchor_255_255" href="#Footnote_255_255" class="fnanchor">255</a></p>

<p>The oldest fragments (very poor ones, it must be confessed) of Hindu
medical science are to be found in these relics of Vedic times.</p>

<p>In a work on Indian medicine called the <i>Kalpastanum</i> described by
Dr. Heyne,<a id="FNanchor_256_256" href="#Footnote_256_256" class="fnanchor">256</a> we read that the doctor’s apparatus of mortars, scales, etc.,
must be kept in a place in the wall that has been consecrated for that
purpose by religious ceremonies. In the middle of the medicine room
the mystic sign must be set up, with images of Brahma, Vishnu, and
Siva.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/i_p109.jpg" alt="Mystic Sign" />
</div>


<p>Many ceremonies must be gone through in the preparation of medicines;
the physician must attend to the boiling of some of them himself,
and the spot round the fireplace must be smeared with cow-dung
by a virgin, or by the mother of sons whose husband is alive; at the
same time, offerings must be made to the gods. Should any of the
ceremonies be omitted, the patient will repent the neglect, for devils of
all descriptions will defile the medicine and hinder its good effect. Before
the patient takes his potion, the god of physic is to be worshipped
in the person of his deputy, the doctor, who naturally (and for the good
of the patient) is to be well rewarded for his services.</p>

<p>Buddhism, says Max Müller, is the frontier between ancient and
modern literature in India. He gives 477 <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> as the probable date of
Buddha’s death,<a id="FNanchor_257_257" href="#Footnote_257_257" class="fnanchor">257</a> and describes the religion of that great sage as standing
in the same relation to the ancient Brahmanism of the Veda as
Italian to Latin, or as Protestantism to Catholicism. It is a development
from Brahmanism, yet it is not the religion of India, though it has
greatly influenced Hindu thought.<a id="FNanchor_258_258" href="#Footnote_258_258" class="fnanchor">258</a></p>

<p>Buddha’s religious system recognised no supreme deity; a Buddhist
never really prays, he merely contemplates.<a id="FNanchor_259_259" href="#Footnote_259_259" class="fnanchor">259</a></p>

<p>Man can himself become the only god Buddha’s system finds room
for. God becomes man in Brahmanism; man becomes a god in Bud<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">110</span>dhism.
All existence is an evil to the Buddhist; “act” is to be got rid
of as effectually as possible, for action means existence. The great end
of the system is <i>Nirvāna</i>, or non-existence. “Of priests and clergy in
our sense,” says Professor Williams, “the Buddhist religion has none.”
Though there is no God, prayer is practised as a kind of charm against
diseases; for malignant demons, as we might have expected, are believed
by Buddhists to cause these and other evils. These Buddhist prayers
are used like the Mantras of the Brahmins as charms against evils of all
kinds. The Buddhists have a demon of love, anger, evil, and death,
called Māra, the opponent of Buddha. He can send forth legions of
evil demons like himself. Some of the precepts of Buddha are fully
equal to those of the highest religions—Charity, Virtue, Patience,
Fortitude, Meditation, and Knowledge. The special characteristic of
Buddhism is the perfection of its tenderness and mercy towards all
living creatures, even beasts of prey and noxious insects not being outside
the circle of its sympathy. According to the Buddhist’s belief, all
our acts ripen and go to form our Karma. The consequences of our
acts must inexorably be worked out. This is Brahminical as well as
Buddhistic doctrine. “In the Sábda-kalpa-druma, under the head of
<i>Karma-vipāka</i>,” says Williams, “will be found a long catalogue of the
various diseases with which men are born, as the fruit of evil deeds
committed in former states of existence, and a declaration as to the
number of births through which each disease will be protracted, unless,
expiations be performed in the present life.”<a id="FNanchor_260_260" href="#Footnote_260_260" class="fnanchor">260</a></p>

<p>All our sufferings, our sicknesses, weaknesses, and moral depravity
are simply the consequences of our actions in former bodies. When
the Jews asked our Lord, “Who did sin, this man (<i>i.e.</i> in a former life)
or his parents, that he was born blind?”<a id="FNanchor_261_261" href="#Footnote_261_261" class="fnanchor">261</a> they evidently had in their
minds the Hindu doctrine of previous existences. The principles of
the Brahminic religion do not appear to have embraced any care for or
attention to the needs of sick people. Involved in philosophical speculations,
and the perfecting of their system of caste, the founders of the
Brahminic religion had no time to bestow on such mundane matters as
disease and its cure. It was not until the rise of Buddhism and the
political ascendency which it acquired over Brahmanism (from about
250 <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> to <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 600), that public hospitals were established for man
and animals in the great cities of the Buddhist princes.<a id="FNanchor_262_262" href="#Footnote_262_262" class="fnanchor">262</a> Buddhism
had a gospel for every living creature; it taught the spiritual equality of
all men, whose good works, without the mediation of priests and Brahmins,
would save them from future punishment. Medicine, under the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">111</span>
fostering care of Buddhism, was studied as any other science, and the
noblest outcome of the movement was the establishment of public
hospitals. A great seat of medical learning was established at Benares,
and Asoka, King of Behar or Putra, published fourteen Edicts, one of
which devised a system of medical care for man and beast.<a id="FNanchor_263_263" href="#Footnote_263_263" class="fnanchor">263</a></p>

<p>Amongst the legends of Gotama Buddha is the history of Jíwaka,
which is of great interest to the historians of medicine, as it illustrates
the state of the science in India at that early age. The following account
is abbreviated from Mr. Spence Hardy’s translation of Singhalese
MSS.<a id="FNanchor_264_264" href="#Footnote_264_264" class="fnanchor">264</a></p>

<p>Jíwaka was a physician who administered medicine to Budha. He
learned his profession in this way. When he was seven or eight years
of age, he ran away from his parents, resolving that he would learn some
science; so he considered the character of the eighteen sciences and
the sixty-four arts, and determined that he would study the art of
medicine, that he might be called doctor, and be respected, and attain
to eminence. So he went to the collegiate city of Taksalá<a id="FNanchor_265_265" href="#Footnote_265_265" class="fnanchor">265</a> and applied
to a learned professor to take him into his school of medicine. The
professor asked him what fees he had brought with him. Jíwaka said he
had no money, but he was willing to work. The professor liked the
manner of the lad, and agreed to teach him, though from other pupils
he received a thousand masurans. At this moment the throne of Sekra
trembled, as Jíwaka had been acquiring merit, and was soon to administer
medicine to Gotama Budha. The déwa resolved that as he
was to become the physician of Budha, he would himself be his
teacher; and for this purpose he came to the earth, entered the mouth
of the professor, and inspired him with the wisdom he needed to teach
his pupil in the most excellent manner.</p>

<p>Jíwaka made rapid progress, and soon discovered that he could treat
the patients more successfully than his master. He learned in seven
years as much about diseases as any other teacher could have taught
him in sixteen. Then Jíwaka asked his preceptor when his education
would be finished; and the old man, wishing to test his knowledge, told
him to take a basket and go outside the city for the space of sixteen
miles, and collect all the roots, barks, leaves, and fruits which were useless
in the art of medicine. Jíwaka did as he was instructed, and after
four days he returned and informed the professor that he had met with
no substance which in some way or other was not useful in medicine;
there was no such thing on earth. Now when the teacher heard this
reply, he said, there was no one who could teach the pupil any more,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">112</span>
and Sekra departed from his mouth. He knew that his pupil had been
taught by divine wisdom. Then Jíwaka journeyed to Sákétu, where he
found a woman who had a violent pain in her head, which for seven
years many learned physicians had vainly tried to cure. He offered to
cure her, but she said, “If all the learned doctors had failed to relieve
her, it was useless to seek the aid of a little child.” Jíwaka replied that
“Science is neither old nor young. I will not go away till the headache
is entirely cured.” Then the woman said, “My son, give me relief for
a single day: it is seven years since I was able to sleep.” So Jíwaka
poured a little medicine into her nose, which went into her brain, and
behold, all her headache was gone; and the lady and her relations each
gave the physician 4,000 níla-karshas, with chariots, and other, and
other gifts in abundance. After this he cured the king of a fistula-in-ano,
for which he received a royal reward. There was in Rajagaha a
rich nobleman who had a pain in his head like the cutting of a knife.
None of his physicians could cure him, so Jíwaka took the noble
into a room, sat behind him, and taking a very sharp instrument, opened
his skull; and setting aside the three sutures, he seized the two worms
which were gnawing his brain with a forceps, and extracted them entire.
He then closed up the wound in such a manner that not a single hair
was displaced. There was a nobleman in Benares who had twisted one
of his intestines into a knot, so that he was not able to pass any solid
food. Crowds of physicians came to see him, but none of them dare
undertake his case; but Jíwaka said at once he could cure him. He
bound his patient to a pillar that he might not move, covered his face,
and taking a sharp instrument, without the noble’s being aware of what
was going on, ripped open the abdomen, took out his intestines, undid
the knot, and replaced them in a proper manner. He then rubbed
ointment on the place, put the patient to bed, fed him on rice-gruel, and
in three days he was as well as ever. Of course he had an immense
fee. After performing other wonderful cures, Jíwaka administered
medicine to Budha in the perfume of a flower. The narrative must be
given in the words of the MS.:<span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">113</span> “In this way was the medicine given.
On a certain occasion when Budha was sick, it was thought that if he
were to take a little opening medicine he would be better; and accordingly
Ananda went to Jíwaka to inform him that the teacher of the
world was indisposed. On receiving this information, Jíwaka, who
thought that the time to which he had so long looked forward had
arrived, went to the wihára, as Budha was at that time residing near
Rajagaha. After making the proper inquiries, he discovered that there
were three causes of the disease; and in order to remove them he prepared
three lotus flowers, into each of which he put a quantity of medicine.
The flowers were given to Budha at three separate times, and by
smelling at them his bowels were moved ten times by each flower. By
means of the first flower the first cause of disease passed away, and by
the other two the second and third causes were removed.”</p>

<p>This legend is instructive in many ways. It shows us that 500 <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>
there were colleges in which medicine was taught, and that by special
professors of the art, who received large fees from their pupils and kept
them under instruction for many years. We find that the profession of
medicine brought great honours and rewards to its adepts. We learn
that trephining the skull for cerebral diseases was in use, and that the
operation of opening the abdomen for bowel obstructions was understood.
It reveals the important fact that already the whole of nature had
been ransacked for remedies, and that everything was more or less useful
to the physician. The great efficacy which the ancients attributed
to perfumes is exhibited in the lotus story, which reminds us that when
Democritus was aware that he was dying, he desired to prolong his life
beyond the festival of Ceres, and accomplished his wish by inhaling the
vapour of hot bread.</p>

<p>Galen’s description of the pulse in disease is very suggestive of the
ancient Sanskrit treatises on the pulse; so much is this the case, it would
seem, that either the Hindu physician must have copied from the
Roman, or the Roman from the Indian. He speaks of the <i>sharp-tailed</i>
or <i>myuri</i>, <i>fainting myuri</i>, <i>recurrent myuri</i>, <i>the goat-leap</i> or <i>dorcadissans</i>,
a term derived from the animal <i>dorcas</i>, which, in jumping aloft, stops
in the air, and then unexpectedly takes another and a swifter spring than
the former. But if after the diastole it recur, and before a complete
systole take place, strike the finger a second time; such a pulse is called
a <i>reverberating</i> one, or <i>dicrotos</i>, from its beating twice. There is also
the <i>undulatory</i> and <i>vermicular</i> pulse, the <i>spasmodic</i> and <i>vibratory</i>, the
<i>ant-like</i> or <i>formicans</i>, from its resemblance to the ant (<i>formica</i>), on
account of its smallness and kind of motion; there is the <i>hectic</i>, the
<i>serrated</i>, the <i>fat</i> and the <i>lean</i> kind.</p>

<p>Medical etiquette amongst the Hindus was not overlooked.</p>

<p>“A physician who desires success in his practice, his own profit, a
good name, and finally a place in heaven, must pray daily for all living
creatures, first of the Brahmans and of the cow. The physician should
wear his hair short, keep his nails clean<a id="FNanchor_266_266" href="#Footnote_266_266" class="fnanchor">266</a> and cut close, and wear a
sweet-smelling dress. He should never leave the house without a cane
or umbrella; he should avoid especially any familiarity with women.
Let his speech be soft, clear, pleasant. Transactions in the house
should not be bruited abroad.”<a id="FNanchor_267_267" href="#Footnote_267_267" class="fnanchor">267</a></p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">114</span></p>

<p>The dissection and examination of the dead subject is not practised
in India, it is contrary to the tenets of the Brahmans; such knowledge
of anatomy as the Hindus possess must therefore be little else than
conjecture, formed by the study of the bodies of animals. Ainslie says<a id="FNanchor_268_268" href="#Footnote_268_268" class="fnanchor">268</a>
that the Rajah of Tanjore, in the year 1826, was a learned and enlightened
prince, who was anxious to study the structure of the human body,
but was too rigid a Hindu to satisfy his curiosity at the expense of his
principles, so he ordered a complete skeleton made of ivory to be sent
to him from England. Sir William Jones states that in a fragment of the
<i>Ayur-Veda</i> he was surprised to find an account of the internal structure
of the human frame.<a id="FNanchor_269_269" href="#Footnote_269_269" class="fnanchor">269</a></p>

<p>The ancient Hindus must have possessed considerable knowledge
of surgery. In a commentary on Susruta made by Ubhatta, a Cashmirian,
which may be as old, Ainslie thinks, as the twelfth century, many
valuable surgical definitions are distinctly detailed. According to the
best authorities, says Ainslie, surgery was of eight kinds: <i>chedhana</i>,
cutting or excision; <i>lekhana</i>, or scarification and inoculation; <i>vyadhana</i>,
puncturing; <i>eshyam</i>, probing or sounding; <i>aharya</i>, extraction of
solid bodies; <i>visravana</i>, extracting fluids (by leeches and bleeding);
<i>sevana</i>, or sewing; and <i>bhedana</i>, division or excision.<a id="FNanchor_270_270" href="#Footnote_270_270" class="fnanchor">270</a></p>

<p>Twelve species of leeches are enumerated in some of the Sanskrit
works on surgery, six of which are poisonous and six useful medicinally.<a id="FNanchor_271_271" href="#Footnote_271_271" class="fnanchor">271</a></p>

<p>Dissection was practised in the most ancient times; but now there is
the greatest prejudice against touching the dead body, and modern
practitioners of Hindu medicine, where they do not follow the ancient
authors, are in a worse condition than they were, on account of the
present ignorance of anatomy. All the sages are alleged to have
learned their knowledge of medicine from the works of Charaka and
Susruta. Those who were taught by Charaka became physicians;
those who were followers of Susruta, surgeons. Charaka’s classification
and plan of treating diseases are considered superior to those of Susruta,
but the latter is prized for his anatomy and surgery. Babhata compiled
a compendium of medicine from the works of these great
masters of the art, and some three hundred years ago a compilation
was made from all the most celebrated works on medicine; this was
called <i>Baboprukasa</i>. It is clear and well arranged, and explains the
difficulties and obscurities of the ancient Shastres. This was compiled
as a text-book for practitioners, and is in high repute with them. Dr.
Wise explains the ancient methods of dissecting the human body as
given in Hindu text-books.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">115</span></p>

<p>“The dejections are to be removed, and the body washed and
placed in a framework of wood, properly secured by means of grass,
hemp, sugar-cane reeds, corn-straw, pea-stalks, or the like. The body
is then to be placed in still water, in a moving stream, where it will not
be injured by birds, fish, or animals. It is to remain for seven days
and nights in the water, when it will have become putrid. It is then to
be removed to a convenient situation, and with a brush, made of reeds,
hair, or bamboo bark, the surface of the body is to be removed so as to
exhibit the skin, flesh, etc., which are each in their turn to be observed
before being removed. In this manner, the different corporeal parts of
the body will be exhibited; but the life of the body is too ethereal to
be distinguished by this process, and its properties must therefore be
learned with the assistance of the explanations of holy medical practitioners,
and prayers offered up to God, by which, conjoined with the
exercise of the reasoning and understanding faculties, conviction will
be certainly obtained.”<a id="FNanchor_272_272" href="#Footnote_272_272" class="fnanchor">272</a></p>

<p>The Hindus have been great observers of the natural qualities of
plants, though they have contributed little or nothing to the study
of botany. “The <i>materia medica</i> of the Hindus,” says Hunter,<a id="FNanchor_273_273" href="#Footnote_273_273" class="fnanchor">273</a>
“embraces a vast collection of drugs belonging to the mineral, vegetable,
and animal kingdoms, many of which have been adopted by
European physicians.” They were ingenious pharmacists, and some of
their directions for the administration of medicines are most elaborate.
They paid scrupulous attention to hygiene, regimen, and diet.</p>

<p>Hindu treatises on medicine inform the physician that man’s constitution
is occasioned by three dispositions born with him—<i>wadum</i>,
<i>pittum</i>, and <i>chestum</i>, or wind, bile, and slime,—and it is the physician’s
business to ascertain which of these predominate in any individual.
These we may call the three morbiferous diatheses. The pulse is to be
felt, not merely at the wrist as we feel it, but in ten different parts of
the body. Some of the descriptions of the pulse are very curious.
Sometimes, they say, it beats as a frog jumps, or as a creeping rain-worm,
or like the motion of a child in a cradle hung in chains; at other times
it is like a fowl when running or as a peacock when strutting, and so on.</p>

<p>The Yantras or surgical implements known to Susruta were, according
to Professor H. H. Wilson, one hundred and one, and are thus
described by him in his most interesting paper on the “Medical and
Surgical Sciences of the Hindus.”<a id="FNanchor_274_274" href="#Footnote_274_274" class="fnanchor">274</a></p>

<p>The instruments were classed as Swastikas, Sandanśas, Tálayantras,
Nádiyantras, Salákás, and Upayantras.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">116</span></p>

<p>The <i>Swastikas</i> are twenty-four in number; they are metallic, about
eighteen inches long, and fancifully shaped like the beaks of birds, etc.
They were a sort of pincers or forceps.</p>

<p>The <i>Sandanśas</i> were a kind of tongs for removing extraneous substances
from the soft parts.</p>

<p>The <i>Tálayantras</i> were similar, and were used for bringing away
foreign bodies from the ears, nose, etc.</p>

<p>The <i>Nádiyantras</i> were tubular instruments, of which there were
twenty sorts. They were similar to our catheters, syringes, etc. The
<i>Salákás</i> were rods and sounds, etc. Of these there were twenty-eight
kinds; some were for removing nasal polypi, so common and so
troublesome in India. The <i>Upayantras</i> were such dressings as cloth,
twine, leather, etc. The first, best, and most important of all implements
is declared to be the <i>Hand</i>. The <i>Man’dalágra</i> was a round
pointed lancet; the <i>Vriddhipatra</i> a broad knife; the <i>Arddhadhárás</i>
are perhaps knives with one edge; the <i>Trikúrchaka</i> may be a sort of
canular trochar, with a guarded point. The <i>Vrihimukha</i> is a perforating
instrument. The <i>Kutháriká</i> was probably a bistoury. The
<i>Vadiśa</i> is a hooked or curved instrument for extracting foreign substances,
and the <i>Dantaśanku</i> appears to be an instrument for drawing
teeth. The <i>Ará</i> and <i>Karapatra</i> are saws for cutting through bones.
The <i>Eshan’i</i> is a blunt straight instrument six or eight inches long—a
sort of probe, in fact. The <i>Súchi</i> is a needle. Then the Hindu surgeon
had substitutes such as rough leaves that draw blood, pith of trees,
skin, leeches, caustics, etc. It is evident that the surgeon of ancient
India was not inefficiently armed.</p>

<p>The student of surgery had many curious contrivances for acquiring
manual dexterity. He practised the art of making incisions on wax
spread out on a board; on flowers, bulbs, and gourds. Skins or
bladders filled with paste and mire were used for the same purpose.
He practised scarification on the fresh hides of animals from which the
hair has not been removed; puncturing, or lancing the vessels of dead
animals; extraction on the cavities of the same, or fruits with large
seeds; sutures were made on skin and leather, and ligatures and
bandages on well-made models of the human limbs. Fourteen kinds
of bandages are described by Vágbhatta. The cautery was applied by
hot seeds, burning substances, or heated plates and probes. Frequently
this treatment was used for headaches and for liver and spleen disorders.
It was chiefly employed, however, as with the Greeks, for
averting bleeding by searing the mouths of the divided vessels. The
early Hindus could extract stone from the bladder, and even the fœtus
from the uterus. They must have been bold operators, many of their<span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">117</span>
operations being actually hazardous. It is a subject deserving of
inquiry how they lost the information and skill which they once
possessed in so high a degree. The books of medicine and surgery
to which reference has been made are undoubtedly most ancient, and
it must be remembered were considered as inspired writings. Professor
Wilson says: “We must infer that the existing sentiments of
the Hindus are of modern date, growing out of an altered state of
society, and unsupported by their oldest and most authentic civil and
moral, as well as medical institutes.”</p>

<p>Many surgical operations which we consider triumphs of our modern
practice were invented by the ancient Hindus. They were skilled in
amputation, in lithotomy (as we have seen), in abdominal and uterine
operations; they operated for hernia, fistula, and piles, set broken bones,
and had specialists in rhinoplasty or operations for restoring lost ears
and noses. It was a common custom in India for a jealous husband
to mutilate the nose of his suspected wife, so that surgeons had opportunities
to practise this branch of their art. The ancient Indian
surgeons invented an operation for neuralgia which was very similar
to the modern division of the fifth nerve above the eyebrow. Veterinary
science was understood, and ancient treatises exist, says Hunter,<a id="FNanchor_275_275" href="#Footnote_275_275" class="fnanchor">275</a>
on the diseases of elephants and horses.</p>

<p>The best era of Hindu medicine was from 250 <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> to 750 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> Its
chief centres were found in such Buddhist monastic universities as
that of Nalanda, near Gayá.<a id="FNanchor_276_276" href="#Footnote_276_276" class="fnanchor">276</a> Hunter thinks it probable that the
ancient Brahmans may have derived their anatomical knowledge from
the dissection of the sacrifices; but there is no doubt that the true
schools of Indian medicine were the great public hospitals which were
established by Buddhist princes like Asoka, famous for his rock edicts,
<span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 251-249. Amongst the fourteen injunctions inscribed by this
enlightened sovereign, the first was the prohibition of the slaughter of
animals for food or sacrifice, and the second was the provision of a
system of medical aid for men and animals and of plantations and wells
on the roadside.<a id="FNanchor_277_277" href="#Footnote_277_277" class="fnanchor">277</a></p>

<p>Probably King Asoka’s were the first real hospitals for general
diseases anywhere established, as the institutions connected with the
Greek temples were not exactly hospitals in our sense of the term;
they were more like camps round a mineral spring or spa. The
Buddhist physicians would have in these merciful institutions abundant
opportunity for the continuous study of disease.</p>

<p>Whatever may have been the condition of ancient Hindu anatomy
and surgery, in modern times both have now fallen to the lowest point.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">118</span>
Dislocated joints are replaced and fractured limbs set by a class of
men similar to our bone-setters which are found in all nations.
Certain of the Mohammedan doctors—<i>Hakeems</i>—sometimes bleed and
couch for cataract in a clumsy manner. The village <i>Kabiráj</i> knows
but a few sentences of Sanskrit texts, but he has “a by no means
contemptible pharmacopœia,” says Hunter. The rest consists of spells,
fasts, and quackery.</p>

<p>Physicians (<i>Vitians</i> or <i>Vydias</i>) being Sudras are not allowed to read
the sacred medical writings (<i>Vedas</i>); these are guarded with religious
awe by the Brahmins; they are permitted, however, access to certain
commentaries upon the professional sacred books.</p>

<p>When we reflect on the high position which the science and art of the
Hindus had attained in very ancient times, it is surprising that we have
apparently learned little or nothing from them in connection with the
healing art. Max Müller believes that there was an ancient indigenous
Hindu astronomy and an ancient indigenous Hindu geometry. Probably
the first attempt at solving the problem of the squaring of the
circle was suggested, he thinks, by the problem in the Sutras how to
construct a square altar that should be of exactly the same magnitude
as a round altar. It is scarcely conceivable that so patient and shrewd a
people as the Hindus, a people at once so observant and so profoundly
speculative, should not have kept pace with the other enlightened
nations of the world in the study of medicine and surgery. The vegetation
of India is so rich in medicinal herbs that its <i>Materia Medica</i>
could hardly be equalled in any other country; so that both by intellect
and by location the Hindus should be amongst the foremost professors
of the art of medicine. On the contrary, however, the West has everywhere
to instruct the East in the medical sciences; and the young Brahmins
who flock to the medical schools and universities of Europe find
that they have everything to learn from us in this direction. Is this an
evidence of arrested development, a retrogression in civilization due to
conservatism and a paralysis of the power to keep pace with the world’s
advance consequent on the influences of religion and custom? Probably
it is. All the medicine of the Hindus is empiricism; their systems
exclude anatomy and surgery, without which, as Prof. H. H. Wilson
observes,<a id="FNanchor_278_278" href="#Footnote_278_278" class="fnanchor">278</a> “the whole system must be defective.... We can
easily imagine that these were not likely to have been much cultivated
in Hindustan, and that local disadvantages and religious prejudices
might have proved very serious impediments to their acquirement.”</p>

<p>As compared with other ancient nations, Egypt, Chaldæa, Greece,
and Rome, we are at considerable disadvantage in the attempt to dis<span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">119</span>cover
what was known and practised of the healing arts in the remoter
ages. We have no papyri like the “Book of the Dead” or the great
medical papyrus of Ebers; we have no inscriptions on such ancient
monuments as Mesopotamia has preserved for us; we have no Sanskrit
treatises to be compared for their antiquity and scientific interest with
those which have come down to us from ancient Greece.</p>

<p>Max Müller says<a id="FNanchor_279_279" href="#Footnote_279_279" class="fnanchor">279</a> that “few Sanskrit MSS. in India are older than
1000 after Christ, nor is there any evidence that the art of writing was
known in India much before the beginning of Buddhism, or the very
end of the ancient Vedic literature.”</p>

<p>Then, again, the Hindu treatises on medical subjects, whether fables
or facts, have hitherto been little noticed by Sanskrit scholars.<a id="FNanchor_280_280" href="#Footnote_280_280" class="fnanchor">280</a></p>

<p>The subject is not of general interest, and a man would need to be
not only a perfect Sanskrit scholar, but a physician as well, who should
attempt such a task as the translation of these treatises in any useful
manner. Although ancient India has little to show us in the way of
actual written documents and inscriptions, it must not be supposed for
a moment that she is deficient in ancient poetry and other works which
have been preserved through the ages by the marvellously developed
memory of her Brahmins and religious teachers. The ancient Vedic
hymns, the Brâhmanas, and probably the Sutras, were handed down
from before 1000 <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> by oral tradition. Every, the minutest precaution
was taken that not a word, not a letter, not an accent even
should be omitted or altered; and Max Müller tells us “this was a
sacred duty, the neglect of which entailed social degradation, and the
most minute rules were laid down as to the mnemonic system that had
to be followed.”</p>

<p>The people of India believe that small-pox is under the control of
“the goddess Mata,” in whose honour temples abound and fairs are
held, where thousands of women and children attend with offerings.
The declivities of most of the numerous conical hills present either a
reddened stone or temple devoted to “Mata,” with most probably an
attendant Brahmin priest. Nearly every village has its goddess of
small-pox in the immediate locality, and in many places a large piece of
ground is esteemed holy and dedicated to “Mata.” The people do
not pray to escape the affliction, unless in seasons when it occurs with
more than ordinary violence. They do, however, petition for a mild
visitation. But even the loss of an eye does not appear to be viewed
as a very serious calamity! “Is there not another eye sufficient
for all our purposes?” questioned one of these stoical philosophers.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">120</span>
“If it were the leg or hand, it would be different, but an eye is immaterial.”<a id="FNanchor_281_281" href="#Footnote_281_281" class="fnanchor">281</a></p>

<p>“The small-pox goddess stands with two uplifted crooked daggers,
threatening to strike on the right and left. Before her are a band of executors
of her vengeance. Two of them wear red grinning masks, carry
black shields, and brandish naked scimitars. White lines, like rays, issue
from the bodies of the others, to indicate infection. On the right there
is a group of men with spotted bodies, afflicted with the malady; bells
are hung at their cinctures, and a few of them wave in their hands black
feathers. They are preceded by musicians with drums, who are supplicating
the pity of the furious deity. Behind the goddess, on the
right, there advances a bevy of smiling young women, who are carrying
gracefully on their heads baskets with thanksgiving-offerings, in gratitude
for their lives and their beauty having been spared. There is, besides,
a little boy with a bell at his girdle, who seems to be conveying something
from the right arm of the goddess. This action may possibly be
emblematic of inoculation.”<a id="FNanchor_282_282" href="#Footnote_282_282" class="fnanchor">282</a></p>

<p>Another small-pox deity of India described by Mr. Dubois, a missionary,<a id="FNanchor_283_283" href="#Footnote_283_283" class="fnanchor">283</a>
is Mah-ry-Umma, who is supposed to incarnate herself in the
disease. The natives, when vaccination was first introduced, objected
to the practice for fear lest the goddess should be offended, as to prevent
the small-pox would imply an objection to her becoming incarnate
amongst them. The difficulty was overcome by the suggestion that the
vaccination was a mild form of disease by which the goddess had chosen
to visit her votaries, so that she might be worshipped with equal respect.</p>

<p>“Even Siva is worshipped as a stone, especially that Siva who will
afflict a child with epileptic fits, and then, speaking by its voice, will
announce that he is Parchânana, the Five-faced, and is punishing the
child for insulting his image.”<a id="FNanchor_284_284" href="#Footnote_284_284" class="fnanchor">284</a></p>

<p>Surgeon-General Sir W. J. Moore, in an article on “The Origin and
Progress of Hospitals in India,”<a id="FNanchor_285_285" href="#Footnote_285_285" class="fnanchor">285</a> says that we may form a very good
opinion of the condition of the whole of India in ancient times by recalling
what was the state of medical relief in most of the native States
previous to the institution of medical relief and sanitation in British
districts.</p>

<p>“Recently, in the Native States, there might be witnessed disease<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">121</span>
proceeding unchecked and uninterfered with, to a degree which certainly
would not be allowed at present in civilized Europe. And especially
was this evident in surgical disease, as illustrated by the following extract
from an official document:<a id="FNanchor_286_286" href="#Footnote_286_286" class="fnanchor">286</a>—</p>

<p>“‘In former reports I have mentioned the extreme ignorance displayed
by native “hukeems” or “vaids” of surgical principles. As a
rule, all surgical disease is either wrongly treated, or let alone until
treatment is unavailable by these uneducated practitioners. Their
errors of omission and commission are not so easily ascertained in their
medical, as in their surgical, practice. But in the latter, there is a
glaring ignorance, not only from things requisite not being attempted,
but from things unnecessary being performed, leading to the serious
injury and often to the death of the patient. Thus, during my last
tour, I saw at one village, an open scrofulous sore of the neck with the
carotid artery isolated, and apparently on the point of giving way. At
another village I witnessed an advanced cancer rapidly killing a man.
In another place a woman had remained for days with a dislocated jaw,
which was easily put <i>in situ</i>. Other forms of dislocation and fracture
neglected are almost daily sights. At Bikaneer I amputated the leg of
a man who eight months before fell from a camel; the bones of the
leg protruding through the skin of the heel, and the foot being driven
half-way up the front of the leg, <i>in which position it had been permitted
to heal</i>! At the same place a woman was rapidly sinking from the
results of extensive sinus of the breast, following abscess, and which
only required free incisions for the restoration of health. I also saw
a man dying of strangulated hernia, without the slightest idea of or
attempt at relief on the part of the native practitioners. And so on,
throughout almost the whole range of surgery, I have from time to time
witnessed the most lamentable results from the malpractices, or from
the absence of practice on the part of the Native Doctors.’</p>

<p>“As mentioned in the above extract, the errors of omission and commission
are not so easily ascertained in medical as in surgical cases.
But the great majority of those stricken by disease, such as inflammations
and fevers, derived as little benefit from medicine as did the
Romans when, according to Pliny, physicians were banished from the
Imperial City during many years. For few indeed of the higher class
and comparatively better educated ‘hukeems’ or ‘vaids’ would
minister to the poor who were unable to pay their fees; and of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">122</span>
populations of India the great majority are and always were poor.
Steeped in continually augmenting superstition and ignorance, if the
poor received medical aid at all, it was from the hands of the equally
ignorant and superstitious village ‘Kabiraj,’ who, unlike their more
noble Aryan predecessors, did not even ‘draw physic from the fields,’
although they may have used a charm, such as a peacock’s feather tied
round the affected part! If the poor got well, they got well; and as
most diseases have a tendency to terminate in health, many did recover.
If a fatal termination resulted, it was attributed to <i>nusseeb</i> or destiny,
or the gods were blamed. Insane persons, if harmless, were allowed to
ramble about the streets; if violent, they were chained in the most
convenient place. The jails of the Native States were also in an
unparalleled unsanitary condition, for no medical aid whatever was
provided; as Coleridge said of Coldbath Fields, these jails might have
given His Satanic Majesty a hint for improving Hades. Fatalism combined
with ignorance, and a consequent utter unbelief in any measures
of sanitation, resulted in the absence of all measures of precaution during
epidemics of contagious disease. During the prevalence of small-pox,
children might be seen by scores, in every stage of the disease, playing
or lying about the streets. During an epidemic of cholera, not one
precautionary measure was ever adopted—except by the wild Bheels,
who invariably moved, leaving their villages for a time for the open
jungle; thus forestalling the most approved method of preventing
cholera adopted for British troops, viz., marching away from the infected
area.</p>

<p>“Not only were there no hospitals proper, or contagious hospitals, or
asylums for the insane, but neither were there any asylums for lepers.
Regarding the latter, difference of opinion would appear to have existed
among scientific investigators, then as now, as to whether leprosy is a
contagious disease or not. Then as now, in some parts of the country,
lepers were permitted to live among the people; in other localities they
were thrust out from the towns or villages, generally forming a little
colony on the adjoining plain. This expulsion of lepers from the towns
and villages, then as now, was not so much the result of fear of contagion,
as the Brahminical dread of contact with impurity. Then as now,
these outcasts lived miserably in mud or grass huts, obtaining food by
begging. When tired of life, or when being old or disabled their relatives
were tired of keeping them, they often submitted to ‘sumajh’ or
burial alive. But they more frequently threatened to perform ‘sumajh’
with the view of extracting alms from the charitable, who were induced
to believe that the death of the leper would be credited to them, unless
they bought off the sacrifice. ‘Sumajh,’ or leper burial alive, has<span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">123</span>
been practised comparatively recently in more than one of the Native
States.</p>

<p>“The Native principalities are now much more advanced in most
respects than they were only a few years back. By coming into contact
with the progressive civilization of adjoining British districts, the
Governments of Native States were forced to advance; for they felt
their existence would be imperilled. And this advance was most
materially assisted by the successful endeavours made by the Indian
Government to secure the better education of the young Indian princes
and nobles. The Imperial Government also, and especially under
Lord Mayo, enunciated care for the sick as one of the most urgent
duties of the feudatory rulers of India. Owing to such measures, aided
by the personal influence of the Political, and the assistance of the
Medical Officers attached to the Native Courts, a hospital or dispensary
has, amongst other features of civilization, been established at every
large capital; while in some States ramifications of such central establishments
have rendered the people almost as well off, in the matter of
medical relief, as those in British territory. As it will not be necessary
to refer again, except incidentally, to the Native States, I may here
remark that all the medical institutions are supported at the cost of
the Durbar or Government of each State. They are, as a rule, superintended
by the European Medical Officer attached to the Political Residency,
aided by native assistants.</p>

<p>“Although the recent condition of the Native States represents what
formerly prevailed all over Hindustan, it must not be understood that
the people were devoid of charity; only the charity of the well-to-do
classes did not take the form of medical relief. In the absence of a
qualified medical profession recognised by the State, the confidence felt
in the physic of the ‘vaids’ and ‘hukeems’ was something akin to
the faith of Byron, who without any such excuse designated medicine
as ‘the destructive art of healing.’ Moreover, the organization of hospitals
was not understood, and the necessary discipline of such establishments
was foreign to the habits and ideas of the people. The poor
(who now throng the hospitals of India), having had no experience of
the advantages of such institutions, would probably not have resorted
thereto had hospitals and dispensaries been opened under native control.
So suspicious were the people on the first opening of a hospital
in one of the Native States, that sweetmeats, of which they are very
fond, were ordered to be given daily to each patient, as an encouragement
to attend! So in former times the charitable preferred spending
their money in sinking wells, in constructing <i>serais</i> or rest-houses for
travellers, in endowing temples, and in feeding the poor, particularly
<span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">124</span>
Brahmins. In this manner, enormous sums have been disbursed and
are still expended, especially in food for the destitute. This laudable
charity of the Indians, although often confined to their own caste people,
and to occasions of family festival, is one of the reasons why it has
never been thought necessary to establish any system of poor-law relief
in British India. Of late years native charity has been often directed
towards building and endowing medical institutions, and many Indian
gentlemen have given most liberally for such purposes.”</p>

<hr class="chap" />
<div class="chapter"></div>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">125</span></p>



<h3 id="CHAPTERII_V">CHAPTER V.<br />

<small>MEDICINE IN CHINA, TARTARY, AND JAPAN.</small></h3>

<blockquote>

<p>Origin of Chinese Culture.—Shamanism.—Disease-Demons.—Taoism.—Medicine
Gods.—Mediums.—Anatomy and Physiology of the Chinese.—Surgery.—No
Hospitals in China.—Chinese Medicines.—Filial Piety.—Charms and Sacred
Signs.—Medicine in Thibet, Tartary, and Japan.</p></blockquote>


<p>Chief amongst the Mongolian peoples are the Chinese. Prof. Max
Müller argues that the Chinese, the Thibetans, the Japanese, Coreans,
and the Ural-Altaic or Turanian nations are in the matter of religion
closely related.</p>

<p>Chinese culture has recently been declared by Professor Terrien de la
Couperie, François Lenormant, and Sayce to be of Accadian origin.
Hieratic Accadian has been identified with the first five hundred
Chinese characters, and it is believed by Professor de la Couperie that
the Chinese entered north-western China from Susiana, about the
twenty-third century before Christ.<a id="FNanchor_287_287" href="#Footnote_287_287" class="fnanchor">287</a></p>

<p>In the Finno-Tartarian magical mythology, we have not only the link
which connects the religion of heathen Finland with that of Accadian
Chaldæa, but we discover what is of more importance in tracing
the origin of the magic and medicine of the old civilizations of the world
from a primitive and coarse cosmogony, such as we have examined
in so many savage peoples.</p>

<p>As it is impossible to separate the ancient medical belief of a people
from its religious conceptions, if we admit Prof. Max Müller’s theory, we
must also hold that it embraces the medical notions of these peoples.
And so we find that one of the striking characteristics of the Mongolic
religions is an extensive magic and sorcery—Shamanism. Practically
the gods and heroes of the poetry of these peoples are sorcerers, and
their worshippers value above everything their magical powers. Taoism,
a Chinese religion of great antiquity and respect, involves an implicit
faith in sorcery; and the Chinese and Mongolians have degenerated
Buddhism into Shamanism.<a id="FNanchor_288_288" href="#Footnote_288_288" class="fnanchor">288</a></p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">126</span></p>

<p>Confucianism is the chief religion of the Chinese. It is simply a
development of the worship of ancestors, which was the aboriginal
religion of the country. All the Chinese are ancestor-worshippers, to
whatever other native religion they may belong.<a id="FNanchor_289_289" href="#Footnote_289_289" class="fnanchor">289</a></p>

<p>The pure Confucian is a true Agnostic.</p>

<p>Although Chinese civilization is without doubt extremely ancient, we
are unable to study it as we study that of Egypt or Chaldæa, on account
of the absence of monuments or a literature older than a few centuries
before Christ, which would give us a reliable history.</p>

<p>The Chinese attribute to Huang-ti (<span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 2637) a work on medicine,
which is still extant, entitled Nuy-kin, which is probably not older than
the Christian era. They also attribute to the Emperor Chin-nung (<span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>
2699) a catalogue of medicinal herbs.<a id="FNanchor_290_290" href="#Footnote_290_290" class="fnanchor">290</a></p>

<p>The demon theory of disease universally obtains throughout the
Chinese empire. All bodily and mental disorders spring either from the
air or spirits. They are sent by the gods as punishments for sins committed
in a previous state of existence. In a country where Buddhism is
largely believed, it is natural to suppose that there is little sympathy
with the suffering and afflicted. One might offend the gods by getting
cured, or delay the working out of the effects of the expiatory suffering.
Archdeacon Grey found a grievously afflicted monk in a monastery in
the White Cloud mountains. He desired to take him to the Canton
Medical Missionary Hospital; but the abbot took him aside, and begged
him not to do so, as the sufferer had doubtless in a former state of
existence been guilty of some heinous crime, for which the gods were
then making him pay the well-merited penalty.<a id="FNanchor_291_291" href="#Footnote_291_291" class="fnanchor">291</a></p>

<p>Nevertheless, when sick, the Chinese often have recourse to some
deity, who is supposed to have caused the illness. If the patient dies,
they do not blame the god, but they withhold the thank-offering which
is customary in case of recovery. The death is declared to be in
accordance with the “<i>reckoning of Heaven</i>.” If the patient recovers,
the deity of the disease gets the credit. Prayers and ceremonies are
made use of to induce the “destroying” demon to banish the baneful
influences under his control. Sudden illness is frequently ascribed to
the evil influence of one of the seventy-two malignant spirits or gods.
In very urgent cases an “arrow” is obtained from an idol in the temple.
This “arrow” is about two feet long, and has a single written word,
“Command,” upon it. If the patient recovers, it must be returned to
the temple with a present; if he dies, an offering of mock-money is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">127</span>
made. The “arrow” is considered as the warrant of the god for the
disease-spirit to depart.<a id="FNanchor_292_292" href="#Footnote_292_292" class="fnanchor">292</a></p>

<p>In L’ien-chow, in the province of Kwang-si, if a man hits his foot
against a stone, and afterwards falls sick, it is at once recognised that
there was a demon in the stone; and the man’s friends accordingly
go to the place where the accident happened, and endeavour to appease
the demon with offerings of rice, wine, incense, and worship. After
this the patient recovers.<a id="FNanchor_293_293" href="#Footnote_293_293" class="fnanchor">293</a></p>

<p>Sometimes it is difficult to find out what particular god has been
offended. Then some member of his family asks, with a stick of burning
incense in his hand, that the offended deity will make known by the
mouth of the patient how he has been offended. The disease is sometimes,
as amongst savage nations, ascribed to the spirit of a deceased
person. The god of medicine is invited to the sick man’s house in cases
where malignant sores or inflamed eyes are prevalent. Ten men sometimes
become “security” for the sick person. After offerings and ceremonies,
the names of the ten are written upon paper, and burned before
the idol. When a patient is likely to die, the last resort is to employ
Tauist priests to pray for him, and then the following ceremony is performed:—A
bamboo, eight or ten feet long, with green leaves at the end,
is provided, and a coat belonging to the sick man is suspended with a
mirror in the place where the head of the wearer of the coat would be.
The priest repeats his incantations, to induce the sick man’s spirit to
enter the coat, as it is supposed that the patient’s spirit is leaving the
body or has been hovering near it. The incantations are to induce the
spirit to enter the coat, so that the owner may wear both together.
Sometimes the family will hire a Tauist priest to climb a ladder of
knives, and perform ceremonies for the recovery of the sick man. This
is thought to have a great effect on the disease-spirits.<a id="FNanchor_294_294" href="#Footnote_294_294" class="fnanchor">294</a></p>

<p>The Emperor <i>Fuh-Hi</i>, who invented the eight diagrams, was the
first physician whose name has come down to modern times. He is
one of the <i>Sang Huông</i>, or “Three Emperors,” and is the deity of
doctors.</p>

<p><i>I Kuang Tāi Uông</i> is the god of surgery. The people say he was a
foreigner, of the Loochoo Islands, who came to the middle kingdom and
practised surgery. As he was deaf whilst in the flesh, his worshippers
consider he is thus afflicted now that he is a deity, so they pray into his
ear, as well as offer him incense and candles.<a id="FNanchor_295_295" href="#Footnote_295_295" class="fnanchor">295</a></p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">128</span></p>

<p><i>Ling Chui Nä</i> is the goddess of midwifery and children. If children
are sick, their parents employ Tauist priests in some of her temples to
perform a ceremony for their cure.<a id="FNanchor_296_296" href="#Footnote_296_296" class="fnanchor">296</a></p>

<p><i>Iöh Uong Chû Sü</i> is the god of medicine. It is said that he was a
distinguished physician who was deified after his death. He is now
generally worshipped by dealers in drugs and by their assistants. On
the third day of the third month, they make a feast in his honour, and
burn candles and incense before his image at his temple. Practising
physicians do not usually take any part in these proceedings.<a id="FNanchor_297_297" href="#Footnote_297_297" class="fnanchor">297</a></p>

<p>The Chinese have goddesses of small-pox and measles, which are
extremely popular divinities. Should it thunder after the pustules of
small-pox have appeared, a drum is beaten, to prevent them breaking.
On the fourteenth day ceremonies are performed before the goddess, to
induce her to cause the pustules to dry up.<a id="FNanchor_298_298" href="#Footnote_298_298" class="fnanchor">298</a></p>

<p>Mediums are often employed to prescribe for the sick. They behave
precisely as our spiritualists do, and pretend that the divinity invoked
casts himself into the medium for the time being, and dictates the medicine
which the sick person requires.<a id="FNanchor_299_299" href="#Footnote_299_299" class="fnanchor">299</a></p>

<p>In the “Texts of Táoism”<a id="FNanchor_300_300" href="#Footnote_300_300" class="fnanchor">300</a> we are informed that “In the body
there are seven precious organs, which serve to enrich the state, to give
rest to the people, and to make the vital force of the system full to
overflowing. Hence we have the heart, the kidneys, the breath, the
blood, the brains, the semen, and the marrow. These are the seven
precious organs. They are not dispersed when the body returns (to the
dust). Refined by the use of the Great Medicine, the myriad spirits all
ascend among the Immortals.”</p>

<p>Anatomy and physiology have made no progress in China, because
there has never been any dissection of the body. The only books on
the subject in the Chinese language are Jesuit translations of European
works. Briefly stated, Chinese ideas on the subject are as follows:—In
the human body there are six chief organs in which “moisture” is
located—the heart, liver, two kidneys, spleen, and lungs. There are six
others in which “warmth” abides—the small and large intestine, the
gall bladder, the stomach, and the urinary apparatus. They reckon
365 bones in the whole body, eight in the male and six in the female
skull, twelve ribs in men and fourteen in women. They term the bile
the seat of courage; the spleen, the seat of reason; the liver, the
granary of the soul; the stomach, the resting-place of the mind.</p>

<p>A familiar drug in Chinese materia medica, which is sold in all the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">129</span>
drug-shops, is the Kou-Kouo, or bean of St. Ignatius. The horny
vegetable is used, after bruising and macerating, in cold water, to which
it communicates a strong bitter taste. “This water,” says M. Huc,<a id="FNanchor_301_301" href="#Footnote_301_301" class="fnanchor">301</a>
“taken inwardly, modifies the heat of the blood, and extinguishes internal
inflammation. It is an excellent specific for all sorts of wounds and
contusions.... The veterinary doctors also apply it with great
success to the internal diseases of cattle and sheep. In the north of
China we have often witnessed the salutary effects of the Kou-Kouo.”</p>

<p>This bean is the seed of <i>Strychnos Ignatia</i>, and the plant is indigenous
to the Philippine Islands. The action and uses of ignatia are identical,
says Stillé, with those of nux vomica.<a id="FNanchor_302_302" href="#Footnote_302_302" class="fnanchor">302</a></p>

<p>The medical profession is a very crowded one in China, as it is perfectly
free to any who choose to practise it. No diploma or certificate
of any kind is necessary in order to practise medicine in China. The
majority of the regular practitioners, if such they can be called, are men
who have failed to pass their examinations as literates. There is one,
and apparently only one, check on quackery. The Chinese have a
special place in their second hell which is reserved for ignorant
physicians who will persist in doctoring sick folk. In the fourth hell
are found physicians who have used bad drugs, and in the seventh hell
are tortured those who have taken human bones from cemeteries to
make into medicines. In the very lowest hell are physicians who have
misused their art for criminal purposes. These evil persons are ceaselessly
gored by sows.<a id="FNanchor_303_303" href="#Footnote_303_303" class="fnanchor">303</a></p>

<p>Naturally, the sciences of anatomy and physiology are entirely
neglected by these self-constituted native doctors. All the learning
they require is the ability to copy out prescriptions from a medical book.
Dr. Gould, a physician of long experience in China, tells us that the
native physician is depicted in Chinese primers as a person between the
heathen priest and the fortune-teller—his profession is looked upon as
a combination of superstition and legerdemain.<a id="FNanchor_304_304" href="#Footnote_304_304" class="fnanchor">304</a></p>

<p>The court physicians at Pekin are of a much superior class, and are
compelled to pass examinations before their appointment.</p>

<p>Astrology, charms, amulets, and characts enter largely into Chinese
medical practice. The priests keep bundles of paper charms ready for
emergencies. They are supposed to know which of the different
methods of using them are most appropriate to each case. Masks are
used by children at certain times to ward off the deity of small-pox.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">130</span>
The masks are very ugly, as the deity is believed only to afflict pretty
children.<a id="FNanchor_305_305" href="#Footnote_305_305" class="fnanchor">305</a></p>

<p>“Isaac Vossius,” says Southey, “commended the skill of the Chinese
physicians in finding out by their touch, not only that the body is
diseased (which, he said, was all that our practitioners knew by it), but
also from what cause or what part the sickness proceeds. To make
ourselves masters of this skill, he would have us explore the nature of
men’s pulses, till they became as well known and as familiar to us as a
harp or lute is to the players thereon; it not being enough for them to
know that there is something amiss which spoils the tune, but they must
also know what string it is which causes that fault.”<a id="FNanchor_306_306" href="#Footnote_306_306" class="fnanchor">306</a></p>

<p>Surgery has never made much progress in China; the Chinese have
too much respect for the dead to employ corpses for anatomical purposes,
and they have the greatest unwillingness to draw blood or perform
any kind of operation on the living. Their ideas of the structure
of the human frame are therefore purely fanciful. “The distinctive
Chinese surgical invention is acupuncture, or the insertion of fine needles
of hardened silver or gold for an inch or more (with a twisting motion)
into the seats of pain or inflammation.”<a id="FNanchor_307_307" href="#Footnote_307_307" class="fnanchor">307</a> Rheumatism and gout are
thus treated, and 367 points are specified where needles may be inserted
without injury to great vessels or vital organs.</p>

<p>Dentistry and ophthalmic surgery are practised by specialists.</p>

<p>There are no hospitals; the Chinese consider it would be a neglect of
the duty which they owe to their relatives to send them when sick to
such institutions. Chinese doctors often receive a fixed salary so long
as their patient remains in good health; when he falls sick, the pay is
stopped till he gets well. The doctor must ask his patient no questions,
nor does the patient volunteer any information about his case.
Having felt the sick man’s pulse, looked at his tongue, and otherwise
observed him, he is supposed to have completed his diagnosis, and must
prescribe accordingly. Some of the Chinese prescriptions are very
costly; precious stones and jewels are often powdered up with musk
and made into pills, which are considered specifics for small-pox and
fevers. Another remedy is <i>Kiuchiu</i>, a bitter wine made of spirit, aloes,
myrrh, frankincense, and saffron, which is said to be a powerful tonic.
The profession of medicine is hereditary, receiving very few recruits
from outside; hence its complete stagnation.<a id="FNanchor_308_308" href="#Footnote_308_308" class="fnanchor">308</a></p>

<p>One of the industries of the Foo-Chow beggars is the rearing of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">131</span>
snakes, which are used by the druggists to prepare their medicines.
Snake-wine is used as a febrifuge, and snake’s flesh is considered a
nutritious diet for invalids. Skulls, paws, horns, and skins of many
animals, as bears, bats, crocodiles and tigers, are used in medicine. For
fever patients physicians prescribe a decoction of scorpions, while
dysentery is treated by acupuncture of the tongue. Pigeon’s dung is
the favourite medicine for women in pregnancy; and the water in which
cockles have been boiled is prescribed for skin diseases, and for persons
who are recovering from small-pox. Rat’s flesh is eaten as a hair-restorer,
and human milk is given to aged persons as a restorative.
Crab’s liver administered in decoction of pine shavings is used in a form
of skin disease. In Gordon Cumming’s <i>Wanderings in China</i>, from
which many of the above facts are taken, it is stated that “dried red-spotted
lizard, silk-worm moth, parasite of mulberry trees, asses’s glue,
tops of hartshorn, black-lead, white-lead, stalactite, asbestos, tortoise-shell,
stag-horns and bones, dog’s flesh and ferns are all recommended
as tonics.” Burnt straw, oyster shells, gold and silver leaf, and the bones
and tusks of dragons are said to be astringent. These dragons’ bones
are the fossil remains of extinct animals. Some of the medicines of
standard Chinese works are selected purely on account of their loathsomeness,
such as the ordure of all sorts of animals, from man down to
goats, rabbits, and silk-worm, dried leeches, human blood, dried toads,
shed skins of snakes, centipedes, tiger’s blood, and other horrors innumerable
hold a conspicuous place in the Chinese pharmacopœia. Nor,
says Gordon Cumming, are these the worst. The physicians say that
some diseases are incurable save by a broth made of human flesh cut
from the arm or thigh of a living son or daughter of the patient.<a id="FNanchor_309_309" href="#Footnote_309_309" class="fnanchor">309</a></p>

<p>The same author tells us that a young girl who so mutilated herself
to save her mother’s life was specially commended in the <i>Official
Gazette</i> of Peking for July 5th, 1870.</p>

<p>Medicines prepared from the eyes and vitals of the dead are supposed
to be efficacious. Leprosy is believed to be curable by drinking
the blood of a healthy infant. Dr. Macarthy and Staff-Surgeon Rennie
were present at an execution in Peking, when they saw the executioner
soak up the blood of the decapitated criminal with large balls of pith,
which he preserved. These are dried and sold to the druggists under
the name of “shue-man-tou” (blood-bread), which is prescribed for a
disease called “chong-cheng,” which Dr. Rennie supposed to be pulmonary
consumption.<a id="FNanchor_310_310" href="#Footnote_310_310" class="fnanchor">310</a></p>

<p>The <i>Times</i> says (October 10th, 1892) that the character of the
accusations made in the publications against Europeans has created<span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">132</span>
as much astonishment amongst the foreign residents in China as it
has in the West. Missionaries especially were charged—and the
charges have been made frequently during the past thirty years—with
bewitching women and children by means of drugs, enticing them to
some secret place, and there killing them for the purpose of taking out
their hearts and eyes. Dr. Macgowan, a gentleman who has lived for
many years in China, has published a statement showing that from the
point of view of Chinese medicine these accusations are far from preposterous.
It is one of the medical superstitions of China that various
portions of the human frame and all its secretions possess therapeutic
properties. He refers to a popular voluminous Materia Medica—the
only authoritative work of the kind in the Chinese language—which
gives thirty-seven anthropophagous remedies of native medicine. Human
blood taken into the system from another is believed to strengthen
it; and Dr. Macgowan mentions the case of an English lady, now dead,
who devoted her fortune and life to the education of girls in Ningpo,
who was supposed by the natives to extract the blood of her pupils for
this purpose. Human muscles are supposed to be a good medicament
in consumption, and cases are constantly recorded of children who
mutilate themselves to administer their flesh to sick parents.</p>

<p>Never, says Dr. Macgowan, has filial piety exhibited its zeal in this
manner more than at the present time. Imperial decrees published in
the <i>Pekin Gazette</i>, often authorising honorary portals to be erected in
honour of men, and particularly women, for these flesh offerings, afford
no indication of the extent to which it is carried, for only people of
wealth and influence can obtain such a recognition of the merit of filial
devotion. It is very common among the comparatively lowly, but
more frequent among the <i>literati</i>. A literary graduate now in his own
service, finding the operation of snipping a piece of integument from
his arm too painful, seized a hatchet and cut off a joint of one of his
fingers, which he made into broth mixed with medicine and gave to
his mother. It is essential in all such cases that the recipient should
be kept in profound ignorance of the nature of the potion thus prepared,
and in no case is the operation to be performed for an inferior,
as by a husband for a wife, or a parent for a child. This belief in the
medical virtues of part of the human body (of which a large number of
instances which cannot be repeated here are given) has led to a demand
from native practitioners which can sometimes only be supplied by
murder. Of this, too, examples are given from official records and
other publications, some of them of quite recent date.</p>

<p>Dr. Macgowan reminds us that men capable of these atrocities have
been found in other civilized lands. He says:—</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">133</span></p>

<p>“It was in a model Occidental city, not inaptly styled the ‘Modern
Athens,’ that subjects were procured for the dissecting-room through
murder, at about the same amount of money as that paid in China for
sets of eyes and hearts for medicine. A remedy was found which
promptly suppressed that exceptional crime in the West. In China
murder of this nature can also be prevented, but not speedily. Time is
an indispensable factor in effecting the suppression of homicide, which
is the outcome of medical superstition. That superstition is strongly
intrenched in an official work, the most common book, after the
classics, in the empire. So long as the concluding chapter is retained
in the materia medica, it will be futile to undertake the abolition of
murder for medical purposes; and so long as these abhorrent crimes
prevail in China, so long will fomenters of riots against foreigners aim
to make it appear that the men and women from afar are addicted to
that form of murder, and thus precious lives will continue to be exposed
to forfeiture.”</p>

<p>The most celebrated drug in Chinese Materia Medica is ginseng,
the root of a species of <i>Panax</i>, belonging to the natural order <i>Araliacæ</i>.
The most esteemed variety is found in Corea; an inferior kind comes
from the United States, the <i>Panax quinquefolium</i>, and is often substituted
for the real article. All the Chinese ginseng is Imperial property,
and is sold at its weight in gold. The peculiar shape of the root, like
the body of man—a peculiarity which it shares with mandrake and
some other plants—led to its employment in cases where virile power
fails, as in the aged and debilitated. Special kinds have been sold at
the enormous sum of 300 to 400 dollars the ounce. Europeans have
hitherto failed, says the <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>, to discover any wonderful
properties in the drug. It is no doubt a remarkable instance
of the doctrine of signatures (<i>q.v.</i>). In all cases of severe disease,
debility, etc., the Chinese fly to this remedy, so that enormous quantities
are used. The Hon. H. N. Shore, R.N., says that the export
from New-Chang in Manchuria to the Chinese ports of this article for
one year alone reached the value of £51,000. It seems to be simply
a mild tonic, very much like gentian root. Some of the pharmacies are
on a very large scale; six hundred and fifty various kinds of leaves are
commonly kept for medicinal purposes.</p>

<p>When a Chinese physician is not able to procure the medicines he
needs, he writes the names of the drugs he desires to employ on a piece
of paper, and makes the patient swallow it; the effect is supposed to be
quite as good as that of the remedy itself, and certainly in many cases
it would be infinitely more pleasant to take! This custom of swallowing
charms is seen again in the sick-room, some of the charms which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">134</span>
are stuck round it being occasionally taken down, burned, and mixed
with water, which the patient has to drink. Gongs are beaten and fire-crackers
let off to frighten away the demons which are supposed to be
tormenting the sick person.</p>

<p>“The superstition as to the powers of the ‘evil eye,’” says Denny,<a id="FNanchor_311_311" href="#Footnote_311_311" class="fnanchor">311</a>
“may almost be deemed fundamental to humanity, as I have yet to read
of a people amongst whom it does not find some degree of credence.”
In China a pregnant woman, or a man whose wife is pregnant, is
called “four-eyed”; and children are guarded against being looked at
by either, as it would probably cause sickness to attack them.</p>

<p>One of the commonest diagrams to be met with in China is the
mystic <i>svastika</i>, or “Thor’s Hammer” 卍. It is found on the
wrappers of medicines, and is accepted as the accumulation of lucky
signs possessing ten thousand virtues.<a id="FNanchor_312_312" href="#Footnote_312_312" class="fnanchor">312</a></p>

<p>The physicians of Thibet, says M. Huc,<a id="FNanchor_313_313" href="#Footnote_313_313" class="fnanchor">313</a> assign to the human body
four hundred and forty diseases, neither more nor less. Lamas who
practise medicine have to learn by heart the books which treat of these
diseases, their symptoms, and the method of curing them. The books
are a mere hotch-potch of aphorisms and recipes. The Lama doctors
have less horror of blood than the Chinese, and practise bleeding and
cupping. They pay great attention to the examination of a patient’s
water. A thoroughly competent Lama physician must be able to
diagnose the disease and treat the patient without seeing him. It is
sufficient that he make a careful examination of the water. This he
does not by chemical tests, as in Western nations, but by whipping it
up with a wooden knife and listening to the noise made by the bubbles.
A patient’s water is mute or crackling according to his state of health.
Much of Chinese and Tartar medicine is mere superstition. “Yet,”
says M. Huc very judiciously, “notwithstanding all this quackery, there
is no doubt that they possess an infinite number of very valuable
recipes, the result of long experience. It were perhaps rash to imagine
that medical science has nothing to learn from the Tartar, Thibetian,
and Chinese physicians, on the pretext that they are not acquainted
with the structure and mechanism of the human body. They may,
nevertheless, be in possession of very important secrets, which science
alone, no doubt, is capable of explaining, but which, very possibly,
science itself may never discover. Without being scientific, a man
may very well light upon extremely scientific results.” The fact that
everybody in China and Tartary can make gunpowder, while probably<span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">135</span>
none of the makers can chemically explain its composition and action
is a proof of this fact.</p>

<p>M. Huc says that every Mongol knows the name and position of
all the bones which compose the frame of animals. They are exceedingly
skilful anatomists, and are well acquainted with the diseases
of animals, and the best means of curing them. They administer
medicines to beasts by means of a cow-horn used as a funnel, and even
employ enemas in their diseases. The cow-horn serves for the pipe, and
a bladder fixed on the wide end acts as a pump when squeezed. They
make punctures and incisions in various parts of the body of animals.
Although their skill as anatomists and veterinary surgeons is so great,
they have only the simplest and rudest tools wherewith to exercise this
art.</p>

<p>“Medicine in Tartary,” says M. Huc,<a id="FNanchor_314_314" href="#Footnote_314_314" class="fnanchor">314</a> “is exclusively practised by
the Lamas. When illness attacks any one, his friends run to the nearest
monastery for a Lama, whose first proceeding, upon visiting the patient,
is to run his fingers over the pulse of both wrists simultaneously, as the
fingers of a musician run over the strings of an instrument. The
Chinese physicians feel both pulses also, but in succession. After due
deliberation, the Lama pronounces his opinion as to the particular
nature of the malady. According to the religious belief of the Tartars,
all illness is owing to the visitation of a Tchutgour, or demon; but the
expulsion of the demon is first a matter of medicine. The Lama
physician next proceeds, as Lama apothecary, to give the specific
befitting the case; the Tartar pharmacopœia rejecting all mineral
chemistry, the Lama remedies consist entirely of vegetables pulverised,
and either infused in water or made up into pills. If the Lama doctor
happens not to have any medicine with him, he is by no means disconcerted;
he writes the names of the remedies upon little scraps of paper,
moistens the paper with his saliva, and rolls them up into pills, which
the patient tosses down with the same perfect confidence as though they
were genuine medicaments. To swallow the name of a remedy, or the
remedy itself, say the Tartars, comes to precisely the same thing.</p>

<p>“The medical assault of the usurping demon being applied, the
Lama next proceeds to spiritual artillery, in the form of prayers, adapted
to the quality of the demon who has to be dislodged. If the patient
is poor, the Tchutgour visiting him can evidently only be an inferior
Tchutgour, requiring merely a brief, offhand prayer, sometimes merely
an interjectional exorcism. If the patient is very poor, the Lama
troubles himself with neither prayer nor pill, but goes away, recommending
the friends to wait with patience until the sick patient gets<span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">136</span>
better or dies, according to the decree of Hormoustha. But where the
patient is rich, the possessor of large flocks, the proceedings are altogether
different. First it is obvious that a devil who presumes to visit
so eminent a personage must be a potent devil, one of the chiefs of
the lower world; and it would not be decent for a great Tchutgour
to travel like a mere sprite; the family, accordingly, are directed to
prepare for him a handsome suit of clothes, a pair of rich boots, a fine
horse, ready saddled and bridled, otherwise the devil will never think
of going, physic or exorcise him how you may. It is even possible,
indeed, that one horse will not suffice; for the demon, in very rich
cases, may turn out upon inquiry to be so high and mighty a prince,
that he has with him a number of courtiers and attendants, all of whom
have to be provided with horses.</p>

<p>“Everything being arranged, the ceremony commences. The Lama
and numerous co-physicians called in from his own and other adjacent
monasteries, offer up prayers in the rich man’s tents for a week or a
fortnight, until they perceive that the devil is gone,—that is to say, until
they have exhausted all the disposable tea and sheep. If the patient
recovers, it is a clear proof that the prayers have been efficaciously
recited; if he dies, it is a still greater proof of the efficaciousness of the
prayers, for not only is the devil gone, but the patient has transmigrated
to a state far better than that he has quitted.</p>

<p>“The prayers recited by the Lamas for the recovery of the sick are
sometimes accompanied with very dismal and alarming rites. The aunt
of Tokoura, chief of an encampment in the Valley of Dark Waters,
visited by M. Huc, was seized one evening with an intermittent fever.
‘I would invite the attendance of the doctor Lama,’ said Tokoura, ‘but
if he finds there is a very big Tchutgour present, the expenses will ruin
me.’ He waited for some days, but as his aunt grew worse and worse,
he at last sent for a Lama; his anticipations were confirmed. The
Lama pronounced that a demon of considerable rank was present, and
that no time must be lost in expelling him. Eight other Lamas were
forthwith called in, who at once set about the construction in dried
herbs of a great puppet, which they entitled the Demon of Intermittent
Fever, and which, when completed, they placed on its legs by means of
a stick, in the patient’s tent.</p>

<p>“The ceremony began at eleven o’clock at night; the Lamas ranged
themselves in a semicircle round the upper portion of the tent with
cymbals, sea-shells, bells, tambourines, and other instruments of the
noisy Tartar music. The remainder of the circle was completed by the
members of the family squatting on the ground close to one another,
the patient kneeling, or rather crouched on her heels, opposite the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">137</span>
Demon of Intermittent Fever. The Lama doctor in chief had before
him a large copper basin filled with millet, and some little images made
of paste. The dung-fuel threw amid much smoke a fantastic and
quivering light over the strange scene. Upon a given signal, the clerical
orchestra executed an overture harsh enough to frighten Satan himself,
the lay congregation beating time with their hands to the charivari of
clanging instruments and ear-splitting voices. The diabolical concert
over, the Grand Lama opened the Book of Exorcisms, which he rested
on his knees. As he chanted one of the forms, he took from the basin
from time to time a handful of millet, which he threw east, west, north,
and south, according to the Rubric. The tones of his voice as he
prayed were sometimes mournful and suppressed, sometimes vehemently
loud and energetic. All of a sudden he would quit the regular cadence
of prayer, and have an outburst of apparently indomitable rage, abusing
the herb puppet with fierce invectives and furious gestures. The exorcism
terminated, he gave a signal by stretching out his arms right and left, and
the other Lamas struck up a tremendously noisy chorus in hurried, dashing
tones. All the instruments were set to work, and meantime the lay
congregation, having started up with one accord, ran out of the tent
one after the other, and tearing round it like mad people, beat it at their
hardest with sticks, yelling all the while at the pitch of their voices in a
manner to make ordinary hair stand on end. Having thrice performed
this demoniac round, they re-entered the tent as precipitately as they
had quitted it, and resumed their seats. Then, all the others covering
their faces with their hands, the Grand Lama rose and set fire to the
herb figure. As soon as the flames rose he uttered a loud cry, which
was repeated with interest by the rest of the company. The laity
immediately arose, seized the burning figure, carried it into the plain,
away from the tents, and there, as it consumed, anathematized it with
all sorts of imprecations; the Lamas, meantime, squatted in the tent,
tranquilly chanting their prayers in a grave, solemn tone. Upon the
return of the family from their valorous expedition, the praying was
exchanged for joyous felicitations. By-and-by each person provided
with a lighted torch, the whole party rushed simultaneously from the
tent, and formed into a procession, the laymen first, then the patient,
supported on either side by a member of the family, and lastly, the
nine Lamas, making night hideous with their music. In this style
the patient was conducted to another tent, pursuant to the orders of the
Lama, who declared she must absent herself from her own habitation
for an entire month.</p>

<p>“After this strange treatment the malady did not return. The probability
is that the Lamas, having ascertained the precise moment at<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">138</span>
which the fever-fit would recur, met it at the exact point of time by this
tremendous counter-excitement and overcame it.</p>

<p>“Though the majority of the Lamas seek to foster the ignorant
credulity of the Tartars, in order to turn it to their own profit, we have
met some of them who frankly avowed that duplicity and imposture
played considerable part in all their ceremonies. The superior of a
Lamasery said to us one day, ‘When a person is ill the recitation
of prayers is proper, for Buddha is the master of life and death; it is
he who rules the transmigration of beings. To take remedies is also
fitting, for the great virtue of medicinal herbs also comes to us from
Buddha. That the Evil One may possess a rich person is credible;
but that in order to repel the Evil One, the way is to give him dress,
and a horse, and what not, this is a fiction invented by ignorant and
deceiving Lamas, who desire to accumulate wealth at the expense of
their brothers.’”</p>

<p>M. Huc describes a grand solemnity he witnessed in Tartary, when a
Lama Boktè cut himself open, took out his entrails, placed them before
him, and then after returning them, closed the wound while the blood
flowed in every direction; yet he was apparently as well as before the
operation, with the exception of extreme prostration. Good Lamas, says
M. Huc, abhor such diabolical miracles; it is only those of bad character
who perform them. The good priest describes several other
“supernaturalisms,” as he calls them, of a similar kind, which are
frequently performed by the Lamas. He sets them all down to diabolical
agency.<a id="FNanchor_315_315" href="#Footnote_315_315" class="fnanchor">315</a></p>

<p>The Turanian nations have their priests of magic, says M. Maury,<a id="FNanchor_316_316" href="#Footnote_316_316" class="fnanchor">316</a>
who exercise great power over the people. He thinks this is partly due
to the pains they take to look savage and imposing, but still more to
the over-excited condition in which they are kept by the rites to which
they have recourse; they take stimulants and probably drugs to cause
hallucinations, convulsions, and dreams, for they are the dupes of their
own delirium.</p>

<p>“Amongst all nations,” says Castrèn, “of whatever race, disease is
always regarded as a possession, and as the work of a demon.”<a id="FNanchor_317_317" href="#Footnote_317_317" class="fnanchor">317</a></p>

<p>Says M. Maury:<span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">139</span> “The Baschkirs have their Shaitan-kuriazi, who expel
devils, and undertake to treat the invalids regarded as possessed by means
of the administration of certain remedies. This Shaitan, whose name
has been borrowed from the Satan of the Christians, since the Baschkirs
have come into contact with the Russians, is held by the Kalmuks to be
the chief author of all our bodily sufferings. If they wish to expel him,
they must resort not only to conjurations, but also to cunning. The aleyss
places his offerings before the sick man, as if they were intended for
the wicked spirit; it being supposed that the demon, attracted by their
number or their value, will leave the body which he is tormenting in
order to seize upon the new spoil. According to the Tcheremisses, the
souls of the dead come to trouble the living, and in order to prevent
them from doing so, they pierce the soles of the feet, and also the heart
of the deceased, thinking that, being then nailed into their tomb, the
dead could not possibly leave it.... The Kirghis tribes apply to
their sorcerers, or <i>Baksy</i>, to chase away demons, and then to cure the
diseases they are supposed to produce. To this end they whip the
invalid until the blood comes, and then spit in his face. In their eyes
every disease is a personal being. This idea is so generally received
amongst the Tchuvaches also, that they firmly believe the least omission
of duty is punished by some disease sent to them by Tchemen, a
demon whose name is only an altered form of Shaitan. An opinion
strongly resembling this is found again amongst the Tchuktchis; these
savages have recourse to the strangest conjurations to free from disease;
their Shamans are also subject to nervous states, which they bring on
by an artificial excitement.”<a id="FNanchor_318_318" href="#Footnote_318_318" class="fnanchor">318</a></p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Japanese Medicine.</span></h4>

<p>The Chinese, as early as 218 <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>, found their way amongst the
Japanese doctors with medical books, dating back, it is alleged, to
2737 <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>, and the influence of Chinese medicine upon Japanese
medicine has continued to be a controlling one up to the recent introduction
of European medicines now in vogue. The old style of things
is, according to Dr. Benjamin Howard, still followed by 30,000 out of
the 41,000 physicians now practising throughout the Empire. Of the
30,000 of the old vernacular school, one of them is still on the list of
the Court physicians, and maintains a high reputation. The impression
throughout Europe that coloured papers, exorcisms, etc., are the basis
of Chinese and Japanese medicine is erroneous. Dr. Howard has seen
nearly 2,000 books by these people, covering most of the departments
of medicine, but amongst which materia medica occupies the leading
place. In these books are the doctrines of the successive schools,
strikingly like some of those which in past centuries existed amongst
our own ancestors. The successive medical colleges have always had
a professor of astrology, but the solid fact remains that the materia<span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">140</span>
medica has included amongst its several hundred remedies a large
number of those used by ourselves, and these are not only vegetable,
but animal and mineral, in the latter class mercury being prominent.
Surgery became a separate branch as long since as the seventh or eighth
century.<a id="FNanchor_319_319" href="#Footnote_319_319" class="fnanchor">319</a></p>

<hr class="chap" />
<div class="chapter"></div>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">141</span></p>




<h3 id="CHAPTERII_VI">CHAPTER VI.<br />

<small>THE MEDICINE OF THE PARSEES.</small></h3>

<blockquote>

<p>Zoroaster and the <i>Zend-Avesta</i>.—The Heavenly Gift of the Healing Plants.—Ormuzd
and Ahriman.—Practice of the Healing Art and its Fees.</p></blockquote>


<p>Zoroaster, or more correctly Zarathustra, was the founder, or at least
the reformer of the Magian religion, and one of the greatest teachers
of the East. The date of Zoroaster is involved in obscurity, but all
classical antiquity agrees that he was an historical person. Neither do
we know his birthplace. Duncker gives 1000 <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> as his period; others
consider that he was possibly a contemporary of Moses. In the
<i>Zend-Avesta</i> and the records of the Parsees he is said to have lived in
the reign of Vitaçpa or Gushtap, whom most writers recognise as Darius
Hystaspis. Pliny notices works of Zoroaster treating of Nature and
of precious stones. He is credited with the invention of magic; and as
ancient medicine was closely connected with magic, we may, in this sense,
consider him as a physician. Aristotle and Eudoxus stated that he lived
six thousand years before Plato. It is hopeless, however, to attempt to
settle a question so involved in obscurity. The most characteristic
feature of Zoroaster’s teaching is the dualistic conception of the scheme
of the universe, according to which two powers—a good and an evil—are
for ever contending for the mastery—Ormuzd against Ahriman.
Ormuzd is of the light, and from this emanate the good spirits whose
laws are executed by Izeds, who are angels and archangels.</p>

<p>Ahriman is of the darkness, and from this emanate Daêvas, powers
by whom mankind are led to their destruction—evil powers, false gods,
devils. From these Daêvas proceed all the evil which is in the world;
they are agents of that higher evil principle Druj, or falsehood and deception,
which is called Ahriman, the spirit enemy. These Daêvas send
to men, and are the causes of all diseases, which can only be cured by
the good spirits. Man belongs either to Ormuzd or to Ahriman according
to his deeds. If he offers sacrifice to Ormuzd and the gods, and
helps them by good thoughts, good deeds, and spreads life over the
world and opposes Ahriman by destroying evil, then he is a man of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">142</span>
Asha, who drives away fiends and diseases by spells. He who does
the contrary to this is a Dravant,—“demon,” a foe of Asha. The
man of Ormuzd will have a seat near him in heaven.<a id="FNanchor_320_320" href="#Footnote_320_320" class="fnanchor">320</a></p>

<p>According to the <i>Zend-Avesta</i> Thrita was the first physician who
drove back death and disease. Ormuzd (Ahura Mazda) brought him
down from heaven ten thousand healing plants which had grown around
the tree of eternal life, which is the white Haoma (the Indian Soma),
or Gaokerena, which grows in the middle of the sea, Vouru-kasha.
These are the Haomas, says Darmesteter.<a id="FNanchor_321_321" href="#Footnote_321_321" class="fnanchor">321</a></p>

<p>One is the yellow, or earthly Haoma, and is the king of healing-plants;
the other, or white, is that which, on the day of resurrection,
will make men immortal. Thrita was one of the first priests of Haoma,
the life and health-giving plant, and thus he obtained his skill in
medicine. Darmesteter says that Thrita was originally the same as
Thraêtaona of the <i>Rig-Veda</i>.<a id="FNanchor_322_322" href="#Footnote_322_322" class="fnanchor">322</a></p>

<p>“We see that Thraêtaona fulfilled the same functions as Thrita.
According to Hamza he was the inventor of medicine. The Tavids
(formulas of exorcism) against sickness are inscribed with his name,
and we find in the Avesta itself the Fravashi of Thraêtaona invoked
‘against itch, hot fever, humours, cold fever, vâvareshi; against the
plagues created by the serpent.’ We learn from this passage that disease
was understood as coming from the serpent; in other words, that it was
considered a sort of poisoning, and this is the reason why the killer of
the serpent was invoked to act against it. Thus Thrita Thraêtaona had
a double right to the title of the first of the healers, both as a priest of
Haoma and as the conqueror of the serpent.”</p>

<p>Ormuzd (Ahura Mazda) said that Thrita “asked for a source of
remedies—he obtained it from Khshathia-Vaivya”—to withstand the
diseases and infection which Angra-Mainyu had created by his witchcraft.
As Ahriman had created ten thousand diseases, so Ormuzd gave
mankind the same number of healing plants. This idea is firmly fixed
in the minds of every one of us to this day: for every disease there
must of necessity somewhere be a remedy, and that usually with the
common people is supposed to be a plant. The Soma is the king of the
healing plants in India and that also came down from heaven. “Whilst
coming down from heaven the plants said, ‘He will never suffer any
wound the mortal whom we touch.’”<a id="FNanchor_323_323" href="#Footnote_323_323" class="fnanchor">323</a></p>

<p>Ormuzd, having given man the healing plants, said:<span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">143</span> “To thee, O
Sickness, I say, avaunt! To thee, O Death, I say, avaunt! To thee,
O Pain, I say, avaunt! To thee, O Fever, I say, avaunt! To thee,
O Disease, I say, avaunt!”<a id="FNanchor_324_324" href="#Footnote_324_324" class="fnanchor">324</a></p>

<p>In the Vendîdâd (Fargard vii. <i>a</i>)<a id="FNanchor_325_325" href="#Footnote_325_325" class="fnanchor">325</a> it is demanded, “If a worshipper
of Mazda want to practise the art of healing, on whom shall he first
prove his skill? On worshippers of Mazda or on worshippers of
the Daêvas?”</p>

<p>Ahura Mazda answered: “On worshippers of the Daêvas shall he
first prove himself, rather than on worshippers of Mazda. If he treat
with the knife a worshipper of the Daêvas, and he die; if he treat with
the knife a second worshipper of the Daêvas, and he die; if he treat
with the knife for the third time a worshipper of the Daêvas, and he die,
he is unfit to practise the art of healing for ever and ever. Let him
therefore never attend any worshipper of Mazda; let him never treat
with the knife any worshipper of Mazda, nor wound him with the
knife. If he shall ever attend any worshipper of Mazda; if he shall
ever treat with the knife any worshipper of Mazda, and wound him with
the knife, he shall pay for it the same penalty as is paid for wilful
murder. If he treat with the knife a worshipper of the Daêvas, and he
recover; if he treat with the knife a second worshipper of the Daêvas,
and he recover; if for the third time he treat with the knife a worshipper
of the Daêvas, and he recover, then he is fit to practise the art
of healing for ever and ever. He may henceforth at his will attend
worshippers of Mazda; he may at his will treat with the knife worshippers
of Mazda, and heal them with the knife.”</p>

<p>Naturally, the rising surgeons would seek their clinical material
amongst the heretics.</p>

<p>We learn from the <i>Zend-Avesta</i> that the doctrine of Zoroaster teaches
that not only real death makes one unclean, but partial death also. The
demon claims as his property everything which goes out of the body of
man, and that because it is dead. The breath which leaves the mouth
is unclean, so that fire, which is sacred, must not be blown with it. Nail
parings and cuttings of the hair are unclean, and unless protected by
spells are likely to become the weapons of the demons. Whatever
altered the body in its nature was demon’s work. On this principle the
menstruation of women causes their uncleanness. The menses are
sent by Ahriman; the woman is possessed by a demon while they last;
she has to be kept apart; she cannot even receive food from hand to
hand; she may not eat much lest she feed the demon. So utterly unclean
is a woman who has borne a dead child that she is not allowed to
drink water unless in danger of death. Logic compelled that a sick
man should be treated as one possessed. Sickness was sent by Ahriman,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">144</span>
and is to be cured by washings and spells. The most powerful therefore
of all medical treatment is magic. It was always more highly
esteemed by the faithful than treatment by drugs and the lancet.<a id="FNanchor_326_326" href="#Footnote_326_326" class="fnanchor">326</a> Hair
and nails, which having been cut off have at once become the property
of Ahriman, may be withdrawn from his power by prayer, and by being
deposited in the earth in consecrated circles, which, being drawn round
them, intrench them against the fiend.<a id="FNanchor_327_327" href="#Footnote_327_327" class="fnanchor">327</a></p>

<p>In the <i>Zend-Avesta</i> it is laid down that a woman who has been just
delivered of a child is unclean. When delivered of a dead child, she
must drink gômêz. Says Darmesteter:<a id="FNanchor_328_328" href="#Footnote_328_328" class="fnanchor">328</a> “So utterly unclean is she,
that she is not even allowed to drink water, unless she is in danger of
death; and even then, as the sacred element has been defiled, she is
liable to the penalty of a Perhôtanu. It appears from modern customs
that the treatment is the same when the child is born alive; the reason
of which is that, in any case, during the first three days after delivery
she is in danger of death. A great fire is lighted to keep away the
fiends, who use then their utmost efforts to kill her and her child. She
is unclean only because the death-fiend is in her.”</p>

<p>The Saddar 16 says: “When there is a pregnant woman in a house,
one must take care that there be fire continually in it; when the child
is brought forth, one must burn a candle, or, better still, a fire, for three
days and three nights, to render the Dêvs and Drugs unable to harm
the child; for there is great danger during those three days and nights
after the birth of the child.”</p>

<p>A table of physician’s fees is given in the Vendîdâd. The healer is to
attend a priest and get him well for his blessing; the master of a house
is to pay the value of a cheap ox for the same service; but the lord of a
province is to pay the value of a chariot and four. The wife of the
master of a house pays the value of a she-ass for her healing, but the
wife of the lord of a province pays the value of a she-camel.</p>

<p>It declared that, “If several healers offered themselves together,
O Spitama Zarathustra! namely, one who heals with the knife, one
who heals with herbs, and one who heals with the holy word (<i>i.e.</i> by
spells), it is this one who will best drive away sickness from the faithful.”</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">145</span></p>


<hr class="chap" />
<div class="chapter"></div>

<h2 id="BOOK_III">BOOK III.<br />

<small><i>GREEK MEDICINE.</i></small></h2>

<hr class="chap" />
<div class="chapter"></div>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">147</span></p>




<h3 id="CHAPTERIII_I">CHAPTER I.<br />

<small>THE MEDICINE OF THE GREEKS BEFORE THE TIME OF HIPPOCRATES.</small></h3>

<blockquote>

<p>Apollo, the God of Medicine.—Cheiron.—Æsculapius.—Artemis.—Dionysus.—Ammon.—Hermes.—Prometheus.—Melampus.—Medicine
of Homer.—- Temples
of Æsculapius.—The Early Ionic Philosophers.—Empedocles.—School of Crotona.—The
Pythagoreans.—Grecian Theory of Diseases.—School of Cos.—The
Asclepiads.—The Aliptæ.</p></blockquote>


<h4><span class="smcap">Gods of Medicine.</span></h4>

<p>The origin of Greek medicine is intermixed with the Hellenic mythology.
We must begin, not with <span class="smcap">Æsculapius</span> (<span class="smcap">Asclepios</span>), but with the
sun itself. <span class="smcap">Apollo</span> (<span class="smcap">Pæan</span>), as the god who visits men with plagues
and epidemics, was also the god who wards off evil and affords help to
men. He was constantly referred to as “the Healer,” as <i>Alexicacus</i>,
the averter of ills. He is the saviour from epidemics, and the <i>pæan</i>
was sung in his honour (<i>Iliad</i>, I. 473, XXII. 391).</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Apollo</span> promoted the health and well-being of man, and was the god
of prolific power, the trainer of youth, and thus he was the chief deity
of healing. As the god of light and purity he was truly the health-god;
and as light penetrates the darkness, he was the god of divination and
the patron of prophecy, acting chiefly through women when in a state
of ecstasy. Homer says that Pæan<a id="FNanchor_329_329" href="#Footnote_329_329" class="fnanchor">329</a> was the physician of the Olympian
gods (<i>Iliad</i>, V. 401, 899).</p>

<p>Next we find Cheiron, the wise and just centaur (<i>Iliad</i>, XI. 831), who
had been instructed by Apollo and Artemis, and was famous for his
skill in medicine. He was the master and instructor of the most celebrated
heroes of Greek story, and he taught the art of healing to
<span class="smcap">Æsculapius</span> (<span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 1250). This god of medicine was said to be the son
of Apollo. Pausanius<a id="FNanchor_330_330" href="#Footnote_330_330" class="fnanchor">330</a> explains the allegory thus: “If Asclepius is the
air—indispensable to the health of man and beast, yet Apollo is the
sun, and rightly is he called the father of Asclepius, for the sun, by his
yearly course, makes the air wholesome.”</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">148</span></p>

<p>In the Homeric poems Æsculapius is not a divinity, but merely a
human being. Homer, however, calls all those who practise the art of
healing descendants of Pæan; his healing god is Apollo, and never
Æsculapius.</p>

<p>Legend tells that Æsculapius was the son of Apollo by Coronis, who
was killed by Artemis for unfaithfulness, and her body was about to be
burnt on the pyre, when Apollo snatched the boy out of the flames and
handed him over to the centaur Cheiron, who taught him how to cure
all diseases. Pindar tells the story of his instruction in the art of
medicine:—</p>

<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"><div class="stanza">
  <div class="verse indent4">“The rescued child he gave to share</div>
  <div class="verse indent4">Magnesian Centaur’s fostering care;</div>
  <div class="verse indent4">And learn of him the soothing art</div>
  <div class="verse indent4">That wards from man diseases’ dart.</div>
  <div class="verse indent6">Of those whom nature made to feel</div>
  <div class="verse indent4">Corroding ulcers gnaw their frame;</div>
  <div class="verse indent6">Or stones far hurled, or glittering steel,</div>
  <div class="verse indent4">All to the great physician came.</div>
  <div class="verse indent4">By summer’s heat or winter’s cold</div>
  <div class="verse indent6">Oppressed, of him they sought relief.</div>
  <div class="verse indent4">Each deadly pang his skill controlled,</div>
  <div class="verse indent4">And found a balm for every grief.</div>
  <div class="verse">On some the force of charmed strains he tried,</div>
  <div class="verse">To some the medicated draught applied;</div>
  <div class="verse">Some limbs he placed the amulets around,</div>
  <div class="verse">Some from the trunk he cut, and made the patient sound.”<a id="FNanchor_331_331" href="#Footnote_331_331" class="fnanchor">331</a></div>
</div></div></div>

<p>It was believed that he was even able to restore the dead to life.
According to one tradition, Æsculapius was once shut up in the house
of Glaucus, whom he was to cure, and while he was absorbed in thought
there came a serpent, which twined round his staff, and which he killed.
Then he saw another serpent, which came carrying in its mouth a herb,
with which it recalled to life the one that had been killed; and the
physician henceforth made use of the same herb to restore dead men
to life, the popular belief, even in these early times, evidently being
that what would cure serpents would be equally efficacious for men.
We may therefore consider the snake-entwined staff of the healing
god as the symbol of the early faith in the efficacy of experiments on
animals, though in this instance the experiment was on a dead one.</p>

<p>Æsculapius was only too successful a practitioner; for when he was
exercising his art upon Glaucus, Zeus killed the physician with a flash
of lightning, as he feared that men might gradually escape death altogether.
Others say the reason was that Pluto complained that by such
medical treatment the number of the dead was too much diminished.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">149</span>
On the request of Apollo, Zeus placed Æsculapius amongst the stars.
His wife was Epione (the soother). Homer mentions Podalirius and
Machaon as sons of Æsculapius, and the following are also said to have
been his sons and daughters—Janiscus, Alexenor, Aratus, Hygeia, Ægle,
Iaso, and Panaceia. Most of these, as Hygeia, the goddess of health,
and Panaceia, the all-healing, it will be seen, are merely personifications
of the powers ascribed to their father. There is no doubt that facts are
the basis of the Æsculapian story. The divinity was worshipped all over
Greece. His temples were for the most part built in mountainous and
healthy places, and as often as possible in the neighbourhood of a
medicinal spring; in a sense they became the prototypes of our hospitals
and medical schools. Multitudes of sick persons visited them, and
the priests found it to their interest to study diseases and their remedies;
for though faith and religious fervour may do much for the sick,
the art of the physician and the hand of the surgeon are adjuncts by
no means to be despised even in a temple clinic. The chief of the
Æsculapian temples was at Epidaurus; there no one was permitted to
die and no woman to give birth to a child. The connection of the
serpent with the divinity probably arose from the idea that serpents
represent prudence and renovation, and have the power of discovering
the secret virtues of healing plants.</p>

<p>The idea of the serpent twined round the rod of Æsculapius is that
“as sickness comes from him, from him too must or may come the
healing.”<a id="FNanchor_332_332" href="#Footnote_332_332" class="fnanchor">332</a> The knots on the staff are supposed to symbolize the many
knotty points which arise in the practice of physic.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Minerva</span> was the patroness of all the arts and trades; at her festivals
she was invoked by all who desired to distinguish themselves in medicine,
as well as by the patients whom they failed to cure. As the
goddess of intelligence and inventiveness, she was the Greek patroness
of physicians, and was the same deity as Pallas Athene, who bestows
health and keeps off sickness.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Artemis</span>, or <span class="smcap">Diana</span>, as the Romans called the Greek goddess, was a
deity who, inviolate and vigorous herself, granted health and strength to
others. She was the sister of Apollo, and though a dispenser of life
could, like her brother, send death and disease amongst men and animals.
Sudden deaths, especially amongst women, were described as the effect
of her arrows. She was θεὰ σώτειρα, who assuaged the sufferings of
mortals. When Æneas was wounded, she healed him in the temple
of Apollo.<a id="FNanchor_333_333" href="#Footnote_333_333" class="fnanchor">333</a> Yet Artemis ταυροπόλος produced madness in the minds
of men.<a id="FNanchor_334_334" href="#Footnote_334_334" class="fnanchor">334</a></p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">150</span></p>

<p>She was the Cretan Diktynna, and that goddess wore a wreath of
the magic plant <i>diktamnon</i> or <i>dictamnus</i>, called by us <i>dittany</i> (<i>dictamnus
ruber</i>, or <i>albus</i>); it grows in abundance on Mounts <i>Dicté</i> and Ida in
Crete.</p>

<p>The Cretan goddess <span class="smcap">Britomartis</span> was sometimes identified with
Artemis. She too was a goddess of health as also of birth, and was
supposed to dispense happiness to mortals.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Bacchus</span>, or, as he was called by the Greeks, <span class="smcap">Dionysus</span>, as the god of
wine, and an inspired and an inspiring deity, who revealed the future by
oracles, cured diseases by discovering to sufferers in their dreams their
appropriate remedies. The prophet, the priest, and the physician are so
often blended in one in the early history of civilization, that the same
ideas naturally clustered round Bacchus as around Apollo, and other
great benefactors of mankind. The giver of vines and wine was the
dispenser of the animating, exalting, intoxicating powers of nature. As
wine restores the flagging energies of the body and mind, and seems
to have the power of calling back to life the departing spirit, and inspiring
the languishing vitality of man, Bacchus would naturally enough be
a god of medicine. The intoxicating properties of wine would be connected
with inspiration, and so Bacchus had a share in the oracles of
Delphi and Amphicleia. He was invoked as a θεὸς σωτήρ against raging
diseases.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Ammon</span> was an Ethiopian divinity whose worship spread over Egypt,
and thence to Greece, and was described as the spirit pervading the
universe, and as the author of all life in nature.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Hermes Trismegistus</span> of the Greeks was identified in the time of
Plato with Thoth, Thot, or Theut of the Egyptians.<a id="FNanchor_335_335" href="#Footnote_335_335" class="fnanchor">335</a></p>

<p>The Egyptian <span class="smcap">Thoth</span> was considered the father of all knowledge, and
everything committed to writing was looked upon as his property; he
was therefore the embodied eek: λόγος, and so τρὶς μέγιστος, or the superlatively
greatest. He was identified by the Greeks more or less completely
with their own <span class="smcap">Hermes</span>, or <span class="smcap">Mercury</span> as he was known to the
Romans; he was the messenger of the gods; as dreams are sent by
Zeus, it was his office to convey them to men, and he had power to
grant refreshing sleep or to deny the blessing. As the gods revealed
the remedies for sickness in dreams, Hermes became a god of
medicine.</p>

<p>Thoth, the ibis-headed, was the Egyptian god of letters, the deity of
wisdom in general, who aided Horus in his conflict with Seth, and
recorded the judgments of the dead before Osiris. Hermes κριοφόρος,
the averter of diseases, was worshipped in Bœotia. Hermes, the Greek<span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">151</span>
deity, was king of the dead and the conductor of souls to their future
home. Probably, therefore, we may rightly look upon Thoth, Hermes,
and Hermes Trismegistus as the same person. By many Thoth is considered
to be the Egyptian Æsculapius, as he was the inventor of the
healing art; the Phœnician god Esmun, one of the ancient Cabiri, was
invested with similar attributes, and was worshipped at Carthage and
Berytus. The authorship of the oldest Egyptian works on medicine is
ascribed to Thoth. These were engraved on pillars of stone. The
works of Thoth were ultimately incorporated into the so-called “Hermetic
Books.” Clement of Alexandria, who is our only ancient
authority on these Hermetic works, says they were forty-two in number.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Prometheus</span> (the man of freethought) is considered by Æschylus as
the founder of human civilization.</p>

<p>Æschylus, in his <i>Prometheus Chained</i>, makes the god say how he had
taught each useful art to man. As regards medicine, he says:—</p>

<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"><div class="stanza">
  <div class="verse">“Hear my whole story; thou wilt wonder more</div>
  <div class="verse">What useful arts, what science I invented.</div>
  <div class="verse">This first and greatest; when the fell disease</div>
  <div class="verse">Preyed on the human frame, relief was none,</div>
  <div class="verse">Nor healing drug, nor cool, refreshing draught,</div>
  <div class="verse">Nor pain-assuaging unguent; but they pined</div>
  <div class="verse">Without redress, and wasted, till I taught them</div>
  <div class="verse">To mix the balmy medicine, of power</div>
  <div class="verse">To chase each pale disease, and soften pain.”<a id="FNanchor_336_336" href="#Footnote_336_336" class="fnanchor">336</a></div>
</div></div></div>

<p><span class="smcap">Melampus</span>, who was famous for his prophetic powers, was believed
by the Greeks to have been the first mortal who practised the art of
medicine, and established the worship of Dionysus in Greece. As
doctors are frequently expected to exercise the art of prophecy in
conjunction with their profession, it is unfortunate that we have retrograded
from the Melampian type. The eminent physician who tells
the over-inquisitive friends of his patients that he is “a doctor and not
a prophet,” might be answered that originally the two functions were
combined. Melampus taught the Greeks to mix their wine with water.
He is fabled to have learned the language of the birds from some young
serpents who had been reared by him, and who licked his ears when he
was asleep. When he awoke he found that he understood what the
birds said, and that he could foretell the future.</p>

<p>Iphiclus had no children, and he asked Melampus to tell him how he
could become a father. He advised him to take the rust from a knife,
and drink it in water during ten days. The remedy was eminently
successful, and is the first instance in which a preparation of iron is
known to have been prescribed in medicine. He cured the daughters<span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">152</span>
of Prœtus by giving them hellebore (which has been called Melampodium
by botanists), and he received the eldest of the princesses in
marriage. He cured the women of Argos of a severe distemper which
made them insane, and the king showed his gratitude by giving him
part of his kingdom. He received divine honours after his death, and
temples were raised to him.</p>


<h4><span class="smcap">The Medicine of Homer.</span></h4>

<p>As Homer is supposed to have lived about 850 <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>, a study of such
references as are to be found in the <i>Iliad</i> and <i>Odyssey</i> which relate to
medicine and surgery will throw an important light on the state of the
healing art as it was practised at that early period of Greek history.</p>

<p>There is little mention of disease in Homer. We read of sudden
death, pestilence, and the troubles of old age, but there is hardly any
fixed morbid condition noticed.</p>

<p>Although the poet exhibits considerable acquaintance with medical
lore, and the human body in health and disease, he could have had
little or no acquaintance with anatomy, because amongst Greeks, as
amongst Jews, it was considered a profanation to dissect or mutilate
the human corpse.</p>

<p>It was not till the rise of the Alexandrian school in the golden age
of the Ptolemies that this sentiment was overcome. Still Homer must
have known that it was the custom of the Egyptians to embalm their
dead, as he refers to the process in the <i>Iliad</i>,<a id="FNanchor_337_337" href="#Footnote_337_337" class="fnanchor">337</a> where Thetis poured into
the nostrils of the corpse red nectar and ambrosia to preserve it from
putrefaction. Ambrosia is referred to by Virgil as useful for healing
wounds, and nectar was supposed to preserve flesh from decay.
Homer’s heroes seem to have been singularly healthy folk; their only
demand for the services of the army surgeons arose from the accidents
of war. <span class="smcap">Machaon</span> distinguished himself in surgery, and <span class="smcap">Podalirius</span> is
reputed to have been the first phlebotomist. Their services would be
chiefly required for extracting arrow-heads and spear-heads, checking
hæmorrhage by compression and styptic applications, and laying soothing
ointments on wounded and bruised surfaces. Beyond these minor
duties of the army surgeon, we find little record of their work. Mention
is not made of amputations, of setting of fractures, or tying of arteries.
Wounds were probed by Machaon, surgeon to Menelaus (Book IV.).</p>

<p>Whatever may have been the surgical skill of Machaon, we have
proof that the art of dieting the wounded was not at all understood in
the Homeric days. The wine and cheese was not the kind of refreshment
which found favour in Plato’s time with the Greek physicians.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">153</span>
Plato, in the <i>Republic</i> (Book III.), deals with the question at some
length. He says that the draught of Pramnian wine with barley meal
and cheese was an inflammatory mixture, and a strange potion for a
man in the state of Eurypylus.</p>

<p>But he excuses the sons of Asclepius for their treatment, explaining
that their method was not intended for coddling invalids, but for such
as had not time to be ill, and that the healing art was revealed for
the benefit of those whose constitutions were naturally sound, and
that doctors used to expel their disorders by drugs and the use of the
knife without interrupting their customary avocations, declining altogether
to assist chronic invalids to protract a miserable existence by
a studied regimen.</p>

<p>Le Clerc says<a id="FNanchor_338_338" href="#Footnote_338_338" class="fnanchor">338</a> that Plato is wrong in this explanation of the Homeric
treatment, and that the true one is that in those days the dietary of the
sick was not understood. Modern medicine will decline to accept
either theory. The fact is, Homer’s physicians were right. Good old
wine was the best thing possible to restore a man fainting from the loss
of blood; as for the cheese it was grated fine, and therefore was a
peculiarly nutritious food in a fairly digestible condition. The barley
water at all times was at least irreproachable. Although there is little
evidence in the Homeric poems of any medical treatment which passes
the limits of surgery, this is by no means conclusive against the
possession of the higher art by Podalirius. In an epic poem, as Le
Clerc points out, the subject is altogether too exalted to admit of
medical discourses on the treatment of colic and diarrhœa.</p>

<p>Neither must we be surprised, that when the pestilence appeared
in the camp of Agamemnon, Podalirius and Machaon did nothing to
avert it. Such a disease was at that time considered beyond all human
skill, and as the direct visitation of the gods. Homer clearly explains
that the pestilence was due to their anger. Galen adduces evidence
to prove that Æsculapius did really practise medicine, by music and
by gymnastics, or exercises on foot and horseback.</p>

<p>As Le Clerc says,<a id="FNanchor_339_339" href="#Footnote_339_339" class="fnanchor">339</a> this may have been patriotic exaggeration on the
part of Galen. To Podalirius is attributed the invention of the art of
bleeding. As he returned from the Trojan war, he was driven by a
tempest on the shores of Caria, where a shepherd, having learned that
he was a physician, took him to the king, whose daughter was sick. He
cured her by bleeding from both arms; the king gave her to him in
marriage, with a rich grant of land. This is the oldest example which
we have of bleeding.</p>

<p>Podalirius had a son Hippolochus, of whom the great Hippocrates was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">154</span>
a descendant. Le Clerc devotes a chapter of his <i>History of Medicine</i>
to reflections on the antiquity of the practice of venesection, and
speculates on the manner of its discovery. He says, the fact that
Homer is silent on the subject makes neither for nor against the
theory that it was known in his time; in such works as those of the
poet he was under no obligation to specify particularly the remedies
employed by the doctors. He speaks, for example, of soothing medicines
and bitter roots without further definition. It would be as reasonable
to agree that purgation was unknown from Homer’s silence on
the matter.</p>

<p>Homer knew something of the parts of the body where wounds are
most fatal. He says (Book IV., l. 183), “The arrow fell in no such
place as death could enter at,” and (Book VIII., l. 326), where the
arrow struck the right shoulder ’twixt the neck and breast, “the wound
was wondrous full of death.”</p>

<p>He knew much of drugs and medicinal plants: φάρμακον (pharmakon)
in the <i>Iliad</i> is a remedy, an unguent or application, and is
mentioned nine times; in the <i>Odyssey</i> it is a drug or medicinal herb,
and is referred to twenty times. In Book XI., Eurypylus, when
wounded, is treated with the “wholesome onion,” a potion is confected
with good old wine of Pramnius, with scraped goat’s-milk cheese and
fine flour mixed with it. Later on in the same book, we read of the
bruised, bitter, pain-assuaging root being applied to a wound; it was
some strong astringent bitter plant, probably a species of geranium.</p>

<p>Then in the <i>Odyssey</i> (Book IV. 200) occurs the reference to nepenthe,
a drug which has puzzled commentators exceedingly; some say
it was poppy juice, others hashish; we have also the magic moly, which
Mercury gave to Ulysses against the charms of Circe. By some this is
thought to have been the unpoetical garlic, by others to be wild rue,
such as Josephus refers to. It was more probably the mandrake.</p>

<p>There is a very curious and important reference to sulphur, as a disinfectant
fumigation in the <i>Odyssey</i> (Book XXII. 481):—</p>

<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"><div class="stanza">
  <div class="verse">“Bring sulphur straight, and fire” (the monarch cries).</div>
  <div class="verse">“She hears, and at the word obedient flies,</div>
  <div class="verse">With fire and sulphur, cure of noxious fumes,</div>
  <div class="verse">He purged the walls and blood-polluted rooms.”</div>
</div></div></div>

<p>This is precisely what the sanitary authorities do with fever dens at
the present day.</p>

<p>Homer several times refers to Machaon:—</p>

<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"><div class="stanza">
  <div class="verse">“And great Machaon to the ships convey.</div>
  <div class="verse">A wise physician, skilled our wounds to heal,</div>
  <div class="verse">Is more than armies to the public weal.”</div>
</div></div></div>

<p class="psig">
(<i>Iliad</i>, XI. 614.)
</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">155</span></p>

<p>With Podalirius, his brother, also a “famed surgeon,” he went to
Troy with thirty ships. Homer calls them “divine professors of the
healing arts” (<i>Iliad</i>, II. 728), and to them was committed the care of
the medical work of the expedition.</p>

<p>When Menelaus had been wounded by the spear of Pandarus, Machaon,
we are told by Homer (<i>Iliad</i>, IV. 218)—</p>

<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"><div class="stanza">
  <div class="verse">“Sucked the blood, and sovereign balm infused,</div>
  <div class="verse">Which Cheiron gave, and Æsculapius used.”</div>
</div></div></div>

<p>Agamede is referred to by Homer (<i>Iliad</i>, XI. 739) as acquainted with
the healing properties of all the plants that grow on the earth. She was
a daughter of Augeias, and wife of Mulius. The poet refers to her as—</p>

<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"><div class="stanza">
  <div class="verse">“She that all simples’ healing virtues knew,</div>
  <div class="verse">And every herb that drinks the morning dew.”<a id="FNanchor_340_340" href="#Footnote_340_340" class="fnanchor">340</a></div>
</div></div></div>

<p><span class="smcap">Hesiod</span> lived about the same time as Homer. He wrote the famous
<i>Works and Days</i>, a species of farmer’s calendar, and the <i>Theogony</i>.</p>

<p>On account of the knowledge he possessed of the properties of plants,
Theophrastus, Pliny, and others ranked him amongst the physicians.<a id="FNanchor_341_341" href="#Footnote_341_341" class="fnanchor">341</a></p>

<p>Both Podalirius and Machaon were held in great honour, not only
as combatants, but as medical advisers, and Homer’s account of them
exhibits the medical profession of his time as one that was very highly
esteemed. In the fragment of Arctinus which remains to us, we find
thus early the distinction made between the arts of medicine and
surgery, the two principal divisions of medical science: “Then Asclepius
bestowed the power of healing upon his two sons; nevertheless, he
made one of the two more celebrated than the other; on one did he
bestow the lighter hand, that he might draw missiles from the flesh, and
sew up and heal all wounds; but he other he endowed with great precision
of mind, so as to understand what cannot be seen, and to heal
seemingly incurable diseases.”<a id="FNanchor_342_342" href="#Footnote_342_342" class="fnanchor">342</a></p>

<p>This very interesting extract not only shows the early separation of
the arts of medicine and surgery, but it exhibits very clearly how it arose
that the former was always held to be the higher branch of the medical
profession. To sew up a laceration, or extract an arrow or a thorn
from the flesh, demanded only manual dexterity; but “to understand
that which cannot be seen,” and heal internal organs that cannot even
be touched, required a skill and a mental precision that men even in
those early times were able to appreciate as much the higher of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">156</span>
two arts. There seems, however, some confusion of the two branches
in the lines:—</p>

<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"><div class="stanza">
  <div class="verse">“A wise physician, skilled our wounds to heal,</div>
  <div class="verse">Is more than armies to the public weal.”</div>
</div></div></div>

<p>If we suppose that the account of venesection which attributes its
discovery to Podalirius is fabulous, this would only serve to prove the
antiquity of the practice. Hippocrates is said to be the first medical
writer who has spoken of bleeding,<a id="FNanchor_343_343" href="#Footnote_343_343" class="fnanchor">343</a> yet we must not suppose it was
unknown before his time. He advises blood-letting from the arm, from
the temporal vessels, from the leg, etc., in some cases even to fainting.
He is familiar with cupping and other methods of abstracting blood;
it is not probable, therefore, that the operation was a new one in his
day.</p>

<p>The discovery of the practice of purging as a remedy was attributed
to Melampus. But we know that the Egyptians made use of purgative
and emetic medicines. There were many purgatives in use in the time
of Hippocrates, as hellebore, elaterium, colocynth, and scammony.
All these medicines could not have been discovered at once, as Le
Clerc points out; mankind, therefore, must have gradually acquired
their use. When persons were overloaded in the stomach and constipated,
nothing was more natural than that they should seek relief by
removing the mechanical causes of their distress. Some one had taken
some herb which had caused him to vomit or to be purged, and had
experienced the benefit of the evacuation; he told his friends, and
they perhaps had been aided by similar means. Or again, some illness
had been alleviated by the supervention of diarrhœa, and art was called
in to imitate the beneficial effect of nature’s cure. In this way, says
Le Clerc, bleeding may reasonably have been discovered: a severe
headache is often relieved by bleeding from the nose, what more
natural than that the process of relief should be imitated by opening a
vein?</p>

<p>Pliny, indeed, in his usual manner, introduces a fable to account for
the discovery of venesection. He says<a id="FNanchor_344_344" href="#Footnote_344_344" class="fnanchor">344</a> that the hippopotamus having
become too fat and unwieldy through over-eating, bled himself with a
sharp-pointed reed, and when he had drawn sufficient blood, closed the
wound with clay. Men have imitated the operation, says Pliny. This
is matched by the story of the ibis with her long bill being the inventor
of the clyster. Most of the medical beast stories are probably on a
level with these.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">157</span></p>

<p><i>Hygeia</i>, the wife of <i>Æsculapius</i>, and her children, bore names which
show the same poetic fancy as that which constituted Apollo the author
of medicine. <i>Æsculapius</i> is the air. <i>Hygeia</i> is health; <i>Ægle</i> is brightness
or splendour, because the air is illumined and purified by the sun.
<i>Iaso</i> is recovery, <i>Panacea</i> the universal medicine, <i>Roma</i> is strength.</p>

<p>The ancients everywhere believed that the healing art was taught to
mankind by the gods. “The art of medicine,” says Cicero, “has been
consecrated by the invention of the immortal gods.”<a id="FNanchor_345_345" href="#Footnote_345_345" class="fnanchor">345</a></p>

<p>Hippocrates<a id="FNanchor_346_346" href="#Footnote_346_346" class="fnanchor">346</a> attributed the art of medicine to the Supreme Being.
As the Greeks believed that the arts in general were invented by the
gods, it was a natural belief that the knowledge of medicine should
have been taught by the heavenly powers. The mysteries of life, disease,
and death were peculiarly the province of supernatural beings, and
man has ever attributed to such powers all those things which he could
not comprehend.</p>


<h4><span class="smcap">The Temples of Æsculapius.</span></h4>

<p>The worship of Asclepius or Æsculapius is so closely associated with
the practice of Greek medicine that it is impossible to understand the
one without knowing something of the other. Sick persons made pilgrimages
to the temples of the god of healing, just as now they go to
Lourdes, St. Winifred’s Well, or other famous Christian shrines for the
recovery of their health. After prayers to the god, ablutions, and sacrifices,
the patient was put to sleep on the skin of the animal offered at
the altar, or at the foot of the statue of the divinity, while the priests
performed their sacred rites. In his sleep he would have pointed out
to him in a dream what he ought to do for the recovery of his health.
Sometimes the appropriate medicine would be suggested, but more
commonly rules of conduct and diet would suffice. When the cure took
place, which very frequently happened by suggestion as in modern
hypnotism, and by the stimulus to the nervous system consequent upon
the journey, and the hope excited in the patient, a record of the case
and the cure was carved on the temple walls. Thus were recorded the
first histories of cases, and their study afforded the most valuable treatises
on the healing art to the physicians who studied them. The priests of
Æsculapius were sometimes called Asclepiads, but they did not themselves
act as physicians, nor were they the actual founders of Greek
medicine. The true Asclepiads were healers and not priests. Anathemata
(ἀνάθεμα, anything offered up) were offerings of models in gold,
silver, etc., of diseased legs, feet, etc., or of deformed limbs consecrated<span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">158</span>
to the gods in the temples by the devotion of the patients who had
received benefit from the prayers to the deities who were worshipped
therein. The priests of the temples sold these again and again to fresh
patients.</p>


<h4><span class="smcap">The Early Ionic Philosophers.</span></h4>

<p>The various schools of Greek philosophy were intimately associated
with the study of medicine. They endeavoured to fathom the mystery
of life, and the relationship of the visible order of things to the unseen
world. The philosophers were therefore not only physicists, but metaphysicians,
and the unhappy science of medicine, a homeless wanderer,
had to shelter herself now with the natural philosophers and again with
the metaphysicians. Probably the philosophers never really practised
physic, but merely speculated about it, as did Plato. A brief notice of
the various philosophers of the Ionic, Italian, Eleatic, and Materialistic
schools who were more or less associated with the study of medicine
must suffice as an introduction to Greek medicine proper, which had its
origin with Hippocrates.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Thales of Miletus</span> (about 609 <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>), the Ionian philosopher, introduced
Egyptian and Asiatic science into Greece. He had probably in
his travels in the land of the Pharaohs devoted himself to mathematical
pursuits, and if not a scientific inquirer was a deep speculator on the
origin of things. He held that everything arises from water, and everything
ultimately again resolves itself into water. Everything, he said, is
full of gods; the soul originates motion (the magnet has a soul, according
to him), and so the indwelling power or soul of water produces the
phenomena of the natural world. He must not, however, be understood
as teaching the doctrine of the Soul of the Universe, or of a Creating
Deity. Thales was the first writer on physics and the founder of the
philosophy of Greece. Le Clerc connects him with medicine by his
converse with the priest-physicians of Egypt, and that he had performed
certain expiatory or purifying ceremonies for the Lacedæmonians which
could only be done by such as were divines and physicians.<a id="FNanchor_347_347" href="#Footnote_347_347" class="fnanchor">347</a></p>

<p><span class="smcap">Pherecydes</span>, the Syrian, a philosopher who lived about the same
time as Thales, is said by Galen to have written upon diet.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Epimenedes</span> was a sort of Greek Rip Van Winkle, who purified
Athens in the time of a plague by means of mysterious rites and sacrifices.
He excelled as a fasting man, so that he was said to have been
exempt from the ordinary necessities of nature, and could send out his
soul from his body and recall it like the Mahatmas. He was of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">159</span>
class of priestly bards, a seer and prophet who was well acquainted with
the virtues of plants for medicinal purposes, and as he was believed to
have gone to sleep in a cave for fifty-seven years, he was credited
with the possession of supernatural medicinal powers.<a id="FNanchor_348_348" href="#Footnote_348_348" class="fnanchor">348</a></p>

<p><span class="smcap">Anaximander</span>, born <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 610, is said to have been a pupil of Thales.
He taught that a single determinate substance having a middle nature
between water and air was the infinite, everlasting, and divine, though
not intelligent material from which all things had their origin. This
he called the ἄπειρον, the chaos. All substances were derived thence by
the conflict of heat and cold and the electric affinities of the particles.
The atomic theory is foreshadowed here.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Anaximenes</span> was the friend of Thales and Anaximander, and all
three were born at Miletus. He considered that air was the first cause
of all things, or primary condition of matter; all finite things were
formed from the infinite air by compression or rarefaction produced by
eternal motion. Heat and cold are produced by the varying density
of the primal element. He held the eternity of matter like his brother
philosophers, and believed that the soul itself is merely a form of air.
He held no Divine Author of the Universe, motion being a necessary
law of the universe, and with motion and air he required nothing else
for the constitution of all things.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Heracleitus</span> of Ephesus, born about 556 <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>, embodied his system
of philosophy in his work <i>On Nature</i>. He held that the ground of all
phenomena is a physical principle, a living unity, pervading everything,
inherent in all things—fire, that is, as he explains, a clear light fluid
“self-kindled and self-extinguished.” The world was not created by
God, but evolved from the rational intelligence which guides the universe—fire.
Fire longs to manifest itself in various forms; from its
pure state in heaven it descends, assumes the form of earth, passing in
its progress through that of water. Man’s soul is a spark of the divine
fire.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Anaxagoras</span>, born about 499 <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>, was the friend of Pericles and
Euripides at Athens. Seeking to explain the world and man by a
higher cause than the physical ones of his predecessors, he postulated
<i>nous</i>—that is, mind, thought, or intelligence. As nothing can come out
of nothing, he did not attribute to this <i>nous</i> the creation of the world,
but only its order and arrangement. Matter is eternal, but existed as
chaos till <i>nous</i> evolved order from the confusion. Baas<a id="FNanchor_349_349" href="#Footnote_349_349" class="fnanchor">349</a> says his
physiological and pathological views may be thus described:<span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">160</span> “The
animal body, by means of a kind of affinity, appropriates to itself from
the nutritive supply the portions similar to itself. Males originate in
the right, females in the left side of the uterus. Diseases are occasioned
by the bile which penetrates into the blood-vessels, the lungs, and the
pleura.” He undertook the dissection of animals, remarked the existence
in the brain of the lateral ventricles, and was the first to declare
that the bile is the cause of acute sickness.<a id="FNanchor_350_350" href="#Footnote_350_350" class="fnanchor">350</a></p>

<p><span class="smcap">Diogenes of Apollonia</span>, the eminent natural philosopher, lived at
Athens about 460 <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> He was a pupil of Anaximenes, and wrote
a work entitled <i>On Nature</i>, in which he treated of physical science
generally. Aristotle has preserved for us some of the few fragments
which remain. The most important is the description of the origin
and distribution of the veins, and is inserted in the third book of Aristotle’s
<i>History of Animals</i>. Diogenes Laertius gives an account of the
philosophical teaching of the philosopher: “He maintained that air
was the primal element of all things; that there was an infinite number
of worlds, and an infinite void; that air, densified and rarefied,
produced the different members of the universe; that nothing was
produced from nothing, or was reduced to nothing; that the earth was
round, supported in the middle, and had received its shape from the
whirling round of the warm vapours, and its concretion and hardening
from cold.”<a id="FNanchor_351_351" href="#Footnote_351_351" class="fnanchor">351</a></p>

<p>Diogenes recognised no distinction between mind and matter, yet he
considered air possessed intellectual energy.</p>

<p>We find in this philosopher many indications that the vascular system
was in some degree beginning to be understood.<a id="FNanchor_352_352" href="#Footnote_352_352" class="fnanchor">352</a> Mr. Lewes and Mr.
Grote agree that Diogenes deserves a higher place in the evolution of
philosophy than either Hegel or Schwegler.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Empedocles</span> of Agrigentum, born about 490 <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>, now bears forward
the flaming torch of medical science, and in his hands it burns more
brightly still. Aristotle mentions him among the Ionian physiologists,
and ranks him with the atomistic philosophers and Anaxagoras. These
all sought to discover the basis of all changes and to explain them.
According to Empedocles: “There are four ultimate kinds of things,
four primal divinities, of which are made all structures in the world—fire,
air, water, and earth. These four elements are eternally brought
into union, and eternally parted from each other, by two divine beings
or powers, love and hatred—an attractive and a repulsive force which
the ordinary eye can see working amongst men, but which really pervade
the whole world. According to the different proportions in which
these four indestructible and unchangeable matters are combined with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">161</span>
each other is the difference of the organic structure produced; <i>e.g.</i>, flesh
and blood are made of equal parts of all four elements, whereas bones
are one-half fire, one-fourth earth, and one-fourth water. It is in the
aggregation and segregation of elements thus arising that Empedocles,
like the atomists, finds the real process which corresponds to what is
popularly termed growth, increase, or decrease. Nothing new comes
or can come into being; the only change that can occur is a change in
the juxtaposition of element with element.”<a id="FNanchor_353_353" href="#Footnote_353_353" class="fnanchor">353</a></p>

<p>He considered that men, animals, and plants are demons punished
by banishment, but who, becoming purified, may regain the home of
the gods. It is hardly necessary to say that he held the demoniacal
possession theory of disease, and treated all complaints by means
appropriate to the theory. Anticipating the modern opinions of the bacteriologists,
he banished epidemics by building great fires and draining
the water from marshy lands. He understood something of the causes
of infectious diseases, and in their treatment usurped the province of
the gods who had sent them.<a id="FNanchor_354_354" href="#Footnote_354_354" class="fnanchor">354</a> He believed the embryo was nourished
through the navel. We owe to him the terms <i>amnion</i> and <i>chorion</i> (<i>i.e.</i>,
the innermost and outer membranes with which the fœtus is surrounded
in the womb). He believed that death was caused by extinction of
heat, that expiration arose from the upward motion of the blood, and
inspiration from the reverse. He is said to have raised a dead woman
to life.<a id="FNanchor_355_355" href="#Footnote_355_355" class="fnanchor">355</a></p>

<p>Empedocles believed in the doctrine of re-incarnation. “I well remember,”
he says, “the time before I was Empedocles, that I once was
a boy, then a girl, a plant, a glittering fish, a bird that cut the air.” To
his disciples he said: “By my instructions you shall learn medicines
that are powerful to cure disease, and re-animate old age—you shall
recall the strength of the dead man, when he has already become the
victim of Pluto.”<a id="FNanchor_356_356" href="#Footnote_356_356" class="fnanchor">356</a> Further speaking of himself, he says: “I am revered
by both men and women, who follow me by ten thousands, inquiring
the road to boundless wealth, seeking the gift of prophecy, and who
would learn the marvellous skill to cure all kinds of diseases.”<a id="FNanchor_357_357" href="#Footnote_357_357" class="fnanchor">357</a></p>


<h4><span class="smcap">The School of the Pythagoreans at Crotona.</span></h4>

<p>Although in ancient Greece the art of medicine, as we have already
shown, was closely connected with the temples, if not actually with
religion, its entanglement with philosophy was a scarcely less unfortunate
connection, and it was not able to make any real progress till<span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">162</span>
<span class="smcap">Hippocrates</span> liberated it from both priests and philosophers. 582
years before Christ <span class="smcap">Pythagoras</span> was born, the ideal hero or saint whom
we faintly discern through the mythical haze which has always enveloped
him. Philosopher, prophet, wonder-worker, and physician, he
gathered into his mind as into a focus the wisdom of the Brahmans, the
Persian Magi, the Egyptians, the Phœnicians, the Chaldæans, the Jews,
the Arabians, and the Druids of Gaul, amongst whom he had travelled,
if we may believe what is reported of him. He may have visited
Egypt,<a id="FNanchor_358_358" href="#Footnote_358_358" class="fnanchor">358</a> at any rate, besides acquainting himself with the countries of
the Mediterranean. His authentic history begins with his emigration
to Crotona, in South Italy, about the year 529. There he founded a
kind of religious brotherhood or ethical-reform society, and “appeared
as the revealer of a mode of life calculated to raise his disciples above
the level of mankind, and to recommend them to the favour of the
gods.”<a id="FNanchor_359_359" href="#Footnote_359_359" class="fnanchor">359</a> Grote believes that the removal to Crotona was prompted by
the desire to study medicine in its famous school, probably combined
with the notion of instructing the pupils in his philosophy. He rendered
great services to the healing art by insisting on the necessity of
a thorough comprehension of the organs, structure, and functions of
the body in their normal, healthy condition; this must be conceded,
though his visionary philosophy did much to destroy the scientific value
of his medical teaching.</p>

<p>The founder of the healing art amongst the Greeks and Hellenic
peoples generally was Pythagoras. He was imbued with Eastern
mysticism, teaching that the air is full of spiritual beings, who send
dreams to men and cause to men and cattle disease and health. He
taught that these spirits must be conciliated by lustrations and invocations.
Pliny says<a id="FNanchor_360_360" href="#Footnote_360_360" class="fnanchor">360</a> that he taught that holding dill (<i>anethum</i>) in the
hand is good against epilepsy. The health of the body is to be maintained
by diet and gymnastics. It is interesting to find that this great
philosopher recommended music to restore the harmony of the spirits.
Besides the magic virtues of the dill, he held that many other plants
possessed them, such as the cabbage (a food in great favour with the
Pythagoreans), the squill, and anise. He held that surgery was not to
be practised, as it is unlawful, but salves and poultices were to be
permitted. His disciples attributed the union between medicine and
philosophy to him.</p>

<p>The Pythagorean philosophy turns upon the idea of numbers and
the mathematical relations of things. “All things are number;”
“number is the essence of everything.” The world subsists by the
principle of ordered numbers. The spheres revolve harmoniously; the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">163</span>
seven planets are the seven golden chords of the heavenly heptachord.
As a corollary to this notion we have the theory of opposites. We
have the odd and even, and their combinations. The even is the unlimited,
the odd the limited; so all things are derived from the combination
of the limited and the unlimited. Then we get the limited
and the unlimited, the odd and the even, the one and many, right
and left, masculine and feminine, rest and motion, straight and
crooked, light and darkness, good and evil, square and oblong. When
opposites unite, there is harmony. The number ten comprehends all
other numbers in itself; four was held in great respect, because it is the
first square number and the potential decade (1 + 2 + 3 + 4 = 10). Pythagoras
was the discoverer of the holy τετρακτύς, “the fountain and
root of ever-living nature.” Five signifies marriage, one is reason because
unchangeable, two is opinion, seven is called παρθένος and Ἀθήνη,
because within the decade it has neither factors nor product.<a id="FNanchor_361_361" href="#Footnote_361_361" class="fnanchor">361</a></p>

<p>The doctrine of transmigration of souls, metempsychosis, is Pythagoras’s.
He probably borrowed it from the Orphic mysteries; originally
no doubt it came from Asia. Asceticism, mysticism, and Neoplatonism
sprang from this noble and lofty philosophy. Closely connected with
his theory of numbers he held that from these points are produced,
from these lines, from lines figures, and from figures solid bodies. The
elements fire, water, earth, and air, account in his conception for the
formation of the world. He understood the structure of the body, its
procreation and development. He believed that the animal soul is an
emanation from the world-soul; the universal soul is God, author of
himself. Demons are an order of beings between the highest and the
lowest. Striving for the good brings moral health. Bodily health
means harmony, disease means discord. Diseases are caused by
demons, and are to be dispelled by prayers, offerings, and music. He
first among the Greeks taught the immortality of the soul; he held
a doctrine of rewards and punishments, and taught that of metempsychosis.
For many succeeding ages the Pythagorean doctrine had
the greatest influence on the art of medicine.<a id="FNanchor_362_362" href="#Footnote_362_362" class="fnanchor">362</a></p>

<p>Le Clerc says that Pythagoras obtained his ideas of the climacteric
years from the Chaldæans. The term is applied to the seventh year of
the life of man, and it was anciently believed that at each change we
incur some risk to life or health, on account of the bodily changes
undergone at that time.<a id="FNanchor_363_363" href="#Footnote_363_363" class="fnanchor">363</a> Celsus says that the medical sentiment with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">164</span>
respect to the septenary number in diseases, and that of the odd and
even days, is of Pythagorean origin.<a id="FNanchor_364_364" href="#Footnote_364_364" class="fnanchor">364</a> The Pythagoreans had a great
respect for the number four. The quaternary number was sacred to the
Egyptians; they burned in the temples of Isis a kind of resinous gum,
myrrh, and other drugs, in the preparation of which they had regard to
the number four. The Israelites imitated them in this respect (Exod.
xxx. 2).<a id="FNanchor_365_365" href="#Footnote_365_365" class="fnanchor">365</a></p>

<p>The sacred bean of Pythagoras was the object of religious veneration
in Egypt; the priests were commanded not to look upon it. It
is thought to have been the East Indian <i>Nelumbium</i>.<a id="FNanchor_366_366" href="#Footnote_366_366" class="fnanchor">366</a></p>

<p><span class="smcap">Zamolxis</span>, who was a god to the Getans, is supposed by some to
have been a slave and disciple of Pythagoras; by others he is considered
an altogether mythical personage. He is credited by those who believe
him to have been a physician with having said that “A man could not
cure the eyes without curing the head, nor the head without all the
rest of the body, nor the body without the soul.” Plato said much the
same thing when he remarked, “To cure a headache you must treat
the whole man.” Zamolxis cured the soul, not by the enchantments of
magic, but by wise discourse and reasonable conversation. “These discourses,”
said Plato, “produce wisdom in the soul, which having once
been acquired it is easy after that to procure health both for the head
and all the rest of the body.”</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Democedes</span> was a celebrated physician of Crotona, in Magna Grecia,
who lived in the sixth century <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> He went to practise at Ægina,
where he received from the public treasury a sum equal to about £344
a year for his services. The next year he went to Athens at a salary
equal to £406, and the following year he went to the island of Samos.
The tyrant Polycrates gave him the salary of two talents. He was
carried prisoner to Susa to the court of Darius, where he acquired a
great reputation and much wealth by curing the king’s foot and the
breast of the queen. It is recorded that Darius ordered the surgeons
who had failed to cure him to be put to death, but Democedes interceded
for and saved them. He ultimately escaped to Crotona, where
he settled, the Persians having in vain demanded his return.<a id="FNanchor_367_367" href="#Footnote_367_367" class="fnanchor">367</a> He
wrote a work on medicine.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Democritus</span>, of Abdera, was a contemporary of Socrates; he was
born between 494 and 460 <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>, and was one of the founders of the
Atomic philosophy. He was profoundly versed in all the knowledge
of his time. So ardent a student was he, that he once said that he preferred
the discovery of a true cause to the possession of the kingdom of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">165</span>
Persia. The highest object of scientific investigation he held to be
the <i>discovery of causes</i>. He wrote on medicine, and devoted himself
zealously to the study of anatomy and physiology. Pliny says that he
composed a special treatise on the structure of the chameleon.<a id="FNanchor_368_368" href="#Footnote_368_368" class="fnanchor">368</a> He
wrote on canine rabies, and on the influence of music in the treatment
of disease. He is, however, best known to science on account of his
cosmical theory. All that exists is vacuum and atoms. The atoms
are the ultimate material of all things, even of spirit. They are uncaused
and eternal, invisible, yet extended, heavy and impenetrable.
They are in constant motion, and have been so from all eternity. By
their motion the world and all it contains was produced. Soul and fire
are of the same nature, of small, smooth, round atoms, and it is by
inhaling and exhaling these that life is maintained. The soul perishes
with the body. He rejected all theology and popular mythology.
Reason had nothing to do with the creation of the world, and he said,
“There is nothing true; and if there is, we do not know it.” “We
know nothing, not even if there is anything to know.” He died in
great honour, yet in poverty, at an advanced age (some writers say at
109 years). His knowledge of nature, and especially of medicine, caused
him to be considered a sorcerer and a magician. There was a tradition
that he deprived himself of his sight in order to be undisturbed in
his intellectual speculations. He probably became blind by too close
attention to study. Another story was that he was considered to be
insane, and Hippocrates was sent for to cure him.</p>

<p>The great philosophers of ancient Greece believed that all the elements
are modifications of one common substance, called the primary
matter, which they demonstrated to be devoid of all quality and form,
but susceptible of all qualities and forms. It is everything in capacity,
but nothing in actuality. Matter is eternal; the elements are the first
matter arranged into certain distinguishing forms. Some of the early
philosophers held that all the materials which compose the universe
existed in a fluid form; they understood by fire, matter in a highly
refined state, and that it is the element most intimately connected with
life, some even considering it the very essence of the soul. “Our souls
are fire,” says Phornutus. “What we call heat is immortal,” says
one of the Hippocratic writers, “and understands, sees, and hears all
things that are or will be.”<a id="FNanchor_369_369" href="#Footnote_369_369" class="fnanchor">369</a></p>

<p>Bacon explains the ancient fable of Proteus as signifying matter, a
something which, being below all forms and supporting them, is yet
different from them all.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">166</span></p>

<p>Sir Isaac Newton is not widely different from Strabo when he says
that all bodies may be convertible into one another.</p>

<p>Commenting upon these opinions of the Greek philosophers, Dr.
Adams says, in his introduction to the works of Hippocrates:<a id="FNanchor_370_370" href="#Footnote_370_370" class="fnanchor">370</a> “If
every step which we advance in the knowledge of the intimate structure
of things leads us to contract the number of substances formerly held to
be simple, I would not wonder if it should yet turn out that oxygen,
carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen are—like what the ancients held the
elements to be—all nothing else but different modifications of one ever-changing
matter.”</p>

<p>The theories of the Greek philosophers on the elements are poetically
summed up in Ovid’s <i>Metamorphoses</i>:—</p>

<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"><div class="stanza">
  <div class="verse">“Nor those which elements we call abide,</div>
  <div class="verse">Nor to this figure nor to that are ty’d:</div>
  <div class="verse">For this eternal world is said of old</div>
  <div class="verse">But four prolific principles to hold,</div>
  <div class="verse">Four different bodies; two to heaven ascend,</div>
  <div class="verse">And other two down to the centre tend.</div>
  <div class="verse">Fire first, with wings expanded, mounts on high,</div>
  <div class="verse">Pure, void of weight, and dwells in upper sky;</div>
  <div class="verse">Then air, because unclogged, in empty space</div>
  <div class="verse">Flies after fire, and claims the second place;</div>
  <div class="verse">But weighty water, as her nature guides,</div>
  <div class="verse">Lies on the lap of earth; and mother Earth subsides.</div>
  <div class="verse">All things are mixed of these, which all contain,</div>
  <div class="verse">And into these are all resolved again;</div>
  <div class="verse">Earth rarifies to dew; expanding more,</div>
  <div class="verse">The subtle dew in air begins to soar;</div>
  <div class="verse">Spreads as she flies, and, weary of the name,</div>
  <div class="verse">Extenuates still, and changes into flame.</div>
  <div class="verse">Thus having by degrees perfection won,</div>
  <div class="verse">Restless, they soon untwist the web they spun,</div>
  <div class="verse">And fire begins to lose her radiant hue,</div>
  <div class="verse">Mixed with gross air, and air descends in dew!</div>
  <div class="verse">And dew condensing, does her form forego,</div>
  <div class="verse">And sinks, a heavy lump of earth, below.</div>
  <div class="verse">Thus are their figures never at a stand,</div>
  <div class="verse">But changed by Nature’s innovating hand.”<a id="FNanchor_371_371" href="#Footnote_371_371" class="fnanchor">371</a></div>
</div></div></div>


<h4><span class="smcap">Greek Theories of Disease.</span></h4>

<p>As the Greeks believed that all diseases were the consequences of
the anger of the gods, it was in their temples that cures were most
likely to take place. Faith was the <i>sine quâ non</i> in the patient, and
everything about the temple and its ceremonies was calculated to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">167</span>
excite religious awe and to stimulate faith. Preliminary purifications,
fasting, massage, and fomentations with herbs, were necessary parts of
the initiatory ceremonies, and the imagination was excited by everything
that the sufferer saw around him. He heard the stories of the
marvellous cures which had taken place at the sacred fane. Tablets round
the walls, placed there by grateful worshippers who had been cured in
the past,<a id="FNanchor_372_372" href="#Footnote_372_372" class="fnanchor">372</a> served to fill the mind with hope, when, as was the practice,
the patient lay down in the holy place by the image of the healing god,
that in the incubatory sleep the remedies which were to cure him might
be revealed. Sometimes no such revelation was vouchsafed, then sacrifices
and prayers were offered; if these failed, the priests themselves
would appear in the mask and the dress of the healing god, and in the
darkness and mystery of the night reveal the necessary prescriptions.
To interpret the dreams was the task of the priests at all times, just as it
was in the temples of ancient Egypt. Divination, magic, and astrology
largely assisted in the work of discovering the requisite remedies. If
all failed, it was due not to any defect on the part of the divinity or
his servants, but simply to the want of faith on the part of the patient.
The festivals of Æsculapius were called Asclepia, and the presiding
priests of the healing god were named Asclepiades. The schools of
the Asclepiades were a sort of medical guild, and their doctrines were
divided into exoteric and esoteric. They naturally became possessed
of a great body of medical teaching, which was preserved as a precious
secret and handed down from generation to generation. The Asclepiadæ
thus became the hereditary physicians of Greece. Medicine
at this period was not a science to be taught to all comers, but was a
mystery to be orally transmitted. These men pretended to be descendants
of Æsculapius, just as now the imitators of medicines, perfumes,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">168</span>
etc., which have become celebrated, give out that they belong to the
family of the inventor, and thus know the secrets of the preparation.<a id="FNanchor_373_373" href="#Footnote_373_373" class="fnanchor">373</a></p>

<p>This professional class was quite distinct from the priests of the
Æsculapian temples, though many writers have confused them. Probably
the truth is this:—Certain students from reading the votive tablets
in the temples, and examining the persons who came to be cured, gave
their attention to the art of medicine, and established themselves as
physicians in the neighbourhood of the temples; for it does not appear
that the priests themselves pretended to medical skill. They were the
instruments of the divine revelation, the mediums of the healing power
of the god; they suggested remedies, but did not attempt their application
or the treatment of cases. In process of time the pilgrims to the
temples would require human aid to supplement the often disappointing
divine assistance, and this the Asclepiadæ were appointed to supply.
Hypnotism was probably practised; music, and such drugs as hemlock
were also employed which soothe the nervous system and relieve pain.
The Asclepiadæ took careful notes of the symptoms and progress of
each case, and were particular to observe the effect of the treatment
prescribed; they became, in consequence, exceedingly skilful in prognosis.
Galen says that little attention was paid to dietetics by the
Asclepiads; but Strabo speaks of the knowledge which Hippocrates
derived from the documents in the Asclepion of Cos.<a id="FNanchor_374_374" href="#Footnote_374_374" class="fnanchor">374</a> Exercise,
especially on horseback, was one of the measures used by the Asclepiads
for restoring the health.<a id="FNanchor_375_375" href="#Footnote_375_375" class="fnanchor">375</a></p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Schools of the Asclepiades.</span></h4>

<p>The three most famous schools of the Asclepiades were those of
Rhodes, Cos, and Cnidos. There were also that of Crotona, in Lower
Italy, established by Pythagoras, and the school of Cyrene, in the
North of Africa. Famous temples of Æsculapius existed at Titanæ,
Epidaurus, Orope, Cyllene, Tithorea, Tricca, Megalopolis, Pergamus,
Corinth, Smyrna, and at many other places.<a id="FNanchor_376_376" href="#Footnote_376_376" class="fnanchor">376</a></p>

<p>A spirit of healthy emulation existed in these different schools, which
was most advantageous for the progress of medical science. The tone
existing at this early period amongst the different medical societies at
these institutions is shown in the famous oath which the pupils of the
Asclepiadæ were compelled to subscribe on completing their course of
instruction in medicine. It is the oldest written monument of the
Greek art of healing.<a id="FNanchor_377_377" href="#Footnote_377_377" class="fnanchor">377</a></p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">169</span></p>


<h4><span class="smcap">The Oath.</span></h4>

<p>“I swear by Apollo, the physician, and Æsculapius, and Health, and
Panacea,<a id="FNanchor_378_378" href="#Footnote_378_378" class="fnanchor">378</a> and all the gods and goddesses, that, according to my ability
and judgment, I will keep this oath and this stipulation—to reckon
him who taught me this art equally dear to me as my parents, to share
my substance with him, and relieve his necessities if required; to look
upon his offspring in the same footing as my own brothers, and to
teach them this art, if they shall wish to learn it, without fee or stipulation;
and that by precept, lecture, and every other mode of instruction,
I will impart a knowledge of the art to my own sons, and those of my
teachers, and to disciples bound by a stipulation and oath according
to the law of medicine, but to none others. I will follow that system
of regimen which, according to my ability and judgment, I consider for
the benefit of my patient, and abstain from whatever is deleterious and
mischievous. I will give no deadly medicine to any one if asked, nor
suggest any such counsel; and in like manner I will not give to a
woman a pessary to produce abortion. With purity and with holiness
I will pass my life and practise my art. I will not cut persons labouring
under the stone, but will leave this to be done by men who are
practitioners of this work.<a id="FNanchor_379_379" href="#Footnote_379_379" class="fnanchor">379</a></p>

<p>“Into whatever houses I enter, I will go into them for the benefit
of the sick, and will abstain from every voluntary act of mischief and
corruption; and, further, from the seduction of females or males, of
freemen or slaves. Whatever, in connection with my professional
practice, or not in connection with it, I see or hear, in the life of men,
which ought not to be spoken of abroad, I will not divulge, as reckoning
that all such should be kept secret. While I continue to keep this
oath unviolated, may it be granted to me to enjoy life and the practice
of the art, respected by all men, in all times! But should I trespass
and violate this oath, may the reverse be my lot!”</p>

<p>Ancient authorities differ as to the respective order in which the
schools of the Asclepiads should be esteemed. Rhodes, Cos, and
Cnidos continually disputed for the pre-eminence, Cos and Cnidos<span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">170</span>
acquiring great fame by their conflicting opinions. According to
Galen, the first place must be conceded to Cos, as having produced the
greatest number of excellent disciples, amongst whom was Hippocrates;
he ranks Cnidos next. Cos (<span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 600) was the objective school, and
devoted its studies chiefly to symptomatology. It asked, what can we
see of the patient’s disorder? of what does he complain? what, in fact,
are his symptoms? This is practical medicine, though not so much in
accordance with modern scientific medicine as the method of Cnidos,
the subjective school. There the aim was to make a correct diagnosis;
to find out what was behind the symptoms, what caused the morbid
appearances; what it was that the sensations of the patient indicated;
and its aim was not to treat symptoms so much as to treat vigorously
the disorder which caused them. Auscultation, or the art of scientifically
listening to the sounds of the chest, those of the lungs in breathing,
and of the heart in beating, was to some extent understood and practised
at Cnidos. The medical school of Crotona was in the highest
repute 500 <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>, probably on account of its connection with the Pythagoreans.
The school of Rhodes does not seem to have had a long life.</p>

<p>That of Cyrene was famous on account not only of its medical
teaching, but from the fact that mathematics and philosophy were industriously
pursued there. The teaching in all these schools must have
been of a very high order; for, though unfortunately little of it has
descended directly to us, we have sufficient evidence of its importance
in such fragments as are to be found incorporated with the works of
Hippocrates, such as the <i>Coan Prognostics</i> and the <i>Cnidian Sentences</i>;
the former, a miscellaneous collection of the observations made by
the physician of Cos, and the latter, a work attributed to Euryphon,
a celebrated physician of Cnidos (about the former half of the fifth
century <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>).</p>

<p>Experiment and observation were insisted upon in the study of
anatomy and physiology. Galen tells us in his second book, <i>On
Anatomical Manipulations</i>: “I do not blame the ancients, who did not
write books on anatomical manipulations; though I praise Marinus,
who did. For it was superfluous for them to compose such records for
themselves or others, while they were, from their childhood, exercised by
their parents in dissecting, just as familiarly as in writing and reading;
so that there was no more fear of their forgetting their anatomy than of
their forgetting their alphabet. But when grown men, as well as children,
were taught, this thorough discipline fell off; and, the art being
carried out of the family of the Asclepiads, and declining by repeated
transmission, books became necessary for the student.”</p>

<p>The method of the Asclepiadæ was one of true induction; much was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">171</span>
imperfect in their efforts to arrive at the beginning of medical science.
They had little light, and often stumbled; but they made the best use of
what they had, and with all their deviations they always returned to the
right path, and kept their faces towards the light. Hippocrates was
of them; and Bacon of Verulam, in the centuries to come, followed
and developed the same method. Dr. Adams remarks the assiduous
observation and abundant rational experience which led them to
enunciate such a law of nature as this: “Those things which bring
alleviation with bad signs, and do not remit with good, are troublesome
and difficult.”</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p><span class="smcap">Ctesias</span>, of Cnidus, in Caria, was a physician at the court of King
Artaxerxes Mnemon. He may be called a contemporary of Herodotus.
It is possible that, according to Diodorus, he was a prisoner of war
while in Persia, though the well-known fact that Greek physicians were
in great request, and were always received there with favour, is quite
sufficient to account for his presence in that country. He wrote a
history of Persia and a treatise on India, containing many statements
formerly considered doubtful, but now proved to be founded on facts.</p>

<p>The persons who anointed the bodies of the athletes of ancient
Greece, preparatory to their entering the gymnasia, were called <span class="smcap">Aliptæ</span>.
These persons taught gymnastic exercises, practised many operations
of surgery, and undertook the treatment of trifling diseases. The
external use of oil was intended to close the pores of the skin, so as
to prevent excessive perspiration. The oil was mixed with sand, and
was well rubbed into the skin. After the exercises, the athletes were
again anointed, to restore the tone of the muscles. The aliptæ would
naturally acquire considerable knowledge of the accidents and maladies
to which the human body was subject; accordingly, we find that they
not only undertook the treatment of fractures and dislocations, but became
the regular medical advisers of their patrons. <span class="smcap">Iccus</span> of Tarentum
devoted himself to dietetics. They were probably a superior class of
trainers. <span class="smcap">Herodicus</span> of Selymbria, a teacher of Hippocrates, treated
diseases by exercises. He is said to have been the first to demand a
fee in place of the presents which were given by patients formerly to
their doctors.<a id="FNanchor_380_380" href="#Footnote_380_380" class="fnanchor">380</a> The gymnasia were dedicated to Apollo, the god of
physicians.<a id="FNanchor_381_381" href="#Footnote_381_381" class="fnanchor">381</a> The directors of the institutions regulated the diet of the
young men, the sub-directors prescribed for their diseases.<a id="FNanchor_382_382" href="#Footnote_382_382" class="fnanchor">382</a> The
inferiors, or bathers, bled, gave clysters, and dressed wounds.<a id="FNanchor_383_383" href="#Footnote_383_383" class="fnanchor">383</a></p>

<hr class="chap" />
<div class="chapter"></div>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">172</span></p>




<h3 id="CHAPTERIII_II">CHAPTER II.<br />

<small>THE MEDICINE OF HIPPOCRATES AND HIS PERIOD.</small></h3>

<blockquote>

<p>Hippocrates first delivered Medicine from the Thraldom of Superstition.—Dissection
of the Human Body and Rise of Anatomy.—Hippocrates, Father of Medicine and
Surgery.—The Law.—Plato.</p></blockquote>


<p>Hippocrates, the “Father of Medicine,” was born at Cos,<a id="FNanchor_384_384" href="#Footnote_384_384" class="fnanchor">384</a> 460 <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>
On his father’s side he was believed to be descended from Æsculapius,
and through his mother from Hercules. A member of the family of the
Asclepiadæ, of a descent of three hundred years, he had the advantage
of studying medicine under his father, Heraclides, in the Asclepion
of Cos. Herodicus of Selymbria taught him medical gymnastics,
and Democritus of Abdera and Gorgias of Leontini were his masters in
literature and philosophy. He travelled widely, and taught and practised
at Athens, dying at an age variously stated as 85, 90, 104, and
109. Fortunate in the opportunities offered by his birth and position,
he was still more fortunate in his time—the age of Pericles—in which
Greece reached its noblest development, and the arts and sciences
achieved their greatest triumphs. It was the age of Socrates, Plato,
Xenophon, Euripides, Sophocles, Æschylus, Pindar, Aristophanes,
Herodotus, Thucydides, and Phidias. Philosophy, poetry, literature,
and sculpture found in these great minds their most perfect exponents.
Medicine, in the person of Hippocrates, was to find its first and most
distinguished author-physician.</p>

<p>The Father of Medicine was therefore the worthy product of his remarkable
age. The genius which culminated in the works of the golden
age of Greece could scarcely have left medicine without her Hippocrates;
the harmony otherwise would have been incomplete.</p>

<p>The following genealogy of Hippocrates has been given by Tzetzes,
but Mr. Grote says it is wholly mythical:—</p>

<p>Æsculapius was the father of Podalirius, who was the father of Hippolochus,
who was the father of Sostratus, who was the father of
Cleomyttades, who was the father of Theodorus, who was the father of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">173</span>
Sostratus II., who was the father of Theodorus II., who was the father
of Sostratus III., who was the father of Nebrus, who was the father of
Gnosidicus, who was the father of Hippocrates I., who was the father
of Heraclides, who was the father of Hippocrates II., otherwise called
the Great Hippocrates.</p>

<p>Hippocrates was the first physician who delivered medicine from the
thraldom of superstition and the sophistries of philosophers, and gave it
an independent existence. It was impossible that our science should
make progress so long as men believed that disease was caused by
an angry demon or an offended divinity, and was only to be cured by
expelling the one or propitiating the other. Hippocrates, with a discernment
and a courage which was marvellous, considering his time,
declared that no disease whatever came from the gods, but was in
every instance traceable to a natural and intelligible cause. Before the
Asclepiadæ there was no medical science; before Hippocrates there
was no one mind with vision wide enough to take in all that had been
done before—to select the precious from the worthless and embody it
in a literature which remains to the present time a model of conciseness
and condensation, and a practical text-book on all that concerns the
art of healing as it was understood in his time. The minuteness of his
observations, his rational, and accurate interpretation of all he saw, and
his simple, methodical, truthful, and lucid descriptions of everything
which he has recorded excite the admiration and compel the praise of
all who have studied the works which he has left. Nor are his candour,
honesty, caution, and experience less to be extolled. He confesses his
errors, fully explains the measures adopted to cure his cases, and
candidly admits that in one series of forty-two patients whom he
attended only seventeen recovered, the others having perished in spite
of the means he had proposed to save them. He was probably the
first public teacher of the healing-art; his counsels were not whispered
in the secret meetings of sacerdotal assemblies. He was the first to
disclose the secrets of the art to the world; to strip it of the veil of
mystery with which countless generations of magicians, thaumaturgists,
and priestly healers had shrouded it, and to stand before his pupils to
give oral instruction in anatomy and the other branches of his profession.
Had he not been the Father of Medicine, he would have been known
as one of the greatest of the philosophers. He first recognised Φύσις—Nature
in the treatment of disease. Nature, he declared, was all-sufficient
for our healing. She knows of herself all that is necessary for
us, and so he called her “the just.” He attributed to her a faculty,
Δύναμις; physicians are but her servants. The governing faculty,
Δύναμις, nourishes, preserves, and increases all things.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">174</span></p>

<p>Galen states that the greater part of Aristotle’s physiology was taken
from Hippocrates. It has been the custom to make light of his
anatomical knowledge, and to say that in face of the difficulty, if not
impossibility, of procuring subjects for dissection, he could have had
but little exact knowledge of the human body; but it is certain that by
some means or other he must have dissected it. In proof of this it is
only necessary to mention his treatise <i>On the Articulations</i>, especially
that part of it which relates to the dislocation of the shoulder
joint. Dr. Adams, in one of his valuable notes on the works of Hippocrates,<a id="FNanchor_385_385" href="#Footnote_385_385" class="fnanchor">385</a>
says: “The language of our author in this place puts it
beyond all doubt that human dissection was practised in his age.” In
Ashurst’s <i>International Encyclopædia of Surgery</i><a id="FNanchor_386_386" href="#Footnote_386_386" class="fnanchor">386</a> his descriptions of
all dislocations are declared to be wonderfully accurate; and the writer
adds that it is the greatest error imaginable to suppose, with the common
conceit of our day, that all ingenious and useful improvements in
surgery belong to the present age. In the treatise on the Sacred Disease
(epilepsy), his description of the brain in man proves that he was acquainted
with its dissection.</p>

<p>In the treatise on the heart, again, the construction of that organ in
the human body is referred to. Other allusions to the internal structure
of the human frame in the Hippocratic treatises serve to confirm our
opinion; and if it be objected that some of these are probably not
genuine, they must at least be as old as his period, and it was far more
likely that he should have written or inspired them than that they should
have emanated from an inferior source. Those who argue to the contrary
do so on the same grounds as the Greek commentators, who say
that the <i>Iliad</i> and <i>Odyssey</i> were not written by Homer, but by some
other poet of the same name. Dr. Adams is confident, from his
familiarity with the works of Hippocrates, that the knowledge of human
anatomy exhibited therein had its origin in actual dissection, and he
adds that: “I do not at present recollect a single instance of mistake
committed by him in any of his anatomical descriptions, if we except
that with regard to the sutures of the head, and even in that case I
have endeavoured to show that the meaning of the passage is very
equivocal.”<a id="FNanchor_387_387" href="#Footnote_387_387" class="fnanchor">387</a> There is no doubt, in fact, that a great deal more human
dissection went on than the Greek doctors dared to acknowledge for
fear of exciting popular prejudice. Less than a hundred years after the
death of Hippocrates there was abundant and open dissection of the
human body in the schools of Alexandria, and it is incredible that the
practice only received popular sanction at that particular time. Yet the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">175</span>
anatomy of Hippocrates was very imperfect. The nerves, sinews, and
ligaments were confounded together, all being classed as νεῦρον or
τόνος.</p>

<p>The blood-vessels were supposed to contain both blood and air, and
were called φλέβες; the trachea was called an “artery.”</p>

<p>The brain was considered as merely a gland which condenses the
ascending vapours into mucus. The office of the nerves was to convey
the animal spirits throughout the body. We must not forget that the
science of anatomy was extremely imperfect even at the beginning of
the present century.</p>

<p>“When,” says Littré,<a id="FNanchor_388_388" href="#Footnote_388_388" class="fnanchor">388</a> “one searches into the history of medicine and
the commencement of the science, the first body of doctrine that one
meets with is the collection of writings known under the name of the
works of Hippocrates. The science mounts up directly to that origin,
and there stops. Not that it had not been cultivated earlier, and had
not given rise to even numerous productions; but everything that had
been made before the physician of Cos has perished. We have only
remaining of them scattered and unconnected fragments. The works
of Hippocrates have alone escaped destruction; and by a singular
circumstance there exists a great gap after them as well as before them.
The medical works from Hippocrates to the establishment of the school
of Alexandria, and those of that school itself, are completely lost, except
some quotations and passages preserved in the later writers; so
that the writings of Hippocrates remain alone amongst the ruins of
ancient medical literature.”</p>

<p>It is vain to inquire how Hippocrates acquired a knowledge which
seems to us so far in advance of his age. Was Greek wisdom derived
from the East, or was its philosophy the offspring of the soil of Hellas?
Such questions have often been discussed, but to little purpose. There
would seem to be every reason to suppose that Greek medicine was
indigenous. We have no means of knowing how long philosophy and
medicine had been united before the time of Hippocrates. The honour
of affecting the alliance has been ascribed to Pythagoras.</p>

<p>Several of the Greek philosophers speculated about medicine. We
have seen that besides Pythagoras, Empedocles and Democritus did so,
although it is not probable that they followed it as a profession. The
Asclepiadæ probably brought medicine to a high state of perfection, but
the work these priest-physicians did is a sealed book to us. All was
darkness till Hippocrates appeared.</p>

<p>In his treatise <i>On Ancient Medicine</i>, he says that men first learned
from experience the science of dietetics; they were compelled to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">176</span>
ascertain the properties of vegetable productions as articles of food.
Then they learned that the food which is suitable in health is unsuitable
in sickness, and thus they applied themselves to the discovery of
the proper rules of diet in disease; and it was the accumulation of the
facts bearing on this subject which was the origin of the art of medicine.
“The basis of his system was a rational experience, and not a blind
empiricism; so that the empirics in after ages had no good grounds for
claiming him as belonging to their sect.”<a id="FNanchor_389_389" href="#Footnote_389_389" class="fnanchor">389</a></p>

<p>He assiduously applied himself to the study of the natural history
of diseases, especially with the view to determine their tendencies to
death or recovery. In every case he asked himself what would be the
probable end of the disorder if left to itself. Prognosis, then, is one of
the chief characteristics of Hippocratic medicine. He hated all charlatanism,
and was free from all popular superstition. When we reflect
on the medicine of the most highly civilized nations which we have
considered at length in the preceding pages, and remember how full
of absurdities, of magic, amulet lore, and other things calculated to
impose on the credulity of the people, were their attempts at healing,
we shall be inclined to say, that the most wonderful thing in the
history of Hippocrates was his complete divorce from the evil traditions
of the past. Although he forsook philosophy as an ally of medicine,
his system was founded in the physical philosophy of the elements
which the ancient Greeks propounded, and which we have attempted
to explain. There was an all-pervading spiritual essence which is ever
striving to maintain all things in their natural condition; ever rectifying
their derangements; ever restoring them to the original and perfect
pattern. He called that spiritual essence Nature. “Nature is the
physician of diseases.”<a id="FNanchor_390_390" href="#Footnote_390_390" class="fnanchor">390</a> Here, then, we have the enunciation of the
doctrine of the <i>Vis Medicatrix Naturæ</i>. In his attempts to aid Nature,
the physician must regulate his treatment “to do good, or at least, to
do no harm”;<a id="FNanchor_391_391" href="#Footnote_391_391" class="fnanchor">391</a> yet he bled, cupped, and scarified. In constipation
he prescribed laxative drugs, as mercury (not the mineral, of course,
but <i>Mercurialis perennis</i>), beet, and cabbage, also elaterium, scammony,
and other powerful cathartics. He used white hellebore boldly, and
when narcotics were required had recourse to mandragora, henbane,
and probably to poppy-juice.</p>

<p>He is said to have been the discoverer of the principles of derivation
and revulsion in the treatment of diseases.<a id="FNanchor_392_392" href="#Footnote_392_392" class="fnanchor">392</a></p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">177</span></p>

<p>Sydenham called Hippocrates “the Romulus of medicine, whose
heaven was the empyrean of his art. He it is whom we can never duly
praise.” He terms him “that divine old man,” and declares that he
laid the immovable foundations of the whole superstructure of medicine
when he taught that <i>our natures are the physicians of our diseases</i>.<a id="FNanchor_393_393" href="#Footnote_393_393" class="fnanchor">393</a></p>

<p>He was Father of Surgery as well as of medicine. Eight of his seventeen
genuine works are strictly surgical. By an ingenious arrangement
of apparatus he was enabled to practise extension and counter-extension.
He insisted on the most exact co-aptation of fractured bones,
declaring that it was disgraceful to allow a patient to recover with a
crooked or shortened limb. His splints were probably quite as good
as ours, and his bandaging left nothing to be desired. When the ends
of the bones projected in cases of compound fractures, they were carefully
resected. In fracture of the skull with depressed bone the trepan
was used, and in cases where blood or pus had accumulated they were
skilfully evacuated. He boldly and freely opened abscesses of the liver
and kidneys. The thoracic cavity was explored by percussion and
auscultation for detection of fluids, and when they were discovered
paracentesis (tapping) was performed. This was also done in cases
of abdominal dropsies. The rectum was examined by an appropriate
speculum, fistula-in-ano was treated by the ligature, and hæmorrhoids
were operated upon. Stiff leather shoes and an admirable system of
bandaging were employed in cases of talipes. The bladder was explored
by sounds for the detection of calculi; gangrenous and mangled
limbs were amputated; the dead fœtus was extracted from the mother.
Venesection, scarification, and cupping were all employed.<a id="FNanchor_394_394" href="#Footnote_394_394" class="fnanchor">394</a></p>

<p>He resected bones at the joints. In the treatment of ulcers he used
sulphate of copper, sulphate of zinc, verdigris, lead, sulphur, arsenic,
alum, etc. He came very near indeed to the antiseptic system in
surgery when he made use of “raw tar water” (a crude sort of carbolic
acid, in fact) in the treatment of wounds. Suppositories were employed.</p>

<p>In Dr. Adams’ <i>Life of Hippocrates</i>,<a id="FNanchor_395_395" href="#Footnote_395_395" class="fnanchor">395</a> he says:<span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">178</span> “In surgery he was a
bold operator. He fearlessly, and as we would now think, in some
cases unnecessarily, perforated the skull with the trepan and the trephine
in injuries of the head. He opened the chest also in empyema
and hydrothorax. His extensive practice, and no doubt his great
familiarity with the accidents occurring at the public games of his
country, must have furnished him with ample opportunities of becoming
acquainted with dislocations and fractures of all kinds; and how well
he had profited by the opportunities which he thus enjoyed, every page
of his treatises <i>On Fractures</i> and <i>On the Articulations</i> abundantly testifies.
In fact, until within a very recent period, the modern plan of
treatment in such cases was not at all to be compared with his skilful
mode of adjusting fractured bones, and of securing them with waxed
bandages. In particular, his description of the accidents which occur
at the elbow and hip-joints will be allowed, even at the present day, to
display a most wonderful acquaintance with the subject. In the treatment
of dislocations, when human strength was not sufficient to restore
the displacement, he skilfully availed himself of all the mechanical
powers which were then known. In his views with regard to the nature
of club-foot, it might have been affirmed of him a few years ago that
he was twenty-four centuries in advance of his profession, when he
stated that in this case there is no dislocation, but merely a declination
of the foot; and that in infancy, by means of methodical bandaging, a
cure may in most cases be effected without any surgical operation. In
a word, until the days of Delpech and Stromeyer, no one entertained
ideas so sound and scientific on the nature of this deformity as Hippocrates.”</p>

<p>Dr. Adams, recapitulating the general results of the investigations as
to the genuineness of the Hippocratic books, states that a considerable
portion of them are not the work of Hippocrates himself. The works
almost universally admitted to be genuine are: <i>The Prognostics</i>, <i>On
Airs</i>, etc., <i>On Regimen in Acute Diseases</i>, seven of the books of
<i>Aphorisms</i>, <i>Epidemics</i>, I. and III., <i>On the Articulations</i>, <i>On Fractures</i>,
<i>On the Instruments of Reduction</i>, <i>The Oath</i>.</p>

<p>The following are almost certainly genuine: <i>On Ancient Medicine</i>,
<i>On the Surgery</i>, <i>The Law</i>, <i>On Ulcers</i>, <i>On Fistulæ</i>, <i>On Hæmorrhoids</i>,
<i>On the Sacred Disease</i>.<a id="FNanchor_396_396" href="#Footnote_396_396" class="fnanchor">396</a></p>


<h4><span class="smcap">The Law.</span></h4>

<p>1. Medicine is of all the arts the most noble; but owing to the
ignorance of those who practise it, and of those who, inconsiderately,
form a judgment of them, it is at present far behind all the other arts.
Their mistake appears to me to arise principally from this, that in the
cities there is no punishment connected with the practice of medicine
(and with it alone) except disgrace, and that does not hurt those who<span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">179</span>
are familiar with it. Such persons are like the figures<a id="FNanchor_397_397" href="#Footnote_397_397" class="fnanchor">397</a> which are
introduced in tragedies, for as they have the shape, and dress, and
personal appearance of an actor, but are not actors, so also physicians
are many in title but very few in quality.</p>

<p>2. Whoever is to acquire a competent knowledge of medicine, ought
to be possessed of the following advantages: a natural disposition;
instruction; a favourable position for the study; early tuition; love of
labour; leisure. First of all, a natural talent is required; for when
nature opposes, everything else is vain; but when nature leads the way
to what is most excellent, instruction in the art takes place, which the
student must try to appropriate to himself by reflection, becoming an
early pupil in a place well adapted for instruction. He must also bring
to the task a love of labour and perseverance, so that the instruction
taking root may bring forth proper and abundant fruits.</p>

<p>3. Instruction in medicine is like the culture of the productions of
the earth. For our natural disposition is, as it were, the soil; the
tenets of our teacher are, as it were, the seed; instruction in youth is
like the planting of the seed in the ground at the proper season; the
place where the instruction is communicated is like the food imparted
to vegetables by the atmosphere; diligent study is like the cultivation
of the fields; and it is time which imparts strength to all things and
brings them to maturity.</p>

<p>4. Having brought all these requisites to the study of medicine,
and having acquired a true knowledge of it, we shall then, in travelling
through the cities, be esteemed physicians not only in name but in
reality. But inexperience is a bad treasure, and a bad friend to those
who possess it, whether in opinion or reality, being devoid of self-reliance
and contentedness, and the nurse both of timidity and audacity.
For timidity betrays a want of power, and audacity a want of
skill. There are, indeed, two things, knowledge and opinion, of which
the one makes its possessor really to know, the other to be ignorant.</p>

<p>5. Those things which are sacred are to be imparted only to sacred
persons; and it is not lawful to impart them to the profane until they
have been initiated in the mysteries of the science.</p>

<p>The “Hippocratic collections” of works which have been attributed
to Hippocrates, but the greater part of which were neither written by
him, nor compiled from notes taken by his students, consists of eighty-seven
treatises.</p>

<p>Hippocrates believed in the influence of the imagination of pregnant
women on the child in the womb. He forbad nurses to eat food of an<span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">180</span>
acrid, salt, or acid nature, and observed that infants during the period
of dentition were liable to fevers, bowel troubles, and convulsions, especially
if there was constipation. He mentions thrush as one of the
diseases of dentition (<i>De Dent.</i>). He recommends friction for contracting
or relaxing the body according as it is applied in a hard or
soft manner. Very fully he discourses on the evil effects of plethora,
and recommends purging, emetics, warm baths, and bleeding, for reducing
the system (<i>De Dietol.</i>, iii. 16 <i>et seq.</i>). He constantly advises
gentle purgatives as a means of keeping the body in health. His
favourite laxative medicine was the herb mercury. The administration
of clysters is recommended; this treatment was evidently derived from
the Egyptians. What are called errhines or sternutatories—<i>i.e.</i>, medicines
which, applied to the nose, excite sneezing—were described by
Hippocrates as medicines which purge the head. Though he fully describes
the effects of baths, he speaks unfavourably of thermal springs
as being hard and heating. He insists that the diet should be full in
winter and spare in summer (<i>Aphor.</i>, i. 18). He disapproves of the
habit of eating a full dinner (<i>De Vet. Med.</i>). He condemns the use of
new bread. The nutritious properties of pulse in general are insisted
upon. He calls the flesh of fowls one of the lightest kinds of food
(<i>De Affect.</i>, 46), and says that eggs are nutritious, and strengthening,
but flatulent. He remarks that the flesh of wild animals is more digestible
than that of domesticated. He objects to goat’s flesh as having
all the bad qualities of beef, which he calls a strong, astringent, and
indigestible article of diet. Milk, he says, sometimes causes the formation
of stones in the bladder (<i>De Ær. Aquis et Locis</i>, 24). Dr. Francis
Adams says this opinion was adopted by all the ancient physicians.
Cheese he considers flatulent and indigestible. Fishes are light food;
sea fish are lighter and better for delicate persons than fresh-water
fish (<i>De Affect.</i>, 46). Honey, when eaten with other food, is nutritious,
but is injurious when taken alone.</p>

<p>Hippocrates opposed all hypothesis in medicine, and grounded his
opinions on disease on actual observation. He insisted that the essence
of fever is heat mixed up with noxious qualities. He was the great
master of prognostics. His work <i>Prorrhetica and Coacæ</i>, says Dr. Francis
Adams,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">181</span> “contains a rich treasure of observations which cannot be too
much explored by the student of medicine. His prognostics are
founded upon the appearance of the face, eyes, tongue, the voice,
hearing, the state of the hypochondriac region, the abdomen, the
general system, sleep, respiration, and the excretions. We can do
little more, in this place, than express our high sense of the value of
the <i>Hippocratic Treatises on Prognostics</i>, and recommend the study of
them to all members of the profession who would wish to learn the
true inductive system of cultivating medicine.” (<i>The Seven Books of
Paulus Ægineta</i>, by Francis Adams.) The state of the countenance
which immediately precedes death is called by physicians the <i>Facies
Hippocratica</i>, because Hippocrates described it, calling it πρόσωποι
διαφθορή (<i>Coac. Prænot.</i>, 212). The nose is sharp, the eyes hollow,
the temples sunk, the ears cold and contracted, and their lobes inverted;
the skin about the forehead hard, tense, and dry; the countenance pale,
greenish, or dark. In fevers he was greatly attached to the importance
of the critical days. Galen adopted his list of critical days with little
alteration. Hippocrates does not seem to have paid much attention to
the pulse, or if he did he attached little importance to it; even in describing
epidemical fevers he neglects to mention the characteristics of
the pulse. Galen, however, affirms that he was not altogether ignorant
of it. He quite correctly described the characteristics of healthy stools,
and pointed out that they should in colour be yellowish, if too yellow
there is too much bile, if not yellow at all there was a stoppage of the
passage of bile to the intestines. His indications from the state of the
urine are not less valuable. How wise are his observations on the
treatment of febrile diseases! “To be able to tell what had preceded
them; to know the present state and foretell the future; to have two
objects in view, either to do good or at least do no harm” (<i>Epidem.</i>, i. 7).
He it was who formulated the rule all physicians have since followed
that a fluid diet is proper in all febrile affections. He advised cold
sponging in ardent fevers—a method of treatment recently revived and
of great value (<i>De Rat. Vict. Acut.</i>). He laid it down that diseases in
general may be said to arise either from the food we eat or the air we
breathe. In cases of fever he allowed his patients to drink freely of
barley-water and cold acidulated drinks. In this he was much in advance
of the medical science of the time. He has described cases of
“brain fever,” one of the few complaints which novelists permit their
heroes to suffer from. They appear to have been cases of remittent
fever rather than true inflammation of the brain. We may estimate the
wonderful extent of the medical science of Hippocrates by the fact that
he vigorously opposed the popular belief of the period, that epilepsy
was due to demoniacal influence. He explains that the lower animals
are subject to the same disorder, and that in them it is often associated
with water in the brain. There is really no doubt that the <i>morbus sacer</i>
of the ancients and the cases of demoniacal possession of which we read
were cases of epilepsy (<i>Hippoc. de Morbo Sacro</i>). Concerning apoplexy
he says that a slight attack is difficult to cure, and a severe one utterly
incurable. The cause of the attack he considered was turgidity of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">182</span>
veins. We know it to be often associated with cerebral hæmorrhage or
sanguineous apoplexy and sometimes with effusion of serum = serous
apoplexy. Hippocrates therefore came very near the truth. He advised
bleeding, which is still recommended but is not often practised in
England; and he very justly said that the malady occurs most frequently
between the age of forty and sixty (<i>Aphoris.</i>, ii. 42). In certain
forms of ophthalmia he advises free purgation, bleeding, and the use of
wine; and this accords with the best modern practice, if for venesection,
we substitute vesication. His treatment of nasal polypus by the ligature
is not unlike our own; and nothing could be better than his plan
for dealing with quinsey and allied complaints, viz., hot fomentations,
warm gargles and tinctures, with free purgation. He disapproves of a
practice too often followed by surgeons to-day, of scarifying the tonsils
when swollen and red. In cases of inflammation of the lungs he advised
bleeding, purging, and cooling drinks. Laënnec, the great French
physician, who invented the stethoscope, highly praises Hippocrates for
his knowledge of phthisis, and the diagnostic value of his tests of the
nature of the sputa in that disease. In cases of empyema, or the formation
and accumulation of pus in the chest, he directs us to make an
incision into the pleural cavity—an operation which has been revived in
modern times under the name of “paracentesis thoracis.”</p>

<p>He declares the loss of hair and the diarrhœa of phthisis to be fatal
signs, and his description of hydrothorax, or dropsy of the chest,
has been highly praised by the greatest authorities. He says that
phthisis is most common between the ages of eighteen and thirty-six
(see <i>Hippoc. de Morbis</i>, ii. 45; <i>Coacæ Prænat., et alibi</i>). For pleurisy
his treatment is practically the same as that followed at the present
day. He advised the administration of flour and milk in diarrhœa—an
exceedingly useful remedy—and treated the pains of colic by warm
injections, warm baths, fomentations, soporifics and purgatives, as the
case might require. He was wise enough to know that stone of the
bladder was a product of a morbid condition of the urine, and said
that when it had fairly formed nothing but an operation for its removal
was of any value. He recognised the disease known as hydatids of the
liver, and directed that abscesses of that organ should be opened by
the cautery. His account of the causes and treatment of dropsy is
fairly accurate according to our present knowledge. He approved of
paracentesis abdominis (tapping) in cases of ascites, and describes the
operation. He recognised the incurability of true cancer. Many of
his treatises on the disorders of women prove that they were well understood
in his day, and on the whole were properly treated. Difficult
labour was managed not so differently from our modern methods as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">183</span>
might be supposed. His account of hip-joint disease is remarkably
accurate. Gout was well understood by our author, and probably his
treatment by purgation and careful dieting was on the whole as successful
as our own.</p>

<p>Hippocrates speaks of leprosy as more a blemish than a disease;
it is probable, however, that the works in which he is supposed to
allude to it are not genuine. He points out the danger of opening the
round tumour on tendons, called a ganglion. In his book called <i>Prognostics</i>,
he refers to the danger of an erysipelas being translated to
an internal part. Cold applications, he says, are useful in this disease
when there is no ulceration, but prejudicial when ulceration is present.
Struma or scrofula is described by Hippocrates (<i>De Glandulis</i>) as being
one of the worst diseases of the neck. In the treatise (<i>De Ulceribus</i>)
on ulcers, he particularly praises wine as a lotion for ulcers, and there is
good reason to believe that we might advantageously revert to this treatment.
Some of the drugs which he recommends for foul ulcers, such
as frankincense and myrrh, are excellent, and owe their efficacy to their
“newly discovered” antiseptic action. He recommends also arsenic
and verdigris. The actual cautery or burning applied freely to the
head is recommended in diseases of the eyes and other complaints.
He describes water on the brain in the treatise <i>De Morbis</i>, ii. 15, and
even recommends perforation of the skull or trephining quite in the
modern way. Opening the temporal veins is advised for obstinate headaches.
Although no express treatise on bleeding is found amongst the
works of Hippocrates, he practised venesection freely in various diseases.
He forbids the surgeon to interfere with non-ulcerated cancers, adding
that if the cancer be healed the patient soon dies, while if let alone he
may live a long time (<i>Aph.</i>, vi. 38). He warns us that the sudden
evacuation of the matter of empyema or of the water in dropsy proves
fatal. He speaks of evacuating the fluid with an instrument similar to
that which we call a trochar. He approves of scarification of the
ankles in dropsy of the lower extremities; this is quite modern treatment.
In cases of dislocation of the hip-joint from the formation of a
collection of humours, he recommends burning so as to dry up the
redundant humours. He minutely describes the cure of fistula with
the ligature in his work <i>De Fistulis</i>, which, even if not a genuine
treatise of Hippocrates, is extremely ancient, and was considered
authentic by Galen. Hæmorrhoids or piles are to be ligatured with
very thick thread, or destroyed with red-hot irons. Varicose veins are
to be treated by small punctures, not freely opened (<i>De Ulceribus</i>, 16).
Hippocrates considered the extraction of weapons to be one of the
most important departments of surgery. In his treatise <i>De Medico</i>,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">184</span>
he says that surgery can only be properly learned by attaching one’s
self to the army. Homer said,—</p>

<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"><div class="stanza">
  <div class="verse">“The man of medicine can in worth with many warriors vie,</div>
  <div class="verse">Who knows the weapons to excise, and soothing salves apply.”</div>
</div></div></div>

<p>Hippocrates treats of fractures in his books <i>De Fracturis</i> (<i>De Articulis</i>;
<i>De Vulner. Capit.</i>; <i>Officina Medici</i>). He insists that no injuries to the
head are to be considered as trifling; even wounds of the scalp may
prove dangerous if neglected. Fissures, contusions, and fractures of the
cranium are minutely explained and appropriate treatment suggested.
He describes the trephine under the name of τρύπανον, <i>i.e.</i> the trepan.
He says that convulsions are the frequent consequence of head
injuries, and that they occur on the opposite side of the body to that in
which the brain injury is seated. One of the most valuable legacies of
the ancients is this profoundly learned treatise of the Father of Medicine,
and it proves to us how high a point the surgery of ancient Greece had
reached. He noticed a certain movement of the brain during respiration,
a swelling up in expiration and a falling down during inspiration;
and although several great authorities of the past denied the accuracy
of this observation, it has since been shown to be perfectly correct.
(See <i>Paulus Ægineta</i>, Dr. F. Adams’ edit., vol. ii. p. 442.) In cases of
fracture of the lower jaw, our author directs that the teeth separated at
the broken part are to be fastened together and bound with gold wire.
So accurately does he describe this fracture that Paulus Ægineta transcribes
it almost word for word from the <i>De Articulus</i>. His method of
treating fracture of the clavicle is admirable; in fracture of the ribs
he observes that when the broken ends of the bone are not pushed
inwards, it seldom happens that any unpleasant symptoms supervene.
In fractures of the arm he minutely and precisely indicates the correct
principles on which they are to be treated, and insists strongly on the
necessity of having the arm and wrist carefully suspended in a broad
soft sling, and that the hand be placed neither too high nor too low.
Hippocrates could learn very little from our modern surgeons in the
treatment of such injuries. In cases of broken thigh he has indicated all
the dangers and difficulties attending the management of this accident;
his splints and bandages are applied much as we apply them at the
present time, and his suggestions for ensuring a well-united bone without
deformity of the limb are invaluable. In fractures of the thigh and leg-bones
he lays great stress on the attention necessary to the state of the
heel. In those of the foot he warns against the danger of attempting to
walk too soon. In compound fractures compresses of wine and oil are
to be used, and splints are not to be applied till the wound puts on a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">185</span>
healthy appearance. He is fully aware of the peculiarly dangerous
character of such injuries, and his observations read like extracts from a
modern text-book of surgery. “No author,” says Dr. Francis Adams,
the learned translator of the works of Paulus Ægineta, “has given so
complete a view of the accidents to which the elbow joint is subject
as Hippocrates.”</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Plato</span> (<span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 427-347) in its philosophical aspect studied medicine,
not with any idea of practising the art, but merely as a speculative contemplation.
The human soul is an emanation from the absolute intelligence.
The world is composed of the four elements. Fire consists of
pyramidal, earth of cubical, air of octagonal, and water of twenty-sided
atoms. Besides these is the æther. Everything in the body has in
view the spirit. The heart is the seat of the mind, the lungs cool the
heart, the liver serves the lower desires and is useful for divination.
The spleen is the abode for the impurities of the blood. The intestines
serve to detain the food, so that it might not be necessary to be constantly
taking nourishment. The inward pressure of the air accounts
for the breathing. The muscles and bones protect the marrow against
heat and cold. The marrow consists of triangles, and the brain is the
most perfect form of marrow. When the soul is separated from the
marrow, death occurs. Sight is caused by the union of the light which
flows into and out of the eyes, hearing in the shock of air communicated
to the brain and the blood. Taste is due to a solution of sapid atoms
by means of small vessels, which vessels conduct the dissolved atoms to
the heart and soul. Smell is very transitory, not being founded on any
external image. The uterus is a wild beast exciting inordinate desires.
Disease is caused by a disturbance of the quantity and quality of the
fluids. Inflammations are due to aberrations of the bile. The various
fevers are due to the influence of the elements. Mental diseases are
the results of bodily maladies and bad education. Diseases fly away
before appropriate drugs. Physicians must be the rulers of the sick in
order to cure them, but they must not be money-makers.<a id="FNanchor_398_398" href="#Footnote_398_398" class="fnanchor">398</a></p>

<p>In the <i>Republic of Plato</i>, Book III., we find that medical aid was
largely in request in Greece to relieve the indolent and voluptuous from
the consequences of self-indulgence. It was thought by Socrates disgraceful
to compel the clever sons of Asclepius to attend to such diseases
as flatulence and catarrh; it seemed ridiculous to the philosopher to pay
so much attention to regimen and diet as to drag on a miserable existence
as an invalid in the doctor’s hands. When a carpenter was ill, he
expected his doctor to cure him with an emetic or a purge, the
cautery or an operation; if he were ordered a long course of diet, he<span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">186</span>
would tell his doctor that he had no time to be ill, and he would go about
his business regardless of consequences. Æsculapius, it was maintained,
revealed the healing art for the benefit of those whose constitutions
were naturally sound; he expelled their disorders by drugs and the use
of the knife, without interfering with their usual avocations; but when
he found they were hopelessly incurable, he would not attempt to prolong
a miserable life by rules and diet, as such persons would be of no
use either to themselves or the state. Constitutionally diseased persons
and the intemperate livers were to be left to be dealt with by Nature,
so that they might die of their diseases.</p>

<hr class="chap" />
<div class="chapter"></div>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">187</span></p>




<h3 id="CHAPTERIII_III">CHAPTER III.<br />

<small>POST-HIPPOCRATIC GREEK MEDICINE.—THE SCHOOLS OF MEDICINE.</small></h3>

<blockquote>

<p>The Dogmatic School.—Praxagoras of Cos.—Aristotle.—The School of Alexandria.—Theophrastus
the Botanist.—The great Anatomists, Erasistratus and Hierophilus,
and the Schools they founded.—The Empiric School.</p></blockquote>


<h4><span class="smcap">The Dogmatic School.</span></h4>

<p>It was only natural that the philosophical Greeks should discuss medicine
at as great a length as they discussed philosophy; accordingly, we
find that no sooner had our art taken its place amongst the subjects
worthy of being seriously considered by the Greek intellect, than it was
as much talked about as practised, and wrangled over as though it were
a system of religion. Sects arose which opposed each other with the
greatest vehemence; and Hippocrates had not long formulated his
teaching when his disciples elevated his principles into a dogmatism
which challenged, and shortly provoked, opposition of various kinds.
Then arose the schools of medicine which ultimately became famous, as
those of the <span class="smcap">Dogmatists</span>, <span class="smcap">Empirics</span>, <span class="smcap">Methodists</span>, <span class="smcap">Pneumatists</span>, etc.
The <span class="smcap">Dogmatists</span> boasted of being the Rational and Logical school.
They held that there is a certain connection between all the arts and
sciences, and that it is the duty of the physician to avail himself of all
sorts of knowledge on every subject which bears any relationship to his
own. They made, therefore, the most careful inquiry into the remote
and proximate causes of disease. They examined the influence on the
human body of airs, waters, places, occupations, diet, seasons, etc.
They formulated general rules, not of universal application, but modified
their treatment according to circumstances, availing themselves of whatever
aid they could obtain from any source. Hippocrates had said,
“The physician who is also a philosopher is equal to the gods,” and
the Dogmatists elevated this into an article of their creed. Hippocrates,
Galen, Oribasius, Ætius, Paulus Ægineta, and the Arab physicians
were dogmatists. The founders of the school were the sons of Hippocrates—Thessalus
and Draco. The former was the eldest son of the
great physician, and was the more famous of the two. He passed a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">188</span>
great part of his life as physician in the court of Archelaus, king of
Macedonia.<a id="FNanchor_399_399" href="#Footnote_399_399" class="fnanchor">399</a> His brother, Draco, was physician to Queen Roxana,
wife of Alexander the Great.</p>

<p>We may say, therefore, that the oldest, most famous, and worthy of
the ancient medical sects arose about 400 <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>, and retained its power
over the medical profession till the rise of the Empirical sect in the
Alexandrian school of philosophy. We are indebted to Celsus for a
lucid and admirable exposition of the doctrines professed by these two
medical parties.<a id="FNanchor_400_400" href="#Footnote_400_400" class="fnanchor">400</a></p>

<p>The Dogmatists maintained that it was not enough for the physician
to know the mere symptoms of his patient’s malady. It does not suffice
to know the <i>evident causes</i> of the disorder, but he must acquaint himself
with the <i>hidden causes</i>. To acquire this knowledge of the <i>hidden causes</i>,
he must study the <i>hidden parts</i>, and the natural actions and functions of
the body in health. He must know the principles on which the human
machinery is constructed before he can scientifically treat the accidents
and disturbances to which it is liable. It was not, therefore, a mere
subject of philosophical interest to hold with some physicians that
diseases proceed from excess or deficiency of one or other of the four
elements, or with others, that the various humours or the respiration
were at fault. It was not of merely academic interest to suppose that
the abnormal flow of the blood caused inflammations, or that corpuscles
blocked up the invisible passages. The doctor must do more than
speculate on these things in his discussions. He must have a theory
upon them which he could apply to the treatment of his patients, and
the best physician would be the one who best knew how the disease
originated. Experiments without reasoning were valueless; their chief
use was to inform the experimenter whether he had reasoned justly or
conjectured fortunately. When the physician is confronted by a new
form of disease for which no remedy has been discovered, he must
know its cause and origin, or his practice will be mere guess-work.
Anybody can discover the evident causes—heat, cold, over-eating.
These things the least instructed physician will probably know. It is
the knowledge of hidden causes which makes the superior man. He
who aspires to be instructed must know what we now call physiology—why
we breathe, why we eat, what happens to the food which we
swallow, why the arteries pulsate, why we sleep, etc. The man who
cannot explain these phenomena is not a competent doctor. He must
have frequently inspected dead bodies, and examined carefully their
internal parts; but they maintained that it was much the better way to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">189</span>
open living persons, as Herophilus and Erasistratus did, so that they
could acquaint themselves in life with the structures whose disturbance
or disease causes the sufferings which they were called upon to alleviate.
What is known as the “Humoral Pathology” formed the most essential
part of the system of the Dogmatists.</p>

<p>Humoral pathology explains all diseases as caused by the mixture of
the four cardinal humours; viz., the blood, bile, mucus or phlegm, and
water. Hippocrates leaned towards it, but it was Plato who developed
it. The stomach is the common source of all these humours. When
diseases develop, they attract these humours. The source of the bile
is the liver; of the mucus, the head; of the water, the spleen. Bile
causes all acute diseases, mucus in the head causes catarrhs and
rheumatism, dropsy depends on the spleen.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Diocles Carystius</span>, a famous Greek physician, said by Pliny<a id="FNanchor_401_401" href="#Footnote_401_401" class="fnanchor">401</a> to
have been next in age and fame to Hippocrates himself, lived in the
fourth century <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> He wrote several treatises on medicine, of which the
titles and some fragments are preserved by Galen, Cælius Aurelianus,
Oribasius, and others. His letter to King Antigonus, entitled “An
Epistle on Preserving Health,” is inserted at the end of the first book of
Paulus Ægineta, and was probably addressed to Antigonus Gonatus,
king of Macedonia, who died <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 239. This treatise is so valuable a
summary of the medical teaching of the time that it will be useful to
insert it in this place. “Since of all kings you are the most skilled in
the arts, and have lived very long, and are skilled in all philosophy, and
have attained the highest rank in mathematics, I, supposing that the
science which treats of all things that relate to health is a branch of
philosophy becoming a king and befitting to you, have written you this
account of the origin of diseases, of the symptoms which precede them,
and of the modes by which they may be alleviated. For neither does a
storm gather in the heavens but it is preceded by certain signs which
seamen and men of much skill attend to, nor does any disease attack
the human frame without having some precursory symptom. If, then,
you will only be persuaded by what we say regarding them, you may
attain a correct acquaintance with these things. We divide the human
body into four parts: the head, the chest, the belly, and the bladder.
When a disease is about to fix in the head, it is usually announced
beforehand by vertigo, pain in the head, heaviness in the eyebrows,
noise in the ears, and throbbing of the temples; the eyes water in the
morning, attended with dimness of sight; the sense of smell is lost, and
the gums become swelled. When any such symptoms occur, the head
ought to be purged, not indeed with any strong medicine, but, taking
<span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">190</span>
the tops of hyssop and sweet marjoram, pound them and boil them in a
pot, with half a hemina of must or rob; rinse the mouth with this in the
morning before eating, and evacuate the humours by gargling. There
is no gentler remedy than this for affections of the head. Mustard in
warm, honied water also answers the purpose very well. Take a
mouthful of this in the morning before eating, gargle and evacuate the
humours. The head also should be warmed by covering it in such a
manner as that the phlegm may be readily discharged. Those who
neglect these symptoms are apt to be seized with the following disorders:
inflammations of the eyes, cataracts, pain of the ears as if from
a fracture, strumous affections of the neck, sphacelus of the brain,
catarrh, quinsy, running ulcers called achores, caries, enlargement of the
uvula, defluxion of the hairs, ulceration of the head, pain in the teeth.
When some disease is about to fall upon the chest, it is usually
announced by some of the following symptoms: There are profuse
sweats over the whole body, and particularly about the chest, the tongue
is rough, expectoration saltish, bitter, or bilious, pains suddenly seizing
the sides or shoulder-blades, frequent yawning, watchfulness, oppressed
respiration, thirst after sleep, despondency of mind, coldness of the
breast and arms, trembling of the hands. These symptoms may be
relieved in the following manner: Procure vomiting after a moderate
meal without medicine. Vomiting also when the stomach is empty
will answer well; to produce which first swallow some small radishes,
cresses, rocket, mustard and purslain, and then by drinking warm water
procure vomiting. Upon those who neglect these symptoms the
following diseases are apt to supervene: pleurisy, peripneumony,
melancholy, acute fevers, frenzy, lethargy, ardent fever attended with
hiccough. When any disease is about to attack the bowels, some of the
following symptoms announce its approach: In the first place, the belly
is griped and disordered, the food and drink seem bitter, heaviness of
the knees, inability to bend the loins, pains over the whole body
unexpectedly occurring, numbness of the legs, slight fever. When any
of these occur, it will be proper to loosen the belly by a suitable diet
without medicine. There are many articles of this description which
one may use with safety, such as beets boiled in honeyed water, boiled
garlic, mallows, dock, the herb mercury, honied cakes; for all these
things are laxative of the bowels. Or, if any of these symptoms
increase, mix bastard saffron with all these decoctions, for thereby they
will be rendered sweeter and less dangerous. The smooth cabbage
boiled in a large quantity of water is also beneficial. This decoction,
with honey and salt, may be drunk to the amount of about four
heminæ, or the water of chick-peas and tares boiled may be drunk in
<span class="pagenum" id="Page_191">191</span>
the same manner. Those who neglect the afore-mentioned symptoms
are apt to be seized with the following affections: diarrhœa, dysentery,
lientery, ileus, ischiatic disease, tertian fever, gout, apoplexy, hæmorrhoids,
rheumatism. When any disease is about to seize the bladder,
the following symptoms are its usual precursors: A sense of repletion
after taking even a small quantity of food, flatulence, eructation, paleness
of the whole body, deep sleep, urine pale and passed with difficulty,
swellings about the privy parts. When any of these symptoms appear,
their safest cure will be by aromatic diuretics. Thus, the roots of
fennel and parsley may be infused in white fragrant wine, and drunk
every day when the stomach is empty in the morning, to the amount of
two cyathi, with water in which carrot, myrtle, or elecampane has been
macerated (you may use any of these you please, for all are useful); and
the infusion of chick-peas in water in like manner. On those who
neglect these symptoms the following diseases are apt to supervene:
dropsy, enlargement of the spleen, pain of the liver, calculus, inflammation
of the kidney, strangury, distension of the belly. Regarding all
these symptoms, it may be remarked that children ought to be treated
with gentler remedies, and adults with more active. I have now to give
you an account of the seasons of the year in which each of these complaints
occur, and what things ought to be taken and avoided. I begin
with the winter solstice. <i>Of the winter solstice</i>: This season disposes
men to catarrhs and defluxions until the vernal equinox. It will be
proper then to take such things as are of a heating nature, drink wine
little diluted, or drink pure wine, or of the decoction of marjoram.
From the winter solstice to the vernal equinox are ninety days. <i>Of
the vernal equinox</i>: This season increases phlegm in men, and the
sweetish humours in the blood, until the rising of the pleiades. Use
therefore juicy and acrid things, take labour, ... To the rising of
the pleiades are forty-six days. <i>Of the rising of the pleiades</i>: This
season increases the bitter bile and bitter humours in men, until the
summer solstice. Use therefore all sweet things, laxatives of the belly....
To the summer solstice are forty-five days. <i>Of the summer
solstice</i>: This season increases the formation of black bile in men, until
the autumnal equinox. Use therefore cold water, and everything that
is fragrant.... To the autumnal equinox are ninety-three days.
<i>Of the autumnal equinox</i>: This season increases phlegm and thin
rheums in men until the setting of the pleiades. Use therefore remedies
for removing rheums, have recourse to acrid and succulent things, take
no vomits, and abstain from labour.... To the setting of the
pleiades are forty-five days. <i>Of the setting of the pleiades</i>: This season
increases phlegm in men until the winter solstice. Take therefore all
<span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">192</span>
sour things, drink as much as is agreeable of a weak wine, use fat
things, and labour strenuously. To the winter solstice are forty-five
days.”<a id="FNanchor_402_402" href="#Footnote_402_402" class="fnanchor">402</a></p>

<p><span class="smcap">Praxagoras</span> of Cos, who lived in the fourth century <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>, shortly after
Diocles, was a famous physician of the Dogmatic sect, who especially
excelled in anatomy and physiology. He placed the seat of all diseases
in the humours of the body, and was one of the chief supporters of
what is known as the “humoral pathology.” Sprengel<a id="FNanchor_403_403" href="#Footnote_403_403" class="fnanchor">403</a> and others
state that he was the first who pointed out the distinction between
the arteries and the veins; but M. Littré denies this, and seems to prove
that the differences were known to Aristotle, Hippocrates, and other
writers.<a id="FNanchor_404_404" href="#Footnote_404_404" class="fnanchor">404</a> His knowledge of anatomy must have been very considerable,
and his surgery was certainly bold; so that he even ventured, in cases of
intussusception of the bowel, to open the abdomen in order to replace
the intestine. In hernia he practised the taxis,<a id="FNanchor_405_405" href="#Footnote_405_405" class="fnanchor">405</a> <i>i.e.</i> replaced the bowel
by the hand; and he amputated the uvula in affections of that organ.
He had many pupils, amongst others Herophilus, Philotimus, and Plistonicus.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Aristotle</span>, the founder of comparative anatomy and the father of
the science of natural history, was the son of Nichomachus, physician
to Amyntas II., king of Macedonia. He was born at Stageira, <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>
334. His father was a scientific man of the race of the Asclepiads,
and it was the taste for such pursuits and the inherited bent of mind
which early inclined the son to the investigation of nature. He went
to Athens, where he became the disciple of Plato, and remained in his
society for twenty years. In his forty-second year he was summoned
by Philip of Macedon to undertake the tuition of Alexander the Great,
who was then fifteen years old. Of his philosophical works it is not
here necessary to speak; it is his scientific labours, which had so important
an influence on medical education, which chiefly concern us. He
wrote <i>Researches about Animals</i>, <i>On Sleep and Waking</i>, <i>On Longevity
and Shortlivedness</i>, <i>On Respiration</i>, <i>On Parts of Animals</i>, <i>On Locomotion
of Animals</i>, <i>On Generation of Animals</i>. Aristotle inspired Alexander
with a passion for the study of natural history, and his royal
pupil gave him abundant means and opportunity to collect materials
for a history of animals. The science of comparative anatomy, so
important in relation to that of medicine, was thus established. He<span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">193</span>
pointed out the differences which exist between the structure of men
and monkeys; described the organs of the elephant, and the stomach
of the ruminant animals. The anatomy of birds and the development of
their eggs during incubation were accurately described by him; he dissected
reptiles, and studied the habits of fishes. He investigated the
action of the muscles, regarded the heart as the origin of the blood-vessels,
named the <i>aorta</i> and the <i>ventricles</i>, described the nerves which
he thought originated in the heart, but he confused the nerves with the
ligaments and tendons. The heart he considered as the centre of
movement and feeling<a id="FNanchor_406_406" href="#Footnote_406_406" class="fnanchor">406</a> and nourishment, holding that it contains the
natural fire, and is the birthplace of the passions and the seat of the
soul; the brain he thought was merely a mass of water and earth, and
did not recognise it as nervous matter. The diaphragm he considered
had no other office than to separate the abdomen from the thorax and
protect the seat of the soul (the heart) from the impure influences of
the digestive organs. Superfœtation (or the conception of a second
embryo during the gestation of the first) he held to be possible, and he
first pointed out the <i>punctum saliens</i>.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Theophrastus</span>, whose real name was Tyrtamus, was born at Eresa
in the island of Lesbos, 371 <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>, fourteen years after Aristotle. He
was the originator of the science of plants; he first learned the details
of their structure, the uses of their organs, the laws of their reproduction,—in
a word, the physiology of the vegetable world. When Aristotle
retired to Chalcis, he chose Theophrastus, to whom he gave that name,
signifying “a man of divine speech,” as his successor at the Lyceum.
This distinguished philosopher devoted himself alike to the exact and
speculative sciences. The greater part of his works have perished;
what is preserved to us consists of treatises on the history of the
vegetable kingdom, of stones, and some fragments of works on physics,
medicine, and some moral works. His <i>History of Plants</i> enumerates
about five hundred different kinds, many of which are now difficult to
identify. He made some attempts at a vague kind of classification, and
has chapters on aquatic, kitchen, parasite, succulent, oleaginous, and
cereal plants. He carefully explains the principles of the reproduction
of vegetables, and the fecundation of the female flowers by the pollen
of the male. He recognises hermaphrodite and unisexual flowers, and
points out how the fecundation of the latter is effected by the wind,
insects, and by the water in the case of aquatic plants. He knew that
double flowers were sterile. He devotes a chapter to the diseases of
the vegetable kingdom; he almost recognised the characteristics which
distinguish the monocotyledonous from the dicotyledonous plants. In a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">194</span>
word, he laid the foundations on which our modern botanists have
erected their science.<a id="FNanchor_407_407" href="#Footnote_407_407" class="fnanchor">407</a></p>


<h4><span class="smcap">The School of Alexandria.</span></h4>

<p>“In the year 331 <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>,” says Kingsley,<a id="FNanchor_408_408" href="#Footnote_408_408" class="fnanchor">408</a> “one of the greatest intellects
whose influence the world has ever felt, saw, with his eagle
glance, the unrivalled advantages of the spot which is now Alexandria;
and conceived the mighty project of making it the point of union of
two, or rather of three worlds. In a new city, named after himself,
Europe, Asia, and Africa were to meet and to hold communion.”
When Greece lost her intellectual supremacy with her national independence,
the centre of literature, philosophy, and science was shifted
to this unique position. With all the treasures of Egyptian wisdom
around her, with all the stores of Eastern thought on the one hand and
those of Europe on the other, Alexandria became in her schools the
rallying-point of the world’s thought and activity. If we turn to an
atlas of ancient geography, we shall be struck with the unrivalled facilities
possessed by this city for gathering to itself the treasures, intellectual
and material, of the conquered world of Alexander the Great.
From the Danube, Greece, Phœnicia, Palestine, Persia, Asia Minor,
India, Italy, and the Celtic tribes, there came embassies to Egypt to
seek the protection and alliance of Alexander of Macedon, and each
must have contributed something to the greatness of the city which he
had founded. Just as every traveller in after years who passed through
the place was compelled to leave a copy of any work which he had
brought with him, to the Alexandrian library, so from the first foundation
of the town was every visitor a donor of some idea to its stores of
thought.</p>

<p>At the dismemberment of Alexander’s vast empire, after his death,
the Egyptian portion fell to the share of Ptolemy Soter. It was this
sovereign who founded the famous Alexandrian Library; a great patron
of the arts and sciences, he placed this institution under the direction
of Aristotle. He also established the Schools of Alexandria, and
encouraged the dissection of the human body.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Chrysippus</span>, the Cnidian, who lived in the fourth century <i>B.C.</i>, was
the father of the Chrysippus who was physician to Ptolemy Soter, and
he was tutor to Erasistratus. Pliny says that he reversed the practice
of preceding physicians in the most extraordinary manner. He would
not permit bleeding, because the blood contains the soul; did not prac<span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">195</span>tise
purging, though he sometimes permitted the use of enemata and
emetics. He wrote on herbs and their uses, and drove the blood out of
limbs previous to their amputation on the principles recently re-introduced
by Esmarch. He introduced the use of vapour baths in the
treatment of dropsy. As there were several physicians of the name of
Chrysippus, and as their works are lost, it is very difficult to distinguish
their maxims. Amongst the disciples of the Cnidian physician of this
name were <span class="smcap">Medius</span>, <span class="smcap">Aristogenes</span>, <span class="smcap">Metrodorus</span>, and <span class="smcap">Erasistratus</span>,
as we have said.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Herophilus</span>, of Chalcedon in Bithynia, a pupil of <span class="smcap">Chrysippus</span>
of Cnidos and <span class="smcap">Praxagoras</span> of Cos, was one of the most famous
physicians of the ancient world. He was a great anatomist and physiologist,
and a contemporary of the philosopher Diodorus Cronos, and
of Ptolemy Soter in the fourth and third centuries <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> He settled at
Alexandria, which under Ptolemy I. became the most famous centre of
the science of the ancient Greeks. Here Herophilus founded with
other physicians of the city the great medical school which ultimately
became distinguished above all others, so that a sufficient guarantee of
a physician’s ability was the fact that he had received his education at
Alexandria. The foundation of the Alexandrian School formed a great
epoch in the history of medicine. The dissection of the human body
was of the utmost importance to the healing art. While the practice was
forbidden, it could only have been performed furtively and in a hasty
and unsatisfactory manner. The science of anatomy, on which that of
medicine to be anything but quackery must be founded, now took its
proper place in the education of the doctor. The bodies of all malefactors
were given over for the purposes of dissection.<a id="FNanchor_409_409" href="#Footnote_409_409" class="fnanchor">409</a> Herophilus is
accused of having also dissected alive as many as six hundred criminals.
This fact has been denied by some of his biographers, and others
have attempted to explain it away; but it is charged against him by
Tertullian,<a id="FNanchor_410_410" href="#Footnote_410_410" class="fnanchor">410</a> and Celsus mentions it<a id="FNanchor_411_411" href="#Footnote_411_411" class="fnanchor">411</a> as though it were a well-known
fact, and without the least suspicion that it was an unjust accusation.</p>

<p>Asked who is the best doctor, he is said to have replied, “He who
knows how to distinguish the possible from the impossible.”</p>

<p>In the course of his anatomical researches he made many discoveries
and gave to parts of the human body names which remain in common
use to this day. Dr. Baas thus sums up his anatomical and physiological
knowledge. He knew the nerves, that they had a capacity for
sensation, and were subject to the will, were derived from the brain, in
which he discovered the calamus scriptorius, the tela choroidea, the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_196">196</span>
venous sinuses, and torcular Herophili. He believed the fourth ventricle
to be the seat of the soul. He discovered the chyliferous and
lactiferous vessels. He described accurately the liver and Fallopian
tubes, the epididymis and the duodenum, to which he gave its name, and
also the os hyoides, the uvea, the vitreous humour, the retina, and the
ciliary processes. He called the pulmonary artery the vena arteriosa,
and the pulmonary vein the arteria venosa. He distinguished in respiration
a systole, a diastole, and a period of rest. He founded the doctrine
of the pulse, its rhythm, the bounding pulse and its varieties
according to age. The pulse is communicated by the heart to the
walls of the arteries. He distinguished between arteries and veins, and
admitted that the arteries contain blood. He taught that diseases are
caused by a corruption of the humours. Paralysis is due to a lack of
nerve influence. He laid great stress upon diet, bled frequently, and
practised ligation of the limbs to arrest bleeding. He was the first to
administer cooking salt as a medicine. A good botanist, he preferred
vegetable remedies, which he termed the “Hands of the gods.” He
possessed considerable acquaintance with obstetric operations,<a id="FNanchor_412_412" href="#Footnote_412_412" class="fnanchor">412</a> and
wrote a text-book of midwifery.<a id="FNanchor_413_413" href="#Footnote_413_413" class="fnanchor">413</a></p>

<p><span class="smcap">Erasistratus</span>, of Iulis in the island of Cos, a pupil of <span class="smcap">Chrysippus</span>
was one of the most famous physicians and anatomists of the Alexandrian
school. Plutarch says that when he was physician to King Seleucus,
he discovered that the young prince Antiochus had fallen in love
with his step-mother Stratonice by finding no physical cause for the
illness from which he was suffering, and that his heart palpitated, he
trembled, blushed, and perspired when the lady entered the room. By
adroit management he induced the king to confer on the prince the
object of the young man’s passion. <i>Similia similibus curantur.</i> So
successful was the treatment that the physician received a fee of 100
talents, which supposing the Attic standard to be meant would amount
to £24,375, perhaps the largest medical fee on record.<a id="FNanchor_414_414" href="#Footnote_414_414" class="fnanchor">414</a> He lived for
some time in Alexandria, and gave up medical practice in his old age,
that he might devote his whole time to the study of anatomy.</p>

<p>Dr. Baas, in his account of the Anatomy, Physiology, and Medicine
of Erasistratus, says that he divided the nerves into those of sensation
and those of motion. The brain substance is the origin of the motor
and the brain membranes that of the sensory nerves.<a id="FNanchor_415_415" href="#Footnote_415_415" class="fnanchor">415</a> Like Herophilus,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">197</span>
he confounded the nerves and ligaments. He described accurately the
structure, convolutions, and ventricles of the brain. He thought that
the convolutions, especially those of the cerebellum, are the seat of
thought, and located mental diseases in the brain. He knew the lymph
and chyle vessels, and the chordæ tendineæ of the heart. He assumed
the anastomoses of the arteries and veins. The pneuma in the heart is
vital spirits, in the brain is animal spirits. Digestion is due to the friction
of the walls of the stomach. He thought that the bile is useless,
as is the spleen and other viscera. He shows some acquaintance with
pathological anatomy, as he describes induration of the liver in dropsy.
His idea of the cause of disease is plethora and aberration of the
humours. Inflammation is due to the detention of the blood in the
small vessels by the pneuma driven from the heart into the arteries;
fever occurs when the pneuma is crowded back to the heart by the
venous blood, and blood gets into the large arteries. Dropsy always
proceeds from the liver. He discarded bleeding and purgation; recommended
baths, enemeta, emetics, friction, and cupping. He was, thinks
Dr. Baas, a forerunner of Hahnemann in the doctrine of small doses, as
he prescribed three drops of wine in bilious diarrhœa. He opened the
abdomen to apply remedies directly to the affected part, and invented
a kind of catheter.<a id="FNanchor_416_416" href="#Footnote_416_416" class="fnanchor">416</a></p>

<p>Erasistratus was the first to describe a species of hunger, to which he
gave the name Boulimia—a desire for food which cannot be satisfied.
In his account of the complaint he mentions the Scythians, who, when
obliged to fast, tie bandages round their abdomens tightly, and this
stays their hunger.<a id="FNanchor_417_417" href="#Footnote_417_417" class="fnanchor">417</a></p>

<p>The ancient apologists for the human vivisections of Herophilus and
Erasistratus used to say that these anatomists were thus<span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">198</span> “enabled to
behold, during life, those parts which nature had concealed, and to contemplate
their situation, colour, figure, size, order, hardness or softness,
roughness or smoothness, etc. They added that it is not possible, when
a person has any internal illness, to know what is the cause of it, unless
one is exactly acquainted with the situation of all the viscera; nor can
one heal any part without understanding its nature: that when the intestines
protrude through a wound, a person who does not know what is
their colour when in a healthy state cannot distinguish the sound from
the diseased parts, nor therefore apply proper remedies; while, on the
contrary, he who is acquainted with the natural state of the diseased
parts will undertake the cure with confidence and certainty; and that,
in short, it is not to be called an act of cruelty, as some persons suppose
it, to seek for the remedies of an immense number of <i>innocent</i> persons
in the sufferings of a few <i>criminals</i>.”<a id="FNanchor_418_418" href="#Footnote_418_418" class="fnanchor">418</a></p>

<p><span class="smcap">Ammonius of Alexandria</span>, surnamed <span class="smcap">Lithotomus</span>, probably lived
in the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus (<span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 283-247). He is celebrated
as having been the first surgeon who thought of crushing a stone within
the bladder when too large for extraction entire; for this reason he was
called λιθοτόμος. Celsus describes his method.<a id="FNanchor_419_419" href="#Footnote_419_419" class="fnanchor">419</a></p>

<p>Of the Herophilists we may mention <span class="smcap">Demetrius of Apamæa</span> (<span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>
276), who named and described diabetes, and was distinguished as an
obstetrician.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Mantias</span>, who, <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 250, first collected the preparations of medicines
into a special book.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Demosthenes Philalethes</span>, who, under Nero, was the most celebrated
oculist of his time, wrote a work on diseases of the eye, which
was the standard authority until about <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 1000. The work has
perished, but Ætius and Paulus Ægineta have preserved some fragments
of it. He wrote also on the pulse.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Hegeton</span> was a surgeon of Alexandria who was mentioned by Galen
as having lived there as a contemporary of several physicians who were
known to have resided in that city at the end of the second or the beginning
of the first century <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> He was a follower of Herophilus, and
wrote a book on the causes of diseases entitled Περὶ Αἰτιῶν, which has
perished.</p>

<p>Of the school of Erasistratus we may mention <span class="smcap">Xenophon of Cos</span>,
who wrote a work on the names of the parts of the human body, and on
botany and the diseases of women. <span class="smcap">Nicias of Miletus</span>, a friend of
the poet Theocritus; <span class="smcap">Philoxenos</span>, who, according to Celsus, wrote
several valuable books on surgery; and <span class="smcap">Martialis</span> the Anatomist, who
visited Rome about <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 165. He knew Galen, and wrote works on
anatomy which were in great repute long after his death.</p>

<p>The followers of Herophilus and Erasistratus, though they founded
schools, did not greatly influence the art of medicine, nor did they contribute
much to its advancement beyond the point in which it was left
by their great masters. They fell into fruitless speculations instead of
pursuing their science by accumulating facts; in the words of Pliny, it
was easier<span class="pagenum" id="Page_199">199</span> “to sit and listen quietly in the schools, than to be up and
wandering over deserts, and to seek out new plants every day.”<a id="FNanchor_420_420" href="#Footnote_420_420" class="fnanchor">420</a>
So Dogmatism fell into disrepute and made way for the advent of
Empiricism.</p>


<h4><span class="smcap">School of the Empirics.</span></h4>

<p>The School of the Empirics was the outcome of the system of Scepticism,
introduced by Pyrrho and extended by Carneades, who taught
that there is no certainty about anything, no true knowledge of phenomena,
and that probability alone can be our guide. Ænesidemus
carried this scepticism into the medicine of the Empirics, but the school
was originally established under the title of the Teretics or Mnemoneutics.
The Empirics rested their system on what was called the
“Empiric tripod,”—that is, accident, history, and analogy. Remedies
have come to us by chance, by the remembrance of previous cures,
and by applying them to similar cases.</p>

<p>The sect of the <span class="smcap">Empiricists</span> was founded by Serapion of Alexandria
and Philinus of Cos in the third century <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> They were in
opposition to the Dogmatists, professing to derive their knowledge only
from experience; they held that the whole art of medicine consisted in
observation, experiment, and the application of known remedies which
have constantly proved valuable in the treatment of one class of
diseases to other and presumably similar classes. Celsus,<a id="FNanchor_421_421" href="#Footnote_421_421" class="fnanchor">421</a> in his
account of the principles of this sect, says that “they admit that the
evident causes are necessary, but deprecate inquiry into them because
nature is incomprehensible. This is proved because the philosophers
and physicians who have spent so much labour in trying to search out
these occult causes cannot agree amongst themselves. If reasoning
could make physicians, the philosophers should be the most successful
practitioners, as they have such abundance of words. If the causes of
diseases were the same in all places, the same remedies ought to be
used everywhere. Relief from sickness is to be sought from things
certain and tried, that is from experience, which guides us in all other
arts. Husbandmen and pilots do not reason about their business, but
they practise it. Disquisitions can have no connection with medicine,
because physicians whose opinions have been directly opposed to one
another have equally restored their patients to health; they did not
derive their methods of cure from studying the occult causes about
which they disputed, but from the experience they had of the remedies
which they employed upon their patients. Medicine was not first
discovered in consequence of reasoning, but the theory was sought
for after the discovery of medicine. Does reason, they ask, prescribe<span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">200</span>
the same as experience, or something different? If the same, it must
be needless; if different, it must be mischievous.</p>

<p>“But what remains is also cruel, to cut open the abdomen and
præcordia of living men, and make that art, which presides over the
health of mankind, the instrument, not only of inflicting death, but of
doing it in the most horrid manner; especially if it be considered
that some of those things which are sought after with so much barbarity
cannot be known at all, and others may be known without any
cruelty: for that the colour, smoothness, softness, hardness, and such
like, are not the same in a wounded body as they were in a sound one;
and further, because these qualities, even in bodies that have suffered
no external violence, are often changed by fear, grief, hunger, indigestion,
fatigue, and a thousand other inconsiderable disorders, which
makes it much more probable that the internal parts, which are far
more tender, and never exposed to the light itself, are changed by the
severest wounds and mangling. And that nothing can be more
ridiculous than to imagine anything to be the same in a dying man, nay,
one already dead, as it is in a living person; for that the abdomen may
indeed be opened while a man breathes, but as soon as the knife has
reached the præcordia, and the transverse septum is cut, which by a kind
of membrane divides the upper from the lower parts (and by the Greeks
is called the diaphragm), the man immediately expires; and then the
præcordia, and all the viscera, never come to the view of the butchering
physician till the man is dead; and they must necessarily appear
as such of a dead person, and not as they were while he lived; and
thus the physician gains only the opportunity of murdering a man
cruelly, and not of observing what are the appearances of the viscera
in a living person. If, however, there can be anything which can be
observed in a person which yet breathes, chance often throws it in the
way of such as practise the healing art; for that sometimes a gladiator
on the stage, a soldier in the field, or a traveller beset by robbers, is so
wounded that some internal part, different in different people, may be
exposed to view; and thus a prudent physician finds their situation,
position, order, figure, and the other particulars he wants to know, not
by perpetrating murder, but by attempting to give health; and learns by
compassion that which others had discovered by horrid cruelty. That
for these reasons it is not necessary to lacerate even dead bodies;
which, though not cruel, yet may be shocking to the sight; since most
things are different in dead bodies; and even the dressing of wounds
shows all that can be discovered in the living” (Futvoye’s Translation).<a id="FNanchor_422_422" href="#Footnote_422_422" class="fnanchor">422</a></p>

<p><span class="smcap">Philinus of Cos</span>, the reputed founder of the school, was a pupil of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">201</span>
Herophilus, and lived in the third century <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> He declared that all
the anatomy his vivisecting master had taught him had not helped him
in the least in the cure of his patients. He has been compared with
Hahnemann.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Serapion of Alexandria</span> was also of the third century <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> He
must not be confounded with the Arabian physician of this name.
He wrote against Hippocrates. He discarded all hypotheses. He
was the first to prescribe sulphur in chronic skin diseases; and he used
some singular and disgusting remedies in his treatment. One of these
was crocodiles’ dung, which in consequence became scarce and costly.
<span class="smcap">Glaucias</span>, who invented the “Empiric Tripod,” <span class="smcap">Zeuxis</span> and <span class="smcap">Heraclides</span>
of Tarentum, lived about this period. The latter wrote commentaries
on Hippocrates, and used opium to procure sleep. He
mentions strangulated hernia in one of his treatises.</p>

<p>Many commentaries were written about this time on Hippocrates;
and the art of pharmacy, especially the preparation of poisons, was
much studied in the second century <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> Botanic gardens were established,
and men began to experiment with antidotes for poisons.
“Mithridaticum,” so called after <span class="smcap">Mithridates the Great of Pontus</span>,
was a famous antidote which was used even to recent times. <span class="smcap">Nicander
of Colophon</span> wrote poems on poisons, and antidotes, leeches,
and emetics for the first time appeared in poetry, and the symptoms of
opium and lead-poisoning were not beneath the attention of the muse.
<span class="smcap">Attalus III.</span>, king of Pergamos, was in constant fear of being poisoned,
says Plutarch,<a id="FNanchor_423_423" href="#Footnote_423_423" class="fnanchor">423</a> amused himself with planting poisonous herbs, not only
henbane and hellebore, but hemlock, aconite, and dorycnium. He
cultivated these in the royal gardens, gathered them at the proper
seasons, and studied their properties and the qualities of their juices
and fruits.</p>

<p>Cleopatra is said by Baas<a id="FNanchor_424_424" href="#Footnote_424_424" class="fnanchor">424</a> to have written a work on the diseases of
parturient and lying-in women, etc. She paid special attention, it
would seem, to maladies of a specific character.</p>

<p>Le Clerc gives a list of the women who have exercised the profession
of medicine in ancient times.<a id="FNanchor_425_425" href="#Footnote_425_425" class="fnanchor">425</a></p>

<p><span class="smcap">Cleopatra</span> treated the diseases of women. <span class="smcap">Artemisia</span>, Queen of
Caria, <span class="smcap">Isis</span>, <span class="smcap">Cybele</span>, <span class="smcap">Latona</span>, <span class="smcap">Diana</span>, <span class="smcap">Pallas</span>, <span class="smcap">Angita</span>, <span class="smcap">Medea</span>,
<span class="smcap">Circe</span>, <span class="smcap">Polydamna</span>, <span class="smcap">Agameda</span>, <span class="smcap">Helen</span>, <span class="smcap">Œnone</span>, <span class="smcap">Hippo</span>, <span class="smcap">Ocryoe</span>,
<span class="smcap">Epione</span>, <span class="smcap">Eriopis</span>, <span class="smcap">Hygeia</span>, <span class="smcap">Ægle</span>, <span class="smcap">Panacea</span>, <span class="smcap">Jaso</span>, <span class="smcap">Rome</span>, and <span class="smcap">Aceso</span>
are the ladies of classic story who had more or less acquaintance with
medicine for good or evil purposes. That women, subject to many<span class="pagenum" id="Page_202">202</span>
disorders for which in any state of society their natural modesty would
make it difficult for them to consult men, should become proficient in
the treatment of complaints which are peculiar to their sex, is the most
natural thing in the world, and it is probable that very much of our
knowledge of the treatment of these cases may be due to feminine
wisdom. An ancient law of the Athenians forbade women and slaves
to exercise the art of medicine, so that even midwifery, which they
considered a branch of it, could only be practised by men. Some
Athenian ladies preferred to die rather than be attended by men in
their confinements. Women acted as accoucheuses in Egypt, Greece,
and Rome, and some of them in classic times wrote books on medicine.
Ætius gives some fragments in his works from a doctress named
<span class="smcap">Aspasia</span>.</p>

<p>Although the Greek physicians did not know anything of the circulation
of the blood as we understand it, they were not wholly ignorant
of the phenomena of the vascular system.</p>

<p>The arteries were so called by the ancients because they thought they
contained air, as they were always found empty after death. Hippocrates
and his contemporaries called the trachea an artery. Some of
the ancient anatomists, however, knew that they contain blood, and
they knew that when an artery is divided it is more dangerous and
entails a longer recovery than the division of a vein. They knew also
of the pulsation in the arteries which does not exist in the veins, and
they were fully aware of the importance of this fact in its relation
to diagnosis and treatment.</p>

<p>“The ancients chiefly regarded the odd days, and called them
critical (κρισίμοι), as if on these a judgment was to be formed concerning
the patient. These days were the third, fifth, seventh, ninth,
eleventh, fourteenth, and twenty-first; so that the greatest influence
was attributed to the seventh, next to the fourteenth, and then to the
twenty-first. And therefore, with regard to the nourishment of the
sick, they waited for the fits of the odd days; then afterwards they gave
food, expecting the approaching fits to be easier; insomuch that Hippocrates,
if the fever had ceased on any other day, used to be apprehensive
of a relapse.”<a id="FNanchor_426_426" href="#Footnote_426_426" class="fnanchor">426</a></p>

<p>These critical days were believed by Hippocrates and most of the
other ancient physicians to be influenced by the moon.</p>

<p>Greek medicine was divided into five parts, and to this day these
divisions are still maintained. They were (1) Physiology and Anatomy
considered together; (2) Ætiology, or the doctrine of the causes of
disease; (3) Pathology; (4) Hygiene, or the art of preserving the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_203">203</span>
health; (5) Semeiology, or the knowledge of the symptoms of disease
and diagnosis, and Therapeutics, or the art of curing diseases.</p>

<p>As to the contending claims of the various Greek schools of
medicine, Dr. Adams says,—</p>

<p>“There is no legitimate mode of cultivating medical knowledge
which was not followed by some one or other of the three great sects
into which the profession was divided in ancient times.”<a id="FNanchor_427_427" href="#Footnote_427_427" class="fnanchor">427</a></p>

<p>With respect to the professional income of Greek physicians, Herodotus
states<a id="FNanchor_428_428" href="#Footnote_428_428" class="fnanchor">428</a> that the Æginetans, about 532 <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>, paid Democedes
one talent a year from the public treasury for his services, <i>i.e.</i> about
£344. From the Athenians he afterwards received a sum amounting
to about £406 per annum. When he removed to Samos, Polycrates
paid him a salary of two talents, or £487 10<i>s.</i> A difficulty arises,
however, as to this statement of Herodotus, and there may have been
an error in the sums mentioned.<a id="FNanchor_429_429" href="#Footnote_429_429" class="fnanchor">429</a></p>

<p>The procuring of abortion was not in ancient Greece always considered
a very great crime, and amongst the Romans it seems to have
been unnoticed originally. It is related by Cicero that he knew of a
case in Asia where a woman was put to death for having procured the
abortion of her own child. Under the emperors, the punishment was
exile or condemnation to the mines.</p>


<h4><span class="smcap">The Scythians.</span></h4>

<p>Of medicine as practised amongst the Scythians, little is known.</p>

<p>Herodotus says<a id="FNanchor_430_430" href="#Footnote_430_430" class="fnanchor">430</a> that when the king of the Scythians was sick he
sent for three soothsayers, who proceeded to discover by divination the
cause of his majesty’s malady. The prophets generally said that such
or such a citizen had sworn falsely by the royal hearth, mentioning
the name of the citizen against whom they brought the charge. The
accused, having been arrested, was charged with causing the king’s illness.
When he denied it, the king sent for twice as many more prophets;
if these confirmed the charge, the offender was promptly executed; if
they failed to do so, the first prophets were put to death. Abaris, the
Hyperborean priest of Apollo, cured diseases by incantations, and
delivered the world from a plague, according to Suidas. Anarcharsis,
the Scythian philosopher, flourished 592 <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>; if he knew anything of
medicine, as has been said, he was probably acquainted with such knowledge
of the art as was possessed by the Greeks.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">204</span></p>

<p>The ancient physicians seemed to have had no idea of the necessity
for observing any order in their interpretation of diseases; even in the
middle ages, says Sprengel,<a id="FNanchor_431_431" href="#Footnote_431_431" class="fnanchor">431</a> they merely followed the position of the
parts of the body, “passing from the head to the chest, from the thorax
to the abdomen, and from the belly to the extremities.”</p>

<p>In that branch of modern medical science which treats of the classification
of diseases, and which is termed Nosology, a systematic arrangement
is followed, and the prominent symptoms are taken as the basis
of that classification.</p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Greek Medical Literature.</span></h4>

<p>The following is Dr. Greenhill’s probably complete list of the ancient
treatises on Therapeutics now extant.<a id="FNanchor_432_432" href="#Footnote_432_432" class="fnanchor">432</a></p>

<p>Hippocrates: Seven Books (see p. 178 of this work). Aretæus,
Περὶ Θεραπείας Ὀξέων καὶ Χρονίων Παθῶν, <i>De Curatione Acutorum et
Diuturnorum Morborum</i>, in four books. Galen, Τέχνη Ἰατρική, <i>Ars
Medica</i>; Id. Θεραπευτικὴ Μέθοδος, <i>Methodus Medendi</i>; Id. Τὰ πρὸς
Γλαύκωνα Θεραπευτικά, <i>Ad Glauconem de Medendi Methodo</i>; Id. Περὶ
Φλεβοτομίας πρὸς Ἐρασίστρατον, <i>De Venæsectione adversus Erasistratum</i>;
Id. Περὶ Φλεβοτομίας πρὸς Ἐρασιστρατείους τοὺς ἐν Ῥώμη, <i>De Venæsectione
adversus Erasistrateos Romæ Degentes</i>; Id.  Περὶ Φλεβοτομίας Θεραπευτικὸυ
Βιβλίον, <i>De Curandi Ratione per Venæsectionem</i>; Id. Περὶ
Βδελλῶν, Ἀντισπασέως, Σικύας, καὶ Ἐγχαράξεως, καὶ Καταχασμοῦ, <i>De Hirudinibus,
Revulsione, Cucurbitula, Incisione, et Scarificatione</i>. Alexander
Aphrodisiensis, Περὶ Πυρετῶν, <i>De Febribus</i>. Great part of the Σύναγωγαὶ
Ἰατρικαί, <i>Collecta Medicinalia</i>, of Oribasius, and also of his Σύνοψις,
<i>Synopsis ad Eustathium</i>, treat of this subject. Palladius, Περὶ Πυρετῶν
Σύντομος Σύνοψις, <i>De Febribus Concisa Synopsis</i>. Ætius, Βιβλία Ἰατρικὰ
Ἐκκαίδεκα, <i>Libri Medicinales Sedecim</i>. Alexander Trallianus, Βιβλία
Ἰατρικὰ Δυοκαίδεκα, <i>Libri de Re Medica Duodecim</i>. Paulus Ægineta,
Ἐπιτομῆς Ἰατρικῆς Βιβλία Ἕπτα, <i>Compendii Medici Libri Septem</i>, of
which great part relates to this subject. Theophanes Nonnus, Ἐπιτομὴ
τῆς Ἰατρικῆς Ἀπάσης Τέχνης, <i>Compendium Totius Artis Mediciæ</i>. Synesius,
Περὶ Πυρετῶν, <i>De Febribus</i>. Joannes Actuarius, <i>Methodus Medendi</i>.
Demetrius Pepagomenus, Περὶ Ποδάγρας, <i>De Podagra</i>. Celsus, <i>De
Medicina</i>, in eight books. Cælius Aurelianus, <i>Celerum Passionum</i>,
Libri iii. Id. <i>Tardarum Passionum</i>, Libri v. Serenus Samonicus, <i>De
Medicina Præcepta Saluberrima</i>, a poem on the art of Healing.
Theodorus Priscianus, <i>Rerum Medicarum</i>, Libri iv.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
<p class="center">EXAMPLES OF ANCIENT SURGERY.</p>
<img src="images/i_p204a.jpg" alt="" />
<div class="caption">Fig. 1.<br />
Representation of the mode of reducing dislocation of the thigh outwards, as given by M. Littré.</div>
</div>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/i_p204b.jpg" alt="" />
<div class="caption">Fig. 2.<br />
Representation of the ancient mode of performing succussion, as given by Vidus Vidius in the
Venetian edition of Galen’s works (<i>Cl.</i> vi., p. 271).<br />
<p class="psig">[<i>Face p.</i> 204.</p></div></div>


<hr class="chap" />
<div class="chapter"></div>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_205">205</span></p>




<h3 id="CHAPTERIII_IV">CHAPTER IV.<br />

<small>THE EARLIER ROMAN MEDICINE.</small></h3>

<blockquote>
<p>Disease-Goddesses.—School of the Methodists.—Rufus and Marinus.—Pliny.—Celsus.</p>
</blockquote>

<p>How medical instruction was first given to the Romans cannot be
ascertained with certainty; the want of it must have frequently been
forced upon the attention of the authorities. It was the practice of the
soldiers to dress each other’s wounds; they carried bandages with them
for this purpose; but their surgery must have been very indifferent, for
Livy tells us that, after the battle of Sutrium (<span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 309), more soldiers
were lost by dying of their wounds than were killed by the enemy.</p>

<p>As the Etruscans were famous for their knowledge of philosophy and
medicine, the Romans probably acquired something of these sciences
from this ancient people; but that they were more apt at learning their
superstitions than their arts of healing, we have proof enough. Whether
the Romans were more indebted to the Etruscans or to the Sabine
people for their religion is a question which has been discussed. It
would seem that Numa Pompilius, the legendary king of Rome, was of
Sabine origin, and that he possessed some acquaintance with physical
science and philosophy. He dissuaded the Romans from idolatry.
Livy’s account of his experiments, in consequence of which he was
struck by lightning, has been considered by some writers as evidence
that he was acquainted with electricity.<a id="FNanchor_433_433" href="#Footnote_433_433" class="fnanchor">433</a></p>

<p>How intellectually inferior the ancient Romans were in comparison
with the Greeks, may be learned from the fact that Pliny tells us that
“The Roman people for more than 600 years were not, indeed, without
medical art, but they were without physicians.” Such mental culture as
the Romans possessed was imported from Greece, and until the Greeks
instructed them in medicine they possessed nothing but a theurgic
system of treating disease by prayers, charms, prescriptions from the
Sibylline books, and the rude surgery and domestic medicine of the
barbarians. Guilty of degrading superstitions unknown to the Greeks,
the list of their gods and goddesses of disease reads like the accounts<span class="pagenum" id="Page_206">206</span>
of the healing art from some savage nation. Fever and stench were
worshipped as the goddesses Febris and Mephitis; Fessonia helped the
weary, says St. Augustine,<a id="FNanchor_434_434" href="#Footnote_434_434" class="fnanchor">434</a> and “sweet Cloacina” was invoked when
the drains were out of order.<a id="FNanchor_435_435" href="#Footnote_435_435" class="fnanchor">435</a></p>

<p>The itch patients invoked the goddess Scabies and the plague-stricken
the goddess Angeronia; women sought the aid of Fluonia and Uterina,
and Ossipaga was goddess of the navel and bones of children. There
were many goddesses of midwifery; Carna presided over the abdominal
viscera, and sacrifices of beans and bacon were offered to her. St.
Augustine pours his satire and contempt on the women’s goddesses
in the eleventh chapter of the book from which we have quoted. The
Romans were cosmopolitan in the way of divinities; Isis and Serapis
were imported from Egypt, the Cabiri from the Phœnicians, and the
worship of Æsculapius was commenced by the Romans, <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 294.<a id="FNanchor_436_436" href="#Footnote_436_436" class="fnanchor">436</a></p>

<p>Certain facts in the history of the Romans prove that there was a
profession of medicine in Rome even in very early times. Plutarch, in
his <i>Life of Cato the Censor</i>, speaks of a Roman ambassador who was
sent to the king of Bithynia, and who had his skull trepanned. By the
Lex Aquilia a doctor who neglected a slave after an operation was
responsible if he died in consequence, and in the Twelve Tables of
Numa mention is made of dental operations.</p>

<p>A college of Æsculapius and of Health was established in Rome 154
<span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> An inscription has been discovered in the excavations of the
Palatine which has preserved the memorial of its foundation.<a id="FNanchor_437_437" href="#Footnote_437_437" class="fnanchor">437</a> The
medical profession of ancient Rome was quite free, and such instruction
as its followers considered it necessary to acquire could be
obtained how and where they chose. There was no uniform system of
education; the training was private in early times, and was imparted by
such physicians as cared to take pupils for a certain specified honorarium.
It was not till later times that the Archiatri in their colleges,
which were somewhat on the model of the mediæval guilds, took pupils
for instruction in medicine and surgery. Pure medical schools did not
exist amongst the Romans.<a id="FNanchor_438_438" href="#Footnote_438_438" class="fnanchor">438</a> Pliny complained<a id="FNanchor_439_439" href="#Footnote_439_439" class="fnanchor">439</a> “that people believed
in any one who gave himself out for a doctor, even if the falsehood
directly entailed the greatest danger.”<span class="pagenum" id="Page_207">207</span> “Unfortunately there is no law
which punishes doctors for ignorance, and no one takes revenge on a
doctor if, through his fault, some one dies. It is permitted him by our
danger to learn for the future, at our death to make experiments, and,
without having to fear punishment, to set at naught the life of a human
being.”</p>

<p>Cato hated physicians, partly because they were mostly Greeks, and,
partly because he was himself an outrageous quack, who thought himself
equal to a whole college of physicians. Plutarch tells us<a id="FNanchor_440_440" href="#Footnote_440_440" class="fnanchor">440</a> that he
had heard of the answer which Hippocrates gave the king of Persia,
when he sent for him and offered him a reward of many talents: “I will
never make use of my art in favour of barbarians who are enemies of
the Greeks.” He affected to believe that all Greek physicians took a
similar oath, and therefore advised his son to have nothing to do with
them. But there is no doubt his objection to the faculty arose from
the fact that he had “himself written a little treatise in which he had set
down his method of cure.” Cato’s guide to domestic medicine was
good enough for the Roman people; what did they want with Greek
physicians? His system of diet, according to Plutarch, was peculiar
for sick persons; he did not approve of fasting, he permitted his patients
to eat ducks, geese, pigeons, hares, etc., because they are a light diet
suitable for sick people. Plutarch adds, that he was not in his own
household a very successful practitioner, as he lost his wife and son.
Pliny<a id="FNanchor_441_441" href="#Footnote_441_441" class="fnanchor">441</a> tells us all about Cato’s book of recipes, which the Roman
father of a family consulted when any of his family or domestic animals
were ill. The family doctor of those days was the father or the master
of the household, and no doubt Cato was a very generous, if not a very
skilful practitioner. Seneca sums up the healing art of the time thus:
“Medicina quondam paucarum fuit scientia herbarum quibus sisteretur
fluens sanguis, vulnera coirent.”<a id="FNanchor_442_442" href="#Footnote_442_442" class="fnanchor">442</a></p>

<p>Cato attempted to cure dislocations by magic songs (carmina): “Huat,
hanat, ista, pista sista damniato damnaustra,” or nonsense simply.
What his success in the treatment of luxations on this principle we are
not informed. The practice of medicine and surgery before the time of
Cæsar was not an honourable one in Rome. This may possibly have
arisen from the fact that the only professors of the art were Greeks, who
for the most part left their country for their country’s good and went to
Rome merely to make money, honestly if possible—perhaps—but at all
events to make it. Rome offered greater facilities for doing this than
their native land, and the process was doubtless very similar to that with
which our own colonies and the United States of America have in the
past been only too familiar.<a id="FNanchor_443_443" href="#Footnote_443_443" class="fnanchor">443</a></p>

<p>During the severe epidemics which often raged in ancient Rome the
oracles were consulted as to the means to be adopted to be rid of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_208">208</span>
them; prayers were offered up to the Greek gods of healing as well as
those of the state. But Greece had done more for the art of healing
by her physicians than her gods could do, and in process of time the
Romans found this out, and the native doctors were compelled to yield
before the advance of Greek science. The works of the Greek physicians
and surgeons, who had done so much for medical knowledge and
advancement, gradually made their way amongst the Romans. These
paved the way for Hellenic influence, in spite of the disreputable behaviour
of some of the professors of the art of medicine, on whom the
Romans with good excuse looked as quacks and foreigners whose only
object was gain. We read of the erection at Rome of a temple in
honour of Apollo the healer, 467 <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>, and of the building of a temple to
Æsculapius of Epidaurus, 460 <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> Ten years later the Romans built
a temple to the goddess <i>Salus</i> when the pestilence raged in their city.
Lucina was first worshipped there 400 <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> In 399 <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> the first <i>lectisternium</i>,
a festival of Greek origin, was held in Rome by order of the
Sybilline books; it was held on exceptional occasions, the present being
a time of fresh public distress on account of a pestilence which was
raging. The images of the gods were laid on a couch; a table spread
with a meal was placed before them, and solemn prayers and sacrifices
were offered. A third <i>lectisternium</i> was held at Rome 362 <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> That
he might obtain a cessation of the pestilence then raging in Rome, L.
Manlius Imperiorus fixed a nail in the temple of Jupiter, <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 360.
This holding of lectisternes and driving nails in the temple walls became
the recognised method of dealing with such scourges, and painfully
exhibits the powerlessness of mankind to deal with disease by
theurgic means. Science alone can combat disease, the bed and board
offered to the gods who cannot use them are now bestowed on health
officers who can; we no longer drive nails in temple walls to remind
deities that we are in trouble, but we send memorials to our colleges of
physicians demanding suggestions for escaping a visitation of cholera;
it is not sufficient to fix “a nail in a sure place,” it must be fixed in the
right one. In the year 291 <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>, on the occasion of a pestilence in Rome,
ten ambassadors were sent to Epidaurus to seek aid from the temple of
Æsculapius. The god was sent to the afflicted city under the figure of
a serpent. He comes to our towns now under the figure of a cask of
carbolic acid.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Archagathus</span> was the first person who regularly practised medicine
in Rome. He was a Peloponnesian who settled in the city <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 219, and
was welcomed with great respect by the authorities, who purchased a
surgery or shop for him at the public expense, and gave him the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_209">209</span> “Jus
Quiritium.”</p>

<p>As he treated his patients chiefly with the knife and powerful caustics,
his severe remedies gave great offence to the people and brought the
profession of surgery into contempt. He was called a “butcher,” and
had to leave the city.<a id="FNanchor_444_444" href="#Footnote_444_444" class="fnanchor">444</a></p>

<p><span class="smcap">Alexander Severus</span> (225-235 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span>) was the first who established
public lecture rooms for teachers of medicine and granted stipends to
them. In return they were compelled to teach poor state-supported
students gratuitously. Constantine demanded like services from the
doctors in return for certain immunities.<a id="FNanchor_445_445" href="#Footnote_445_445" class="fnanchor">445</a></p>

<p>There was no regular curriculum, nor period of studentship; everything
depended upon the ability and industry of the individual pupil.
Clinical instruction was given by the teachers, as Martial tells in a
satirical verse:—</p>

<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"><div class="stanza">
  <div class="verse">“Faint was I only, Symmachus, till thou,</div>
  <div class="verse">Backed by an hundred students, throng’dst my bed;</div>
  <div class="verse">An hundred icy fingers chilled my brow:</div>
  <div class="verse">I had no fever; now I’m nearly dead!”</div>
</div></div></div>

<p class="psig">
(Dr. Handerson’s Trans.)<br />
</p>

<p>Anatomy had been pretty thoroughly taught in the Roman Empire.
<span class="smcap">Rufus of Ephesus</span>, who lived probably in the reign of Trajan, <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span>
98-117, was a very famous anatomist. He considered the spleen to be
absolutely useless: a belief which lasted to quite modern times. The
nerves we call recurrent were probably then only recently discovered.
He proved that the nerves proceed from the brain, and divided them
into those of sensation and those of motion. He considered the heart
to be the seat of life, and remarked that the left ventricle is smaller and
thicker than the right. He discovered the crossing (decussation) of the
optic nerves, and made several important researches in the anatomy of
the eye. He wrote on diseases of the mind, and discussed medicines
in poetry.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Marinus</span>, a celebrated physician and anatomist, lived in the first or
second century of our era. He wrote many anatomical treatises, which
Galen greatly praised, and he commented upon Hippocrates. He knew
the seven cranial nerves, and discovered the inferior laryngeal nerve and
the glands of the intestines.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Quintus</span>, Galen’s tutor, was one of his pupils. <span class="smcap">Lycus</span> was a pupil of
Quintus, who wrote anatomical books of some reputation. <span class="smcap">Pelops</span> was
also one of Galen’s earliest tutors, and was a famous anatomist and
physician at Smyrna. <span class="smcap">Æschryon</span>, a native of Pergamos was another of
Galen’s tutors, and had a great knowledge of pharmacy and materia
medica. He was the father of all those who invent superstitious<span class="pagenum" id="Page_210">210</span>
remedies for the bite of a mad dog by means of cruelty. For this he
directs crawfish to be caught at a time when the sun and moon were in
a particular position, and to be baked alive. A worthy combination, it
will be perceived, of superstition, astrology, and purposeless cruelty.</p>

<p>Although anybody might practise medicine in Rome without let or
hindrance, the Lex Cornelia ordered the arrest of the doctor if the
patient died through his negligence (88 <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>).</p>

<p>There was a public sanitary service and other Government employments
which demanded properly instructed doctors in ancient Rome,
and the practice of specialism in the treatment of disease was carried to
even greater lengths than at present. Martial satirises this.<a id="FNanchor_446_446" href="#Footnote_446_446" class="fnanchor">446</a></p>

<p>In the time of Strabo and in that of Trajan there were public medical
officers in Gaul, Asia Minor, and in Latium. In Rome there were
district medical officers for every part of the city. They were permitted
to engage in private practice, but were compelled to attend the poor
gratuitously. Their salary, according to Puschmann,<a id="FNanchor_447_447" href="#Footnote_447_447" class="fnanchor">447</a> was paid chiefly
in articles of natural produce.</p>

<p>The <i>archiatri populares</i> were the district physicians. The court
physicians were called <i>archiatri palatini</i>. The <i>archiatri municipales</i>
were municipal physicians. Their guild was the <span class="smcap">Collegium Archiatrorum</span>,
which in constitution was not unlike our Royal College of
Physicians.</p>

<p>Different societies employed doctors; the theatres, gladiators, and the
circus retained surgeons.</p>

<p>The art of ophthalmic surgery first became a separate branch of
the medical profession in the city of Alexandria. Celsus states that
<span class="smcap">Philoxenus</span>, who lived two hundred and seventy years before Christ,
was the most celebrated of the Alexandrian oculists.<a id="FNanchor_448_448" href="#Footnote_448_448" class="fnanchor">448</a></p>

<p>Oculists were a numerous but ignorant class of practitioners in
ancient Rome; their treatment was almost always by salves, each
eye-doctor having his own specialty. Nearly two hundred seals with
the proprietors’ names have been discovered which have been attached
to the pots containing the ointments. Galen speaks contemptuously
of the science of the eye-doctors of his time. Martial satirises them.
“Now you are a gladiator who once were an ophthalmist; you did
as a doctor what you do as a gladiator.” In another epigram he says,
“The blear-eyed Hylas would have paid you sixpence, O Quintus;
one eye is gone, he will still pay threepence; make haste and take
it, brief is your chance, when he is blind he will pay you nothing.”
Under Nero, <span class="smcap">Demosthenes Philalethes</span>, the famous doctor of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_211">211</span>
Marseilles, was a celebrated oculist, whose work on eye diseases was
the chief authority on the subject until about <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 1000. Paulus
Ægineta, in his treatise on Ophthalmology, recommends crocodile’s
dung in opacity of the cornea, and bed-bugs’ and frogs’ blood in
trichiasis; yet with all this absurdity he distinguished between cataract
and amaurosis.</p>

<p>The ophthalmological literature of the Greeks and Romans has for
the most part perished. Puschmann says that this branch of surgery
must have been able to show remarkable results. “Not only trichiasis,
hypopyon, leucoma, lachrymal fistula, and other affections of the external
parts of the eye were subjected to operative treatment, but even
cataract itself.”<a id="FNanchor_449_449" href="#Footnote_449_449" class="fnanchor">449</a></p>

<p>Although the surgeons of the time were ignorant of the true nature
of some of the diseases which they treated, they could cure them.
Cataract was treated by “couching,” or depressing the diseased lens by
means of a needle, in order to extract it.<a id="FNanchor_450_450" href="#Footnote_450_450" class="fnanchor">450</a></p>

<p>A patient would sometimes require a consultation, when several
doctors would meet and discuss his case, with much difference of
opinion more or less violently expressed. Regardless of the sufferings
of the patient, they wrangled over his symptoms, and behaved as if they
were engaged in a pugilistic encounter, each man far more anxious to
exhibit his parts and display his dialectical skill than to alleviate the
sufferings of the unfortunate client. Pliny, Galen, and Theodorus
Priscianus have left realistic descriptions of these medical encounters.</p>

<p>With respect to the professional income of the early Roman physicians,
Pliny says<a id="FNanchor_451_451" href="#Footnote_451_451" class="fnanchor">451</a> that Albutius, Arruntius, Calpetanus, Cassius, and
Rubrius gained 250,000 sesterces per annum, equal to £1,953 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i>;
that Quintus Stertinius made it a favour that he was content to receive
from the emperor 500,000 sesterces per annum, or £3,906 5<i>s.</i>, as he
might have made 600,000 sesterces, or £4,687 10<i>s.</i>, by his private
practice. He and his brother, also an Imperial physician, left between
them at their death the sum of thirty millions of sesterces, or £234,375,
notwithstanding the large sums they had spent on beautifying Naples.<a id="FNanchor_452_452" href="#Footnote_452_452" class="fnanchor">452</a>
Galen’s fee for curing the wife of the consul Boethus, after a long illness,
was about equal to £400 of our money.</p>

<p>Manlius Cornutus, according to Pliny, paid his doctor a sum amounting
to £2,000 for curing him of a skin disease; and the doctors Crinas
and Alcon, according to the same authority, were immensely rich men.
But these were all exceptional cases, and there is no reason to suppose<span class="pagenum" id="Page_212">212</span>
that Roman doctors made on the average more than sufficient to keep
them decently.<a id="FNanchor_453_453" href="#Footnote_453_453" class="fnanchor">453</a></p>


<h4><span class="smcap">School of the Methodists.</span></h4>

<p><span class="smcap">Asclepiades</span>, of Prusa, in Bithynia, was a physician of great celebrity
and influence, who flourished at Rome in the beginning of the first
century <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> He passed his earlier years at Alexandria, then went to
Athens, where he studied rhetoric and medicine. He is said to have
travelled much. He ultimately settled at Rome as a rhetorician. He
was the friend of Cicero. Being unsuccessful as a teacher of rhetoric,
he devoted himself to medicine. He was a man of great natural ability,
but he was quite ignorant of anatomy and physiology; so he decried the
labours of those who studied these sciences, and violently attacked
Hippocrates. His conduct was that of an early Paracelsus. He had
many pupils, and the school they founded was afterwards called that of
the Methodists. His system was original, though it owed somewhat to
the Epicurean philosophy. He conceived the idea that disease arose
in the atoms and corpuscles composing the body, by a want of harmony
in their motion. Harmony was health; discord, disease. Naturally
his treatment was as pleasant as that of the most fashionable modern
physician. He paid great attention to diet, passive motions, frictions
after the method now called massage, and the use of cold sponging.
He entirely rejected the humoral pathology of Hippocrates, and totally
denied his doctrine of crises, declared that the physician alone cures,
nature merely supplying the opportunities. His famous motto was
that the physician should cure “tuto, celeriter, ac jucunde.” In the
beginning of fevers he refused his patients permission even to rinse the
mouth. He originated the method of cyclical cures by adopting certain
methods of treatment at definite periods. He first applied the term
“phrenitis” in the sense of mental disturbance. In drugs he was a
sceptic, but he allowed a liberal use of wine. He was said to have
experimented in physiology, though he knew nothing of it. Tertullian
ridicules him thus: “Asclepiades may investigate goats, which bleat
without a heart, and drive away flies, which fly without a head.”</p>

<p>Asclepiades must have been a great deal more than a charlatan, for
many of his fundamental ideas have persisted even to the present time.
He was the first to distinguish diseases into acute and chronic.<a id="FNanchor_454_454" href="#Footnote_454_454" class="fnanchor">454</a> Acute
diseases he supposed to depend “upon a constriction of the pores, or
an obstruction of them by a superfluity of atoms; the chronic upon a
relaxation of the pores, or a deficiency of the atoms.” Asclepiades was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_213">213</span>
the inventor of many new methods in surgery and medicine. Amongst
these was bronchotomy for the relief of suffocation.<a id="FNanchor_455_455" href="#Footnote_455_455" class="fnanchor">455</a> He practised
tracheotomy in angina, and scarification of the ankles in dropsy, and
recommended tapping with the smallest possible wound. He also observed
spontaneous dislocation of the hip joint.<a id="FNanchor_456_456" href="#Footnote_456_456" class="fnanchor">456</a> Such things do not
emanate from mere quacks.</p>

<p>It may be remarked that there were many physicians of the name of
Asclepiades. It was a way they had of assuming a connection with
the famous medical family of that name.</p>

<p>The disciples of Asclepiades were called Asclepiadists. A few of
them became celebrities in their day.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Philonides of Dyrrachium</span> lived in the first century, and wrote
some forty-five works on medicine.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Antonius Musa</span> lived at the beginning of the Christian era, and was
a freedman and physician to the Emperor Augustus. When his Imperial
patient was seriously ill and had been made worse by a hot regimen and
treatment, Antonius cured him with cold bathing and cooling drinks.
Augustus rewarded him with a royal fee and permission to wear a gold
ring, and a statue was erected to him near that of Æsculapius by public
subscription. He wrote several works on pharmacy. He was also
physician to Horace.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Musa</span> introduced into medicine the use of adder’s flesh in the treatment
of malignant ulcers; he discovered some of the properties of
lettuce, chicory, and endive. Many of his medicines continued in use
for ages. For colds he used the over-potent remedies henbane, hemlock,
and opium. He was also celebrated for various antidotes which
he discovered.<a id="FNanchor_457_457" href="#Footnote_457_457" class="fnanchor">457</a></p>

<p>His brother, named <span class="smcap">Euphorbius</span>, was a physician also, and gave his
name to a genus of plants, the <i>Euphorbiaceæ</i> (Plin., lib. xxv., c. 7).</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Themison of Laodicea</span> (<span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 50) was the founder of the school
known as the Methodical. This was a rival to that of the Hippocratic
system, which had hitherto been the dominant one. Themison was the
most important pupil of Asclepiades. He wrote on chronic diseases,
and was the first to describe elephantiasis in a treatise. He would
have written upon hydrophobia, but having in his youth once seen
a case, it so frightened him that he was attacked with some of the
symptoms, and dreaded a relapse if he set himself to write about it.<a id="FNanchor_458_458" href="#Footnote_458_458" class="fnanchor">458</a>
He invented several famous remedies, such as diacodium, a preparation
of poppies, and diagrydium, a purgative of scammony. Asclepiades
had his “atoms,” Themison had his “pores.” You cannot<span class="pagenum" id="Page_214">214</span>
found a medical system without flying a particular flag. Themison’s
“flag” was the “status strictus,” or “laxus” of the pores; that is to say,
disease is either a condition of increased or diminished tension. He
was the first who described rheumatism, and probably the first European
physician who used leeches.<a id="FNanchor_459_459" href="#Footnote_459_459" class="fnanchor">459</a></p>

<p>He is said to have been attacked with hydrophobia, and to have
recovered. Juvenal satirised him (probably) in the lines—</p>

<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"><div class="stanza">
  <div class="verse">“How many patients Themison dispatched</div>
  <div class="verse">In one short autumn!”<a id="FNanchor_460_460" href="#Footnote_460_460" class="fnanchor">460</a></div>
</div></div></div>

<p>Themison’s principles differed from those of his master in many
respects, and besides rectifying his errors he introduced a greater precision
into his system.<a id="FNanchor_461_461" href="#Footnote_461_461" class="fnanchor">461</a></p>

<p>He chose a middle way between the doctrines of the Dogmatists and
Empirics. Writing of the Methodists, Celsus says: “They assert that
the knowledge of no cause whatever bears the least relation to the
method of cure; and that it is sufficient to observe some general symptoms
of distempers; and that there are three kinds of diseases, one bound,
another loose, and the third a mixture of these.”<a id="FNanchor_462_462" href="#Footnote_462_462" class="fnanchor">462</a> Sometimes the
excretions of the sick are too small, sometimes too large; one particular
excretion may be in excess, another deficient; the observation of these
things constitutes the art of medicine, which they defined as a certain
way of proceeding, which the Greeks called <i>Method</i>. They deduced
indications of treatment from analogies in symptoms, and made a bold
classification of diseases; accurate as a rule in their diagnosis, they
were usually successful and rational in their therapeutics. They entirely
ignored any consideration of the remote causes of diseases; their
only object was to cure their patients without speculating as to the
reasons why they had become sick. They repudiated the <i>Vis medicatrix</i>
theory.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Eudemus</span> (<span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 15) was a disciple of Themison. Cælius Aurelianus
says of him that in his practice he used to order clysters of cold water
for patients suffering from the iliac passion. It is probable that he was
the friend and physician of Livilla, and the man who poisoned her
husband Drusus. Tacitus speaks of him, saying that he made a great
parade of many secret remedies, with a view to extol his own abilities
as a doctor. It is possible, however, that this may not have been the
same Eudemus as the disciple of Themison the Methodist, as there
were several other physicians of that name. Our Eudemus made many<span class="pagenum" id="Page_215">215</span>
observations on hydrophobia, and remarked how rarely any sufferer
recovered who was attacked by it. He was put to death by order
of Tiberius.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Meges</span>, of Sidon (<span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 20), was a famous surgeon, and a follower of
Themison. He invented instruments used in cutting for the stone. He
made observations on tumours of the breast and forward dislocations
of the knee. He was regarded by Celsus as the most skilful of those
who exercised the art of surgery.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Vectius Vallens</span> (<i>circ.</i> <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 37) was a pupil of Apuleius Celsus, and
was well known for his connection with Messalina, the wife of Claudius.
He belonged to Themison’s sect, and is introduced by Pliny in fact as
the author of an improvement upon it. It was the practice of all the
adherents of the Methodist school of medicine to pretend that by the
changes they had introduced into the system they had originated a
new one.<a id="FNanchor_463_463" href="#Footnote_463_463" class="fnanchor">463</a></p>

<p><span class="smcap">Scribonius Largus</span> (<span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 45) is said to have been physician to
Claudius, and to have accompanied him to Britain. He wrote several
medical works in Latin. He was the first to prescribe the electricity of
the electric ray in cases of headache.<a id="FNanchor_464_464" href="#Footnote_464_464" class="fnanchor">464</a></p>

<p><span class="smcap">A. Cornelius Celsus</span>, who flourished between <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 50 and <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 7,
was a celebrated patrician Roman writer on medicine, and an encyclopædic
compiler of a very high order. It is disputed whether he was or
was not a physician in actual practice; probably he was not. He
practised certainly, but on his friends and servants, and not professionally.
The medical practice of the period was for the most part in the
hands of the Greeks. We owe little to the Romans that was original or
important in connection with the healing art, yet in Celsus we have an
elegant and accomplished historian of the medical art as it was practised
in ancient Rome; he wrote not so much for doctors as for the instruction
of the world at large. His works were not studied by medical
men, at any rate, as anything more than mere literature. No medical
writer of the old world quotes Celsus. Pliny merely refers to him as an
author. Very probably he merely compiled his treatises, of which the
most celebrated is his <i>De Medicina</i>, in the introductions to the 4th and
8th books of which there is evidence of his considerable knowledge of
anatomy. He seems to have understood the anatomy of the chest and
the situation of the greater viscera especially well, though of course in
this respect falling far short of our present knowledge of the science,
and not in every case fully up to that of the Greeks. His knowledge of
surgery was considerable, especially that of the pelvic organs of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_216">216</span>
female. In osteology, or the science of the bones, he excelled. He
accurately describes the bones of the skull, their sutures, and the teeth.
His descriptions of the vertebræ and ribs, the bones of the pelvis and
the upper and lower extremities, are accurate and careful. He understood
the articulations, and is careful to emphasize the fact that cartilage
is always found in their formation. He must have been acquainted with
the perforated plate of the ethmoid bone, as he speaks of the many
minute holes in the recess of the nasal cavities, and it is even inferred by
Portal that he knew the semicircular canals.<a id="FNanchor_465_465" href="#Footnote_465_465" class="fnanchor">465</a></p>

<p>The 7th and 8th books of the <i>De re Medicina</i> relate entirely to
surgery; this is of course Greek, which in its turn was probably of
Egyptian and Indian origin. He describes operations such as we now
call “plastic,” for restoring lost or defective portions of the nose, lips,
and ears. These are constantly claimed as triumphs of modern surgery,
and have been asserted to have been successful as the result of information
derived from experiments on living animals. His description of
lithotomy is that which was anciently practised in Alexandria, and was
doubtless derived from India. Trephining the skull is described, and
this again is proved not to have been invented in modern times, as some
have thought. Even subcutaneous urethrotomy was a practice followed
in the time of Celsus. We have also the first detailed description of
the amputation of an extremity. Many ophthalmic operations are
described according to the methods followed by the eye specialists of
Alexandria.<a id="FNanchor_466_466" href="#Footnote_466_466" class="fnanchor">466</a></p>

<p>In his eight books on medicine the first four deal with internal
complaints, such as usually yield to careful dieting. The fifth and sixth
are concerned with external disorders, and contain many prescriptions
for their treatment. The seventh and eighth, as we have seen, are
exclusively surgical. Celsus followed principally Hippocrates and
Asclepiades as his authorities. He transfers many passages from the
Father of Medicine word for word. His favourite author was Asclepiades,
and it is for that reason that he is held to be of the Methodical
school of medicine. He was no believer in the mysterious numbers
of the Pythagorean, and was evidently quite free from slavish devotion,
even to his great authorities in medicine.</p>

<p>He recommends that dislocations should be reduced before inflammation
sets in. When fractures fail to unite, he recommends extension
and rubbing together of the ends of the bone. He goes so far as to
advise cutting down to the bone, and letting the fracture and wound
heal together. He cautions against the use of purgatives in strangu<span class="pagenum" id="Page_217">217</span>lated
hernia, and gives directions for extracting foreign bodies from
the ears.</p>

<p>Had it not been for the works of Celsus, many operations of ancient
surgery would have remained to us undescribed. He writes at length
on bleeding, and describes the double ligation (or tying) of bleeding
vessels, and the division of the vessels between the ligatures: an operation
which the defenders of experiments on animals claim to have been
discovered by vivisection. His method of amputation in gangrene by a
single circular cut was followed down to the seventeenth century. He
describes the process of catheterization, operations for goitre (or Derbyshire
neck), the resection of the ribs, the use of enemas, and artificial
feeding by them, an operation for cataract, ear diseases which are
curable by the use of the ear syringe, extraction of teeth by forceps,
fastening loose teeth by means of gold wire, and bursting hollow teeth
by peppercorns pressed into them. He describes many of the most
difficult subjects of operative midwifery, and discriminates in various
mental diseases. Sleep must be induced, he says, in cases of insanity,
by narcotics, if it is absent. He treats eye diseases with mild lotions
and salves, and is the first writer to distinguish hallucinations of vision.
He copies from Asclepiades his valuable rules of diet and simple
methods of treatment, and from Hippocrates his methods of recognising
the signs of diseases and their prognosis.</p>

<p>(I am indebted to the great work of Dr. Hermann Baas<a id="FNanchor_467_467" href="#Footnote_467_467" class="fnanchor">467</a> for much of
the above digest of the writings of Celsus.)</p>

<p>At the time when Celsus described the practice of medicine in
Europe, bleeding was practised more freely than was the custom in the
days of the great Greek physicians. The Romans went far beyond
these. “It is not,” said Celsus, “a new thing to let blood from the
veins, but it is new that there is scarcely any malady in which blood is
not drawn. Formerly they bled young men, and women who were not
pregnant, but it had not been seen till our days that children, pregnant
women, and old men were bled.” And it would seem that already
doctors had begun to bleed in almost every case, in every time of life,
with or without reason, the unfortunate people who were under their
care. They bled for high fever, when the body was flushed and the
veins too full of blood; and they bled in cachexia and anæmia, when
they had not enough blood, but were full of “ill humours.” They bled
in pleurisy and pneumonia, and they bled in paralysis, and cases where
there was severe pain.</p>

<p>Celsus has given us a good description of the qualities which a surgeon
ought to possess: he should be young, or at any rate not very old; his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_218">218</span>
hand should be firm and steady, and never shake; he should be able
to use his left hand with as much dexterity as his right; his sight should
be acute and clear; his mind intrepid and pitiless, so that when he is
engaged in doing anything to a patient, he may not hurry, nor cut less
than he ought, but finish the operation just as if the cries of the patient
made no impression upon him.<a id="FNanchor_468_468" href="#Footnote_468_468" class="fnanchor">468</a></p>

<p>Celsus said,<a id="FNanchor_469_469" href="#Footnote_469_469" class="fnanchor">469</a> “It is both cruel and superfluous to dissect the bodies
of the living, but to dissect those of the dead is necessary for learners,
for they ought to know the position and order, which dead bodies show
better than a living and wounded man. But even the other things,
which can only be observed in the living, practice itself will show in
the cures of the wounded, a little more slowly, but somewhat more
tenderly.”</p>

<p>He wrote on history, philosophy, oratory, and jurisprudence, and this
in the most admirable style.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Thessalus</span> of Tralles (<span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 60) was the talented son of a weaver, who
became a “natural” doctor. He was an utterly ignorant, bragging
charlatan, with great natural ability. Had Paracelsus received no
education, he might have practised medicine as a second Thessalus of
Tralles. He scorned science as much as Paracelsus loved it, but like
him he abused in the most violent manner all the physicians of antiquity.
He called them all bunglers, and himself the “Conqueror of
Physicians” (ἰατροίκης). He declared to Nero that his predecessors
had contributed nothing to the progress of the science. He flattered
the great and wealthy, and vaunted his ability to teach anybody the
healing art in six months. He surrounded himself with a great crowd
of disciples—rope-makers, cooks, butchers, weavers, tanners, artisans of
all sorts. All these he permitted to practise on his patients, and to
kill them with impunity. Since his time, says Sprengel, the Roman
physicians gave up the custom of visiting their patients when accompanied
by their pupils.<a id="FNanchor_470_470" href="#Footnote_470_470" class="fnanchor">470</a> He used colchicum in the treatment of gout.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Philumenus</span> (about <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 80) was a famous writer on obstetrics, and
described the appropriate treatment for the various kinds of diarrhœa.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Andromachus the Elder</span> (<span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 60) of Crete was the inventor of
a famous cure-all called <i>Theriaca</i>. It was compounded of some sixty
drugs. He was physician to Nero, and his two works περὶ συνθεσέως
φαρμάκων were greatly praised by Galen.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Soranus of Ephesus</span>, the son of Menandrus, was educated at
Alexandria. He practised at Rome in the reigns of Trajan and
Hadrian. He was one of the most eminent physicians of the Methodi<span class="pagenum" id="Page_219">219</span>cal
school, and was mentioned with praise by Tertullian and St. Augustine.
He wrote the only complete treatise on the diseases of women
which antiquity has given to us. We find from this work that a
valuable instrument used in gynæcology, and thought by many to be of
modern invention—the speculum—was mentioned by Soranus as used
by him. Amongst the articles used by surgeons which have been
recovered from the ruins of Pompeii, these instruments have been discovered,
showing that they were in regular use in ancient times. He
seems to have had a complete knowledge of human anatomy, for he
describes the uterus in such a manner as to show that his knowledge
was acquired by dissecting the human body, and not merely from that
of animals. He explained the changes induced by pregnancy, and spoke
of the sympathy existing between the uterus and the breasts, which is
so important for the physician to know. He must have had a greater
knowledge of the scourge of leprosy than his contemporaries.</p>

<p>Soranus, in his work on gynæcology, advises that midwives should
be temperate, trustworthy, not avaricious, superstitious, or liable to be
induced to procure abortion for the sake of gain. They were to be
instructed in dietetics, materia medica, and minor surgical manipulations.
Soranus did not think it was requisite for them to know much
about the anatomy of the pelvic organs, but they were to be able to
undertake the operation of turning in faulty presentations. Only when
all attempts to deliver a living child had failed was embryotomy to be
performed. Juvenal and other writers intimate that these accomplished
accoucheuses often developed into regular doctresses. In difficult
cases they called in the assistance of physicians or surgeons.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Julian</span> (<span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 140) was the pupil of Apollinides of Cyprus. He was at
Alexandria when Galen studied there. He wrote an introduction to
the study of medicine, and opposed the principles of Hippocrates.
Like the greater number of the Methodists he was ill-read, and Galen
blamed him for having neglected the humoral pathology.<a id="FNanchor_471_471" href="#Footnote_471_471" class="fnanchor">471</a></p>

<p><span class="smcap">Cælius Aurelianus</span> was a celebrated Latin physician, who is supposed
to have lived in Rome about the first or second century. Very
little is known about him, but the fact that he belonged to the Methodical
school, and showed great skill in the art of diagnosis.</p>

<p>He wrote treatises on acute and chronic diseases, and a dialogue on
the science of medicine. Next to Celsus, he is considered the greatest
writer of his school. His works are based entirely on the Greek of
Soranus.</p>

<p>He was a popular writer, as is proved by the fact that in the sixth
century his works were text-books on medicine in the Benedictine<span class="pagenum" id="Page_220">220</span>
monasteries. He has well described gout and hydrophobia, and,
according to Baas, was the inventor of condensed milk (!). Even
auscultation is hinted at in his works, and he recommends the air of
pine forests in chest diseases. His suggestions for the treatment of
nervous and insane patients were far in advance of his age, as he disapproves
of restraint.<a id="FNanchor_472_472" href="#Footnote_472_472" class="fnanchor">472</a></p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Greek and Roman Pharmacy.</span></h4>

<p>It is very difficult to decide with certainty what the ancients actually
intended by the names they gave their medicines. Exact as Hippocrates
and Galen usually are in their terminology, we are often at a loss
to know precisely what was the nature of the remedies they employed.
Alum, for example, as we understand it, is a very different thing from
the alum of the ancients. What the Greeks and Romans called <i>alumen</i>
and στυπτηρία, says Beckmann, was vitriol, or rather a kind of vitriolic
earth. They were very deficient in the knowledge of saline substances.
Hemlock, which is called also <i>Conium</i>, Κώνειον, or <i>Cicuta</i>, was probably
not the poison employed at Athenian executions. Pliny says that the
word <i>Cicuta</i> did not indicate any particular species of plant, but was
used for vegetable poisons in general. Dr. Mead<a id="FNanchor_473_473" href="#Footnote_473_473" class="fnanchor">473</a> considers that the
Athenian poison was a combination of deadly drugs; it killed without
pain, and probably opium was combined with the hemlock.<a id="FNanchor_474_474" href="#Footnote_474_474" class="fnanchor">474</a> Hellebore
was of two kinds, white and black, or <i>Veratrum album</i> and <i>Helleborus
niger</i> respectively. Galen says we are always to understand veratrum
when the word Ἑλλέβορος is used alone. White hellebore was used
by the Greeks, says Stillé,<a id="FNanchor_475_475" href="#Footnote_475_475" class="fnanchor">475</a> in the treatment of chronic diseases, especially
melancholy, insanity, dropsy, skin diseases, gout, tetanus,
hydrophobia, tic doloureux, etc. It was mixed with other drugs to
moderate the violence of its action. It fell into disuse, and is now
hardly ever employed internally. It is an exceedingly dangerous drug,
and was doubtless used on the “kill or cure” principle. Black hellebore
was given as a purgative. Healthy people took the white variety
to clear and sharpen their faculties. It fell into disuse about the fifth
century after Christ. A very celebrated medicine in popular use even
in modern times was <i>Theriaca</i>. Galen says that the term was properly
applied to such medicines as would cure the bite of wild beasts (θηρίων),
as those which were antidotes to other poisons (τοῖς δηλητηρίυις) were
properly called ἀλεξιφάρμακα.<a id="FNanchor_476_476" href="#Footnote_476_476" class="fnanchor">476</a></p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_221">221</span></p>

<p>Andromachus, physician to the emperor Nero, invented the most
celebrated of these preparations; it was known as the <i>Theriaca Andromachi</i>,
and was very similar to that of Mithridates, king of Pontus, the
recipe for which was said to have been found amongst his papers
after his death by Pompey. This was known to the Roman physicians
under the name of <i>Antidotum Mithridatium</i>. The composition of this
medicine was varied greatly in the hands of its different preparers, and
it underwent considerable alterations from age to age. Celsus first
described it, with its thirty-six ingredients; then Andromachus added
to it the flesh of vipers, and increased the number of ingredients to
seventy-five. He described the whole process of manufacture in a
Greek poem, which has been handed down to us by Galen. Damocrates
varied some of the proportions of the compound, and wrote
another poem upon it, also preserved by Galen.</p>

<p>The medicines prescribed by the Greek and Roman physicians were
all prepared by themselves. At that time materia medica consisted
chiefly of herbs; some of these plants were used not only for medicinal,
but also for culinary purposes, and were collected by other than practitioners
of medicine. Many plants were used also for cosmetic purposes
and in the baths, so that there must have been numerous collectors
and dealers in herbs. Just as in our time dispensing chemists and
others have acquired a certain knowledge of the medicinal virtues of
the things they sell, so the <i>pigmentarii</i>, <i>seplasiarii</i>, <i>pharmacopolæ</i>, and
<i>medicamentarii</i> possessed themselves of medical secrets, and thus invaded
the territory of the doctors.</p>

<p>Beckmann says<a id="FNanchor_477_477" href="#Footnote_477_477" class="fnanchor">477</a> that the <i>pigmentarii</i> dealt in medicines, and sometimes
sold poison by mistake.</p>

<p>The <i>seplasiarii</i> sold veterinary medicines and compounded drugs for
physicians.<a id="FNanchor_478_478" href="#Footnote_478_478" class="fnanchor">478</a></p>

<p>The <i>pharmacopolæ</i>, according to Beckmann, were an ignorant and
boasting class of drug-sellers. The <i>medicamentarii</i> seem to have been
a still more worthless class, for in the Theodosian code poisoners are
called medicamentarii.</p>

<p>A great number of the medical plants mentioned by Pliny, Dioscorides,
and other writers on materia medica were used for quite other purposes
than those for which we employ them now. Some drugs, however,
were apparently given on what we must admit to be correct scientific
principles. Thus Melampus of Argos, one of the oldest Greek physicians
of whom we have any knowledge, is said to have cured Iphiclus
of sterility by administering rust of iron in wine for ten days.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_222">222</span></p>

<p>He gave black hellebore as a purgative to the daughters of Proetus
when they were afflicted with melancholy. Preparations of the poppy
were known to have a narcotic influence, and the uses of prussic acid—in
the form of cherry laurel water—stramonium, and lettuce-opium were
well understood. Squill was employed as a diuretic in dropsy by the
Egyptians.</p>

<blockquote>

<p>The following list from the article on “Pharmaceutica” in Smith’s <i>Dictionary of
Greek and Roman Antiquities</i> contains probably the titles of all the ancient treatises
on drugs that are extant: “1. Περὶ Φαρμάκων, <i>De Remediis Purgantibus</i>; 2. Περὶ
Ἑλλεβορισμοῦ, <i>De Veratri Usu</i> (these two works are found among the collection that
goes under the name of Hippocrates, but are both spurious); 3. Dioscorides, Περὶ
Ὕλης Ἰατρικῆς, <i>De Materia Medica</i>, in five books (one of the most valuable and celebrated
medical treatises of antiquity); 4. id. Περὶ Εὐπορίστων, Ἁπλῶν τε καὶ Συνθέτων,
Φαρμάκων, <i>De Facile Parabilibus, tam Simplicibus quam Compositis, Medicamentis</i>,
in two books (perhaps spurious); 5. Marcellus Sideta, Ἰατρικὰ περὶ Ἰχθύων, <i>De
Remediis ex Piscibus</i>; 6. Galen, Περὶ Κράσεως καὶ Δυνάμεως τῶν Ἀπλῶν Φαρμάκων,
<i>De Simplicium Medicamentorum Temperamentis et Facultatibus</i>, in eleven books; 7.
<i>id.</i> Περὶ Συνθέσεως Φαρμάκων τῶν κατὰ Τόπους, <i>De Compositione Medicamentorum
secundum Locos</i>, in ten books; 8. <i>id.</i> Περὶ Συνθέσεως Φαρμάκων τῶν κατὰ Γένη, <i>De
Compositione Medicamentorum secundum Genera</i>, in seven books; 9. <i>id.</i> Περὶ τῆς τῶν
Καθαιρόντων Φαρμάκων Δυνάμεως, <i>De Purgantium Medicamentorum Facultate</i> (perhaps
spurious); 10. Oribasius, Συναγωγαὶ Ἰατρικαί, <i>Collecta Medicinalia</i>, consisting
originally of seventy books, of which we possess now only about one third; 11. <i>id.</i>
Εὐπόριστα, <i>Euporista ad Eunapium</i>, or <i>De facile Parabilibus</i>, in four books, of which
the second contains an alphabetical list of drugs; 12. <i>id.</i> Σύνοψις, <i>Synopsis ad Eustathium</i>,
an abridgment of his larger work in nine books, of which the second, third,
and fourth are upon the subject of external and internal remedies; 13. Paulus
Ægineta, Ἐπιτομῆς Ἰατρικῆς Βιβλία Ἕπτα, <i>Compendii Medici Libri Septem</i>, of which
the last treats of medicines; 14. Joannes Actuarius, <i>De Medicamentorum Compositione</i>;
15. Nicolaus Myrepsus, <i>Antidotarium</i>; 16. Cato, <i>De Re Rustica</i>; 17.
Celsus, <i>De Medicina Libri Octo</i>, of which the fifth treats of different sorts of medicines;
18. Twelve books of Pliny’s, <i>Historia Naturalis</i> (from the twentieth to the
thirty-second), are devoted to Materia Medica; 19. Scribonius Largus, <i>Compositiones
Medicamentorum</i>; 20. Apuleius Barbarus, <i>Herbarium, seu de Medicaminibus
Herbarum</i>; 21. Sextus Placitus Papyriensis, <i>De Medicamentis ex Animalibus</i>; 22.
Marcellus Empiricus, <i>De Medicamentis Empiricis, Physicis, ac Rationalibus</i>.”</p></blockquote>

<p>Although the Greeks and Romans knew little of chemistry as we
understand the term, they must have possessed considerable skill in
the art of secret poisoning, either with intent to kill or to obtain
undue influence over certain persons.</p>

<p>Poisonous drugs were used as philtres or love-potions, and we know
from Demosthenes<a id="FNanchor_479_479" href="#Footnote_479_479" class="fnanchor">479</a> that drugs were administered in Athens to influence
men to make wills in a desired manner. Women were most addicted
to the crime of poisoning amongst the Greeks. They were called
φαρμακίδες and φαρμακευτρίαι. By the Romans the crime of poisoning
was called Veneficium; and here again, as in other times and places,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_223">223</span>
it was most usually practised by women. It lent itself to the weakness
of the gentler sex, who could not avenge their injuries by arms, and
there is little doubt that many women were as unjustly suspected of
poisoning as we know they were of witchcraft in an ignorant age when
pestilence and obscure diseases filled the minds of the people with fear
and suspicion. Thucydides tells us<a id="FNanchor_480_480" href="#Footnote_480_480" class="fnanchor">480</a> the Athenians in the time of the
great pestilence believed that their wells had been poisoned by their
enemies. When the city of Rome was visited by a pestilence in the
year 331 <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>, a slave girl informed the curule aediles that the Roman
matrons had caused the deaths of many of the leading men of the State
by poisoning them. On this information about twenty matrons, some
of whom, as Cornelia and Sergia, belonged to patrician families, were
detected in the act of preparing poisonous compounds over a fire.
They protested that they were innocent concoctions; the magistrates
compelling them to drink these in the Forum, they suffered
the death they had prepared for others. Locusta was a celebrated
female poisoner under the Roman emperors. She poisoned Claudius
at the command of Agrippina, and Britannicus at that of Nero,
who even provided her with pupils to be instructed in her deadly
art. Tacitus tells the story,<a id="FNanchor_481_481" href="#Footnote_481_481" class="fnanchor">481</a> Suetonius says,<a id="FNanchor_482_482" href="#Footnote_482_482" class="fnanchor">482</a> that the poison she
administered to Britannicus being too slow in its action, Nero forced
her by blows and threats to make a stronger draught in his presence,
which killed the victim immediately. She was executed under the
emperor Galba.</p>

<p>Clement of Alexandria refers to the Susinian ointment in use in his
time, which was made from lilies, and was “warming, aperient, drawing,
moistening, abstergent, antibilious, and emollient,” a truly marvellous
unguent indeed if it possessed only half of these virtues. He
tells of another ointment called the Myrsinian, which was made from
myrtle berries, and was “a styptic, stopping effusions from the body;
and that from roses is refrigerating.”<a id="FNanchor_483_483" href="#Footnote_483_483" class="fnanchor">483</a></p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p><span class="smcap">Rufus of Ephesus</span>, the anatomist, has left us in his works interesting
details concerning the state of anatomical science at Alexandria
before the time of Galen. In one of his works he says,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_224">224</span> “The ancients
called the arteries of the neck carotids, because they believed that,
when pressed hard, the animal became sleepy and lost its voice; but
in our age it has been discovered that this accident does not proceed
from pressing upon these arteries, but upon the nerves contiguous
to them.” He is said to have practised the twisting of arteries for
arresting hæmorrhage, a method universally followed at the present
day. It is curious that though the ligature and this valuable method
of torsion were both known to the ancients, they fell into abeyance in
favour of the actual cautery.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Seneca</span>, the philosopher (<span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 3-65), had a very high opinion of the
healing art. Perhaps no one has said truer and kinder things of doctors
than this philosopher. “People pay the doctor for his trouble; for
his kindness they still remain in his debt.” “Thinkest thou that thou
owest the doctor and the teacher nothing more than his fee? We think
that great reverence and love are due to both. We have received from
them priceless benefits: from the doctor, health and life; from the
teacher, the noble culture of the soul. Both are our friends, and deserve
our most sincere thanks, not so much by their merchantable art,
as by their frank good will.”<a id="FNanchor_484_484" href="#Footnote_484_484" class="fnanchor">484</a></p>

<p><span class="smcap">Apollonius</span> of Tyana, the Pythagorean philosopher, was born four
years before Christ. His reputation as a miracle-worker and healer was
used by the enemies of the Christian faith in ancient times to bring
him forward as a rival to the Author of our Religion.<a id="FNanchor_485_485" href="#Footnote_485_485" class="fnanchor">485</a> The attempt to
make him appear a pagan Christ has since been revived.<a id="FNanchor_486_486" href="#Footnote_486_486" class="fnanchor">486</a> He adopted
the Pythagorean philosophy at the age of sixteen. He renounced animal
food and wine, used only linen garments and sandals made of bark,
suffered his hair to grow, and betook himself to the temple of Æsculapius,
who appears to have regarded him with peculiar favour. He observed
the silence of five years, which was one of the methods of initiation into
the esoteric doctrines of the Pythagoreans. He travelled in India, and
learned the valuable theurgic secrets of the Brahmans; in the cities of
Asia Minor he had some interviews with the Magi; visited the temples
and oracles of Greece, where he sometimes exercised his skill in healing;
then he went to Rome, where he was brought before Nero on the charge
of magical practices, which was not sustained. In his seventy-third
year he attracted the notice of Vespasian. Afterwards he travelled in
Ethiopia. Returning to Rome, he was imprisoned by Domitian, and had
his hair cut short, because he had foretold the pestilence at Ephesus.
He died at the age of an hundred years. It is to be remarked that he
never put forward any miraculous pretensions himself; he seems merely
to have been a learned philosopher who had travelled widely and acquired
vast information from distant sources. The history manufac<span class="pagenum" id="Page_225">225</span>tured
for him is plainly an imitation from that of our Lord, concocted
by persons interested in degrading the character of Christ.<a id="FNanchor_487_487" href="#Footnote_487_487" class="fnanchor">487</a></p>

<p><span class="smcap">Pliny the Elder</span> (23-79 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span>), the author of the immense encyclopædic
work, his famous <i>Natural History</i>, was not a man of genius, nor
even an original observer, his work is but a compilation, and contains more
falsehood than fact, and more absurdities than either. He cannot be
called a naturalist, though he wrote on natural history; nor a physician,
though he wrote of diseases and their remedies. His work is valuable
chiefly as a picture of the general knowledge of his time. The following
is an example of the medical lore of the period. Pliny says that a
woman dreamt that some one was directed to send to her son, a soldier
in Spain, some roots of the dog-rose. It happened that exactly at that
time her son had been bitten by a mad dog, and had received a letter
from his mother, who had dreamt about him, and she begged him to use
these roots as she directed. He did so, and was “protected” from
hydrophobia, as were many others of his friends who adopted the same
treatment. Thus it was that the wild-rose was called the dog-rose.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Dioscorides</span> lived in the first or second century of our era. He was
a physician who rendered greater services than any other to Materia
Medica. His work on this subject was the result of immense labour
and research, and remained for ages the standard authority; it contained
a description of everything used in medicine, and is a most
valuable document for the historian of the healing art of the period.
Galen highly valued the work of Dioscorides, which must have been
of the greatest use to the doctors of the time, who were obliged to
prepare their own medicines. Drugs were so much adulterated that it
was unsafe to procure them from the stores in Rome.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Marinus</span> was a famous anatomist, who lived in the first and second
centuries after Christ. Galen’s tutor Quintus was one of his pupils.
He wrote many works on anatomy, which Galen abridged and praised,
saying that he was one of the restorers of anatomical science.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Quintus</span>, an eminent Roman physician of the second century, was a
pupil of Marinus. He was celebrated for his knowledge of anatomy.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Zenon</span> lived in the fourth century, and taught medicine at Alexandria.
Julian (<span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 361 <i>circ.</i>) wrote in very high terms of the medical
skill of this physician.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Magnus of Alexandria</span> was a pupil of the above, who lectured on
medicine at Alexandria, where he was very famous. He wrote a work
on the urine.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Ionicus of Sardis</span> studied under Zenon. He was not only distin<span class="pagenum" id="Page_226">226</span>guished
in all branches of medicine, but was versed in rhetoric, logic,
and poetry.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Theon of Alexandria</span>, of very uncertain period, probably in the
fourth century after Christ, wrote a celebrated book on <i>Man</i>, in which
he treated of diseases in a systematic order, and also of pharmacy.</p>

<hr class="chap" />
<div class="chapter"></div>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_227">227</span></p>




<h3 id="CHAPTERIII_V">CHAPTER V.<br />

<small>LATER ROMAN MEDICINE.</small></h3>

<blockquote>

<p>The Eclectic and Pneumatic Sects.—Galen.—Neo-Platonism.—Oribasius and Ætius.—Influence
of Christianity and the Rise of Hospitals.—Paulus Ægineta.—Ancient
Surgical Instruments.</p></blockquote>


<h4><span class="smcap">The Sect of the Pneumatists.</span></h4>

<p><span class="smcap">Athenæus of Cilicia</span> about <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 69 founded at Rome the <span class="smcap">Sect
of the Pneumatists</span>, at the time when the Methodists enjoyed their
greatest reputation.</p>

<p>They admitted an active principle of an immaterial nature, to
which they gave the name of πνεῦμα, spirit. This principle caused the
health or the diseases of the body, and the sect was named from it.
Athenæus was a Stoic, who had adopted the doctrines of the Peripatetics.
In addition to the <i>pneuma</i>, he developed the theory of the
elements, and in them recognised the positive qualities of the animal
frame. The union of heat and moisture is necessary for the preservation
of health. Heat and dryness cause acute diseases, cold and
moisture produce phlegmatic disorders, cold and dryness give rise to
melancholy. At death, all things dry up and become cold.<a id="FNanchor_488_488" href="#Footnote_488_488" class="fnanchor">488</a></p>

<p>Great services to pathology were rendered by the Pneumatic sect.
Several new diseases were discovered by them; but they over refined
their doctrines, especially that of fevers and the pulse; they thought this
alternate contraction and dilatation of the arteries was the operation
of the <i>pneuma</i>, or spirit passing from the heart. <i>Diastole</i> or <i>dilatation</i>
pushes forward the spirit, the <i>systole</i> or <i>contraction</i> draws it back.<a id="FNanchor_489_489" href="#Footnote_489_489" class="fnanchor">489</a></p>


<h4><span class="smcap">The Sect of the Eclectics</span></h4>

<p>Derived their name from the fact that they selected from each of the
other sects the opinions that seemed most probable. They seem to
have agreed very nearly, if they were not actually identical with the
sect known as the <span class="smcap">Episynthetics</span>. They endeavoured to join the
tenets of the Methodici to those of the Empiric and Dogmatic sects,
and to reconcile their differences.<a id="FNanchor_490_490" href="#Footnote_490_490" class="fnanchor">490</a></p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_228">228</span></p>

<p>Amongst the most famous of the school were <span class="smcap">Agathinus of Sparta</span>
(1st cent. <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span>), who founded the Episynthetic sect, though Galen refers
to him as among the Pneumatici. He was a pupil of Athenæus, and
the tutor of Archigenes. None of his writings are extant. <span class="smcap">Theodorus</span>
was a physician mentioned by Pliny.<a id="FNanchor_491_491" href="#Footnote_491_491" class="fnanchor">491</a></p>

<p><span class="smcap">Archigenes of Apamæa</span>, who practised in Rome (<span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 98-117),
was exceedingly famous. He is mentioned several times by Juvenal,<a id="FNanchor_492_492" href="#Footnote_492_492" class="fnanchor">492</a>
and was the most celebrated of the sect. He wrote on the pulse, and
attempted the classification of fevers. Very few fragments of his works
remain. He was the first to treat dysentery with opium.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Aretæus of Cappadocia</span> (1st cent, <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span>) was a celebrated Greek
physician who wrote on diseases, detailing their symptoms with
great accuracy and displaying great skill in diagnosis. He was very
little biased by any peculiar opinions, and his observations on diseases
and their treatment have stood the light of our modern medical science
better than those of many of the ancient authorities. He was acquainted
with the fact that injuries to the brain cause paralysis on the
opposite side; and his classification of mental diseases is as good as
our own. His knowledge of anatomy was considerable, and in his
physiology he shows how much more the ancients knew of this branch
of science than is generally supposed. He was acquainted with the
operation of tracheotomy, and remarked its partial success.<a id="FNanchor_493_493" href="#Footnote_493_493" class="fnanchor">493</a></p>

<p>He considered elephantiasis to be contagious, and gives this caution:
“That it is not less dangerous to converse and live with persons
affected with this distemper, than with those infected with the plague;
because the contagion is communicated by the inspired air.”<a id="FNanchor_494_494" href="#Footnote_494_494" class="fnanchor">494</a></p>

<p><span class="smcap">Herodotus</span> (there were several of the name) was a physician of
repute in Rome (about <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 100). He was a pupil of Athenæus or
Agathinus, and wrote several medical books which are quoted by Galen
and Oribasius. He first recommended pomegranate root as a remedy
for tape-worm, and described several infectious diseases.<a id="FNanchor_495_495" href="#Footnote_495_495" class="fnanchor">495</a></p>

<p><span class="smcap">Heliodorus</span> (about <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 100) was a famous surgeon, and wrote on
amputations and injuries of the head. His operation for scrotal hernia
is described by Haeser as “a brilliant example of the surgical skill of the
Empire.” He treated stricture of the urethra by internal section.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Cassius Felix</span> lived in the first century after Christ, and was the
author of a curious set of eighty-four medical questions and their
answers. He was also called <span class="smcap">Cassius Iatrosophista</span>.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_229">229</span></p>

<p><span class="smcap">Leonidas</span> of Alexandria lived in the second or third century after
Christ, was a distinguished surgeon, who operated on strumous glands,
and amputated by the flap operation.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Claudius Galenus</span>, commonly called Galen, or, as mediæval
writers named him, Gallien, was a very celebrated physician and philosopher,
who was born at Pergamos in Asia, <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 131, under Hadrian.
His father, Nicon, was an architect and geometrician, a highly cultivated
and estimable man. His mother was a passionate scold, who
led her husband a worse life than Xantippe led Socrates. Nicon
spared no pains to give his son an education which should fit him to be
a philosopher, and in his fifteenth year he was a pupil of the Stoic,
Platonist, Peripatetic, and Epicurean philosophies. In his seventeenth
year his father, in consequence of a dream, changed his intentions concerning
his son’s profession, and determined that he should study medicine.
His first tutors were Æschrion, Satyrus, and Stratonicus. He
studied the doctrines of all the sects of medicine in the school of Alexandria,
and travelled in Egypt, Greece, Asia, and Italy. He devoted himself
to none of the schools of medicine whose doctrines he had studied,
but struck out a path for himself. On his return to Pergamos, he was
selected to take charge of the wounded gladiators, a position which
afforded him opportunities for studying surgical operations. He filled
this post with great reputation and success. When he was thirty-four
years old he went to Rome for the first time, remaining there four years,
and acquiring a great reputation for his knowledge of anatomy, physiology,
and medicine. He was connected with many persons of great
influence, and his popularity at last became so great that it excited the
ill-will of his professional brethren, especially as by his lecturing, writing,
and disputing, his name was constantly before them. So great was the
ill-feeling they bore towards him that he was afraid of being poisoned.
He was called the “wonder speaker” and the “wonder worker.”</p>

<p>“The greatest savant of all the ancient physicians,” says Sprengel,
“was Galen. He strove to introduce into medicine a severe dogmatism,
and to give it a scientific appearance, borrowed almost entirely
from the Peripatetic school. The enormous number of his works, the
systematic order which distinguishes them, and the elegance of their
style, won over, as by an irresistible charm, the indolent physicians who
succeeded him, so that during many ages his system was considered as
immovable.”<a id="FNanchor_496_496" href="#Footnote_496_496" class="fnanchor">496</a></p>

<p>For thirteen centuries his name and influence dominated the medical
profession in Europe, Asia, and Africa; and this influence, under the
name of Galenism, was paramount in the eighteenth century, notwith<span class="pagenum" id="Page_230">230</span>standing
the discovery of the circulation of the blood and other great
advances in science. Galen collected and co-ordinated all the medical
knowledge which previous physicians and anatomists had acquired.
He was no mere collector of, or compiler of other men’s works; but he
enriched previous acquirements by his own observation, and was in
every way a man greatly in advance of his time. “A great and profound
spirit,” says Daremberg, “he was philosopher as well as physician,
realising the aspiration of Hippocrates when he said that the physician
who should be also a philosopher must be the equal of the gods. A
dialectician like Aristotle, a psychologist like Plato, who glorified his
work by his genius for interpreting nature and life, his position as philosopher
would have been beside those men, if his devotion to medicine
had not called him to another sphere of intellectual activity.” Nevertheless,
Galen did in fact occupy an exalted position in the history of
philosophy, not only in the West, but amongst the Arabians. His encyclopædic
knowledge, his spirit of observation, and his influence on the
thought of the middle ages, compel a comparison with Aristotle. It
was thus that the vast body of medical material collected by the various
sects and schools was analysed by the penetrating genius of Galen,
whose philosophical and scientific mind was able to extract the good
and permanent from the worthless and ephemeral material, which encumbered
the literature of the healing art. He fell under the domination
of none of the schools, though in one sense he may be said to have
leaned towards the Dogmatists, “for his method was to reduce all his
knowledge, as acquired by the observation of facts, to general theoretical
principles.”<a id="FNanchor_497_497" href="#Footnote_497_497" class="fnanchor">497</a> He endeavoured to draw the student of medicine
back to Hippocrates, of whom he was an admirer and expounder. The
labours of Galen had the effect of destroying the vitality of the old medical
sects; they became merged in his system, and left off wrangling
amongst themselves to imitate the new master who had arisen. A
crowd of new writers found in the works of Galen abundant material for
their industry.</p>

<p>Partly in consequence of this jealousy, and partly from the fact that
in <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 167 a pestilence broke out in Rome, he left the city privately,
and returned to his native country.</p>

<p>Galen, as a profound anatomist and physiologist, recognised final
causes, a purpose in all parts of the bodies which he dissected; and it is,
as Whewell points out,<a id="FNanchor_498_498" href="#Footnote_498_498" class="fnanchor">498</a> impossible for a really great anatomist to do
other than recognise these. He cannot doubt that the nerves run
along the limbs, <i>in order</i> that they may convey the impulses of the will<span class="pagenum" id="Page_231">231</span>
to the muscles: he cannot doubt that the muscles are attached to the
bones, <i>in order</i> that they move and support them.</p>

<p>The development of this conviction, that there is a purpose in the
parts of animals of a function to which every organ is subservient, greatly
contributed to the progress of physiology; it compelled men to work till
they had discovered what the purpose is. Galen declared that it is
easy to say with some impotent pretenders that Nature has worked to
no purpose. He has an enthusiastic scorn of the folly of atheism.<a id="FNanchor_499_499" href="#Footnote_499_499" class="fnanchor">499</a>
“Try,” he says, “if you can imagine a shoe made with half the skill
which appears in the skin of the foot.” Somebody had expressed a
desire for some structure of the human body over that which Nature
has provided. “See,” he exclaims, “what brutishness there is in this
wish. But if I were to spend more words on such cattle, reasonable
men might blame me for desecrating my work, which I regard as a religious
hymn in honour of the Creator. True piety does not consist in
immolating hecatombs, or in bearing a thousand delicious perfumes in
His honour, but in recognising and loudly proclaiming His wisdom,
almighty power, love and goodness. The Father of universal nature
has proved His goodness in wisely providing for the happiness of all
His creatures, in giving to each that which is most really useful for
them. Let us celebrate Him then by our hymns and chants! He has
shown His infinite wisdom in choosing the best means for contriving
His beneficent ends; He has given proof of His omnipotence in creating
everything perfectly conformable to its destination.”</p>

<p>Anatomy must have reached a high standard before Galen’s time, as
we learn from his corrections of the mistakes and defects of his predecessors.
He remarks that some anatomists have made one muscle into
two, from its having two heads; that they have overlooked some of the
muscles in the face of an ape in consequence of not skinning the
animal with their own hands. This shows that the anatomists before
Galen’s time had a tolerably complete knowledge of the science. But
Galen greatly advanced it. He observes that the skeleton may be compared
to the pole of a tent or the walls of a house. His knowledge of
the action of the muscles was anatomically and mechanically correct.
His discoveries and descriptions even of the very minute parts of the
muscular system are highly praised by modern anatomists.<a id="FNanchor_500_500" href="#Footnote_500_500" class="fnanchor">500</a></p>

<p>He knew the necessity of the nerve supply to the muscle, and that
the brain originated the consequent motion of a muscle so supplied, and
proved the fact experimentally by cutting through some of the nerves and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_232">232</span>
so paralysing the part.<a id="FNanchor_501_501" href="#Footnote_501_501" class="fnanchor">501</a> Where the origin of the nerve is, there, he said, it
is admitted by all physicians and philosophers is the seat of the soul.
This, he adds, is in the brain and not in the heart. The principles of
voluntary motion were well understood, therefore, by Galen, and he
must have possessed “clear mechanical views of what the tensions of
collections of strings could do, and an exact practical acquaintance
with the muscular cordage which exists in the animal frame:—in short,
in this as in other instances of real advance in science, there must have
been clear ideas and real facts, unity of thought and extent of observation,
brought into contact.”<a id="FNanchor_502_502" href="#Footnote_502_502" class="fnanchor">502</a></p>

<p>He observed that although a ligature on the inguinal or axillary
artery causes the pulse to cease in the leg or in the arm, the operation is
not permanently injurious, and that even the carotid arteries may be tied
with impunity. He corrects the error of those who, in tying the carotids,
omitted to separate the contiguous nerves, and then wrongly concluded
that the consequent loss of voice was due to compression of the arteries.</p>

<p>Galen was the first and greatest authority on the pulse, if not our
sole authority; for all subsequent writers simply transferred his teaching
on this subject bodily to their own works.<a id="FNanchor_503_503" href="#Footnote_503_503" class="fnanchor">503</a></p>

<p>Briefly it was as follows: “The pulse consists of four parts, of a
diastole and a systole, with two intervals of rest, one after the diastole
before the systole, the other after the systole before the diastole.”<a id="FNanchor_504_504" href="#Footnote_504_504" class="fnanchor">504</a></p>

<p>His therapeutics were based on these two principles:—“1. That
disease is something contrary to nature, and is to be overcome by that
which is contrary to the disease itself; and 2. That nature is to be
preserved by that which has relation with nature.”<a id="FNanchor_505_505" href="#Footnote_505_505" class="fnanchor">505</a></p>

<p>The affection contrary to nature must be overcome, and the strength
of the body has to be preserved. But while the <i>cause</i> of the disease
continues to operate, we must endeavour to remove it; we are not to treat
symptoms merely, for they will disappear when their cause is removed,
and we must consider the constitution and condition of the patient before
we proceed to treat him.</p>

<p>“Such as are essentially of a good constitution are such in whose
bodies heat, coldness, dryness, and moisture are equally tempered; the
instruments of the body are composed in every part of due bigness,
number, place, and formation.”<a id="FNanchor_506_506" href="#Footnote_506_506" class="fnanchor">506</a> He gives in succeeding chapters the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_233">233</span>
signs of a hot, cold, dry, moist, hot and dry, hot and moist, cold and
dry, and cold and moist brain; of a heart overheated, of a heart too
cold, of a dry and of a moist heart, of a heart hot and dry, hot and
moist, cold and moist, cold and dry heart. The liver is described
under the same conditions.</p>

<p>Galen’s surgery is not of very great importance, but he is credited
with the resection of a portion of the sternum for caries and with ligature
of the temporal artery.<a id="FNanchor_507_507" href="#Footnote_507_507" class="fnanchor">507</a></p>

<p>He applied the doctrine of the four elements to his theories of
diseases. “Fire is hot and dry; air is hot and moist; for the air is
like a vapour; water is cold and moist, and earth is cold and dry.”</p>

<p>Galen’s pathology is explained by Sprengel thus: when the body is
free from pain, and performs its functions without obstacle, it is in a
state of health; when the functions are disturbed, there is a state of
disease. The effect of disturbed functions is <i>the affection</i> (πάθος); that
which determines this injury is the cause of the disease, the sensible
effects of which are the symptoms.</p>

<p>Diseases (διάθεσις) are unnatural states either of the similar parts or
of the organs themselves. Those of the similar parts proceed in general
from the want of proportion among the elements, of which one or
two predominate. In this manner arise eight different dyscrasies, or
ill states of the constitution. Symptoms consist either in deranged
function or vicious secretions. The internal causes of disease depend
almost always on the superabundance or deterioration of the humours.
Galen calls every disorder of the humours a putridity; it is due to a
stagnant humour being exposed to a high temperature without evaporating.
Thus suppuration and the sediment of urine are proofs of
putridity. In every fever there is a kind of putridity which gives out
an unnatural heat, which becomes the cause of fever, because the heart
and the arterial system take part in it.</p>

<p>Choulant enumerates eighty-three works of Galen which are acknowledged
as genuine, nineteen which are doubtful, forty-five spurious,
nineteen fragments; and fifteen commentaries on different books of
Hippocrates; and more than fifty short pieces and fragments for the
most part probably spurious, which are still lying unpublished in the
libraries of Europe. Besides these Galen wrote many other works, the
titles of which only remain to us; so that it is estimated that altogether
the number of his different books cannot have been less than
five hundred.<a id="FNanchor_508_508" href="#Footnote_508_508" class="fnanchor">508</a> He wrote, not on medicine only, but on ethics, logic,
grammar, and other philosophical subjects; he was therefore amongst<span class="pagenum" id="Page_234">234</span>
the greatest and most voluminous authors that have ever lived.<a id="FNanchor_509_509" href="#Footnote_509_509" class="fnanchor">509</a> His
style is elegant, but he is given to prolixity, and he abounds in quotations
from the Greek writers.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Philip of Cæsarea</span> was a contemporary of Galen about the middle
of the second century after Christ. He belonged to the sect of the
Empirici, and defended their doctrines. It is probable that he wrote
on marasmus, on materia medica, and on catalepsy; but as there were
other physicians of the same name, there is much uncertainty as to their
identity.</p>

<p>After the death of Galen came the Gothic invasions over the
civilized world, and all but extinguished the learning of the times.
Medicine lingered still in Rome, Constantinople, and Alexandria, but
individuals rather than schools and sects kept it alive; it struggled to
exist amidst the grossest ignorance, superstition, and magical practices,
till it was re-invigorated by the Saracens.</p>

<p>Saints <span class="smcap">Cosmas</span> and <span class="smcap">Damian</span> (<i>circ.</i> 303) were brothers who studied the
sciences in Syria, and became eminent for their skill in the practice of
medicine. As they were Christians, and eager to spread the faith which
they professed, they never took any fees, and thus came to be called by
the Greeks <i>Anargyri</i> (without fees). The two brothers suffered martyrdom
under the Diocletian persecution, and have ever since been famous
as workers of miracles of healing and patrons of medical science. Their
relics were everywhere honoured, and a church built in Rome by St.
Gregory the Great preserves them to this day.</p>

<p>Dr. Meryon points out<a id="FNanchor_510_510" href="#Footnote_510_510" class="fnanchor">510</a> that Gregory the Great enunciated one great
doctrine of homœopathy: “Mos medicinæ est ut aliquando similia
similibus, aliquando contraria contrairiis curet. Nam sæpe calida calidis,
frigida frigidis, sæpe autem frigida calidis, calida frigidis sanare consuevit.”</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Alexander of Tralles</span>, though one of the most eminent ancient
physicians, believed in charms and amulets. Here are a few specimens.
For a quotidian ague, “Gather an olive leaf before sunrise,
write on it with common ink κα, ροι, α, and hang it round the neck”
(xii. 7, p. 339); for the gout, “Write on a thin plate of gold, during
the waning of the moon, μεί, θρεύ, μόρ, φόρ, τεύξ, βαίν, χωώκ” (xi. l. p.
313). He exorcised the gout thus: “I adjure thee by the great
name Ἰαὼ Σαβαώθ,” that is, יְהֹוָה צְבָאוֹת and a little further on: “I
adjure thee by the holy names Ἰαὼ, Σαβαὼθ, Ἀδωναὶ, Ἐλωὶ,” that is
יְהֹוָה צְבָאוֹת אֲדֹנָי אֱלֹהָי.<a id="FNanchor_511_511" href="#Footnote_511_511" class="fnanchor">511</a></p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_235">235</span></p>

<p>Neoplatonism had its influence on medicine. Plotinus (<span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 205-270),
its great father, said, when dying, “I am striving to bring the God which
is in us into harmony with the God which is in the Universe.” The
early Christians began to tell the world that the God within the soul of
man and the God which is in the Universe are one and the same being,
of absolute righteousness, power and love. Plotinus preached a gospel
to the philosophic world; the first Christians preached theirs to every
creature. Neoplatonism taught the world that spirit was meant to rule
matter: it was not enough that the early Christian exhibited to mankind
man transformed as the result of his intimate relationship to the Divine,
the philosophic world demanded wonders, something above nature, as
a proof of the Divine character of the revelation; then, as Kingsley
explains,<a id="FNanchor_512_512" href="#Footnote_512_512" class="fnanchor">512</a> we begin to enter “the fairy land of ecstasy, clairvoyance,
insensibility to pain, cures produced by the effect of what we now call
mesmerism. They are all there, these modern puzzles, in those old
books of the long bygone seekers for wisdom.” Thus mankind, for ever
wandering in a circle, began by these ecstasies and cures to retrace its
steps towards the ancient priestcraft. These wonders were nothing to
the Egyptian, Babylonian, and Jewish sorcerers; they had traded in
them for ages.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Antyllus</span> (<i>circ.</i> 300 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span>) is mentioned by Oribasius, and is said by
Häser to have been one of the greatest of the world’s surgeons; for
aneurism he tied the artery above and below the sac, and evacuated its
contents; for cataract, and for the cure of stammering, he invented
appropriate treatment; and he employed something very much like
tenotomy for contractures. He is the earliest writer whose directions are
extant for performing the operation of tracheotomy. He must have
been a man of great talent and originality. He practised the removal
of glandular swellings of the neck and ligatured vessels before dividing
them, giving directions for avoiding the carotid artery and the jugular
vein. It is a striking proof of the high state which surgery had reached
at this period that bones were resected with freedom; the long bones,
the lower jaw, and the upper jaw were dealt with in a manner generally
considered to be brilliant examples of modern surgery.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Oribasius</span> (<span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 326-403) was born at Pergamos. By command
of the Emperor Julian the Apostate he made a summary from the
works of all preceding physicians who had written upon the Healing
Art. Having made a collection of some seventy medical treatises,
he reduced them into one, adding thereto the results of his own observations
and experience. He also wrote for his friend Eunapius two
books on diseases and their remedies, besides treatises on anatomy and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_236">236</span>
an epitome of the works of Galen.<a id="FNanchor_513_513" href="#Footnote_513_513" class="fnanchor">513</a> He was called the Ape of Galen,
and Freind says the title was not undeserved. He wrote in Greek, and
though a mere compiler was capable of better things. His pharmacy
was that of Dioscorides. He did some original work, as he was the
first to write a description of the drum of the ear and the salivary glands.
In his works also, we find the first description of the wonderful disease
called lycanthropy, a form of melancholia, or insanity,<a id="FNanchor_514_514" href="#Footnote_514_514" class="fnanchor">514</a> in which the
affected persons believe themselves to be transformed into wolves, leaving
their homes at night, imitating the behaviour of those animals,
and wandering amongst the tombs. His great work he entitled <i>Collecta
Medicinalia</i>. When Julian died, Oribasius fell into disgrace, and was
banished. He bore his misfortunes with great fortitude, and so gained
the esteem and love of the “barbarians” amongst whom he lived that
he was almost adored as a god. He was ultimately restored to his
property and honour.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Jacobus Psychristus</span> lived in the time of Leo I. Thrax (<span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 457-474),
was a very famous physician of Constantinople, who was called
“the Saviour,” on account of his successful practice.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Adamantius of Alexandria</span>, an Iatrosophist, was a Jewish physician,
who was expelled, with his co-religionists, from Alexandria, <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 415. He
embraced Christianity at Constantinople. He wrote on physiognomy.</p>

<p>Iatrosophista was the ancient title of one who both taught and
practised medicine.</p>

<p>Archiater (chief physician) was a medical title under the Roman
Empire, meaning “the chief of the physicians,” and not “physician to
the prince,” as some have explained.<a id="FNanchor_515_515" href="#Footnote_515_515" class="fnanchor">515</a></p>

<p><span class="smcap">Meletius</span> (4th cent. <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span>), a Christian monk, wrote on physiology and
anatomy.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Nemesius</span>, Bishop of Emissa (near the end of the fourth century),
wrote a treatise on the <i>Nature of Man</i>, which is remarkable for a proof
that the good Churchman came very near to two discoveries which were
made long after his time. He says that the object of the bile is to help
digestion, to purify the blood, and impart heat to the body. Freind
says<a id="FNanchor_516_516" href="#Footnote_516_516" class="fnanchor">516</a> that in this we have the foundation of that which Sylvius de la Boë
with so much vanity boasted he had invented himself. He adds that
“if this theory be of any use in physic, Nemesius has a very good title
to the discovery.”</p>

<p>The Bishop described the circulation of the blood in very plain terms
considering the state of physiology at that time.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_237">237</span></p>
<p>“The motion of the pulse takes its rise from the heart, and chiefly
from the left ventricle of it; the artery is, with great vehemence, dilated
and contracted by a sort of constant harmony and order. While it is
dilated it draws the thinner part of the blood from the next veins, the
exhalation or vapour of which blood is made the aliment for the vital
spirit. But while it is contracted it exhales whatever fumes it has through
the whole body and by secret passages. So that the heart throws out
whatever is fuliginous through the mouth and the nose by expiration.”<a id="FNanchor_517_517" href="#Footnote_517_517" class="fnanchor">517</a></p>

<p><span class="smcap">Lucius</span> wrote on pharmacy in the first century.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Marcellus Empiricus</span> (4th cent.) wrote a work on pharmacy, in
Latin, which contains many charms and absurdities.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Ætius</span> was a Greek medical writer, who probably was a Christian of
the sixth century. He was a native of Amida in Mesopotamia, and
studied medicine at Alexandria. He wrote the <i>Sixteen Books on Medicine</i>,
one of the most valuable medical treatises of antiquity; though
containing little original matter, it includes numerous extracts from
works which have since perished.<a id="FNanchor_518_518" href="#Footnote_518_518" class="fnanchor">518</a></p>

<p>Many of the opinions of Ætius on surgery are excellent; he recommended
the seton, and lithotomy for women. Bleeding arteries he treated
by twisting, as we do now, and by tying. He advised irrigation with cold
water in the treatment of wounds. In lithotomy he recommends that the
knife should be guarded by a tube. He treated worms with pomegranate
bark, as has been recently revived.<a id="FNanchor_519_519" href="#Footnote_519_519" class="fnanchor">519</a> He was the first Greek
medical writer amongst the Christians who gives specimens of the spells
and charms so much used by the Egyptian Christians in surgical cases;
thus, in case of a bone sticking in the throat, the physician was to cry
out in a loud voice, “As Jesus Christ drew Lazarus from the grave, and
Jonah out of the whale, thus Blasius, the martyr and servant of God,
commands, ‘Bone, come up or go down!’”<a id="FNanchor_520_520" href="#Footnote_520_520" class="fnanchor">520</a></p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Influence of Christianity</span></h4>

<p>At the time when the civilizations of Greece and Rome had reached
their highest perfection, the poison of sensual indulgence, elevated into a
religion, had instilled itself into the whole social life of the people:
in every incident of life, in business, in pleasure, in literature, in
politics, in arms, in the theatres, in the streets, in the baths, at the
games, in the decorations of his home, in the ornaments and service of
his table, in the very conditions of the weather and the physical phenomena
of nature<a id="FNanchor_521_521" href="#Footnote_521_521" class="fnanchor">521</a> it met the Roman, and tainted every action of his
life. Archdeacon Farrar, in the first chapter of his <i>Early Days of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_238">238</span>
Christianity</i>, draws an awful picture of the corruption of the old world
at the moment when it was confronted by Christianity. The parent
had absolute power over the person of his child, and could destroy its
life at its pleasure. Unfortunate children were exposed on the roadside
or left to perish in the waters of the Tiber. The slave was the mere
chattel of his master, and Roman women treated their servants with the
utmost barbarity. Juvenal has painted for us in terrible colours the
vices and shameless conduct of the women, and the selfish luxury and
degrading pleasures of the men; the nameless crime, which was the
disgrace of Greek and Roman civilization, was looked upon as merely a
question of taste; and St. Paul, in the first chapter of the Epistle to
the Romans, has recorded for all time what was the highest the most
perfect civilization Paganism has ever produced was able to effect
for the moral condition of the people. To the Roman and Greek
world, saturated with the most perfect philosophy the world has ever
known, and adorned by the art which has ever since been the despair of
its imitators, there presented itself the Catholic Church, and before the
sun’s embrace sublime</p>

<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"><div class="stanza">
  <div class="verse indent20">“Night wist</div>
  <div class="verse">Her work done, and betook herself in mist</div>
  <div class="verse">To marsh and hollow, there to bide her time</div>
  <div class="verse">Blindly in acquiescence.”<a id="FNanchor_522_522" href="#Footnote_522_522" class="fnanchor">522</a></div>
</div></div></div>

<p>The enemies of Christianity have affected to lament the effects produced
by the religion of Jesus on the art and science of the pagan
world; it has been said that the early Christians became so indifferent
to the welfare of their bodies that they no longer sought medical aid
when sick, but either resigned themselves to death or sought remedies
in prayers. It is quite possible that, at the soul’s awakening at the first
revelation of the infinite importance of the spiritual life, men did somewhat
neglect the ailments of the flesh and forget them in the effort to
realize the things of the spirit. It is perfectly true that the natural
sciences were not likely to make much progress in such a condition of
things. But if Christians were careless of their own health, it is not less
certain that they were intensely solicitous for that of their poor and
friendless neighbours. The peculiar constitution of the Roman Empire,
which was but a military tyranny, greatly contributed to its fall, and
the collapse would have come earlier had it not been for Christianity.
The Empire had very little cohesion; the Church had a cohesive force,
such as the world had never experienced before, and the Church availed
herself of all the facilities which the Empire possessed of keeping up,
from centre to circumference, the circulation of the spirit of solidarity<span class="pagenum" id="Page_239">239</span>
which has ever animated the Catholic body. Of course there was little
reason to expect the Church to be very favourably disposed towards the
philosophies of old Greece and Rome; they had done little for the
moral and social welfare of the people, and the Church had a better
system than these could exhibit: but when St Augustine appeared,
there was found a <i>modus vivendi</i> between the noblest Platonism and the
purest and loftiest Christian theology. He pointed the way towards a
Christian science, and Europe ultimately realized it. It was found in
the Schoolmen. Modern science is the legitimate child of Scholasticism,
though it is unsparing in its abuse of its parent.</p>

<p>The slave to the ancient Roman was simply a beast who was able to
speak. When such beasts became unprofitable, because through sickness
or old age they could no longer work, they were frequently turned
out to perish. Cato advised the agriculturists to sell their old and sick
slaves when no longer able to work, just as he recommended them to
dispose of worn-out and diseased cattle and worthless implements of
husbandry.<a id="FNanchor_523_523" href="#Footnote_523_523" class="fnanchor">523</a></p>

<p>The Emperor Claudius caused slaves who were thus cruelly treated
to be proclaimed freemen. It was the merciful and charitable conduct
of the early Christians towards slaves, of whom such vast numbers
helped to people the Roman Empire, that caused the doctrines of the
Gospel to spread so rapidly throughout the Roman world. The slave
found in the Gospel of Christ the first system of religion and philosophy
which took any account of the poor, the helpless, and the slave; the
rich and cultured saw in the teachings of the Church of Christ the only
system which embraced mankind as a whole. Juvenal<a id="FNanchor_524_524" href="#Footnote_524_524" class="fnanchor">524</a> has indicated
for us the value of a slave’s life in these times.</p>

<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"><div class="stanza">
  <div class="verse">“Go, crucify that slave. For what offence?</div>
  <div class="verse">Who the accuser? Where the evidence?</div>
  <div class="verse">For when the life of man is in debate,</div>
  <div class="verse">No time can be too long, no care too great.</div>
  <div class="verse">Hear all, weigh all with caution, I advise.</div>
  <div class="verse">‘Thou sniveller! is a slave a man?’ she cries.</div>
  <div class="verse">‘He’s innocent! be’t so; ’tis my command,</div>
  <div class="verse">My will; let that, sir, for a reason stand.’”</div>
</div></div></div>

<p>Although there is evidence that hospitals for the reception and
treatment of sick and destitute persons were established in India in
very early times,<a id="FNanchor_525_525" href="#Footnote_525_525" class="fnanchor">525</a> and though we know that these were attached to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_240">240</span>
some of the temples of ancient Greece, and the Romans had convalescent
institutions for sick slaves and soldiers, it cannot be doubted
that we owe to Christianity the hospital as it exists amongst us at the
present day.</p>

<p>Christianity taught the world not only that God is the Father of
mankind, the pagan world already knew Him as Zeus pater, but that
as His children we are the brethren and sisters of each other. The
Church in Rome, in the third century, says Eusebius,<a id="FNanchor_526_526" href="#Footnote_526_526" class="fnanchor">526</a> supported
“widows and impotent persons, about a thousand and fifty souls who
were all relieved through the grace and goodness of Almighty God.”
St. Basil the Great (<span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 379) founded at Cæsarea a vast hospital, which
Nazianzen calls a new city, and was named after him Basiliades. The
same author thought “it might deservedly be reckoned among the
miracles of the world, so numerous were the poor and sick that came
thither, and so admirable was the care and order with which they were
served.”<a id="FNanchor_527_527" href="#Footnote_527_527" class="fnanchor">527</a> In this institution St. Gregory of Nazianzus said, “disease
became a school of wisdom, and misery was changed into happiness.”</p>

<p>Chastel relates that (<span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 375) Edessa possessed a hospital with 300
beds, and there were many similar institutions in the East. St. Jerome
says that the widow Fabiola founded the first Christian infirmary in
Rome, at the end of the fourth century. St. Paula, a Roman widow, in
whose veins ran the blood of the Scipios, the Gracchi, and Paulus
Æmilia, and of Agamemnon, was born in 347 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span>, and was one of the
many noble Christian women who devoted their wealth and their lives
to the poor, the suffering, and the helpless, in the early days of Christianity.
She distributed immense alms, and built a hospital on the road
to Jerusalem, and also a monastery for St. Jerome and his monks, whom
she maintained, besides three monasteries for women;<a id="FNanchor_528_528" href="#Footnote_528_528" class="fnanchor">528</a> she carried the
sick to their beds in her arms, and with her own hands washed their
wounds, as St. Jerome tells us. In Italy, Gaul, and Spain, many
asylums for sick and poor persons were built and maintained. Nor
were their benefits confined to Christians; for Jews, slaves, and freemen
were welcomed to these temples of charity. It is impossible in the
limits of this work to trace fully the progress of the hospital movement;
enough has been said to prove, as Baas, the Agnostic historian of
medicine, admits,<a id="FNanchor_529_529" href="#Footnote_529_529" class="fnanchor">529</a> that “Hospitals proper, in our sense of the term,
did not originate till Christian times.”</p>

<p>When the plague raged at Alexandria, Eusebius tells us,<a id="FNanchor_530_530" href="#Footnote_530_530" class="fnanchor">530</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_241">241</span> “Many of
our brethren, by reason of their great love and brotherly charity,
sparing not themselves, cleaved one to another, visited the sick without
weariness or heed-taking, and attended upon them diligently, cured
them in Christ, which cost them their lives, and being full of other
men’s maladies, took the infection of their neighbours.” Such was the
initial impulse which Christian charity applied to the healing art; trace
we now its splendid results in mediæval times.</p>

<p>In the Middle Ages almost all the monasteries and religious houses
had a hospital of one kind or another attached to them; they had not
only places of entertainment for pilgrims, but institutions for the treatment
and care of the sick and poor. This care of the diseased and
helpless was not left to the civil administration alone, but formed part
of the regular work of the Church of the middle ages, and by ancient
regulation this was placed under the control of the Bishops. The
Council of Vienne ordained that if the administrators of a hospital, lay
or clerical, became relaxed in the exercise of their charge, proceedings
should be taken against them by the Bishops, who should reform and
restore the hospital of their own authority.</p>

<p>The Council of Trent granted to Bishops the power of visiting the
hospitals. This connection between the hospitals and the ecclesiastical
power was acknowledged by the Christian sovereigns of Europe from
the earliest times. The Emperor Justinian, for example, gave authority
over the hospitals to the Bishops; the property of the hospitals was
considered as Church property, and thus was protected in troublous
times by the sanctity of religion.<a id="FNanchor_531_531" href="#Footnote_531_531" class="fnanchor">531</a></p>

<p>The Council of Chalcedon placed such clergy as lived in establishments
where orphans, the aged, and infirm were received and cared for
under the authority of the Bishops, and makes use of the expression
that this regulation was according to ancient custom.</p>

<p>In the time of the Council of Chalcedon a hospital (ξενοδοχεῖον)
seems to have been a common adjunct of a church.<a id="FNanchor_532_532" href="#Footnote_532_532" class="fnanchor">532</a> Originally
appropriated to the reception of strangers, its use was afterwards extended
to the relief of the poor and also of the sick, as at Alexandria,
where, in <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 399, we read that “the priest Isidore being four-score
years old, was at that time governor of the hospital.”<a id="FNanchor_533_533" href="#Footnote_533_533" class="fnanchor">533</a></p>

<p>In connection with the story of Hypatia at Alexandria, we learn that
the Parabolani was the name given to the clergy of the lowest order,
who were appointed to attend to the sick, particularly in contagious
disorders, from which circumstance, says Fleury,<a id="FNanchor_534_534" href="#Footnote_534_534" class="fnanchor">534</a> their name was
derived, because it signifies persons who expose themselves.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_242">242</span></p>

<p><span class="smcap">Moschion Diorthortes</span> (about the 6th cent.) was a specialist in
diseases of women. He wrote a manual for midwives based on the
work of Soranus. His description of the uterus is similar to the treatise
of that physician. He refutes the opinion of the ancients on the situation
of male infants on the right, and of females on the left. He has
well indicated the signs of imminent abortion. He made a great
number of observations on the physical education of children which
must have been of great importance to his time. He justly explained
the reason for the cessation of the catamenia after severe diseases: the
system cannot afford the waste. He anticipated the modern discovery
that sterility is a disease common to women and men. He adhered to
the principles of the Methodical school, and the doctrines of <i>strictum</i>
and <i>laxum</i>.<a id="FNanchor_535_535" href="#Footnote_535_535" class="fnanchor">535</a></p>

<p><span class="smcap">Paulus Ægineta</span>, one of the most famous of the Greek writers on
medicine, was born in the island of Ægina, probably in the latter half
of the seventh century after Christ. He was an Iatrosophist, and
a Periodeutes, or one who travelled about in the exercise of his profession.
He wrote several books on medicine, of which one has come
down to us, called <i>De re Medica Libri Septem</i>, or “Synopsis of
Medicine in seven books.” Dr. Adams, in his translation of this famous
work for the Sydenham Society, gives us the original introduction to the
treatises of this physician, who informs us that:—</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_243">243</span></p>
<p>“In the first book you will find everything that relates to hygiene,
and to the preservation from, and correction of, distempers peculiar to
the various ages, seasons, temperaments, and so forth; also the powers
and use of the different articles of food, as is set forth in the chapter of
contents. In the second is explained the whole doctrine of fevers, an
account of certain matters relating to them being premised, such as
excrementitious discharges, critical days, and other appearances, and
concluding with certain symptoms which are the concomitants of fevers.
The third book relates to topical affections, beginning from the crown
of the head, and descending down to the nails of the feet. The fourth
book treats of those complaints which are external and exposed to
view, and are not limited to one part of the body, but affect various
parts. Also, of intestinal worms and dracunculi. The fifth treats of
the wounds and bites of venomous animals; also of the distemper
called hydrophobia, and of persons bitten by dogs which are mad, and
by those which are not mad; and also of persons bitten by men.
Afterwards it treats of deleterious substances, and of the preservatives
from them. In the sixth book is contained everything relating to
surgery, both what relates to the fleshy parts, such as the extraction of
weapons, and to the bones, which comprehends fractures and dislocations.
In the seventh is contained an account of the properties of all
medicines, first of the simple, then of the compound, particularly of
those which I have mentioned in the preceding six books, and more
especially the greater, and as it were, celebrated preparations; for I did
not think it proper to treat of all these articles promiscuously, lest it
should occasion confusion, but so that any person looking for one or
more of the distinguished preparations might easily find it. Towards
the end are certain things connected with the composition of medicines,
and of those articles which may be substituted for one another, the
whole concluding with an account of weights and measures.”</p>

<p>The most valuable and interesting part of this work is the sixth book.
The whole treatise is chiefly a compilation from the great physicians
who preceded Paulus, but the sixth book contains some original matter.</p>

<p>This great Byzantine physician must have possessed considerable skill
in surgery. His famous treatise on midwifery is now lost; it procured
for him amongst the Arabs the title of “the Obstetrician,” and entitles
him to be called the first of the teachers of the accoucheur’s art. Celebrated
equally in the Arabian and Western schools, he exercised an
enormous influence in the development of the medical arts. Throughout
the Middle Ages he maintained his great popularity, and his surgical
teaching was the basis of that of Abulcasis, which afforded to Europe
in the Middle Ages her best surgical knowledge. He was the first
writer who took notice of the cathartic properties of rhubarb.<a id="FNanchor_536_536" href="#Footnote_536_536" class="fnanchor">536</a></p>

<p>After the time of Paulus of Ægina the art of surgery slept for five
hundred years; imitators of the ancient masters and compilers of their
works alone remained to prove that it was still alive, but no progress
was made. The religious orders employed the best methods they
knew for the relief of physical suffering, but naturally it was not their
work to perfect the healing art. In the Middle Ages, when so much of
the medical and surgical practice was in the hands of the monks, particularly
of the Benedictine order, many abuses crept in; and at last the
practice of surgery by the clergy was forbidden in 1163 by the Council
of Tours.</p>

<p>The office of royal physician in the Frankish court in the sixth century
was not unattended with risk. When Austrigildis, wife of King
Guntram, died of the pestilence in the year 580, she expressed in her
last moments a pious desire that her doctors, Nicolaus and Donatus,
should be put to death for not having saved her; and her husband,
feeling it incumbent upon him to carry out her wishes, had them duly
executed.<a id="FNanchor_537_537" href="#Footnote_537_537" class="fnanchor">537</a></p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_244">244</span></p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Ancient Surgical Instruments.</span></h4>

<p>Bramhilla, surgeon to Francis II. of Austria, said that surgical instruments
were invented by Tubal Cain, because the Bible says he was “the
instructor of every artificer in brass and iron.”</p>

<p>The saw is a tool of great antiquity. Pliny attributes its invention to
Dædalus, or to his nephew Perdix, who was also called Talos; he was
supposed to have imitated it from the jaw of a serpent, with which he
had been able to cut a piece of wood. The invention of forceps was
attributed to Vulcan and the Cyclopes. When used for extracting teeth,
the Greeks called them ὀδοντάγρα; for extracting arrow-heads and other
weapons from the wounded in battle, the particular form employed was
called ἀρδιοθήρα.</p>

<p>In the collection of domestic objects discovered by M. Petrie in the
Egyptian ruins of Kahun, flint saws close upon 5,000 years old may
be seen.<a id="FNanchor_538_538" href="#Footnote_538_538" class="fnanchor">538</a></p>

<p>Pincers and tweezers are made by the natives of Timor-laut from the
bamboo; they are used for pulling out the hair from the face. The
natives of the Darling River, New South Wales, use fine bone needles
for boring through the septum of the nose.</p>

<p>The book on <i>Wounds of the Head</i> is admitted by the best critics to
be a genuine work of Hippocrates. We find in that treatise that he used
the trepan, as he speaks of a σμικρὸν τρύπανον, a <i>small trepan</i>. There
must also have been a larger one, a πρίων, or <i>saw</i>, which had a περίοδος,
or <i>circular</i> motion, and which was probably the trephine, and a πρίων
χαραcτός, or <i>jagged saw</i>, which is held to be the <i>trepan</i>; and he gives
instructions to the operator to withdraw the instrument frequently and
cool both it and the bone with cold water, and to exercise all vigilance
not to wound the living membrane.<a id="FNanchor_539_539" href="#Footnote_539_539" class="fnanchor">539</a></p>

<p>Splints were used by the Greeks for fractured limbs; they were called
νάρθηκας. Cutting for the stone is spoken of in the Ὅρκος, which is
attributed to Hippocrates. Celsus describes lithotrity, or crushing the
stone by the instrument invented by Ammonios the λιθοτόμος, <i>i.e.</i>
lithotomist.</p>

<p>Asclepiades practised tracheotomy. Many surgical instruments have
been discovered in Herculaneum and Pompeii. There is a speculum
vaginæ with two branches and a travelling yoke for them driven by a
screw, and a speculum ani opening by pressure on the handles; there is
a forceps of curious construction for removing pieces of bone from the
surface of the brain in cases of fracture of the skull. Mr. Cockayne
says:<a id="FNanchor_540_540" href="#Footnote_540_540" class="fnanchor">540</a>—</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_245">245</span></p>

<p>“It has been specially considered by Prof. Benedetto Vulpes [1847],
who thinks it may also have been intended to take up an artery. The
Greeks, he observes, as appears by an inscription dug up near Athens,
were able to tie an artery in order to stop hæmorrhage, and words implying
so much are found in a treatise of Archigenes (<span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 100), existing
in MS. in the Laurentian library at Florence, ‘<i>the vessels carrying</i>
(blood) <i>towards the incision must be tied or sewed up</i>.’ Near the end
of the sixteenth century a French surgeon was the first to recover the
ligature of the artery, and the instrument he used was very similar to the
forceps in the Museum at Naples.”</p>

<p>A curious pair of forceps has also been found, without a parallel
among modern surgical instruments; the blades have a half turn, and
the grip is toothed and spoon-shaped when closed. By construction it
is suited for introduction into some internal cavity, and for holding
firm and fast some excrescence there. Professor Vulpes finds it well
calculated for dealing with the excrescences which grow upon the
Schneiderian membrane covering the nasal bones, or such as come on
the periphery of the anus, or the orifice of the female urethra; especially
such as having a large base cannot be tied.<a id="FNanchor_541_541" href="#Footnote_541_541" class="fnanchor">541</a></p>

<p>There is further an instrument for tapping the dropsical, described by
Celsus<a id="FNanchor_542_542" href="#Footnote_542_542" class="fnanchor">542</a> and Paulus Ægineta. It was somewhat altered in the middle
of the seventeenth century by Petit.</p>

<p>An instrument suited to carry off the dropsical humours by a little at
a time on successive days, as Celsus and Paulus Ægineta recommended,
has also been dug up. Rust and hard earth, which cannot safely be
removed, have blocked up the canal of the relic, and rendered conclusions
less certain.<a id="FNanchor_543_543" href="#Footnote_543_543" class="fnanchor">543</a></p>

<p>“The probe, ‘specillum,’ μήλη, is reputed by Cicero to have been
invented by the Arcadian Apollo, who also was the first to bind up a
wound. Seven varieties are figured in the work of Professor Vulpes in
one plate, with ends obtuse, spoon-shaped, flat and oval, flat and square,
flat and divided. The catheter of the ancients is figured by the same
writer. It was furnished with a bit of wood to be drawn out by a thread,
to prevent the obstructive effects of capillary attraction, and to fetch
the urine after it when withdrawn. It is of bronze, and elastic catheters
seem to be of modern invention.” There are, or were in 1847,
eighty-nine specimens of pincers in the Naples Museum.</p>

<p>Hooks, hamuli, cauterising instruments, a spatula, a silver lancet, a
small spoon for examining a small quantity of blood after venesection.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_246">246</span>
There are cupping vessels of a somewhat spherical shape, from which
air was exhausted by burning a little tow. A fleam for bleeding horses
just like that used at the present time, a bent lever of steel for raising
the bones of the head in cases of depressed fracture. Professor Vulpes
gives figures of eight steel or iron knives used for various surgical purposes,
and of a small plate to be used as an actual cautery.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
<div class="caption">ANCIENT SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS.</div>
<img src="images/i_p246a.jpg" alt="" /></div>


<p class="hang">Fig. 1. The Saw used by Carpenters. Fig. 2. A Small Saw. Fig. 3. The Modiolus, <i>or</i> Ancient
Trephine. Fig. 4. The Terebra, <i>or</i> Trepan, called Abaptiston. Fig. 5. The Augur used by
Carpenters. Fig. 6. The Terebra, <i>or</i> Trepan, which is turned round by a thong bound tight about its
middle. Fig. 7. The Augur, <i>or</i> Trepan, which is turned round by a bow. Fig. 8. A Terebra, <i>or</i>
Trepan, which is turned round by a thong on a cross-beam. Fig. 9. A Terebra, <i>or</i> Trepan, which
has a ball in its upper end, by which it is turned round. Fig. 10. A Terebra, <i>or</i> Trepan, which is
turned round by a cross piece of wood, or handle, on its upper end. (From Adams’ <i>Hippocrates</i>, vol. i.)</p>
<p class="psig">[<i>Face p.</i> 246.</p>

<hr class="chap" />
<div class="chapter"></div>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_247">247</span></p>




<h3 id="CHAPTERIII_VI">CHAPTER VI.<br />

<small>AMULETS AND CHARMS IN MEDICINE.</small></h3>

<blockquote>

<p>Universality of the Amulet.—Scarabs.—Beads.—Savage Amulets.—Gnostic and
Christian Amulets.—Herbs and Animals as Charms.—Knots.—Precious Stones.—Signatures.—Numbers.—Saliva.—Talismans.—Scripts.—Characts.—Sacred
Names.—Stolen Goods.</p></blockquote>


<p>In the ancient world, as with savages, the whole art of medicine was in
many cases the art of preparing and applying amulets and charms.</p>

<p>An amulet (probably the word is derived from the Arabic <i>hamalet</i>,
a pendant) is anything which is hung round the neck or attached to any
other part of the body, and worn as an imagined protection against disease,
witchcraft, accidents, or other evils. Stones, metals, bits of parchment,
portions of the human body, as parings of the finger nails, may constitute
these charms. Substances like stones, gems, or parchment may have
certain words, letters, or signs inscribed upon them. In the East amulets
have from the earliest ages been associated with the belief in evil
spirits as the causes of diseases. A talisman may for our purpose be considered
as the same thing as an amulet. In Scott’s <i>Tales of the Crusaders</i>,
there is one of these charms which has the power of stopping blood
and protecting the wearer from hydrophobia. Charms, enchantments,
the ceremonial use of words as incantations, songs, verses, etc., have all
been used either with a view of causing, preventing, or curing diseases,
and their use of course arose from the belief of primitive, or savage man
his present representative, that our maladies have a supernatural origin.
An amulet may consist merely of a piece of string tied like a bracelet
round the wrist, as in India, where such a charm is commonly worn by
school children; it is a talisman against fever, which has been blessed
by a Brahman, has been sold for a half-rupee, and is highly esteemed by
the wearer. Our word carminative (a comforting medicine, like tincture
of cardamoms) means really a charm medicine, and is derived from
the Latin <i>carmen</i>, a song-charm. This word enshrines the fact that
magic and medicine were once united. The charm, <i>i.e.</i> song, was a
spell, whether of words, philtres, or figures, as thus:—</p>

<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"><div class="stanza">
  <div class="verse">“With the charmes that she saide,</div>
  <div class="verse">A fire down fro’ the sky alight.”</div>
</div></div></div>
  <p class="psig">—<i>Gower.</i></p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_248">248</span></p>

<p>Charms, amulets, characts, talismans, and the like, are found amongst
all peoples and in all times. They unite in one bond of superstitious
brotherhood the savage and the philosopher, the Sumatrans and the
Egyptians, the Malay and the Jew, the Catholic and the Protestant.
The charm differs from the amulet merely in the fact that it need not
be suspended. “There is scarcely a disease,” says Pettigrew, “for
which a charm has not been given.”<a id="FNanchor_544_544" href="#Footnote_544_544" class="fnanchor">544</a> And it is well to note that
their greatest effect is always produced on disorders of the nervous system,
in which the imagination plays so important a part. Charms are
also used to avert diseases and other evils; so that the man, sufficiently
protected as he supposes by these objects, not only will escape plague
and pestilence, but will be invulnerable to bullet and sword. The
Sumatrans practise medicine chiefly by charms; when called in to prescribe,
they generally ask for “something on account,” under the pretext
of purchasing the appropriate charm.<a id="FNanchor_545_545" href="#Footnote_545_545" class="fnanchor">545</a>
</p>

<p>The hoof of the elk is used by the Indians and Norwegians and other
northern nations as a cure for epilepsy. The patient must apply it to
his heart, hold it in his left hand, and rub his ear with it.<a id="FNanchor_546_546" href="#Footnote_546_546" class="fnanchor">546</a>
</p>

<p>“Medicine” amongst primitive folk is a synonym for fetich; anything
wonderful, mysterious, or unaccountable, is called “medicine” by the
North American Indians. The medicine-bag is a mystery bag, a charm.
In fetiches primitive man recognises something which has a power of
a sort he cannot understand straightway; therefore it becomes to him
a religious object. “Why are any herbs or roots magical?” asks Mr.
Lang; and he correctly answers the question, not by any far-fetched explanations,
but by the observation that herbs really do possess medicinal
properties (some of them indeed of extreme potency), and the ignorant
invariably confound medicine with magic.<a id="FNanchor_547_547" href="#Footnote_547_547" class="fnanchor">547</a> On this theory it is, of
course, not necessary to swallow the medicine or apply it as we apply
lotions and liniments; it is enough to carry it about as an amulet or
charm, for it is the <i>life</i> of the thing which is efficacious, the <i>spirit</i>, which
resides in the outward form, which possesses the virtue, not the material
object itself. Of course, it may be necessary to take the charm internally;
but then it is not the physiological action which is looked for,
but the magical. Dapper, in his <i>Description of Africa</i> (p. 621), tells of
savages who wear roots round their necks as amulets when they sleep
out; they chew the roots, and spit the juice round the camp to keep off
the wild beasts. At other times they burn the roots, and blow the smoke
about for the same purpose. The Korannas carry roots as charms
against bullets and wild animals. If successful in war, and obtaining<span class="pagenum" id="Page_249">249</span>
much booty, they say, “We thank thee, our grandfather’s root, that
thou hast given us cattle to eat.”</p>

<p>The Bongoes and Niam-Niams have similar customs.<a id="FNanchor_548_548" href="#Footnote_548_548" class="fnanchor">548</a>
</p>

<p>General Forlong, referring to the serpent Buddhism of Kambodia,
says, that “Fetish worship was the first worship, and to a great extent
is still the <i>real</i> faith of the great mass of the ignorant, especially about
these parts.”<a id="FNanchor_549_549" href="#Footnote_549_549" class="fnanchor">549</a> “Probably one-quarter of the world yet deifies, or at
least reverences, sticks and stones, ram-horns and charms.”<a id="FNanchor_550_550" href="#Footnote_550_550" class="fnanchor">550</a>
</p>

<p>The Abyssinians are sunk in the grossest superstition; their medical
practice is, to a large extent, based on the use of amulets and charms.
Even leprosy and syphilis are treated by these means, and eye diseases
by spitting in the affected organs.<a id="FNanchor_551_551" href="#Footnote_551_551" class="fnanchor">551</a>
</p>

<p>“Fetiches” are claws, fangs, roots, or stones, which the Africans believe
to be inhabited by spirits, and so powerful for good or evil. The
word is derived from the Portuguese <i>feitiço</i>, a charm or amulet.
</p>

<p>The Tibetans wear amulets upon their necks and arms; they contain
nail-parings, teeth, or other reliques of some sainted Lama, with musk,
written prayers, and other charms.<a id="FNanchor_552_552" href="#Footnote_552_552" class="fnanchor">552</a>
</p>

<p>Barth, travelling in Africa, found an English letter which had not
reached its destination, used as a charm by a native.<a id="FNanchor_553_553" href="#Footnote_553_553" class="fnanchor">553</a>
</p>

<p>Leaving primitive folk and savage peoples, and turning to the great
civilized nations of the past, we find the Egyptians, the Chaldæans,
Assyrians, and Babylonians not less addicted to the use of amulets,
charms, talismans, and philters than their untutored progenitors (assuming
with the anthropologists that the savage of to-day represents the
primitive people who must have preceded the founders of civilization).
The Magi, according to Pliny,<a id="FNanchor_554_554" href="#Footnote_554_554" class="fnanchor">554</a> prescribed the herb feverfew, the <i>Pyrethrum</i>
<i>parthenium</i>, to be pulled from the ground with the left hand,
that the fevered patient’s name must be spoken forth, and that the herborist
must not look behind him. He tells us also that the Magi and
the Pythagoreans ordered the <i>pseudo-anchusa</i> to be gathered with the
left hand, while the plucker uttered the name of the person to be cured,
and that it should be tied on him for the tertian fever.<a id="FNanchor_555_555" href="#Footnote_555_555" class="fnanchor">555</a>
</p>

<p>Of the <i>aglaophotis</i>, by which some commentators understand the peony
(<i>Pæonia officinalis</i>), and others the “Moly” of Homer, Pliny says, “by
means of this plant, the Magi can summon the deities into their presence
when they please.” Concerning the <i>achæmenis</i>, he says the root<span class="pagenum" id="Page_250">250</span>
of it, according to the Magian belief as expressed by Democritus, when
taken in wine, torments the guilty to such a degree during the night,
by the various forms of avenging deities, as to extort from them a
confession of their crimes. He tells, amongst other marvels, of the
adamantis, a plant found in Armenia, which, when presented to a lion,
will make the beast fall upon its back and drop its jaws. The Magi
said if any one swallowed the heart of a mole palpitating and fresh, he
would at once become an expert diviner. An owl’s heart placed on a
woman’s left breast while she is asleep will make her tell all her secrets.
For quartan fevers they recommended a kind of beetle taken up with
the left hand to be worn as an amulet.<a id="FNanchor_556_556" href="#Footnote_556_556" class="fnanchor">556</a> The use of scarabs or beetles
made of steatite, lapis-lazuli, cornelian, etc., as amulets, dates from the
most ancient periods of Egyptian history. In the fourth Egyptian
room of the British Museum there are specimens of scarabs, with the
names of kings and queens dating <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 4400-250. The objects are
not in all cases as old as the dates of the sovereigns whose names they
bear. “The beetle was an emblem of the god Khepera, the self-created,
and the origin and source from whence sprang gods and men.
Rā, the Sun-god, who rose again daily, was, according to an Egyptian
myth, a form of Khepera; and the burial of scarabs with mummies
probably had reference to the resurrection of the dead.”<a id="FNanchor_557_557" href="#Footnote_557_557" class="fnanchor">557</a>
</p>

<p>Some large scarabs which were fastened on the breasts of mummies
had inscriptions from the 30th chapter of the <i>Book of the Dead</i>.
The deceased person prays: “Let there be no obstruction to me in
evidence; let there be no obstacle on the part of the Powers; let there
be no repulse in the presence of the Guardian of the Scale.” Other
amulets consist of papyrus sceptres, buckles of Isis, hearts, fingers, etc.,
in gold and precious stones. They are laid between the bandages of
mummies to guard the dead from evil.
</p>

<p>Professor Lenormant explains the magical incantations which were
used in connection with these talismans; they had to be “pronounced
over the beetle of hard stone, which is to be overlaid with gold and to
take the place of the individual’s heart. Make a phylactery of it
anointed with oil, and say magically over this object, ‘My heart is
my mother; my heart is in my transformations.’”<a id="FNanchor_558_558" href="#Footnote_558_558" class="fnanchor">558</a>
</p>

<p>The ancient Egyptians were buried with their amulets as a protection
against the evil powers of the other world. Mr. Flinders Petrie, excavating
at the Pyramid of Hawara, discovered on the body of Horuta
a great number of these charms. He says: “Bit by bit the layers<span class="pagenum" id="Page_251">251</span>
of pitch and cloth were loosened, and row after row of magnificent
amulets were disclosed, just as they were laid on in the distant past.
The gold ring on the finger which bore his name and titles, the exquisitely
inlaid gold birds, the chased gold figures, the lazuli statuettes,
delicately wrought, the polished lazuli and beryl, and carnelian amulets
finely engraved, all the wealth of talismanic armoury, rewarded our
eyes with a sight which has never been surpassed to archæological gaze.
No such complete and rich a series of amulets has been seen intact
before.”<a id="FNanchor_559_559" href="#Footnote_559_559" class="fnanchor">559</a>
</p>

<p>Anodyne necklaces, made of beads from peony roots, are worn by
children in some parts to assist them in teething. The ancient Greeks
held the peony in great repute; they believed it to be of divine origin,
and it was for many centuries held to have the power to drive away
evil spirits.<a id="FNanchor_560_560" href="#Footnote_560_560" class="fnanchor">560</a>
</p>

<p>Abydemis, a Greek historian who wrote a history of Assyria, says
that the inhabitants made amulets from the wood of the ash, and hung
them round their necks as a charm against sorcery.
</p>

<p>In the Sanskrit Atharvaveda are found charms for diseases, which
are influenced by colours. Saffron and the yellow-hammer are prescribed
for jaundice; red remedies, and especially red cows, for blood diseases.
</p>

<p>The extremity of the intestine of the ossifrage, says Pliny, if worn
as an amulet, is well known to be an excellent remedy for colic.
Another cure is for the patient to drink the water in which he has
washed his feet!<a id="FNanchor_561_561" href="#Footnote_561_561" class="fnanchor">561</a> A tick from a dog’s left ear, worn as an amulet, will
allay all kinds of pains, but we must be careful to take it from a dog
that is black.<a id="FNanchor_562_562" href="#Footnote_562_562" class="fnanchor">562</a>
</p>

<p>“Pliny says that any plant gathered from the bank of a brook or
river before sunrise, provided that no one sees the person who gathers
it, is considered as a remedy for tertian ague, when tied to the left arm,
the patient not knowing what it is; also, that a person may be immediately
cured of the headache by the application of any plant which
has grown on the head of a statue, provided it be folded in the shred
of a garment, and tied to the part affected with a red string.”<a id="FNanchor_563_563" href="#Footnote_563_563" class="fnanchor">563</a>
</p>

<p>The cyclamen was cultivated in houses as a protection against poison.
Pliny remarks that it was an amulet.<a id="FNanchor_564_564" href="#Footnote_564_564" class="fnanchor">564</a> Vivisection was practised in connection
with charms. “If a man have a white spot, as cataract, in his
eye, catch a fox alive, cut his tongue out, let him go, dry his tongue
and tie it up in a red rag and hang it round the man’s neck.”
</p>

<p>Alexander Trallianus was not able to rise above the absurdities of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_252">252</span>
the amulet. He recommends bits of old sailcloth from a shipwrecked
vessel to be tied to the right arm and worn for seven weeks as a protection
against epilepsy. He advises the heart of a lark to be fastened
to the left thigh as a remedy for colic; for a quartan ague, the patient
must carry about some hairs from a goat’s chin. He admits that he
has no faith in such things, but merely orders them as placebos for
rich and fastidious patients who could not be persuaded to adopt a
more rational treatment.<a id="FNanchor_565_565" href="#Footnote_565_565" class="fnanchor">565</a>
</p>

<p>Dr. Baas tells us that “a regular pagan amulet was found in 1749
on the breast of the prince bishop Anselm Franz of Würzburg, count
of Ingolstadt, after his death.”<a id="FNanchor_566_566" href="#Footnote_566_566" class="fnanchor">566</a>
</p>

<h4>
<span class="smcap">Gnostic and Christian Amulets.</span>
</h4>

<p>Gnosticism is responsible for the introduction of many wonder-working
amulets and charms. This system of philosophy was a fantastical
combination of Orientalism, Greek philosophy, and Christianity. The
teaching was that all natures were emanations of the Deity, or <i>Œons</i>.
On some of the gnostic amulets the word <i>Mythras</i> was inscribed, on
others <i>Serapis</i>, <i>Iao</i>, <i>Sabaoth</i>, <i>Adonai</i>, etc.
</p>

<p>Notwithstanding the fact that the spirit of Christianity in its early
days was strenuously opposed to all magical and superstitious practices,
the nations it subdued to the faith of Christ were so wedded to their
ancient practices that they could not be entirely divorced from them,
and thus in the case of amulets and charms it was necessary to substitute
Christian words and emblems in place of the heathen words and
symbols previously in use.
</p>

<p>Anglo-Saxon charms and amulets were used by the monks of Glastonbury
Abbey, who treated disease. In the “Leech book”<a id="FNanchor_567_567" href="#Footnote_567_567" class="fnanchor">567</a> we find a
holy amulet “against every evil rune lay,<a id="FNanchor_568_568" href="#Footnote_568_568" class="fnanchor">568</a> and one full of elvish tricks,
writ <i>for the bewitched man</i>, this writing in Greek letters: Alfa, Omega,
<span class="smcap">Iesvm</span>, <span class="smcap">Beronikh</span>. Again, another dust and drink against a rune lay;
take a bramble apple,<a id="FNanchor_569_569" href="#Footnote_569_569" class="fnanchor">569</a> and lupins, and pulegium, pound them, then
sift them, put them in a pouch, lay them under the altar, sing nine
masses over them, put the dust into milk, drip thrice some holy water
upon them, administer <i>this</i> to drink at three hours.... If a mare<a id="FNanchor_570_570" href="#Footnote_570_570" class="fnanchor">570</a>
or hag ride a man, take lupins, and garlic, and betony, and frankincense,
bind them on a fawn skin, let a man have the worts on him, and let him
go into his house.” For typhus fever the patient is to drink of a decoction<span class="pagenum" id="Page_253">253</span>
of herbs over which many masses have been sung, then say the
names of the four gospellers and a charm and a prayer. Again, a
man is to write in silence a charm, and silently put the words in his
left breast and take care not to go indoors with the writing upon him,
the words being <span class="smcap">Emmanuel</span>, <span class="smcap">Veronica</span>.
</p>

<p>Mr. Cockayne, the editor of <i>Saxon Leechdoms</i>, has pointed out that
the greatest scientific men of antiquity, even those who set themselves
against the prevailing medical superstitions of their times, and did their
utmost to establish observation and experiment in opposition to speculation
and old wives’ fables, were by no means liberated from a belief
in magic and incantations. Chrysippus believed in amulets for quartan
fevers.<a id="FNanchor_571_571" href="#Footnote_571_571" class="fnanchor">571</a> Serapion, one of the chiefs of the Empiric school, prescribed
crocodile’s dung and turtle’s blood in epilepsy. Soranos will not use
incantations in the cure of diseases, yet he testifies that they were so
employed. Pliny has an amulet for almost every disorder. He tells
of a chief man in Spain who was cured of a disease by hanging purslane
root round his neck; he teaches that an amulet of the seed of
tribulus cures varicose veins; that the longest tooth of a black dog
cures quartan fevers; or you may carry a wasp in your left hand or half
a dozen other equally absurd things for the same purpose. A holly
planted in the courtyard of a house keeps off witchcrafts; an herb
picked from the head of a statue and tied with a red thread will cure
headache, and so on.<a id="FNanchor_572_572" href="#Footnote_572_572" class="fnanchor">572</a>
</p>

<p>Josephus tells a tale which was probably the foundation of what was
afterwards told about the mandrake. Xenocrates had a fancy for
advising people to eat human brains, flesh or liver, or to swallow for
various complaints the ground bones of parts of the human frame.
Alexander of Tralles says that even Galen did homage to incantations.<a id="FNanchor_573_573" href="#Footnote_573_573" class="fnanchor">573</a>
He gives his words: “Some think that incantations are like old wives’
tales; as I did for a long while. But at last I was convinced that
there is virtue in them by plain proofs before my eyes. For I had
trial of their beneficial operations in the case of those scorpion-stung,
nor less in the case of bones stuck fast in the throat, immediately, by an
incantation thrown up. And many of them are excellent, severally,
and they reach their mark.” Yet Galen is angry with Pamphilos for
“his babbling incantations,” which were “not merely useless, not
merely unprofessional, but all false: no good even to little boys, not
to say students of medicine.”<a id="FNanchor_574_574" href="#Footnote_574_574" class="fnanchor">574</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_254">254</span>
</p>

<p>Alexander of Tralles frequently prescribes amulets and the like. Mr.
Cockayne calls them periapts. “Thus for colic, he guarantees by his
own experience, and the approval of almost all the best doctors, dung of a
wolf, with bits of bone in it if possible, shut up in a pipe, and worn during
the paroxysm, on the right arm, or thigh, or hip, taking care it touches
neither the earth nor a bath. A lark eaten is good. The Thracians
pick out its heart, while alive, and make a periapt, wearing it on the left
thigh. A part of the cæcum of a pig prepared with myrrh, and put in
a wolf’s or dog’s skin, is a good thing to wear. A ring with Hercules
strangling a lion on the Median stone<a id="FNanchor_575_575" href="#Footnote_575_575" class="fnanchor">575</a> is good to wear.
</p>

<p>“A bit of a child’s navel, shut up in something of gold or silver with
salt, is a periapt which will make the patient at ease entirely. Have the
setting of an iron ring octagonal, and engrave upon it, ‘Flee, Flee, Ho,
Ho, Bile, the lark was searching’; on the head of the ring have an N<a id="FNanchor_576_576" href="#Footnote_576_576" class="fnanchor">576</a>
engraved; this is potent, and he thinks it must be strange not to communicate
so powerful an antidote, but begs it may be reserved from
carnal folk, and told only to such as can keep secrets and are trusty.
For the gout he recommends a certain cloth—ἐκ τῶν καταμηνίων; also
the sinews of a vulture’s leg and toes tied on, minding that the right
goes to the right, the left to the left; also the astragali of a hare, leaving
the poor creature alive; also the skin of a seal for solesῖια], on gold-leaf, when the
moon is in Libra; also a natural magnet found when the moon is in
Leo. Write on gold-leaf, in the wane of the moon, ‘mei, threu, mor,
for, teux, za, zon, the, lou, chri, ge, ze, ou, as the sun is consolidated
in these names, and is renewed every day; so consolidate this plaster
as it was before, now, now, quick, quick, for, behold, I pronounce the
great name, in which are consolidated things in repose, iaz, azuf, zuon,
threux, bain, chook; consolidate this plaster as it was at first, now, now,
quick, quick.’<a id="FNanchor_577_577" href="#Footnote_577_577" class="fnanchor">577</a>
<span class="pagenum" id="Page_255">255</span></p>

<p>“Then bits were to be chopped off a chameleon, and the creature living
was to be wrapped up in a clean linen rag, and buried towards the sunrise,
while the chopped bits were to be worn in tubes; all to be done
when the moon was in the wane. Then again for gout, some henbane,
when the moon is in Aquarius or Pisces, before sunset, must be dug up
with the thumb and third finger of the left hand, and must be said, I
declare, I declare, holy wort, to thee; I invite thee to-morrow to the
house of Fileas, to stop the rheum of the feet of M. or N., and say I
invoke thee, the great name, Jehovah, Sabaoth, the God who steadied
the earth and stayed the sea, the filler of flowing rivers, who dried up
Lot’s wife and made her a pillar of salt, take the breath of thy mother
earth and her power, and dry the rheum of the feet or hands of M. or
N. The next day, before sunrise, take a bone of some dead animal,
and dig the root up with this bone, and say, I invoke thee by the holy
names, Iao, Sabaoth, Adonai, Elai; and put on the root one handful of
salt, saying, ‘As this salt will not increase, so may not the disorder of
N. or M.’ And hang the end of the root as a periapt on the sufferer,”
etc.<a id="FNanchor_578_578" href="#Footnote_578_578" class="fnanchor">578</a>
</p>

<p>Although Alexander of Tralles was an enlightened and skilful
physician, he recommended for epilepsy a metal cross tied to the arm;
and went to the Magi for assistance in his art, and was recommended
to use jasper and coral with root of nux vomica tied in a linen cloth as
an amulet. It seems strange that, although Hippocrates and the scepticism
of the Epicureans had apparently destroyed the faith in magicians
amongst the learned, that men should have so soon reverted to the
absurdities from which they had been delivered; but there is an element
in our nature which can only be satisfied by that which magic represents,
and even in the present age of science we have reverted to the
same things under the names of Spiritualism, Theosophy, and Occultism.
</p>

<p>It would be grossly unfair to the Catholic Church to complain of the
slavery in which it kept the minds of the ignorant barbarians whom it
had converted from paganism to Christianity. When we read of medicine
masses, of herbs and decoctions placed under the altar, of holy
water mixed with drugs, and the sign of the cross made over the poultices
and lotions prescribed, we are apt to say that the priests merely
substituted one form of superstition for another, which was a little
coarser. A little reflection will serve to dispel this idea. A belief in
magic influence is, as we have abundantly shown, inseparable from the
minds of primitive and savage man. It is as certain that a savage will
worship his fetish, pray to his idol, and believe in disease-demons, and
their expulsion by charms and talismans, as that he will tattoo or paint his
body, stick feathers in his hair, and rings in his nose and ears; it is part
of the evolution of man on his way to civilization. To suddenly deprive
a savage or barbarian of all his magic remedies, his amulets and charms,
would be as foolish as it would be futile: foolish, because many
amulets and charms are perfectly harmless, and help to quiet and soothe
the patient’s mind; futile, because whatever the ecclesiastical prohibition,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_256">256</span>
the obnoxious ceremonies would certainly be practised in secret.
It was therefore wiser for the Church to compromise the matter, to wink
at innocent superstitions, and endeavour to substitute a religious idea
such as the sign of the cross would imply, for the meaningless, if not
idolatrous, ceremonies of a pagan religion. Let us never forget that the
Church delivered the nations from “the tyranny and terror of the
poisoner and the wizard.”
</p>

<h4>
<span class="smcap">Herbs, Animals, etc., as Amulets.</span>
</h4>

<p>Burton, in his <i>Anatomy of Melancholy</i>, mentions several “amulets
and things to be borne about” as remedies for head-melancholy, such
as hypericon, or St. John’s wort, gathered on a Friday in the hour of
Jupiter, “borne or hung about the neck, it mightily helps this affection,
and drives away all fantastical spirits.” A sheep or kid’s skin whom a
wolf worried must not be worn about a man, because it is apt to cause
palpitation of the heart, “not for any fear, but a secret virtue which
amulets have.” “Peony doth cure epilepsy, precious stones most
diseases; a wolf’s dung borne with one helps the colic; a spider an
ague, etc. Being in the country,” he says, “in the vacation time, not
many years since, at Lindley, in Leicestershire, my father’s home, I
first observed this amulet of a spider in a nut-shell lapped in silk, etc.,
so applied for an ague by my mother; whom, although I knew to have
excellent skill in chirurgery, sore eyes, aches, etc., and such experimental
medicines, as all the country where she dwelt can witness, to
have done many famous and good cures upon diverse poor folks that
were otherwise destitute of help; yet among all other experiments,
this, methought, was most absurd and ridiculous; I could see no warrant
for it—<i>Quid aranea cum febre?</i> For what antipathy?—till at length
rambling amongst authors (as I often do), I found this very medicine in
Dioscorides, approved by Matthiolus, repeated by Alderovandus, <i>cap. de</i>
<i>aranea, lib. de insectis</i>, and began to have a better opinion of it, and to
give more credit to amulets, when I saw it in some parties answer to
experience.”<a id="FNanchor_579_579" href="#Footnote_579_579" class="fnanchor">579</a>
</p>

<p>The common fumitory (<i>Fumaria capreolata</i>) is said to derive its
name from <i>fumus</i>, smoke, “because the smoke of this plant was said by
the ancient exorcists to have the power of expelling evil spirits.”<a id="FNanchor_580_580" href="#Footnote_580_580" class="fnanchor">580</a>
</p>

<p>The elder had many singular virtues attributed to it; if a boy were
beaten with an elder stick, it hindered his growth; but an elder on
which the sun had never shined was an amulet against erysipelas.<a id="FNanchor_581_581" href="#Footnote_581_581" class="fnanchor">581</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_257">257</span>
</p>

<h4>
<span class="smcap">Knots as Charms.</span>
</h4>

<p>Marcellus, a medical writer, quoted by Mr. Cockayne in his preface
to <i>Saxon Leechdoms</i>, vol. i, p. xxix., gives an example of knots as charms.
“As soon as a man gets pain in his eyes, tie in unwrought flax as many
knots as there are letters in his name, pronouncing them as you go, and
tie it round his neck.”
</p>

<h4>
<span class="smcap">Precious Stones as Charms.</span>
</h4>

<p>The origin of the superstitious belief in the magic power of precious
stones has always been traced to Chaldæa. Pliny<a id="FNanchor_582_582" href="#Footnote_582_582" class="fnanchor">582</a> refers to a book on
the subject which was written by Lachalios, of Babylon, and dedicated
to Mithridates.
</p>

<p>The Eagle stone (<i>Ætites</i>) is a natural concretion, a variety of argillaceous
oxide of iron, often hollow within, with a loose kernel in the
centre, found sometimes in an eagle’s nest. This was a famous amulet,
bringing love between a man and his wife; and if tied to the left arm
or side of a pregnant woman it ensured that she should not be delivered
before her time. Women in labour were supposed to be quickly
delivered if they were girded with the skin which a snake casts off.<a id="FNanchor_583_583" href="#Footnote_583_583" class="fnanchor">583</a>
</p>

<p>The Bezoar stone had a great reputation in melancholic affections.
Manardus says it removes sadness and makes him merry that useth it.<a id="FNanchor_584_584" href="#Footnote_584_584" class="fnanchor">584</a>
</p>

<p>“Of the stone which hight agate. It is said that it hath eight virtues.
One is when there is thunder, it doth not scathe the man who hath this
stone with him. Another virtue is, on whatsoever house it is, therein
a fiend may not be. The third virtue is, that no venom may scathe
the man who hath the stone with him. The fourth virtue is, that the
man, who hath on him secretly the loathly fiend, if he taketh in liquid
any portion of the shavings of this stone, then soon is exhibited
manifestly in him, that which before lay secretly hid. The fifth virtue
is, he who is afflicted with any disease, if he taketh the stone in liquid,
it is soon well with him. The sixth virtue is, that sorcery hurteth not
the man who has the stone with him. The seventh virtue is, that he
who taketh the stone in drink, will have so much the smoother body.
The eighth virtue of the stone is, that no bite of any kind of snake may
scathe him who tasteth the stone in liquid.”<a id="FNanchor_585_585" href="#Footnote_585_585" class="fnanchor">585</a>
</p>

<h4>
<span class="smcap">Signatures.</span>
</h4>

<p>Colours have always had a medical significance, from their connection
with the doctrine of “signatures.” White was cooling; red was hot.
Red flowers were given in disorders of the blood; yellow in bile disturbance.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_258">258</span>
The bed-hangings in small-pox and scarlet-fever cases were
commonly of a red colour; the unhappy patient’s room was hung about
with red drapery. He had to drink infusions of red berries, such as
mulberries. Avicenna said that as red bodies move the blood everything
of a red colour is good for blood disorders.
</p>

<h4><span class="smcap">Numbers.</span></h4>

<p>Magic numbers as charms were in use in Anglo-Saxon medicine.
“If any thing to cause annoyance get into a man’s eye, with five fingers
of the same side as the eye, run the eye over and fumble at it, saying
three times, ‘tetunc resonco, bregan gresso,’ and spit thrice. For the
same, shut the vexed eye and say thrice, ‘in mon deromarcos axatison,’
and spit thrice; this remedy is ‘mirificum.’ For the same, shut the
other eye, touch gently the vexed eye with the ring finger and thumb,
and say thrice, ‘I buss the gorgon’s mouth.’ This charm repeated
thrice nine times will draw a bone stuck in a man’s throat. For hordeolum,
which is a sore place in the eyelid of the shape of a barley-corn,
take nine grains of barley and with each poke the sore, with
every one saying the magic words, κυρια κυρια κασσαρια σουρωφβι; then
throw away the nine, and do the same with seven; throw away the
seven, and do the same with five, and so with three and one. For the
same, take nine grains of barley and poke the sore, and at every poke
say, ‘φεῦγε, φεῦγε κριθή σε διώκει, <i>flee, flee, barley thee chaseth</i>.’ For the
same, touch the sore with the medicinal or ring finger, and say thrice,
‘vigaria gasaria.’ To shorten the matter, blood may be stanched by the
words, ‘sicycuma, cucuma, ucuma, cuma, uma, ma, a.’ Also by ‘Stupid
on a mountain went, stupid, stupid was;’ by socnon socnon; σοκσοκαμ
συκιμα; by ψα ψε ψη ψε ψη ψα ψε. For toothache say, ‘Argidam
margidam sturgidam;’ also, spit in a frog’s mouth, and request him to
make off with the toothache. For a troublesome uvula catch a spider,
say suitable words, and make a phylactery of it. For a quinsy lay
hold of the throat with the thumb and the ring and middle fingers,
cocking up the other two, and tell it to be gone.”
</p>

<p>Nine is the number consecrated by Buddhism, three is sacred among
Brahminical and Christian people. Pythagoras held that the unit or
monad is the principle and the end of all. One is a good principle.
Two, or the dyad, is the origin of contrasts and separation, and is an
evil principle. Three, or the triad, is the image of the attributes of God.
Four, or the tetrad, is the most perfect of numbers and the root of all
things. It is holy by nature. Five, or the pentad, is everything; it stops
the power of poisons, and is redoubted by evil spirits. Six is a fortunate
number. Seven is powerful for good or evil, and is a sacred number.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_259">259</span>
Eight is the first cube, so is man four-square or perfect. Nine, as the
multiple of three, is sacred. Ten, or the decad, is the measure of all it
contains, all the numeric relations and harmonies.<a id="FNanchor_586_586" href="#Footnote_586_586" class="fnanchor">586</a>
</p>

<p>Cornelius Agrippa wrote on the power of numbers, which he declares
is asserted by nature herself; thus the herb called cinquefoil, or five-leaved
grass, resists poison, and bans devils by virtue of the number
five; one leaf of it taken in wine twice a day cures the quotidian,
three the tertian, four the quartan fever. He believed that every
seventh son born to parents who have not had daughters is able to
cure the king’s-evil by touch or word alone.<a id="FNanchor_587_587" href="#Footnote_587_587" class="fnanchor">587</a>
</p>

<h4><span class="smcap">Girdles.</span></h4>

<p>Amongst the ancient Britons, says Meryon,<a id="FNanchor_588_588" href="#Footnote_588_588" class="fnanchor">588</a> when a birth was
attended with difficulty or danger, girdles were put round the woman,
which were made for the purpose, and which gave her immediate relief.
Many families in the highlands of Scotland kept such girdles until
quite recently. They were marked with cabalistic figures, and were
applied with certain ceremonies, which came originally from the Druids.
</p>

<h4><span class="smcap">Spittle.</span></h4>

<p>Levinus Lemnius says of saliva: “Divers experiments show what
power and quality there is in man’s fasting spittle, when he hath
neither eat nor drunk before the use of it; for it cures all tetters, itch,
scabs, pushes, and creeping sores; and if venomous little beasts have
fastened on any part of the body, as hornets, beetles, toads, spiders,
and such like, that by their venome cause tumours and great pains and
inflammations; do but rub the places with fasting spittle, and all those
effects will be gone and dismissed.”<a id="FNanchor_589_589" href="#Footnote_589_589" class="fnanchor">589</a>
</p>

<p>Sir Thomas Browne is not quite sure that fasting saliva really is
poisonous to snakes and vipers.<a id="FNanchor_590_590" href="#Footnote_590_590" class="fnanchor">590</a>
</p>

<p>In <i>Saxon Leechdoms</i> a cure for the gout runs thus: “Before getting
out of bed in the morning, spit on your hand, rub all your sinews, and
say, ‘Flee, gout, flee, etc.’”<a id="FNanchor_591_591" href="#Footnote_591_591" class="fnanchor">591</a>
</p>

<p>Spittle was anciently a charm against all kinds of fascination. Pliny
says it averted witchcraft. Theocritus says,—
</p>

<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"><div class="stanza">
<div class="verse">“Thrice on my breast I spit, to guard me safe</div>
<div class="verse">From fascinating charms.”</div>
</div></div></div>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_260">260</span></p>

<p>Fishermen and costermongers often spit on the first money they take,
for good luck.<a id="FNanchor_592_592" href="#Footnote_592_592" class="fnanchor">592</a></p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Talismans.</span></h4>

<p>Talismans, says Fosbrooke,<a id="FNanchor_593_593" href="#Footnote_593_593" class="fnanchor">593</a> are of five classes, 1. The <i>Astronomical</i>,
with celestial signs and intelligible characters. 2. The <i>Magical</i>, with
extraordinary figures, superstitious words, and names of unknown
angels. 3. The <i>Mixed</i>, of celestial signs and barbarous words, but not
superstitions, or with names of angels. 4. The <i>Sigilla Planetarum</i>,
composed of Hebrew numeral letters, used by astrologers and fortune
tellers. 5. <i>Hebrew Names and Characters.</i> These were formed according
to the cabalistic art. Pettigrew gives a Hebrew talisman,<a id="FNanchor_594_594" href="#Footnote_594_594" class="fnanchor">594</a> which runs
thus: “It overflowed—he did cast darts—Shaddai is all sufficient—his
hand is strong, and is the preserver of my life in all its variations.”</p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Scripts.</span></h4>

<p>Sir John Lubbock says that “The use of writing as a medicine prevails
largely in Africa, where the priests or wizards write a prayer on a
piece of board, wash it off, and make the patient drink it. Caillie
met with a man who had a great reputation for sanctity, and who made
his living by writing prayers on a board, washing them off, and then
selling the water, which was sprinkled over various objects and
supposed to protect them.”<a id="FNanchor_595_595" href="#Footnote_595_595" class="fnanchor">595</a></p>

<p>Mungo Park relates similar facts.<a id="FNanchor_596_596" href="#Footnote_596_596" class="fnanchor">596</a></p>

<p>Sir A. Lyall says that a similar practice exists in India, where, however,
the native practitioner may sometimes be seen mixing croton oil
in the ink with which he writes his charms. “In Africa,” says
Lubbock, “the prayers written as medicine or as amulets are generally
taken from the Koran.” It is admitted that they are no protection
against firearms; but this does not the least weaken faith in them,
because, as guns were not invented in Mahomet’s time, he naturally
provided no specific against them.<a id="FNanchor_597_597" href="#Footnote_597_597" class="fnanchor">597</a></p>

<p>Among the Kirghiz Atkinson says that the Mullas sell such amulets
at the rate of a sheep for each scrap of written paper,<a id="FNanchor_598_598" href="#Footnote_598_598" class="fnanchor">598</a> and similar
charms are in great request among the Turkomans<a id="FNanchor_599_599" href="#Footnote_599_599" class="fnanchor">599</a> and in Afghanistan.<a id="FNanchor_600_600" href="#Footnote_600_600" class="fnanchor">600</a></p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_261">261</span></p>

<p>The very curious account of the trial of jealousy in Numbers vi.
11-31 may be studied in this connection as showing the extreme
antiquity of the writing charm. In the case of the woman suspected
of having committed adultery “the priest shall bring her near, and set
her before the Lord: and the priest shall take holy water in an earthen
vessel; and of the dust that is in the floor of the tabernacle the priest
shall take, and put it into the water: and the priest shall set the
woman before the Lord, and uncover the woman’s head, and put the
offering of memorial in her hands, which is the jealousy offering: and
the priest shall have in his hand the bitter water that causeth the
curse: and the priest shall charge her by an oath, and say unto the
woman, If no man have lain with thee, and if thou hast not gone aside
to uncleanness with another instead of thy husband, be thou free from
this bitter water that causeth the curse: but if thou hast gone aside to
another instead of thy husband, and if thou be defiled, and some man
have lain with thee beside thine husband: then the priest shall charge
the woman with an oath of cursing, and the priest shall say unto the
woman, The Lord make thee a curse and an oath among thy people,
when the Lord doth make thy thigh to rot, and thy belly to swell; and
this water that causeth the curse shall go into thy bowels, to make thy
belly to swell, and thy thigh to rot: and the woman shall say, Amen,
amen. And the priest shall write these curses in a book, and he shall
blot them out with the bitter water: and he shall cause the woman to
drink the bitter water that causeth the curse: and the water that causeth
the curse shall enter into her, and become bitter. Then the priest shall
take the jealousy offering out of the woman’s hand, and shall wave the
offering before the Lord, and offer it upon the altar: and the priest
shall take an handful of the offering, even the memorial thereof, and
burn it upon the altar, and afterward shall cause the woman to drink
the water. And when he hath made her to drink the water, then it
shall come to pass, that, if she be defiled, and have done trespass
against her husband, that the water that causeth the curse shall enter
into her, and become bitter, and her belly shall swell, and her thigh shall
rot: and the woman shall be a curse among her people. And if the
woman be not defiled, but be clean; then she shall be free, and shall
conceive seed. This is the law of jealousies, when a wife goeth aside
to another instead of her husband, and is defiled; or when the spirit of
jealousy cometh upon him, and he be jealous over his wife, and shall
set the woman before the Lord, and the priest shall execute upon her
all this law. Then shall the man be guiltless from iniquity, and this
woman shall bear her iniquity.”</p>

<p>This is quite evidently taken from the customs of African tribes.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_262">262</span>
As the Egyptians gave the Jews their knowledge of the medical arts,
and as this knowledge was doubtless largely intermingled with African
ideas, it is easy to see how the ordeal of the bitter curse-water found
its way into the Mosaic ritual.</p>

<p>Of scripts as amulets we find that anything written in a character
which nobody could read was worn as an amulet against disease or
danger. Thus the Anglo-Saxon MS., known as the Vercelli MS., by
some means found its way to a place near Milan, where no one could
decipher it. When that discovery was made, the next step was to cut up
its precious pages for amulets, and so many of its leaves have perished.</p>

<p>After the death of Pascal, the philosopher, a writing was found
sewn into his doublet. This was a “profession of faith” which he
wore as a sort of amulet or charm, and his servants believed that he
always had it stitched into a new garment when he discarded the old
one.<a id="FNanchor_601_601" href="#Footnote_601_601" class="fnanchor">601</a></p>

<p>“Mais ce qui montre que ce n’est par un simple engagement tel
qu’on en peut prendre avec soi-même, c’est la forme étrange que Pascal
lui a donnée. Pour quiconque a vu les écrits de ce genre de la part
d’hallucinés, le premier coup d’œil montre que l’écrit de Pascal appartient
à cette catégorie. D’ailleurs, il porte l’énonciation manifeste d’une
vision en ces termes: ‘Depuis environ dix heures et demie du soir
jusque environ minuit et demi, feu.’ Ainsi, ce jour-là, le lundi 23
Novembre, 1654, pendant environ deux heures, Pascal eut la vision
d’un feu qu’il prit pour une apparition surnaturelle, et sa conviction fut
si forte qu’elle le détermina à entrer plus avant qu’il n’avait fait
jusqu’alors dans les voies de la dévotion et du rigorisme janséniste.”<a id="FNanchor_602_602" href="#Footnote_602_602" class="fnanchor">602</a></p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Characts.</span></h4>

<p>Of the species of charms known as characts we have many examples
in the practice of Anglo-Saxon physicians. In the preface to the
<i>Herbarium of Apuleius</i>, used at Glastonbury, Mr. Cockayne, the editor,
gives the following from Marcellus, 380 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span>, to avoid inflamed eyes:
“Write on a clean sheet of ουβαικ, and hang this round the patient’s
neck, with a thread from the loom.” In a state of purity and chastity
write on a clean sheet of paper φυρφαραν, and hang it round the man’s
neck; it will stop the approach of inflammation. The following will
stop inflammation coming on, written on a clean sheet of paper: ρουβος,
ρνονειρας ρηελιος ως·  καντεφορα·  και παντες ηακοτει; it must be hung to
the neck by a thread; and if both the patient and operator are in a
state of chastity, it will stop inveterate inflammation. Again, write on a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_263">263</span>
thin plate of gold with a needle of copper, ορνω ουρωδη; do this on a
Monday; observe chastity; it will long and much avail.</p>

<p><i>Characts</i> are amulets in the form of inscriptions, and are to be found
in all the old houses still existing in Edinburgh.<a id="FNanchor_603_603" href="#Footnote_603_603" class="fnanchor">603</a> The name of God
is one of the commonest characts.</p>

<p>Rabbi Hama gives a sacred seal with divine names written in Hebrew,
which he declares will cure not only all kinds of diseases, but heal
all griefs whatsoever. The seals are figured in Morley’s <i>Life of Cornelius
Agrippa</i>.<a id="FNanchor_604_604" href="#Footnote_604_604" class="fnanchor">604</a></p>

<p>When a charact or charm lost its original meaning, it came to
bear that of something worn for its supposed efficacy in preserving the
wearer from danger in mind or body, and now means a mere trinket to
hang on a watch chain. One of the most famous of ancient charms
was the name of the supreme deity of the Assyrians. This was the
Abracadabra, which was supposed to have a magical efficacy as an
antidote against ague, fever, flux, and toothache.<a id="FNanchor_605_605" href="#Footnote_605_605" class="fnanchor">605</a> It was written on
parchment, and arranged as follows:—</p>

<p class="nindent center">
A B R A C A D A B R A<br />
A B R A C A D A B R<br />
A B R A C A D A B<br />
A B R A C A D A<br />
A B R A C A D<br />
A B R A C A<br />
A B R A C<br />
A B R A<br />
A B R<br />
A B<br />
A<br />
</p>

<p>This was suspended round the neck by a linen thread. The word
Abraxas, or Abrasax, was engraved on antique stones, and used as
amulets or charms against disease. Sometimes mystical characters
and figures were added, as the head of a fowl, the arms and bust of
a man terminating in the body and tail of a serpent. It is of Egyptian
origin, and is referred to by the Greek Fathers. The Egyptians used it
to dispossess evil spirits and to cure diseases.<a id="FNanchor_606_606" href="#Footnote_606_606" class="fnanchor">606</a></p>

<p>Abraxas is the president of the 365th heaven, and is thus evidently a
sun myth. Apollo is the sun in mythology, and he was the god of
physic or healing.<a id="FNanchor_607_607" href="#Footnote_607_607" class="fnanchor">607</a></p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_264">264</span></p>

<p>Brande, in his <i>Popular Antiquities</i>, gives the following charm from a
manuscript of the date of 1475:<a id="FNanchor_608_608" href="#Footnote_608_608" class="fnanchor">608</a>—</p>

<p>“Here ys a charme for wyked Wych. In nomine Patris, et Filii, et
Spiritus Sancti. Amen. Per Virtutem Domini sint Medicina mei pia
Crux ✠ et passio Christi ✠. Vulnera quinque Domini sint Medicina
mei ✠. Virgo Maria mihi succurre, et defende ab omni maligno Demonio,
et ab omni maligno Spiritu. Amen. ✠ a ✠ g ✠ l ✠ a ✠
Tetragrammaton. ✠ Alpha, ✠ oo, ✠ primogenitus, ✠ vita, vita. ✠
Sapiencia, ✠ Virtus, ✠ Jesus Nazarenus rex judeorum, ✠ fili Domini,
miserere mei. Amen. ✠ Marcus ✠ Matheus ✠ Lucas ✠ Johannes
mihi succurrite et defendite. Amen. ✠ Omnipotens sempiterne Deus,
hunc N. famulum tuum hoc breve Scriptum super se portantem prospere
salvet dormiendo, vigilando, potando, et precipue sompniando ab omni
Maligno Demonio, eciam ab omni maligno spiritu ✠.”</p>

<p>One of the most famous charms of this kind is the “Solomon’s Seal.”</p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/i_p264.jpg" alt="Solomon's Seal" />
</div>

<p>Amongst the Cabalists an amulet, with the names “Senoi, Sansenoi,
Semongeloph,” upon it, was fastened round the neck of the new-born
child.<a id="FNanchor_609_609" href="#Footnote_609_609" class="fnanchor">609</a></p>

<p>The first Psalm, when written on doeskin, was supposed to help the
birth of children; but the writer of such Psalm amulets, as soon as he
had written one line, had to plunge into a bath. “Moreover,” says
Mr. Morley, “that the charm might be the work of a pure man, before
every new line of his manuscript it was thought necessary that he should
repeat the plunge.”<a id="FNanchor_610_610" href="#Footnote_610_610" class="fnanchor">610</a></p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_265">265</span></p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Sacred Names as Charms.</span></h4>

<p>Some of the Jews accounted for the miracles of healing wrought by our
Saviour by declaring that He had learned the Mirific Word, the true
pronunciation of the name Jehovah; this word stirs all the angels and
rules all creatures. They said that He had gained admission to the
Holy of Holies, where He learned the sacred mystery, wrote it on a
tablet, cut open His thigh, and having put the tablet in the wound,
closed the flesh by uttering the mystic Name. The names of angels
and evil spirits were also held to be potent by the Cabalists. The
name of a bad angel, Schabriri, was used when written down as a charm
to cure ophthalmia.</p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Stolen Property as a Charm.</span></h4>

<p>In Mr. Andrew Lang’s delightful <i>Custom and Myth</i> he says that he
once met at dinner a lady who carried a <i>stolen</i> potato about with her
as a cure for rheumatism. The potato must be stolen, or the charm
would not work.</p>

<p>A small piece of beef, if <i>stolen</i> from a butcher, is supposed by some
persons to charm away warts.</p>

<hr class="chap" />
<div class="chapter"></div>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_267">267</span></p>


<h2 id="BOOK_IV">BOOK IV.<br />

<small><i>CELTIC, TEUTONIC, AND MEDIÆVAL MEDICINE.</i></small></h2>

<hr class="chap" />
<div class="chapter"></div>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_269">269</span></p>




<h3 id="CHAPTERIV_I">CHAPTER I.<br />

<small>MEDICINE OF THE DRUIDS, TEUTONS, ANGLO-SAXONS, AND WELSH.</small></h3>

<blockquote>

<p>Origin of the Druid Religion.—Druid Medicine.—Their Magic.—Teutonic Medicine.—Gods
of Healing.—Elves.—The Elements.—Anglo-Saxon Leechcraft.—The
Leech-book.—Monastic Leechdoms.—Superstitions.—Welsh Medicine.—The
Triads.—Welsh Druidism.—The Laws of the Court Physicians.—Welsh Medical
Maxims.—Welsh Medical and Surgical Practice and Fees.</p></blockquote>


<h4><span class="smcap">Medicine of the Druids.</span></h4>

<p>The learned men of the Celto-Britannic regions were called Druids.
They were the judges, legislators, priests, and physicians, and corresponded
to the Magi of the ancient Persians and Chaldæans of Syria.
The etymology of the name is uncertain. The old derivation from δρῦσ,
an oak, is considered fanciful, and that from the Irish <i>draoi</i>, <i>druidh</i> =
a magician, an augur, is by some authorities preferred. It is probable
that they derived their knowledge from association with Greek colonists
of Marseilles, as such writing as they used was in Greek characters, and
they taught the doctrine of the immortality of the soul and a philosophy
which Diodorus Siculus says was similar to that of the teaching of
Pythagoras. Clement of Alexandria compared their religion to Shamanism.
Whatever it was, it did not differ probably very widely from
other systems which pretended to put its priests in direct communication
with gods and demons. Its priests, says Sprengel, were simply
impostors who pretended to exclusive knowledge of medicine and other
sciences. Their women practised sorcery and divination, but by their
medical skill were able to afford great assistance to the wounded in war.
Plants were collected and magical properties ascribed to them. Lying-in
women sought the aid of these Druidesses, who seem to have been
wise women, somewhat after the character of gypsies. Mela says these
women were called Senæ. They pretended to cure the most incurable
diseases and to raise tempests by their incantations.<a id="FNanchor_611_611" href="#Footnote_611_611" class="fnanchor">611</a> The Druids communicated
their knowledge to initiates only, and they celebrated their
mystic rites under groves of oaks. Whatever grew on that tree was
considered a divine gift; their highest veneration was reserved for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_270">270</span>
the mistletoe, which they called All-Heal, and which they considered
a panacea for all diseases. Three other plants, called <i>Selago</i>, a kind
of club-moss, or perhaps hedge-hyssop, <i>Samulus</i>, the brookweed or
winter cress, and Vervain, were held to be sacred plants. The mistletoe
must be gathered fasting, the gatherer must not look backward
while doing it, and he must take it with his left hand. The branches
and herbs were immersed in water, and the infusion then became
possessed of the property of preserving the drinkers from disease.
When the Selago and Vervain were gathered, a white garment was
worn, sacrifices of bread and wine were offered, and the gatherer,
having covered his hand with the skirt of his robe, cut up the herbs
with a hook made of a metal more precious than iron, placed it in a
clean cloth, and preserved it as a charm against misfortunes and
accidents.<a id="FNanchor_612_612" href="#Footnote_612_612" class="fnanchor">612</a></p>

<p>Strutt says: “Faint is the light thrown upon the methods pursued by
the Druids in preparing their medicines. Some few hints, it is true, we
meet with, of their extracting the juice of herbs, their bruising and steeping
them in water, infusing them in wine, boiling them and making
fumes from them, and the like; it also appears that they were not ignorant
of making salves and ointments from vegetables.”<a id="FNanchor_613_613" href="#Footnote_613_613" class="fnanchor">613</a></p>

<p>In Britain the magical juggles, ceremonies, and rites were carried to a
greater excess than in any other Celtic nation. They made a great
mystery of their learning, their seminaries were held in groves and
forests and the caverns of the earth.<a id="FNanchor_614_614" href="#Footnote_614_614" class="fnanchor">614</a> Strutt thinks that their alphabet
was derived from the Greek merchants, who came frequently to the
island. Pliny says that the ancient Britons were much addicted to the
arts of divination.<a id="FNanchor_615_615" href="#Footnote_615_615" class="fnanchor">615</a> Diodorus Siculus describes one of their methods.
“They take a man who is to be sacrificed and kill him with one stroke
of a sword above the diaphragm; and by observing the posture in which
he falls, his different convulsions, and the direction in which the blood
flows from his body, they form their predictions, according to certain
rules which have been left them by their ancestors.”<a id="FNanchor_616_616" href="#Footnote_616_616" class="fnanchor">616</a></p>

<p>Strutt says:<a id="FNanchor_617_617" href="#Footnote_617_617" class="fnanchor">617</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_271">271</span> “The people were the more particularly inclined to
make application to them for relief, because they thought that all
internal diseases proceeded from the anger of the gods, and therefore
none could be so proper to make intercession for them as the priest of
those very deities from whom their afflictions came; for this cause also
they offered sacrifices when sick; and if dangerously ill, the better to
prevail upon the gods to restore them to health, a man was slain and
sacrificed upon their altars.” The custom of human sacrifices doubtless
afforded the Druids some knowledge of human anatomy. Their surgery
was of a simple but useful character, and had to do principally with
setting broken bones, reducing dislocations, and healing wounds; all
this, of course, combined with magical ceremonies.<a id="FNanchor_618_618" href="#Footnote_618_618" class="fnanchor">618</a></p>

<p>Pliny refers to the magical practices of the Druids, and states that the
Emperor Tiberius put them down, “and all that tribe of wizards and
physicians.”<a id="FNanchor_619_619" href="#Footnote_619_619" class="fnanchor">619</a> He adds that they crossed the ocean and “penetrated to
the void recesses of Nature,” as he calls Britannia. There, he tells us,
they still cultivated the magic art, and that with fascinations and ceremonials
so august that Persia might almost seem to have communicated
it direct to Britain. “The worship of the stars, lakes, forests, and rivers,
the ceremonials used in cutting the plants Samiolus, Selago, and Mistletoe,
and the virtues attributed to the adder’s egg,” are thought by
Ajasson to indicate the connection between the superstitions of ancient
Britain and those of Persia.<a id="FNanchor_620_620" href="#Footnote_620_620" class="fnanchor">620</a></p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Medicine of the Teutons.</span></h4>

<p>The Goths and other German peoples were from early times brought
into relationship with the Romans, and had acquired some of the advantages
of their civilization.</p>

<p>Originally their medical notions were not dissimilar to those of other
barbaric nations. On the one hand, there was the belief in disease as
the manifestation of the anger of supernatural beings who could be propitiated
by prayers and magic rites; while on the other, the use of medicinal
plants and the ministrations of old women were not less prominent.
Tacitus points out the important part played by the women in the life
of the Germans, and the good influence they exerted as nurses to the
sick.</p>

<p>The Roman general Agricola, who was in Britain from <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 78-84,
induced the noblemen’s sons to learn the liberal sciences.<a id="FNanchor_621_621" href="#Footnote_621_621" class="fnanchor">621</a> They must
have acquired some knowledge of Greek and Roman medicine.</p>

<p>In the earliest ages, says Baas,<a id="FNanchor_622_622" href="#Footnote_622_622" class="fnanchor">622</a> women only seem to have practised<span class="pagenum" id="Page_272">272</span>
medicine among the Germans and Celts. Medicine was deemed a profession
unworthy of men, and it is not till the twelfth century that physicians
are spoken of. Probably old women or Druidesses in ancient
times were the only doctors of these peoples. Puschmann says that the
Norwegians had a number of highly paid doctors in the tenth century,
and that already a medical tax existed.<a id="FNanchor_623_623" href="#Footnote_623_623" class="fnanchor">623</a></p>

<p>In the time of the Vikings wounds were well attended to, amputations
performed, and wooden legs were not uncommon. “Mention,” says
Puschmann, “is also made of the operation called gastroraphy” (or sewing
up a wound of the belly or some of its contents);<a id="FNanchor_624_624" href="#Footnote_624_624" class="fnanchor">624</a> lithotomy was
performed successfully.</p>

<p>Wodan is the all-pervading creative and formative power who gives
shape and beauty, wealth, prosperity, and all highest blessings to men.<a id="FNanchor_625_625" href="#Footnote_625_625" class="fnanchor">625</a></p>

<p>Eir was the goddess of physicians; Odin was a doctor; Brunhilda
was a doctoress.</p>

<p>The ancient German nations offered to the gods sacrifices of human
food, which they believed they enjoyed. These sacrifices were offered
as thanksgivings or to appease their anger. When a famine or a pestilence
appeared amongst the people, they concluded that the gods were
angry, and they proceeded to propitiate them with gifts.<a id="FNanchor_626_626" href="#Footnote_626_626" class="fnanchor">626</a></p>

<p>Animal and especially human sacrifices had the most binding and
atoning power.<a id="FNanchor_627_627" href="#Footnote_627_627" class="fnanchor">627</a></p>

<p>The Teutonic elves are good-natured, helpful beings. They fetch
goodwives, midwives, to assist she-dwarfs in labour, and have much
knowledge of occult healing virtues in plants and stones.<a id="FNanchor_628_628" href="#Footnote_628_628" class="fnanchor">628</a> But elves
sometimes do mischief to men. Their touch and their breath may bring
sickness or death on man and beast. Lamed cattle are said in Norway
to be bewitched by them, and their avenging hand makes men silly or
half-witted.<a id="FNanchor_629_629" href="#Footnote_629_629" class="fnanchor">629</a></p>

<p>Teutonic peoples have always had great faith in the normal influence
of pure water.</p>

<p>The Germans believed in the magical properties of water hallowed at
midnight of the day of baptism. Such water they called <i>heilawâc</i>. They
believed it to have a wonderful power of healing diseases and wounds,
and of never spoiling.<a id="FNanchor_630_630" href="#Footnote_630_630" class="fnanchor">630</a> The salt which is added to holy water in the
church will account for its keeping properties. But it is in medicinal
springs, such as are called Heilbrunn, Heilborn, Heiligenbrunnen, that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_273">273</span>
Teutonic faith has always exhibited the strongest devotion. Sacrifices,
says Grimm, were offered at such springs. When the Wetterau
people begin a new jug of chalybeate water, they always spill a few
drops first on the ground. Grimm thinks this was originally a libation
to the fountain sprite.<a id="FNanchor_631_631" href="#Footnote_631_631" class="fnanchor">631</a> The Christians replaced water-sprites by
saints.</p>

<p>Fire was regularly worshipped, and there are many superstitions still
existing which point to this phase of Teutonic religion. “The Esthonians
throw gifts into fire, as well as into water. To pacify the flame
they sacrifice a fowl to it.”<a id="FNanchor_632_632" href="#Footnote_632_632" class="fnanchor">632</a> Sulphur has always had an evil reputation.
Murrain amongst cattle could only be got rid of by a Needfire. On the
day appointed for banishing the pest, there must in no house be any
flame left on the hearth, but a new fire must be kindled by friction after
the manner of savages.<a id="FNanchor_633_633" href="#Footnote_633_633" class="fnanchor">633</a></p>

<p>Teutonic children born with a caul about their head are believed to
be lucky children. The membrane is carefully treasured, and sometimes
worn round the babe as an amulet. The Icelanders imagine that the
child’s guardian spirit resides in it; midwives are careful not to injure it,
but bury it under the threshold. If any one throws it away, he deprives
the child of its guardian spirit.<a id="FNanchor_634_634" href="#Footnote_634_634" class="fnanchor">634</a></p>


<p><span class="smcap">Anglo-Saxon Medicine.</span></p>

<p>It is difficult to discover what was the state of learning existing
amongst the ancient Saxons before their conversion to Christianity.
We know that soon after this event schools were established in Kent,
with such good results that Sigebert (<span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 635) established seminaries on
the same plan in his own dominions. After this, as Bede informs us,
there flourished a great number of learned men.<a id="FNanchor_635_635" href="#Footnote_635_635" class="fnanchor">635</a></p>

<p>Theodore, Archbishop of Canterbury, came over into Britain <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 669,
and did much to improve the learning of the country. He was accompanied
by many professors of science, one of whom, the monk Adrian,
instructed a great number of students in the sciences, especially teaching
the art of medicine and establishing rules for preserving the health.<a id="FNanchor_636_636" href="#Footnote_636_636" class="fnanchor">636</a>
Aldhelm, who according to Bede was a man of great erudition and was
“wonderfully well acquainted with books,” very greatly contributed to the
spread of education.</p>

<p>The state of medicine in England in Anglo-Saxon times is said by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_274">274</span>
Strutt<a id="FNanchor_637_637" href="#Footnote_637_637" class="fnanchor">637</a> to have been very degraded. Medicine consisted chiefly of
nostrums which had been handed down from one age to another, and
their administration was usually accompanied with whimsical rites and
ceremonies, to which the success was often in a great measure attributed.
The most ignorant persons practised the profession, and particularly old
women, who were supposed to be the most expert and were in high repute
amongst the Anglo-Saxons. After the establishment of Christianity the
clergy succeeded to the business carried on by the ancient dames, and
it must be admitted that the superstitious element in their treatment of
disease was not less prominent than in that of their venerable predecessors.
Bede says<a id="FNanchor_638_638" href="#Footnote_638_638" class="fnanchor">638</a> that Theodore, Archbishop of Canterbury, taught
that “It is very dangerous to let blood on the fourth day of the moon,
because both the light of the moon and the tides are upon the increase.”
Before any medicine could be administered, fortunate and unfortunate
times, the changes of the moon and appearance of the planets, had to be
considered.</p>

<p>Many medicinal books were amongst those which Ælfred the Great
caused to be translated into the Saxon tongue. Some of them were embellished
with illustrations of herbs, etc., so that about the tenth century
some knowledge of medicine was diffused, and Strutt thinks there
may have been persons whose only profession was medicine and surgery,
besides the ecclesiastics who practised these arts, before the close of the
Saxon government.<a id="FNanchor_639_639" href="#Footnote_639_639" class="fnanchor">639</a></p>

<p>The Anglo-Saxons, even after their conversion to Christianity, retained
much of the superstition of their ancestors; they placed faith in astrology,
and had some acquaintance with astronomy, which they obtained from
the Romans, from whom they learned most of the arts and sciences.
They had a good knowledge of botany, and their MS. were embellished
with excellent drawings of the herbs and plants.<a id="FNanchor_640_640" href="#Footnote_640_640" class="fnanchor">640</a></p>

<p>Theodore brought with him a large collection of books, and set up
schools in Kent, where many students were instructed in the sciences
and the knowledge and application of medicine and the rules for the
preservation of the health.<a id="FNanchor_641_641" href="#Footnote_641_641" class="fnanchor">641</a></p>

<p>The Rev. Oswald Cockayne has given us, in his translation of the
Saxon <i>Leech Book</i>, a very curious and interesting citation from Helias,
Patriarch of Jerusalem, who wrote to King Ælfred in answer to his
request to be furnished with some good recipes from the Holy Land:</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_275">275</span></p>

<p>“Patriarch Helias sends these to King Ælfred:<a id="FNanchor_642_642" href="#Footnote_642_642" class="fnanchor">642</a>__</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>“So much as may weigh a penny and a half, rub very small, then add
the white of an egg, and give it to the man to sip. It (<i>balsam</i>) is also
very good in this wise for cough and for carbuncle, apply this wort,
soon shall the man be hole. This is smearing with balsam for all
infirmities which are on a man’s body, against fever, and against apparitions,
and against all delusions. Similarly also petroleum is good to drink
simple for inward tenderness, and to smear on outwardly on a winter’s
day, since it hath very much heat; hence one shall drink it in winter;
and it is good if for any one his speech faileth, then let him take it, and
make the mark of Christ under his tongue, and swallow a little of it.
Also if a man become out of his wits, then let him take part of it, and
make Christ’s mark on every limb, except the cross upon the forehead,
that shall be of balsam, and the other <i>also</i> on the top of the head.
Triacle (θηριακόν) is a good drink for all inward tendernesses, and the
man, who so behaveth himself as is here said, he may much help himself.
On the day on which he will drink <i>Triacle</i>, he shall fast until
midday, and not let the wind blow on him that day: then let him go to
the bath, let him sit there till he sweat; then let him take a cup, and put
a little warm water in it, then let him take a little bit of the triacle, and
mingle with the water, and drain through some thin raiment, then drink
it, and let him then go to his bed and wrap himself up warm, and so lie
till he sweat well; then let him arise and sit up and clothe himself, and
then take his meat at noon, and protect himself earnestly against the
wind that day; then, I believe to God, that it may help the man much.
The white stone is powerful against stitch, and against flying venom, and
against all strange calamities; thou shalt shave it into water and drink
a good mickle, and shave thereto a portion of the red earth, and the
stones are all very good to drink of, against all strange uncouth things.
When the fire is struck out of the stone, it is good against lightenings
and against thunders, and against delusion of every kind; and if a man
in his way is gone astray, let him strike himself a spark before him. He
will soon be in the right way. All this Dominus Helias, Patriarch at
Jerusalem, ordered <i>one</i> to say to King Ælfred.” Mr. Cockayne tells us
in his preface<a id="FNanchor_643_643" href="#Footnote_643_643" class="fnanchor">643</a> that Helias sent Alfred<span class="pagenum" id="Page_276">276</span> “a recommendation of
scammony, which is the juice of a Syrian convolvulus, of gutta
ammoniacum,<a id="FNanchor_644_644" href="#Footnote_644_644" class="fnanchor">644</a> of spices, of gum dragon, of aloes, of galbanum, of
balsam, of petroleum, of the famous Greek compound preparation called
θηριακή and of the magic virtues of alabaster. These drugs are good
in themselves, and such as a resident in Syria would naturally recommend
to others.” This very singular and instructive fact concerning
King Ælfred is one of the most interesting things in Mr. Cockayne’s
valuable work.</p>

<p>As to the age of the MS., the translator sets it down about <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 900.
The sources of the information he ascribes to Oxa, Dun, and Helias;
there is a mixture of the Hibernian and Scandinavian elements also.
Some of the prescriptions are traceable to Latin writers, and large
extracts are made from the Greek physicians. Paulus Ægineta is responsible
for the long passage on hiccupings (or Hicket, as the <i>Leech Book</i>
calls the malady), as chapter xviii. is almost identical with Paulus Ægin.,
lib. ii. sect. 57. Mr. Cockayne thinks that the number of passages the
Saxon drew from the Greek would make perhaps one-fourth of the first
two books. Whether they came direct from the Greek manuscripts or
at second hand as quotations, it is not possible to say. Quoting M.
Brechillet Jourdain,<a id="FNanchor_645_645" href="#Footnote_645_645" class="fnanchor">645</a> Mr. Cockayne says that it is shown that the wise
men of the Middle Ages long before the invention of printing possessed
Latin translations of Aristotle; there is every probability, therefore, that
they would be familiar with the works of the Greek physicians. Some
of them could translate Greek. If an Italian or Frenchman could
acquire Greek and turn it into Latin, a Saxon might do as much. Bede
and his disciples could certainly have done so. Bede says that Tobias,
Bishop of Rochester, was as familiar with the Greek and Latin languages
as with his own. “It appears, therefore,” concludes Mr. Cockayne,
“that the leeches of the Angles and Saxons had the means, by personal
industry or by the aid of others, of arriving at a competent knowledge
of the contents of the works of the Greek medical writers. Here, in
this volume, the results are visible. They keep, for the most part, to
the diagnosis and the theory; they go back in the prescriptions to the
easier remedies; for whether in Galen or others, there was a chapter on
the εὐπόριστα, the ‘parabilia,’ the resources of country practitioners,
and of course, even now, expensive medicines are not prescribed for
poor patients.”<a id="FNanchor_646_646" href="#Footnote_646_646" class="fnanchor">646</a></p>

<p>In the very valuable Saxon Leechdoms<a id="FNanchor_647_647" href="#Footnote_647_647" class="fnanchor">647</a> we have an excellent account
of the state of medicine as practised in England before the Norman
Conquest. The <i>Leech Book</i> (Læce Boc)<a id="FNanchor_648_648" href="#Footnote_648_648" class="fnanchor">648</a> is a treatise on medicine
which probably belonged to the abbey of Glastonbury. The manu<span class="pagenum" id="Page_277">277</span>script,
thinks Mr. Cockayne, belonged to one Bald, a monk. The
book, says the editor, is learned in a literary sense, but not in a professional,
for it does not really advance man’s knowledge of disease or of
cures. He may have been a physician, he was certainly a lover of
books—“nulla mihi tam cara est optima gaza quam cari libri.” The
work seems to imply that there was a school of medicine among the
Saxons. In the first book, p. 120, we read that “Oxa taught us this
leechdom”; in the second book, p. 293, we are told concerning a leechdom
for lung disease that “Dun taught it”; again we find “some
teach us.” So far as book learning was concerned, there was certainly a
sort of medical teaching. It was perhaps merely taken from the Greek
by means of a Latin translation of Trallianus, Paulus of Ægina, and
Philagrios. As examples of reasonable treatment take that for hare-lip
(or hair-lip as in the text): “Pound mastic very small, add the white of
an egg, and mingle as thou dost vermilion, cut with a knife the false
edges of the lip, sew fast with silk, then smear without and within with
the salve, ere the silk rot. If it draw together, arrange it with the hand,
anoint again soon.”<a id="FNanchor_649_649" href="#Footnote_649_649" class="fnanchor">649</a></p>

<p>Against pediculi quicksilver and old butter are to be mingled together
in a mortar, and the resulting salve to be applied to the body. This is
precisely the mercurial ointment of modern pharmacy used for the same
purpose.</p>

<p>Religion, magic, and medicine were oddly mixed up by our Saxon
forefathers. Thus the <i>Leech Book</i> tells us<a id="FNanchor_650_650" href="#Footnote_650_650" class="fnanchor">650</a> for the “dry” disease we
should “delve about sour ompre (i.e. <i>sorrel dock</i>), sing thrice the Pater
noster, jerk it up, then while thou sayest sed libera nos a malo, take five
slices of it and seven peppercorns, bray them together, and while thou
be working it, sing twelve times the psalm Miserere mei, Deus, and
Gloria in excelsis deo, and the Pater noster; then pour the stuff all over
with wine, when day and night divide, then drink the dose and wrap
thyself up warm.” Here is an exorcism for fever. “A man shall write this
upon the sacramental paten, and wash it off into the drink with holy
water, and sing over it.... In the beginning, etc. (John i. 1).
Then wash the writing with holy water off the dish into the drink, then
sing the Credo, and the Paternoster, and this lay, Beati immaculati, the
psalm (cxix.), with the twelve prayer psalms, I adjure you, etc. And
let each of the two<a id="FNanchor_651_651" href="#Footnote_651_651" class="fnanchor">651</a> then sip thrice of the water so prepared.”<a id="FNanchor_652_652" href="#Footnote_652_652" class="fnanchor">652</a> The
demon theory of disease was still in force; even at Glastonbury we find
the following exorcism:<a id="FNanchor_653_653" href="#Footnote_653_653" class="fnanchor">653</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_278">278</span> “For a fiend sick man, when a devil possesses
the man or controls him from within with disease; a spew drink, lupin,
bishopwort, henbane, cropleek; pound <i>these</i> together, add ale for a
liquid, let stand for a night, add fifty libcorns (or <i>cathartic grains</i>), and
holy water. A drink for a fiend sick man, to be drunk out of church
bell.”<a id="FNanchor_654_654" href="#Footnote_654_654" class="fnanchor">654</a></p>

<p>“Githrife, cynoglossum, yarrow, lupin, betony, attorlothe, cassock,
flower de luce, fennel, church lichen, lichen, of Christ’s mark or crosse,
lovage; work up the drink off clear ale, sing seven masses over the
worts, add garlic and holy water, and drip the drink into every drink
which he will subsequently drink, and let him sing the psalm, Beati
immaculati, and Exurgat, and Salvum me fac, Deus,<a id="FNanchor_655_655" href="#Footnote_655_655" class="fnanchor">655</a> and then let him
drink the drink out of a church bell, and let the mass priest after the
drink sing this over him: Domine, sancte pater omnipotens.”<a id="FNanchor_656_656" href="#Footnote_656_656" class="fnanchor">656</a> Again,
“For the phrenzied; bishopwort, lupin, bonewort, everfern,<a id="FNanchor_657_657" href="#Footnote_657_657" class="fnanchor">657</a> githrife,
elecampane; when day and night divide, then sing thou in the church
litanies, that is, the names of the hallows or saints, and the Paternoster;
with the song go thou, that thou mayest be near the worts
and go thrice about them, and when thou takest them go again to
church with the same song, and sing twelve masses over them, and over
all the drinks which belong to the disease, in honour of the twelve
apostles.”<a id="FNanchor_658_658" href="#Footnote_658_658" class="fnanchor">658</a></p>

<p>The <i>Leech Book</i> has “a salve against nocturnal goblin visitors,” a
remedy “against a woman’s chatter,” which is to go to bed, having
eaten only a root of radish; “that day the chatter cannot harm
thee.”<a id="FNanchor_659_659" href="#Footnote_659_659" class="fnanchor">659</a> Red niolin, a plant which grows by running water, if put under
the bolster, will prevent the devil from scathing a man within or without.
There is “a lithe drink against a devil and dementedness,” and a cure
for a man who is “overlooked.”</p>

<p>If the man’s face is turned toward the doctor when he enters the
sick room, “then he may live; if his face be turned from thee, have
thou nothing to do with him.” “In case a man be lunatic, take of a
mere-swine or porpoise, work it into a whip, swinge the man therewith;
soon he will be well. Amen.”<a id="FNanchor_660_660" href="#Footnote_660_660" class="fnanchor">660</a></p>

<p>A salve against temptation of the devil contains many herbs, must have
nine masses said over it, and must be set under the altar for a while;
then it is very good for every temptation of the fiend, and for a man full
of elfin tricks, and for typhus fever.<a id="FNanchor_661_661" href="#Footnote_661_661" class="fnanchor">661</a></p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_279">279</span></p>

<p>Cancer is to be cured with goat’s gall and honey. Our forefathers
made very light of such trifles as cancer and lunacy, it will be perceived.
Joint pains (rheumatism) are cured by singing over them, “Malignus
obligavit; angelus curavit; dominus salvavit,” and then spitting on the
joints. “It will soon be well with him,” adds the Saxon leech, in his
usual cheery manner.<a id="FNanchor_662_662" href="#Footnote_662_662" class="fnanchor">662</a> Pepper is to be chewed for the toothache; “it
will soon be well with them.” Horrible applications of pepper, salt, and
vinegar were recommended to be applied to sore eyes. If the eyes were
swollen, “take a live crab, put his eyes out, and put him alive again
into the water, and put the eyes on the neck of the man who hath need;
he will soon be well.”</p>

<p>There are light drinks “against the devil and want of memory,” “for
a wild heart,” and “pain of the maw.” There is treatment for the bite
of “a gangwayweaving spider,” and remedies in case a woman cannot
“kindle a child.” Neuralgia and megrims are not the new disorders
they are generally supposed to be, as we find remedies “for headache,
and for old headache, and for ache of half of the head.”</p>

<p>“Poison” was lightly treated with holy water and herbs. Snake-bite
was cured with ear-wax and a collect. For bite of an adder you said
one word “Faul”; “it may not hurt him.” “Against bite of snake, if
the man procures and eateth rind which cometh out of paradise, no
venom will damage him. Then said he that wrote this book that the
rind was hard gotten.” If, by chance, one drank a creeping thing in
water, he was to cut into a sheep instantly and drink the sheep’s blood
hot. Lest a man tire with much travelling over land, he must take mugwort
and put it into his shoe, saying, as he pulls up the root, “I will
take thee, artemisia, lest I be weary on the way;” and having taken it,
he must sign it with the sign of the cross.</p>

<p>“Over the whole face of Europe, while the old Hellenic school survived
in Arabia, the next to hand resource became the established
remedy, and the searching incision of the practised anatomist was replaced
by a droning song.”<a id="FNanchor_663_663" href="#Footnote_663_663" class="fnanchor">663</a></p>

<p>Such medical learning as existed amongst the Angles, Saxons, and
Goths was found only in a corrupted state in the monasteries. As we
have seen, the herbal remedies were, for the most, useless or worse, and
the treatment was so intermingled with magic ceremonies and religious
superstitious uses, that Greek science, so far as it related to the healing
art, was all but smothered by absurdities.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_280">280</span></p>
<p>“The Saxon leeches were unable to use the catheter, the searching
knife, and the lithotrite; they knew nothing of the Indian drugs, and
were almost wholly thrown back on the lancet wherewith to let blood,
and the simples from the field and garden.”<a id="FNanchor_664_664" href="#Footnote_664_664" class="fnanchor">664</a></p>

<p>“For a very old headache” one must “seek in the maw of young
swallows for some little stones, and mind that they touch neither earth,
nor water, nor other stones; look out three of them, put them on the
man; he will soon be well. They are good for head ache and for eye
wark, and for the fiend’s temptations, and for the night mare, and for
knot, and for fascination, and for evil enchantments by song.”<a id="FNanchor_665_665" href="#Footnote_665_665" class="fnanchor">665</a></p>

<p>As a specimen of a regular Anglo-Saxon prescription, take the following,
as given in the MS. Cott.: Vitellius; c. 3:—</p>

<p>For the foot-adle (the gout), “Take the herb datulus, or titulosa,
which we call greater crauleac—tuberose isis. Take the heads of it and
dry them very much, and take thereof a pennyweight and a half, and
the pear tree and Roman bark, and cummin, and a fourth part of laurel-berries,
and of the other herbs half a pennyweight of each, and six peppercorns,
and grind all to dust, and put two egg-shells full of wine. This
is true leechcraft. Give it the man till he be well.”</p>

<p>Venesection was in use, but it must have often done more harm than
good, as its use was regulated, not so much by the necessities of the
case as by the season and courses of the moon. Bede gives a long list
of times when bleeding was forbidden. In the Cottonian library there
is a Saxon MS., which tells us that the second, third, fifth, sixth, ninth,
eleventh, fifteenth, seventeenth, and twentieth days of the month are bad
for bleeding.</p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Medicine of the Welsh.</span></h4>

<p>The Welsh claim that medicine was practised as one of “the nine
rural arts,” by the ancient Cymry, before they became possessed of
cities and a sovereignty, that is, before the time of Prydain ab Ædd
Mawr, that is to say, about a thousand years before the Christian era.<a id="FNanchor_666_666" href="#Footnote_666_666" class="fnanchor">666</a></p>

<p>As in other nations of antiquity, the practice of medicine was in the
hands of the priests, the <span class="smcap">Gwyddoniaid</span>, or men of knowledge: they were
the depositaries of such wisdom as existed in the land, and they practised
almost entirely by means of herbs. The science of plants was one
of the three sciences, the others being theology and astronomy.<a id="FNanchor_667_667" href="#Footnote_667_667" class="fnanchor">667</a></p>

<p>In the following Triad (one of the poetical histories of the Welsh
bards) we learn that,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_281">281</span>—“The three pillars of knowledge, with which the
Gwyddoniaid were acquainted, and which they bore in memory from
the beginning: the first was a knowledge of Divine things, and of such
matters as appertain to the worship of God and the homage due to
goodness; the second, a knowledge of the course of the stars, their
names and kinds, and the order of times; the third, a knowledge of the
names and use of the herbs of the field, and of their application in practice,
in medicine, and in religious worship. These were preserved in
the memorials of vocal song, and in the memorials of times, before there
were bards of degree and chair.”<a id="FNanchor_668_668" href="#Footnote_668_668" class="fnanchor">668</a></p>

<p>The Welsh do not appear to have had any gods of medicine or to have
pretended to derive their knowledge of the healing art from any divinities.
In the reign of Prydian the Gwyddoniaid were divided into three orders,
Bards, Druids, and Ovates. The Ovates occupied themselves especially
with the natural sciences. In the Laws of Dyvnwal Moelmud, “medicine,
commerce, and navigation” were termed “the three civil arts.”<a id="FNanchor_669_669" href="#Footnote_669_669" class="fnanchor">669</a></p>

<p>This legislator lived about the year 430 <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>, at which early period
it would seem that the art of medicine was encouraged and protected
by the State.<a id="FNanchor_670_670" href="#Footnote_670_670" class="fnanchor">670</a></p>

<p>As Hippocrates lived 400 <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>, it has been thought possible that the
British Ovates may have learned something of his teaching from the
Phoceans, who traded between Marseilles and Britain. Later we have
proof that the physicians of Myddvai held the Father of Medicine in
great esteem.</p>

<p>It is customary amongst the English to ridicule the pretensions of the
Welsh to the high antiquity of their knowledge of the arts and sciences,
but classical writers bear witness to the wisdom and learning of the
Druids. Strabo speaks of their knowledge of physiology. Cicero was
acquainted with one of the Gallic Druids, who was called Divitiacus the
Æduan, and claimed to have a thorough knowledge of the laws of
nature. Pliny mentions the plants used as medicines by the Druids,
such as the mistletoe, called <i>Oll iach, omnia sanantem</i>, or “All heal,”
the selago (<i>Lycopodium selago</i>, or Upright Fir Moss), and the Samolus
or marshwort (<i>Samolus valerandi</i>, or Water Pimpernel).<a id="FNanchor_671_671" href="#Footnote_671_671" class="fnanchor">671</a></p>

<p>One of the Medical Triads in the Llanover MS. is that by Taliesin;
it runs thus:—</p>

<p>“There are three intractable substantial organs: the liver, the kidney,
and the heart.</p>

<p>“There are three intractable membranes: the dura mater, the peritoneum,
and the urinary bladder.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_282">282</span></p>
<p>“There are three tedious complaints: disease of the knee joint,
disease of the substance of a rib, and phthysis; for when purulent matter
has formed in one of these, it is not known when it will get well.”</p>

<p>Howel Dda (or the good) in the year 930 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> compiled the following
laws of the Court Physician:—</p>

<p>“Of the mediciner of the household, his office, his privilege, and his
duty, this treats.</p>

<p>1. The twelfth is the mediciner of the household.</p>

<p>2. He is to have his land free: his horse in attendance: and his
linen clothing from the queen, and his woollen clothing from the king.</p>

<p>3. His seat in the hall within the palace is at the base of the pillar
to which the screen is attached, near which the king sits.</p>

<p>4. His lodging is with the chief of the household.</p>

<p>5. His protection is, from the time the king shall command him to
visit a wounded or sick person, whether the person be in the palace or
out of it, until he quit him, to convey away an offender.</p>

<p>6. He is to administer medicine gratuitously to all within the palace,
and to the chief of the household; and he is to have nothing from them
except their bloody clothes, unless it be for one of the three dangerous
wounds, as mentioned before; these are a stroke on the head unto the
brain; a stroke in the body unto the bowels; and the breaking of one
of the four limbs; for every one of these three dangerous wounds the
mediciner is to have nine score pence and his food, or one pound without
his food, and also the bloody clothes.</p>

<p>7. The mediciner is to have, when he shall apply a tent, twenty-four
pence.</p>

<p>8. For an application of red ointment, twelve pence.</p>

<p>9. For an application of herbs to a swelling, four legal pence.</p>

<p>10. For letting blood, fourpence.</p>

<p>11. His food daily is worth one penny half-penny.</p>

<p>12. His light every night is worth one legal penny.</p>

<p>13. The worth of a medical man is one penny.</p>

<p>14. The mediciner is to take an indemnification from the kindred
of the wounded person, in case he die from the remedy he may use,
and if he do not take it, let him answer for the deed.</p>

<p>15. He is to accompany the armies.</p>

<p>16. He is never to leave the palace, but with the king’s permission.</p>

<p>17. His saraad is six kine, and six score of silver, to be augmented.</p>

<p>18. His worth is six score and six kine, to be augmented.”</p>

<p>Elsewhere we meet with the following particulars:—</p>

<p>“Of the three conspicuous scars this is:</p>

<p>“There are three conspicuous scars: one upon the face; another upon
the foot; and another upon the hand; thirty pence upon the foot;
three-score pence upon the hand; six-score pence on the face. Every
unexposed scar, fourpence. The cranium, fourpence.”<a id="FNanchor_672_672" href="#Footnote_672_672" class="fnanchor">672</a></p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_283">283</span></p>

<p>“For every broken bone, twenty pence; unless there be a dispute as
to its diminutiveness; and if there be a dispute as to the size, let the
mediciner take a brass basin, and let him place his elbow upon the
ground, and his hand over the basin, and if its sound be heard, let four
legal pence be paid; and if it be not heard, nothing is due.”<a id="FNanchor_673_673" href="#Footnote_673_673" class="fnanchor">673</a></p>

<p>This singular test is explained in another passage, thus:—</p>

<p>“Four curt pennies are to be paid to a person for every bone taken
from the upper part of the cranium, which shall sound on falling into
a copper basin.”<a id="FNanchor_674_674" href="#Footnote_674_674" class="fnanchor">674</a></p>

<p>A very curious regulation was that if the physician got drunk and
anybody insulted him, he could claim no recompense, because “he knew
not at what time the king might want his assistance.”</p>

<p>The physicians of Myddvai flourished in the time of Rhys Gryg in
the early part of the thirteenth century. His domestic physician was
Rhiwallon, who was assisted by his three sons Cadwgan, Gruffydd, and
Einion. They lived at Myddvai, in the present county of Caermarthen.
By command of the prince, these physicians made a collection of the
most valuable prescriptions for the treatment of the various diseases of
the human body. This collection was not reduced to writing previously,
though many of the recipes were no doubt in use some centuries
before. The original manuscript is in the British Museum, and there is
a copy in Jesus College, Oxford, in the <i>Red Book</i>, which has been
published with an English translation by the Welsh MSS. Society.<a id="FNanchor_675_675" href="#Footnote_675_675" class="fnanchor">675</a>
The descendants of this family of physicians continued to practise
medicine without intermission until the middle of the last century. This
most interesting volume also contains a second portion, which purports
to be a compilation by Howel the physician, son of Rhys, son of
Llewelyn, son of Philip the physician, a lineal descendant of Einion the
son of Rhiwallon. Some medical prescriptions assumed the form of
proverbs such as the following:—</p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Medical Maxims.</span></h4>

<p class="center">(<i>From the Book of Iago ab Dewi.</i>)</p>

<p>“He who goes to sleep supperless will have no need of Rhiwallon of
Myddvai.</p>

<p>A supper of apples—breakfast of nuts.</p>

<p>A cold mouth and warm feet will live long.</p>

<p>To the fish market in the morning, to the butcher’s shop in the afternoon.</p>

<p>Cold water and warm bread will make an unhealthy stomach.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_284">284</span></p>

<p>The three qualities of water: it will produce no sickness, no debt,
and no widowhood.</p>

<p>To eat eggs without salt will bring on sickness.</p>

<p>It is no insult to deprive an old man of his supper.</p>

<p>An eel in a pie, lampreys in salt.</p>

<p>An ague or fever at the fall of the leaf is always of long continuance,
or else is fatal.</p>

<p>A kid a month old—a lamb three months.</p>

<p>Dry feet, moist tongue.</p>

<p>A salmon and a sermon in Lent.</p>

<p>Supper will kill more than were ever cured by the physicians of
Myddvai.</p>

<p>A light dinner, a less supper, sound sleep, long life.</p>

<p>Do not wish for milk after fish.</p>

<p>To sleep much is the health of youth, the sickness of old age.</p>

<p>Long health in youth will shorten life.</p>

<p>It is more wholesome to smell warm bread than to eat it.</p>

<p>A short sickness for the body, and short frost for the earth, will heal;
either of them long will destroy.</p>

<p>Whilst the urine is clear, let the physician beg.</p>

<p>Better is appetite than gluttony.</p>

<p>Enough of bread, little of drink.</p>

<p>The bread of yesterday, the meat of to-day, and the wine of last year
will produce health.</p>

<p>Quench thy thirst where the washerwoman goes for water.</p>

<p>Three men that are long-lived: the ploughman of dry land, a mountain
dairyman, and a fisherman of the sea.</p>

<p>The three feasts of health: milk, bread, and salt.</p>

<p>The three medicines of the physicians of Myddvai: water, honey, and
labour.</p>

<p>Moderate exercise is health.</p>

<p>Three moderations will produce long life; in food, labour, and meditation.</p>

<p>Whoso breaks not his fast in May, let him consider himself with the
dead.</p>

<p>He who sees fennel and gathers it not, is not a man, but a devil.</p>

<p>If thou desirest to die, eat cabbage in August.</p>

<p>Whatever quantity thou eatest, drink thrice.</p>

<p>God will send food to washed hands.</p>

<p>Drink water like an ox, and wine like a king.</p>

<p>One egg is economy, two is gentility, three is greediness, and the
fourth is wastefulness.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_285">285</span></p>

<p>If persons knew how good a hen is in January, none would be left on
the roost.</p>

<p>The cheese of sheep, the milk of goats, and the butter of cows are
the best.</p>

<p>The three victuals of health: honey, butter, and milk.</p>

<p>The three victuals of sickness: flesh meat, ale, and vinegar.</p>

<p>Take not thy coat off before Ascension day.</p>

<p>If thou wilt become unwell, wash thy head and go to sleep.</p>

<p>In pottage without herbs there is neither goodness nor nourishment.</p>

<p>If thou wilt die, eat roast mutton and sleep soon after it.</p>

<p>If thou wilt eat a bad thing, eat roast hare.</p>

<p>Mustard after food.</p>

<p>He who cleans his teeth with the point of his knife may soon clean
them with the haft.</p>

<p>A dry cough is the trumpet of death.”</p>

<p>One of the laws of Howel Dda permitted divorce for so trifling a
cause as an unsavoury or disagreeable breath.<a id="FNanchor_676_676" href="#Footnote_676_676" class="fnanchor">676</a></p>

<p>Poppies bruised in wine were used to induce sleep. For agues the
treatment was to write in three apples on three separate days an invocation
to the Trinity; “on the third day he will recover.” Saffron was
used for many complaints; it is a drug still largely used by the poor,
who have unbounded faith in it, but it is almost inert. If a person lost
his reason, he was ordered to take primrose juice, “and he will indeed
recover.” There were regular tables of lucky and unlucky days for
bleeding. Fennel juice was supposed to act as a sort of anti-fat, and
the roots of thistles were given as a purgative. If a snake should crawl
into a man’s mouth, the patient was to take camomile powder in wine.
An irritable man was to drink celery juice; “it will produce joy.” As
we might have expected, the leek was supposed to have many virtues;
wives who desired children were told to eat leeks. Leek juice and
woman’s milk was good for whooping cough. The juice was also used
for deafness, heart-burn, headache, and boils. Mustard purifies the
brain, is an antidote to the bite of an adder, is good for colic, loss of
hair, palsy, and many other things. To ascertain the fate of a sick
person, bruise violets and apply them to the eyebrows; “if he sleep, he
will live, but if not he will die.”</p>

<p>Radishes were supposed to prevent hydrophobia. “That is the
greatest remedy, to remove a bone from the brain (to trephine) with
safety.” Dittany was the antidote for pain. Mouse-dung was used as a
remedy for spitting of blood, and a plaster of cow-dung for gout. An
eye-water was made from rotten apples. The berries of mistletoe were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_286">286</span>
made into a confection as a remedy for epilepsy. “Let the sick person
eat a good mouthful (they gave large doses in those days) thereof,
fasting morning, noon, and night. It is proven.” Sage was supposed
to strengthen the nerves (nerves in those days!). Nettles, goose-grass,
blessed-thistle, and rosemary were favourite remedies. Then we have
numerous curious charms and “medical feats discovered through the
grace of God.” Here is one: “Take a frog alive from the water, extract
his tongue (frogs have long been subject to vivisection), and put him
again in the water. Lay this same tongue upon the heart of sleeping
man, and he will confess his deeds in his sleep.” A charm for the
toothache runs thus: “Saint Mary sat on a stone, the stone being near
her hermitage, when the Holy Ghost came to her, she being sad. Why
art thou sad, mother of my Lord, and what pain tormenteth thee? My
teeth are painful, a worm called megrim has penetrated them, and I have
masticated and swallowed it. I adjure thee, daffin O negrbina, by the
Father, and the Son, and the Holy Ghost, the Virgin Mary, and God,
the munificent physician, that thou dost not permit any disease, dolour,
or molestation to affect this servant of God here present, either in tooth,
eye, head, or in the whole of her teeth together. So be it. Amen.”</p>

<p>All the herbs and plants (so far as was possible) which were used in
the doctor’s practice were directed to be grown by him in his garden
and orchard, so that they might be at hand when required.</p>

<p>In the table of weights and measures used by the ancient Welsh
physicians, we learn that twenty grains of wheat make one scruple, four
podfuls make one spoonful, four spoonfuls make one eggshellful, four
eggshellfuls make one cupful. The physician also for his guidance
had the following curious table:—Four grains of wheat = one pea, four
peas = one acorn, four acorns = one pigeon’s egg, four pigeon’s eggs = one
hen’s egg, four hen’s eggs = one goose’s egg, four goose’s eggs = one
swan’s egg.</p>

<p>“For treating a stroke on the head unto the brain, a stroke in the
body unto the bowels, and the breaking of one of the four limbs, the
wounded person was to receive three pounds from the one who
wounded him; and that person had also to pay for the medical treatment
of the sufferer a pound without food, or nine-score pence with
his food, and the bloody clothes.”<a id="FNanchor_677_677" href="#Footnote_677_677" class="fnanchor">677</a></p>

<p>The physicians of Myddvai recognised five kinds of fevers; viz., latent,
intermittent, ephemeral, inflammatory, and typhus. The doctor’s “three
master difficulties” were a wounded lung, a wounded mammary gland,
and a wounded knee joint. “There are three bones which will never
unite when broken—a tooth, the knee pan, and the os frontis.”</p>

<hr class="chap" />
<div class="chapter"></div>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_287">287</span></p>




<h3 id="CHAPTERIV_II">CHAPTER II.<br />

<small>MOHAMMEDAN MEDICINE.</small></h3>

<blockquote>

<p>Sources of Arabian Learning.—Influence of Greek and Hindu Literature.—The
Nestorians.—Baghdad and its Colleges.—The Moors in Spain.—The Mosque
Schools.—Arabian Inventions and Services to Literature.—The great Arab
Physicians.—Serapion, Rhazes, Ali Abbas, Avicenna, Albucasis, and Averroes.</p></blockquote>


<p>At the time of the incursions of the barbarians of the North, when
Spain, the South of France, Italy, and North Africa, with their adjacent
islands, were ravaged by these hordes, multitudes of those who could
escape so far found a refuge in the East; and there is good reason for
supposing that by such means a vast store of the accumulated knowledge
of civilized Europe found its way to Eastern lands. Science
in its turn has come back to us through the Saracens, who afterwards
invaded Southern Europe.<a id="FNanchor_678_678" href="#Footnote_678_678" class="fnanchor">678</a></p>

<p>It is not correct to speak of the Arabians or the Saracens as the
source of the culture which is known as Arabian and Saracenic. The
magnificent civilization of the Greek world fell to pieces like a noble
but ruined temple, and its precious relics went to form a score of other
civilizations which ultimately arose from its ruins. It was not the
Semitic peoples of Arabia which restored the philosophy and science of
the decayed Græco-Roman world, it was the Persians, the Greeks of
Asia Minor, the people of Alexandria, and the cultured Eastern nations,
generally, which having been subdued by the Arabs, at once began to
impart to their conquerors the culture which they lacked. The ignorant
followers of the Prophet who burned the Alexandrian Library
knew not what they did; the time was to come when Greek culture was
to reach them partly from the city whose literary treasures they had
destroyed, and partly through Syrian and Persian influences. By these
roads came the medical sciences to the Saracens. The second library
of Alexandria, consisting of 700,000 volumes, was destroyed by them,
<span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 642; but we must conclude that many medical and other scientific
works were preserved, as the Jews and the Nestorians (banished from
Constantinople to Asia) first made the Arabians acquainted with Greek<span class="pagenum" id="Page_288">288</span>
authors by translating them into Syriac, whence they were in turn translated
into Arabic. Justinian I. (<span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 529) banished the Platonists of
Athens, when Chosröes I., surnamed Nushirwan, or “the generous
mind,” one of the greatest monarchs of Persia, hospitably received them
at his court. He caused the best Greek, Latin, and Indian works to be
translated into Persian, and valued Græco-Roman medical science so
highly that he offered a suspension of hostilities for the single physician
Tribunus.</p>

<p>The East in a great measure owed its acquaintance with the rich
treasures of Greek literature to the heresy of Nestorius. Nestorius was
a Syrian by birth, and became bishop of Constantinople. Having
denied that the Virgin Mary ought to be called “Mother of God,” he
was summoned to appear before the Council of Ephesus (<span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 431), and
was deposed. Nestorian communities were formed, and the heretical
opinions rapidly spread, patronized as they were for political purposes
by the Persian kings. The Mahometan conquests in the seventh
century, by overthrowing the supremacy of orthodoxy, afforded great
encouragement to the Nestorians, as by denying that Mary was the mother
of God, as the Catholics maintained, the Nestorians in calling her
the mother of Christ more nearly approached the Mahometan conception
of a pure monotheism. Barsumas, or Barsaumas, bishop of Nisibis
(435-485 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span>), was one of the most eminent leaders of the new heresy.
He succeeded in gaining many adherents in Persia. Maanes, bishop of
Ardaschiv, was his principal coadjutor; he was the means of propagating
the Nestorian doctrines in Egypt, Syria, Arabia, India, Tartary,
and even China.</p>


<h4><span class="smcap">The Caliphs.</span></h4>

<p>In the time of Mohammed himself (569-609), the Arabians had
physicians who had been educated in the Greek schools of medicine
living amongst them. Pococke mentions a Greek physician named
Theodunus, who was in the service of Hajáj Ibn Yúsuf in the seventh
century. He wrote a sort of medical compendium for the use of his
son. Hajáj seems also to have employed another Greek doctor named
Theodocus, who had numerous pupils.<a id="FNanchor_679_679" href="#Footnote_679_679" class="fnanchor">679</a></p>

<p>The House of Ommiyah encouraged the cultivation of the sciences.
The Caliph Moawiyah, who resided at Damascus, founded schools,
libraries, and observatories there, and invited the learned of all nations,
especially Greeks, to settle there, and teach his people their arts and
sciences.<a id="FNanchor_680_680" href="#Footnote_680_680" class="fnanchor">680</a></p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_289">289</span></p>

<p>In the seventh century, Alexandria under the rule of Islam was in
possession of many medical schools in which the principles of Galen
were taught.<a id="FNanchor_681_681" href="#Footnote_681_681" class="fnanchor">681</a></p>

<p>Alkinani, an Arabian Christian, who afterwards was converted to
Islamism, was chiefly instrumental in introducing medical teaching into
Antioch and Harran from Alexandria.<a id="FNanchor_682_682" href="#Footnote_682_682" class="fnanchor">682</a></p>

<p>The Caliph Almansor had studied astronomy. Almamon, the seventh
of the Abbassides, collected from Armenia, Syria, and Egypt all the
volumes of Grecian science he could obtain; they were translated
into Arabic, and his subjects were earnestly exhorted to study them.
“He was not ignorant,” says Abulpharagius, “that they are the elect
of God, His best and most useful servants, whose lives are devoted
to the improvement of their rational faculties.” Succeeding princes
of the line of Abbas, and their rivals the Fatimites of Africa and the
Ommiades of Spain, says Gibbon, were the patrons of the learned, “and
their emulation diffused the taste and the rewards of science from
Samarcand and Bochara to Fez and Cordova.”<a id="FNanchor_683_683" href="#Footnote_683_683" class="fnanchor">683</a></p>

<p>It was Almamon who caused the works of the fathers of Indian
medical science to be translated first into Persian and then into Arabic;
thus it was that the Saracens became familiar with the medical wisdom
of Susruta and Charaka in the eighth century of our era.<a id="FNanchor_684_684" href="#Footnote_684_684" class="fnanchor">684</a></p>

<p>Charaka is frequently mentioned in the Latin translations of
Avicenna (Ibn Sina), Rhazes (Al Rasi), and Serapion (Ibn Serabi).<a id="FNanchor_685_685" href="#Footnote_685_685" class="fnanchor">685</a></p>

<p>Chaldee works at this time were also translated into Persian. In the
first centuries of the Hijra the Caliphs of Baghdad caused a considerable
number of works upon Hindu medicine to be translated into Persian.<a id="FNanchor_686_686" href="#Footnote_686_686" class="fnanchor">686</a>
At the time of Mohammed there existed a famous school of medicine
at Senaa in Southern Arabia, the principal of which, Harit Ben
Kaldah, had learned his profession in India.<a id="FNanchor_687_687" href="#Footnote_687_687" class="fnanchor">687</a></p>

<p>When the son of Mesuach, a young Nestorian Christian, first entered
Baghdad, it is said<a id="FNanchor_688_688" href="#Footnote_688_688" class="fnanchor">688</a> that he appeared to have discovered a new world.
He applied himself to the study of medicine, philosophy, and
astronomy. He became a “treasure of learning,” and was chosen to
attend Prince Almamon, the son of Haroun-al-Raschid, who, when he
became Caliph in 813, invited learned men of all religions and of all
nations to his court, collected from them the names of all the great
authors and the titles of their books which had been published in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_290">290</span>
Greek, Syriac, and Persian, and then sent to all parts of the world to
purchase them.</p>

<p>The Arabs studied Aristotle; and when Western Europe had long
been sunk in intellectual darkness and had forgotten him, the Saracens
taught him to the Christians of the West. “He was read at Samarcand
and at Lisbon,” says Freeman, “when no one knew his name at
Oxford or Edinburgh.”<a id="FNanchor_689_689" href="#Footnote_689_689" class="fnanchor">689</a> In his own tongue at Constantinople and
Thessalonica he had never been forgotten. Such learning and science
as the Saracens did not receive from India, such as the Arabic numerals,
came to them from the West. They developed and improved much,
but they probably invented nothing. Freeman says<a id="FNanchor_690_690" href="#Footnote_690_690" class="fnanchor">690</a> that after careful
investigation he observed three things: first, that whatever the
Arabs learned was from translations of Greek works; secondly, that
they made use of only an infinitesimal portion of Greek literature;
thirdly, that many of their most famous literary men were not Mahometans
at all, but Jews or Christians.<a id="FNanchor_691_691" href="#Footnote_691_691" class="fnanchor">691</a> Greek poetry, history, and philosophy
had little charm for them. Gibbon says there is no record of an
Arabian translation of any Greek poet, orator, or historian.<a id="FNanchor_692_692" href="#Footnote_692_692" class="fnanchor">692</a></p>

<p>Learned Nestorians, Jacobites, and Jews in Persia and Syria occupied
themselves with translations from Greek authors, and contributed
greatly to the extension of Western culture in Eastern lands.<a id="FNanchor_693_693" href="#Footnote_693_693" class="fnanchor">693</a> To the
world at large Mahomet was but an impostor; to the Arab of the seventh
century he was a true prophet and the greatest of benefactors.</p>

<p>When the Persian king reproached the Arabs with their poverty and
their savage condition, the reply of the Saracen envoy contains a
grand summary of the immediate results of Mahomet’s teaching.<a id="FNanchor_694_694" href="#Footnote_694_694" class="fnanchor">694</a></p>

<p>“Whatever thou hast said,” replied Sheikh Maghareh, “respecting
the former condition of the Arabs is true. Their food was green
lizards; they buried their infant daughters alive; nay, some of them
feasted on dead carcases and drank blood; while others slew their
relations, and thought themselves great and valiant, when by such an
act they became possessed of more property; they were clothed with
hair garments; knew not good from evil; and made no distinction
between that which is lawful and that which is unlawful. Such was our
state. But God, in His mercy, has sent us by a holy prophet a sacred
volume, which teaches us the true faith.”<a id="FNanchor_695_695" href="#Footnote_695_695" class="fnanchor">695</a></p>

<p><span class="smcap">George Backtischwah</span>, or <span class="smcap">Bocht Jesu</span>, was a Greek physician, a
descendant of the persecuted Christians of the Greek empire, who
embracing the heresy of Nestorius had been compelled to fly for safety<span class="pagenum" id="Page_291">291</span>
and peace to the Persians. Al-Manzor (754-775) invited Backtischwah
to his court, and this physician was the first to present to the Arabians
translations of the medical works of the Greeks. The Nestorians had
founded a school of medicine in the province of Gondisapor, which was
already famous in the seventh century. From this school issued a
crowd of learned Nestorians and Jews, famous for their knowledge of
medicine and surgery, but still more for their ability to endow the East
with all the treasures of Greek literature.<a id="FNanchor_696_696" href="#Footnote_696_696" class="fnanchor">696</a></p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Baghdad.</span></h4>

<p>The city of Baghdad was built by the Caliph Almansor, in <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 763,
on the ruins of a very ancient city; it soon became the most splendid
city in the East. Almansor had personally cultivated science, and was
a lover of letters and of learned men. He offered rewards for translations
of Greek authors on philosophy, astronomy, mathematics, and
medicine.</p>

<p>A college was established by the Caliph which ultimately became
famous. Public hospitals and a medical school were also established
by the same enlightened ruler. Meryon says<a id="FNanchor_697_697" href="#Footnote_697_697" class="fnanchor">697</a> that there is reason to
suppose that in the laboratories established at Baghdad for the preparation
of medicines the science of chemistry may have first originated.<a id="FNanchor_698_698" href="#Footnote_698_698" class="fnanchor">698</a></p>

<p>The son of Mesuach presided over the translations of the works of
Galen and all the treatises of Aristotle into Arabic; but when they had
extracted the science from Greek literature, they consigned all the rest
of it to the flames, as dangerous to the Moslem faith.<a id="FNanchor_699_699" href="#Footnote_699_699" class="fnanchor">699</a></p>

<p>Many Christian physicians were employed at Baghdad.</p>

<p>The vizier of a Sultan gave two hundred thousand pieces of gold to
found a college at Baghdad, which he endowed with an annual revenue
of fifteen thousand dinars.<a id="FNanchor_700_700" href="#Footnote_700_700" class="fnanchor">700</a> Under the reign of Haroun-al-Raschid and
his successors this school flourished vigorously, and many translations
of Greek medical works were made therein.</p>

<p>The Arabians have greatly distinguished themselves in the science
of medicine. In the city of Baghdad eight hundred and sixty physicians,
says Gibbon, were licensed to practise. The names of Mesua and Geber,
of Rhazis and Avicenna are not less famous than are those of the greatest
names amongst the Greeks themselves. The independent medical literature
of the Saracens arose in the ninth century, and gradually developed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_292">292</span>
till it reached the zenith of its glory in the eleventh. The mosques
were then the universities, and besides that of Baghdad, Bassora, Cufa,
Samarcand, Ispahan, Damascus, Bokhara, Firuzabad, and Khurdistan,
not omitting the schools of the Fatimites in Alexandria, were centres
of Eastern science and art, and the equally famous universities of
Cordova, Seville, Toledo, Almeria, Murcia, Granada, and Valencia,
sustained in Europe the dignity of the Arabian learning. When the
conquest of Africa was complete, Spain was invaded, and about the
year 713 was reduced to a Moslem province. Cordova became not
less distinguished for learning than Baghdad, and many writers were
given to the world from the adjacent towns of Malaga, Almeria, and
Murcia. Gibbon says that above seventy public libraries were opened
in the cities of Andalusia.</p>

<p>In the words of Professor Nicholl, “The Semitic race is essentially
unscientific, and adverse to the presentation of philosophical or moral
truth in a scientific form. The Indo-European genius, on the contrary,
tends irresistibly towards intellectual system, or science.” This will at
once be perceived when we examine the Vedas, the works of any Greek
author, or those of Teutonic speculative writers, and then turn to any
Semitic books. We instantly perceive that in the latter we have nothing
but belief or intuition, with more or less of the doctrine of Revelation
or Inspiration. In the works of Aryan origin, on the contrary, we are
at the opposite pole; we have speculation, inquiry, an insatiable desire
to solve the mystery of things—the analytical spirit which asks a
reason for every phenomenon in the universe. In the Semitic races
this resolves itself into either a living faith and a pure life corresponding
thereto, or into a reckless fanaticism founded on fatalism. In the Aryan
races we have the most daring intellectual activity, or the driest dogmatism.<a id="FNanchor_701_701" href="#Footnote_701_701" class="fnanchor">701</a></p>

<p>It was in Spain that the Semitic and Aryan intellects met and happily
blended. Spain remembered the advantages of Roman influences long
after they were withdrawn. The Goths, who spread themselves over
the Peninsula, preserved the remains of the civilization which the Romans
had left; and the Jews, afterwards to be treated with such cruel and
base ingratitude by the nation which they had so greatly benefited, advanced
the cause of education by their numerous schools and learned
writers.<a id="FNanchor_702_702" href="#Footnote_702_702" class="fnanchor">702</a></p>

<p>On this stage, then, we find the Semitic and the Indo-Germanic races
transferring to each other the characteristics with which they were most
happily endowed by nature.</p>

<p>The mosque schools of the Arabians were conducted on the model of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_293">293</span>
the Alexandrian schools. The old Egyptian and Jewish colleges were
to some extent the prototypes of these, and some writers think that
our own universities were suggested by those of the Saracens. How
great and famous some of these must have been, may be learned from
the fact that, as we have stated, no less than six thousand professors
and students were collected together at Baghdad at one time. There
were lecture rooms, laboratories, hospitals, and residences for teachers
and students, besides the great halls which must have been required for
the vast libraries which the Caliphs collected. It was in Spain perhaps
that Saracenic learning shone most brilliantly. In the early part of the
eighth century was founded the noble university of Cordova, the city
which, under Arabian rule, was called the “Centre of Religion, the
Mother of Philosophers, the Light of Andalusia.” It contained 300
mosques, 200,000 houses, and 1,000,000 inhabitants, besides forty
hospitals.<a id="FNanchor_703_703" href="#Footnote_703_703" class="fnanchor">703</a></p>

<p>Abou-Ryan-el-Byrouny (died 941) travelled forty years studying
mineralogy, and his treatise on precious stones, says Sismondi,<a id="FNanchor_704_704" href="#Footnote_704_704" class="fnanchor">704</a> is a rich
collection of facts. Aben-al-Beïthar of Malaga travelled over all the
mountains and plains of Europe in search of plants, and rendered most
important services to botany. He wandered over the sands of Africa
and the remotest countries of Asia, examining and collecting animals,
fossils, and vegetables, and published his observations in three volumes,
which contained more science than any naturalist had previously
recorded.<a id="FNanchor_705_705" href="#Footnote_705_705" class="fnanchor">705</a></p>

<p>In one sense the Arabians were the inventors of chemistry, and never
was the science applied to the arts of life more beneficially than by the
Saracens in Spain.</p>

<p>Mahomet was skilled in the knowledge of medicine, and certain of
his aphorisms are extant concerning the healing art. Gibbon says<a id="FNanchor_706_706" href="#Footnote_706_706" class="fnanchor">706</a> that
the temperance and exercise his followers preached, deprived the doctors
of the greater part of their practice. The only medicine recommended
by the Koran is honey (see Surah xvi. 71). “From its (the
bee’s) belly cometh forth a fluid of varying hues, which yieldeth medicine
to man.” There is evidence of a belief in magic in the Koran as
a charm against evil, and of incantations capable of producing ill consequences
to those against whom they were directed. The 113th
chapter of the Koran was written when Mohammed believed that, by
the witchcraft of wicked persons, he had been afflicted with rheumatism.
Mohammedan peoples use as amulets to avert evil from themselves or
possessions, a small Koran encased in silk or leather, or some of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_294">294</span>
names of God, or of the prophets or saints, or the Mohammedan creed
engraven on stone or silver.</p>

<p>Da’wah, or the system of incantation used by Mohammedans, is
employed to cause the cure, or the sickness and death of a person.
The Mohammedans have an elaborate system of exorcism, which is
fully explained by Mr. Thomas Patrick Hughes.<a id="FNanchor_707_707" href="#Footnote_707_707" class="fnanchor">707</a></p>

<p>Uroscopy, or the art of judging diseases by inspection of the urine,
was a great feature of Arabian as of Greek medical practice. It was,
however, with the former usually conducted with jugglery and charlatanism,
and there was seldom anything scientific about it.</p>

<p>As the religion of the Moslems forbade dissection, the sciences of
anatomy and physiology and the art of surgery remained as they were
borrowed from the Greek writers.</p>

<p>The Arabian faculty always stipulated for their fees beforehand;
they disapproved of gratuitous treatment, because, as they declared,
“no one gets even thanks for it!”</p>

<p>There must have been female doctors, who, in the East, had abundant
opportunities for practice, as men were not permitted by the customs of
the times to examine women. These female obstetricians performed
the gravest operations, such as embryotomy and lithotomy.<a id="FNanchor_708_708" href="#Footnote_708_708" class="fnanchor">708</a></p>

<p>Hospitals were established at Damascus for lepers, the poor, the
blind, and the sick, under the rule of the Caliph Walid.</p>

<p>Paper is an Arabic invention. True, it has been made from silk from
the remotest ages in China, but by the Arabs it was first made at
Samarcand, <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 649; and cotton paper, such as we use now, was made
at Mecca, <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 706. The art was soon afterwards introduced by the
Arabs into Spain, where it was brought to the highest perfection.<a id="FNanchor_709_709" href="#Footnote_709_709" class="fnanchor">709</a>
Gunpowder was known to the Arabs a hundred years before Europeans
mention it.<a id="FNanchor_710_710" href="#Footnote_710_710" class="fnanchor">710</a> The compass was used by them nearly two centuries
before the Italians and French used it. The number of Arabic
inventions which we unsuspectingly enjoy, without being aware of their
origin, is prodigious. Could we bring to light the literary treasures of
the Escurial, we should know something of the industrious host of
Arabians who have done so much for the learning of the Western world,
and whose names and deeds have received from us no recognition.
Their historical, geographical, and scientific dictionaries and histories
would alone entitle them to the gratitude of an age which would know
how to appreciate them.</p>

<p>Sismondi says that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_295">295</span> “Medicine and philosophy had even a greater
number of historians than the other sciences; and all these different
works were embodied in the historical dictionary of sciences compiled
by Mohammed-Aba-Abdallah, of Granada.”</p>


<h4><span class="smcap">The Great Arabian Physicians.</span></h4>

<p><span class="smcap">Honain</span>, a Christian physician, flourished at Baghdad in the middle
of the ninth century. He travelled in Greece that he might perfect
himself in the language, and he read the works of all the great writers
of that country. On his return to Baghdad he was invited by the
Caliph to undertake the translation of the Greek authors. His best
known translation is <i>The Aphorisms of Hippocrates with the Commentaries
of Galen</i>. He wrote on midwifery, and was a good oculist.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Serapion the Elder</span> (of Damascus), who flourished in the ninth century,
was a Syrian physician, of whom little or nothing is known except
that he wrote two works, one of which is in the Bodleian in MS.,
entitled <i>Aphorismi magni momenti de Medicina Practica</i>. The other is
entitled <i>Kunnásh</i>, and has been translated into Latin.</p>

<p>The classical period of Arabian medicine begins with—</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Rhazes</span>, “the Arabic Galen,” whose real name was <i>Abú Becr
Mohammed Ibn Zacaríyá Ar-Razi</i>, was born at Rai, near Chorásán,
probably about the middle of the ninth century after Christ. His
famous work, <i>On the Small Pox and Measles</i>, was translated from the
original Arabic into Syriac, and from that language into Greek. This
is the first extant medical treatise in which the small-pox is certainly
mentioned.<a id="FNanchor_711_711" href="#Footnote_711_711" class="fnanchor">711</a> This famous book has been published in various languages
about thirty-five times; a greater number of editions, says Dr. Greenhill,
than almost any other ancient medical treatise has passed through. He
was skilled in philosophy, astronomy, and music, as well as in medicine,
which he began to study when he was forty years old. He became one
of the most celebrated physicians of his time, and was appointed
physician to the hospital at Rai, and afterwards to that of Baghdad,
where he became so famous as a teacher that pupils flocked to him
from all parts. He afterwards resided at the court of Cordova. He
died at an advanced age about <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 932. More than two hundred
titles of his works have been preserved; but his small-pox treatise is the
only one which has been published in the original Arabic. It is a remarkable
and a very interesting fact that he explained the nature of
the small-pox and measles by the theory of fermentation.<a id="FNanchor_712_712" href="#Footnote_712_712" class="fnanchor">712</a></p>

<p>The largest work of Rhazes is <i>Al-Háwí</i>, or the <i>Comprehensive</i> book,
commonly called “Continens.” In the Latin translation this fills two
folio volumes. Although little more than a sort of medical common<span class="pagenum" id="Page_296">296</span>place
book, it has a value in that it has preserved for us many fragments
from the works of ancient physicians which we should not otherwise
have possessed. Another important work of Rhazes is the <i>Ketábu-l-Mansúri</i>,
or <i>Liber ad Almansorem</i>, so called from being dedicated to
Mansur, prince of Chorásán. It was intended to instruct the physician
in everything which it was necessary for him to know. It is chiefly a
compilation, but was a popular text-book in the fifteenth and sixteenth
centuries. Rhazes taught the external use of arsenic, mercurial ointments,
and sulphate of copper, and the internal use of brandy, nitre,
borax, coral, and gems.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Ali Ben el Abbas</span> (Ali Abbas), who lived in the latter part of the
tenth century, was a Persian physician, who wrote a medical text book,
entitled the <i>Royal Book</i>. Up to the time of Avicenna, this was the
standard authority on medicine amongst the Arabs, and was several
times translated into Latin. In the theory of medicine and partly in
its practice he followed the Greeks, but imitated the use of the excellent
materia medica of the Arabs. He wrote also on ophthalmology and
obstetrics.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Avicenna</span>, or <span class="smcap">Ebn Sina</span>, was called “the Prince of Physicians,” and
was the greatest philosopher produced by the Arabs in the East. He
was born in the province of Bokhara, in 980 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> It is related that at
the age of sixteen he had learned all the science of a physician. Having
cured Prince Nouh of a serious malady, he became a court favourite.
After travelling for a while he composed his great work, the <i>Canon of
Medicine</i>, by which his name was made famous both in Asia and Europe
for several centuries. In the midst of the troubles of an adventurous
life, he wrote a hundred gigantic books, the greatest of which was the
<i>Al-Schefà</i>.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Ishak Ben Soleiman</span> (830-940) wrote on dietetics, and is said to
have been the first to introduce senna.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Serapion the Younger</span> (about 1070). His work, <i>De Simplicibus
Medicamentis</i>, was published in Latin at Milan in 1473.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Mesue</span> the younger (about 1015) was a pupil of Avicenna, and
physician to the court at Cairo. He rendered great services to pharmacy
by teaching the method of preparing extracts from medicinal
plants.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Albucasis</span> was a skilful Arab physician, who wrote a work on surgery,
entitled <i>Al Tassrif</i>, which contains much ingenious matter on the appliances
of practical surgery. He died at Cordova about 1106. His
work treats of the application of the actual cautery, so much employed
by the Arabs, of ligation of arteries in continuity, of the danger of
amputating above the knee or elbow, of stitching the bowel with threads<span class="pagenum" id="Page_297">297</span>
scraped from the intestinal coat, operations for hare-lip and cataract,
and fistula by cutting, ligature and cautery. He advised the use of
silver catheters as now employed, in place of the copper ones used previously.
He recommended anatomy as a valuable aid to surgery.<a id="FNanchor_713_713" href="#Footnote_713_713" class="fnanchor">713</a></p>

<p><span class="smcap">Avenzoar</span>, one of the most famous of Arabian physicians, was born
near Seville in the latter part of the twelfth century. He was instructed
in medicine by his father, whose family had long been connected with
the healing art. He was the rational improver of Arabian medicine by
the rejection of useless theories, and asserted for medicine a place
among the advancing sciences of observation. He made it a constant
practice to analyse the medicines he used, so that he might acquaint
himself with their exact composition. He was loaded with favours by
the prince of Morocco, and died at the age of ninety-two in <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 1262.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Ebn Albaithar</span> (died about 1197) was a Moorish Spaniard, renowned
for his medical and botanical science. He traversed many regions of the
west of Africa and Asia to enlarge his botanical knowledge. He passed
some years at the court of Saladin, and wrote on the <i>Virtues of Plants</i>,
and on poisons, metals, and animals.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Averroes</span>, or <span class="smcap">Ebn Rosch</span>, was born at Cordova in 1126. He learned
theology, philosophy, and medicine from the great teachers of his time.
He was the greatest Arabian inquirer in the West, as Avicenna was in
the East. He exercised the greatest influence both in his own and succeeding
ages. He has been called “the Mohammedan Spinoza,” having
been a religious freethinker. The study of Aristotle awakened in him a
species of pantheism. He was more a philosopher than a physician,
but as he had made important observations in medicine, he deserves a
place amongst the heroes of the healing art. He was bitterly persecuted
amongst his co-religionists for treating the Koran as a merely human
work. He taught that the small-pox never attacks the same person
more than once. In practice he held very rational views of the action of
remedies, and taught that the work of the doctor was chiefly to apply
general principles to individual cases. He wrote commentaries on
Aristotle so famous as to have gained him the name of “the Commentator.”
He expounded the <i>Republic</i> of Plato. He was a most voluminous
writer, and was considered by his contemporaries and by our
schoolmen as a prodigy of science.<a id="FNanchor_714_714" href="#Footnote_714_714" class="fnanchor">714</a></p>

<p>There is a very interesting account of the Indian physicians at the
court of Baghdad in a translation made from a MS. in the Rich collection
in the British Museum.<a id="FNanchor_715_715" href="#Footnote_715_715" class="fnanchor">715</a> The history is from the work of Ibn Abu<span class="pagenum" id="Page_298">298</span>
Usaibiâh, who lived at the beginning of the thirteenth century of our
era.</p>

<p>Kankah the Indian was a great philosopher as well as a physician;
he investigated the properties of medicines “and the composition of the
heavenly bodies” (!).</p>

<p>Sanjahal, another learned Indian, wrote on medicine and astrology.
From the science of the stars he applied himself to the symptoms of
diseases, on which he wrote a book in ten chapters. He gave the
symptoms of four hundred and four diseases. He also wrote on <i>The
Imagination of Diseases</i>. Shánák wrote on poisons and the veterinary
art. Jawdar was a philosopher and a physician who wrote a book on
nativities. Mankah the Indian was learned in the art of medicine,
and “gentle in his method of treatment.” He lived in the days of
Haroun-al-Raschid.</p>

<p>Salih, son of Bolah the Indian, was “well skilled in treatment, and
had power and influence in the promotion of science.”</p>

<p>Kankah the Indian, says Prof. H. Wilson, was very celebrated in the
history of Arabian astronomy. He says that it is certain that the astronomy
and medicine of the Hindus were cultivated anteriorly to those
of the Greeks, by the Arabs of the eighth century. “It is clear that
the Charaka, the Susruta, the treatises called Nidán on diagnosis, and
others on poisons, diseases of women, and therapeutics, all familiar to
Hindu science, were translated and studied by the Arabs in the days
of Haroun and Mansur, either from the originals, or translations made
at a still earlier period into the language of Persia.”<a id="FNanchor_716_716" href="#Footnote_716_716" class="fnanchor">716</a></p>

<p>We may conveniently mention here the famous Jew of Spain,
Rabbi Moses ben Maimon, or Maimonides (died 1198), a native of
Cordova, who was profoundly learned in mathematics, medicine, and
other arts. He retired to Egypt, where he wrote books on medicine,
which were much read. He advised his patients never to sleep in the
daytime, and at night only on the side. He recommended them not
to retire to rest till three to four hours after supper.<a id="FNanchor_717_717" href="#Footnote_717_717" class="fnanchor">717</a></p>

<p>Medical etiquette was rather strict.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_299">299</span> “Operations performed by the
hand, such as venesection, cauterization, and incision of arteries, are
not becoming a physician of respectability and consideration. They
are suitable for the physician’s assistants only. These servants of the
physician should also do other operations, such as incision of the
eyelids, removing the veins in the white of the eye, and the removal
of cataract. For an honourable physician nothing further is becoming
than to impart to the patient advice with reference to food and medicine.
Far be it from him to practise any operation with the hand. So
say we!”<a id="FNanchor_718_718" href="#Footnote_718_718" class="fnanchor">718</a></p>

<p>Dentistry was practised, but it was considered by the Arabs, as
by the Greek and Roman doctors, a very inferior branch of the profession,
and was, for the most part, as with ourselves, till very recently
relegated to uneducated persons. Midwifery also was, to a great extent,
neglected by the higher class of physicians. The Arabian faculty
esteemed most highly medicine proper, though pharmacy and materia
medica were especially studied. The professors were paid by the State,
and handsomely as a rule. Their text books were the works of the
Greek physicians, especially Hippocrates and Galen. A sort of matriculation
examination was required before a student could enter the great
schools, and he was subjected to professional examinations (not very
severe, presumably) before he was permitted to practise. The Arabian
physicians were usually men of the highest culture; not only were
they men of science, but of philosophy and literature also. Great
mystery was combined with Arabian medical practice; astrology was the
handmaid of medicine, and charms entered largely into therapeutics.
The physicians wrote prescriptions with purgative ink; so that “take
this!” was meant literally when the doctor gave the patient his prescription.
It had to be swallowed in due form.</p>

<p>Although the great civilizations of the East date their origins from a
period far more remote than those of the West, they have lagged far behind
the West in progress. Professor Freeman defines European society
as progressive, legal, monogamous, and, for the last fifteen hundred
years, a Christian society; the East he defines as stationary, arbitrary,
polygamous, and Mahometan.<a id="FNanchor_719_719" href="#Footnote_719_719" class="fnanchor">719</a> The dominant note of Oriental history
is sameness; a monotony which enables us to read in the story of to-day
that which took place amongst Eastern peoples a thousand years ago.
The history of a single city of Europe is of infinitely greater interest to
the student of humanity and the history of civilization than that of a
whole nation of the East. The history of Florence alone is of greater
importance, from this point of view, than that of all China. There
is, however, one marvellous history, that of Mahomet and his creed,
which excels in interest that of any other man of the Oriental nations.
“Nowhere,” says Freeman, “in the history of the world can we
directly trace such mighty effects to the personal agency of a single
mortal.”<a id="FNanchor_720_720" href="#Footnote_720_720" class="fnanchor">720</a></p>

<hr class="chap" />
<div class="chapter"></div>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_300">300</span></p>




<h3 id="CHAPTERIV_III">CHAPTER III.<br />

<small>RISE OF THE MONASTERIES.</small></h3>


<p class="center">Alchemy the parent of Chemistry.</p>

<p>Learning in Europe was greatly advanced by the foundation of the
famous monastery of Monte Cassino, by <span class="smcap">St. Benedict</span>, near Naples, in
the year 529. The religious houses of this order, of which Monte
Cassino was the parent, were the means of sheltering in those troublous
times the men who devoted themselves to literature and secular learning,
as well as to the severities of the religious life. In these peaceful abodes
men learned how to make the desert blossom as the rose, agriculture
and other civilizing occupations were studied and successfully practised,
and from the sixth century to the ninth such medical knowledge as
existed in Europe chiefly emanated from these abodes of piety, industry,
and temperance. Missionaries issued from them to convert and civilize
the nations; and wherever the monks went, they acted as the healers of
the sick, as well as the spiritual advisers of the sinner. Everywhere they
cultivated medicinal plants, whose properties they learned to understand;
by interchange of thought and comparison of opinions every
monastery, with its constant going and coming of the brethren, became
an exchange of knowledge: the science of Spain was carried to Italy,
that of Italy to France and England, which in their turn contributed
to the general stock of information such items of knowledge as they
possessed. “If science,” says Schlegel,<a id="FNanchor_721_721" href="#Footnote_721_721" class="fnanchor">721</a> “was then of a very limited
range, it was still quite proportioned to the exigencies and intellectual
cultivation of the age; for mankind cannot transcend all the degrees of
civilization by a single bound, but must mount slowly and in succession
its various grades.”</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Alcuin</span> (735-804), the great reviver of learning in the eighth century,
was an ecclesiastic who instructed Charlemagne and his family in
rhetoric, logic, mathematics, and divinity. “France,” says a great
writer, “is indebted to Alcuin for all the polite learning it boasted in
that and the following ages. The universities of Paris, Tours, Fulden,
Soissons, and many others, owe to him their origin and increase.” By<span class="pagenum" id="Page_301">301</span>
the benefits he obtained from Charlemagne for the Christian schools
which he founded, education began to revive in Europe, and by the
Emperor’s command schools were established in every convent and
cathedral throughout his vast empire, wherein not clerics alone, but the
sons of the nobility who were destined for a secular life, could receive the
highest education at that time attainable. “The monasteries became
a kind of fortress in which civilization sheltered itself under the banner
of some saint; the culture of high intelligence was preserved there,
and philosophic truth was reborn there of religious truth. Political
truth, or liberty, found an exponent and a defender in the monk, who
searched into everything, said everything, and feared nothing. Without
the inviolability and the leisure of the cloister, the books and the
languages of the ancient world would never have been transmitted to
us, and the chain which connects the past with the present would have
been snapped. Astronomy, arithmetic, geometry, civil law, physic and
medicine, the profane authors, grammar, and the <i>belles lettres</i>, all the
arts, had a succession of professors uninterrupted from the first days
of Clovis down to the age when the universities, themselves religious
foundations, brought science forth from the monasteries. To establish
this fact it is enough to name Alcuin, Anghilbert, Eginhard, Treghan,
Loup de Terrières, Eric d’Auxerre, Hincmar, Odo of Clugny, Cherbert,
Abbon, Fulbert.”<a id="FNanchor_722_722" href="#Footnote_722_722" class="fnanchor">722</a></p>


<h4><span class="smcap">The Origin of Chemistry.</span></h4>

<p>The great importance of the science of chemistry in its connection
with that of medicine, compels some allusion to its origin. Without
question alchemy was the forerunner of chemistry. Beginning in the
search for the means of transmuting base metals into gold, it ultimately
endowed us with a far more precious knowledge—the art of preparing
many of our most valuable medicines.</p>

<p>The first authentic account of alchemy is an edict of Diocletian about
<span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 300, in which a diligent search is ordered to be made in Egypt
for all the ancient books which treated of the art of making gold and
silver, that they might be destroyed. This shows that the pursuit must
have been of great antiquity. Fable credits Solomon, Pythagoras, and
Hermes amongst its adepts. We find nothing more about it till its
revival by the Arabians some five or six hundred years later.<a id="FNanchor_723_723" href="#Footnote_723_723" class="fnanchor">723</a></p>

<p>The word <i>Alchemy</i> is mentioned for the first time by the Byzantines.
The art of transmuting metals under the name of <i>Chemia</i>, is first spoken
of by Suidas, who wrote in the tenth century. The Byzantines began<span class="pagenum" id="Page_302">302</span>
to make chemical experiments about the seventh century; all the books
they quote were attributed to Hermes. What is known as the Hermetic
philosophy was synonymous with alchemy, but the books were really the
work of the monks of the period.<a id="FNanchor_724_724" href="#Footnote_724_724" class="fnanchor">724</a></p>

<p>The earliest works on alchemy which we possess are those of Geber
of Seville, who lived probably about the eighth or ninth century. His
works were entitled <i>Of the Search of Perfection</i>, <i>Of the Sum of Perfection</i>,
<i>Of the Invention of Verity</i>. He divided metals into the more or less
perfect, gold the most perfect, silver the next, etc. His aim was to
convert inferior metals into gold; that which should turn base metals
into gold would be also a universal medicine, would cure or prevent
diseases, prolong life, and make the body beautiful and strong. The
philosopher’s stone would embrace in itself all perfections. Alchemy
led to chemistry; it is even declared by some to have been the mother
of chemistry. Some have thought that without the hope of making
gold and other precious things, men would never have been inspired
to investigate the secrets of nature and sustained in the arduous and
often dangerous work of the chemist. But this is to take far too low
a view of the scientific mind in all ages. The search for truth, the
passion for investigating and interrogating nature has happily never
wholly depended upon mercenary motives, and men have devoted their
lives as ardently to scientific researches, by which they could never
have hoped to gain a single penny, as did those alchemists of old, who
bent over their crucibles in the vain search for the perfect magistery.<a id="FNanchor_725_725" href="#Footnote_725_725" class="fnanchor">725</a></p>

<p>Gibbon says,<a id="FNanchor_726_726" href="#Footnote_726_726" class="fnanchor">726</a> “The science of chemistry owes its origin and improvement
to the industry of the Saracens. They first invented and named
the alembic for the purposes of distillation, analysed the substances of
the three kingdoms of nature, tried the distinction and affinities of
alkalis and acids, and converted the poisonous minerals into soft and
salutary medicines.” Gibbon somewhat exaggerates. Analysis and
affinity were discovered at a much later period. It was Europeans in
the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries who advanced chemical science
towards its present high position.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Nonnus</span> (10th century) wrote “a compendium of the whole art of
medicine,” in 290 chapters. It is a mere compilation, and the author
is only worthy of remembrance in medical history as the earliest Greek
medical writer who mentions distilled rose-water, an article originally
derived from the Arabians.</p>

<hr class="chap" />
<div class="chapter"></div>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_303">303</span></p>




<h3 id="CHAPTERIV_IV">CHAPTER IV.<br />

<small>RISE OF THE UNIVERSITIES.</small></h3>

<p class="center">School of Montpellier.—Divorce of Medicine from Surgery.</p>


<p>An important era in the history of medicine in Europe was the rise of
the universities. It is not possible to fix precisely the date of the
foundation of these great centres of learning, but we may sufficiently
for our purpose fix the twelfth century as approximately the period in
which Bologna, Montpellier, Oxford, Cambridge, and Paris were regularly
established.</p>

<p>Cambridge University took its rise in all probability somewhere in
the twelfth century, “originating in an effort on the part of the monks of
Ely to render a position of some military importance also a place of
education.”<a id="FNanchor_727_727" href="#Footnote_727_727" class="fnanchor">727</a></p>

<p>The most ancient universities in Europe are said to be those of Bologna,
Oxford, Cambridge, Paris, and Salamanca. The following dates
are approximate: Bologna, 1116; Oxford, 879; Cambridge, twelfth
century; Cordova, 968; Paris, 792, renovated 1200; Palenza, 1209,
removed to Salamanca, 1249. Salamanca was founded 1239; Naples,
1224; Montpellier, 1289; Rome, 1243; Salerno, 1233.<a id="FNanchor_728_728" href="#Footnote_728_728" class="fnanchor">728</a></p>

<p>The University of Bologna was famous as a school of law and letters
so early as the twelfth century. In the next it became distinguished for
its medical teaching. It was in such perfection that its professors were
classed as physicians, surgeons, barber surgeons, and oculists. But
still, anatomy, except in so far as it assisted the surgeon, was neglected.
Roger, Roland, Jamerio, Bruno, and Lanfranc, seemed alone to have paid
much attention to it, and then only to borrow from Galen.<a id="FNanchor_729_729" href="#Footnote_729_729" class="fnanchor">729</a> The medical
faculty became celebrated after 1280, when Thaddeus Florentinus
was a teacher in it.</p>

<p>The University of Padua was founded 1179.</p>

<p>In 1268 it possessed three teachers of medicine and the same number
of teachers of natural science.</p>

<p>Montpellier was the first great rival of Salerno as a school of medicine.
Its charter dates from 1229.</p>

<p>Medicine was not taught at Paris during the twelfth century. John<span class="pagenum" id="Page_304">304</span>
of Salisbury, writing in the year 1160, says that those who desired to
study medicine had to go either to Salerno or Montpellier. But, says
Laurie,<a id="FNanchor_730_730" href="#Footnote_730_730" class="fnanchor">730</a> physicians of eminence are recorded as having taught at Paris
after this date, and the subject was formally lectured upon not later
than 1200. Degrees or licences in physic were granted in 1231.</p>

<p>The University of Naples was founded in 1224, by the Emperor
Frederick II. Originally all the faculties were represented, but in 1231
medicine was forbidden, as by Imperial decree it could only be taught
at Salerno.</p>

<p>The University of Prague was founded in 1348 by Charles IV. of
Bohemia, as a complete university from the outset.</p>


<h4><span class="smcap">School of Montpellier.</span></h4>

<p>The origin of the medical school of Montpellier is obscure. Probably
it originated in the tenth century, and there is little doubt that the
Jews of Spain were concerned in its foundation. The Arabs found firm
friends in the Jewish people of Spain, their monotheism proving a bond
of union which ensured the sympathy of each, and the school of Montpellier
became the rallying-point of Arabian and Jewish learning.
Europe has rendered too little gratitude for the intellectual blessings
bestowed on her by the Hebrews. A nation of Eastern origin, and
having very extensive relations with Eastern commerce, the Israelites acted
as the medium for transmitting the intellectual and material wealth of
Eastern countries to Western peoples. We owe to them much of our
acquaintance with Saracenic medicine and pharmacy. They translated
for us Arabic books, and they introduced to Western markets the precious
drugs of far-distant Eastern lands. The school of medicine of
Montpellier first became famous in the beginning of the twelfth century.
Averroism prevailed, and a practical empirical spirit distinguished the
school from the dogmatic and scholastic teaching of other universities.
It has been attempted to show that a Jewish doctor from Narbonne
first taught medicine at Montpellier. When Benjamin of Tudela went
to the university in 1160, he says that he found many Jews amongst
the inhabitants. Adalbert, Bishop of Mayence, went to Montpellier
in 1137 to learn medicine from the doctors, “that he might understand
the deeply hidden meaning of things.” In 1153 the Archbishop of
Lyons went there for treatment, and John of Salisbury said that medicine
was to be acquired either at Salerno or Montpellier. Men called
the school the “Fountain of Medical Wisdom,” and it soon rose to
great importance on account of its unlimited freedom in teaching.<a id="FNanchor_731_731" href="#Footnote_731_731" class="fnanchor">731</a></p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_305">305</span></p>

<p>Cardinal Conrad made a law that no one should act as a teacher of
medicine in the university who had not been examined in it and received
a licence to teach. In 1230 it was ordered that no one should practise
medicine until he had been examined, and that to the satisfaction of
two masters in medical science chosen as examiners by the bishop. To
engage in practice without the certificate of the examiners and the bishop
was to incur the sentence of excommunication.<a id="FNanchor_732_732" href="#Footnote_732_732" class="fnanchor">732</a> Surgeons, however,
were not compelled to undergo examination. Medicine flourished at
Montpellier with great independence; it was not merged with the other
faculties, and it was not subjected to clerical influences.<a id="FNanchor_733_733" href="#Footnote_733_733" class="fnanchor">733</a> Even Louis
XIV. was obliged to withdraw a decree ordering the union of the medical
with the other faculties.<a id="FNanchor_734_734" href="#Footnote_734_734" class="fnanchor">734</a></p>

<p>Every student was compelled (1308) to attend medical lectures for
at least five years, and to practise medicine for eight months, before
being allowed to graduate. In 1350 the degree of Magister had to be
taken in addition.<a id="FNanchor_735_735" href="#Footnote_735_735" class="fnanchor">735</a></p>

<p>The most brilliant period in the history of the medical school of
Montpellier was that of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. Its
fame was sounded throughout the world. From all parts invalids went
to Montpellier to seek its famous physicians. King John of Bohemia,
and the Bishop of Hereford, were of the number.</p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Divorce of Medicine from Surgery.</span></h4>

<p>Surgery became separated from medicine in Alexandria, but it was
not until the middle of the twelfth century that the ecclesiastics were
restrained from undertaking any bloody operations. The universities
rejected surgery under the pretext, “<i>ecclesia abhorret a sanguine</i>” (the
church abhors the shedding of blood). It is therefore to this epoch, as
Mr. Cooper says,<a id="FNanchor_736_736" href="#Footnote_736_736" class="fnanchor">736</a> that we must refer the true separation of medicine
from surgery; the latter was entirely abandoned to the ignorant laity.</p>

<p>At the Council of Tours, <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 1163, the practice of surgery was denounced
as unfit for the hands of priests and men of literature, the
consequence being that the surgeon became little better than a sort of
professional servant to the physician, the latter not only having the sole
privilege of prescribing internal medicines, but even that of judging and
directing when surgical operations should be performed. Then the
subordinate surgeon was only called upon to execute with his knife, or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_306">306</span>
his hand, duties which the more exalted physician did not choose to
undertake; and, in fact, he visited the patient, did what was required to
be done, and took his leave of the case, altogether under the orders of
his master.<a id="FNanchor_737_737" href="#Footnote_737_737" class="fnanchor">737</a></p>

<p><span class="smcap">John of Salisbury</span>, one of the most learned men of the twelfth century,
gives an account of the state of medicine in that period, which is
very suggestive. “The professors of the theory of medicine are very
communicative; they will tell you all they know, and, perhaps, out of
their great kindness a little more. From them you may learn the nature
of all things, the causes of sickness and of health, how to banish the
one and how to preserve the other; for they can do both at pleasure.
They will describe to you minutely the origin, the beginning, the
progress, and the cure of all diseases. In a word, when I hear them
harangue, I am charmed; I think them not inferior to Mercury or
Æsculapius, and almost persuade myself that they can raise the dead.
There is only one thing that makes me hesitate. Their theories are as
directly opposite to one another as light and darkness. When I reflect
on this, I am a little staggered. Two contradictory propositions cannot
both be true. But what shall I say of the practical physicians? I
must say nothing amiss of them. It pleaseth God, for the punishment
of my sins, to suffer me to fall too frequently into their hands. They
must be soothed, and not exasperated. That I may not be treated
roughly in my next illness, I dare hardly allow myself to think in secret
what others speak aloud.”</p>

<p>In another work, however, the writer delivers himself with greater
freedom. Speaking of newly-fledged medicos, he says: “They soon
return from college, full of flimsy theories, to practise what they have
learned. Galen and Hippocrates are continually in their mouths. They
speak aphorisms on every subject, and make their hearers stare at their
long, unknown, and high-sounding words. The good people believe
that they can do anything, because they pretend to all things. They
have only two maxims which they never violate: never mind the poor,
never refuse money from the rich.”</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Robert of Gloucester</span><a id="FNanchor_738_738" href="#Footnote_738_738" class="fnanchor">738</a> does not write very highly of the skill in
surgery possessed by the Anglo-Normans. Speaking of the Duke of
Austria, who took King Richard the First prisoner, his verses import that
when<span class="pagenum" id="Page_307">307</span> “he fell off from his horse and sorely bruised his foot, his physicians
declared that if it was not immediately smitten off, he would die; but
none would undertake the performance of the operation; till the Duke
took a sharp axe, and bid the chamberlain strike it off, and he smote
thrice ere he could do it, putting the Duke to most horrid torture. And
Holinshed tells us that in the time of Henry the Third there lived one
Richard, surnamed Medicus, ‘a most learned physician, and no less expert
in philosophy and mathematics;’ but makes not the least mention
of surgery. Also some authors have attributed the death of Richard
the First (wounded in the shoulder at the Castle of Chalezun), to the
unskilfulness of those who had the care of the wound, and not from the
quarrel’s being poisoned, as others have insinuated.”<a id="FNanchor_739_739" href="#Footnote_739_739" class="fnanchor">739</a></p>

<p>The university title of Doctor was not known in England before the
reign of Henry II.<a id="FNanchor_740_740" href="#Footnote_740_740" class="fnanchor">740</a></p>

<p><span class="smcap">Richard Fitz-Nigel</span>, Bishop of London, was apothecary to Henry
II. Many bishops and dignitaries of the Church were physicians to
kings and princes.<a id="FNanchor_741_741" href="#Footnote_741_741" class="fnanchor">741</a> Most of the practitioners of medicine and teachers
of physic were churchmen, either priests or monks.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">St. Hildegard</span> (1098-1179), Abbess of Ruppertsberg, near Bingen
on the Rhine, was a famous physician and student of nature, who
wrote a treatise on Materia Medica. Her pharmacy was in advance of
her time, and to this eminent lady physician we are indebted for the
attempts to disguise the nastiness of physic; she enveloped the remedy
in flour, which was then made into pancakes and eaten.<a id="FNanchor_742_742" href="#Footnote_742_742" class="fnanchor">742</a> Meyer says
that her work entitled <i>Physica</i> “is a treatise on Materia Medica, unmistakably
founded on popular traditions.” Her visions and revelations
concerning physical and medical questions are contained in her work
“<i>Divinorum operum simplicis hominis liber</i>.” She was a true reformer
within the Church, and her pure life was singularly devoted and unselfish;
she was, in fact, a Woman Physician, who should be the patron
saint of our lady doctors.</p>

<hr class="chap" />
<div class="chapter"></div>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_308">308</span></p>




<h3 id="CHAPTERIV_V">CHAPTER V.<br />

<small>THE SCHOOL OF SALERNO.</small></h3>

<blockquote>

<p>The Monks of Monte Cassino.—Clerical Influence at Salerno.—Charlemagne.—Arabian
Medicine gradually supplanted the Græco-Latin Science.—Constantine
the Carthaginian.—Archimatthæus.—Trotula.—Anatomy of the Pig.—Pharmacopœias.—The
Four Masters.—Roger and Rolando.—The Emperor Frederick.</p></blockquote>


<p>The connecting link between the ancient and the modern medicine
was the school of Salerno. It is true that Hippocrates and Galen in
Arabian costume re-entered Europe after a long absence in the East,
when the Moors occupied a great part of Spain; but great as was this
Saracenic influence on medical science, it was not to be compared with
the powerful and permanent influence secured by the native growth of
medical science which sprung up on Italian soil.</p>

<p>The origin of this celebrated mediæval institution is involved in
obscurity; it has been generally understood to have sprung from the
monastery of Monte Cassino, founded by St. Benedict in the sixth
century. St. Benedict probably possessed some medical knowledge,
and it is certain that many of his order did. The Benedictines had
houses in La Cava and Salerno. The legends of the wonderful cures
wrought by St. Benedict would naturally attract crowds of sufferers to
the doors of the learned and charitable monks. There would consequently
be abundant opportunities for the study of diseases and their
remedies; and though there was probably little enough of what could
strictly be called scientific medical practice, there was doubtless as
much effort to cure or mitigate suffering as was consistent with the rule
of a learned religious order. Some writers think that the famous
school of Salerno existed as early as the seventh century, that Greek
thought and traditions lingered there long after they had ceased to exist
in other parts of Italy; and they argue that as it was, as is now clearly
shown, a purely secular institution, it was independent in origin and
constitution of any monastic connection. Others maintain that it was
founded by the Arabs; but, as Daremberg points out,<a id="FNanchor_743_743" href="#Footnote_743_743" class="fnanchor">743</a> the first invasions
of the Saracens in Sicily and Italy, dating from the middle of the ninth<span class="pagenum" id="Page_309">309</span>
century, had for their objects simply pillage and slaughter; and there is
nothing whatever to show in the whole course of their devastations the
slightest desire to found literary or scientific institutions. The Saracens
never sojourned at Salerno, and before the end of the eleventh century
there is no trace of Arabian medicine in the works written by the great
teachers of Salerno. It is as unnecessary as it is unjust to seek any
other origin for the Salernian school than that of the Benedictines of
Monte Cassino.<a id="FNanchor_744_744" href="#Footnote_744_744" class="fnanchor">744</a> Bede, Cuthbert, Auperth, and Paul were brought up
at that monastery, and we know that medicine was always cultivated
to a certain extent in those ancient abodes of learning and religion.
As Balmez says concerning Monte Cassino,<a id="FNanchor_745_745" href="#Footnote_745_745" class="fnanchor">745</a> “the sons of the most
illustrious families of the empire are seen to come from all parts to that
monastery; some with the intention of remaining there for ever, others
to receive a good education, and some to carry back to the world a
recollection of the serious inspirations which the holy founder had
received at Subiaco.” It seems, therefore, that the origin of the medical
school of Salerno was somewhat on this wise: a lay spirit of science was
developed, and many young men having no aptitude for the monastic
life, but desirous to devote themselves entirely to the healing art as an
honourable and lucrative profession, doubtless desired to form themselves
into a society or school for this end; they would receive encouragement
from their more liberal and enlightened monastic teachers
to settle in a beautiful and healthy resort of invalids such as Salerno
had long been considered, and to pursue their medical studies under
the supervision of the men most competent to instruct them. Dr.
Puschmann, quoting from S. de Renzi,<a id="FNanchor_746_746" href="#Footnote_746_746" class="fnanchor">746</a> states that in documents of the
years 848 and 855, <span class="smcap">Joseph</span> and <span class="smcap">Joshua</span> are named as doctors practising
there. The Lombard <span class="smcap">Regenifrid</span> lived there in the year 900; he was
physician to Prince <span class="smcap">Waimar</span> of Salerno. Fifty years later the doctor
<span class="smcap">Petrus</span> was raised to the bishopric of Salerno. Many doctors of this
time were clerics, but there were also many who were Jews.<a id="FNanchor_747_747" href="#Footnote_747_747" class="fnanchor">747</a> This
ancient people, hated and persecuted in every other relation of life, were
popular as physicians in the Middle Ages. The books studied and
expounded were Hippocrates and Galen, which were translated into
Latin before <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 560.<a id="FNanchor_748_748" href="#Footnote_748_748" class="fnanchor">748</a></p>

<p>Its cosmopolitan sentiments probably gave rise to the story that is
<span class="pagenum" id="Page_310">310</span>told in an ancient Salernian chronicle, rediscovered by S. de Renzi, to
the effect that the school was founded by four doctors; namely, the
Jewish Rabbi <span class="smcap">Elinus</span>, the Greek <span class="smcap">Pontus</span>, the Saracen <span class="smcap">Adala</span>, and a
native of Salerno, who each lectured in his native tongue.<a id="FNanchor_749_749" href="#Footnote_749_749" class="fnanchor">749</a></p>

<p>It is said that Charlemagne in 802 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> greatly encouraged this
Salerno school by ordering Greek works of medicine to be translated
from the Arabic into Latin. Salernum, in consequence of the medical
and public instructions given by the monks in the neighbouring
monastery, became known as a <i>civitas Hippocratica</i>.<a id="FNanchor_750_750" href="#Footnote_750_750" class="fnanchor">750</a></p>

<p><span class="smcap">Bertharius</span>, abbot from 856, was a very learned man; and it is
stated that there are still in existence two manuscripts of his which
contain a collection of hygienic and medicinal rules and prescriptions.<a id="FNanchor_751_751" href="#Footnote_751_751" class="fnanchor">751</a></p>

<p><span class="smcap">Alphanus</span> (<span class="smcap lowercase">SECUNDUS</span>) (flourished about 1050), a distinguished
monastic philosopher and theologian, wrote a treatise on <i>The Union of
the Soul and Body</i>, and another on <i>The Four Humours</i>. He carried with
him, when he removed to Florence, many manuscripts and a great
quantity of medicines. During the eleventh century Salerno rose to
great importance, not only from its situation as a port from which the
Crusaders departed to the wars, but from the daily widening influence of
its medical school.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Petrocellus</span> wrote on the practice of medicine about 1035; he was
the author of the <i>Compendium of Medicine</i>. <span class="smcap">Gariopontus</span> (died before
1056) wrote a work entitled <i>Passionarius Galeni</i>. These are the two
most ancient works of this school which have reached our times, says
Daremberg. The medicine of Salerno before the year 1050 was a
combination of methodism in its doctrines and of Galenisms in its
prescriptions.<a id="FNanchor_752_752" href="#Footnote_752_752" class="fnanchor">752</a> We find, says Baas,<a id="FNanchor_753_753" href="#Footnote_753_753" class="fnanchor">753</a> in Gariopontus the first intimation
of the inhalation of narcotic vapours in medicine, while the ancients
could only produce anæsthesia by compression and the internal use
of such drugs as mandragora and belladonna. Herodotus says<a id="FNanchor_754_754" href="#Footnote_754_754" class="fnanchor">754</a> that
the Scythians used the vapour of hemp seed to intoxicate themselves
by inhaling it, but this was not for medicinal purposes.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Desiderius</span> was abbot of Salerno, and afterwards became Pope Victor
III. in 1085. He is said to have been <i>medicinæ peritissimus</i>.<a id="FNanchor_755_755" href="#Footnote_755_755" class="fnanchor">755</a></p>

<p>About this time flourished <i>Constantine</i>, the Carthaginian Christian,
whose fame was European, and who finally placed Salerno in the front
as a great and specialized public school of medicine. He travelled far
in the East, and is said to have learned mathematics, necromancy, and
the sciences in Babylon. He visited India and Egypt, and when he
returned to Carthage he was the most learned man of his time in all<span class="pagenum" id="Page_311">311</span>
that related to medical science. Naturally he was suspected of witchcraft,
and he fled for refuge to Salerno. Robert Guiscard the Norman
held him in the highest favour, and under his protection he published
many works of medicine of his own, and made many translations
of medical books from the Arabic. He ultimately retired to the
monastery of Monte Cassino, where he died in 1087. We may safely
date the establishment of the splendid reputation of the Salerno school
from the time of his settlement there.<a id="FNanchor_756_756" href="#Footnote_756_756" class="fnanchor">756</a></p>

<p>Daremberg does not allow that the influence of Constantine was so
great as is generally supposed. He points out that it was not in the
middle of the eleventh but at the end of the twelfth century that
Arabian medicine was substituted in the school of Salerno, as in the
West generally, for the Græco-Latin. And it is perfectly true that if we
examine the medical writings of this period we find very little progress
from the times of the ancients, except in pharmacy and the knowledge
of drugs and their properties. Daremberg’s researches go to prove that
many of Constantine’s works, previously supposed to have been original,
were but cunningly disguised translations from the Arabic. By altering
the phraseology, and suppressing such proper names as would have led
to suspicion of the origin of his treatises, he obtained credit for a great
mass of literary work which had really another source.<a id="FNanchor_757_757" href="#Footnote_757_757" class="fnanchor">757</a></p>

<p><span class="smcap">Jean Afflacius</span>, a disciple of Constantine, wrote <i>The Golden Book on
the Treatment of Diseases</i>, and another work <i>On the Treatment of Fevers</i>.<a id="FNanchor_758_758" href="#Footnote_758_758" class="fnanchor">758</a>
Daremberg says that these works of Afflacius show no more traces of
Arabian influence than the works of his contemporaries.</p>

<p>He advised that the air of the sick-room should be kept cool by
the evaporation of water, and he administered iron in enlargement of the
spleen.</p>

<p><span class="smcap lowercase">ARCHIMATTHÆUS</span> lived soon after Constantine; his name occurs
about the year 1100 as the author of two important books on medicine,
<i>The Instruction of the Physician</i> and <i>The Practice</i>. The former work
is occupied with advice, sometimes exaggerated, on the dignity of the
healing art; and though it appears childish enough to our more
sophisticated age, it is not without evidence of a desire to instruct the
doctor in all that relates to the welfare of the patient and the dangers
incurred by any deviation from the strictest code of professional rectitude.
It is unfortunately, however, blended with so much that is
crafty and sly that it approaches in some directions very closely to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_312">312</span>
charlatanism. Archimatthæus very minutely instructs the doctor how
to comport himself when called to visit a patient.<a id="FNanchor_759_759" href="#Footnote_759_759" class="fnanchor">759</a></p>

<p>He should place himself under the protection of God and under the
care of the angel who accompanied Tobias. On the way to the
patient’s home he should take care to learn from the messenger sent for
him the state of the patient, so that he may be, on reaching the bedside,
well posted in all that concerns the case; then if, after he has
examined the urine and the state of the pulse, he is not able to make
an accurate diagnosis, he will at least be able, thanks to his previous
information, to impress the patient with the conviction that he completely
understands his case, and so will gain his confidence. The
author considers it very important that the sick person, before the
arrival of the physician, should send for a priest to hear his confession,
or at least promise to do so; for if the doctor were to see reason to
suggest this himself, it would give the patient cause to suppose that his
case was hopeless. “Upon entering the house of his patient, the
physician should salute all with a grave and modest air, not exhibiting
any eagerness, but seating himself to take breath; he should praise
the beauty of the situation,<a id="FNanchor_760_760" href="#Footnote_760_760" class="fnanchor">760</a> the good arrangements of the house, the
generosity of the family; by this means he wins the good opinion of the
household, and gives the sick person time to recover himself a little.”
After the most careful directions as to the examination of the patient,
the author takes the doctor from the house with as much artfulness as he
has brought him hither. He is to promise the patient a good recovery,
but privately to the friends he is to explain that the illness is a very
serious one: “if he recovers, your reputation is increased; if he
succumbs, people will not fail to remember that you foresaw the fatal
termination of the disease.” If he is asked to dine, “as is the custom,”
he is to show himself neither indiscreet nor over-nice. If the table is
delicate, he is not to become absorbed in its pleasures, but to leave the
table every now and then to see how the patient progresses, so as to
show that he has not been forgotten while the doctor was feasting. He
is honestly to demand his fee, and then go in peace, his heart content
and his purse full. In the <i>Practice</i> of the same author, we have, says
Daremberg, a true <i>Clinic</i>, the first work of the kind since the <i>Epidemics</i>
of Hippocrates; it exhibits a skilful practitioner, a good observer, and a
bold therapeutist. The doctrines and methods are those of Hippo<span class="pagenum" id="Page_313">313</span>crates
and Galen, but not of the Arabs. It is also interesting as proving
that at this period the distinction was established between the true
physicians and the common physicians, or the specialists and the
general practitioners or physician-apothecaries.</p>

<p>A remarkable and interesting feature in the history of the school of
Salerno is the fact that some of its most famous professors of medicine
were ladies. About the year 1059, <span class="smcap">Trotula</span>, a female physician, wrote a
well-known book on the diseases of women, and their treatment before,
during, and after labour. She discusses all branches of pathology, even
of the male sexual organs.<a id="FNanchor_761_761" href="#Footnote_761_761" class="fnanchor">761</a> It was supposed that she was the wife of
John Platearius the elder, and that she belonged to the noble family of
Roger. Her person and name were at one time considered legend and
myth, but M. Renzi’s investigations have proved her to be sufficiently
historical. Trotula lived at Salerno, as is shown by the <i>Compendium
Salernitanum</i>, and she practised in that city, as is clear from her work
on the diseases of women. Her name occurs variously as Trotula,
Trotta, and Trocta.<a id="FNanchor_762_762" href="#Footnote_762_762" class="fnanchor">762</a></p>

<p><span class="smcap">Abella</span> wrote a treatise <i>De Natura Seminis Humani</i>; she was a
colleague of Trotula’s. <span class="smcap">Costanza Calenda</span> was the daughter of the
principal of the medical school, and was distinguished both for her
beauty and her talents; she left no writings. <span class="smcap">Mercuriadis</span> and
<span class="smcap">Rebecca Guarna</span> were doctresses of the fifteenth century. They
wrote chiefly on midwifery and diseases of women.<a id="FNanchor_763_763" href="#Footnote_763_763" class="fnanchor">763</a></p>

<p><span class="smcap">Copho</span>, in the early part of the twelfth century, was an anatomist,
and probably a Jew; he wrote the <i>Anatomy of the Pig</i>. Students were
instructed in dissections by operating on dead animals when, as in those
days, human bodies were not accessible. The pig was killed by severing
the vessels of the neck, and was then hung up by the hind legs, and
when the blood had escaped the body was used for teaching purposes;
it was not dissected in the modern sense at all, the examination consisting
merely in observation of the great cavities and the vital organs,
according to the suggestions of Galen and the old anatomists.<a id="FNanchor_764_764" href="#Footnote_764_764" class="fnanchor">764</a></p>

<p><span class="smcap">Nicholas Præpositus</span>, about 1140, was the president of the school,
and wrote a famous book called the <i>Antidotarium</i>—a Pharmacopœia as
we should call it. This book of recipes was compiled from the works of
the Arabian doctors Mesues, Avicenna, Actuarius, Nicolaus Myrepsus,
as well as from Galen. It is interesting as giving the forms which the
compounders of the prescriptions were sworn on their oath to observe;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_314">314</span>
they promised to make up all their potions, syrups, etc., “<i>secundum
prædictam formam</i>,” and they further promised that their drugs should
be fresh and sufficient. It shows also that there was a habit of writing
a prescription when a patient was visited; this, it seems, was a custom
which originated with the Arabian physicians.<a id="FNanchor_765_765" href="#Footnote_765_765" class="fnanchor">765</a></p>

<p>Nicholas was also the author, says Dr. Baas,<a id="FNanchor_766_766" href="#Footnote_766_766" class="fnanchor">766</a> of a work called
“<i>Quid pro Quo</i>,” which was a list of drugs which were equivalent to
other drugs, and might be used as substitutes for each other in case of
either running short. Dr. Baas says our expression “Quid pro Quo”
originated from this.</p>

<p>The writings of Bartholomæus and of Copho the Younger (between
1100 and 1120), says Daremberg, are of great interest in the history of
medicine; they show how great was the freedom of spirit which existed
at Salerno at this time. Copho described certain diseases which were
not referred to in the works of other writers of Salerno; for example,
ulceration of the palate and trachea, polypi, scrofulous tumours of the
throat, condylomata, etc. Bartholomæus and Copho also held certain
original ideas as to the classification of fevers. Copho distinguished
between medicine for the rich and for the poor: the rich are delicate,
and must be cured agreeably; the poor wish only to be cured at as little
cost as possible. Thus the nobles must be purged with finely powdered
rhubarb, the poor, with a decoction of mirobalanum, sweetened or not.
Naturally the more precious drugs would be used for the wealthy, and
probably the poor, who could not afford the complicated and terrible
confections of mediæval pharmacy, might have congratulated themselves
on being treated with a few simples instead of the precious messes
which the wealthy had to swallow.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Johannes Platearius</span> deserves notice as having been the inventor
of the term “Cataracta,” in place of the ancient Egyptian “ascent”
and the Greek “hypochosis,” in classical Latin “suffusio humorum”
(Hirsch).<a id="FNanchor_767_767" href="#Footnote_767_767" class="fnanchor">767</a></p>

<p><span class="smcap">Matthæus Platearius</span> was the son of the above; he composed a
<i>Practica Brevis</i> and other books on medicine; it is not certain at
what precise date they flourished.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Ægidius</span> “<span class="smcap">Corbolensis</span>,” canon of Paris, physician to Philip
Augustus, king of France (1165-1213), wrote a poem on the decline of
Salerno as a medical school; he describes the doctors as caring nothing
for books which were not full of recipes, and the professors as merely
beardless boys.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_315">315</span></p>

<p>The famous but somewhat mysterious “Four Masters” were commentators
on the surgery of Roger and Roland.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Musandinus</span> wrote on the diet of the sick; bleeding was recommended
for the want of appetite in convalescents, and patients were
rather to be purged to death than permitted to die constipated.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Bernard the Provincial</span> recommends wine for the delicate
stomachs of bishops; he said they could not bear emetics unless they
were administered on a full stomach. His treatise was written between
the years 1150 and 1160. He did much to simplify the materia
medica of his time, advising the poor not to waste their means on costly
foreign drugs, but to gather simples from the fields. It is interesting to
find in the thirteenth century police regulations which required in many
cities of Italy that physicians should inspect druggists’ shops and see
that their medicines were pure and fresh. Pharmacy, it seems, was
already becoming divorced from medical practice.<a id="FNanchor_768_768" href="#Footnote_768_768" class="fnanchor">768</a></p>

<p>In the middle of the twelfth century there appeared a didactic poem
called <i>Schola Salernitana, Flos Medicinæ</i>, or <i>Regimen Sanitatis</i>, or <i>Regimen
Virile</i>. This celebrated work went through hundreds of editions.<a id="FNanchor_769_769" href="#Footnote_769_769" class="fnanchor">769</a></p>

<p>Dr. Handerson, in his translation of Baas’ <i>History of Medicine</i>, says it
had other titles than those given above, as <i>Medicina Salernitana</i>, <i>De
Conservanda Bona Valetudine</i>, <i>Lilium Sanitatis</i>, <i>Compendium Salernitanum</i>,
etc. The work was for centuries the physician’s <i>vade mecum</i>. It
is not known who was the author; originally it was put forth as emanating
from “the whole school of Salerno to the king of England,” namely,
Robert, son of William the Conqueror, who was cured of a wound at
Salerno in 1101. The poem consisted of some two thousand lines. Dr.
Handerson gives the following translation of a few lines of this curious
work:—</p>


<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"><div class="stanza">
  <div class="verse">“Salerno’s school in conclave high unites,</div>
  <div class="verse">To counsel England’s king, and thus indites:</div>
  <div class="verse">If thou to health and vigour would’st attain,</div>
  <div class="verse">Shun mighty cares, all anger deem profane;</div>
  <div class="verse">From heavy suppers and much wine abstain;</div>
  <div class="verse">Nor trivial count it, after pompous fare,</div>
  <div class="verse">To rise from table and to take the air;</div>
  <div class="verse">Shun idle noonday slumbers, nor delay</div>
  <div class="verse">The urgent calls of nature to obey:</div>
  <div class="verse">These rules if thou wilt follow to the end,</div>
  <div class="verse">Thy life to greater length thou may’st extend.”</div>
</div></div></div>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_316">316</span></p>
<p>It has been translated into English by Thomas Paynell in 1530, by
John Harrington in 1607, and by Alexander Croke in 1830.</p>

<p>The poem is a composite work, and its form was doubtless adopted
for facility of committing to memory an important text-book of health
rules.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Roger</span>, or <span class="smcap">Ruggiero</span>, known as Roger of Parma or of Palermo, lived
about 1210, was a student, and for a long time a professor in Salerno.
He was a celebrated surgeon, who practised trepanning of the sternum
and stitching of the intestine. He was the first to describe a case of
hernia pulmonis, to use the term seton, and to prescribe the internal
use of sea-sponge for the removal of bronchocele.<a id="FNanchor_770_770" href="#Footnote_770_770" class="fnanchor">770</a> He knew how to
arrest hæmorrhage by styptics, sutures, and ligatures.</p>

<p>He was the earliest special writer on surgery in Italy.<a id="FNanchor_771_771" href="#Footnote_771_771" class="fnanchor">771</a> His later editor
<span class="smcap">Rolando</span> exhibits an acquaintance with surgery, which shows that,
although the art had not been previously written upon in Italy, it was
very well understood at Salerno. De Renzi says that some of the
operations described are trephining, the removal of polypi from the
nose, resection of the lower jaw, the operation for hernia and lithotomy.
Malignant tumours of the rectum and uterus are referred to.<a id="FNanchor_772_772" href="#Footnote_772_772" class="fnanchor">772</a></p>

<p>Salerno was the first school in Europe in which regular diplomas in
medicine were granted to students who had been duly instructed and had
passed an examination in accordance with the requirements of the legal
authorities. The great patron of Salerno, Frederick II., in the year 1240
confirmed the law of King Roger, passed in the year 1137, or as some
say in 1140, with reference to licences to practise medicine. That ancient
enactment was that, “Whoever from this time forth desires to practise
medicine must present himself before our officials and judges, and be
subject to their decision. Any one audacious enough to neglect this
shall be punished by imprisonment and confiscation of goods. This
decree has for its object the protection of the subjects of our kingdom
from the dangers arising from the ignorance of practitioners.”<a id="FNanchor_773_773" href="#Footnote_773_773" class="fnanchor">773</a></p>

<p>Frederick’s law was:<span class="pagenum" id="Page_317">317</span> “Since it is possible for a man to understand
medical science, only if he has previously learnt something of logic,
we ordain that no one shall be permitted to study medicine until he
has given his attention to logic for three years. After these three years
he may, if he wishes, proceed to the study of medicine. In this study
he must spend five years, during which period he must also acquire a
knowledge of surgery, for this forms a part of medicine. After this, but
not before, permission may be given him to practise, provided that he
passes the examination prescribed by the authorities and at the same
time produces a certificate showing that he has studied for the period
required by the law.” “The teachers must, during this period of five
years, expound in their lectures the genuine writings of Hippocrates and
Galen on the theory and practice of medicine.” “But even when the
prescribed five years of medical study are passed, the doctor should not
forthwith practise on his own account, but, for a full year more he
should habitually consult an older experienced practitioner in the
exercise of his profession.”</p>

<p>“We decree that in future no one is to assume the title of doctor, to
proceed to practise or to take medical charge, unless he has previously
been found competent in the judgment of teachers at a public meeting
in Salerno, has moreover by the testimony in writing of his teachers
and of our officials approved himself before us or our representatives in
respect of his worthiness and scientific maturity, and in pursuance of
this course has received the state-licence to practise. Whoever transgresses
this law, and ventures to practise without a licence, is subject
to punishment by confiscation of property and imprisonment for a
year.” “No surgeon shall be allowed to practise until he has submitted
certificates in writing of the teachers of the faculty of medicine,
that he has spent at least one year in the study of that part of medical
science which gives skill in the practice of surgery, that in the colleges
he has diligently and especially studied the anatomy of the human
body, and is also thoroughly experienced in the way in which operations
are successfully performed and healing is brought about afterwards.”<a id="FNanchor_774_774" href="#Footnote_774_774" class="fnanchor">774</a></p>

<p>For centuries after this barbers in other countries practised surgery
without let or hindrance.</p>

<p>The doctor was bound to give advice to the poor gratis, and to inform
against apothecaries who did not make up his prescriptions in accordance
with the law. The doctor’s fee in the daytime within the town
was half a gold tarenus; outside the city he could demand from three to
four tareni, exclusive of his travelling expenses.<a id="FNanchor_775_775" href="#Footnote_775_775" class="fnanchor">775</a> Doctors were not
permitted to keep drug-shops. Apothecaries were obliged to compound
the medicines in conformity with the doctor’s prescriptions, and the
price they charged was regulated by law. Inspectors of drug-shops
were appointed to visit and report. The punishment of death was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_318">318</span>
imposed on the officials who neglected their duties.<a id="FNanchor_776_776" href="#Footnote_776_776" class="fnanchor">776</a> These laws have
served as the pattern for succeeding enactments for the regulation of
medical education and practice.</p>

<p>In 1252 King Conrad created the school of Salerno a university, but
King Manfred in 1258 by his restoration of Naples University left
Salerno only its medical school.</p>

<p>On the 29th of November, 1811, a decree of the French Government
put an end to the oldest school of medicine in Europe.</p>

<p>Daremberg concludes his admirable treatise on the school of Salerno
with a pathetic account of a visit which he made to that city in 1849;
he tells how he wandered through its streets, once so active with the
movements of the students and professors of the medical sciences, and
he laments that not a single remembrance of its illustrious masters
remains to remind the visitor of its ancient glories. Not a stone of the
edifices, not an echo of its traditions, not even a manuscript in any
library remains to remind us of the learned and venerable men and
women who did so much for medicine in those dark ages. A few years
back I visited Salerno myself, and I found not even a decent hotel in
which to remain a night or two. I rested at the best hostelry I could
find, and after dinner proposed to the friend who accompanied me, that
on the following day we should visit Pæstum and see its noble ruined
temples. As we chatted and turned over the pages of the visitors’ book,
we came across a long and doleful account of an Englishman who some
few years previously had visited Pæstum from Salerno, and was captured
by brigands; he was detained their prisoner for many weeks, and only
at last liberated, after threats of mutilation, by the payment of a heavy
ransom. We did not go to Pæstum; we left Salerno early the following
morning and went to Amalfi. The hotel was gloomy and crumbling into
decay, the rooms were all empty, the landlord was suggestive of the host
in some of the old stories of our boyish days. Thus has Salerno fallen.
Most travellers now make La Cava their headquarters, and do not stay
at Salerno at all.</p>

<hr class="chap" />
<div class="chapter"></div>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_319">319</span></p>




<h3 id="CHAPTERIV_VI">CHAPTER VI.<br />

<small>THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY.</small></h3>

<p class="center">The Crusades.—Astrology.</p>


<p>The Crusades were of the highest importance to the development of
Western civilization; they brought the European world into contact
with the ancient wisdom of the East, they greatly stimulated commerce,
aroused a spirit of restlessness and inquiry, and thus enlarged men’s
minds, stimulated them to adventure and heroic deeds, improved the
art of war and the invention of arms, etc. By bringing the Crusaders
into contact with the Saracens many new medicines were introduced
into practice; physicians followed the armies to the East, and thus had
opportunities of studying the healing art as practised in the midst of
ancient civilizations. To a great extent the present advantages we enjoy
are due to the influence of the Crusades, which brought to Europe
many arts and sciences we should not have otherwise learned.</p>

<p>One of the evil consequences of the Crusades was the introduction
into Europe of epidemic diseases and contagious disorders which have
always had their home in the East. Thus were introduced the plague,
leprosy, and the disorders which are bred of filth and promiscuous
living.</p>

<p>In the thirteenth century very few who possessed either medical or
surgical skill were not priests or monks, chiefly mendicants. The
profession became very lucrative, and so many monks devoted themselves
to the healing art that they neglected their spiritual duties, and
were consequently forbidden to leave their monasteries for a longer
period than two months at a time.<a id="FNanchor_777_777" href="#Footnote_777_777" class="fnanchor">777</a> In this century astrology was
closely related to the practice of medicine. It was believed that an
intimate association existed between the heavenly bodies and those of
men, and no cure could be attempted without consulting the astrological
oracle.</p>

<p>M. Jules Andrieu says that medical science, “like the other sciences,
began by being astrological. The first encyclopædia was astrology.”<a id="FNanchor_778_778" href="#Footnote_778_778" class="fnanchor">778</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_320">320</span>
Certainly it was one of the modes most anciently and universally
practised for discovering the most important things relating to the lives
and fortunes of those who believed in it. It was flattering to men to
believe that the heavenly bodies are interested in their welfare, and
the events of life were awaited with resignation and composure by
those who believed they were regulated by the stars in their courses;
they applied themselves therefore to diagrams and calculations to learn
the simplest and most obvious details of their lives.</p>

<p>M. Littré, member of the Institute and the Academy of Medicine
at Paris, in his <i>Fragment de Médecine Rétrospective</i>,<a id="FNanchor_779_779" href="#Footnote_779_779" class="fnanchor">779</a> describes seven
“miracles” which took place in France at the end of the thirteenth
century at the tomb of St. Louis. He states the simple facts as written
in the chronicles of the period. He does not dispute them, does not
ridicule nor ignore them, but endeavours to give a pathological interpretation
of them. He notices in the first place that at the moment of
cure the patient felt a sharp pain—the part affected seemed to be
stretched or touched, and sometimes a sort of cracking sensation in
the bone was experienced, then movements became possible, although
the lengthening of the limb and the possibility of moving it freely were
not experienced immediately; the cure was not so sudden, a period of
weakness, long or short, always followed the miracle, and the part only
gradually regained its use. The cracking of the bone is just what the
surgeon finds when he moves a joint which has become fixed by disuse;
without breaking down these adhesions, he can do nothing to restore the
articulation. In cases of rheumatic paralysis a similar state of things
is observed. Of course in the accounts of the healing at the tomb of
St. Louis we expect to find errors and exaggerations due to the preoccupation
and ignorance of those who wrote the reports, but we at
once recognise the cracking and the pain as genuine pathological
details; we should not expect a natural cure without these symptoms.
To what shall we attribute them? M. Littré gives the explanation in
the words of M. le docteur Onimus, published in <i>La Philosophic positive
sur la Vibration nerveuse</i>.<a id="FNanchor_780_780" href="#Footnote_780_780" class="fnanchor">780</a> The ascending action or vibration expresses
the influence of the physical on the moral; the descending
action or vibration expresses the influence of the moral on the physical.
In these cases it is the descending action which we have to consider.
This action is exerted on the muscular portion of the affected part;
it contracts energetically; it breaks down the pathological adhesions if
they exist; it restores the bones violently to their place; this done, the
patient is in a condition to use the limb, but not without passing through
a period of debility which requires time for recovery. It is a violent<span class="pagenum" id="Page_321">321</span>
extension produced by muscular contractions. Surgery has frequently
to break down such adhesions and destroy false anchyloses. Here the
force is not exerted by a strange hand, but by an influence which is
exerted on the muscles themselves, and this in a far more beneficent
manner than surgery can afford. What is the exciting cause of these
energetic contractions? That which we find in all miracles of this sort—a
strong persuasion, a complete confidence. Under a profound
emotion born of these sentiments, the patient, feeling that the cure was
in the extension of the part, had a belief which he could understand.
Of course such faith is not possible in every case. On one side there
must be the mental condition which can receive in its fulness the
emotion born of persuasion and confidence, and on the other that the
lesions must be susceptible of cure. To a certain degree there are
lesions which escape all this sort of treatment. Herbert Spencer
points out<a id="FNanchor_781_781" href="#Footnote_781_781" class="fnanchor">781</a> that muscular power fails with flagging emotions or desires
which lapse into indifference, and conversely that intense feeling or
passion confers a great increase in muscular force. It is brain and
feeling generated by the mind which give strength to the person who
thinks strongly.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Albertus Magnus</span> (1193-1280), one of the greatest of the schoolmen,
combined with his religious speculations so great a knowledge of
physical science and mechanics that he was reputed as a sorcerer. He
constructed automata, some of which could speak; wrote on anatomy,
physiology, botany, chemistry, astronomy, magnetism, acclimatization of
plants and animals, etc. He digested, interpreted, and systematized the
whole of the writings of Aristotle in accordance with the teaching of the
Church. He was called, not only “Albert the Great,” but “the Universal
doctor.” To his labours and those of <span class="smcap">Thomas Aquinas</span> may be explained
the reverence for <span class="smcap">Aristotle</span> entertained by the clergy of the
Roman and Anglican churches even to the present day.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Thomas Aquinas</span> (1225 <i>circ.</i>-1274), was the great Dominican theologian
who wrote the <i>Summa Theologiæ</i>. In his famous work he incidentally
dealt with medical and physiological questions. The source
of all motion is the heart. The soul is created anew in each conception.
Moisture, heat, and æther alone are necessary for the generation
of an individual; the lower animals originate even from putrefying
matter. He wrote commentaries on the works of Aristotle, and derived
many of his scientific ideas from this great master. The biology of St.
Thomas, as may be imagined, is exceedingly feeble, yet it too often
forms the only knowledge of the subject which continental clergymen
possess.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_322">322</span></p>

<p><span class="smcap">Raymond Lulli</span> (1235-1315) was a man of great intellect, who sought
the secrets of transmutation of metals and the philosopher’s stone.
He was a bold thinker, an astrologer, and a physician of great repute.
Naturally he was accused of magic. His acquaintance with the
Arabians directed his mind to the study of chemistry. He wrote on
medical subjects, the titles of his best known works being <i>De Pulsibus
et Urinis</i>, <i>De Medicina Theorica et Practica</i>, <i>De Aquis et Oleis</i>.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Roger Bacon</span> (1214-1298). By theologians he was believed to be
in league with the devil, because of his belief in astrology and his
scientific attainments. It is probable that his reputed invention of
certain optical instruments was really due to his acquaintance with
Arabic, as the Arabians were familiar with the camera, burning glass,
and microscope, which have been attributed to him. Neither is it
the fact that he invented gunpowder, as is usually supposed. Bacon
wrote voluminously on theology, philosophy, and science. Although he
believed in astrology and the philospher’s stone, he had a true scientific
idea of the value of experiment, which forcibly reminds us of the Francis
Bacon which future ages would reveal.</p>

<p>“Experimental science,” he said, “has three great prerogatives over
all other sciences: (1) it verifies their conclusions by direct experiments;
(2) it discovers truths which they could never reach; (3) it investigates
the secrets of nature, and opens to us a knowledge of past and future.”<a id="FNanchor_782_782" href="#Footnote_782_782" class="fnanchor">782</a>
As an instance of his method, Bacon gives an investigation into the
phenomena of the rainbow, which is doubtless a very remarkable example
of inductive research.</p>

<p>Roger Bacon proved himself far in advance of his time by his
insistence of the supremacy of experiment. So different was his mental
attitude in this regard from the temper of his time that Whewell finds
it difficult to conceive how such a character could then exist.<a id="FNanchor_783_783" href="#Footnote_783_783" class="fnanchor">783</a> He
learned much from Arabian writers, but certainly not from them did he
learn to emancipate himself from the bondage to Aristotle which everywhere
enslaved them. Doubtless he learned from Aristotle himself to
call no man master in science, for the Stagyrite declared that all knowledge
must come from observation, and that science must be collected
from facts by induction.<a id="FNanchor_784_784" href="#Footnote_784_784" class="fnanchor">784</a> Probably the truth about Aristotle is that
Bacon’s objections were directed against the Latin translations of the
Greek philosopher, which were very bad ones. Of both Avicenna and
Averroes he speaks respectfully, and it is doubted whether any passages<span class="pagenum" id="Page_323">323</span>
in Bacon’s works can be construed into opposition to Aristotle’s own
authority.<a id="FNanchor_785_785" href="#Footnote_785_785" class="fnanchor">785</a></p>

<p>Wood says<a id="FNanchor_786_786" href="#Footnote_786_786" class="fnanchor">786</a> that Roger Bacon was accounted the fourth in order
of the chief chemists the world had ever produced, their names being
(1) Hermes Trismegistus, the first chemist, (2) Geber, (3) Morienus
Romanus, (4) Roger Bacon, (5) Raymond Lulli, (6) Paracelsus.</p>

<p>Roger Bacon made such prodigious chemical experiments at Oxford
and Paris “that none could be convinced to the contrary but that he
dealt with the devil.”</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Jean Pitard</span> (1228-1315) founded the surgical society in France,
which exercised a very important influence on the development of the
healing art in that country, under the title of the “College de Saint
Côme.”<a id="FNanchor_787_787" href="#Footnote_787_787" class="fnanchor">787</a> At a time when surgery of the lower character was practised
by barbers, this important corporation of educated men broke off from
the inferior association and combined to form an academy of the higher
surgery.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Peter de Maharncourt</span> was an Oxford student, so “excellent in
chemical experiments that he was instituted <i>Dominus Experimentorum</i>.”<a id="FNanchor_788_788" href="#Footnote_788_788" class="fnanchor">788</a>
He not only worked in metallurgy, but interested himself in “the
experiments of old women, their charms, magical spells, and verses
that they used to repeat when they applied or gave anything to their
patients.”</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Nicholas Myrepsus</span> (<i>circ.</i> <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 1250), “Actuarius,” <i>i.e.</i> physician-in-ordinary,
wrote a vast work on materia medica, containing 2,656 prescriptions
for every disease, real or imaginary, which afflicts our race.
He had studied at Salerno.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">John Actuarius</span> (<i>circ.</i> 1283) was a medical genius in advance of his
age. He wrote a useful materia medica and a treatise on the kidney
secretion, in which he explains the use of a graduated glass for estimating
the amount of sediments, which he classifies according to their colours.
He appeared, says Haeser, “like the last flickerings of a dying flame”
just before the Turks destroyed the glorious work of the Greeks in the
civilized world.</p>

<p>In Edward the First’s reign the king’s physician had twelve pence
per day for his expenses in visiting the Countess of Gloucester, the
king’s daughter, when she was ill.<a id="FNanchor_789_789" href="#Footnote_789_789" class="fnanchor">789</a></p>

<p>The art of poisoning was brought to considerable perfection in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_324">324</span>
Middle Ages, and there is abundant evidence of the fact that women
were commonly agents in it.<a id="FNanchor_790_790" href="#Footnote_790_790" class="fnanchor">790</a></p>

<p>In Edward the Third’s reign the ladies of the household were both
nurses and doctors. Regular practitioners were few, and the mistress
of the house and her maidens were compelled to do the best they could
in their absence. Medicinal herbs were cultivated in every garden, and
were either dried or made into decoctions and kept ready for use.
Many of these fair practitioners were reputed to be very skilful in
medical practice. Chaucer, in the “Nonne-Prestes Tale,” has left a
faithful picture of the domestic medicine of the period in the character
of Dame Pertelot.</p>

<hr class="chap" />
<div class="chapter"></div>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_325">325</span></p>




<h3 id="CHAPTERIV_VII">CHAPTER VII.<br />

<small>THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY.</small></h3>

<blockquote>

<p>Revival of Human Anatomy.—Famous Physicians of the Century.—Domestic Medicine
in Chaucer.—Fellowship of the Barbers and Surgeons.—The Black Death.—The
Dancing Mania.—Pharmacy.</p></blockquote>


<h4><span class="smcap">Revival of Human Anatomy.</span></h4>

<p>Brighter days dawned for medical science after the close of the
thirteenth century, up to which era the Saracenic learning prevailed.
While human dissections were impossible, the sciences of anatomy and
philosophy had made no advance beyond the point at which they were
left by Galen, and as he dissected only animals they were necessarily
left in a very imperfect state. It is not known precisely when human
dissection was revived; probably the school of Salerno, under the influence
of Frederick II., has a right to the honour. In 1308, however,
we find the senate of Venice decreeing that a body should be dissected
annually,<a id="FNanchor_791_791" href="#Footnote_791_791" class="fnanchor">791</a> and it is known that such dissections took place at Bologna
in 1300. We have, however, nothing very definite on the subject till
a few years later. Italy gave birth to the first great anatomist of
Europe.</p>

<p>The father of modern anatomy was <span class="smcap">Mondino</span>, who taught in
Bologna about the year 1315. Under his cultivation “the science first
began to rise from the ashes in which it had been buried.”<a id="FNanchor_792_792" href="#Footnote_792_792" class="fnanchor">792</a> His
demonstrations of the different parts of the human body at once attracted
the notice of the medical profession of Europe to the school of Bologna.
He died in 1325. Though he had a penetrating faculty of observation,
he was not altogether original, as he copied Galen and the Arabians.
He divided the body into three cavities: the upper, containing the
animal members; the lower, the natural members; and the middle, the
spiritual members. His anatomy of the heart is wonderfully accurate,
and he came very near to the discovery of the circulation of the blood.<a id="FNanchor_793_793" href="#Footnote_793_793" class="fnanchor">793</a>
He described seven pairs of nerves at the base of the brain, and was
evidently acquainted with the anatomy of that organ.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_326">326</span></p>

<p>He is said to have had the assistance of a young lady, <span class="smcap">Alassandra
Giliani</span>, as prosector. Anatomical demonstrations in those days were,
at the best, very imperfect. The demonstrator did not actually himself
dissect; this was done by a barber-surgeon with a razor, the lecturer
merely standing by and pointing out the objects of interest to the
students with his staff. Nor did the process occupy much time; four
lessons served to explain the mysteries of the human frame: the first
was on the abdomen, the second on the organs of the chest, the third
on the brain, and the fourth on the extremities.<a id="FNanchor_794_794" href="#Footnote_794_794" class="fnanchor">794</a> The bodies were
buried, or placed in running or boiling water, to soften the tissues and
facilitate their examination. Dissections first took place at Prague in
1348, Montpellier after 1376, Strasburg, 1517. In Italy, sometimes, a
condemned criminal was first stabbed in prison by the executioner, and
then conveyed at once to the dissecting room, for the use of the doctors.</p>

<p>The most famous physicians of this period were:—</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Petrus Apono</span>, or <span class="smcap">Pietro of Abano</span> (1250-1315), a famous physician,
who lived at Abano near Padua, and who had studied medicine
and other sciences at Padua and Paris. He travelled in Greece and
other parts, acquired a knowledge of the Greek language, and was a
devoted student of the works of Averroes. He endeavoured to mediate
between the Arabian and the Greek physicians in their controversies
on medicine, and wrote with that view his work, entitled the <i>Conciliator
differentiarum philosophorum et precipue medicorum</i>. He knew
enough of physiology to be aware that the brain is the source of the
nerves, and the heart that of all the blood-vessels. He meddled with
astrology, and was accused of practising magic, of possessing the philosopher’s
stone. He was found guilty on his second trial by the Inquisition;
but as he died before the trial was completed, he was merely
burned in effigy.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Jacob de Dondis</span> (1298-1359) was a physician, who was a professor
at Padua, and was famous as the author of an herbal with plates containing
descriptions of simple medicines.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Arnold of Villa Nova</span> (1235-1312), physician, alchemist, and
astrologer, did much to advance chemical science, and whose work,
the <i>Breviarium Practicæ</i>, is not a mere compilation. He advised his
pupils, when they failed to find out what was the matter with their
patients, to declare that there was “some obstruction of the liver,”—a
practice much in vogue even in the present day. He was the first to
administer brandy, which he called the elixir of life (Baas). He discovered
the art of preparing distilled spirits (Thomson).</p>

<p>Collections of medical cases first began to be preserved in an in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_327">327</span>telligible
form in the thirteenth century; they were called <i>consilia</i>.
Those by <span class="smcap">Fulgineus</span> (before 1348), by <span class="smcap">Montagnana</span> (died 1470), and
by <span class="smcap">Baverius de Baveriis</span>, of Imola (about 1450), are said to be interesting.<a id="FNanchor_795_795" href="#Footnote_795_795" class="fnanchor">795</a></p>

<p><span class="smcap">Gordonius</span> was a Scottish professor at Montpellier, who in 1307
wrote the <i>Practica seu Lilium Medicinæ</i>; it went through several
editions, and was translated into French and Hebrew.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Sylvaticus</span> (<i>ob.</i> 1342) wrote a sort of medical glossary and dictionary.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Gilbertus Anglicanus</span> (about 1290) wrote a compendium of
medicine, also called <i>Rosa Anglicana</i>, a work of European reputation,
said to contain good observations on leprosy.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">John of Gaddesden</span> was an Oxford man and a court physician,
who between 1305 and 1317 wrote the <i>Rosa Anglica seu Practica
Medicinæ</i>,—a work which, though of little merit, remained popular up
to the sixteenth century. Some of his remedies are very curious. For
loss of memory he prescribed the heart of a nightingale, and he was a
firm believer in the efficacy of the king’s touch for scrofula. For small-pox
he prescribed the following treatment, as soon as the eruption
appeared: “Cause the whole body of your patient to be wrapped in
scarlet cloth, or in any other red cloth, and command everything about
the bed to be made red. This is an excellent cure.” Again, for epilepsy,
the method of cure was as follows: “Because there are many
children and others afflicted with the epilepsy, who cannot take medicines,
let the following experiment be tried, which I have found to be
effectual, whether the patient was a demoniac, a lunatic, or an epileptic.
When the patient and his parents have fasted three days, let them conduct
him to a church. If he be of a proper age, and of his right senses,
let him confess. Then let him hear Mass on Friday, and also on
Saturday. On Sunday let a good and religious priest read over the
head of the patient, in the church, the gospel which is read in September,
in the time of vintage, after the feast of the Holy Cross. After
this, let the priest write the same gospel devoutly, and let the patient
wear it about his neck, and he shall be cured. The gospel is, ‘This
kind goeth not out but by prayer and fasting.’” These quotations are
both from the <i>Medical Rose</i>; and as the author was at the head of his
profession, numbered princes amongst his patients, and was extolled by
writers of the time, it doubtless fairly represents the practice of the
period. The medicine of the period embraced the demon theory of
disease and the belief in the efficacy of amulets, or more correctly of
characts.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_328">328</span></p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Domestic Medicine in Chaucer’s Time.</span></h4>

<p><span class="smcap">Chaucer</span> (1340-1400), in the <i>Nonnes Preestes Tale</i>, tells us how in
his time people took care of their health by attention to diet; and how,
when folk were sick, and doctors not handy, nor medicines to be had at
the chemist’s close by, the wise women were able, not only to prescribe
skilfully, but to supply the requisite medicines from their own store or
garden.</p>

<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"><div class="stanza">
  <div class="verse">“A poure widewe, somdel stoupen in age,</div>
  <div class="verse">Was whilom dwelling in a narwe cotage</div>
  <div class="verse">Beside a grove, stonding in a dale.</div>
</div><div class="stanza">
  <div class="verse">

<hr class="tb" /></div>
</div><div class="stanza">
  <div class="verse">Hire diete was accordant to hire cote.</div>
  <div class="verse">Repletion ne made hire never sike;</div>
  <div class="verse">Attempre diete was all hire physike</div>
  <div class="verse">And exercise, &amp; hertes suffisance.</div>
  <div class="verse">The goute let hire nothing for to dance,</div>
  <div class="verse">No apoplexie shente not hire hed,</div>
  <div class="verse">No win ne dranke she, neyther white ne red.</div>
</div><div class="stanza">
  <div class="verse">‘Now, sire,’ quod she, ‘whan we flee fro the bemes,</div>
  <div class="verse">For Goddes love, as take som laxatif;</div>
  <div class="verse">Up peril of my soule, &amp; of my lif,</div>
  <div class="verse">I conseil you the best, I wol not lie.</div>
  <div class="verse">That both of coler, &amp; of melancolie</div>
  <div class="verse">Ye purge you; and for ye shul not tarie,</div>
  <div class="verse">Though in this toun be non apotecarie,</div>
  <div class="verse">I shal myself two herbes techen you,</div>
  <div class="verse">That shal be for your hele, &amp; for your prow;</div>
  <div class="verse">And in our yerde, the herbes shal I finde,</div>
  <div class="verse">The which han of hir propretee by kinde</div>
  <div class="verse">To purgen you benethe, &amp; eke above.</div>
  <div class="verse">Sire, forgete not this for Goddes love;</div>
  <div class="verse">Ye ben ful colerike of complexion;</div>
  <div class="verse">Ware that the Sonne in his ascention</div>
  <div class="verse">Ne find you not replete of humours hote:</div>
  <div class="verse">And if it do, I dare wel lay a grote,</div>
  <div class="verse">That ye shul han a fever tertiane,</div>
  <div class="verse">Or elles an ague, that may be your bane.</div>
  <div class="verse">A day or two ye shal han digestives</div>
  <div class="verse">Of wormes, or ye take your laxatives,</div>
  <div class="verse">Of laureole, centaurie, &amp; fumetere,</div>
  <div class="verse">Or elles of ellebor, that groweth there,</div>
  <div class="verse">Of catapuce, or of gaitre-beries,</div>
  <div class="verse">Or herbe ive growing in our yerd, that mery is;</div>
  <div class="verse">Picke hem right as they grow, and ete hem in.’”</div>
</div></div></div>

<p>Chaucer has indicated for us, in his Prologue to the <i>Canterbury Tales</i>,
who were the great medical authors studied by English physicians of
the period.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_329">329</span></p>

<p>Besides Æsculapius, whose works certainly could not have reached
the “Doctour of Physicke,” he read Dioscorides, the famous writer
on Materia Medica (<span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 40-90). Rufus (of Ephesus, about <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 50).
Old Hippocras = Hippocrates. Hali = Ali Abbas (died 994). Gallien =
Galen. Serapion; there were two, the elder and the younger.
Rasis = Rhazes (<span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 850-923). Avicen = Avicenna (died 1170).
Averriois = Averroes (died 1198). Damascene = Janus Damascenus,
<i>alias</i> Mesue the elder (780-857). Constantin = Constantinus Africanus
(1018-1085). Bernard = Bernardus Provincialis (about 1155). Gatisden = John
of Gaddesden (about 1305). Gilbertin = Gilbert of England
(about 1290).</p>

<p>“His study was but little on the Bible,” says the poet, who also
intimates that as gold in physic is a cordial, he was partial to fees.</p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Fellowship of Barbers and Surgeons.</span></h4>

<p>On the 10th of September, 1348, says Anthony à Wood,<a id="FNanchor_796_796" href="#Footnote_796_796" class="fnanchor">796</a> “appeared
before Mr. John Northwode, D.D., Chancellor of the University of
Oxford, John Bradey, Barber, Richard Fell, Barber Surgeon, Thomas
Billye, Waferer, and with them the whole Company and Fellowship of
Barbers within the precincts of Oxford, and intending thenceforward to
join and bind themselves in amity and love, brought with them certain
ordinations and statutes drawn up in writings for the weal of the Craft of
Barbers, desiring the said Chancellor that he would peruse and correct
them, and when he had so done, to put the University seal to them.
Thus the Barbers of Oxford were formed into a Corporation, one of
their ordinations being that no man nor servant of the Craft of Barbers
or Surgery should reveal any <i>infirmity</i> or <i>secret</i> disease they have, to
their customers or patients. Of which, if any one should be found
guilty, then he was to pay 20<i>s.</i>, whereof 6<i>s.</i> 8<i>d.</i> was to go to Our Lady’s
box, 6<i>s.</i> 8<i>d.</i> to the Chancellor, or in his absence, to the Commissary,
and 6.<i>s.</i> 8<i>d.</i> to the Proctors.” The Barbers, Surgeons, Waferers, and
makers of singing bread were all of the same fellowship. They all continued
in one society till the year 1500, when the Cappers or Knitters
of Caps, sometimes called Capper-Hurrers, were united to them.<a id="FNanchor_797_797" href="#Footnote_797_797" class="fnanchor">797</a> In
1551 the Barbers and Waferers laid aside their charter and took one in
the name of the City; but Wood says they lived without any ordination,
statutes, or charter till 1675, when they received a charter from the
University.<a id="FNanchor_798_798" href="#Footnote_798_798" class="fnanchor">798</a></p>


<h4><span class="smcap">The Black Death.</span></h4>

<p>A great pestilence desolated Asia, Europe, and Africa in the fourteenth
century, which was known as <i>The Black Death</i>. Its origin was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_330">330</span>
oriental, and it was distinguished by boils and tumours of the glands,
accompanied by black spots. Many patients became stupefied and fell
into a deep sleep; they became speechless, their tongues were black,
and their thirst unquenchable. Their sufferings were so terrible that
many in despair committed suicide. Those who waited upon the sick
caught the disease, and in Constantinople many houses were bereft of
their last inhabitant. Guy de Chauliac, the physician (born about 1300),
bravely defied the plague when it raged in Avignon for six or eight
weeks, although the form which it there assumed was distinguished by
the pestilential breath of the patients who expectorated blood, so that
the near vicinity of the persons who were sick was certain death. The
courageous de Chauliac, when all his colleagues had fled the city, boldly
and constantly assisted the sufferers. He saw the plague twice in
Avignon—in 1348, and twelve years later. Boccacio, who was in Florence
when it raged in that city, has described it in the <i>Decameron</i>. No
medicine brought relief; not only men, but animals sickened with it and
rapidly expired. Boccacio himself saw two hogs, on the rags of a person
who had died of the plague, fall dead, after staggering a little as if they
had been poisoned. Multitudes of other animals fell victims to the
epidemic in the same way. In France many young and strong persons
died as soon as they were struck, as if by lightning. The plague spread
over England with terrible rapidity. It first broke out in the county of
Dorset; advancing to Devonshire and Somersetshire, it reached Bristol,
Gloucester, Oxford, and London. The annals of contemporaries record
the awful fact that throughout the land only a tenth of the population
remained alive. The contagion spread from England to Norway.
Poland and Russia suffered later in a similar manner, although the
disease did not always manifest itself in the same form in every case.
Only two medical descriptions of the disease have come down to us—one
by <span class="smcap">Guy de Chauliac</span>, the other by <span class="smcap">Raymond Chalin de Vinario</span>.
Chauliac notices the fatal coughing of blood; Vinario in addition describes
fluxes of blood from the bowels, and bleeding at the nose.
What were the causes which produced so dreadful a plague, it is impossible
to discover with certainty.</p>

<p>Dr. Hecker, to whose work on the subject<a id="FNanchor_799_799" href="#Footnote_799_799" class="fnanchor">799</a> I am indebted for
the information concerning it, says that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_331">331</span> “mighty revolutions in the
organism of the earth, of which we have credible information, had preceded
it. From China to the Atlantic the foundations of the earth
were shaken, throughout Asia and Europe the atmosphere was in commotion,
and endangered, by its baneful influence, both vegetable and
animal life.”</p>

<p>In 1337, 4,000,000 of people perished by famine in China in the
neighbourhood of Kiang alone. Floods, famines, and earthquakes were
frequent, both in Asia and Europe. In Cyprus a pestiferous wind
spread a poisonous odour before an earthquake shook the island to
its foundations, and many of the inhabitants fell down suddenly and
expired in dreadful agonies after inhaling the noxious gases. German
chemists state that a thick stinking mist advancing from the east spread
over Italy in thousands of places, and vast chasms opened in the earth
which exhaled the most noxious vapours.</p>


<h4><span class="smcap">The Dancing Mania.</span></h4>

<p>In the year 1374 a strange delusion arose in Germany, a convulsion
infuriating the human frame, and afflicting the people for more than two
centuries. It was called the dance of St. John or of St. Vitus, and
those affected by it performed a wild dance while screaming and foaming
with fury. The sight of the afflicted communicated the mania to
the observers, and the demoniacal epidemic soon spread over the whole
of Germany and the neighbouring countries to the north-west.</p>

<p>Bands of men and women went about the streets forming circles
hand in hand, and danced madly for hours together, until they fell in
a state of exhaustion to the ground. They complained, when in this
state, of great oppression, and groaned as if in extreme pain, till they
were tightly bandaged round their waists with cloths, when they speedily
recovered. While dancing they were insensible to external impressions,
but their minds were in a condition of great exaltation, and they saw in
their fancies heavenly beings and visitants from the world of spirits. At
Aix-la Chapelle, at Cologne, and in 1418 at Strasburg, the “Dancing
Plague” infatuated the people by thousands.<a id="FNanchor_800_800" href="#Footnote_800_800" class="fnanchor">800</a></p>

<p>Hecker attributes the madness to the recollection of the crimes committed
by the people during the visitation of the Black Plague, to the
previous inundations, the wretched condition of the people of Western
and Southern Germany in consequence of the incessant feuds of the
barons, to hunger, bad food, and the insecurity of the times. Dancing
plagues had often occurred before; in 1237 more than a hundred
children were suddenly seized by it at Erfurt, and several other dates
are given by historians for similar occurrences. Physicians did not
attempt the cure of the malady, but left it to the priests, as it was considered
to be due to demoniacal possession.</p>

<p>Hecker says<a id="FNanchor_801_801" href="#Footnote_801_801" class="fnanchor">801</a> that Paracelsus in the sixteenth century was the first
physician who made a study of St. Vitus’s dance. The great reformer
of medicine said:<span class="pagenum" id="Page_332">332</span> “We will not, however, admit that the saints have
power to inflict diseases, and that these ought to be named after them,
although many there are who, in their theology, lay great stress on this
supposition, ascribing them rather to God than to nature, which is but
idle talk. We dislike such nonsensical gossip, as is not supported by
symptoms, but only by faith, a thing which is not human, whereon the
gods themselves set no value.”</p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Pharmacy.</span></h4>

<p>The drug dealers of the Middle Ages had little or no relationship to
our apothecaries and pharmacists.</p>

<p>The word <i>apotheca</i> meant a store or warehouse, and its proprietor was
the <i>apothecarius</i>. From the word <i>apotheca</i> the Italians derive their <i>bottéga</i>,
and the French their <i>boutique</i>, a shop. The thirteenth and fourteenth
century apothecary, therefore, was altogether a different person from
our own. It is probable that the Arabian physicians about the time of
Avenzoar, in the eleventh century, began to abandon to druggists the
business of compounding their prescriptions; the custom would then
have spread to Spain, Sicily, and South Italy, where the Saracen
possessions lay. This explains how so many Arabic terms became
introduced into chemical nomenclature, such as <i>alembic</i>. Persons who
prepared preserves, etc., were called <i>confectionarii</i>, and they made up
medicines, and those who kept medicine shops were called <i>stationarii</i>.
The physicians at Salerno had the inspection of the <i>stationes</i>.</p>

<p>Beckmann finds no proof that physicians at that time sent their prescriptions
to the <i>stationes</i> to be dispensed. He says: “It appears
rather that the <i>confectionarii</i> prepared medicines from a general set of
prescriptions legally authorized, and that the physicians selected from
these medicines kept ready for use, such as they thought most proper
to be administered to their patients.”<a id="FNanchor_802_802" href="#Footnote_802_802" class="fnanchor">802</a></p>

<hr class="chap" />
<div class="chapter"></div>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_333">333</span></p>




<h3 id="CHAPTERIV_VIII">CHAPTER VIII.<br />

<small>THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY.</small></h3>

<blockquote>

<p>Faith Healing.—Charms and Astrology in Medicine.—The Revival of Learning.—The
Humanists.—Cabalism and Theology.—The Study of Natural History.—The
Sweating Sickness.—Tarantism.—Quarantine.—High Position of Oxford
University.</p></blockquote>


<h4><span class="smcap">Faith-healing.</span></h4>

<p>Medicine in mediæval Christian history is simply the history of
miracles of healing wrought by saints or by their relics. Bede’s <i>Ecclesiastical
History</i>, for example, is full of saintly cures and marvels of
healing. The study of medical science under such circumstances could
have had but little encouragement. Doctors were but of secondary
importance where holy relics and saintly personages were everywhere
present to cure.</p>

<p>In the Catholic Church there are special saints who are invoked for
almost every sort of disease.</p>

<ul><li>St. Agatha, against sore breast.</li>

<li>St. Agnan and St. Tignan, against scald head.</li>

<li>St. Anthony, against inflammations.</li>

<li>St. Apollonia, against toothache.</li>

<li>St. Avertin, against lunacy.</li>

<li>St. Benedict, against the stone, and also for poisons.</li>

<li>St. Blaise, against the quinsey, bones sticking in the throat, etc.</li>

<li>St. Christopher and St. Mark, against sudden death.</li>

<li>St. Clara, against sore eyes.</li>

<li>St. Erasmus, against the colic.</li>

<li>St. Eutrope, against dropsy.</li>

<li>St. Genow and St. Maur, against the gout.</li>

<li>St. Germanus, against children’s diseases.</li>

<li>St. Giles and St. Hyacinth, against sterility.</li>

<li>St. Hubert, against hydrophobia.</li>

<li>St. Job and St. Fiage, against syphilis.</li>

<li>St. John, against epilepsy and poison.</li>

<li>St. Lawrence, against diseases of the back and shoulders.</li>

<li><span class="pagenum" id="Page_334">334</span></li>

<li>St. Liberius, against the stone and fistula.</li>

<li>St. Maine, against the scab.</li>

<li>St. Margaret and St. Edine, against danger in child-bed.</li>

<li>St. Martin, against the itch.</li>

<li>St. Marus, against palsy and convulsions.</li>

<li>St. Otilia and St. Juliana, against sore eyes and the headache.</li>

<li>St. Pernel, against the ague.</li>

<li>St. Petronilla, St. Apollonia, and St. Lucy, against the toothache.</li>

<li>—— and St. Genevieve, against fevers.</li>

<li>St. Phaire, against hæmorrhoids.</li>

<li>St. Quintam, against coughs.</li>

<li>St. Rochus and St. Sebastian, against the plague.</li>

<li>St. Romanus, against demoniacal possession.</li>

<li>St. Ruffin, against madness.</li>

<li>St. Sigismund, against fevers and agues.</li>

<li>St. Valentin, against epilepsy.</li>

<li>St. Venise, against chlorosis.</li>

<li>St. Vitus, against madness and poisons.</li>

<li>St. Wallia and Wallery, against the stone.</li>

<li>St. Wolfgang, against lameness.</li>
</ul>

<p>Pettigrew<a id="FNanchor_803_803" href="#Footnote_803_803" class="fnanchor">803</a> gives the above list, but probably it might be considerably
extended.</p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Charms and Astrology.</span></h4>

<p>A curious little MS. volume was discovered amongst the MSS. at
Loseley, which contained a Latin grammar, a Treatise on Astrology,
various medical recipes and precautions, with forms for making wills.
It had probably been a monk’s manual. The writing was the character
of the fifteenth century. Some of the medical recipes and astrological
precautions are said to be taken from “Master Galien (Galen), leche,”
thus:—“<i>For all manner of fevers.</i> Take iii drops of a woman’s mylke
yt norseth a knave childe, and do it in a hennes egge that ys sedentere
(or sitting), and let hym suppe it up when the evyl takes hym.—<i>For hym—that
may not slepe.</i> Take and wryte yese wordes into leves of lether:
Ismael! Ismael! adjuro te per Angelum Michaelum ut soporetur homo
iste; and lay this under his bed, so yt he wot not yerof, and use it all-way
lytell, and lytell, as he have nede yerto.” Under the head,—“<i>Here
begyneth ye waxingge of ye mone, and declareth in dyvers tymes
to let blode, whiche be gode.</i> In the furste begynynge of the mone it is
profetable to yche man to be letten blode; ye ix of the mone, neyther
be (by) nyght ne by day, it is not good.”<a id="FNanchor_804_804" href="#Footnote_804_804" class="fnanchor">804</a></p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_335">335</span></p>

<p>One Simon Trippe, a physician, writing to a patient to excuse himself
for not being able to visit him, says: “As for my comming to you
upon Wensday next, verely my promise be past to an old pacient of
mine, a very good gentlewoman, one Mrs. Clerk, wch now lieth in great
extremity. I cannot possibly be with you till Thursday. On Fryday
and Saterday the signe wilbe in the heart; on Sunday, Monday and
Tuesday, in the stomake; during wch tyme it wilbe no good dealing
with your ordinary physicke untill Wensday come sevenight at the nearest,
and from that time forwards for 15 or 16 days passing good.”<a id="FNanchor_805_805" href="#Footnote_805_805" class="fnanchor">805</a></p>

<p>This is very similar to what we find in Bede’s <i>Ecclesiastical History</i>,
where (<span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 686) “a holy Bishop having been asked to bless a sick
maiden, asked ‘when she had been bled?’ and being told that it was
on the fourth day of the moon, said: ‘You did very indiscreetly and
unskilfully to bleed her on the fourth day of the moon; for I remember
that Archbishop Theodore, of blessed memory, said that bleeding at
that time was very dangerous, when the light of the moon and the tide
of the ocean is increasing; and what can I do to the girl if she is like
to die?’”<a id="FNanchor_806_806" href="#Footnote_806_806" class="fnanchor">806</a></p>

<p>Holinshed says<a id="FNanchor_807_807" href="#Footnote_807_807" class="fnanchor">807</a> that a lewd fellow, in the sixth year of Richard
the Second, “took upon him to be skilful in physick and astronomy,”
predicted that the rise of a “pestilent planet” would cause much sickness
and death amongst the people; but as the pestilence did not appear,
the fellow was punished severely. Stow records<a id="FNanchor_808_808" href="#Footnote_808_808" class="fnanchor">808</a> that one Roger
Bolingbroke, in the second year of Henry the Sixth (1423), was accused
of necromancy and endeavouring by diabolical arts to consume the king’s
person. He was seized with all his instruments of magic and set upon
a scaffold in St. Paul’s Churchyard, where he abjured his diabolical
arts in the presence of the Archbishop of Canterbury and many other
prelates. The punishment for witchcraft was hanging or burning
alive.</p>

<p>Strutt says<a id="FNanchor_809_809" href="#Footnote_809_809" class="fnanchor">809</a> that it was extremely dangerous in those days to pretend
to any supernatural knowledge; as every one believed in the influence
of malignant spirits, and that they were obedient to the call of the
necromancers. “No contagion could happen among the cattle of a
farmer, but the devil was the cause, and some conjurer was sought out;
so that if any wretched vagabonds of fortune-tellers could be found,
they were instantly accused of this horrid crime, and perhaps burnt
alive.”<a id="FNanchor_810_810" href="#Footnote_810_810" class="fnanchor">810</a></p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_336">336</span></p>


<h4><span class="smcap">The Revival of Learning.</span></h4>

<p><span class="smcap">Pope Nicholas V.</span> (1389-1455) was a man of great intellectual sympathies.
He was not devoted to any one branch of learning, but was
“a well-informed <i>dillettante</i>, wandering at will wherever his fancy led
him.” Æneas Sylvius said of him: “From his youth he has been
initiated into all liberal arts; he is acquainted with all philosophers,
historians, poets, cosmographers, and theologians; and is no stranger
to civil and canon law, or even to medicine.” He was the patron
of scholars, and was equally devoted to ecclesiastical and profane
literature. Although he was the son of a physician, it is not true that
he was ever one himself, as has been stated.<a id="FNanchor_811_811" href="#Footnote_811_811" class="fnanchor">811</a> It is pleasant, however,
to reflect that this pope, whose name is most intimately associated with
the revival of learning, probably imbibed much of the scientific lore of
his time which his father’s profession would encourage, and that taste
for learning and that liberal spirit which has always been associated
with the medical profession. The Humanists—as those who devoted
themselves to the Humanities, such as philology, rhetoric, poetry, and
the study of the ancient classes, were called—found a friendly reception
at the papal court.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Nicholas of Cusa</span> was the reforming Cardinal Bishop of Brixen
(1401-1464). Giordano Bruno called him “the divine Cusanus.” In
physical science he was greatly in advance of his age, and he united
moral worth with intellectual gifts of the highest order.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Pope Pius II.</span>, better known in literature as Æneas Sylvius, pope
from 1458 to 1464, was also a great friend to the Humanists, a man of
great intellectual power. He stands forth in history as “the figure in
whom the mediæval and the modern spirit are most distinctly seen to
meet and blend,” ere the age of science begins to strangle the age of
superstition. Professor Creighton says that Pius II. is the first writer
“who consciously applied a scientific conception of history to the
explanation and arrangement of passing events.”<a id="FNanchor_812_812" href="#Footnote_812_812" class="fnanchor">812</a></p>

<p><span class="smcap">Leonardo da Vinci</span> (1452-1519), “the Faust of the Renaissance,”
excelled not only as an artist, but in all kinds of experimental investigation.
He was an anatomist, botanist, physiologist, and chemist.
Had he applied himself wholly to science, he would have been foremost
in that branch to which he devoted his wonderful energies. He was
one of the greatest and earliest of natural philosophers. He has been
declared to have been “the founder of the study of the anatomy and
structural classification of plants, the founder, or at least the chief<span class="pagenum" id="Page_337">337</span>
reviver, of the science of hydraulics—[the discoverer of] the molecular
composition of water, the motion of waves, and even the undulatory
theory of light and heat. He discovered the construction of the eye
and the optical laws of vision, and invented the camera obscura. He
investigated the composition of explosives and the application of steam
power.”<a id="FNanchor_813_813" href="#Footnote_813_813" class="fnanchor">813</a></p>

<p><span class="smcap">Matthew de Gradibus</span>, of Fiuli, near Milan, in 1480 composed
treatises on the anatomy of the human body. He first described the
ovaries of the female correctly.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Gabriel de Zerbis</span> (about 1495), of Verona, an eminent but verbose
anatomist, dissected the human subject, and recognised the olfactory
nerves. He mentioned the oblique and circular muscular fibres of the
stomach.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Alexander Achillini</span> (1463-1512), of Bologna, the pupil of
Mondino, is known in the history of anatomy as the first who described
the two bones of the ear (tympanal bones), the malleus and incus. In
1503 he showed that the tarsus (or ankle and instep bones) were seven
in number, so painfully and slowly was such a simple thing in human
anatomy settled in those times. He was more accurately acquainted
with the intestines than any of his predecessors.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Cornelius Agrippa</span> (1486-1536) was born at Cologne, and was a
profound student of what is known as “Occult Philosophy,” a strange
jumble of astrology, alchemy, cabalism, theology, and the teaching of
the so-called “Hermetic Books.” This sort of thing has of late years
again become fashionable under the revived name of Theosophy.</p>

<p>He seems to have been sufficiently harmless; but as he knew much
more of physical science than was considered consistent with good
churchmanship in those times, he was persecuted by the monk Catilinet,
and was forced to fly from place to place.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Johann Reuchlin</span> (1455-1522) was the first great German humanist.
His services to learning were chiefly in connection with the restoration
of Hebrew and Greek letters in Germany. He worshipped truth
as his god, was interested in philosophy, especially in that of the
Cabala, in which he sought a theosophy which should reconcile science
with religion. His sentiments brought him into conflict with the Inquisition,
but by appeal to Rome, after a long and tedious process, the
trial was quashed; the consequence being that the lovers of learning
and progress banded themselves together against the opponents of learning,
and assured the progress of the principles of the Renaissance in
Germany. Reuchlin was the author of a celebrated work, entitled
<i>De Verbo Mirifico</i>.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_338">338</span></p>


<h4><span class="smcap">The Sweating Sickness.</span></h4>

<p>The disease known as the sweating sickness first made its appearance
in England in 1485, after the battle of Bosworth. It followed in the
rear of Henry’s victorious army, and spread in a few weeks from Wales
to the metropolis. It is described by Hecker<a id="FNanchor_814_814" href="#Footnote_814_814" class="fnanchor">814</a> as being “a violent
inflammatory fever, which, after a short rigor, prostrated the powers as
with a blow; and amidst painful oppression at the stomach, headache,
and lethargic stupor, suffused the whole body with a fetid perspiration.”</p>

<p>Holinshed<a id="FNanchor_815_815" href="#Footnote_815_815" class="fnanchor">815</a> describes it thus: “Suddenlie a deadlie burning sweat
so assailed their bodies and distempered their blood with a most ardent
heat, that <i>scarce one amongst an hundred</i> that sickened did escape with
life; for all in maner as soone as the sweat took them, or within a short
time after, yeelded the ghost. Two lord mayors and six aldermen died
within one week. Many who went to bed at night perfectly well were
dead on the following morning; the victims, for the most part, were
the robust and vigorous. One attack gave no security against a
second; many were seized even a third time.” The whole of England
was visited by this plague by the end of the year. When it reached
Oxford, professors and students fled in all directions, and the University
was entirely deserted for six weeks. Medicine afforded little or no relief.
Even Thomas Linacre, the founder of the Royal College of Physicians
in 1518, does not in his writings say a word about the disease. As the
doctors failed to help the people, their common sense had to suffice them
in their need. They decided to take no violent medicine, but to apply
moderate heat; take little food and drink, and quietly wait for twenty-four
hours—the crisis of the disorder. “Those who were attacked
during the day, in order to avoid any chill, immediately went to bed in
their clothes; and those who sickened by night did not rise from their
beds in the morning; while all carefully avoided exposing to the air
even a hand or foot.”<a id="FNanchor_816_816" href="#Footnote_816_816" class="fnanchor">816</a></p>

<p>The five years preceding the outbreak of this epidemic had been
unusually wet, and inundations had been frequent. It is probable
that this was one of the causes which contributed to the unhealthy
condition of the atmosphere. The disease partook of the character
of rheumatic fever, with great disorder of the nervous system.<a id="FNanchor_817_817" href="#Footnote_817_817" class="fnanchor">817</a> In
addition to the profuse and injurious perspiration, oppressed respiration,
extreme anxiety, nausea, and vomiting, indicating that the functions of
the eighth pair of nerves were disturbed, were the general symptoms of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_339">339</span>
the malady. A stupor and profound lethargy indicated cerebral disturbance,
possibly from a morbid condition of the blood.</p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Tarantism.</span></h4>

<p>Tarantism was a disease somewhat akin to the dancing mania.
Nicholas Perotti (1430-1480) first described it. It was believed to
originate from the bite of the Apulian spider, called the <i>tarantula</i>, as it
was named by the Romans. Those who were bitten, or who believed
themselves to have been bitten, became melancholic and stupefied, but
greatly sensible to the influence of music. As soon as they heard their
favourite melodies, they sprang up and danced till they sank exhausted
to the ground. Others became hysterical, and some even died in a
paroxysm of tears or laughter. By the close of the fifteenth century
Tarantism had spread beyond the boundaries of Apulia in which it
originated, and many other cities and villages of Italy were afflicted
with the mania. Thus when the spider made his appearance the
merry notes of the Tarantella resounded as the only cure for its bite,
or the mental poison received through the eye, and thus the <i>Tarantali</i>
cure became established as a popular festival.<a id="FNanchor_818_818" href="#Footnote_818_818" class="fnanchor">818</a></p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>Quarantine, according to William Brownrigg, who wrote in 1771 a
book on the plague, was first established by the Venetians in 1484.
Dr. Mead was probably the source of this information.<a id="FNanchor_819_819" href="#Footnote_819_819" class="fnanchor">819</a></p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>Theories connected with the origin of the soul have continued to
occupy the attention of theologians, philosophers, and physicians from
the time of Pythagoras to our own day. Up to the ninth century their
speculations were entirely idle, when Theophilus made his discovery
of the capillary vessels of the male organs—a discovery which was
further developed when in the fifteenth century Mattheus de Gradibus
first enunciated the idea that these organs and the ovaria of birds are
homologous structures; and thus originated the knowledge of the germ
cells known as the ova of De Graaf.<a id="FNanchor_820_820" href="#Footnote_820_820" class="fnanchor">820</a></p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>The fame of the University of Oxford was so high in the early part
of the fifteenth century (1420) that a MS. in the Bodleian, quoted by
Anthony à Wood,<a id="FNanchor_821_821" href="#Footnote_821_821" class="fnanchor">821</a> says that other universities were but little stars in
comparison with this sun.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_340">340</span> “Other studies excel in some particular
science, as Parys, in divinity; Bologna, law; Salerno, physick; and
Toulouse, mathematics; but Oxford as a true well of wisdom doth goe
beyond them in all these. The bright beams of its wisdom spread over
the whole world.”</p>

<p>The practice of medicine became daily more honourable.</p>

<p>Holinshed says,<a id="FNanchor_822_822" href="#Footnote_822_822" class="fnanchor">822</a> in his description of the people in the <i>Commonwealth
of England</i>, that “Who soeur studieth the lawes of the realme, who so
abideth in the vniuersitie giuing his mind to his booke, or professeth
physicke and the liberall sciences—and can liue without manuell
labour, and thereto is able and will beare the port, charge and countenance
of a gentleman, he shall for monie haue a cote and armes
bestowed vpon him by heralds—and reputed for a gentleman euer
after.”</p>

<p>Medicine was a flourishing study at Cambridge, especially at Merton
College, in the fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries.<a id="FNanchor_823_823" href="#Footnote_823_823" class="fnanchor">823</a></p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>The origin of syphilis in Europe has been the subject of much
learned discussion. It appeared with such violence and frequency
in the year 1490 in France, Italy, and Spain, that the scourge was
considered to have only then been introduced into Europe from
America.</p>

<p>“Its enormous prevalence in modern times,” says Dr. Creighton,<a id="FNanchor_824_824" href="#Footnote_824_824" class="fnanchor">824</a>
“dates, without doubt, from the European libertinism of the latter
part of the fifteenth century.” It is pretty certain that syphilis
had existed in Europe from ancient times. What appeared with so
much virulence and such wide distribution in 1490 was simply a redevelopment
of the malady on a scale hitherto unknown.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/i_p374a.jpg" alt="" />
<div class="caption">INTERIOR OF A DOCTOR’S HOUSE. <br />
Facsimile of a miniature from the <i>Epistre de Othea</i>, by Christine de Pisan. (Fifteenth century MS.
in Burgundy Library, Brussels.)
<p class="psig">[<i>Face p.</i> 340</p></div>
</div>

<hr class="chap" />
<div class="chapter"></div>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_341">341</span></p>


<h3 id="CHAPTERIV_IX">CHAPTER IX.<br />

<small>MEDICINE IN ANCIENT MEXICO AND PERU.</small></h3>

<blockquote>
<p>Hospitals in Mexico.—Anatomy and Human Sacrifices.—Midwives as Spiritual
Mothers.—Circumcision.—Peru.—Discovery of Cinchona Bark.</p></blockquote>


<p>Little or nothing is known of the ancient history of Mexico and
Peru. Mexico, anciently called Anahuac, was probably conquered by
the Aztecs, who founded the city of Mexico about 1325. It was discovered
in 1517. Peru was long governed by the Incas, said to be descended
from Manco Capac, who ruled in the eleventh century. It was
explored and conquered by Pizarro, 1524-1533.</p>

<p>For the purposes of this work the history of these countries dates from
the time of their discovery, as the Spaniards in their blind fanaticism
destroyed most of their literature. Don Juan de Zumarraga was one
of the darkeners of human intelligence; he diligently collected all the
Mexican manuscripts, especially from Tezcuco, the literary capital of
the Mexican empire, and burned them in one great bonfire in the
market-place of Tlatelolco.<a id="FNanchor_825_825" href="#Footnote_825_825" class="fnanchor">825</a></p>

<p>Las Casas says that there were public hospitals in the cities of Mexico,
Tlascala, and Cholula, expressly endowed for the relief of the sick.
As surgeons attended the Mexican armies, it is evident that they had
attained some skill in medicine and surgery. They used the temazcalli,
or vapour-bath, practised bleeding, and knew the medicinal properties
of many herbs. They professed to have learned this wisdom from their
ancestors, the Tultecas, whose knowledge of chemistry they likewise
extolled. As human sacrifices were of daily occurrence in the city of
Mexico, they must have acquired some knowledge of anatomy, which
would assist them in the practice of surgery.<a id="FNanchor_826_826" href="#Footnote_826_826" class="fnanchor">826</a></p>

<p>Midwives were treated by the ancient Mexicans with great deference.
They were termed “spiritual mothers,” and were believed to be under
the immediate inspiration of the god Tezcatlipoca. Aglio says that
the treatment of lying-in women was very similar to that among the
Jews.<a id="FNanchor_827_827" href="#Footnote_827_827" class="fnanchor">827</a></p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_342">342</span></p>

<p>The ancient Mexicans practised circumcision, and venerated the
Tequepatl, or flint knife, with which the rite was performed.<a id="FNanchor_828_828" href="#Footnote_828_828" class="fnanchor">828</a></p>

<p>Among the many vegetable products which America introduced to
Europe were maize, potatoes, chocolate, tobacco, ipecacuanha, and
Peruvian bark, from which we obtain quinine. The discovery of this
valuable medicine was due to the Jesuit missionaries. The second
wife of the viceroy, the Count of Chinchon, accompanied him to Peru.
In 1628 she was attacked by a tertian fever. Her physician was
unable to cure her. At about the same time an Indian of Uritusinga,
near Loxa, in the government of Quito, had given some fever-curing
bark to a Jesuit missionary. He sent some of it to Torres Vasquez,
who was rector of the Jesuit College at Lima and confessor to the
viceroy. Torres Vasquez cured the vice-queen by administering doses
of the bark.... The remedy was long known as Countess’s Bark
and Jesuit’s Bark, and Linnæus gave the name <i>Chinchona</i> [after the
viceroy Chinchon] to the genus of plants which produces it....
Various species of this precious tree are found throughout the
eastern cordillera of the Andes for a distance of 2,000 miles. We owe
guaiacum, sarsaparilla, sassafras, logwood, jalap, seneka, serpentaria,
and many other valuable drugs to the same part of the world.</p>

<p>Frezier, in his voyage to the South Sea and along the coasts of Chili
and Peru in the years 1712, 1713, and 1714, says concerning Lima:
“There is an herb called <i>Carapullo</i>, which grows like a tuft of grass,
and yields an ear, the decoction of which makes such as drink it
delirious for some days. The Indians make use of it to discover the
natural disposition of their children. All the time when it has its
operation, they place by them the tools of all such trades as they
may follow—as by a maiden, a spindle, wool, scissors, cloth, kitchen
furniture, etc.; and by a youth, accoutrements for a horse, awls,
hammers, etc.; and that tool they take most fancy to in their delirium,
is a certain indication of the trade they are fittest for, as I was assured
by a French surgeon, who was an eye-witness to this verity.”</p>

<hr class="chap" />
<div class="chapter"></div>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_343">343</span></p>




<h2 id="BOOK_V">BOOK V.<br />

<small><i>THE DAWN OF MODERN SCIENTIFIC MEDICINE.</i></small></h2>

<hr class="chap" />
<div class="chapter"></div>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_345">345</span></p>




<h3 id="CHAPTERV_I">CHAPTER I.<br />

<small>THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY.</small></h3>

<blockquote>

<p>The Dawn of Modern Science.—The Reformation of Medicine.—Paracelsus—The
Sceptics.—The Protestantism of Science.—Influenza.—Legal Recognition of
Medicine in England.—The Barber-Surgeons.—The Sweating Sickness.—Origin
of the Royal College of Physicians of London.—“Merry Andrew.”—Origin of
St. Bartholomew’s Hospital.—Caius.—Low State of Midwifery.—The Great
Continental Anatomists.—Vesalius.—Servetus.—Paré.—Influence of the Reformation.—The
Rosicrucians.—Touching for the Evil.—Vivisection of Human
Beings.—Origin of Legal Medicine.</p></blockquote>


<p>The discovery of America in 1492 fitly typifies the still grander mental
world about to disclose its wonders to the newly liberated minds of
scientific investigators. The revolt against authority in religion was
paralleled by a scientific Protestantism; the mind of man, long held in
bondage to absurd and groundless fancies, struggled to set itself free,
to investigate, to test and explore on its account, instead of accepting
for granted doctrines elaborated in the philosopher’s brains.</p>

<p>The revolt of medicine against the authority of Galen may be compared
to the revolt against Aristotle in philosophy. The authority of
the Arabian schools was overthrown, the principles of Hippocrates
were in the ascendant. The era of the Renaissance was not more an
era of Protestantism than an age of Scepticism. Faith had become
credulity, and credulity had sunk into imbecility. The power of the
printing press, the spread of humanism, the beginning of scientific
inquiry, the discovery of the splendid treasure of classic literature, long
buried beneath the dust of dark and barbarous ages, the widening of
the mental horizon as the world doubled itself before the prows of the
discoverers’ vessels—all these factors brought about the new birth of
Science. It was the golden age of the medical sciences. Anatomy
and surgery awoke, from their long slumber, and Europe entered upon
a period of scientific investigation such as the world had never known
before. Medicine formed an alliance with what are called its accessory
sciences; chemistry liberated from slavery to the alchemist, botany
set free from the delusions of the doctrine of “signatures,” pharmacy
elevated into a branch of medical science from the kitchen and the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_346">346</span>
confectioner’s store-room, lent their aid, in conjunction with the
hydraulics and pneumatics of the natural philosopher, to advance it.
All these things meant revolt against the old order, Protestantism
against the outworn creeds of Greek and Arabian dogmatists. They
meant more than this. Ere the ground could be cleared for the new
palace of physical science which the glorious sixteenth century was
to rear, scepticism must lend its withering and desolating aid; foul
undergrowths must be destroyed; evil germs, bred of the stagnant
marshes of the dark ages, must perish under the wholesome, if ruthless,
disinfectants of reason and unbelief. There was a stern need of this.
The demon theory of disease had lasted from primeval ages up to this
dawn of the sixteenth century. From glacial times, through savage
ages and religions, and often in beautifully poetic faiths, the disease-demon
held its own. Even in the hallowed and renovating pages of the
gospels the disease-demon stalks unchallenged save by the thaumaturgist.
Now he is to be banished from the mind of civilized man for
ever; and to reach this goal atheism was needed. The sixteenth century,
so far as medicine and physical science are concerned, opens with
the Cabalist Theosophists, Trithemius, Cornelius Agrippa, Cardan,
and their followers. Giordano Bruno, the aggressive atheist and martyr
of science, Montaigne, the philosophic sceptic, Charron, the opponent
of all religion, and Rabelais, the witty scoffer at the gross corruptions of
orthodoxy, helped to clear the ground for the work of the scientists.
Meanwhile Paracelsus, from his chair at Basel University, having made
an <i>auto-da-fe</i> of ancient and dogmatic medicine, lays the foundation-stone
of the medicine of the modern era.</p>

<p>An army of savants begins to work for science as well as literature.
Linacre has introduced Italian Humanism to the doctors of England;
Caius busies himself with the Greek and Latin texts of the great
writers on medicine; Gesner, the German Pliny, and Aldrovandi promote
the study of natural history. Everywhere men are busy with the
beginnings of electricity, chemistry, mineralogy, botany, and the other
sciences which are to be the handmaidens of medicine. One clear
voice is heard from Basel. It is that of Paracelsus, exhuming physical
science: “You Italy, you Dalmatia, you Sarmatia, Athens, Greece,
Arabia, and Israel, follow me. Come out of the night of the
mind!”</p>

<p>The teacher of Paracelsus, who exercised the greatest influence upon
his mental development, was the celebrated <span class="smcap">Trithemius</span>, the abbot of
the Spanheim Benedictines (about 1500), who was so famous a student
of chemistry and the occult philosophy that scholars and mighty nobles
went on pilgrimages and princes sent ambassadors, to his monastery to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_347">347</span>
gather some fragments of his vast learning. Amongst many works, he
published several on magical subjects, and was the first who told the
wondrous story of Dr. Faustus, in whose magical doings he was a devout
believer.<a id="FNanchor_829_829" href="#Footnote_829_829" class="fnanchor">829</a> His famous library consisted of the rare possession of two
thousand volumes. Cornelius Agrippa was his pupil, and in a letter
which he sent to his old master, with the manuscript of his <i>Occult
Philosophy</i>, we find a passage which throws a light on the studies of the
worthy abbot: “We conferred much about chemical matters, magic,
cabalism, and other things which at the present time lie hidden as
secret sciences and arts.”<a id="FNanchor_830_830" href="#Footnote_830_830" class="fnanchor">830</a></p>

<p><span class="smcap">Theophrastus Bombastus Paracelsus of Hohenheim</span> (1493-1541),
“The Reformer of Medicine,” “Luther Alter,” effected a revolution
in medicine, and is one of the most remarkable characters, not only
in the history of the medical profession, but in that of civilization. There
was so much in this great man’s conduct to admire, and so much of
which to disapprove, that it is not surprising that he has been either
wholly praised or entirely condemned, and by very few considered dispassionately.
Perhaps Mr. Browning, in his noble poem <i>Paracelsus</i>,
has given the world the truest conception of a man who did for his
profession and for humanity the enormous service of liberating medicine
from a slavish adhesion to authority, though it must be admitted that
he was guilty of extravagances and excesses we may find it difficult to
excuse, even though for the most part they were faults common to his
country and his age. Paracelsus was born ten years later than Luther,
at Einsiedeln, near Zurich. He studied under the abbot Trithemius of
Spanheim, who was a great adept in magic, alchemy, and astrology.
Under this teacher he acquired a taste for occult studies, and formed a
determination to use them for the welfare of mankind. Trithemius was
a theosophist. As was the custom of the times, Paracelsus became
an itinerant student after his course at the University of Basel. He
studied chemistry in the laboratory of the Fuggers at Schwatz, in the
Tyrol.</p>

<p>Attached to the armies, he travelled widely as a military surgeon
in the Netherlands, the Romagna, Naples, Venice, Denmark. He
worked in the mines, that he might acquire a knowledge of metals,
working as a common labourer for his bread. In Bohemian fashion he
wandered over the world, visiting Spain, Portugal, Egypt, Tartary, and
the East. He picked up his scientific knowledge by any means rather
than from books. He said,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_348">348</span> “Reading never made a doctor, but
practice is what forms a physician. For all reading is a footstool to
practice, and a mere feather broom. He who meditates discovers
something.” And so he held converse with the common folk, and
talked and drank with boors, shepherds, Jews, gypsies, and tramps,
gaining odd scraps of knowledge wherever he could. He had no
books. His only volume was Nature, whom he interrogated at first-hand.
He would rather learn medicine and surgery from an old
country nurse than from an university lecturer. If there was one
thing which he detested more than another, it was the principle of
authority. He bent his head to no man.</p>

<p>In the year 1525 Paracelsus went to Basel, where he was fortunate in
curing Froben, the great printer, by his laudanum, when he had the
gout. Froben was the friend of Erasmus, who was associated with
Œcolampadius, and soon after, upon the recommendation of Œcolampadius,
he was appointed by the city magnates a professor of physics,
medicine, and surgery, with a considerable salary; at the same time
they made him city physician, to the duties of which office he requested
might be added inspector of drug shops. This examination made the
druggists his bitterest enemies, as he detected their fraudulent practices;
they combined to set the other doctors of the city against him, and as
these were exceedingly jealous of his skill and success, poor Paracelsus
found himself in a hornet’s nest. We find him a professor at Basel
University in 1526. He has become famous as a physician, the medicines
which he has discovered he has successfully used in his practice;
he was now in the eyes of his patients at least,</p>

<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"><div class="stanza">
  <div class="verse">“The wondrous Paracelsus, life’s dispenser,</div>
  <div class="verse">Fate’s commissary, idol of the schools and courts.”</div>
</div></div></div>

<p>He began his lectures at Basel by lighting some sulphur in a chafing
dish, and burning the books of his great predecessors in the medical
art, Avicenna, Galen, and others, saying: “Sic vos ardebitis in
gehennâ.” He boasted that he had read no books for ten years,
though he protested that his shoe-buckles were more learned than the
authors whose works he had burned.</p>

<p>It must have been a wonderful spectacle when this new teacher took
his place before his pupils. The benches occupied hitherto by a dozen
or two of students were crowded with an eager audience anxious for the
new learning. Literature had been exhumed many years before, and
now it was the turn of Science! Leaving the morbid seclusion of the
cloisters, men had given up dreaming for inquiry, and baseless visions
for the acquisition of facts. This was the childhood of our science, and
its days were bright with the poetry of youth. It is a sight to arouse<span class="pagenum" id="Page_349">349</span>
our enthusiasm to see in the early dawn of our modern science this man
standing up alone to pit himself against the whole scientific authority of
his day. He rises from the crucibles and fires where his predecessors
had been vainly seeking for gold and silver, ever and again pretending
to have found them, and always going empty-handed to a deluded
world. Henceforth, he says, his alchemy shall serve a nobler purpose
than gold seeking; it shall aid in the healing of disease. He casts
aside the sacred books of medicine which have been handed down
the ages by his predecessors; destroying them, he declares, with an
earnestness which is less tinged by arrogance than by conviction, that
these men had been blind guides, that he alone has the clue of the
maze, and he forsakes all to follow Truth, though she lead him to death.
In his generous impulse to serve mankind he has spoken harshly of his
opponents. They would not have helped him, any way. He was
above them; they could not understand him, so they hated him, and he
scorned them. As too often happens to such heroes, he forgot the
love of his neighbour in his love for mankind.</p>

<p>Paracelsus found his pupils holding fast by the teachings of the
school of Salerno, and there seems no ground for supposing that the
healing art had made the slightest progress in Europe from the foundation
of that school in 1150, except perhaps in pharmacy. On the day
that Paracelsus stood up before his audience at Basel University, he
cried, “Away with Ætius, Oribasius, Galen, Rhasis, Serapion, Avicenna,
Averroes, and the other blocks!” He had diplomas sent him from
Germany, France, and Italy, and a letter from Erasmus.</p>

<p>In 1528 we find him at Colmar, in Alsatia. He has been driven by
priests and doctors from Basel.</p>

<p>He had been called to the bedside of some rich cleric who was ill.
He cured him, but so speedily that his fee was refused. Though not
at all a mercenary man (for he always gave the poor his services gratuitously),
he sued the priest; but the judge refused to interfere, and
Paracelsus used strong language to him, and had to fly to escape
punishment. We must not be too hard upon the canon. Disease was
treated with profound respect in those days, and great patients liked to
be cured with deliberation and some ceremonial.</p>

<p>The closing scenes of the life of Paracelsus were passed in a cell in
the hospital of Salzburg, in the year 1541, when he died at the age of
forty-eight, a martyr of science. Recent investigations in contemporary
records have proved that he had been attacked by the servants of
certain physicians who were his jealous enemies, and that in consequence
of a fall he sustained a fracture of the skull, which proved fatal in a
few days.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_350">350</span></p>

<p>Within a period of time covering fifteen years he had written some
106 treatises on medicine, alchemy, natural history and philosophy,
magic, and other subjects. He despised University learning. “The
book of Nature,” he declared, “was that which the physician should
read, and to do so he must walk over its leaves.” His library consisted
of a Bible, St. Jerome on the Gospels, a volume on medicine,
and seven manuscripts. His epitaph tells but a part of his honours.
“Here lies Philippus Paracelsus, the famous doctor of medicine, who,
by his wonderful art, cured bad wounds, lepra, gout, dropsy, and other
incurable diseases, and to his own honour divided his possessions
among the poor.”</p>

<p>This but feebly expresses what medicine owes to him. He discovered
the metal zinc, and hydrogen gas. In place of the elaborate
concoctions and filthy messes which were given as medicines in his
time, he taught doctors to give tinctures and quintessences of drugs.
He invented laudanum, and anticipated our discovery of transfusion of
blood. He opposed the barbarous method of reducing dislocations
and dealing with fractures, introduced the use of mercury in the treatment
of syphilis, and came very near to the discoveries which go under
the name of Darwinism. He taught that chemistry was to be employed,
not in making gold, but for the preparation of medicines; and
he introduced into practice mineral remedies, including mineral baths,
iron, sulphur, antimony, arsenic, gold, tin, lead, etc. Amongst the
vegetable remedies employed by him was arnica.</p>

<p>Paracelsus used chemical principles, says Sprengel, for the explanation
of particular diseases. “Most or all diseases, according to him,
arise from the effervescence of salts, from the combustion of sulphur, or
from the coagulation of mercury.”<a id="FNanchor_831_831" href="#Footnote_831_831" class="fnanchor">831</a></p>

<p>His ætiology attributed diseases to five causes:—1. The Ens astrale
(a certain power of the stars); this means no more than foul air. 2.
The Ens veneni (power of poison), arising from errors of assimilation
and digestion. 3. The Ens naturale (power of nature or of the body);
diatheses. 4. Ens spirituale (power of the spirit); the disorders which
arise from perverted ideas. 5. Ens Dei (power of God); the injuries
or causes of disease predetermined by God.<a id="FNanchor_832_832" href="#Footnote_832_832" class="fnanchor">832</a></p>

<p>When Paracelsus came upon the scene of medical history, alchemy
had just begun to lose its credit. The true students of science had
discovered its deceptions and had abandoned it to the quacks. It has
often happened, and happens still, that certain pretended sciences, when
cast aside as worthless, are taken from their hiding-places and made to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_351">351</span>
do duty in another and perhaps nobler form. Paracelsus set himself
the task of rehabilitating alchemy. The deeper thinkers, the more
ardent truth-seekers in religion and science, imbued with philosophy
and penetrated by the scholasticism of the age, were quite ready for a
new reign of theosophical medicine to take the place of the Arabian
polypharmacy.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">George Agricola</span> (1494-1555) was a physician who practised in
Bohemia, and was the first to raise mineralogy to the dignity of a
science. He did so much for it, in fact, that no great advance was made
in it from the point at which he left it, till the eighteenth century.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Conrad Gesner</span> (1516-1565), surnamed the German Pliny, was a
famous naturalist of vast erudition, and imbued with an enthusiastic love
of science. In 1541 he was professor of physics and natural history
at Zurich. He wrote several books on ancient medicine and botany.
To prepare himself to write his <i>History of Animals</i>, he read 250
authors, travelled nearly all over Europe, and gathered information
from every source, even from hunters and shepherds. His medical
works show that he was far above the absurd fancies and prejudices of
his time.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Andreas Cæsalpinus</span> (1519-1603), the first systematical botanist,
and the founder of the work which Linnæus developed, studied, if he
did not also teach, anatomy and medicine at Pisa. He had a clear
idea of the circulation of the blood, at least through the lungs, and he
was the first to use the term “circulation.” Claims have been made
on his behalf as the discoverer of the circulation; but they cannot be
substantiated, as he did not know of the <i>direct</i> flow of the blood from
the arteries to the veins.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Cardan</span> (1501-1576), a physician and astrologer, was also a half-crazy
magician. He was a skilful physician, and visited King Edward
VI. to calculate his nativity, and Cardinal Beaton to cure him in his
sickness.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Giordano Bruno</span> (1548-1600) was an Italian philosopher of the
Renaissance, who, from a determination to study the universe for himself,
threw off the restraints of the Christian religion and revolted against
the authority of Aristotle and tradition. His most popular and characteristic
work is the <i>Spaccio</i>. He was not an atheist, as has been asserted,
but a pantheist. He considered the soul of man as a thinking monad,
and as immortal. He was burnt at the stake for his opinions, which,
it must be admitted, were in some respects detrimental to morality
as well as to faith.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Michel de Montaigne</span> (1533-1592), the sceptical founder of a new
philosophy, and one of the most delightful of essayists, anticipated the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_352">352</span>
scientific spirit by his minute and critical observation upon the curious
facts connected with human nature.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">François Rabelais</span> (<i>c.</i> 1490-1553) entered the faculty of medicine
at Montpellier.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Euricus Cordus</span> (1486-1535), who studied medicine at Erfurt, is
famous for the following admirable epigram:—</p>

<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"><div class="stanza">
  <div class="verse">“Three faces wears the doctor: when first sought,</div>
  <div class="verse">An angel’s—and a God’s, the cure half wrought;</div>
  <div class="verse">But, when that cure complete, he seeks his fee,</div>
  <div class="verse">The Devil looks then less terrible than he.”</div>
</div></div></div>

<p>His son, <span class="smcap">Valerius Cordus</span> (1515-1544), was the discoverer of
sulphuric ether.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Antonio Benivieni</span> (<i>c.</i> 1500), a physician of Florence, was the
morning star of a new era for surgery, when he insisted that the compilations
of the ancients and Arabians ought to be given up for the
observation of nature.<a id="FNanchor_833_833" href="#Footnote_833_833" class="fnanchor">833</a> Thus, before the time of Ambroise Paré
(1509-1590), the way for the reception of the true modern surgery was
prepared in Italy by the efforts of those who strove to induce educated
and talented men to devote their attention to this branch of the healing
art.</p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Influenza.</span></h4>

<p>A violent and extensive catarrhal fever prevailed in France and
Europe generally in 1510. Hecker considers there is evidence that it
had its origin in the remotest parts of the East.<a id="FNanchor_834_834" href="#Footnote_834_834" class="fnanchor">834</a> His description of
this influenza is as follows:<span class="pagenum" id="Page_353">353</span> “The catarrhal symptoms, which, on the
appearance of disorders of this kind, usually form their commencement,
seem to have been quite thrown into the background by those of violent
rheumatism and inflammation. The patient was first seized with
giddiness and severe headache; then came on a shooting pain through
the shoulders and extending to the thighs. The loins, too, were affected
with intolerably painful dartings, during which an inflammatory fever
set in with delirium and violent excitement. In some the parotid
glands became inflamed, and even the digestive organs participated
in the deep-rooted malady; for those affected had, together with constant
oppression at the stomach, a great loathing for all animal food,
and a dislike even of wine. Among the poor as well as the rich many
died, and some quite suddenly, of this strange disease, in the treatment
of which the physicians shortened life not a little by their purgative
treatment and phlebotomy, seeking an excuse for their ignorance in
the influence of the constellations, and alleging that astral diseases were
beyond the reach of human art.”</p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Legal Recognition of Medical Practitioners.</span></h4>

<p>The first Act of Parliament dealing with the medical profession in
England was passed in the year 1511, and is entitled “<span class="smcap">An Act for
the Appointing of Physicians and Surgeons</span>,” the preamble of
which runs as follows:—</p>

<p>“Forasmuch as the science and cunning of Physick and Surgery (to
the perfect knowledge of which be requisite both great learning and
ripe experience) is daily within this realm exercised by a great multitude
of ignorant persons, of whom the greater part have no manner of
insight in the same, nor in any other kind of learning; some also can
read no letters on the book, so far forth that common artificers, as
smiths, weavers, and women, boldly and accustomably take upon them
great cures, and things of great difficulty, in the which they partly use
sorcery and witchcraft, partly apply such medicines unto the disease as
be very noxious, and nothing meet therefore, to the high displeasure of
God, great infamy to the faculty, and the grievous hurt, damage, and
destruction of many of the king’s liege people; most especially of them
that cannot discern the uncunning from the cunning. Be it therefore
(to the surety and comfort of all manner of people) by the authority
of this present Parliament enacted:—That no person within the city
of London, nor within seven miles of the same, take upon him to
exercise and occupy as a Physician or Surgeon except he be first
examined, approved, and admitted by the Bishop of London, or by
the Dean of St. Paul’s, for the time being, calling to him or them four
Doctors of Physic, and for Surgeons, other expert persons in that
faculty; and for the first examination such as they shall think convenient,
and afterwards alway four of them that have been so approved.<a id="FNanchor_835_835" href="#Footnote_835_835" class="fnanchor">835</a> ...</p>

<p>“That no person out of the said city and precinct of seven miles of
the same, except he have been (as is aforesaid) approved in the same,
take upon him to exercise and occupy as a Physician or Surgeon, in any
diocese within this realm; but if he be first examined and approved by
the Bishop of the same diocese, or, he being out of the diocese, by his
vicar-general; either of them calling to them such expert persons in the
said faculties, as their discretion shall think convenient....”<a id="FNanchor_836_836" href="#Footnote_836_836" class="fnanchor">836</a></p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_354">354</span></p>


<p><span class="smcap">The Barber-Surgeons.</span></p>

<p>The occupation of shaving and trimming beards was anciently considered
a profession, and was united to that of surgery. In the reign
of Louis XIV. of France the hairdressers were formally separated
from the Barber-Surgeons, who were incorporated as a distinct medical
body.</p>

<p>A London Company of Barbers was formed in 1308, and the first
year of the reign of Edward IV. (1462) the barbers were incorporated
by a charter which was confirmed by many succeeding monarchs. In
1540 the Company of Barbers, and those who practised purely as
Surgeons, were united as “the commonalty of Barbers and Surgeons
of London.” It was enacted (32 Hen. VIII.) that “No person
using any shaving or barbery in London shall occupy any surgery,
letting of blood, or other matter, except only drawing of teeth.” The
Surgeons’ corporation in London two years later petitioned Parliament
to be exempted from bearing arms and serving on juries, so that they
might be free to attend to their practice.<a id="FNanchor_837_837" href="#Footnote_837_837" class="fnanchor">837</a> Their petition was granted,
and all medical men are in the enjoyment of these privileges at the
present time.</p>

<p>An Act of Parliament was passed in 1540 allowing the United
Companies of Barbers and Surgeons to have yearly four bodies of
criminals for purposes of dissection. This is supposed to have been
the first legislative enactment passed in any country for promoting the
study of anatomy.<a id="FNanchor_838_838" href="#Footnote_838_838" class="fnanchor">838</a></p>

<p>Surgery in England in the reign of Henry VIII. was in a deplorable
condition. Thomas Gale thus describes the surgeons of the time:—</p>

<p>“I remember when I was in the wars at Montreuil, in the time of
that most famous prince, Henry VIII., there was a great rabblement
there that took upon them to be surgeons. Some were sow-gelders,
and some horse-gelders, with tinkers and cobblers. This noble sect
did such great cures that they got themselves a perpetual name; for
like as Thessalus’ sect were called Thessalonians, so was this noble
rabblement, for their notorious cures, called dog-leeches; for in two
dressings they did commonly make their cures whole and sound for
ever, so that they felt neither heat nor cold, nor no manner of pain
after. But when the Duke of Norfolk, who was then general, understood
how the people did die, and that of small wounds, he sent for me
and certain other surgeons, commanding us to make search how these
men came to their death, whether it were by the grievousness of their<span class="pagenum" id="Page_355">355</span>
wounds or by the lack of knowledge of the surgeons; and we, according
to our commandment, made search through all the camp, and
found many of the same good fellows which took upon them the names
of surgeons; not only the names but the wages also. We asking of
them whether they were surgeons or no, they said they were; we
demanded with whom they were brought up, and they, with shameless
faces, would answer, either with one cunning man, or another,
which was dead. Then we demanded of them what chirurgery stuff
they had to cure men withal; and they would show us a pot or a box
which they had in a budget, wherein was such trumpery as they did use
to grease horses’ heels withal, and laid upon scabbed horses’ backs,
with verval and such like. And others that were cobblers and tinkers
used shoemaker’s wax, with the rust of old pans, and made therewith ‘a
noble salve,’ as they did term it. But in the end this worthy rabblement
was committed to the Marshalsea, and threatened to be hanged
for their worthy deeds, except they would declare the truth—what they
were and of what occupations; and in the end they did confess, as I
have declared to you before.”</p>

<p>Gale says in another place: “I have, myself, in the time of King
Henry VIII., helped to furnish out of London, in one year, which
served by sea and land, three score and twelve surgeons, which were
good workmen, and well able to serve, and all Englishmen. At this
present day there are not thirty-four of all the whole company of Englishmen,
and yet the most part of them be in noblemen’s service, so that if
we should have need, I do not know where to find twelve sufficient
men. What do I say? sufficient men? Nay; I would there were ten
amongst all the company worthy to be called surgeons.”</p>

<p>In the year 1518 the Barbers and Surgeons were united in one
company. The Barbers were restricted from performing any surgical
operations, except drawing teeth, and the Surgeons, on their part, had
to abandon shaving and trimming beards. Physicians were permitted
to practise surgery.</p>

<p>In the year 1542 it became necessary to pass an Act to further regulate
the practice of Surgery, the chief points of which are the following:<span class="pagenum" id="Page_356">356</span>
“Whereas in the Parliament holden at Westminster, in the third year
of the King’s Most Gracious Reign, amongst other things, for the
avoiding of sorceries, witchcrafts, and other inconveniences, it was enacted,
That no person within the City of London, nor within seven
miles of the same, should take upon him to exercise and occupy as
Physician and Surgeon, except he be first examined, admitted, and approved
by the Bishop of London, etc.... Sithence the making
of which said Act, the Company and Fellowship of Surgeons of London,
minding onely their owne lucres, and nothing the profit or ease of
the diseased or patient, have sued, troubled, and vexed divers honest
persons, as well men as women, whom God hath endueed with the
knowledge of the nature, kind and operation of certain herbs, roots
and waters, and the using and ministering of them, to such as have been
pained with custumable diseases, as women’s breasts being sore, a pin
and the web in the eye, uncomes of the hands, scaldings, burnings, sore
mouths, the stone, stranguary, saucelin, and morphew, and such other
like diseases.... And yet the said persons have not taken anything
for their pains or cunning.... In consideration whereof,
and for the ease, comfort, succour, help, relief, and health of the
King’s poor subjects, inhabitants of this his realm, now pained or
diseased, or that hereafter shall be pained or diseased, Be it ordained,
etc., that at all time from henceforth it shall be lawful to every person
being the King’s subject, having knowledge and experience of the
nature of herbs, roots and waters, etc., to use and minister according
to their cunning, experience, and knowledge ... the aforesaid
statute ... or any other Act notwithstanding.”</p>


<h4><span class="smcap">The Sweating Sickness.</span></h4>

<p>In 1517 England was visited by a third attack of the Sweating Sickness.
Public business was suspended, the King moved his court from
place to place, and a panic seized the people. Erasmus, writing to
Wolsey’s physician, says: “I am frequently astonished and grieved to
think how it is that England has been now for so many years troubled
by a continual pestilence, especially by a deadly sweat, which appears
in a great measure to be peculiar to your country. I have read how a
city was once delivered from a plague by a change in the houses, made
at the suggestion of a philosopher. I am inclined to think that this also
must be the deliverance for England.” He proceeds to suggest that
better ventilation is necessary for dwellings; he remarks that the glass
windows admit light, but not air; that such air as does enter comes in
as draughts, through holes and corners full of pestilential emanations.
The floors laid with clay and covered with rushes, the bottom layer of
which was unchanged sometimes for twenty years, harboured expectorations,
vomitings, filth, and all sorts of abominations.</p>

<p>He advises that the use of rushes should be given up, that the rooms
should be so built as to be exposed to the light and fresh air on two or
three sides, and that the windows be so constructed as to be easily
opened or closed. He declares that at one time, if he ever entered a
room which had not been occupied for some months, he was sure to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_357">357</span>
take a fever. He suggests that the people should eat less, especially of
salt meats, and that proper officers be appointed to keep the streets
and suburbs in better order. Erasmus was thus our first sanitary
reformer.</p>

<p>Aubrey gives<a id="FNanchor_839_839" href="#Footnote_839_839" class="fnanchor">839</a> a selection of the favourite prescriptions in use at this
period against the Sweating Sickness:—</p>

<p>“Take endive, sowthistle, marygold, m’oney and nightshade, three
handfuls of all, and seethe them in conduit water, from a quart to a pint,
then strain it into a fair vessel, then delay it with a little sugar to put
away the tartness, and then drink it when the sweat taketh you, and
keep you warm; and by the grace of God ye shall be whole.”</p>

<p>“Take half an handful of rew, called herbe grace, an handful
marygold, half an handful featherfew, a handful sorrel, a handful burnet,
and half a handful dragons, the top in summer, the root in winter; wash
them in running water, and put them in an earthen pot with a pottle of
running water, and let them seethe soberly to nigh the half be consumed,
and then draw aback the pot to it be almost cold, and then strain it
into a fair glass and keep it close, and use thereof morn and even, and
when need is oftener; and if it be bitter, delay it with sugar candy;
and if it be taken afore the pimples break forth, there is no doubt but
with the grace of Jesu it shall amend any man, woman or child.”</p>

<p>“Another very true medicine.—For to say every day at seven parts
of your body, seven paternosters, and seven Ave Marias, with one
Credo at the last. Ye shal begyn at the ryght syde, under the ryght
ere, saying the ‘<i>paternoster qui es in cœlis, sanctificetur nomen tuum</i>,’
with a cross made there with your thumb, and so say the paternoster
full complete, and one Ave Maria, and then under the left ere, and then
under the left armhole, and then under the left the [thigh?] hole, and
then the last at the heart, with one paternoster, Ave Maria, with one
Credo; and these thus said daily, with the grace of God is there no
manner drede hym.”</p>


<h4><span class="smcap">The Royal College of Physicians of London Established.</span></h4>

<p>The Royal College of Physicians of London was founded by Henry
VIII. for the repression of irregular and unlearned medical practice.
The Letters Patent constituting the College were dated 23rd September,
1518. The king was moved to this by the example of similar
institutions in Italy and elsewhere, by the solicitations of Thomas
Linacre, one of his own physicians, and by the advice and recommendation
of Cardinal Wolsey. Six physicians are named in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_358">358</span>
Letters Patent as constituting the College, viz., John Chambre, Thomas
Linacre, and Ferdinand de Victoria, the king’s physicians; and Nicholas
Halsewell, John Francis, and Robert Yaxlery, physicians, “and all men
of the same faculty, of and in London, and within seven miles thereof,
are incorporated as one body and perpetual community or college.”<a id="FNanchor_840_840" href="#Footnote_840_840" class="fnanchor">840</a></p>

<p><span class="smcap">Dr. Chambre</span> was a priest before he became a physician. He was
educated at Oxford, studied at Padua, where he graduated in physic.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Dr. Thomas Linacre</span> was a distinguished scholar and physician,
who was born <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 1460. In 1484 he was elected a fellow of All
Souls’, Oxford; the next year he went to Bologna, where he studied
under Pulitian; he then went to Florence, where he became acquainted
with Lorenzo the Great; from Florence, he went to Rome, and thence
to Venice and Padua, which at that time was the most celebrated school
of physic in the world, and took the degree of Doctor of Medicine with
the highest applause. Linacre founded (1524) two Physic Lectures at
Oxford and one at Cambridge, but “they were not performed till divers
years after Linacre’s death, on account of the troubles concerning religion.”<a id="FNanchor_841_841" href="#Footnote_841_841" class="fnanchor">841</a></p>

<p><span class="smcap">Dr. Andrew Borde</span>, Carthusian monk, physician, wit and buffoon,
lived in the reign of Henry VIII. He took his physician’s degree at
Montpellier in 1532, and afterwards became one of the court physicians
on his return to England. He was a learned, genial, and sensible
doctor, but possessed “a rambling head and an inconstant mind,” as
Anthony à Wood says. He wrote voluminously. His chief works,
the <i>Breviary of Health</i>, <i>The Dietary of Health</i>, and <i>The Book of the
Introduction to Knowledge</i>, have been edited by Dr. F. J. Furnivall, and
published for the Early English Text Society in a volume which is one
of the most entertaining works on medicine ever written. Borde earned
his title of “Merry Andrew” (a name which has become a household
word) from attending fairs and revels, and conducting himself with the
buffoonery which ill became so learned a man. Doubtless, however, it
endeared him to his countrymen of the period. His medical works are
full of prescriptions for various complaints, and many of them are
exceedingly valuable and fully equal to the best treatment followed
now.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Thomas Vicary</span> was probably born between 1490 and 1500, was not
a trained surgeon, but “a meane practiser” at Maidstone. In 1525 he
was junior of the three Wardens of the Barbers’ or Barber-Surgeons’
Company in London. In 1528 he was Upper or First Warden of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_359">359</span>
Company, and one of the surgeons to Henry VIII., at £20 a year. In
1530 he was Master of the Barber-Surgeons’ Company, and at the head
of his profession till his death in 1561 or 1562. As Dr. Furnivall says,
he was “the Paget of his great Tudor time.” Soon after the dissolution
of the monasteries, Henry VIII., at the request of the City of London,
handed over the monastic hospitals, Bartholomew’s and others, to the
Corporation of London. He gave to Bartholomew’s a small endowment
(nominally £333 odd) out of old houses which he charged with
pensions to parsons. The city raised £1000 for repairs and reopened
the hospital for one hundred patients, and on 29th September, 1548,
appointed Chief-Surgeon <span class="smcap">Vicary</span> as one of the six new governors of the
hospital. The reorganization of the hospital was in a large measure
due to this excellent man and intelligent surgeon. In 1548 he published
the first English work on Anatomy, <i>The Anatomie of the Body of
Man</i>, which was reprinted by the Surgeons of Bartholomew’s in 1577.
This text-book held the field for 150 years.<a id="FNanchor_842_842" href="#Footnote_842_842" class="fnanchor">842</a></p>

<p>Those who are interested in the origin of our oldest and greatest
hospital in London will find much valuable information in the <i>Truly
Christian Ordre of the Hospital of S. Bartholomewes</i>, 1552, published
as Appendix XVI. in Dr. Furnivall’s Vicary, p. 291.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Robert Copland</span> in 1547 or 48 published his book called <i>The Hy
Way to the Spitt House</i>. This is an important and interesting account
of the scamps and rogues who resorted to St. Bartholomew’s Hospital,
London, in the time of Henry VIII., after the Statute 22nd Hen. VIII.
(1530-1), against vagabonds. At that time the hospital gave temporary
lodging to almost all the needy, as well as a permanent home to the deserving
poor and sick; and sisters attended to them. Copland learns
from the porter all about the ne’er-do-wells and the rascals who sought
to impose on the charity.<a id="FNanchor_843_843" href="#Footnote_843_843" class="fnanchor">843</a></p>

<p>The old herbalists were often very patient and devoted investigators,
who experimented upon themselves, and by these means accumulated a
great number of facts of great use in the art of medicine. Conrad
Gesner was one of these; he used to eat small portions of wild herbs,
and test their effects on his own person, sitting down in the study with
the plants around him.<a id="FNanchor_844_844" href="#Footnote_844_844" class="fnanchor">844</a></p>

<p><span class="smcap">Sir William Butts</span>, M.D. (died 1545), was physician to Henry
VIII., and was the friend of Wolsey, Cranmer, and Latimer. He was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_360">360</span>
knighted by Henry, and is immortalised in Shakspeare’s play of <i>Henry
VIII.</i></p>

<p><span class="smcap">George Owen</span>, M.D. (died 1558), was physician to Henry VIII.,
Edward VI., and Queen Mary. It has been said that Edward VI. was
brought into the world by Dr. Owen, who performed the Cæsarian
operation on his mother.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">John Caius</span>, M.D. (1510-1573), entered Gonville Hall, Cambridge,
1529. He at first studied divinity, but in 1539 went to Padua to study
medicine under Montanus. Whilst at Padua, Caius lodged in the
same house with the anatomist Vesalius, devoting no less attention
to anatomy than his companion. He took the degree of doctor of
medicine at Padua. He was public professor of Greek in that University;
in 1543 he visited all the great libraries of Italy, collecting
MSS., with the view of giving correct editions of the works of Galen
and Celsus. In 1552 he was residing in London, and published an
account of the Sweating Sickness which prevailed in 1551. He was
physician to Edward VI., Mary, and Elizabeth. Dr. Caius enlarged
and augmented the resources of the college at Cambridge, at which he
had been educated; and he rendered eminent service to the College
of Physicians by defending its rights against the illegal practices of the
surgeons, who interfered with the proper functions of the physicians.
His munificent foundation at Cambridge is a claim on the gratitude of
the English nation, and ensures him a high place for ever in the
annals of our universities. The visitor to Cambridge will not fail to
remember that it was he who built the three singular gates at his
college, inscribed to Humility, to Virtue and Wisdom, and to Honour.
But he has another lasting claim to respect on the grounds that he first
introduced the study of practical anatomy into this country, and was
the first publicly to teach it, which he did in the hall of the Barber-Surgeons,
shortly after his return from Italy. Dr. Caius was a profound
classical scholar, and left numerous works on the Greek and Latin
medical authors. As a naturalist, linguist, critic, and antiquary, he was
no less distinguished than as a physician.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Edward Wotton</span>, M.D. (died 1555), seems to have been the first
English physician who applied himself specially to the study of natural
history. He made himself famous by his work on this subject, entitled
<i>De Differentiis Animalium</i>.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Dr. Geynes</span> (died 1563) was cited before the College of Physicians
for impugning the authority of Galen; he recanted and humbly
acknowledged his heresy, and was duly pardoned. The circumstance
is a curious illustration of the sentiments of the times.<a id="FNanchor_845_845" href="#Footnote_845_845" class="fnanchor">845</a></p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_361">361</span></p>

<p><span class="smcap">Simon Ludford</span> was originally a friar who became an apothecary in
London, who was admitted by the University of Oxford to the baccalaureate
in medicine, although totally ignorant and incompetent. The
College reproved the University, and he was compelled to undergo a
course of study, when he was ultimately admitted doctor of medicine in
Oxford, and Fellow of the College of Physicians in 1563.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">William Gilbert</span>, M.D. (born 1540), engaged in experiments
relative to the magnet, achieving results which Galileo declared to be
“great to a degree which might be envied,” and which induced Galileo
to turn his mind to magnetism.<a id="FNanchor_846_846" href="#Footnote_846_846" class="fnanchor">846</a></p>

<p><span class="smcap">Thomas Penny</span>, M.D. (practised in London, 1570-1). Gerard
styles him “a second Dioscorides, for his singular knowledge of plants.”
He was also one of the first Englishmen who studied insects.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Peter Turner</span>, M.D. (died 1614), was physician to St. Bartholomew’s
Hospital, and one of the greatest botanists of his age.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Thomas Muffet</span>, M.D., the learned friend of distinguished
physicians and naturalists, was esteemed in his day the famous ornament
of the body of physicians (died 1604).</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Berenger of Capri</span> (died 1527) flourished at Bologna (1518). He
was a zealous anatomist, and declared that he had “dissected more
than one hundred human bodies.” He was the first who recognised
the larger proportional size of the male chest than the female, and the
converse concerning the pelvis. He discovered the two arytenoid
cartilages in the larynx, first accurately described the thymus, and gave
a good description of the brain and the internal ear, in which he
noticed the <i>malleus</i> and <i>incus</i>. He rectified some of the mistakes of
Mondino, but was, like all other anatomists before Harvey, deeply perplexed
about the heart and the circulation. He investigated the
structure of the valves of the heart.</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>The art of midwifery, up to the middle of the sixteenth century,
was in the lowest possible condition. In 1521, a doctor named Veites
was condemned to the flames in Hamburg, for engaging in the business
of midwifery. In the year 1500, the wife of one <span class="smcap">Jacob Nufer</span>, of
Thurgau, a Swiss sow-gelder, being in peril of her life in pregnancy,
though thirteen midwives and several surgeons had attempted to
deliver her in the ordinary way, it occurred to her husband to ask
permission of the authorities, and the help of God, to deliver her “as
he would a sow.” He was completely successful, and thus performed
the first Cæsarian operation on the living patient, who lived to bear<span class="pagenum" id="Page_362">362</span>
several other children in the natural way, and died at the age of
seventy-seven. Another sow-gelder performed the operation of ovariotomy
on his own daughter, in the sixteenth century.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">François Rousset</span> (about 1581), physician to the Duke of Savoy,
was the first to write upon the Cæsarian operation. The improvement
in printing and engraving caused the works of the Greek, Roman, and
Arabian writers to be more widely known, and manuals were published
for the instruction of midwives. The first book of this kind was by
<span class="smcap">Eucharius Roslein</span>, at Worms, called the <i>Rose Garden for Midwives</i>
(1513). <span class="smcap">Vesalius</span> (1543) rendered great services to the obstetric
art by his anatomical teaching; and when Rousset published his treatise,
the operation became popular, and was constantly performed on the
living subject, sometimes even when it was not absolutely necessary.
<span class="smcap">Pineau</span>, a surgeon of Paris, in 1589, first suggested division of the
pubes to facilitate difficult labour.</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>In the year 1535 (27 Henry VIII.), Wood says<a id="FNanchor_847_847" href="#Footnote_847_847" class="fnanchor">847</a> that at Oxford
“divers scholars, upon a foresight of the ruin of the clergy, had and
did now betake themselves to physick, who as yet raw and inexpert
would adventure to practise, to the utter undoing of many. The said
visitors ordered, therefore, that none should practise or exercise that
faculty unless he had been examined by the physick professor concerning
his knowledge therein. Which order, being of great moment,
was the year following confirmed by the king, and power by him
granted to the professor and successors to examine those that were to
practise according to the Visitor’s Order.”</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Pierre Franco</span> (<i>c.</i> 1560) was a Swiss or French surgeon, and a
famous lithotomist, who performed the high operation for the first time
in 1560, with success, on a child aged two years. Recognising the
dangers of this method, he introduced a new method in the operation
known as perineal lithotomy, which was called the lateral method.
He preceded Paré in improvements in dealing with strangulated
hernia by the operation known as herniotomy. He was one of the
first to re-introduce into midwifery practice the operation known
as “turning,” in difficult labour. The operation was a familiar one
amongst the Hindus, and had been known to the later Græco-Roman
school, but had fallen into disuse until Paré, Franco, and Guillemeau
devoted themselves to the improvement of this neglected branch of the
healing art with great success.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Andrew Libavius</span> (1546-1616), physician at Coburg, is said by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_363">363</span>
Sprengel to have been the person who began to cultivate chemistry; as
distinct from all theosophical fancies of his predecessors.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Conrad Gesner</span>, the miracle of learning, whom we have already
mentioned, devoted great attention to gynæcology, and wrote learnedly
and without prejudice upon medicine.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Dr. Henry Alkins</span> (born 1558) was one of the principal physicians
of James I. While president of the Royal College, the first London
Pharmacopœia was published in 1618.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">John Bannister</span> was a voluminous writer on surgery who practised
in London, and wrote a treatise on surgery in 1575.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Thomas Gale</span> (1507-1586), the “English Paré,” was a military
surgeon, under Henry VIII. and Elizabeth, who taught that gun-shot
wounds were not poisoned as was commonly supposed, but were to be
treated as ordinary wounds.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">William Bulleyn</span> (died 1576) was a famous physician and botanist
in the reigns of the later Tudors. He wrote <i>The Government of Health</i>
(1548), <i>Book of Simples</i>, and other works.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Frescatorius</span> (1483-1553) was the first to publish a description of
typhus fever. Dr. Mead says<a id="FNanchor_848_848" href="#Footnote_848_848" class="fnanchor">848</a> that he knew that “consumption is
contagious, and is contracted by living with a phthisical person, by the
gliding of the corrupted and putrified juices [of the sick] into the
lungs of the sound man.” He <i>inferred</i> the microbes which we <i>see</i>.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">G. Baillou</span> (1536-1614) was the first to describe clearly the diseases
whooping cough and croup.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Alexander Benedetti</span> (died 1525) was an anatomist, who made
important observations on gall-stones.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Felix Platter</span> (1536-1614), a professor at Basle, must ever be
gratefully remembered for his humane and wise opposition to the
cruel treatment of the insane by coercive measures, which unhappily
were in fashion up to recent times. He suggested the division of
diseases into three classes: (1) Mental disorders; (2) Pains, fevers, etc.;
(3) Deformities and defects of secretion.</p>

<p>A book which contains directions for identifying simples and preparing
compound medicines is called a Pharmacopœia. The first work of
this character, which was published under Government authority, was
that of Nuremberg, in 1512. A student, <span class="smcap">Valerius Cordus</span>, passing
through the city, exhibited a recipe book, which he had compiled from
the writings of the most eminent physicians of the town. He was urged
to print it for the benefit of the apothecaries. The College of Medicine
at Florence issued the <i>Antidotarium Florentinum</i>, somewhat earlier,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_364">364</span>
but merely on its own authority. Dr. A. Foes used the term pharmacopœia
first as a distinct title for his work published at Basle, in 1561.<a id="FNanchor_849_849" href="#Footnote_849_849" class="fnanchor">849</a></p>

<p><span class="smcap">Costanzo Varolius</span> of Bologna (1545-1575), one of the greatest
of the Italian anatomists, described the optic nerves and many important
points in the anatomy of the brain.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Volcher Coiter</span>, of Groningen (1534-1600), was a pupil of Fallopius
and Eustachius, who was distinguished for his important researches on
the cartilages, bones, nerves, and the anatomy of the fœtal skeleton.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Fabricius</span>, of Acquapendente (1537-1619), a pupil of Fallopius, and
a distinguished anatomist, made important researches on the structure
of animals in general. His famous discovery of the valves of the
veins and his investigations concerning their use led Harvey to make
the discovery of the circulation of the blood.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Casserius</span> (1561-1616) investigated the anatomy of the vocal organs,
discovered the muscles of the ossicles of the ear, and practised bronchotomy,
which he had learned from Fabricius. He was professor at
Padua, and a teacher of Harvey.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Spigel</span> (1578-1625) made researches on the liver, a lobulus of which
bears his name.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Olaus Worm</span> (1588-1654) first described the small bones of the
skull, now called “Wormian” bones.</p>

<p>It was not till the sixteenth century that France contributed her quota
to the list of great anatomists. Nothing shows more clearly the difficulty
with which learning was spread in the times of which we write
than the fact that the works of the early Italian anatomists were altogether
unknown in France until a hundred years after they were
written.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Jacques Dubois</span> (1478-1555) taught anatomy at Paris, and was professor
of surgery to the Royal College. He was an irrational admirer
of Galen. The carcases of dogs and other animals were the materials
from which he taught; it does not appear that it was possible to obtain
human subjects for dissection without robbing the cemeteries.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Charles Etienne</span> (1503-64) was the first to detect valves in the
orifices of the hepatic veins. He knew nothing of the researches of
Achillini concerning the brain, although they were made sixty years
before; yet his investigations of the structure of the nervous system
were most important, and his demonstration of the existence of a canal
running through the whole length of the spinal cord, which had not
previously been suspected, entitles him to a high place in the history of
anatomy.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_365">365</span></p>

<p>A new era in the history of anatomy was inaugurated by the appearance
of <span class="smcap">Andrew Vesalius</span> (1514-1564), a Fleming, who pursued the
study with the greatest assiduity at Venice, and demonstrated it at
Padua before he was twenty-two. He remained there seven years, then
went to Bologna and thence to Pisa. He is known as the first author
of a systematic and comprehensive view of human anatomy. He
recognised the necessity of divesting the science of the current misrepresentations
of ignorance and fancy.</p>

<p>Vesalius especially contributed to our knowledge of the circulatory
organs; it was he who, by his study of the structure of the heart and the
mechanism of its valves, stimulated his pupils and fellow-students to
pursue a course of research which ended at last in Harvey’s immortal
discovery. Besides these researches on the vascular system, he first
accurately described the sphenoid bone and the sternum. He described
the omentum, the pylorus, the mediastinum and pleura, and gave the
fullest description of the brain which, up to that time, had appeared.
Splendid as were his researches, and valuable as were his writings, it was
perhaps by the way in which he stimulated inquiry in others that he
rendered the greatest services to anatomical science.</p>

<p>Dr. Molony, writing in the <i>British Medical Journal</i>, December 31,
1892, says: “I recently secured possession of his works, entitled
<i>Andreæ Vesalii Invictissimi Caroli V. Imperatoris Medici Opera Omnia</i>.
It is a curious work in two immense folio volumes, written in fairly good
Latin. It has several plates representing the surgical instruments of the
period, dissections, and, it must be added, quadrupeds of all sorts tied
up evidently awaiting vivisection.</p>

<p>“The preface consists of a lengthy and appreciative life of Vesalius,
from which it seems that he was born in 1514, at Brussels, where his
father was court physician. As a boy he seems to have shown a taste
for comparative anatomy, ‘puer animalium penetralia nudare atque
viscera inspicere soleret.’ His anatomical studies were at all times
pursued under difficulties. He obtained the bodies of criminals by
bribing the judges, ‘corpora nactus eorum, in cubicula vexit, suosque
in usus per tres et ultra septimanas asservavit. Horretne legenti animus?
O juvenilis ardor, repagula eluctatur ferrea! Tali opus erat ingenio,
artibus bis, at nobile conderet opus.’ He does not seem to have been
married, if we may judge from the following extract: ‘Aetate vero integra,
uxore, liberis, rei familiaris omni cura liber, totum se immersit in
anatomicis.’</p>

<p>“Vesalius was an enthusiastic surgeon, and apparently looked down
upon the physicians of the period: ‘Jocatus medicos reliquos syrupis
præscribendis unice occupari.’ His success aroused the jealousy of his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_366">366</span>
contemporaries. Among others he came into collision with Sylvius of
Paris, Eustachius of Rome, and Fallopius of Padua. Mention is also
made of ‘Joannis Caji Medici Celebris Britanni.’ It would be interesting
to ascertain who this was. [No doubt it was Caius.]</p>

<p>“The end of Vesalius was tragic enough. ‘Hispanum curabat nobilem
petiit ab amicis defuncti corpus aperire ut mortis scrutaretur causam.
Quo concesso, visum cor in aperto jam pectore adhuc palpitans.’ The
punishment ordered for this was a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. On his
return voyage he was wrecked on the island of Zacinthus. ‘Inops,
in loco solitario, omnique carens subsidio miserabiliter vitam finivit
1564.’”</p>

<p>“<span class="smcap">Vesalius</span>,” says Portal, “appears to me one of the greatest men
who ever existed. Let the astronomers vaunt their Copernicus, the
natural philosophers their Galileo and Torricelli, the mathematicians
their Pascal, the geographers their Columbus, I shall always place
Vesalius above all their heroes. The first study for man is man.
Vesalius has this noble object in view, and has admirably attained it;
he has made on himself and his fellows such discoveries as Columbus
could only make by travelling to the extremity of the world. The discoveries
of Vesalius are of direct importance to man; by acquiring
fresh knowledge of his own structure, man seems to enlarge his existence;
while discoveries in geography or astronomy affect him but in a
very indirect manner.”</p>

<p>The zeal of Vesalius and his fellow-students of anatomy often led
them to weird adventures. Hallam says:<a id="FNanchor_850_850" href="#Footnote_850_850" class="fnanchor">850</a> “they prowled by night in
charnel-houses, they dug up the dead from the graves, they climbed the
gibbet, in fear and silence, to steal the mouldering carcase of the murderer;
the risk of ignominious punishment, and the secret stings of
superstitious remorse, exalting no doubt the delight of these useful but
not very enviable pursuits.” Vesalius, as has been said above, was
once absurdly accused of dissecting a Spanish gentleman before he was
dead. He only escaped the punishment of death by undertaking a
pilgrimage to Jerusalem, during which he was shipwrecked, and died
of famine in one of the Greek islands.<a id="FNanchor_851_851" href="#Footnote_851_851" class="fnanchor">851</a></p>

<p><span class="smcap">Gabriel Fallopius</span> (1523-1562) was a prominent pupil of Vesalius
who studied the anastomoses (the blending together) of the blood-vessels.
His researches in the anatomy of the bones and the internal ear greatly
advanced anatomical knowledge. He discovered the tubes connected
with the womb, called after him the “Fallopian tubes.” Fallopius is
described as a savant distinguished by his sense of justice, his modesty<span class="pagenum" id="Page_367">367</span>
and gentleness; yet Dr. Baas says,<a id="FNanchor_852_852" href="#Footnote_852_852" class="fnanchor">852</a> “the fact that even Fallopio did not
shrink from accepting the gift of some convicts, and then poisoning
them—indeed, when the first experiment proved a failure, he tried it
again with better success—is characteristic of the zeal of the age in the
investigation of the human body, and of the barbarous idea that might
makes right towards those guilty before the law!”</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Eustachius</span> was a contemporary of Vesalius. He divides with him
the honour of having created the science of human anatomy. His
name is perpetuated by the tube in the internal ear, called the “Eustachian
tube.” His researches on the anatomy of the internal part of the
organ of hearing, his studies in the anatomy of the teeth, in which he
was the pioneer, his famous <i>Anatomical Engravings</i>, and his labours
in connection with the intimate structure of the organs of the body,
taken in connection with their relative anatomy, prove that he laboured
for the advancement of the knowledge of the structure of the human
frame with the utmost assiduity and success.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">J. C. Aranzi</span> (1530-1589), of Bologna, gave the first correct account
of the anatomy of the fœtus, and his description of that of the brain is
exceedingly minute and lucid. He named the <i>hippocampus</i>, described
the choroid plexus, and the fourth ventricle under the name of the <i>cistern
of the cerebellum</i>.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Columbus</span> (died 1559) was a pupil of Vesalius, whom he succeeded in
the chair of anatomy at Padua. He had a glimpse of how the blood
passes from the right to the left side of the heart, but he had no true
knowledge of the circulation.</p>

<p><i>Michael Servetus</i> (1511-1553) was either a pupil or fellow-student
of Vesalius, who, in 1553, described accurately the pulmonary circulation.
He recognised that the change from venous into arterial blood
took place in the lungs, and not in the left ventricle. He was a pioneer
in physiological science by his great discovery of the respiratory changes
in the lungs.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Levasseur</span> (about 1540), says Hallam,<a id="FNanchor_853_853" href="#Footnote_853_853" class="fnanchor">853</a> appears to have known the
circulation of the blood through the lungs, the valves of the veins, and
their direction and purpose.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Gaspare Tagliacozzi</span> (1546-1599) was a professor at Bologna, whose
name is famous in the history of surgery from his skill in performing
“plastic operations.” Rhinoplastic operation is a term in surgery
sometimes synonymous with the Taliacotian operation, which is a process
for forming an artificial nose. It consists in bringing down a piece of
flesh from the forehead, and while preserving its attachment to the living<span class="pagenum" id="Page_368">368</span>
structures, causing it to adhere to the anterior part of the remains of the
nose. Tagliacozzi, himself, to replace the lost substance employed the
skin of the upper part of the arm, as <span class="smcap">Branca</span> did previously. Patients
flocked to him from all parts of Europe. The world was, as usual,
ungrateful; the great surgeon was considered to have presumptuously
interfered with the authority of Providence. Noses and lips which the
Divinity had destroyed as a punishment for the sins of men had been
restored by this daring man. After his death some nuns heard voices
in their convent crying for several weeks: “Tagliacozzi is damned!”
By the direction of the clergy of Bologna his corpse was taken from the
grave and re-interred in unconsecrated ground.<a id="FNanchor_854_854" href="#Footnote_854_854" class="fnanchor">854</a> We are not in a position
to sneer at this, for the preachers of the nineteenth century said something
very similar of the use of chloroform in midwifery only a few years ago.
In 1742 the Faculty of Paris declared Tagliacozzi’s operation impossible;
but the English journals, in 1794, discovered that such a method of
surgical procedure had been in use in India from ancient times, and then
the scientific world tried the experiment and succeeded perfectly.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Ambroise Paré</span>, “the father of French surgery” (1509-1590), availed
himself of the opportunities offered him in military surgery during the
campaign of Francis I. in Piedmont. It was the practice of the time
to treat gunshot wounds with hot oil—a treatment which Paré revolutionized
by using merely a simple bandage.</p>

<p>In 1545 he attended the lectures of Sylvius at Paris, and became
prosector to that great anatomist. His book on <i>Anatomy</i> was published
five years later. By his employment of the ligature for large arteries,
he was able so completely to control hæmorrhage that he was able to
practise amputation on a larger scale than had before been attempted.
Paré is considered as the first who regularly employed the ligature after
amputation. He declares in his <i>Apologie</i> that the invention was due to
the ancients, and he explains their use of it, although he ascribes to
inspiration of the Deity his own first adoption of the practice.</p>

<p>The <span class="smcap">philosopher Ramus</span> in 1562 urged Charles IX. of France to
establish schools for clinical teaching, such as already existed at Padua.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Robert Fludd</span>, M.D., or in the Latin style he affected, <i>Robertus
de Fluctibus</i>, was born in 1574; he was an ardent supporter of the
Rosicrucian philosophy. He had a strong leaning towards chemistry,
but had little faith in orthodox medicine. His medical ideas consisted
of a mysterious mixture of divinity, chemistry, natural philosophy, and
metaphysics.</p>

<p>In 1573, Harrison, in his unpublished <i>Chronologie</i>, remarks that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_369">369</span>
“these daies the taking in of the smoke of the Indian herb called
tabaco, by an instrument like a little ladell, is gretly taken up and
used in England against rewmes.”</p>

<p>It was not till 1576 that croup was well understood. Laënnec thinks
it was quite unknown to the Greek and Arabian physicians; but Forbes
says that it was known to Hippocrates and Aretæus, although its
pathology was not understood. Ballonius was the first who accurately
described the false membrane, which is a characteristic of the disease.<a id="FNanchor_855_855" href="#Footnote_855_855" class="fnanchor">855</a></p>

<p>At the Reformation in England under Elizabeth, some of the Catholic
priests who refused to conform to the new religion sought in other professions
the means of living. In a curious old book, <i>Tom of all Trades,
or the Plaine Pathway to Preferment</i>, by Thomas Powell (printed 1631),
there is a story which no doubt was founded in fact. “And heere I
remember me of an old tale following, <i>viz.</i>, At the beginning of the
happy raigne of our late good Queene <i>Elizabeth</i>, divers Commissioners
of great place, being authorized to enquire of, and to displace, all such
of the <i>Clergie</i> as would not conforme to the reformed <i>Church</i>, one
amongst others was Conuented before them, who being asked whether
he would subscribe or no, denied it, and so consequently was adiudged
to lose his benefice and to be deprived his function; wherevpon, in his
impatience, he said, ‘That if they (meaning the Commissioners) held
this course it would cost many a man’s life.’ For which the Commissioners
called him backe againe, and charged him that he had spoke
treasonable and seditious words, tending to the raysing of a rebellion or
some tumult in the Land; for which he should receive the reward of a
Traytor. And being asked whether hee spake those words or no, he
acknowledged it, and tooke vpon him the Iustification thereof; ‘for,
said he, ‘yee have taken from me my liuing and profession of the
Ministrie; Schollership is all my portion, and I have no other meanes
now left for my maintenance but to turn <i>Phisition</i>; and before I shalbe
absolute Master of that Misterie (God he knowes) how many mens
lives it will cost. For few <i>Phisitions</i> vse to try experiments vpon their
owne bodies.’</p>

<p>“With vs, it is a Profession can maintaine but a few. And diuers of
those more indebted to opinion than learning, and (for the most part)
better qualified in discoursing their travailes than in discerning their
patients malladies. For it is growne to be a very huswiues trade, where
fortune prevailes more than skill.”</p>

<p>A writer in Hood’s <i>Every-Day Book</i>, on the date February 25,
says that the monks knew of more than three hundred species of
medicinal plants which were used in general for medicines by the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_370">370</span>
religious orders before the Reformation. The Protestants, the more
efficiently to root out Popery, changed the Catholic names of many of
these. Thus the <i>virgin’s bower</i> of the monastic physician was changed
into <i>flammula Jovis</i>; the <i>hedge hyssop</i> into <i>gratiola</i>; <i>St. John’s wort</i>
became <i>hypericum</i>; <i>fleur de St. Louis</i> was called <i>iris</i>; <i>palma Christi</i>
became <i>ricinus</i>; <i>Our Master wort</i> was christened <i>imperatona</i>; <i>sweet bay</i>
they called <i>laurus</i>; <i>Our Lady’s smock</i> was changed into <i>cardamine</i>;
<i>Solomon’s seal</i> into <i>convallaria</i>; <i>Our Lady’s hair</i> into <i>trichomanes</i>; <i>balm</i>
into <i>melissa</i>; <i>marjoram</i> into <i>origanum</i>; <i>herb Trinity</i> into <i>viola tricolor</i>;
<i>knee holy</i> into <i>rascus</i>; <i>rosemary</i> into <i>rosmarinus</i>; <i>marygold</i> into <i>calendula</i>;
and a hundred others. But the old Catholic names cling to the
plants of the cottage garden, and <i>Star of Bethlehem</i> has not quite given
place to <i>ornithogalum</i>; <i>Star of Jerusalem</i> to <i>goat’s beard</i>; nor <i>Lent lily</i>
to <i>daffodil</i>.</p>

<p>The gullibility of mankind has never been exhibited in a clearer light
than <span class="smcap">Johann Valentin Andreæ</span> (1586-1654) succeeded in showing
in his elaborate joke of the <span class="smcap">Society of the Rosy-Cross</span>. In 1614
a famous but entirely fabulous secret society set the scholars of
Europe discussing the pretensions of the Rosicrucians, who were said
to have derived their origin from one <span class="smcap">Christian Rosenkreuz</span>, two
hundred years previously. This philosopher, it was said, had made a
pilgrimage to the East, to learn its hidden wisdom, of which the art of
making gold was a portion. The character of the society was Christian,
but anti-Catholic, and its ostensible objects were the study of philosophy
and the gratuitous healing of the sick. Its device was a cross, with
four red roses. Andreæ was a learned man, but jocular withal; for no
sooner had the public eagerly swallowed his story, than he confessed
the whole was pure invention, and that he had originated the idea with
the view of ridiculing the alchemists and Theosophists, whose opinions
were dominating European society. The public, however, liked the
idea so well that it developed and flourished, and a society was established
called <i>Fraternitas Rosæ Crucis</i>. The most celebrated followers
of the Rosicrucians were Valentine Wiegel, Jacob Boehm, Egidius Gutman,
Michael Mayer, Oswald Crollius, and Robert Fludd.<a id="FNanchor_856_856" href="#Footnote_856_856" class="fnanchor">856</a></p>

<p>De Quincey has traced the connection between the Rosicrucians and
Freemasons. “Rosicrucianism,” he says, “it is true, is not Freemasonry,
but the latter borrowed its form from the first.”<a id="FNanchor_857_857" href="#Footnote_857_857" class="fnanchor">857</a></p>

<p>Scrofula was anciently treated in a superstitious manner by the
sovereigns of England and France by imposition of hands. This ceremony
is said to have been first performed by Edward the Confessor<span class="pagenum" id="Page_371">371</span>
(1042-1066). A special “Service of Healing” was used in the English
Church in the reign of Henry VIII. (1484-1509).</p>

<p>The ceremonies of blessing cramp-rings on Good Friday, called
the Hallowing of the Cramp-Rings, is described by Bishop Percy in
his <i>Northumberland Household Book</i>,<a id="FNanchor_858_858" href="#Footnote_858_858" class="fnanchor">858</a> where we have the following
account:—</p>

<p>“And then the Usher to lay a Carpett for the Kinge to Creepe to the
Crosse upon. And that done, there shal be a Forme sett upon the
Carpett, before the Crucifix, and a Cushion laid upon it for the King to
kneale upon. And the Master of the Jewell Howse ther to be ready
with the Booke concerninge the Hallowing of the Crampe Rings, and
Amner (Almoner) muste kneele on the right hand of the Kinge, holdinge
the sayde booke. When that is done the King shall rise and goe
to the Alter, wheare a Gent. Usher shall be redie with a Cushion for
the Kinge to kneele upon; and then the greatest Lords that shall be
ther to take the Bason with the Rings and beare them after the Kinge
to offer.”</p>

<p>In the Harleian Manuscripts there is a letter from Lord Chancellor
Hatton to Sir Thomas Smith, dated Sept, 11th, 158-, about a prevailing
epidemic, and enclosing a ring for Queen Elizabeth to wear between
her breasts, the said ring having “the virtue to expell infectious airs.”<a id="FNanchor_859_859" href="#Footnote_859_859" class="fnanchor">859</a></p>

<p>Andrew Boorde, in his <i>Introduction to Knowledge</i> (1547-48), says:
“The Kynges of England by the power that God hath gyuen to them,
dothe make sicke men whole of a sickeness called the kynges euyll.
The Kynges of England doth halowe euery yere crampe rynges, the
whyche rynges, worne on ones fynger, dothe helpe them the whyche
hath the crampe.”<a id="FNanchor_860_860" href="#Footnote_860_860" class="fnanchor">860</a></p>

<p>Concerning the king’s evil, which Boorde explains is an “euyl
sickenes or impediment,” he advises: “For this matter let euery man
make frendes to the Kynges maiestie, for it doth pertayne to a Kynge
to helpe this infirmitie by the grace the whiche is geuen to a Kynge
anoynted.”<a id="FNanchor_861_861" href="#Footnote_861_861" class="fnanchor">861</a></p>

<p>In Robert Laneham’s letter<a id="FNanchor_862_862" href="#Footnote_862_862" class="fnanchor">862</a> about Queen Elizabeth’s visit to Kenilworth
Castle, it is told how on July 18th, 1575, her Majesty touched for
the evil, and that it was “a day of grace.”<span class="pagenum" id="Page_372">372</span> “By her highnes accustumed
mercy and charitee, nyne cured of the peynfull and daungerous
diseaz, called the kings euill; for that Kings and Queenz of this Realm
withoout oother medsin (saue only by handling and prayerz) only doo
cure it.”</p>

<p>Sir John Fortescue, in his defence of the House of Lancaster against
that of York, argued that the crown could not descend to a female because
the Queen is not qualified by the form of anointing her to cure
the disease called the king’s evil. On this account, and more especially
after the excommunication of Elizabeth by the Pope in 1570, it must
have been eminently comforting to all concerned to find that the
power to cure disease by the royal touch had not been affected by the
change of religion or any other cause. The practice was at its height
in the reign of Charles II.<a id="FNanchor_863_863" href="#Footnote_863_863" class="fnanchor">863</a></p>

<p>Lord Braybrooke says,<a id="FNanchor_864_864" href="#Footnote_864_864" class="fnanchor">864</a> “In the first four years after his restoration
he ‘touched’ nearly 24,000 people.” We find that Dr. Johnson was
touched by Queen Anne. “The Office for the Healing” continued to
be printed in the Book of Common Prayer after the accession of the
House of Hanover.</p>

<p>The custom evidently arose from the fact that Edward the Confessor
was a saint as well as a king. William of Malmesbury gives the origin
of the royal touch in his account of the miracles of Edward: “A
young woman had married a husband of her own age, but having no
issue by the union, the humours collecting abundantly about her neck,
she had contracted a sore disorder, the glands swelling in a dreadful
manner. Admonished in a dream to have the part affected washed by
the king, she entered the palace, and the king himself fulfilled this
labour of love, by rubbing the woman’s neck with his fingers dipped in
water. Joyous health followed his healing hand; the lurid skin opened,
so that worms flowed out with the purulent matter, and the tumour
subsided. But as the orifice of the ulcers was large and unsightly, he
commanded her to be supported at the royal expense till she should be
perfectly cured. However, before a week was expired, a fair new skin
returned, and hid the scars so completely, that nothing of the original
wound could be discovered; and within a year becoming the mother of
twins, she increased the admiration of Edward’s holiness. Those who
knew him more intimately, affirm that he often cured this complaint
in Normandy; whence appears how false is their notion, who in our
times assert, that the cure of this disease does not proceed from
personal sanctity, but from hereditary virtue in the royal line.”<a id="FNanchor_865_865" href="#Footnote_865_865" class="fnanchor">865</a></p>

<p>Many other miracles of healing were attributed to St. Edward.
Jeremy Collier<a id="FNanchor_866_866" href="#Footnote_866_866" class="fnanchor">866</a> maintains that the scrofula miracle is hereditary upon<span class="pagenum" id="Page_373">373</span>
all his successors. The curious fact, however, is that the hereditary
right of succession was repeatedly interrupted, yet the power remained.
In connection with this royal touching, pieces of gold were given by the
sovereigns to be worn by the patients as amulets. They were called
“touching pieces,” and though not absolutely requisite for the cure,
some persons declared that the disease returned if they lost the coins.
We can only account for the great efficacy which in some cases seemed
to have attended the royal treatment, by the confidence and exalted
expectation awakened in the sufferers by the ceremony, which acted as
a tonic to the system, and roused the patients’ imagination to contribute
to their own cure.<a id="FNanchor_867_867" href="#Footnote_867_867" class="fnanchor">867</a></p>

<p>Chips and handkerchiefs dipped in the blood of King Charles I. are
said to have been efficacious in curing sick persons in hundreds of cases.</p>

<p>The College of Physicians of Edinburgh was created by the king’s
letters patent in 1581, one year after the foundation of Edinburgh
University by James VI.</p>

<p>In the reign of Elizabeth, when physicians rode on horseback, they
were seated sideways; many of them carried muffs, to keep their fingers
warm when they had to feel their patient’s pulse. Twice a year everybody
was bled—a system which must have caused many disorders.</p>

<p>Fifteen centuries after the age of <span class="smcap">Celsus</span>, with the revival of learning
and science came the revival of human vivisection. <span class="smcap">Vesalius</span>, as
above mentioned, is known to have vivisected men; and in the <i>Storia
Universale</i> of <span class="smcap">Cesare Cantù</span> there is an account of the <span class="smcap">Duke of
Florence</span> giving a man for vivisection to <span class="smcap">Fallopius</span>. This incident
has been disputed; but the following series of cases, extracted by Professor
<span class="smcap">Andreozzi</span> from the Criminal Archives of Florence, and published
by him in his book <i>Leggi Penali degli antichi e Cinesi</i>, are beyond question.
<span class="smcap">Cosmo de Medici</span> seems to have taken the anatomists of Pisa
under his special favour, and to have sent them the miserable convicts
from the prisons at his option. The following examples are a selection
from the cases extracted by Signor <span class="smcap">Andreozzi</span> from the <i>Archivio
Criminale</i>:—</p>

<p>“1. January 15th, 1545.—<span class="smcap">Santa di Mariotto Tarchi di Mugello</span>,
wife of <span class="smcap">Bastiano Lucchese</span>, was condemned to be beheaded for infanticide.
Under the sentence is written, ‘Dicta Santa, de mente
Excell<sup>mi</sup> Ducis, fuit missa Pisis, de ea per doctores fieret notomia.’[No
notice to be found of any execution of the woman, such as would have
appeared had she been put to death before she was sent to Pisa.]</p>

<p>“2. December 14th, 1547.—<span class="smcap">Giulio Mancini Sanese</span> was condemned<span class="pagenum" id="Page_374">374</span>
for robbery and other offences. Sent to Pisa to be anatomised. ‘Ducatur
Pisis, pro faciendo de eo notomia.’</p>

<p>“3. In the record of prisoners sent away, dated September 1st, 1551,
occurs this entry:—‘Letter to the Commissioner of Castrocaro, that
<span class="smcap">Maddalena</span>, who is imprisoned for killing her son, should be sent here,
if she be likely to recover, as it pleases S. E. that she should be reserved
for anatomy. Of this nothing is to be said, but she is to be kept in
hopes. If she is not likely to recover, the executioner is to be sent for
to decapitate her.’ The end of the horrible extract is,—‘Went to Pisa,
to be made an anatomy.’</p>

<p>“4. December 12th, 1552.—A man named <span class="smcap">Zuccheria</span>, accused of
piracy, was reserved from hanging, with his comrade, and sent to Pisa,
‘per la notomia.’</p>

<p>“5. December 22nd, 1552.—A certain <span class="smcap">Ulivo di Paolo</span> was condemned
by the Council of Eight to be hanged for poisoning his wife.
Sentence changed—to be sent for anatomy. Was sent to Pisa on
January 13th.</p>

<p>“6. November 14th, 1553.—<span class="smcap">Marguerita</span>, wife of <span class="smcap">Biajio d’Antinoro</span>,
condemned to be beheaded for infanticide.... December
20th, ‘she was released from the fetters and consigned to a familiar,
who took her to Pisa to the Commissario, <i>who gave her, as usual, to the
anatomist, to make anatomy of her</i>; which was done’ (‘che la consegni,
secondo il solito, al notomista, per farne notomia, come fu fatto’).”</p>

<p>“Several other cases, from 1554 to 1570, are recorded, with equally
unmistakable exactitude. In one instance the condemned man’s destiny
was mitigated, and after having been ordered to be sent to Pisa for
the Commissario to consign to the anatomist, ‘when he should ask for
him, and at his pleasure,’ he was mercifully sentenced to be hanged at
once at Vico, ‘by direction of Sua Excellenza Illustrissima.’ Two
unfortunate thieves, <span class="smcap">Paoli di Giovanni</span> and <span class="smcap">Vestrino d’Agnolo</span>, were
sent together by the Council of Eight to be anatomised; the Duke
having written to say ‘that they wanted in Pisa a subject for anatomy.’”</p>

<p>After the date 1570 no more cases occur in the Archives.</p>

<p>Francis I. invited the Italian anatomist <span class="smcap">Vidus Vidius</span> to his royal
college at Paris.</p>

<p>Several new medicines were introduced about this period.</p>

<p>Lemon juice was first spoken of as a remedy for scurvy in 1564. Its
use was discovered by some Dutch sailors whose ship was laden with
lemons and oranges from Spain.<a id="FNanchor_868_868" href="#Footnote_868_868" class="fnanchor">868</a></p>

<p>The virtues of sassafras as a medicine for scurvy were discovered,
according to Cartier, in 1536, on a voyage to explore the coast of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_375">375</span>
Newfoundland and the St. Lawrence. The natives advised the sailors
afflicted with the malady to use the wood of the tree ameda, which was
thought to have been sassafras.<a id="FNanchor_869_869" href="#Footnote_869_869" class="fnanchor">869</a></p>

<p>Sarsaparilla was first brought to Europe by the Spaniards, in the
middle of the sixteenth century, from Peru and Brazil.</p>

<p>Guaiacum was introduced into Europe in 1509, and in 1519 its use
became common.</p>

<p>Holinshed complained<a id="FNanchor_870_870" href="#Footnote_870_870" class="fnanchor">870</a> that estimation and credit given to compound
medicines made with foreign drugs in his time was one great
cause of the prevailing ignorance of the virtues and uses of “our own
simples,” which he held to be fully as useful as the “salsa parilla,
mochoacan, etc.,” so much in request. “We tread those herbs under
our feet, whose forces, if we knew and could apply them to our necessities,
we would honour and have in reverence.—Alas! what have we
to do with such Arabian and Grecian stuff as is daily brought from
those parts which lie in another clime?—The bodies of such as dwell
there are of another constitution than ours are here at home. Certes,
they grow not for us, but for the Arabians and Grecians.—Among the
Indians, who have the most present cures for every disease of their own
nation, there is small regard of compound medicines, and less of foreign
drugs, because they neither know them nor can use them, but work
wonders even with their own simples.”</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Carlo Ruini</span>, of Bologna, published in 1598 a work on the anatomy
of the horse, in which Ercolani has found evidence that he, to some
extent, anticipated Harvey’s discovery.<a id="FNanchor_871_871" href="#Footnote_871_871" class="fnanchor">871</a></p>

<p><span class="smcap">Nicholas Houel</span> (1520-1585) was born at Paris, 1520. He was a
famous and learned pharmacien, who devoted the fortune which he
acquired by his industry and skill to philanthropic and scientific purposes.
He founded a great orphanage in Paris, and the School of
Pharmacy of that city owes its origin to him. He wrote a <i>Treatise on
the Plague</i>, and one on the <i>Theriacum of Mithridates</i>, both published in
1573. It is to his enlightened and charitable suggestion that dispensaries
arose in Paris. His “Garden of Simples” inspired the creation
of the <i>Jardin des Plantes</i>.<a id="FNanchor_872_872" href="#Footnote_872_872" class="fnanchor">872</a></p>

<p>Even at the close of the sixteenth century careful and sober men, as
Mr. Henry Morley says,<a id="FNanchor_873_873" href="#Footnote_873_873" class="fnanchor">873</a> believed in the miraculous properties of plants
and animals and parts of animals. When the century commenced, the
learned and unlearned alike believed in the influences of the stars and
the interferences of demons with diseases, and in the mysteries of magic.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_376">376</span>
The reason why students of such sciences as existed were punished and
persecuted was the dread which men had that the knowledge of the
occult powers of nature would afford the learner undue and mysterious
power over them.</p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Legal Medicine.</span></h4>

<p>That most important branch of medical science known as Medical
Jurisprudence, or Forensic Medicine, first took its rise in Germany,
and, later, was recognised as a necessary branch of study in England.
Briefly this science may be described as “that branch of State medicine
which treats of the application of medical knowledge to the purposes
of the law.” It embraces all questions affecting the civil or social
rights of individuals, and of injuries to the person. Although we find
traces of the first principles of this science in ancient times, especially
in connection with legitimacy, feigned diseases, etc., it is by no means
certain that even in Rome the law required any medical inspection of
dead bodies. The science dates only from the sixteenth century. The
Bishop of Bamberg, in 1507, introduced a penal code requiring the
production of medical evidence in certain cases. In 1532, Charles V.
induced the Diet of Ratison to adopt a code in which magistrates were
ordered to call medical evidence in cases of personal injuries, infanticide,
pretended pregnancy, simulated diseases, and poisoning. The
actual birth of forensic medicine, however, did not take place until the
publication, in Germany, in 1553, of the <i>Constitutio Criminalis Carolina</i>.<a id="FNanchor_874_874" href="#Footnote_874_874" class="fnanchor">874</a>
The difficulties which the infant science had to contend against may be
estimated from the fact that a few years later a physician named Weiker,
who declared that witches and demoniacs were simply persons afflicted
with hypochondriasis and hysteria, and should not be punished, was with
difficulty saved from the stake by his patron, William, Duke of Cleves.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Ambrose Paré</span> wrote on monsters, simulated diseases, and the art
of drawing up medico-legal reports.</p>

<p>In 1621-35 Paulo Zacchia, of Rome, published a work entitled
<i>Quæstiones Medico-Legales</i>, which inaugurated a new era in the history of
Forensic Medicine. He exhibited immense research in this classical
work, the materials for which he collected from 460 authors. Considering
that chemistry and physiology were then so imperfectly understood,
such a work is a proof of the learning and sagacity of the author.</p>

<p>In 1663 the Danish physician Bartholin proposed the hydrostatic test
for the determination of live-birth, the method used to-day in examining
the lungs of an infant to discover whether the child was born alive or
not, by observing whether they float or sink in water.</p>

<hr class="chap" />
<div class="chapter"></div>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_377">377</span></p>




<h3 id="CHAPTERV_II">CHAPTER II.<br />

<small>THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.</small></h3>

<blockquote>

<p>Bacon and the Inductive Method.—Descartes and Physiology.—Newton.—Boyle
and the Royal Society.—The Founders of the Schools of Medical Science.—Sydenham,
the English Hippocrates.—Harvey and the Rise of Physiology.—The
Microscope in Medicine.—Willis and the Reform of Materia Medica.</p></blockquote>


<p>The seventeenth century is important in the history of medicine as
the era of the two greatest discoveries of modern physiology—the circulation
of the blood, and the development of the higher animals from
the egg (ovum). Both of these are due to Harvey, and both were made
in the midst of the troubles of the great Civil War. The history of
medicine is so interwoven at this important period with that of science
and philosophy in general, that it is necessary to glance awhile at the
great factors which were working out the advancement of medical
learning.</p>

<p>Amongst the greatest figures on the scientific stage at the beginning
and middle of the seventeenth century are the following:—</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Francis Bacon</span> (1561-1626) was the great leader in the reformation
of modern science, and shares with Descartes the glory of inaugurating
modern philosophy. His great work, the <i>Novum Organon</i>,
was given to the world just as authority and dogmatism had been discarded
from scientific thought, and the era of experiment had begun.
It was not Bacon’s contributions to science, not his discoveries, which
entitle him to the highest place in the reformation of science, but the
general spirit of his philosophy and his connected mode of thinking,
his insistence upon the need for rejecting rash generalization, and
analysing our experience, employing hypothesis, not by guess work, but
by the scientific imagination which calls to its assistance experimental
comparison, verification, and proof. Bacon’s philosophy of induction
was reared upon a foundation of exclusion and elimination. He relegated
theological questions to the region of faith, insisting that experience
and observation are the only remedies against prejudice and
error.<a id="FNanchor_875_875" href="#Footnote_875_875" class="fnanchor">875</a></p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_378">378</span></p>

<p>The publication of Bacon’s <i>Novum Organon</i> in 1620 resulted in the
formation of a society of learned men, who met together in London
in 1645 to discuss philosophical subjects and the results of their various
experiments in science. They are described as “inquisitive,” a term
which aptly illustrates the temper of the times. Taking nothing upon
trust, these men inquired for themselves, and left their books to make
experiment, as Bacon had urged students of nature to do. About 1648-9
<span class="smcap">Drs. Wilkins</span>, <span class="smcap">Wallis</span>, and others removed to Oxford, and with <span class="smcap">Seth
Ward</span>, the <span class="smcap">Hon. Robert Boyle</span>, <span class="smcap">Petty</span>, and other men of divinity and
physic, often met in the rooms of <span class="smcap">Dr. Wilkins</span> at Wadham College, and
so formed the Philosophical Society of Oxford, which existed only till
1690. About 1658 the members were dispersed, the majority coming
to London and attending lectures at Gresham College. Thus, in the
midst of civil war, thoughtful and inquiring minds found a refuge from
the quarrels of politicians and the babel of contending parties in the
pursuit of knowledge and the advancement of research. The Royal
Society was organized in 1660, and on 22nd April, 1662, Charles II.
constituted it a body politic and corporate. The <i>Philosophical Transactions</i>
began 6th March, 1664-5. 1668 Newton invented his
reflecting telescope, and on 28th April, 1686, presented to the Society
the MS. of his <i>Principia</i>, which the council ordered to be printed.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Rene Descartes</span> (1596-1650), the philosopher, applied himself to
the study of physics in all its branches, but especially to physiology.
He said that science may be compared to a tree; metaphysics is the
root, physics is the trunk, and the three chief branches are mechanics,
medicine, and morals,—the three applications of our knowledge to the
outward world, to the human body, and to the conduct of life.<a id="FNanchor_876_876" href="#Footnote_876_876" class="fnanchor">876</a> He
studied chemistry and anatomy, dissecting the heads of animals in
order to explain imagination and memory, which he believed to be
physical processes.<a id="FNanchor_877_877" href="#Footnote_877_877" class="fnanchor">877</a> In 1629 he asks Mersenne to take care of himself,
“till I find out if there is any means of getting a medical theory based
on infallible demonstration, which is what I am now inquiring.”<a id="FNanchor_878_878" href="#Footnote_878_878" class="fnanchor">878</a>
Descartes embraced the doctrine of the circulation of the blood as
discovered by Harvey, and he did much to popularise it, falling in as
it did with his mechanical theory of life. He thought the nerves were
tubular vessels which conduct the animal spirits to the muscles, and in
their turn convey the impressions of the organs to the brain. He
considered man and the animals were machines. “The animals act
naturally and by springs, like a watch.”<a id="FNanchor_879_879" href="#Footnote_879_879" class="fnanchor">879</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_379">379</span> “The greatest of all the
prejudices we have retained from our infancy is that of believing that
the beasts think.”<a id="FNanchor_880_880" href="#Footnote_880_880" class="fnanchor">880</a> Naturally such a monstrous theory did much to
encourage vivisection, a practice common with Descartes.<a id="FNanchor_881_881" href="#Footnote_881_881" class="fnanchor">881</a> “The
recluses of Port Royal,” says Dr. Wallace,<a id="FNanchor_882_882" href="#Footnote_882_882" class="fnanchor">882</a> “seized it eagerly, discussed
automatism, dissected living animals in order to show to a morbid
curiosity the circulation of the blood, were careless of the cries of
tortured dogs, and finally embalmed the doctrine in a syllogism of their
logic: no matter thinks; every soul of beast is matter, therefore no
soul of beast thinks. He held that the seat of the mind of man was
in that structure of the brain called by anatomists the pineal gland.”</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Malebranche</span> (1638-1715) was a disciple of Descartes, who thought
his system served to explain the mystery of life and thought. In his
famous <i>Recherche de la Verite</i> he anticipated later discoveries in
physiology, <i>e.g.</i>, Hartley’s principle of the interdependence of vibrations
in the nervous system and our conscious states.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Blaise Pascal</span> (1623-1662), as a natural philosopher, rendered
great services to science. The account of his experiments, written in
1662, on the equilibrium of fluids, entitles him to be considered one of
the founders of hydrodynamics. His experiments on the pressure of
the air and his invention for measuring it greatly assisted to advance the
work begun by Galileo and Torricelli. Not only in the great work
done, but in those which were undertaken in consequence of his inspiration,
we recognise in Pascal one of the most brilliant scientists of a
brilliant age.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Hobbes</span> (1588-1679), the famous author of the <i>Leviathan</i>, endeavoured
to base all that he could upon mathematical principles.
Philosophy, he said, is concerned with the perfect knowledge of truth
in all matters whatsoever. If the moral philosophers had done for
mankind what the geometricians had effected, men would have enjoyed
an immortal peace.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Benedict de Spinoza</span> (1632-1677), the philosopher, had some
medical training. His spirit has had a large share in moulding the
philosophic thought of the nineteenth century. Novalis saw in him
not an atheist, but a “God-intoxicated man.” His philosophy indeed
was a pure pantheism; the foundation of his system is the doctrine of
one infinite substance. All finite things are modes of this substance.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Sir Isaac Newton</span> (1642-1727), the greatest of natural philosophers,
in the years 1685 and 1686—years for ever to be remembered in the
history of science—composed almost the whole of his famous work, the
<i>Principia</i>.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Robert Boyle</span> (1626-1691), one of the great nature philosophers of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_380">380</span>
the seventeenth century, and one of the founders of the Royal Society,
published his first book at Oxford, in 1660, entitled <i>New Experiments,
Physico-Mechanical, touching the Spring of Air, and its Effects</i>. He was
at one time deeply interested in alchemy. He was the first great
investigator who carried out the suggestions of Bacon’s <i>Novum Organon</i>.
He was a patient researcher and observer of facts.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Pierre Bayle</span> (1647-1706), the author of the celebrated <i>Historical
and Critical Dictionary</i>, was a sceptic, of a peculiar turn of mind. He
knew so much concerning every side of every subject which he had
considered, that he came to the conclusion that certainty was unattainable.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Van Helmont</span> (1578-1644) was one of the most celebrated followers
of Paracelsus. He learned astronomy, astrology, and philosophy at
Rouvain, then studied magic under the Jesuits, and afterwards learned
law, botany, and medicine; but he became disgusted with the pretensions
of the latter science when it failed to cure him of the itch. He
became a mystic, and attached himself to the principles of Tauler and
Thomas à Kempis. Then he practised medicine as an act of charity,
till, falling in with the works of Paracelsus, he devoted ten years to
their study. He married, and devoted himself to medicine and chemistry,
investigating the composition of the water of mineral springs. Few
men have ever formed a nobler conception of the true physician than
Van Helmont, or more earnestly endeavoured to live up to it. Notwithstanding
his mysticism, science owes much to this philosopher, for
he was an acute chemist. We owe to him the first application of the
term “gas,” in the sense in which it is used at present. He discovered
that gas is disengaged when heat is applied to various bodies, and when
acids act upon metals and their carbonates. He discovered carbonic
acid. He believed in the existence of an Archeus in man and animals,
which is somewhat like the soul of man after the Fall; it resides in the
stomach as creative thought, in the spleen as appetite. This Archeus
is a ferment, and is the generative principle and basis of life. Disease
is due to the Fall of Man. The Archeus influus causes general diseases;
the Archei insiti, local diseases: dropsy, for example, is due to an obstruction
of the passage of the kidney secretion by the enraged Archeus.
Van Helmont gave wine in fevers, abhorred bleeding, and advocated
the use of simple chemical medicines.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Francis de la Boë</span> (Sylvius), (1614-1672) was a physician who
founded the Medico-Chemical Sect amongst doctors. Health and
disease he held to be due to the relations of the fluids of the body and
their neutrality, diseases being caused by their acidity or alkalinity.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Thomas Goulston</span>, M.D. (died 1632), was a distinguished London<span class="pagenum" id="Page_381">381</span>
physician, who was not less famous for his classic learning and theology
than for the practice of his profession. He founded what are known
as the Goulstonian lectures, which are delivered by one of the four
youngest doctors of the Royal College of Physicians, London. “A
dead body was, if possible, to be procured, and two or more diseases
treated of.”</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Thomas Winston</span>, M.D. (born 1575), was professor of physic in
Gresham College. His lectures included “an entire body of anatomy,”
and were considered, when published, as the most complete and accurate
then extant in English.</p>

<p>The Anatomy Lecture at Oxford was first proposed to the University
on Nov. 17th, 1623, with an endowment of £25 a year stipend. Out
of this the reader had “to pay yearly to a skilful Chirurgeon or Dissector
of the body, to be named by the said reader, the sums of and £3 and £2
more by the year towards the ordering and burying of the body.”<a id="FNanchor_883_883" href="#Footnote_883_883" class="fnanchor">883</a> Dr.
Clayton, the King’s Professor of Physic, was the first reader, and the
first chirurgeon was Bernard Wright.<a id="FNanchor_884_884" href="#Footnote_884_884" class="fnanchor">884</a></p>

<p><span class="smcap">Giovanni Alfonso Borelli</span> (1608-1679), the founder of the
Mathematical School of Medicine, which attempted to subject to calculation
the phenomena of the living economy, was professor of medicine
at Florence. He restricted the application of his system chiefly
to muscular motions, or to those which are evidently of a mechanical
character. Physiology is exceedingly indebted to this school for many
valuable suggestions, and Boerhaave distinctly acknowledged them in
his <i>Institutions</i>.<a id="FNanchor_885_885" href="#Footnote_885_885" class="fnanchor">885</a></p>

<p><span class="smcap">George Joyliffe</span>, M.D. (died 1658), was partly concerned in the
discovery of the lymphatics. It is not possible to say precisely to whom
the discovery of the lymphatics was due; they seem to have been
observed independently about the year 1651 to 1652 by Rudbeck a
Swede, by Bartholine a Dane, and by Joyliffe.<a id="FNanchor_886_886" href="#Footnote_886_886" class="fnanchor">886</a></p>

<p>A new era in medicine was inaugurated by <span class="smcap">Thomas Sydenham</span>,
M.D. (1624-1689), “the British Hippocrates,” whose only standard
was observation and experience, and whose faith in the healing power
of nature was unlimited. He studied at Oxford, but he graduated at
Cambridge. He was the friend of Locke and of Robert Boyle. He
was looked upon by the faculty with disfavour as an innovator, because,
in his own words to Boyle, he endeavoured to reduce practice to a
greater easiness and plainness. His fame as the father of English
medicine was posthumous. It was indeed acknowledged in his lifetime<span class="pagenum" id="Page_382">382</span>
that he rendered good service to medicine by his “expectant” treatment
of small-pox, by his invention of his laudanum (the first form of a
tincture of opium such as we have it), and for his advocacy of the use
of Peruvian bark in agues. Yet his professional brethren were inclined
to look upon him as a sectary, and considerable opposition was manifested
towards him. Arbuthnot, in 1727, styled him “Æmulus Hippocrates.”
Boerhaave referred to him as “Angliæ lumen, artis Phœbum,
veram Hippocratici viri speciem.” He did the best he could to cure
his patients without mystery and resort to the traditional and often
ridiculous dogmas of the medical craft. Many good stories are extant
which illustrate this fact. He was once called to prescribe for a gentleman
who had been subjected to the lowering treatment so much in
vogue in those days. He found him pitifully depressed. Sydenham
“conceived that this was occasioned partly by his long illness, partly by
the previous evacuations, and partly by emptiness. I therefore ordered
him a roast chicken and a pint of canary.” When Blackmore first engaged
in the study of medicine, he asked Dr. Sydenham what authors
he should read, and was told to study <span class="smcap">Don Quixote</span>, “which,” he said,
“is a very good book; I read it still.” He used to say that there were
cases in his practice where “I have consulted my patients’ safety and
my own reputation most effectually by doing nothing at all.”</p>

<p>Sydenham, having long attended a rich man for an illness which had
arisen and was kept going chiefly by his own indolence and luxurious
habits, at last told him that he could do no more for him, but that there
lived at Inverness a certain physician, named Robinson, who would
doubtless be able to cure him. Provided with a letter of introduction
and a complete history of the “case,” the invalid set out on the long
journey to Inverness. Arrived at his destination, full of hope and eager
expectation of a cure, he inquired diligently for Dr. Robinson, only to
learn that there was no such doctor there, neither had there been in the
memory of the oldest inhabitant. The gentleman returned to London
full of indignation against Sydenham, whom he violently rated for sending
him so far on a fool’s errand. “But,” exclaimed Sydenham, “you
are in much better health!” “Yes,” replied the patient, “I am now
well enough, but no thanks to you.” “No,” answered Sydenham; “it
was Dr. Robinson who cured you. I wished to send you a journey
with some object and interest in view; in going, you had Dr. Robinson
and his wonderful cures in contemplation; and in returning, you were
equally engaged in thinking of scolding me.”</p>

<p>The Civil War, which violently upset the speculations and research at
Oxford, when, as Antony Wood says, the University was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_383">383</span> “empty as to
scholars, but pretty well replenished with Parliamentary soldiers,”
afforded just that stimulus to thought and that upheaval of dogma and
prejudice which were eminently favourable to the advance of medical
science. Men had learned to treat old doctrines with little respect for
their mere antiquity; authority was discredited, it was subjected to test,
observation and criticism; men no longer believed those doctrines
about God and His counsels which the Fathers and the Church taught
them about religion, much less were they inclined to bow to Aristotle
and Galen when they dictated to them on medicine. Anciently, when
bitten by a mad dog, it was enough for them to believe with the fathers
of medicine that it was sufficient for the patient to hold some herb dittany
in the left hand, while he scratched his back with the other to ensure
his future safety. Men took to thinking for themselves; the spirit of investigation
was aroused; men’s minds, in every condition of society, in
every town and village, were aroused to activity. There probably never
was a time when there was more activity of thought in Oxford than at
this period. The stimulus of collision evoked many sparks of genius,
and the Civil War produced at our Universities wholesome disturbance,
not destruction of any good things. Sydenham, therefore, was distinctly
the product of his age. He does not seem to have been a very learned
man, neither, on the other hand, was he wholly untaught. There are not
many evidences in his works of very wide reading of medical literature,
though he was a sincere admirer of Hippocrates, evidently from a sound
acquaintance with his works. Sydenham’s first medical work was published
in 1666. It consisted of accounts of continued fevers, symptoms
of the same, of intermittent fevers and small-pox, and was entitled <i>Methodus
Curandi Febres, Propriis observationibus superstructa</i>. In it the
author maintains that “a fever is Nature’s engine which she brings into
the field to remove her enemy, or her handmaid, either for evacuating
the impurities of the blood, or for reducing it into a <i>new state</i>.
Secondly, that the true and genuine cure of this sickness consists in
such a tempering of the commotion of the blood, that it may neither
exceed nor be too languid.”<a id="FNanchor_887_887" href="#Footnote_887_887" class="fnanchor">887</a></p>

<p>It was about this period that Peruvian bark was first introduced into
European medicine. Perhaps no other drug has ever been so widely
and deservedly used as this American remedy for fevers, agues, and
debility. The earliest authenticated account of the use of Cinchona
bark in medicine is found in 1638, when the Countess of Cinchon, the
wife of the Governor of Peru, was cured of fever by its administration.
The Jesuit missionaries are said to have sent accounts of its virtues to
Europe, in consequence of one of their brethren having been cured of
fever by taking it at the suggestion of a South American Indian.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_384">384</span></p>

<p>The University of Montpellier, at the time of our great Civil War, was
much derided by the Paris Faculty for its laxity in granting degrees in
medicine. The enemies of Montpellier said that a three-months’ residence,
and the keeping of an act and opponency, sufficed to make a
man a Bachelor of Medicine. The professors were accused of neglecting
their lectures and selling their degrees; but, worse than all, it was
alleged that blood-letting and purging had fallen into disuse, and that
the Montpellier treatment was “more expectant than heroic, and more
tonic than evacuant.”<a id="FNanchor_888_888" href="#Footnote_888_888" class="fnanchor">888</a> Friendly historians, on the other hand, say that
at this period the medicinal uses of calomel and antimony were better
taught there than elsewhere; that museums, libraries, and good clinical
teaching flourished, so as to afford the student excellent means of
acquiring a sound knowledge of his profession.<a id="FNanchor_889_889" href="#Footnote_889_889" class="fnanchor">889</a></p>

<p><span class="smcap">William Harvey</span>, M.D., the famous discoverer of the circulation of
the blood, and the greatest physiologist the world has ever seen, was
born at Folkestone, 1578. He entered Caius College, Cambridge,
1593. Having taken his degree, he travelled through France and
Germany, and then visited Padua, the most celebrated school of medicine
of that time. Fabricius ab Aquâpendente was then professor of
anatomy, Minadous professor of medicine, and Casserius professor of
surgery. In 1615 Harvey was appointed Lumleian lecturer, and he
commenced his course of lectures in the following year—the year of
Shakespeare’s death.</p>

<p>In this course he is supposed to have expounded his views on the
circulation of the blood, which rendered his name immortal. His celebrated
work, <i>Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis</i>, was
published in 1628; but he says in that work that for more than nine
years he had confirmed and illustrated his opinion in his lectures, by
arguments which were founded on ocular demonstration. He was appointed
physician extraordinary to James I. in 1618. He was in attendance
on King Charles I. at the battle of Edgehill. The king had
been an enlightened patron of Harvey’s researches, and had placed the
royal deer parks at Hampton Court and Windsor at his disposal. In
1651 Harvey’s <i>Exercitationes de Generatione</i> was published.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Aristotle</span> knew but little of the vessels of the body, yet he traced
the origin of all the veins to the heart, and he seems to have been
aware of the distinction between veins and arteries. “Every artery,”
he says, “is accompanied by a vein; the former are filled only with
breath or air.”<a id="FNanchor_890_890" href="#Footnote_890_890" class="fnanchor">890</a></p>

<p>Aristotle thought that the windpipe conveys air into the heart. Al<span class="pagenum" id="Page_385">385</span>though
<i>Galen</i> understood the muscles very well, he knew little of the
vessels. The liver he held to be the origin of the veins, and the heart
of the arteries. He knew, however, of their junctions or anastomoses.<a id="FNanchor_891_891" href="#Footnote_891_891" class="fnanchor">891</a></p>

<p><span class="smcap">Mondino</span>, the anatomist of Bologna, who dissected and taught in
1315, had some idea of the circulation of the blood, for he says that
the heart transmits blood to the lungs.<a id="FNanchor_892_892" href="#Footnote_892_892" class="fnanchor">892</a> The great Italian anatomists
diligent students as they were of the human frame, all missed the great
discovery. <span class="smcap">Servetus</span>, who was burnt by Calvin as a heretic in Geneva
in 1553, is the first person who distinctly describes the small circulation,
or that which carries the blood from the heart to the lungs and
back again to the heart. He says:<a id="FNanchor_893_893" href="#Footnote_893_893" class="fnanchor">893</a> “The communication between
the right and left ventricles of the heart is made, not as is commonly
believed, through the partition of the heart, but by a remarkable artifice
the blood is carried from the right ventricle by a long circuit
through the lungs; is elaborated by the lungs, made yellow, and transferred
from the <i>vena arteriosa</i> into the <i>arteria venosa</i>.” Still, his theories
are full of fancies about a “<i>vital spirit</i>, which has its origin in the left
ventricle,” and are accordingly unscientific to that extent. Servetus
was, however, certainly the true predecessor of Harvey in physiology;
this is universally admitted.<a id="FNanchor_894_894" href="#Footnote_894_894" class="fnanchor">894</a></p>

<p><span class="smcap">Realdus Columbus</span><a id="FNanchor_895_895" href="#Footnote_895_895" class="fnanchor">895</a> is thought by some writers to have had a still
greater share than Servetus in the discovery of the circulation. He
denies the muscularity of the heart, yet correctly teaches that the blood
passes from the right to the left ventricle, not through the partition in
the heart but through the lungs. Harvey quotes Columbus, but does
not refer to Servetus. It must be remembered that when the unfortunate
Servetus was burnt at the stake, his work was destroyed with
him, and only two copies are known to have escaped the flames.<a id="FNanchor_896_896" href="#Footnote_896_896" class="fnanchor">896</a></p>

<p>The discovery of the valves of the veins by <span class="smcap">Sylvius</span> and <span class="smcap">Fabricius</span><a id="FNanchor_897_897" href="#Footnote_897_897" class="fnanchor">897</a>
undoubtedly was the chief factor in the preparation for Harvey’s
discovery of the circulation. It was he who first appreciated their
significance, and grasped the full meaning of the pulmonary circulation.
<span class="smcap">Cæsalpinus</span>, in his <i>Quæstiones Peripateticæ</i> (1571), is another claimant
for the honours due to Harvey; he had certain confused ideas of
the general circulation, and he made some experiments which enabled
him to understand the pulmonary circulation, but he certainly did not<span class="pagenum" id="Page_386">386</span>
know the circulation of the blood as a whole; he knew no more of it,
in fact, than he gathered from Galen and Servetus.<a id="FNanchor_898_898" href="#Footnote_898_898" class="fnanchor">898</a></p>

<p>Even Harvey, splendid as was the work he did, could not entirely
demonstrate the complete circulation of the blood. He was not able
to discover the capillary vessels by which the blood passes from the
arteries to the veins. This, the only missing point, was reserved
for <span class="smcap">Malpighi</span> to discover. In 1661 this celebrated anatomist saw in
the lungs of a frog, by the aid of the newly invented microscope, the
blood passing from one set of vessels to the other.</p>

<p>Harvey began his investigations by dissecting a great number of
living animals. He examined in this way dogs, pigs, serpents, frogs,
and fishes. He did not disdain to learn even from slugs, oysters,
lobsters, and insects, and the chick itself while still in the shell. He
observed and experimented upon the ventricles, the auricles, the
arteries, and the veins. He learned precisely the object of the valves
of the veins—to favour the flow of the blood towards the heart; and it
was to this latter observation, and not the vivisection, that he attributed
his splendid discovery.</p>

<p>“I remember,” says Boyle, “that when I asked our famous Harvey
what were the things that induced him to think of a circulation of the
blood, he answered me, that when he took notice that the valves in
the veins of so many parts of the body were so placed, that they gave
a free passage to the blood towards the heart, but opposed the passage
of the venal blood the contrary way, he was incited to imagine that so
provident a cause as Nature had not placed so many valves without
design; and no design seemed more probable than that the blood
should be sent through the arteries, and return through the veins, whose
valves did not oppose its cause that way.” What clear views of the
motions and pressure of a fluid circulating in ramifying tubes must
have been held by Harvey to enable him to deduce his discovery from
a contemplation of the simple valves! It was observation, experience,
which led him to this. “In every science,” he says,<a id="FNanchor_899_899" href="#Footnote_899_899" class="fnanchor">899</a> “be it what it
will, a diligent observation is requisite, and sense itself must be frequently
consulted. We must not rely upon other men’s experience, but
our own, without which no man is a proper disciple of any part of
natural knowledge.”</p>

<p>Dr. J. H. Bridges, of the Local Government Board, delivered the
Harveian oration on October 20th, 1892, at the Royal College of
Physicians. Dr. Bridges said:<span class="pagenum" id="Page_387">387</span> “In his discovery William Harvey
employed every method of biological research, direct observation,
experiment, above all the great Aristotelian method of comparison to
which he himself attributes his success. His manuscript notes show
how freely he used it. They show that he had dissected no less than
eighty species of animals. It is sometimes said that experimentation
on living animals was the principal process of discovery. This I believe
to be an exaggerated view, though such experiments were effective
in convincing others of the discovery when made. It need not be said
that no ethical problem connected with this matter was recognised in
Harvey’s time. The first to recognise such a problem was that great
and successful experimenter, deep thinker, and humane man, Sir
Charles Bell. What were the effects of Harvey’s discovery? It was
assuredly the most momentous event in medical history since the time
of Galen. It was the first attempt to show that the processes of the
human body followed or accompanied each other by laws as certain
and precise as those which Kepler and Galileo were revealing in the
solar system or on the earth’s surface. Henceforth it became clear that
all laws of force and energy that operated in the inorganic world were
applicable to the human body.”</p>

<p>The case for Harvey’s originality is well put by the author of the
article on Harvey in the <i>Dictionary of National Biography</i>. “The
modern controversy as to whether the discovery was taken from some
previous author is sufficiently refuted by the opinion of the opponents
of his views in his own time, who agreed in denouncing the doctrine as
new; by the laborious method of gradual demonstration obvious in
his book and lectures; and lastly, by the complete absence of lucid
demonstration of the action of the heart and course of the blood in
Cæsalpinus, Servetus, and all others who have been suggested as possible
originals of the discovery. It remains to this day the greatest of
the discoveries of physiology, and its whole honour belongs to Harvey.”</p>

<p>“That there is one blood stream, common to both arteries and
veins, that the blood poured into the right auricle passes into the
right ventricle, that it is from there forced by the contraction of the
ventricular walls along the pulmonary artery through the lungs and
pulmonary veins to the left auricle, that it then passes into the left
ventricle to be distributed through the aorta to every part of the animal
body; and that the heart is the great propeller of this perpetual
motion, as in a circle. This is the great truth of the motion of the
heart and blood, commonly called the circulation, and must for ever
remain the glorious legacy of William Harvey to rational physiology
and medicine in every land.”<a id="FNanchor_900_900" href="#Footnote_900_900" class="fnanchor">900</a></p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_388">388</span></p>

<p>Harvey explains how he was led to his great discovery: “When
I first gave my mind to vivisections as a means of discovering the
motions and uses of the heart, and sought to discover these from actual
inspection, and not from the writings of others, I found the task so
truly arduous, so full of difficulties, that I was almost tempted to think
with Frascatorius, that the motion of the heart was only to be comprehended
by God. For I could neither rightly perceive at first when the
systole and when the diastole took place, nor when and where dilatation
and contraction occurred, by reason of the rapidity of the motion,
which in many animals is accomplished in the twinkling of an eye,
coming and going like a flash of lightning; so that the systole presented
itself to me now from this point, now from that; the diastole
the same; and then everything was reversed, the motions occurring, as
it seemed, variously and confusedly together. My mind was therefore
greatly unsettled, nor did I know what I should myself conclude, nor
what believe from others. I was not surprised that Andreas Laurentius
should have written that the motion of the heart was as perplexing as
the flux and reflux of Euripus had appeared to Aristotle. At length,
and by using greater diligence and investigation, making frequent
inspection of many and various animals, and collating numerous
observations, I thought that I had attained to the truth, that I should
extricate myself and escape from this labyrinth, and that I had discovered
what I so much desired, both the motion and the use of the
heart and arteries.”<a id="FNanchor_901_901" href="#Footnote_901_901" class="fnanchor">901</a></p>

<p><span class="smcap">John Locke</span> (1632-1704). The great philosopher was a thoroughly
educated physician engaged in the practice of medicine. He was the
friend of Sydenham, whose principles he defended and whose works
are doubtless permeated with the thoughts of the author of the famous
treatise on the Human Understanding. In a letter of Locke’s to W.
Molyneux he says: “You cannot imagine how far a little observation
carefully made by a man not tied up to the four humours [Galen], or
sal, sulphur, and mercury [Paracelsus], or to acid and alkali [Sylvius
and Willis], which has of late prevailed, will carry a man in the curing
of diseases, though very stubborn and dangerous; and that with very
little and common things, and almost no medicine at all.” Locke
declared that we have no innate ideas, but that all our knowledge is
derived from experience. The acquirement of knowledge is due to the
investigation of things by the bodily senses.</p>

<p>Surgery about this period began to flourish in England. <span class="smcap">Richard<span class="pagenum" id="Page_389">389</span>
Wiseman</span> (1625-1686), the “Father of English Surgery,” was in the
royal service from Charles I. to James II. His military experience
greatly assisted him in his profession. He treated aneurism by compression,
practised “flap-amputation,” and laid down rules for operating
for hernia.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">James Primrose</span>, M.D. (died 1659), was a voluminous writer who
opposed the teaching of Harvey on the circulation of the blood.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Baldwin Hamey</span>, jun., M.D., was the most munificent of all the
benefactors of the London College of Physicians. He was lecturer on
Anatomy at the College in 1647, and a voluminous writer, though he
published little or nothing.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Francis Glisson</span>, M.D. (died 1677), was one of the first of the
group of anatomists in England who, incited by Harvey’s example,
devoted themselves to enthusiastic research. His account of the
cellular envelope of the portal vein in his work <i>De Hepate</i>, published
in 1654, has immortalised his name in the designation “Glisson’s capsule.”
He wrote a work on rickets, <i>De Rachitide seu Morbo Puerili</i>.
Glisson ascribed to the lymphatic vessels the function of absorption.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Jonathan Goddard</span>, M.D. (died 1674), frequented the meetings
which gave birth to the Royal Society. He was a good chemist, and
invented the famous volatile drops known on the Continent as the
Guttæ Anglicanæ. He made the first telescope ever constructed in
this country.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Daniel Whistler</span>, M.D. (died 1684), wrote an essay on “The
Rickets,” which is the earliest printed account we have of that disease.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Thomas Wharton</span>, M.D. (died 1673), was a very distinguished
anatomist, who remained in London during the whole of the plague of
1666. He was the author of the most accurate work on the glands
of the body and their diseases which up to that time had appeared.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Raymond Vieussens</span> in 1684 published a great work on the anatomy
of the brain, spinal cord, and nerves. He investigated the sympathetic
nerve and the structure of the heart.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Leeuwenhoeck</span> (1632-1723) discovered the corpuscles in the blood
and the spermatozoa.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Marcello Malpighi</span> (1628-1694), by his microscopical researches,
first explained the organization of the lung and the terminations of the
bronchial tubes. He traced the termination of the arteries in the
veins, and thus completed the discovery of the circulation of the
blood; by his researches in the deeper layer of the cuticle, and certain
bodies in the spleen and kidney, he has given his name to these
structures.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_390">390</span></p>

<p>The invention of the <span class="smcap lowercase">MICROSCOPE</span> in 1621 was of the utmost
importance to the study of minute anatomy and physiology.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Pierre Dionis</span> (died 1718), a famous French surgeon, published a
work on the anatomy of man, which was translated into Chinese at the
emperor’s request. He also wrote on rickets in relation to the pelvis,
and advanced the study of dentistry. He explained the circulation,
and wrote a monograph on catalepsy.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Thomas Bartholin</span> (1619-1680), professor of anatomy at Copenhagen,
made important investigations on the lacteals and lymphatic
vessels.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Caspar Assellius</span> (1581-1626) discovered the chyliferous vessels in
the dog; <span class="smcap">Fabrice de Peiresc</span> (1580-1637), dissecting a criminal two
hours after execution, discovered them in man; <span class="smcap">Van Horne</span> (1621-1670),
in 1652, first demonstrated the vessels in man. (It has, however,
been claimed that George Jolyffe discovered the lymphatics in
1650.)</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Jean Pecquet</span> (1622-1674), a French physician, published, in 1651,
his <i>New Anatomical Experiments</i>, in which he made known his discovery
of the receptacle of the chyle, till then unknown, and described the
vessel which conveys the chyle to the subclavian vein.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Olaus Rudbeck</span> (1630-1702), a Swedish surgeon, shares with
Jolyffe the honour of the discovery of the termination of the lymphatic
vessels. He demonstrated them in the presence of Queen Christina,
and traced them to the thoracic duct, and the latter to the subclavian
vein.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Gerard Blaes</span> (died 1662) made numerous discoveries in connection
with the glands.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Antony Nuck</span> (1650-1692) first injected the lymphatics with quicksilver,
rectified various errors in the work of his predecessors, and by
his own researches did much to complete the anatomy of the glands.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Paul Sarpi</span> (1552-1623), of Venice, was a monk of whom La
Courayer said, “Qu’il était Catholique en gros et quelque fois Protestant
en détail.” He was the friend of Galileo, and, though he did not invent
the telescope, was the first who made an accurate map of the moon.
It is not true that he anticipated Harvey in his discovery of the circulation,
though he was a great physiologist, and discovered the contractility
of the iris.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Nathanael Highmore</span> (1613-1685) was a physician and anatomist
who is chiefly remembered for his description of the cavity in the
superior maxillary bone which bears his name. It had, however, been
previously described by Cassørius. He demonstrated the difference
between the lacteals and the mesenteric veins.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_391">391</span></p>

<p><span class="smcap">George Wirsung</span> (died 1643) was a prosector to Vesalius. He
discovered the excretory duct of the pancreas.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Sir Christopher Wren</span> (1632-1723) was the first to suggest the
injection of medicines into the veins.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Thorbern</span>, a Danish peasant, about this time invented an instrument
for amputating the elongated uvula.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Jan Swammerdam</span> (1637-1686) was the first to prove that the queen
bee was a female.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Thomas Millington</span> (<i>circ.</i> 1676) pointed out the sexual organs
of plants.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Felix Vicq d’Azyr</span> (1748-1794) was one of the zoologists whose researches
exercised an important influence on the progress of anatomy.
He investigated the origin of the brain and nerves, and the comparative
anatomy of the vocal organs.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Sir Thomas Browne</span>, M.D., of Norwich (1605-1682), the author of
the immortal <i>Religio Medici</i>, studied medicine at Montpellier, Padua,
and Leyden. He was a man who, in his own words, <i>could not do nothing</i>.
Though he wrote a famous work on <i>Vulgar Errors</i>, he could not rise
superior to the commonest one of his time—the belief in witchcraft.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Thomas Willis</span>, M.D. (1621-1675), was celebrated for his researches
in the anatomy and pathology of the brain. Unfortunately he neglected
observation for theorising.</p>

<p>Dr. Freind said of Willis that he was the first inventor of the nervous
system. Willis taught that the cerebrum is the seat of the intellectual
faculties, and the source from which spring the voluntary motions. He
consigned the involuntary motions to the cerebellum; these go on in a
regular manner, without our knowledge and independently of our will.
He supposed that the nerves of voluntary motions arise chiefly from
the cerebrum, and those of the involuntary motions from the cerebellum
or its appendages.<a id="FNanchor_902_902" href="#Footnote_902_902" class="fnanchor">902</a></p>

<p>Willis deserves to be gratefully remembered in medical history as the
great reformer of pharmacology. Having been led to consider how it
is that medicines act on the various organs of the body, he reflected that
there was usually very little relationship between the means of cure and
the physiological and pathological processes to be influenced. Medicines
were given at random. Mineral poisons, such as antimony, were
recklessly prescribed, to the destruction, not of the disease only, but
too frequently of the patient also. “So heedlessly,” says Willis,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_392">392</span> “are
these executioners in the habit of sporting with the human body, while
they are led to prepare and administer these dangerous medicines, not
by any deliberation, nor by the guidance of any method, but by mere
hazard and blind impulse.”<a id="FNanchor_903_903" href="#Footnote_903_903" class="fnanchor">903</a></p>

<p>The object of Willis was to establish a direct and reasonable relationship
between the physiological and morbid conditions of the body on
the one hand, and the indications for cure and the therapeutic means
by which these were to be brought about on the other.<a id="FNanchor_904_904" href="#Footnote_904_904" class="fnanchor">904</a> It was a great
task, and Willis did not wholly succeed; but his method was the right
one, however grievously he failed to carry it into practice, for he prescribed
blood, the human skull, salt of vipers, water of snails and
earthworms, millipeds, and other things which he ought to have known
could have no effect on any disease.<a id="FNanchor_905_905" href="#Footnote_905_905" class="fnanchor">905</a> We must not be too severely
critical, for Willis was the first to attempt the reformation of this
degraded state of Materia Medica.</p>

<p>The state of Materia Medica (or the drugs and chemicals used by
the physician) during the end of the seventeenth and the earlier part of
the eighteenth century, was remarkable, says Dr. Thomson,<a id="FNanchor_906_906" href="#Footnote_906_906" class="fnanchor">906</a> for four
circumstances.</p>

<p><i>First</i>, there was a great number of remedies strongly recommended
for the cure of diseases; but many of them were inert and useless, and
thus the practitioner was perplexed and confused.</p>

<p><i>Secondly</i>, the popular confidence in all these medicines was irrational
and extreme.</p>

<p><i>Thirdly</i>, it was the custom to combine in one prescription a great
number of ingredients. The Pharmacopœias of the period contain
formulæ which embraced in some instances from twenty-four up to as
many as fifty-two ingredients. Sydenham is the first who exhibits any
tendency to greater simplicity in his prescriptions.</p>

<p><i>Lastly</i>, there was no rational or logical connection between the
disease to be cured and the remedy with which it was treated.
Empiricism and superstition to a serious extent dominated medicine,
and retarded its progress.</p>

<p>Yet, even during the seventeenth century, original thinkers and men
of genius connected with one or other of the universities, struck out a
path for themselves which led to brighter things. First was Harvey,
then came Wharton, Glisson, Willis, Lower, Mayow, Grew, Charleton,
Collins, Sydenham, Morton, Bennet, and Ridley; all these men were
students of anatomy and ardent investigators in the field of physiology.
It is true that it was long before the labours of these pioneers of scien<span class="pagenum" id="Page_393">393</span>tific
medicine resulted in any marked improvement in the actual method
of treating disease; it is no less certain that our methods of to-day
are based upon the labours of the great scientific investigators of the
age we are considering.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Samuel Collins</span>, M.D. (died 1710), was celebrated as an accomplished
comparative anatomist, whose work was much praised by
Boerhaave and Haller.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">William Croone</span>, M.D. (died 1684), was one of the original Fellows
of the Royal Society. In 1670 he was appointed lecturer on anatomy
at Surgeons’ Hall. He is gratefully remembered as the founder of what
is now called the “Croonian Lecture.”</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Richard Lower</span>, M.D. (1631-1691), was an anatomist and physiologist,
who assisted Willis in his researches, and who wrote a treatise
on transfusion of blood, which he practised at Oxford in 1665, and also
before the Royal Society. His name is kept in remembrance by anatomists
by its association with the study of the heart in the structure
known as the “tuberculum Lowerii.”</p>

<p>We must not omit to mention <span class="smcap">Frère Jacques</span>, who went to Paris in
1697; he was a Franciscan monk, who was a famous operator for the
stone. Originally a day labourer, he became so expert a lithotomist
that he is said to have cut nearly 5,000 persons in the course of his life.
In the height of his success he had no knowledge of anatomy, though
he was afterwards induced to learn it. He is for ever celebrated as
the inventor of the lateral method in lithotomy.<a id="FNanchor_907_907" href="#Footnote_907_907" class="fnanchor">907</a></p>

<hr class="chap" />
<div class="chapter"></div>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_394">394</span></p>




<h3 id="CHAPTERV_III">CHAPTER III.<br />

<small>SKATOLOGICAL MEDICINE AND THE REFORM OF PHARMACOLOGY.</small></h3>

<p class="center">Loathsome Medicines.—Sympathetical Cures.—Weapon-Salve.—Superstitions.</p>


<p>Notwithstanding all the splendid scientific work of the period, the
absurdest superstitions about amulets and charms still held their ground.
Sir John Harrington, in his <i>Schoole of Salerne</i>, printed in 1624, says:
“Alwaies in your hands use eyther Corall or yellow Amber, or a
chalcedonium, or a sweet Pommander, or some like precious stone to
be worne in a ring upon the little finger of the left hand; have in your
rings eyther a Smaragd, a Saphire, or a Draconites, which you shall
beare for an ornament; for in stones, as also in hearbes, there is great
efficacie and vertue, but they are not altogether perceived by us; hold
sometime in your mouth eyther a Hyacinth, or a Crystall, or a Granat,
or pure Gold, or Silver, or else sometimes pure Sugar-candy. For
<i>Aristotle</i> doth affirme, and so doth Albertus Magnus, that a Smaragd
worne about the necke, is good against the Falling-sicknes; for surely
the virtue of an hearbe is great, but much more the vertue of a precious
stone, which is very likely that they are endued with occult and hidden
vertues.”</p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Materia Medica.</span></h4>

<p>Amongst those who, after Willis, laboured to reform pharmacology
may be mentioned—</p>

<p><span class="smcap">John Zwelfer</span>, a learned physician of Vienna, who published in 1651
a greatly improved Pharmacopœia, which rejected many useless and
improper medicines.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Daniel Ludwig</span> in 1671 published a dissertation on useless and
unsatisfactory drugs. He denied the virtues of earthworms, toads,
and the like.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Moses Charas</span> (1618-1698) was a pharmacist of Paris, who founded
the historical establishment known as the <i>Vipères d’or</i> of that city.
Seventeenth-century pharmacy owed much to this man, who was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_395">395</span> “one
of the last of the Arabian polypharmacists, one of the last of the
adepts of expiring alchemy, and the immediate precursor of the epoch
of Lemery.”<a id="FNanchor_908_908" href="#Footnote_908_908" class="fnanchor">908</a> He studied pharmacy at Montpellier. He was acquainted
with natural history.</p>

<p>No history of medicine would be complete without reference to the
immense number of loathsome and filthy substances which from the
remotest times, even up to the present, have been used as medicines.
This subject has been treated in a very complete form by Captain
Bourke in his work on <i>Skatological Rites of all Nations</i>, an important
section of which is devoted to “Skatological Medicine.”<a id="FNanchor_909_909" href="#Footnote_909_909" class="fnanchor">909</a> The theory
underlying the use of disgusting remedies seems to be this: Nearly all
medicines which have any efficacy are unpleasant to take; a bitter
infusion of tonic leaves or roots is not usually agreeable; many good
medicines are very nasty, but their efficacy is universally acknowledged.
Ignorant persons argue that the nastiness is the sign of the efficacy; that
the more disgusting the potion or pill, the more good it will do. Even
at the present day pauper and hospital patients of the lower classes
have no faith in medicines which are not dark in colour and rich in
sediment; elegant pharmacy would soon destroy the best East-End
practice. The most repulsive sediment in a mixture is readily swallowed,
and is usually considered highly “nourishing.” Now from nasty
herbal medicines to filthy animal excretions is but a short step. Pliny
gives hundreds of instances of skatological remedies in his <i>Natural
History</i>, and the ancient writers frequently prescribe them. They consist
of such things as the dung and urine of various animals, not excepting
those of man, of the catamenial and lochial discharges, of the sweat
of athletes, of the parasites of human and animal bodies, of ear wax,
human blood, etc.</p>

<p>“<span class="smcap">Xenocrates of Aphrodisias</span> (about <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 70) introduced disgusting
filth as medicines; <i>e.g.</i>, ear wax, catamenial fluid, human flesh, bats’
blood, etc.”<a id="FNanchor_910_910" href="#Footnote_910_910" class="fnanchor">910</a></p>

<p>“<span class="smcap">Asclepiades Pharmacion</span> (about <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 100) recommended even
animal excrement as a medicine.”<a id="FNanchor_911_911" href="#Footnote_911_911" class="fnanchor">911</a></p>

<p><span class="smcap">Quintus Serenus Samonicus</span> (died <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 211) prescribed mouse
dung in poultices; goats’ urine internally for stone in the bladder;
earth and dung from a wagon rut for colic, externally.<a id="FNanchor_912_912" href="#Footnote_912_912" class="fnanchor">912</a></p>

<p><span class="smcap">Marcellus Empiricus</span>, physician to Theodosius (345-395), prescribed
natural pills of rabbit’s dung. Dr. Baas declares that this
remedy is in use on the Rhine at the present day, as a cure for consumption.<a id="FNanchor_913_913" href="#Footnote_913_913" class="fnanchor">913</a></p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_396">396</span></p>

<p>Culpeper, in his translation of the Pharmacopœia (1653), ridicules
the remedies enumerated in that work. Thus the College of Physicians
employ “the fat, grease, or suet of a duck, goose, eel, bore, heron,
thymallos (‘<i>if you know where to get it</i>,’ says Culpeper), dog, capon,
bever, wild cat, stork, hedgehog, hen, man, lyon, hare, kite, or jack
(<i>if they have any fat, I am persuaded ’tis worth twelve pence the grain</i>),
wolf, mouse of the mountains (<i>if you can catch them</i>), pardal, hog, serpent,
badger, bear, fox, vulture (<i>if you can catch them</i>), album græcum,
east and west benzoar, stone taken out a man’s bladder, viper’s flesh,
the brain of hares and sparrows, the rennet of a lamb, kid, hare, and a
calf and a horse too (<i>quoth the colledg</i>) [<i>they should have put the rennet
of an ass to make medicine for their addle brains</i>], the excrement of a
goose, of a dog, of a goat, of pidgeons, of a stone horse, of swallows, of
men, of women, of mice, of peacocks,” etc., etc.</p>

<p>There was, says Southey,<a id="FNanchor_914_914" href="#Footnote_914_914" class="fnanchor">914</a> a water of man’s blood which in Queen
Elizabeth’s day was a new invention, “whereof some princes had very
great estimation, and used it for to remain thereby in their force, and,
as they thought, to live long.” They chose a strong young man of
twenty-five, dieted him for a month on the best meats, wines and spices,
and at the month’s end they bled him in both arms as much as he
could “tolerate and abide.” They added a handful of salt to six
pounds of this blood, and distilled it seven times, pouring water upon
the residuum after every distillation. An ounce of this was to be taken
three or four times a year. As the life was thought to be in the blood,
it was believed it could thus be transferred.</p>

<p>Dr. O. Möller says that in Denmark, even now in some few places,
human excrements are not entirely obsolete as epispastic applications
in inflammation of the breast.<a id="FNanchor_915_915" href="#Footnote_915_915" class="fnanchor">915</a></p>

<p>Dr. Baas says<a id="FNanchor_916_916" href="#Footnote_916_916" class="fnanchor">916</a> that urine is taken in the Rhine provinces in
fevers instead of quinine. This was recommended by the surgical
writer Schmidt in 1649. In the seventeenth century the old pharmacies
of Germany contained, amongst other disgusting remedies, frog-spawn
water, mole’s blood, oil of spiders, snake’s tongue, mouse dung,
spirits of human brain, urine of a new-born child, etc.<a id="FNanchor_917_917" href="#Footnote_917_917" class="fnanchor">917</a> The dung of
screech-owls was prescribed for melancholy, as also was the dung of
doves and calves boiled in wine, ox-dung, etc. Dog-dung and fleas
boiled with sage was a medicine for gout, and death-sweat was used as
a cure for warts.<a id="FNanchor_918_918" href="#Footnote_918_918" class="fnanchor">918</a></p>

<p>Mould from the churchyard is used in some parts of Ireland and in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_397">397</span>
Shetland medicinally. Clay or mould from a priest’s grave boiled with
milk is given as a decoction for the cure of disease.<a id="FNanchor_919_919" href="#Footnote_919_919" class="fnanchor">919</a> The dew collected
from the grave of the last man buried in a churchyard has been
used as a lotion for goitre. It is so employed at Launceston.<a id="FNanchor_920_920" href="#Footnote_920_920" class="fnanchor">920</a> In
Shetland a stitch in the side was treated by applying mould dug from
a grave and heated, the mould was to be taken from and returned to
the grave before sunset.<a id="FNanchor_921_921" href="#Footnote_921_921" class="fnanchor">921</a> In Lincolnshire a portion of a human skull
taken from the grave was grated and given to epileptics for the cure
of fits. A similar custom prevailed in Kirkwall, at Caithness, and the
Western islands—the patient was made to drink from a suicide’s skull.<a id="FNanchor_922_922" href="#Footnote_922_922" class="fnanchor">922</a></p>

<p>In the year 1852 I saw amongst the more precious drugs in the shop
of a pharmaceutical chemist at Leamington a bottle labelled in the
ordinary way with the words, “Moss from a Dead-Man’s Skull.” This
has long been used superstitiously, dried, powdered, and taken as snuff,
for headache and bleeding at the nose.<a id="FNanchor_923_923" href="#Footnote_923_923" class="fnanchor">923</a></p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Sympathetical Cures.</span></h4>

<p>A curious chapter in the history of surgery is found in the popular
belief in “sympathetical cures,” which prevailed in the reigns of James
I. and Charles I. Sir Kenelm Digby professed to have introduced a
method of curing wounds by the “powder of sympathy.” Dr. Pettigrew,,
in his <i>Superstitions of Medicine and Surgery</i>, says that a Mr. James
Howel, endeavouring to part some friends who were fighting a duel,
received a severe wound in his hand. The king sent one of his own
surgeons to attend him; but as the wound did not make good progress,
application was made to Sir Kenelm Digby, who first inquired if the
patient had any article which had the blood upon it. Mr. Howel sent
for the garter with which his hand had been bound; then a basin of
water having been brought, Sir Kenelm dissolved therein some powder
of vitriol, and immersed the bloody garter in the solution. The patient
was instructed to lay aside all his plasters and keep the wound clean
and in a moderate temperature. All the while the garter lay in the
solution of vitriol. The patient did well; probably if it had been
applied to the injured part it would have made it worse. In the course
of five or six days the wound was cicatrized and a cure effected. Sir
Kenelm professed to have learned the secret from a Carmelite friar.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_398">398</span>
It was communicated to the king’s physician, Dr. Mayerne, and before
long every country barber knew of it. Sir Kenelm Digby discoursed
on the matter before an assembly of nobles and learned men at Montpellier
in France, and endeavoured to explain the action of his powder
by all sorts of conjectures, as emanation of light, the action of impinging
rays, etc. He tried to prove that the spirit which emanated from the
vitriol became incorporated with the blood, and there met the exhalation
of hot spirits from the inflamed part.</p>

<p>Infinitely simpler, however, was the process of cure. Nature, left to
herself, did the whole of the work. It seemed, as Dr. Pettigrew says,
that it had hitherto been the practice of surgeons to place every obstacle
in the way of the union of severed parts of the body. What with
ointments and various more or less filthy applications, the edges of the
wound were kept apart, and so the healing process was retarded.</p>

<p>Of a kindred character to the “powder of sympathy” was the
“weapon salve” of the period. Instead of anointing the wound, the
knife, axe, or other instrument which caused it was smeared with ointment
and the weapon was then carefully wrapped up and put away.
Dryden refers to this same “weapon salve” in the “Tempest,” Act V.
sc. 1. Dr. Pettigrew says that the practice was at one time very
general.<a id="FNanchor_924_924" href="#Footnote_924_924" class="fnanchor">924</a></p>

<p>The principle underlying the doctrine of sympathetic powders was
explained by Sir Kenelm thus: “In time of common contagion they
use to carry about them the powder of a toad, and sometimes a living
toad or spider shut up in a box; or else they carry arsenic, or some
other venomous substance, which draws unto it the contagious air,
which otherwise would infect the party; and the same powder of toad
draws unto it the poison of a pestilential cold. The scurf or farcy is a
venomous and contagious humour within the body of a horse; hang a
toad about the neck of the horse in a little bag, and he will be cured
infallibly; the toad, which is the stronger poison, drawing to it the
venom which was within the horse.”<a id="FNanchor_925_925" href="#Footnote_925_925" class="fnanchor">925</a></p>

<p>The same author says that persons of ill breath can be cured by holding
their mouths open at a cesspool, the greater stink having the power
to draw away the less.<a id="FNanchor_926_926" href="#Footnote_926_926" class="fnanchor">926</a></p>

<p>In the reign of Charles II. a gentleman named Valentine Greatrakes,
of a good family and education, “felt an impulse that the gift of curing
the king’s evil was bestowed upon him.” He published an account of
his cures of this and other diseases, ague, epilepsy, and palsy, and some<span class="pagenum" id="Page_399">399</span>
other complaints more or less connected with the nervous system, in a
letter to the Hon. Robert Boyle. He seems to have performed his
cures, which were by some persons considered miraculous, by a kind of
massage, or “by the Stroaking of the Hands.” The cures were simply
the effect of an excited imagination.<a id="FNanchor_927_927" href="#Footnote_927_927" class="fnanchor">927</a></p>

<hr class="chap" />
<div class="chapter"></div>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_400">400</span></p>




<h3 id="CHAPTERV_IV">CHAPTER IV.<br />

<small>BATHS AND MINERAL WATERS.</small></h3>

<p class="center">Miraculous Springs.—The Pool of Bethesda.—Herb-baths.</p>


<p>Especially in Germany mineral waters achieved great popularity in
the treatment of diseases in the seventeenth century.</p>

<p>In ancient times, according to Pliny, Paulus Ægineta, and others,
mineral waters were recognised as possessing curative effects, and the
temples of health were frequently erected in contiguity to these powerful
aids to treatment. Savages are everywhere fully aware of the value
of such medicinal waters, and avail themselves of their benefits. Hot
springs, wherever they occur, are highly esteemed by the natives.
Humboldt states that on Christianity being introduced into Iceland, the
natives refused to be baptized in any but the waters of the geysers.<a id="FNanchor_928_928" href="#Footnote_928_928" class="fnanchor">928</a>
Hooker tells us that in the hot springs of Yeuntong, which burst from
the bank of the Lachen, in the Himalayas, the natives remain three
days at a time, bathing in the saline and slightly sulphuretted waters.
No better treatment for certain forms of skin diseases could be followed.<a id="FNanchor_929_929" href="#Footnote_929_929" class="fnanchor">929</a>
Such a course of treatment is carried out now at the baths of Leuk, in
Switzerland, amongst other places. There the patients take their meals
and play cards, chess, draughts, etc., while up to their necks in the
warm medicinal waters. Hooker tells us, again, of the use of hot baths
amongst the Sikkim Bhoteeas. The bath consists of a hollowed
prostrate tree trunk, the water of which is heated by throwing in hot
stones with bamboo tongs. They can raise the temperature to 114°,
the patient submitting to this at intervals for several days, never leaving
till wholly exhausted.<a id="FNanchor_930_930" href="#Footnote_930_930" class="fnanchor">930</a></p>

<p>Dr. Mead<a id="FNanchor_931_931" href="#Footnote_931_931" class="fnanchor">931</a> thinks that the Pool of Bethesda, spoken of in the Gospel
of St. John, chap, v., was a medicinal bath, whose virtues principally
resided in the mud which settled at the bottom. It was necessary,
therefore, that the pool should be “troubled,” that is to say, stirred up,
so that the person bathing therein might derive benefit from the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_401">401</span>
metallic salts, “perhaps from sulphur, alum, or nitre,” which settled at
the bottom. Celsus and Pliny recommend medicinal baths for nervous
disorders. Pliny particularly advises aluminous baths for paralytics,
and adds that “They use the mud of those fountains with advantage,
especially if, when it is rubbed on, it be suffered to dry in the sun.”<a id="FNanchor_932_932" href="#Footnote_932_932" class="fnanchor">932</a></p>

<p>Many curious instances of the superstitious uses made of holy wells
in the treatment of disease, in which customs the elements of magic
ritual are not difficult to discover, are given in Gomme’s <i>Ethnology in
Folklore</i>, pp. 97-99.</p>

<p>Eight miles from Munich lies the village of Heilbrunn (healing
spring); tradition says it is the oldest medicinal spring in Bavaria.
Near the spring was a monastery, said to have been destroyed and the
well choked with the <i>débris</i> in 935 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> In 1509 the monks made
some excavations, and the source of the spring was discovered; at the
same time flames burst forth over it, the phenomena being of course
attributed to a miracle. The reputation of the medicinal waters brought
the Elector’s wife to the spot in 1659; she derived such benefit from
the visit that the spring was named after the princess—Adelheid’s
Quelle. It became famous amongst the country people for the cure
of scrofulous and other diseases. In 1825 Dr. A. Vogel, of Munich,
analysed the waters, and found them to contain iodine in important
quantity. This led to the deepening and improvement of the spring,
and in the course of the operations one of the workmen brought a
lighted candle close to the surface of the water; the gas, escaping in
bubbles, at once caught fire, and the miracle of 1509 was explained.
The fact is that a considerable amount of carburetted hydrogen floats
over the surface of the water, and will readily take fire when in contact
with a light. Recent analysis of the water shows that it contains bromine,
iodine, and chloride of sodium, sulphate of soda, carbonates of soda,
lime, magnesia, and iron. It is altogether one of the most remarkable
of the medicinal springs, and its composition explains its value in calming
and soothing the mucous membrance of the stomach and other
organs. Its curative effects have been proved in scrofula, glandular
swellings, bronchial affections, mesenteric and female disorders.<a id="FNanchor_933_933" href="#Footnote_933_933" class="fnanchor">933</a></p>

<p>Baths impregnated with vegetable extracts and odours have long
been in use. Pine-leaves are at present largely employed, and baths
of conium, lavender, hyssop, etc., are still used as sedatives. Anciently
baths of this kind were as complicated in character as the medicines
administered internally.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_402">402</span></p>

<p>Here is an ancient prescription for a medicinal bath:—</p>


<p class="center"><span class="smcap">The Makyng of a Bathe Medicinable.</span><a id="FNanchor_934_934" href="#Footnote_934_934" class="fnanchor">934</a></p>


 <div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"><div class="stanza">
<div class="verse">“Holy hokke and yardehok peritory<a id="FNanchor_935_935" href="#Footnote_935_935" class="fnanchor">935</a> and the broun fenelle,<a id="FNanchor_936_936" href="#Footnote_936_936" class="fnanchor">936</a></div>
<div class="verse">Walle wort<a id="FNanchor_937_937" href="#Footnote_937_937" class="fnanchor">937</a> herbe John<a id="FNanchor_938_938" href="#Footnote_938_938" class="fnanchor">938</a> Sentory<a id="FNanchor_939_939" href="#Footnote_939_939" class="fnanchor">939</a> rybbewort<a id="FNanchor_940_940" href="#Footnote_940_940" class="fnanchor">940</a> and cammamelle,</div>
<div class="verse">Hey hove<a id="FNanchor_941_941" href="#Footnote_941_941" class="fnanchor">941</a> heyriff<a id="FNanchor_942_942" href="#Footnote_942_942" class="fnanchor">942</a> herbe benet<a id="FNanchor_943_943" href="#Footnote_943_943" class="fnanchor">943</a> brese wort<a id="FNanchor_944_944" href="#Footnote_944_944" class="fnanchor">944</a> and small ache,<a id="FNanchor_945_945" href="#Footnote_945_945" class="fnanchor">945</a></div>
<div class="verse">Broke lempk<a id="FNanchor_946_946" href="#Footnote_946_946" class="fnanchor">946</a> Scabiose<a id="FNanchor_947_947" href="#Footnote_947_947" class="fnanchor">947</a> Bilgres wild flax is good for ache;</div>
<div class="verse">Wethy leves, grene otes boyld in fere fulle soft,</div>
<div class="verse">Cast them hote in to a vesselle and sett your soverayn alloft,</div>
<div class="verse">And suffire that hete a while as hoot as he may a-bide;</div>
<div class="verse">Se that place be couered welle over and close on every side;</div>
<div class="verse">And what dissese ye be vexed with, grevaunce outher peyn,</div>
<div class="verse">This medicyne shalle make yow hoole surely, as men seyn.”<a id="FNanchor_948_948" href="#Footnote_948_948" class="fnanchor">948</a></div>
</div></div></div>

<p>George Herbert, in his <i>Priest to the Temple</i>, enumerates the duties
of the parson’s wife, and extols the virtues of these homely remedies.
“For salves, his wife seeks not the city, but prefers her gardens and
fields before all out-landish gums; and surely hyssop, valerian, mercury,
adder’s tongue, melilot, and St. John’s wort, made into a salve, and
elder, comphrey, and smallage, made into a poultice, have done great
and rare cures.”</p>

<hr class="chap" />
<div class="chapter"></div>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_403">403</span></p>

<h3 id="CHAPTERV_V">CHAPTER V.<br />

<small>WITCHCRAFT AND MEDICINE.</small></h3>

<blockquote>

<p>Comparative Witchcraft.—Laws against Sorcery.—Magic in Virgil and Horace.—Demonology.—Images
of Wax and Clay.—Transference of Disease.—Witchcraft
in the Koran.—White Magic and Black.—Coral and the Evil Eye.—“Overlooking”
People.—Exorcism in the Catholic Church.</p></blockquote>


<h4><span class="smcap">Comparative Witchcraft.</span></h4>

<p>“Witches and impostors,” said Bacon, “have always held a competition
with physicians.” The History of Medicine, therefore, demands
some notice of the strange delusions which have exerted the most
terrible influence over the minds of men in all ages and in all stages of
civilization. Nothing in the history of the human species is older than
the belief in magic, and it will be found that the practices of the savage
in this connection have their analogies amongst ourselves at the present
day. Gipsy craft, fortune telling, dream interpretation, spiritualism,
the miracles of the theosophists, may all be traced in the customs and
practices of savage tribes. They are survivals which will not be got rid
of probably for centuries to come. Education, so far from delivering
us from the bondage, has curiously enough in many cases served but to
rivet the chains more firmly. In the chapters on the demon theory of
disease, much light has been thrown on the origin of our belief in the
influence of spirits good and bad. Trials in England connected with
witchcraft were most numerous in the seventeenth century. The most
interesting is that of the Suffolk witches, when Sir Matthew Hale was the
judge and Sir Thomas Browne the medical expert witness. This excellent
and learned physician testified that certain children, said to have been
bewitched, suffered from fits, heightened to great excess by the subtlety
of the devil co-operating with the witches. The report alleges that
after conviction of the accused the children immediately recovered.</p>

<p>While condemning the cruelty and severity of the laws against witchcraft,
and reflecting on the injustice and ignorance with which they were
enforced, we must remember that in many cases sorcerers and other
dabblers in black magic have added to their supposed supernatural
methods the very real and serious arts of the poisoner, and the not less<span class="pagenum" id="Page_404">404</span>
real, though purely mental influences of terror and alarm. To know
that an evil-minded person was compassing one’s death or was busied
in bringing about, by diabolical influences, some dreadful sickness or
other injury to one’s person, was quite sufficient, in ignorant and superstitious
times, to effect all the evil which it was in the mind of the
magician or witch to induce. But probably there never was a regular
professional sorcerer who did not use the actual weapons of poison, or
deleterious drugs of some kind or other, to assist his evil intentions.
In the case of the trial of the Countess of Somerset, in 1616, a charge
of witchcraft was joined with the charge of poisoning Sir Thomas
Overbury.<a id="FNanchor_949_949" href="#Footnote_949_949" class="fnanchor">949</a> Witchcraft and murder were combined in the Master of
Orkney’s case. The last case ever brought before the “Chambre
Ardente” in France resulted in the condemnation, in 1680, of a woman
named Voisin, for sorcery and poisoning, in connection with the
Marquise de Brinvilliers. But even apart from considerations of
material injury, the mental impressions are often fatal enough; thus,
in the Pacific Islands, to quote but one instance, magical arts have
been proved effective through the patient’s own imagination. “When
he knows or fancies that he has been bewitched, he will fall ill, and he
will actually die unless he can be persuaded that he has been cured.
Thus, wherever sorcery is practised with the belief of its victims, some
system of exorcism or some protective magical art becomes, not only
necessary, but actually effective—a mental disease being met by a
mental remedy to match it.”<a id="FNanchor_950_950" href="#Footnote_950_950" class="fnanchor">950</a> Hearne, when travelling in North
America, was entreated by an Indian to give him a charm against an
enemy (savages and primitive folk are great believers in white men as
magicians). Hearne complied, and for fun, drew on a sheet of paper
some circles, signs, and words. The Indian took care to let his victim
know that he had “medicine” against him, and the poor wretch fell
sick immediately, and shortly afterwards died. Cockayne quotes from
Wier an account of a woman who wore an amulet to cure bad eyes,
which were made worse by her constantly flowing tears. Some one who
hated sorceries induced her to open and examine the charm. When
unfolded, the paper showed nothing but these words: “May the devil
scratch thine eyes out, and—— in the holes.” As soon as the woman
saw how she had been deceived, she lost faith, took to crying again,
and her eyes became as bad as ever.<a id="FNanchor_951_951" href="#Footnote_951_951" class="fnanchor">951</a></p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_405">405</span></p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Law against Sorcery.</span></h4>

<p>At the accession of James I. of England, a law against witchcraft
was passed, which continued in force for more than a century. We
quote it in full (1 Jac. i. c. 12):—</p>

<p>“If any person or persons shall use, practise, or exercise any invocation
or conjuration of any evil and wicked spirit, or shall consult,
covenant with, entertain, employ, feed, or reward any evil and wicked
spirit, to or for any intent or purpose, or take up any dead man,
woman, or child out of his, her, or their grave, or any other place
where the dead body resteth, or the skin, bone, or any part of any
dead person, to be employed or used in any manner of witchcraft,
sorcery, charm, or enchantment, or shall use, practise, or exercise any
witchcraft, enchantment, charm, or sorcery, whereby any person shall
be killed, destroyed, wasted, consumed, pined, or lamed in his or her
body or any part thereof, every such offender is a felon without benefit
of clergy.”</p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Magic and Medicine.</span></h4>

<p>Pliny says that the art of magic first originated in medicine, and
that under the guise of promoting health it insinuated itself among
mankind as a higher and more holy branch of the medical art. Then
it added the religious element, and lastly incorporated with itself
the astrological art, and so enthralled the senses of man by a three-fold
bond.<a id="FNanchor_952_952" href="#Footnote_952_952" class="fnanchor">952</a></p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Magic in Virgil and Horace.</span></h4>

<p>The sorceress of Virgil is a witch whose ancestry we shall have no
difficulty in tracing anthropologically. We can discover her lineage from
the parent witches of savage tribes, and we detect her offspring in the
sorceress of our own times. She burns vervain and frankincense,
chaunts a solemn lay, binds the victim’s image with fillets of three
colours, and in binding the knots makes the attendant say, “Thus do I
bind the fillets of Venus.” One wax and one clay image are placed
before the fire, and as the clay image hardens, so does the heart of
Daphnis harden towards his new mistress; and as the wax softens, so
is the heart of Daphnis made tender towards the sorceress. She
buries the relics of what had belonged to Daphnis beneath her
threshold; bruises poisonous plants from Pontus to enable him to
transform himself into a wolf, and orders her attendant to cast the
ashes of these herbs over her head into a running stream, at the same<span class="pagenum" id="Page_406">406</span>
time taking care not to glance behind her.<a id="FNanchor_953_953" href="#Footnote_953_953" class="fnanchor">953</a> Horace also describes the
concoction of a charm in a perfectly orthodox style whose family
history is intelligible enough to the student of comparative sorcery.
There is nothing in the classic witchcraft which does not exist to-day
in the islands of savage peoples, and the methods of medicine-men in
primitive forests.</p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Images of Wax, etc., in Sorcery.</span></h4>

<p>A very widespread and ancient method of compassing a person’s
death by witchcraft is that of making a figure in wax, or other plastic
material, to represent the victim of the incantation. The object seems
to be the concentration of will-power to effect the wishes of the user
of the charm. There is an innate belief that words are creative
symbols; it may be derived from the perception of the power of man
to effect that which he desires earnestly to effect, so that “whenever
a good or evil wish,” as Dr. Tylor says, “is uttered in words, it
becomes a blessing or curse.” This idea lies at the root of what is
called “Christian science healing,” <i>i.e.</i> healing by good wishes. In
its evil form we have an ancient example in Ovid’s sorceress:<a id="FNanchor_954_954" href="#Footnote_954_954" class="fnanchor">954</a>—</p>

<p>King James, in his <i>Dæmonology</i>, says that “The devil teacheth how
to make pictures of wax or clay, that by roasting thereof the persons that
they bear the name of may be continually melted or dried away by
continual sickness.”</p>

<p>So the Governor-General of a Chinese province recently issued a
proclamation, whereby it was declared unlawful to bring about the
death of others by incantations. “You are forbidden,” said Governor
Wang, “if you have a grudge against any one, to practise the magic
called ‘Striking the Bull’s Head,’ that is to say, writing a man’s name
and age on a scrap of paper, and laying it before the bull-headed idol,
and then buying an iron stamp and piercing small holes in this paper,
and finally throwing it at the man on the sly, with the intention of
compassing his death.”<a id="FNanchor_955_955" href="#Footnote_955_955" class="fnanchor">955</a></p>

<p>“So recently,” says the authoress of <i>Wanderings in China</i>,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_407">407</span> “as
December, 1883, a case was tried at the Inverness police court, in
which the cause of offence was the discovery of a clay image with pins
stuck through it in order to compass the death of a neighbour, a discovery
which resulted in an assault. Many similar cases have been
discovered both in England and Scotland.”<a id="FNanchor_956_956" href="#Footnote_956_956" class="fnanchor">956</a></p>

<p>“The demon-priests of Ceylon,” says Gomme,<a id="FNanchor_957_957" href="#Footnote_957_957" class="fnanchor">957</a> “make use of images
of wax or wood, which represent the person to be injured. They drive
nails into the points which represent the heart, the head, etc., mark
the name of the intended victim on it, and bury it where he is likely
to pass over it.” Plato alludes to the same practice as obtaining
amongst the Greeks of his period.<a id="FNanchor_958_958" href="#Footnote_958_958" class="fnanchor">958</a></p>

<p>There are very similar Scotch practices.</p>

<p>It was anciently believed that diseases could be transferred from
one person to another. Says Pliny,<a id="FNanchor_959_959" href="#Footnote_959_959" class="fnanchor">959</a> “Take the parings of the toe-nails
and finger-nails of a sick person and mix them up with wax, the
party saying that he is seeking a remedy for a tertian, quartan, or
quotidian fever, as the case may be; then stick this wax, before sunrise,
upon the door of another person. Such is the prescription they give
for these diseases.”</p>

<p>Gomme says<a id="FNanchor_960_960" href="#Footnote_960_960" class="fnanchor">960</a> that St. Tegla’s well, about half-way between Wrexham
and Ruthin, is resorted to for the cure of epilepsy. The patient
offers a cock, or if a woman, a hen. The bird is carried in
a basket, first round the well, and then round the church. The
patient enters the church, creeps under the altar, and remains there
till morning. Having made an offering, he leaves the cock and departs.
If the bird dies, it is supposed that the disease has been transferred
to it, and the man or woman consequently cured.</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>The use of wax figures in enchantments is, as we have shown, very
ancient, and it has lasted up to the present time. Simœtha in Theocritus
says: “As I melt this wax by the help of the goddess, so may
Myndian Delphis be presently wasted by love.”<a id="FNanchor_961_961" href="#Footnote_961_961" class="fnanchor">961</a> And Horace refers
to it:—</p>

<p class="center">
“Lanea et effigies evat, altera cerea.”</p>

<p class="psig">
(Lib. i., Sat. 8, l. 30.)</p>

<p>Paracelsus advises the patient afflicted with St. Vitus’ dance to make
an image of himself in wax or resin, and by an effort of mind to concentrate
all his blasphemies and sins in it, “without the intervention
of any other person, to set his whole mind and thoughts concerning
these oaths on the image.” Having done this, he was to destroy the
image by fire.<a id="FNanchor_962_962" href="#Footnote_962_962" class="fnanchor">962</a></p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_408">408</span></p>

<p>Pliny says<a id="FNanchor_963_963" href="#Footnote_963_963" class="fnanchor">963</a> that abrotonum (which was probably southernwood),
“if put beneath the pillow, will act as an aphrodisiac, and that it
is of the very greatest efficacy against all those charms and spells by
which impotence is produced.” As an antaphrodisiac he recommends
the tamarisk, mixed in a drink or in food with the urine of an ox.<a id="FNanchor_964_964" href="#Footnote_964_964" class="fnanchor">964</a></p>

<p>Amongst the Tamils of Ceylon there is a ceremony performed with
the skull of a child, with the design of producing the death of the person
against whom the incantation is directed. Cabalistic figures are drawn
upon the skull after it has been duly prepared. The name of the
person to be destroyed by the charm is also written on the skull.
Then a paste is composed with his saliva, some of his hair, and a little
earth on which he has imprinted his footsteps, and this is spread upon
a plate, and taken with the skull to the cemetery of the place, where
for forty nights the evil spirits are invoked to destroy the denounced
person. The natives believe that as the paste dries on the plate, the
victim of the charm will waste and die.<a id="FNanchor_965_965" href="#Footnote_965_965" class="fnanchor">965</a></p>

<p>“Both Greeks and savages,” says Mr. A. Lang,<a id="FNanchor_966_966" href="#Footnote_966_966" class="fnanchor">966</a> “have worshipped
the ghosts of the dead. Both Greeks and savages assign to their gods
the miraculous powers of transformation and magic, which savages also
attribute to their conjurors or shamans. The mantle (if he had a
mantle) of the medicine-man has fallen on the god; but Zeus, or Indra,
was not once a real medicine-man.”</p>

<p>In the Kalevala the hero of the poem wounds himself with an axe.
The wound can only be healed by one who knows the mystic words that
hold the secret of the birth of iron. Iron is the bane of warlike men;
when the wizard curses the iron as a living thing, the hero is healed.<a id="FNanchor_967_967" href="#Footnote_967_967" class="fnanchor">967</a></p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Knots.</span></h4>

<p>Justin Martyr says that the Jews used magic ties or knots in their
exorcisms. The Babylonians did the same. When the god Marduk
writes to soothe the last moments of a dying man, Hea says, “Take a
woman’s linen kerchief, bind it round thy right hand; loose it from the
left hand, knot it with seven knots; do so twice.”<a id="FNanchor_968_968" href="#Footnote_968_968" class="fnanchor">968</a></p>

<p>The 113th chapter of the Koran was written by Mohammed when he
was suffering from an illness of a rheumatic character, and he believed
that it was caused by some evil person who had bewitched him. The
chapter runs thus:—</p>
<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_409">409</span></p>
<p>“Say, I fly for refuge unto the Lord of the daybreak, that he may
deliver me from the mischief of those things which he hath created;
and from the mischief of the night when it cometh on; and from the
mischief of woman blowing on knots; and from the mischief of the
envious, when he envieth.” Sales’ notes on this chapter explain the
singular expression about knots; he says: “That is, of witches, who
used to tie knots in a cord, and to blow on them, uttering at the same
time certain magical words over them, in order to debilitate the person
they had a mind to injure.” Wizards in the north who pretend to sell
mariners a wind do something similar, and the French <i>Nouër l’aiguillete</i>
is of the same character. This bewitchment by the knot was called
by the Romans Nodus and Obligamentum. Mr. Cockayne says<a id="FNanchor_969_969" href="#Footnote_969_969" class="fnanchor">969</a> the
Saxons translated it into lyb, <i>drug</i>, φάρμακον. It was believed that a
man might lose his power by being put under a knot, and there are
cures for this injury in the <i>Leechbook</i>. We find protections “contra
maleficium ligaturæ ut vocant.” Priests are warned not to make any
alterations in the mode of conducting the marriage service by any
reason of these knots.<a id="FNanchor_970_970" href="#Footnote_970_970" class="fnanchor">970</a></p>

<p>Of course, as in all other kinds of witchcraft, actual poisons often
had much to do with the magic.</p>


<h4><span class="smcap">White Magic.</span></h4>

<p>As there is White Magic, which according to popular belief is beneficent,
and Black Magic, which is diabolical and hurtful, so there are
white witches and black ones. The white can help, but not hurt.
Cotta says:<a id="FNanchor_971_971" href="#Footnote_971_971" class="fnanchor">971</a> “The mention of witchcraft doth now occasion the remembrance
in the next place of a sort of practitioners whom our custome
and country doth call wise men and wise women, reputed a kind of
good and harmless witches or wizards, who by good words, by hallowed
herbes, and salves, and other superstitious ceremonies, promise to allay
and calme divels, practices of other witches, and the forces of many
diseases.” The last lingering remains of such wise women may be
found in the poorer quarters of all our great towns as well as in country
places; they sell herbs, and always have a special ointment or salve
which cures everything. This is called “Old Maids’ Salve,” or some
such name, and the sellers may often be known by the pile of little
chip or willow boxes displayed in a shop or front window in back
streets. “White” as they are, they often, it is suspected, give improper
advice to women.</p>

<p>A third species of witch was recognised—a mixture of white and
black, called grey witches, who could help and hurt.<a id="FNanchor_972_972" href="#Footnote_972_972" class="fnanchor">972</a></p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_410">410</span></p>

<p>Blaise Pascal, when an infant a year old, was supposed to have been
bewitched by an old woman, who ultimately confessed that she had in
fact so influenced his health.</p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Black Magic.</span></h4>

<p>The following “revelation” of the proceedings of sorcerers is from
the <i>Mysteries of Magic</i> by Waite,<a id="FNanchor_973_973" href="#Footnote_973_973" class="fnanchor">973</a> and was taken by him from the works
of Eliphas Lévi.<a id="FNanchor_974_974" href="#Footnote_974_974" class="fnanchor">974</a></p>

<p>“They procure either some of the hair or garments of the person
whom they wish to curse; then they choose an animal which they consider
the symbol of that person by means of the hair or garments; they
place this animal in magnetic rapport with the individual; they give it
his name, then they slay it with one blow of the magic knife, open its
breast, tear out the heart, which they envelop while still palpitating in
the magnetised object, and for three days they hourly pierce this heart
with nails, red-hot pins, or long thorns, pronouncing maledictions at the
same time on the name of the bewitched person. They are then convinced
(and often rightly) that the victim of their infamous manœuvres
experiences as many torments as if he had himself been probed to the
heart with every one of the points. He begins to waste away, and at
the end of a certain time dies of an unknown complaint.” Another
proceeding is to take a large toad, “baptism is administered to it, and
it is given the name and surname of the person whom it is desired to
curse; it is made to swallow a consecrated host whereon the formulæ
of execration have been pronounced; then it is enveloped in the
magnetised objects, bound with the hair of the victim, on which the
operator has previously spat, and the whole is buried either beneath
the threshold of the bewitched person’s door or in a place which he
is bound to pass daily.”<a id="FNanchor_975_975" href="#Footnote_975_975" class="fnanchor">975</a></p>

<p>The most important part of the body of a person to be bewitched is
a tooth, but the hair or blood will answer fairly well.</p>


<h4><span class="smcap">The Evil Eye.</span></h4>

<p>The use of red coral for warding off the evil eye is at least as old
as the times of the ancient Romans; they used coral necklaces for
their babies as we do now, but not for ornament so much as for protection
from supernatural danger. In Italy, especially in the parts
round Naples, red coral charms in the shape of a partly closed hand,
or pieces of coral the shape of a tiny carrot, are worn for the purpose
of protecting the wearer from being bewitched by the <i>mal occhio</i>.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_411">411</span></p>

<p>The last-named charm is evidently phallic.</p>

<p>The belief in witchcraft which still exists not only amongst the ignorant
and degraded, but also amongst cultivated and intelligent persons,
has recently been illustrated by two cases reported in the press, which
it may be well to quote in this connection.</p>

<p class="center">“<span class="smcap">Extraordinary Superstition.</span></p>

<p>“An inquest was held yesterday at Lufton, a village near Yeovil, on
the body of Mary Jane Saunders, aged twenty-two, who died under
peculiar circumstances. The evidence of the sister of the deceased
showed the latter took to her bed last October. A doctor attended
her, and in November she went into Yeovil hospital. Deceased had
not had her reason for the last six weeks. Her father and mother
called in a herbalist, who remained one day and night. Her mother
thought her daughter was suffering from a ‘bad wish,’ and that it was
in consequence of that she was ill. Her mother had heard that the
herbalist had cured two people at Montacute of ‘bad wishes,’ and that
was why they went to him. The herbalist made some herb tea for
deceased to get rid of the ‘bad wish.’ Her father and mother thought
the deceased had been ‘overlooked.’ The father told the coroner he
was ‘overlooked’ when he was a baby, and had a spell on him, and
some one did him good. The herbalist who visited deceased said he
thoroughly believed one person could put a spell on another. It was
in the Bible, but it was a pity it should be so. The mother of deceased
said they thought some one had cast a ‘bad wish’ over the deceased,
and they tried to get it taken away. They paid 11<i>s.</i> for the herbalist’s
medicine to remove the ‘bad wish.’ Dr. Walters said deceased died
of inflammation and softening of the brain, and a verdict in accordance
with that opinion was returned.”<a id="FNanchor_976_976" href="#Footnote_976_976" class="fnanchor">976</a></p>

<p><i>The Daily Telegraph</i> of November 21st, 1892, has the following:—</p>

<p class="center">“<span class="smcap">Trial for Witchcraft.</span></p>

<p>”<span class="smcap">Berlin</span>, Nov. 20.—The Court of Eichstaett in Bavaria has just
given judgment in the action for slander arising out of the extraordinary
case of exorcism which occurred some months ago in Bavaria, when a
certain Father Aurelian exorcised a boy named Zilk in his parish, who
was said to be possessed of a devil.</p>

<p>“Father Aurelian declared that the evil spirit entered the boy’s body
through the witchcraft of a Protestant woman named Herz, and the
latter accordingly instituted proceedings against him for slander. The
ceremony of exorcism was performed in presence of a Capuchin friar.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_412">412</span>
named Wolf, and other persons, and Father Aurelian, in the report
which he drew up of the case, declared that the devil only quitted the
boy after long resistance.</p>

<p>“Friar Wolf, who was one of a long list of witnesses called for the
defence, confirmed the correctness of the defendant’s report as to the
circumstances under which the exorcism had been performed.</p>

<p>“Father Pruner, the Provost of the Cathedral, who was called to give
evidence as to the theological aspects of the matter, testified that, according
to the teaching of the Church, the possibility of demoniac possession
was indisputable; and he gave an account of the doctrine concerning
demons and evil spirits. He declared that Father Aurelian had
recognised the signs of possession as taught by the Schools, and had
acted as he ought to have done under the circumstances. After pointing
out that even the Civil Law recognised the possibility of covenants
between mankind and the devil, he went on to affirm that the Church
could compel the devil to speak the truth. This was to support the
line of defence set up by Father Aurelian that before quitting the body
of the boy the devil himself, speaking through the possessed, had informed
him that Frau Herz had bewitched the boy by means of some
fruit which she had given him.</p>

<p>“Prior Schneider, who was summoned as an expert in demonology,
also explained his views on the spirit world.</p>

<p>“Herr Straub, the Public Prosecutor, said the question before the
Court was not whether Father Aurelian had transgressed the law in
exorcising the boy, but whether he had slandered the plaintiff. This,
he maintained, the defendant had done, and he demanded damages to
the extent of fifty marks, asking this small sum because it was not
contended that Frau Herz had suffered any material loss through the
allegations made against her.</p>

<p>“Frau Herz, in evidence, denied having bewitched the boy, and declared
that the fruit had not been given to Zilk by her, but by a maidservant.
Her own children had also partaken of the fruit without
suffering any ill effects. Ever since the slander spread by Father
Aurelian, however, she had been called ‘A witch’ by the whole
neighbourhood, and her children had been called ‘Witch-children’
by their comrades in school.</p>

<p>“Ultimately the Court gave judgment in accordance with the Public
Prosecutor’s demand, finding that Father Aurelian had uttered the
slander, and imposing upon him a fine of fifty marks with costs, or five
days’ imprisonment.”</p>

<p>How little power any cultivation of the mind, except that which is
purely scientific, has against this degrading superstition!</p>

<hr class="chap" />
<div class="chapter"></div>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_413">413</span></p>




<h3 id="CHAPTERV_VI">CHAPTER VI.<br />

<small>MEDICAL SUPERSTITIONS.</small></h3>

<blockquote>
<p>Death and the Grave.—Sorcerer’s Ointment.—Teeth-worms.-Disease Transference.—Doctrine
of Signatures.</p></blockquote>


<h4><span class="smcap">Superstitions connected with Death and the Grave.</span></h4>

<p>There is a very common saying amongst ignorant persons, when they
suddenly shudder without reason, that some one is walking over their
grave. In New England it is believed that cramp in the feet can be
cured by walking over a grave. Earth taken at midnight from a newly
made grave is believed in some parts of England to have a curative
effect. Crawling round newly made graves is thought useful in sickness
in Devonshire. Churchyard grass has been used (as what has not?) as
an antidote to hydrophobia. Even in Afghanistan graves have a reputation
for curing diseases.<a id="FNanchor_977_977" href="#Footnote_977_977" class="fnanchor">977</a></p>

<p>“In the middle ages the necromancers profaned tombs and compounded
philtres and ointments with the grease and blood of corpses;
they mixed aconite, belladonna, and poisonous fungi therewith; then
they boiled and skimmed these frightful mixtures over fires composed
of human remains and crucifixes stolen from churches; they added the
dust of dried toads and the ashes of consecrated hosts; then they rubbed
their foreheads, hands, and stomachs with the infernal ointment,
drew the satanic pentacle, and evoked the dead beneath gibbets or in
desecrated cemeteries.”<a id="FNanchor_978_978" href="#Footnote_978_978" class="fnanchor">978</a></p>

<p>Baptista Porta gives the recipe for the sorceress’ ointment in his
<i>Natural Magic</i>. By means of this charm the witches were carried to
their Sabbath. It was composed of children’s fat, of aconite boiled
with poplar leaves, and some other drugs; soot must be mixed with
these, and the bodies of the sorceresses rubbed all over with the compound
as they went to the Sabbath naked. Another recipe from the
works of the same author runs thus:—</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_414">414</span></p>

<p><i>Recipe—Suim, acorum vulgare, pentaphyllon, vespertillionis sanguinem,
solanum somniferum et oleum</i>, the whole to be well boiled and stirred to
the consistence of an ointment.<a id="FNanchor_979_979" href="#Footnote_979_979" class="fnanchor">979</a></p>

<p>Bits of the rope and chips from the gallows after the hanging of a
criminal have long had a reputation in England as cures for headache
and ague. The touch of a dead man’s hand at the place of execution
was formerly considered very efficacious for some complaints.</p>

<p>Dyer says that between Suffolk and Norfolk a favourite remedy for
whooping-cough is to put the head of the suffering child into a hole
made in a meadow for a few minutes. It must be done in the evening,
with only the father and mother to witness it.<a id="FNanchor_980_980" href="#Footnote_980_980" class="fnanchor">980</a></p>

<p>A knife that has killed a man is an amulet worn against disease in
China. A piece of skin taken with a black-handled knife from a male
corpse which has been buried nine days is an Irish love charm.<a id="FNanchor_981_981" href="#Footnote_981_981" class="fnanchor">981</a></p>

<p>People in North Hampshire sometimes wear a tooth taken from a
corpse, kept in a little bag, and hung round the neck, as a remedy for
toothache. Bones from churchyards have from old times been used
as charms against disease. Coffin water is considered good for warts,
and the water with which a corpse has been washed has been recently
given to a man in Glasgow as a remedy for fits.<a id="FNanchor_982_982" href="#Footnote_982_982" class="fnanchor">982</a></p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Teeth Worms.</span></h4>

<p>A very curious remedy for toothache is founded on the idea that
the disease is caused by a worm, and that henbane seed roasted will
extract the worm. <i>The Englishman’s Doctor; or the School of Salerne</i>,
an English translation of a book published in 1607, has a few lines on
this superstition which run thus:—</p>

<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"><div class="stanza">
  <div class="verse">“If in your teeth you hap to be tormented,</div>
  <div class="verse indent2">By meane some little wormes therein do breed,</div>
  <div class="verse">Which pain (if heed be tane) may be prevented,</div>
  <div class="verse indent2">Be keeping cleane your teeth, when as you feede;</div>
  <div class="verse">Burne Francomsence (a gum not evil sented),</div>
  <div class="verse indent2">Put Henbane unto this, and Onyon seed,</div>
  <div class="verse">And with a tunnel to the tooth that’s hollow,</div>
  <div class="verse indent2">Convey the smoke thereof, and ease shall follow.”<a id="FNanchor_983_983" href="#Footnote_983_983" class="fnanchor">983</a></div>
</div></div></div>

<p>Every druggist even at the present day sells henbane seed for the
same purpose; it is used by sprinkling it on hot cinders. The heat
causes the seed to sprout, and an appearance similar to a maggot is
produced, which is ignorantly supposed by the purchaser of the drug
to have dropped from the tooth to which the smoke is applied. Very<span class="pagenum" id="Page_415">415</span>
strangely this belief that toothache is caused by a worm is found all
over the world.<a id="FNanchor_984_984" href="#Footnote_984_984" class="fnanchor">984</a></p>

<p>That dental caries is actually caused by an organism (the <i>Leptothrix
buccalis</i>), which is found in teeth slime, and the threads of which
penetrate the tissue of the teeth after the enamel has been eaten away
by acids generated by the fermentation of the food, is not of course
known to peasants and ignorant persons; they seem, however, to have
in this instance anticipated a discovery in bacteriology.</p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Disease Transference.</span></h4>

<p>When primitive folk found that diseases could be communicated
from one person to another, that contagious and infectious complaints
spread through a district with terrible rapidity and fatal effects, they
began to argue that it must be possible to transfer diseases to other
creatures than man. And so we find stomach-ache transferred from
the patient to a puppy or a duck.<a id="FNanchor_985_985" href="#Footnote_985_985" class="fnanchor">985</a> Hooping-cough is transmitted to
dogs by hairs of the patient given between slices of bread-and-butter.
Ague and scarlet-fever are transmitted to the ass on which the sufferer
sits; toothache is passed on to a frog by spitting in its mouth. Even
trees are considered able to relieve patients of ague. Mr. Tylor says:
“In Thuringia it is considered that a string of rowan berries, a rag, or
any small article touched by a sick person, and then hung on a bush
beside some forest path, imparts the malady to any person who may
touch this article in passing, and frees the sick man from the disease.
This gives great probability to Captain Burton’s suggestion, that the
rags, locks of hair, and what not hung on trees near sacred places, by
the superstitious, from Mexico to India, and Ethiopia to Ireland, are
deposited there as actual receptacles for transference of disease.”<a id="FNanchor_986_986" href="#Footnote_986_986" class="fnanchor">986</a></p>

<p>Innumerable transference superstitions are met with concerning warts,
and these have doubtless arisen from the very remarkable manner in
which they sometimes disappear. In some cases what are taken to be
warts by those not skilled in skin diseases are merely a papular
eruption of a fugitive kind, which suddenly appears on the back of the
hands and as suddenly vanishes. As real warts, however, often arise
from constitutional causes, they will naturally disappear with improved
general health; and this fact has been the fruitful parent of a host of
superstitions.</p>

<p>Mr. Black gives several of these. He says:<span class="pagenum" id="Page_416">416</span> “Lancashire wise men
tell us for warts to rub them with a cinder, and this tied up in paper, and
dropped where four roads meet (<i>i.e.</i>, where the roads cross), will transfer
the warts to whoever opens the parcel. Another mode of transferring
warts is to touch each wart with a pebble, and place the pebbles in a
bag, which should be lost on the way to church; whoever finds the bag
gets the warts.”<a id="FNanchor_987_987" href="#Footnote_987_987" class="fnanchor">987</a></p>

<p>A common Warwickshire custom is to rub the warts with a black
snail, stick the snail on a thorn bush, and then, say the folk, as the snail
dies so will the wart disappear.</p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Antidotes.</span></h4>

<p>Another old medical superstition is that every natural poison carries
within itself its own antidote. Galen, Pliny, and Dioscorides say that
the poison of Spanish fly exists in the body, and the head and wings
contain the antidote. “A hair of the dog that bit you,” is the ancient
way of stating a belief that the hairs of a rabid dog are the true
specific for hydrophobia. The fat of the viper was long regarded as the
remedy for its bite. In black-letter books on Demonology we learn
that “three scruples of the ashes of the witch, when she has been well
and carefully burnt at a stake, is a sure catholicon against all the evil
effects of witchcraft.”<a id="FNanchor_988_988" href="#Footnote_988_988" class="fnanchor">988</a></p>


<h4><span class="smcap">The Doctrine of Signatures.</span></h4>

<p>By nothing have the annals of medicine been more disgraced than
by the absurd and preposterous “Doctrine of Signatures.” Dr. Paris, in
his <i>Pharmacologia</i>, describes it as the belief that “every natural substance
which possesses any medicinal virtues, indicates, by an obvious
and well-marked external character, the disease for which it is a remedy
or the object for which it should be employed.” Thus the plant which
is common in our woods, called “Lungwort” (<i>Pulmonaria officinalis</i>), was
anciently considered good for chest complaints, because its leaves bear
a fancied resemblance to the surface of the lungs. The root of the
“mandrake,” from its supposed resemblance to the human form, was a
very ancient medicine for barrenness, and was so esteemed by Rachel
(Genesis xxx. 14).</p>

<p>Pliny, Dioscorides, and other writers attribute peculiar virtues to the
mineral <i>Lapis Ætites</i>, or eagle-stone, because the nodule within the
stone rattles when it is shaken. “<i>Ætites lapis agitatus sonitum edit,
velut ex altero lapide prægnans.</i>” The yellow drug <i>turmeric</i> was held to
be a cure for jaundice because it is yellow. Poppies have their capsules
shaped somewhat like a skull, therefore they were considered appropriate
to relieve diseases of the head. <i>Euphrasia</i>, our eye-bright, was a
famous application for eye diseases, because its flowers are somewhat<span class="pagenum" id="Page_417">417</span>
like the pupil of the eye. Nettle-tea by the same rule is a country
remedy for nettle-rash (urticaria). The petals of the red rose bear the
“signature” of the blood, the roots of rhubarb and the flowers of saffron
those of the bile.</p>

<p>A person who believes himself bewitched by execration and the
interment of a toad, should carry about him a living toad.</p>

<p>Southey says,<a id="FNanchor_989_989" href="#Footnote_989_989" class="fnanchor">989</a> “The signatures [were] the books out of which the
ancients first learned the virtues of herbs—Nature—having stamped on
divers of them legible characters to discover their uses.” Every healing
plant, it was thought, bears in some part of its structure the type or
signature of its peculiar virtue. Oswald Crollius is supposed to have
been “the great discoverer of signatures.” Some of these strange
fancies are as fantastic as those of Swedenborg. Walnuts were considered
to be the perfect signature of the head, the shell as the skull
and the convolutions of the kernel as those of the two hemispheres of
the brain, the outer skin would represent the scalp. So the signature
doctors used the husks for scalp wounds, the inner peel for disorders of
the <i>dura mater</i>, and the kernel was “very profitable for the brain and
resists poisons.” The peony when in bud being something like a man’s
head was “very available against the falling sickness.” Poppy-heads
for the same reason were used “with success” in general diseases of
the head. Lilies-of-valley were known by signature to cure apoplexy;
as Coles says, “for as that disease is caused by the dropping of
humours into the principal ventricles of the brain, so the flowers of this
lily hanging on the plants as if they were drops, are of wonderful use
herein.”</p>

<p>Capillary herbs naturally announced themselves as good for diseases
of the hair. The stone crop “hath the signature of the gums,” and so
was used for scurvy. The scales of pine-cones were used for the toothache,
because they resemble the front teeth. Prickly plants like
thistles and holly were used for pleurisy and stitch in the side. Saxifrage
was good for the stone; kidney beans ought to have been useful
for kidney diseases, but seem to have been overlooked except as
articles of diet.</p>

<hr class="chap" />
<div class="chapter"></div>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_418">418</span></p>




<h3 id="CHAPTERV_VII">CHAPTER VII.<br />

<small>THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.</small></h3>

<blockquote>

<p>The Sciences accessory to Medicine.—The great Schools of Medical Theory.—Boerhaave
and his System.—Stahl.—Hoffman.—Cullen.—Brown.—Hospitals.—Bichat
and the New Era of Anatomy.—Mesmer and Mesmerism.—Surgery.—The
Anatomists, Physiologists, and Scientists of the Period.—Inoculation and
Vaccination.</p></blockquote>


<p>The medical history of the eighteenth century affords but a meagre result,
notwithstanding the brilliant talents and indefatigable industry of the
famous men who devoted their energies to the healing art. Their great
aim was to create systems of medicine which should be philosophical
and complete.</p>

<p>It is not only in what is strictly the art of healing that the members
of the medical profession have ever been amongst the greatest
benefactors of the world, but in what are known as the accessory sciences
many of the most distinguished, enlightened, and self-sacrificing of the
heroes of science have been affiliated to the profession of medicine.
Not only the heroes, but the martyrs of medicine, crowd the scientific
calendar. The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were fertile in the
efforts to apply the results of discoveries in the physical sciences to the
relief of human suffering. If these efforts were but partially successful,
so far as medicine—considered apart from surgery—was concerned, it
was not in consequence of less industry in that department, but because
speculation and theorising about the causes of disease monopolised the
attention which, if devoted to observation of facts, would have been
fertile in result. Schools, Systems, and Sects were the chief product of
the medical activity of the eighteenth century. Although not perhaps
of much direct benefit to medicine, indirectly the study of the sciences
accessory to it must have been of considerable benefit as an educational
factor in the training of the intellect of physicians.</p>


<h4><span class="smcap">The Great Schools of Medical Theory.</span></h4>

<p>Whewell, in his <i>History of Scientific Ideas</i>,<a id="FNanchor_990_990" href="#Footnote_990_990" class="fnanchor">990</a> classifies the successive
biological hypotheses under the heads: (1) <span class="smcap">The Mystical School</span>;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_419">419</span>
(2) <span class="smcap">The Iatro-Chemical School</span>; (3) <span class="smcap">The Iatro-Mathematical
School</span>; (4) <span class="smcap">The Vital-Fluid School</span>; (5) <span class="smcap">The Psychical School</span>.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">The Mystical School</span> found its most distinguished representative in
Paracelsus; it derived its doctrine of the <i>Macrocosm</i> and the <i>Microcosm</i>
from the Neoplatonists, and was largely imbued with alchemy and
magic, the doctrines of the Cabala and the fanciful interpretations of
the Bible. Later Paracelsists, Rosicrucians, and other speculators of the
same character, such as Sir Kenelm Digby, brought the Mystical School
of Medicine down to the seventeenth century. Our modern Theosophists
are striving to restore much of the mystical teaching of Paracelsus
and his followers. Again we meet the “astral bodies,” “the elementary
spirits,” the cabalistic interpretations of the Bible, and the
astrological absurdities of a pre-scientific period.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">The Iatro-Chemical School</span> really arose from <span class="smcap">Paracelsus</span>, who
amongst many absurdities held much important truth. <span class="smcap">Sprengel</span> indicates
<span class="smcap">Libavius</span> of Saxony as the person who first cultivated chemistry
apart from theosophy, and he names <span class="smcap">Angelus Sala</span> as his successor.
<span class="smcap">Lemery</span>, in the middle of the seventeenth century, began to reform pharmaceutical
chemistry. After <span class="smcap">Paracelsus</span> chemistry became an indispensable
study to every physician. Our word <i>tartar</i>, the scale which
forms on the teeth, is of Paracelsian origin. He taught that the basis of
all diseases was a thickening of the juices and the formation of earthy
matter, which he called <i>Tartarus</i>, because it burns like the fire of hell.
After <span class="smcap">Paracelsus</span> we have <span class="smcap">Van Helmont</span>, a true chemical discoverer
who sought in chemistry a theory of disease of which his doctrine of
fermentation in the body holds an important place. Next we have
<span class="smcap">Sylvius</span>, with his doctrine of the opposition of acid and alkali. Digestion
he considered a process of fermentation or effervescence of the acid of
the saliva and pancreatic juice with the alkali of the gall. When either
the acid or the alkali predominated, disease was supposed to follow.
The human body was regarded as a laboratory, the stomach as a sort of
test tube. <span class="smcap">Boyle</span> made objections to the doctrines of this school, and
<span class="smcap">Herman Conring</span> taught that the proper place of chemistry was not in
physiology and pathology, but in pharmacy.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Viridet</span> of Geneva endeavoured to prove that the fluids of the body
are either acid or alkaline by experiment. <span class="smcap">Raimond Vieussens</span> declared
that he had discovered an acid in the blood and a ferment in the
stomach. <span class="smcap">Hecquet</span> opposed him, and said that digestion was not a process
of fermentation, but of trituration. <span class="smcap">Pitcairn</span> in England, <span class="smcap">Bohn</span> and
<span class="smcap">Hoffman</span> in Germany, and <span class="smcap">Boerhaave</span> in Holland opposed the iatro-chemists,
and proved by observation that digestion is not fermentation,
and that the acid and alkali theories of disease supported by <span class="smcap">Sylvius</span> were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_420">420</span>
false. By the influence and authority of these eminent physicians, the
reign of the chemical school of physiology was overturned. The great
fault of the iatro-chemists was their neglect of the effect of the solids of
the animal body; they assimilated the work of the physician, as Whewell
says, to that of the vintner or the brewer.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">The Iatro-Mathematical</span> or <span class="smcap">Mechanical School</span> attacked, defeated,
and superseded the iatro-chemists. According to this sect, the
human body is a mere machine. Whewell explains that the Mechanical
Physiologists came into existence in consequence of the splendid results
obtained by the schools of Galileo and Newton. It was not so much the
exposure of the weaknesses of the chemical physiology as the effects produced
upon the world by the explanation of so many of the phenomena
of the external universe by the men who had revolutionized astronomy by
their discoveries; it was naturally hoped that that which served to explain
the great world of matter might also elucidate the little world of man.
Whewell divides the school into two parts—the Italian and the Cartesio-Newtonian
sect. The Italian calculated and analysed the properties of
the animal body which are undoubtedly purely mechanical, the Cartesio-Newtonians
went much further than this and introduced many baseless
hypotheses. The Italians occupied themselves with such calculations as
the force of muscles and the hydraulics of the animal fluid. <span class="smcap">Borelli</span>
was the first great investigator on these lines; his work <i>De Motu Animalium</i>
(Rome, 1680), treats of the forces and action of the bones and
muscles. <span class="smcap">John</span> and <span class="smcap">Daniel Bernouelli</span> and <span class="smcap">Henry Pemberton</span>
pursued the same line of research. The principles of hydrostatics
were brought to bear on the questions of the blood pressure and the
breath. <span class="smcap">Keill</span> endeavoured to estimate the velocity of the blood.
The other school occupied itself with the corpuscular hypothesis in
physiology. The organs were considered as a species of sieves. Both
<span class="smcap">Newton</span> and <span class="smcap">Descartes</span> sought to explain physiology on a theory of
round particles passing through cylindrical tubes, pyramidal ones
through pores of a triangular shape, cubical through square openings.
The diameter and curves of the different vessels formed subjects of
calculations, and <span class="smcap">Bellini</span>, <span class="smcap">Donzellini</span>, and <span class="smcap">Guglielmini</span> in Italy,
<span class="smcap">Perrault</span> and <span class="smcap">Dodart</span> in France, <span class="smcap">Cole</span>, <span class="smcap">Keill</span>, and <span class="smcap">Jurin</span> in
England, devoted themselves to their study.<a id="FNanchor_991_991" href="#Footnote_991_991" class="fnanchor">991</a></p>

<p>The investigation of the size and shape of the particles of the fluids,
and the diameter and form of the invisible vessels, formed a large part
of the physiology of the beginning of the eighteenth century. <span class="smcap">Cheyne</span>
thought that fevers of the acute sort arise from glandular obstruction;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_421">421</span>
and <span class="smcap">Mead</span>, the royal physician and friend of Newton, explained the
action of poisons on mechanical principles. The error of this school,
as Whewell explains, lay in considering the animal frame as a lifeless
compound of canals, cords and levers; the physicians, to its adherents,
were merely hydraulic engineers. Some iatro-mathematicians were,
in fact, at the same time teachers both of engineering and medicine.<a id="FNanchor_992_992" href="#Footnote_992_992" class="fnanchor">992</a></p>

<p><span class="smcap">The Vital-Fluid School.</span> The mechanical explanation of the
motions of the animal body may satisfy some observers up to a certain
point; there, however, they must confess their theory fails them. How
does motion <i>originate</i> in the living frame? <span class="smcap">Friedrich Hoffman</span>, of
Halle (b. 1660), assumed a principle, material, yet of a higher kind than
the adherents of the mechanical sect were inclined to recognise. This
principle is exceedingly subtle, and is endued with great energy. It is
the ether diffused through all nature, and which has its seat in the brain
of animals and acts upon the body through the nerves. This vital fluid
operates by laws which at one time were explained on the principles of
a higher mechanics, of which we know little, and at another on metaphysical
grounds, of which we know less. Naturally the discoveries connected
with electricity imported a new element into these speculations.
The vital principle was then held to be a modification of the electric
fluid. <span class="smcap">John Hunter</span> discerned it in the blood. <span class="smcap">Cuvier</span> believed the
vital fluid to be nervous. The objections to the doctrine of a vital
fluid “as one uniform material agent pervading the organic frame,” are
many. If the vital principle be the same in every part of the body,
how does it happen that the secretions are all so different? How does
the blood under the same influence furnish all the different fluids produced
by the glands? How is it the liver secretes bile, the kidneys
their peculiar fluid, the lachrymal gland the tears? The hypothesis of
a vital fluid really explains nothing.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">The Psychical School</span> held the doctrine of an immaterial vital
principle. This is at least as old as <span class="smcap">Aristotle</span>,<a id="FNanchor_993_993" href="#Footnote_993_993" class="fnanchor">993</a> who attributes the
cause of motion to the soul. According to that philosopher the soul
has different parts: the <i>nutritive</i> or <i>vegetative</i>, the <i>sensitive</i>, and the
<i>rational</i>. <span class="smcap">Stahl</span>, the great discoverer in chemistry, opposed the
physiological theories of <span class="smcap">Hoffman</span>, and declared that there is something
in living bodies which cannot be accounted for by mechanics or
chemistry. “All motion,” according to him, “is a spiritual act.” Nutrition
and secretion belong to the operations of the soul; but he overlooked
the fact that these are not peculiar to animals, but are characteristics
of vegetables, which have no soul. <span class="smcap">Cheyne</span> and <span class="smcap">Mead</span>, <span class="smcap">Pater<span class="pagenum" id="Page_422">422</span>field</span>
and <span class="smcap">Whytt</span> in England inclined to Stahl’s views. <span class="smcap">Boissier de
Sauvages</span> defended them in France. <span class="smcap">Hoffman</span> and afterwards <span class="smcap">Haller</span>
opposed them, the latter inventing the theory of Irritability.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Boerhaave</span> (1668-1738), professor of medicine at Leyden, was a man
of varied and profound erudition, conversant with the teaching of the
ancient philosophers and the Greek and Arabian physicians; he was in
addition fully conversant with all the discoveries connected with the healing
art down to his own time. Beyond this he was a natural philosopher,
chemist, botanist, and anatomist, and an indefatigable experimentalist.
In teaching medicine he simplified its study as much as possible by rejecting
the absurd and useless speculations which encumbered it, and
putting in their place the facts which he believed his own experience
and observation had enabled him to ascertain. He published his
system of medicine in two volumes, one entitled the Instructions or
Theory and the other the Aphorisms or Practice of Medicine. “These
short treatises,” says Dr. Thomson,<a id="FNanchor_994_994" href="#Footnote_994_994" class="fnanchor">994</a> “which gave to medicine a more
systematic form than it had previously exhibited, are remarkable for
brevity, perspicuity, and elegance of style, for great condensation of
ideas, and for the number of important facts which they contain relative
to the healthy and diseased states of the human economy.” The genius
of Boerhaave raised the medical school of Leyden to the highest distinction.
Princes in all countries sent him pupils; Peter the Great
took lessons in medicine from him, and so great was his reputation that
when a Chinese mandarin directed a letter to him, “To the illustrious
Boerhaave, physician in Europe,” it was duly delivered. He held the
study of Mind to form an important part of physiology. He taught
that the change produced upon the extremity of the sentient nerve must
be transmitted by the nerve to the brain before sensation can be produced.
He considered the nerves to be hollow undulatory canals. He
also held that each of the senses has its distinct seat in the common
sensory or brain. His lectures on the mental faculties are full of varied
and curious information. Considering the human body as a combination
of various machines arranged in one harmonious whole, he endeavoured
to explain its phenomena in health and disease on the
principles of natural philosophy and chemistry to the almost entire
exclusion of vital forces, which, however, he did not reject. He denied
that all medical phenomena are to be explained upon mechanical principles.
He lamented that “physiological subjects are usually handled
either by mathematicians unskilful in anatomy, or by anatomists who are
not versed in mathematics.” Yet his system of physiology embraced<span class="pagenum" id="Page_423">423</span>
but a poor conception of the mystery of life. He says, “Let anatomy
faithfully describe the parts and structure of the body; let the mechanician
apply his particular science to the solids; let hydrostatics explain
the laws of fluids in general, and hydraulics their actions, as they move
through given canals; and lastly, let the chemist add to all these whatever
his art, when fairly and carefully applied, has been able to discover;
and then, if I am not mistaken, we shall have a complete
account of medical physiology.”</p>

<p>It is to <span class="smcap">Boerhaave</span> that we owe the peculiar chemical idea of affinity,
that mutual virtue by which one chemical substance loves, unites with,
and holds the other (<i>amat</i>, <i>unit</i>, <i>retinet</i>). He called it love. “We are
here to imagine, not mechanical action, not violent impulse, not antipathy,
but love, at least if love be the desire of uniting.” It is to
<span class="smcap">Boerhaave</span>, therefore, we are indebted for a view of chemical affinity
which enables us to comprehend all chemical changes.<a id="FNanchor_995_995" href="#Footnote_995_995" class="fnanchor">995</a></p>

<p>The idea of affinity as marriage naturally leads to analysis as divorce.
Thus affinity, imperfectly understood before the time of Boerhaave,
made analysis possible. One of the first to express this conviction was
<span class="smcap">Dr. Mayow</span>, who published his Medico-Physical Tracts in 1674. He
shows how an acid and an alkali lose their properties by combination, a
new substance being formed not at all resembling either of the ingredients.
He explains that, “although these salts thus mixed appear to
be destroyed, it is still possible for them to be separated from each
other, with their power still entire.”<a id="FNanchor_996_996" href="#Footnote_996_996" class="fnanchor">996</a></p>

<p><span class="smcap">George Ernest Stahl</span> (1660-1734), chemist, was professor of
medicine at Halle (1694) and physician to the King of Prussia (1716).
He opposed materialism, and substituted “animism,” explaining the
symptoms of disease as efforts of the soul to get rid of morbid influences.
Stahl’s “anima” corresponds to Sydenham’s “nature” in a
measure, and has some relationship to the Archeus of Paracelsus and
Van Helmont. <span class="smcap">Stahl</span> was the author of the “phlogiston” theory in
chemistry, which in its time has had important influence on medicine.
Phlogiston was a substance which he supposed to exist in all combustible
matters, and the escape of this principle from any compound
was held to account for the phenomenon of fire. According to <span class="smcap">Stahl</span>,
diseases arise from the direct action of noxious powers upon the body;
and from the reaction of the system itself endeavouring to oppose and
counteract the effects of the noxious powers, and so preserve and repair
itself.<a id="FNanchor_997_997" href="#Footnote_997_997" class="fnanchor">997</a> He did not consider diseases, therefore, pernicious in them<span class="pagenum" id="Page_424">424</span>selves,
though he admitted that they might become so from mistakes
made by the soul in the choice, or proportion of the motions excited
to remove them, or the time when these efforts are made. Death,
according to this theory, is due to the indolence of the soul, leading it
to desist from its vital motions, and refusing to continue longer the
struggle against the derangements of the body.<a id="FNanchor_998_998" href="#Footnote_998_998" class="fnanchor">998</a> Here we have the
“expectant treatment” so much in vogue with many medical men.
“Trusting to the constant attention and wisdom of nature,” they administered
inert medicines as placebos, while they left to nature the
cure of the disease. But they neglected the use of invaluable remedies
such as opium and Peruvian bark, for which error it must be admitted
they atoned by discountenancing bleeding, vomiting, etc.<a id="FNanchor_999_999" href="#Footnote_999_999" class="fnanchor">999</a> Stahl’s
remedies were chiefly of the class known as “Antiphlogistic,” or antefebrile.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">De Sauvages</span> (1706-1767), the French physicist, was a disciple of
Stahl, and adopted his theory of soul as the cause of the mechanical
action of the body. He invented a system of classifying diseases under
the title of <i>Nosologia Methodica</i>, founded on the principles of natural
history.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Friedrich Hoffman</span> (1660-1742) was a fellow-student with Stahl
at Jena. He was the author of a system of medicine in some respects
original. He distinguished in the human economy three principal
agents: Nature, or the Organic Body; the Sentient Soul; and the
Rational Soul; corresponding to the classification of the Scripture of
body, soul, and spirit—a classification which originated doubtless in
Indian philosophy. Hoffman did not admit with Stahl that the organic
functions of the human body depend on the agency of an intelligent
soul or any immaterial agent whatsoever, but are merely mechanical and
chemical properties of the elements which compose our bodies. The
functions most essential to life he considered to be the circulatory,
secretory, and excretory motions, and these seemed to him to depend
upon the dilating and contracting powers of the muscular fibres of the
vascular system. These powers then he held to be the cause of the
organic functions which depend on the animal spirits, an ethereal fluid
contained in the nerves and the blood.<a id="FNanchor_1000_1000" href="#Footnote_1000_1000" class="fnanchor">1000</a></p>

<p>Hoffman first made known the virtues of the Seidlitz waters; he also
invented a nostrum which was popular for a long time, and called<span class="pagenum" id="Page_425">425</span>
“Hoffman’s Anodyne Liquor.”</p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Physicians.</span></h4>

<p><span class="smcap">Archibald Pitcairn</span>, M.D. (1652-1713), was a famous physician of
Edinburgh. In 1692 he occupied a professor’s chair at Leyden with
great distinction. Among his pupils were <span class="smcap">Mead</span> and <span class="smcap">Boerhaave</span>, who
both attributed much of their skill to his tuition. On his return to
Edinburgh he greatly interested himself in improving the teaching of
anatomy. He begged the Town Council to permit the dissection of the
bodies of paupers; and though the chief surgeons of the place did all
they could to oppose his efforts, they were successful, and Pitcairn had
the credit of laying the foundation of the great Edinburgh school of
medicine. He insisted on the strict adherence to Bacon’s method of
attending to facts of experience and observation. “Nothing,” he said,
“more hinders physic from being improved than the curiosity of
searching into the natural causes of the effects of medicines. The
business of men is to know the virtues of medicines; but to inquire
whence they have that power is a superfluous amusement, since nature
lies concealed. A physician ought therefore to apply himself to discover
by experience the effects of medicines and diseases, and reduce
his observations into maxims, and not needlessly fatigue himself by
inquiring into their causes, which are neither possible nor necessary
to be known. If all physicians would act thus, we should not see
physic divided into so many sects.” In his <span class="smcap">Dissertations</span> (1701) he
discusses the application of geometry to physic, the circulation of the
blood, the cure of fevers by purgation, and the effects of acids and
alkalis in medicine. A learned and skilful physician, an accomplished
mathematician, and a thorough classical scholar, he was not discreet
in his political utterances. His library was purchased by Peter the
Great of Russia.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">John Radcliffe</span>, M.D. (1650-1714), was famous for “his magnificent
regard for the advancement of learning and science.” The
Radcliffe infirmary and observatory at Oxford were built from funds
bequeathed by him.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Sir Hans Sloane</span>, M.D. (1660-1753), was a physician whose
noble museum and library were the foundation of the British Museum.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Sir Richard Blackmore</span>, M.D. (1650-1729), wrote on inoculation
for small-pox, on consumption, gout, rheumatism, scrofula, diabetes,
jaundice, etc.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Walter Needham</span>, M.D. (died 1691), made important investigations
in the anatomy of the fœtus, and the changes of the pregnant
uterus.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Clopton Havers</span>, M.D. (died 1702), was the author of a standard<span class="pagenum" id="Page_426">426</span>
work on the bones, certain canals of which were called after him
Haversian canals.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">James Douglas</span>, M.D. (1675-1742), was an excellent anatomist, who
was one of the first to demonstrate from anatomy that the high operation
for stone might be safely performed. He was a skilful accoucheur, an
accomplished botanist, and a man of letters. Pope mentions him in
the <i>Dunciad</i>, and in a note describes him as a physician of great
learning and no less taste. He wrote several works, the most famous
of which is <i>Myographiæ Comparatæ Specimen; or a comparative description
of all the muscles in a man and in a quadruped; added is an
account of the muscles peculiar to a woman</i>. London, 1707.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">William Cullen</span>, M.D. (1710-1790), was the first professor in
Great Britain to deliver his lectures in the English language.<a id="FNanchor_1001_1001" href="#Footnote_1001_1001" class="fnanchor">1001</a> He was
appointed lecturer on chemistry at Glasgow University in 1746, and
in 1751 was chosen regius professor of medicine. In 1756 he became
professor of chemistry in the University of Edinburgh; in 1760 he
was made lecturer on materia medica. Dr. Cullen earned great
distinction as a lecturer on medicine; he opposed the teaching of
Boerhaave and the principles of the humoral pathology, founding his own
teaching on that of Hoffman. His system was to a great extent based
on the new physiological doctrine of irritability as taught by Haller.</p>

<p>He attached great importance to nervous action in the induction of
disease, considering even gout as a neurosis.</p>

<p>His <i>First Lines of the Practice of Physic</i> was long exceedingly popular,
but his fame as a medical writer rests on his <i>Nosology</i>, or <i>Classification
of Diseases</i>. In all his labours Dr. Cullen aimed at the practical
rather than the theoretical. “My business is not,” he remarks,<a id="FNanchor_1002_1002" href="#Footnote_1002_1002" class="fnanchor">1002</a> “so
much to explain how this and that happens, as to examine what is truly
matter of fact.” “My anxiety is not so much to find out how it
happens as to find out <i>what</i> happens.” Cullen invented no ingenious
hypothesis, rather he new-modelled the whole practice of medicine;
“he defined and arranged diseases with an unrivalled accuracy, and
reduced their treatment to a simplicity formerly unknown.”<a id="FNanchor_1003_1003" href="#Footnote_1003_1003" class="fnanchor">1003</a></p>

<p><span class="smcap">James Gregory</span>, M.D. (1758-1822), exercised the greatest influence
on the progress of medicine in England. As the successor of Cullen,
and as the author of the famous <i>Conspectus Medicinæ Theoreticæ</i>, the
name of Gregory, borne by many ornaments of British science, became
still more distinguished.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Sir Gilbert Blane</span>, M.D. (born 1747), rendered important medical
services to the State by his researches on the diseases incident to sea<span class="pagenum" id="Page_427">427</span>men.
He banished scurvy from the fleet by his arrangements for
provisioning ships on foreign stations, particularly by making lemon
juice a regular ingredient of diet.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Sir William Watson</span>, M.D. (1715-1787), was a devoted botanist
and student of electricity. His electrical researches raised him to a
position of European fame. He was the first in England who succeeded
in igniting spirit of wine by electricity; he was the first to note the
different colour of the spark, as drawn from different bodies; and his
researches in the power and accumulation of electricity, the nature of
its conductors, etc., qualified him to take part in the experiments carried
out in 1747 and 1748, by which the “electric current was extended to
four miles in order to prove the velocity of its transmission.”<a id="FNanchor_1004_1004" href="#Footnote_1004_1004" class="fnanchor">1004</a> The
doctor’s house in Aldersgate Street was long the resort of the most
distinguished men of science in Europe. He was not less the benign
and generous friend to the poor and suffering, than the ardent investigator
of the secrets of Nature. His work <i>Experiments and Observations
on Electricity</i> is quite a remarkable production considering the age
in which it was published (1768).</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Robert Willan</span>, M.D. (1757-1812), was the founder of the science
of skin diseases in England. His attention was directed in 1784 to
the elementary forms of eruption, and on this basis he erected his magnum
opus, <i>The Description and Treatment of Cutaneous Diseases</i> (1798).</p>

<p><span class="smcap">John Brown</span> (1735-1788), was a systematizer of medicine, whose
popularity was even continental. He endeavoured to explain the
processes of life and disease and the principles of cure upon one
simple idea, the property of “excitability.” The “exciting powers”
are the external forces, and the functions of the body are stimulants, so
that “the whole phenomena of life, health as well as disease, consist
in stimulus and nothing else.” Diseases he divided as <i>sthenic</i>, attended
with preternatural excitement, and <i>asthenic</i>, characterized by debility.</p>

<p>Ninety-seven per cent. of all diseases, he declared, require a “stimulating
treatment.” One good result of this theory was that it introduced
a milder treatment of disease than the bleeding and purging doctors of
his time advocated. The theory was called the Brunonian, and received
greater attention in Italy than in England.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">John Morgan</span>, M.D. (1736-1789), was born in Philadelphia. He
wrote an essay on his graduation at Edinburgh (1763), wherein “he
maintained that pus is a secretion from the vessels, and in this view
anticipated John Hunter.”<a id="FNanchor_1005_1005" href="#Footnote_1005_1005" class="fnanchor">1005</a></p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_428">428</span></p>

<p><span class="smcap">Robert James</span>, M.D. (1703-1776), was the inventor of the celebrated
fever-powder which bears his name.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Francis de Valingen</span>, M.D. (1725-1805), was a Swiss who practised
in London. He was the first to suggest the employment of chloride
of arsenic in practice. His preparation was admitted into the London
Pharmacopœia.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Erasmus Darwin</span> (1701-1802), a physician of Lichfield, was a true
poet of science. His fame rests on the <i>Botanic Garden</i>, in which
he describes the <i>Loves of the Plants</i> according to the Linnæan system.
His most important scientific work is his <i>Zoonomia</i>, a pathological
work, and a treatise on generation, in which he anticipated the views
of Lamarck. He asks: “Would it be too bold to imagine that in
the great length of time since the earth began to exist, perhaps
millions of ages before the commencement of the history of mankind,
would it be too bold to imagine that all warm-blooded animals have
arisen from one living filament, which the Great First Cause endued
with animality, with the power of acquiring new parts, attended with
new propensities, directed by irritations, sensations, volitions, and
associations, and thus possessing the faculty of continuing to improve
by its own inherent activity, and of delivering down these improvements
by generation to its posterity, world without end!” He
believed that plants possess sensation and volition.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Edward Spry</span>, M.D. (lived in 1756). At the fire of Eddystone
lighthouse an old man was injured by the fall of a quantity of molten
lead upon him. Dying of his injuries in twelve days, he was examined by
Dr. Spry, who stated that he found in the stomach a lump of lead three
and three-quarter inches long by one and a half in breadth. As no
surgeon would believe this story, Dr. Spry performed a number of experiments
upon animals by pouring molten lead down their throats,
with the result that at the Royal Society, Dr. Huxham, in his letter
to Sir William Watson, “testified to his own belief in Mr. Spry’s
veracity.”<a id="FNanchor_1006_1006" href="#Footnote_1006_1006" class="fnanchor">1006</a></p>

<p><span class="smcap">John Coakley Lettsom</span>, M.D. (1744-1815), was a learned and
amiable philanthropist, who published several important medical and
scientific works. His <i>Reflections on the Treatment and Cure of Fevers</i>
and <i>The Natural History of the Tea Tree</i> appeared in 1772. He
wrote the following lines:—</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_429">429</span></p>

<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"><div class="stanza">
  <div class="verse">“When patients sick to me apply,</div>
  <div class="verse">I physics, bleeds, and sweats ’em.</div>
  <div class="verse">Sometimes they live, sometimes they die:</div>
  <div class="verse">What’s that to me? I. Lettsom.”</div>
</div></div></div>

<p>He gave away immense sums in charity, he was not so unfeeling as
his verse would make him appear.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">William Stark</span> (1742-1770) was the earliest writer who distinguished
between tuberculosis and scrofula.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Jean Astruc</span> (1684-1766), professor at Montpellier, the oldest of
the celebrated French obstetricians, was the author of a work on the
diseases of women from the pathological point of view.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Johann E. Wichmann</span> (1740-1802), a scientific physician of Hanover,
in 1786 explained the cause of itch as due to the itch-mite passing
from one individual to another. He experimented upon himself.
<span class="smcap">Bonomo</span> had, however, discovered the insect in the itch pustules in
1687.</p>

<p>Wichmann suggested the contagiousness of consumption, whooping
cough, diarrhœa, and several other complaints.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">J. P. Frank</span> (1745-1821) was “the founder of medical police as a
distinct department of science.”<a id="FNanchor_1007_1007" href="#Footnote_1007_1007" class="fnanchor">1007</a></p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Hospitals.</span></h4>

<p>The condition of the hospitals for the sick in the eighteenth century
was scandalous almost beyond belief. Thus, in the Hôtel Dieu of
Paris, the mortality at one time was 220 per 1,000; a state of affairs
which, however, we surpassed in the present century, when in the
British hospitals at Scutari the mortality reached between 400 and 500
per 1,000. In both cases this was due to overcrowding. At the Hôtel
Dieu two or three small-pox cases, or several surgical cases, or sometimes
even four lying-in women would be packed into one bed. A large
proportion of the beds were purposely made for four patients, and six
were frequently crowded in.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">John Howard</span> (1726-1790), the philanthropist, by his splendid and
devoted labours in connection with the reform of prisons, hospitals,
and lazarettos, drew attention to the means of preventing the communication
of the plague and other infectious fevers. In the words of Burke<span class="pagenum" id="Page_430">430</span>
“his philanthropic spirit led him to dive into the depths of dungeons;
to plunge into the infection of hospitals; to survey the mansions of
sorrow and pain; to take the gauge and dimensions of misery, depression,
and contempt; to remember the forgotten; to attend to the
neglected; to visit the forsaken, and to compare and collate the distresses
of all men in all countries.” Not the least of his services were
those he rendered to the cause of sanitary science and public health.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Théophile de Bordeu</span> (1722-1776) was a professor of anatomy and
midwifery at Montpellier. By his great work, <i>Recherches sur le Pouls</i>,
he so enraged his professional brethren (who, like the Jews, always
either maim or kill the prophets sent unto them), that he was attacked in
his personal character with disgraceful malignity for several years. He
rendered very great services to the progress of medical science. His
physiology was far in advance of his age, and many men have found
in his researches on the functions of the glands a mine of wealth for the
establishment of their own reputation.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">M. F. X. de Bichat</span> (1771-1802) was a celebrated French anatomist
and physiologist, whose great work, <i>Anatomie Générale</i>, was the foundation
of the reform of French medicine at the intellectual awakening
after the great revolution. Pathology, the science of disease, would
have been impossible without such researches as those of Bichat. He
first took a “commanding view,” not merely of the organs of the body,
but of the tissues of which they are built up. He resolved the complex
into its elements, and investigated the structure of each. He completed
the overthrow of the iatro-mathematical school, regarding the properties
of the <i>living</i> tissues as <i>vital</i> actions. He classified the functions as
<i>organic</i> and <i>animal</i>, and greatly aided in systematising the phenomena
of life.</p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Mesmerism.</span></h4>

<p><span class="smcap">Frederick Anton Mesmer</span> (1733-1815) studied medicine at Vienna.
He embraced astrology, and believed in the influence of the stars on
living beings. He came to think that cures might be effected by
stroking with magnets; afterwards he discarded the magnets, and convinced
himself that he could influence others by stroking them with his
hands alone. In 1778 Paris was greatly excited over the miraculous
cures of mesmerism. The medical faculty denounced him as a
charlatan, though a Government Commission in its report admitted
many of the facts, while tracing them to physiological causes. The
Marquis de Puysegur revolutionised the art of mesmerism by producing
all the phenomena without the mummeries and violent means resorted
to by Mesmer. Dr. John Elliotson in England in 1830 successfully
practised the art.</p>

<p>In 1845 <span class="smcap">Baron von Reichenbach</span> declared he had discovered a
new force which he called <i>odyl</i>, and in 1850 his <i>Researches on Magnetism</i>
were translated into English by Dr. Gregory, professor of chemistry in
the University of Edinburgh.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_431">431</span></p>

<p><span class="smcap">G. Van Swieten</span> (1700-1772) was a pupil of Boerhaave, and famous
in the history of medicine as the founder of the Old Vienna School.
He brought about the clinical teaching for which that school has since
been so famous. Following the instructions of Paracelsus, he introduced
into his practice the use of mercuric perchloride internally in the
treatment of syphilis. His commentaries on Boerhaave were considered
to be more valuable than the text itself.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">De Haen</span> (1704-1776), of the Hague, studied under Boerhaave,
and having been recommended by Van Swieten, was invited to Vienna
as president of the clinical school in the hospital of that city. Observation,
and the simplest treatment in disease, especially in fevers, made up
the chief part of his medical system. Purgatives and emetics and
powerful medicines he would use only on the most urgent necessity.
Hygiene, both for the patient and the state, he considered of the
highest importance in medical education. Clinical thermometry received
great attention from De Haen, who demonstrated that in what is
considered by the patient the cold stage of fevers there is really a
notable increase in the temperature.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">James Yonge</span> (1646-1721), physician and F.R.S., wrote an important
treatise on the use of turpentine as a means of arresting
hæmorrhage, entitled <i>Currus Triumphalis de Terebintho</i>. He described
the flap operation in amputations, and was acquainted with the principle
of the tourniquet for the arrest of bleeding during operations.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">John Addenbrooke</span>, M.D., died 1719, leaving by his will four
thousand pounds to found a hospital at Cambridge, which now bears
his name.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">James Drake</span>, M.D. (1667-1707), wrote a work, once deservedly
popular, entitled <i>Anthropologia Nova; or, a New System of Anatomy</i>.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">John Arbuthnot</span>, M.D. (1658-1735), physician to Queen Anne, was
a man of extensive learning and of great scientific abilities, characterized
by Thackeray as “one of the wisest, wittiest, most accomplished,
gentlest of mankind.”</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Daniel Turner</span>, M.D. (1667-1741), achieved a certain fame as
the inventor of an excellent ointment, still known as “Turner’s Cerate,”
composed of oil, wax, and calamine.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Richard Mead</span>, M.D. (1673-1754), was the author of the <i>Mechanical
Account of Poisons</i>, a work which at once established his reputation.
He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1703. On the
accession of George II. he was appointed physician-in-ordinary to the
King. He was the friend of Radcliffe, and like him a generous promoter
of science and learning and of unbounded charity to those in
misery. It was Mead who persuaded Guy to bequeath his fortune to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_432">432</span>
found the noble hospital which bears his name. Mead was a political
physician, and it is said by Miss Strickland that his prompt boldness
occasioned the peaceable proclamation of George I. Mead’s work on
the diseases of the Bible, entitled <i>Medica Sacra</i>, is a curious and
interesting treatise. Excellent physician as he was, he recommended
pepper and lichen as a specific against the bite of a mad dog.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">John Freind</span>, M.D. (1675-1728), a learned and accomplished
physician, is famous as the author of an elaborate work, <i>The History
of Physick from the Time of Galen to the Beginning of the Sixteenth
Century</i>. He laid the plan of this important work whilst a prisoner in
the Tower, to which he was committed on suspicion of participation in
the so-called “Bishop’s plot.” He was liberated after about three
months’ confinement by the firmness of Dr. Mead, who refused to
prescribe for Sir Robert Walpole till he consented to admit him to bail.<a id="FNanchor_1008_1008" href="#Footnote_1008_1008" class="fnanchor">1008</a>
During his imprisonment Freind wrote a Latin letter <i>On certain Kinds
of Small Pox</i>.</p>

<p>How near the physicians of Mead’s time came towards the discovery
of the germ theory of infectious disorders may be seen from his account
of the leprosy.<a id="FNanchor_1009_1009" href="#Footnote_1009_1009" class="fnanchor">1009</a> In this treatise he says it has been found by experiments
that in the plague and other malignant eruptive fevers the infection
once received into articles of clothing remains in them for a
long time, and thence passes into human bodies, and “like seeds sown
produces the disease peculiar to them.” With reference to the retention
of the infection by dry walls, he says, “I thought it probable that they
may, by a kind of fermentation, produce these hollow, greenish, or
reddish strokes,” etc.</p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Surgeons.</span></h4>

<p><span class="smcap">Dominique Anel</span> (1679-1730) was the famous French surgeon who
invented the operation for aneurism, which Hunter afterwards modified
and called by his own name.</p>

<p>He successfully treated lachrymal fistula, and invented several surgical
instruments which are named after him.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">J. L. Petit</span> (1674-1750) in 1718 invented the screw tourniquet for
compressing bleeding arteries. He was one of the most famous
surgeons in the brightest period of the art in France, and was besides
an excellent ophthalmologist.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Le Cat</span> (1700-1768) was the famous lithotomist, and opponent of
the doctrines of Haller.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Le Dran</span> (1685-1770) performed the first disarticulation of the thigh.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Morand</span> (1697-1773) performed disarticulation of the upper arm.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_433">433</span></p>

<p><span class="smcap">Pierre Joseph Desault</span> (1744-1795) was a great French anatomist
and surgeon, who instituted a clinical school of surgery at the Hôtel
Dieu in Paris. He frequently had an audience of six hundred.</p>

<p>He introduced many improvements in surgical practice and in the
construction of surgical instruments.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">G. de la Faye</span> (d. 1781), a great surgeon and oculist, also disarticulated
the shoulder joint.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">A. Louis</span> (1723-1792) was a distinguished military surgeon.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">R. B. Sabatier</span> (1723-1811) was a distinguished surgeon, anatomist,
and ophthalmologist, and a man of great and all-round information on
medical subjects in general.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">P. F. Percy</span> (1754-1825) was a military surgeon who introduced
cold-water dressings into French surgery.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Antonio Scarpa</span> (1748-1832), the famous Italian anatomist, held
the chair of anatomy at Modena, was distinguished in every branch of
anatomical research, and investigated the minute anatomy of the nerves
and bones. He decided the long-debated question whether the heart
is supplied with nerves in the affirmative. He wrote on diseases of
the eye, on aneurism, and on hernia. He was an elegant scholar,
“equally at home in the criticism of the fine arts and in the details of
scientific agriculture.”</p>

<p>Amongst the principal Italian surgeons of the century were <span class="smcap">Bertrandi</span>
(1723-1797), <span class="smcap">Troja</span> (1747-1827), and <span class="smcap">Palletta</span> (1747-1823).</p>

<p>Of the Germans the great names are, <span class="smcap">Schmucker</span> (1712-1786),
<span class="smcap">Richter</span> (1742-1812), and <span class="smcap">Siebold</span> (1736-1807), who first taught
surgery clinically in Germany.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Callisen</span> (1740-1824), the great Danish surgeon, and <span class="smcap">Anel</span>
(1741-1801), the founder of the Swedish School of Surgery, are two famous
names which must be remembered in the surgical history of the period.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">William Cheselden</span> (1688-1752) was famous as a lithotomist and
oculist. His dexterity in the performance of lithotomy caused marvellous
legends to be told of him, it was even said that he had operated
in fifty-four seconds. He published his <i>Anatomy of the Human Body</i>
in 1713.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Samuel Sharp</span> (1700-1778) excelled in nearly every branch of
surgery, and was a skilful operator, who by his efforts to stimulate
English surgeons to emulate the French did much to advance British
surgery.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Benjamin Gooch</span> of Norwich, <span class="smcap">Hey</span> of Leeds, and <span class="smcap">Park</span> of Liverpool,
were also famous in this period.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Percival Pott</span> (1713-1788) was a surgeon to St. Bartholomew’s
Hospital, London, whose life formed a sort of epoch in the history of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_434">434</span>
surgery in England. Samuel Cooper says of him<a id="FNanchor_1010_1010" href="#Footnote_1010_1010" class="fnanchor">1010</a> that he was in his
time the best practical surgeon, the best lecturer, the best writer on
surgery, the best operator of which the metropolis could boast.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">John Hunter</span> (1728-1793) was a physiologist and surgeon combined,
unrivalled in the annals of medicine. He raised surgery, which
before his time was little more than a mechanical art, to the rank of a
scientific profession. As a pathologist and comparative anatomist, he
rendered the greatest services to medicine and surgery. He dissected
500 different species of animals. One of the most brilliant surgical
discoveries of the century was Hunter’s operation for the cure of
popliteal aneurism, by tying the femoral artery above the tumour and
without interfering with it. He improved the treatment of rupture
of the tendo achillis, and invented a method of curing lachrymal
fistula, and of curing hydrocele radically by injection.</p>

<p>He was the first to describe phlebitis (inflammation of the veins),
and he made the discovery that the white blood corpuscles are antecedent
to the red. He investigated the subject of inflammation, the
results of which he published in his <i>Treatise on the Blood, Inflammation
and Gun-shot Wounds</i>. Other works of Hunter’s are his <i>Treatise on the
Natural History of the Human Teeth</i>, <i>A Treatise on the Venereal Disease</i>,
and <i>Observations on Certain Points of the Animal Economy</i>. “His
greatest monument is the splendid museum which he formed by his sole
efforts, which he made too when labouring under every disadvantage of
deficient education and limited means.” His brother-in-law, Sir
Everard Home, prepared the catalogue of the museum and then
burned Hunter’s manuscripts, probably that he might conceal the plagiarisms
of which he had been guilty in writing his book on Comparative
Anatomy. The Government purchased Hunter’s museum from his
widow for £15,000, upon condition that twenty-four lectures should be
delivered every year to members of the college, and that the museum
should be open to the public.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Charles White</span>, a Manchester surgeon (<i>circ.</i> 1768), was the first to
introduce what is known as conservative surgery. He first resected<a id="FNanchor_1011_1011" href="#Footnote_1011_1011" class="fnanchor">1011</a>
the humerus, and taught the reduction of shoulder dislocations with the
heel in the arm-pit.</p>

<p>The German surgeons in the seventeenth century held simply the
position of barbers; they began life by cutting hair, shaving, cupping
and bleeding, and then rose to be dressers of wounds and ulcers, and to
treat fractures and dislocations.<a id="FNanchor_1012_1012" href="#Footnote_1012_1012" class="fnanchor">1012</a> In 1713, Berlin acquired its first<span class="pagenum" id="Page_435">435</span>
anatomical theatre for the instruction of military doctors and “medico-surgeons.”
Dresden and Hanover began to improve the education of
clever barbers about the middle of the eighteenth century. The Military
Medical School of Vienna was opened in 1781. Barbers and
bathmen in the eighteenth century were trained into district medical
officers and surgeons by a course of instruction lasting from two to three
years. In Holland students were privileged to assist in operations at
the hospitals. The first surgical clinic in Germany was established at
Würzburg, in 1769. The Vienna surgical clinic arose in 1774. The
greatest teacher of surgery in Germany, A. G. Richter, gave clinical
instruction at Göttingen, in 1781.<a id="FNanchor_1013_1013" href="#Footnote_1013_1013" class="fnanchor">1013</a></p>

<p><span class="smcap">G. M. Thilenius</span> in 1784 performed the first division of the <i>tendo
achillis</i> for the cure of club-foot.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Justus Arneman</span> (1763-1807) was a surgical professor at Göttingen,
who wrote a system of surgery and advanced the study of diseases
of the ear.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Camper</span> (1722-1789), a Dutch surgeon of a mechanical turn of mind,
made improvements in trusses. <span class="smcap">Leguin</span>, a Frenchman, was the first to
employ steel springs in trusses (1663). <span class="smcap">Tipharie</span> in 1761 introduced
the double truss.<a id="FNanchor_1014_1014" href="#Footnote_1014_1014" class="fnanchor">1014</a></p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Obstetricians.</span></h4>

<p><span class="smcap">Johann Palfyn</span> (1649-1730), a celebrated obstetric physician, in
1721 invented, or rather re-introduced, a species of forceps in difficult
labour.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Hugh Chamberlen</span>, M.D. (1664-1728), was the most famous man-midwife
of his day. His name is for ever associated with the invention
of the obstetric forceps—a noble instrument, which has saved more lives
than any mechanical invention ever associated with the healing art.
A monument was erected to his memory in Westminster Abbey, with
a long Latin epitaph by Bishop Atterbury.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">William Smellie</span> (1680-1763), a distinguished English obstetric
physician, improved the midwifery forceps and suggested and performed
various operations in obstetric practice.</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p><span class="smcap">William Bromfield</span> (1712-1792) founded the Lock Hospital, London.
He invented a tenaculum (a fine sharp hook by which the mouths
of bleeding arteries are drawn out). He was a celebrated operator, and
wrote a work on surgery.</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p>The Medical College of Philadelphia was the first institution estab<span class="pagenum" id="Page_436">436</span>lished
in North America to give medical instruction. It was organized
in May, 1765, by Drs. Shippen and Morgan. The University of
Pennsylvania developed its medical department from this humble beginning.</p>


<p><span class="smcap">Anatomists, Physiologists, Botanists, etc.</span></p>

<p><span class="smcap">Alexander Monro</span> (1697-1767) was a very eminent surgeon and
anatomist of Edinburgh, whose Medical School owes more to him probably
than to any other individual. He wrote on the <i>Anatomy of the
Bones</i>, and an <i>Essay on Comparative Anatomy</i>.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Frank Nicholls</span>, M.D. (1699-1778), was a famous anatomist and
physiologist at Oxford. “He was the inventor of corroded anatomical
preparations, and one of the first to study and teach the minute
anatomy of tissues, in other words, general, as distinguished from
regional and descriptive anatomy.”<a id="FNanchor_1015_1015" href="#Footnote_1015_1015" class="fnanchor">1015</a> He was one of the first to
describe correctly the mode of the production of aneurism, and he
distinctly recognised the existence and function of the vaso-motor
nerves.<a id="FNanchor_1016_1016" href="#Footnote_1016_1016" class="fnanchor">1016</a></p>

<p><span class="smcap">Browne Langrish</span>, M.D., was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society
in 1734. He was the author of several medical treatises, one of which
was entitled <i>Physical Experiments upon Brutes to discover a Method of
dissolving Stone in the Bladder by Injections; to which is added a course of
Experiments with the Lauro-Cerasus; on Fumes of Sulphur</i>, etc. 8vo.
Lond., 1746. His researches on the action of cherry laurel water are
said to have suggested the use of prussic acid in medicine.<a id="FNanchor_1017_1017" href="#Footnote_1017_1017" class="fnanchor">1017</a></p>

<p><span class="smcap">John Fothergill</span>, M.D. (1712-1780), was a distinguished botanist,
who collected a great number of rare plants from all parts of the world.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">William Cruikshank</span> (1745-1800) was an anatomist who discovered
urea.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Stephen Hales</span> (1677-1761), an experimental physiologist and
pathologist, produced dropsy by injecting water into the veins of
animals, and investigated by experiments on animals the relative
movements of the blood.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Antonio Valsalva</span> (1666-1723), a great Italian anatomist, held
the professor’s chair at Bologna and wrote a valuable treatise upon the
ear and its anatomy.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Giovanni Santorini</span> (1681-1737) was a Venetian anatomist whose
investigations in the anatomy of the larynx, nose, face, etc., have
immortalised his name in connection with several structures of those
parts.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_437">437</span></p>

<p><span class="smcap">Giovanni B. Morgagni</span> (1682-1772) was the great founder of pathological
anatomy. He was a pupil of Valsalva. His famous book on
pathological anatomy was not published until he was in his 79th year.
He was the author of the maxim that “observations should be weighed,
not counted.” The researches in morbid anatomy carried out by
Morgagni formed an epoch in the history of modern medicine, which
may indeed be said to rest on the two methods of Sydenham and
Morgagni. The work of the Italian anatomist was complementary to
that of the English Hippocrates, who neglected anatomy. Morgagni
and the “Encyclopædic Haller,” whom we are next to consider, were
two of the brightest medical lights of the century.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Albert von Haller</span> (1708-1777), surnamed “the Great,” was a
Swiss physician of Berne, who was not only a distinguished scientist,
but a man of letters and a famous poet. He studied comparative
anatomy at Tübingen; in 1725 he removed to Leyden, which at that
time was the first medical school in Europe. He visited England in
1727, and made the acquaintance of Sir Hans Sloane, Cheselden, Dr.
James Douglas, and other eminent persons. Leaving London, he went
to Paris, but having been detected by the police in dissecting in his
lodgings, he had to leave France, and he went to Basle to continue his
investigations in anatomy; there he studied mathematics under John
Bernoulli, and, having imbibed a taste for botany, studied the flora of
Switzerland, on which he afterwards published a work. In 1729 he
returned to Berne and lectured on anatomy; invited in 1726 to accept
the professorship of anatomy, surgery, and botany in the newly founded
University of Göttingen, he removed to that city, and by his influence a
botanical garden, an anatomical theatre, a school of surgery and midwifery
were established there. In 1747 he published his most valuable
work, the <i>Primæ Lineæ Physiologiæ</i> which was used as a text-book
in medical schools.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Van Swieten</span> (1700-1772), the pupil of Boerhaave, established the
first clinical institution in Germany. He was with Sanchez the first to
use corrosive sublimate in medicine. To his exertions it was due
that the teaching of medicine was greatly improved in Austria.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">J. F. Meckel</span> (1724-1774) was an anatomist whose researches on
the nerves, blood-vessels, glands, etc., have greatly contributed to our
knowledge of their physiological functions.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">J. C. Peyer</span> (1653-1712) and <span class="smcap">J. C. Bruner</span> (1653-1727) discovered
the glands in the intestines which are known to this day by their names.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">A. Pacchioni</span> (1665-1726) described the glands we call in his
honour “Pacchionian.” <span class="smcap">W. Cowper</span> (1666-1709) discovered those
which bear his name. <span class="smcap">M. Naboth</span> (1675-1721) described the struc<span class="pagenum" id="Page_438">438</span>tures
we call ovula Nabothi. <span class="smcap">H. Meibom</span> (1638-1700) discovered the
glands of the eyelids named after him.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Walter Charlton</span>, M.D. (1619-1707), anatomist, a voluminous
writer, was to some extent a follower of Van Helmont.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Thomas Fuller</span>, M.D. (died 1734), published several pharmacopœias
and an account of eruptive fevers, with several other works.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Nehemiah Grew</span>, M.D. (born about 1641), wrote <i>The Anatomy of
Plants, with an Idea of a Philosophical History of Plants</i>, which
Sprengel calls <i>opus absolutum et immortale</i>. Hallam says,<a id="FNanchor_1018_1018" href="#Footnote_1018_1018" class="fnanchor">1018</a> “no man,
perhaps, who created a science has carried it further than Grew; few
discoveries of great importance have been made in the mere anatomy
of plants since his time.” His great discovery was the sexual system of
plants; “that the sexual system is universal in the vegetable kingdom,
and that the dust of the antheræ is endowed with an impregnating
power.”<a id="FNanchor_1019_1019" href="#Footnote_1019_1019" class="fnanchor">1019</a></p>

<p>He was the first to obtain sulphate of magnesia from the Epsom
waters, and to investigate its properties. His treatise on Epsom salts
was published in 1697.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">William Briggs</span>, M.D. (died 1704), was famous for his “skill in
difficult cases of the eye.”</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Edward Tyson</span>, M.D. (died 1708), wrote on anatomy; he was the
Carus of Garth’s <i>Dispensary</i>, and the discoverer of “Tyson’s Glands.”</p>

<p><span class="smcap">William Pitcairn</span>, M.D. (1711-1791), was an accomplished
botanist. He lived in the Upper Street, Islington, where he had a
botanical garden five acres in extent, stocked with the scarcest and most
valuable plants. He introduced into St. Bartholomew’s Hospital a much
freer use of opium in the treatment of disease, and especially of fevers,
than had hitherto been customary, and that with the greatest benefit
to the patients.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Peter Shaw</span>, M.D. (1694-1763), greatly facilitated the study of
chemistry in England by his translations of the chemical works of
Stahl and Boerhaave, as well as by his own works. He edited the
works of Bacon and Boyle, and published a number of books on
medicine and chemistry.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">William Hunter</span>, M.D. (1718-1783), was an earnest and devoted
anatomist and obstetrician. He was a pupil of Cullen, and was so
successful a practitioner that he expended £100,000 upon his house
and anatomical collection, etc. The Hunterian Museum of the
University of Glasgow was formed from this collection. The famous
John Hunter was his younger brother.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_439">439</span></p>

<p><span class="smcap">Thomas Dimsdale</span>, M.D. (1711-1800), a celebrated promoter of
inoculation for small-pox, acquired a great reputation and immense
wealth by the process. Catherine II. of Russia paid him enormous
sums for successful inoculations, and gave him a barony.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">William Heberden</span>, M.D. (1710-1801), lectured on Materia
Medica at Cambridge. Dr. Munk<a id="FNanchor_1020_1020" href="#Footnote_1020_1020" class="fnanchor">1020</a> gives an interesting extract
from one of Heberden’s lectures on Mithridatum and Theriaca, the
famous classic medicines; he proves that the only poisons known to
the ancients were hemlock, monk’s-hood, and those of venomous beasts,
and that they had no antidotes for these. He says that the first
accounts of powerful poisons concealed in seals or rings, poisonous
vapours in gloves and letters, etc., are idle inventions of ignorant and
superstitious persons.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Buffon</span> (1707-1788) was the celebrated French naturalist to whom
“we owe our first clear and practical connection of the distribution of
animals with the geography of the globe.”</p>

<p><span class="smcap">George Armstrong</span> in 1769 opened the first children’s hospital in
Europe; he was the physician who first devoted special attention to the
diseases of children. Armstrong was a London man, and died 1781.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Joh. E. Gredring</span> (1718-1775) was a German physician who was
the first to investigate “the seat, cause, and diagnosis of insanity.”<a id="FNanchor_1021_1021" href="#Footnote_1021_1021" class="fnanchor">1021</a></p>

<p><span class="smcap">James Currie</span> (1756-1805) advocated the cold-water treatment of
typhus fever patients, and thus introduced a method of treatment which
in one form or another is used at the present time for reducing the
temperature of the body in such cases. Currie determined the temperature
by the thermometer.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Lady Wortley Montagu</span> (1690-1762) is famous in the annals of
medicine for her courageous adoption of the Turkish practice of inoculation
for small-pox in the case of her own son. By her zealous
advocacy she was instrumental in causing the practice to be introduced
into England in 1721. Dr. Keith having subjected his son to the
operation, experiments were conducted upon criminals by Maitland,
and these having been successful, the Prince of Wales and the royal
princesses were inoculated by Mead. On behalf of the Almighty,
whose province was supposed to be trespassed upon by these and
similar proceedings, the practice was violently opposed by the clergy
and others.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Edward Jenner</span> (1749-1823) introduced the practice of vaccination
as a preventive of small-pox. He commenced his investigations concerning
cow-pox about the year 1776. The practice of inoculation<span class="pagenum" id="Page_440">440</span>
with the virus of small-pox, which had been introduced into England
through the suggestion of Lady Wortley Montagu, indirectly led
Jenner to his grand discovery. His attention was excited by finding
that certain persons to whom he attempted to communicate small-pox
by inoculation were not susceptible to the disease; on pursuing his
inquiries he found that these persons had undergone cow-pox—a
complaint common among the dairy-servants and farmers in Gloucestershire,
and that these people were aware that cow-pox in some way
was a preventive against the small-pox. Local medical men had long
been acquainted with this idea, but had paid no attention to it,
considering it merely a popular and groundless belief. Jenner’s genius,
however, led him to divine the truth of the matter and turn it to
practical advantage. The disease which affects the udder of the cow
was found to be inoculable in the human subject, and could be propagated
from one person to another, rendering those who had passed
through the complaint secure from an attack of small-pox. Having
confided the fact of this discovery to some medical friends, it was
taken up in 1796 by Mr. Clive, of St. Thomas’s Hospital, who introduced
vaccination into London. Vaccination was adopted in the
army and navy, and Jenner was honoured by professional distinctions
and a parliamentary grant of £20,000. He was made a Fellow of the
Royal Society, and his fame and the benefits of his discovery were
rapidly extended to continental nations.</p>

<hr class="chap" />
<div class="chapter"></div>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_441">441</span></p>




<h2 id="BOOK_VI">BOOK VI.<br />

<small><i>THE AGE OF SCIENCE.</i></small></h2>

<hr class="chap" />
<div class="chapter"></div>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_443">443</span></p>




<h3 id="CHAPTERVI_I">CHAPTER I.<br />

<small>THE NINTEENTH CENTURY.—PHYSICAL SCIENCE ALLIED TO MEDICINE.</small></h3>

<blockquote>

<p>Exit the Disease-Demon.—Medical Systems again.—Homœopathy.—The Natural
Sciences.—Chemistry, Electricity, Physiology, Anatomy, Medicine and Pathology.—Psychiatry.—Surgery.—Ophthalmology.</p></blockquote>


<p>With the dawn of modern science was sounded the death-knell of
the disease-demon and its twin brother “Visitation.” When the
French Revolution, having at first intoxicated men, had had time to
effect its really beneficent aims, the age of modern science was fairly
inaugurated, and daily conferred some fresh blessing on the race. The
beginning of the nineteenth century saw the steam engine rapidly approaching
perfection. In 1801 took place the first experiment with
steam navigation on the Thames. In 1814 steam was first applied to
printing in the <i>Times</i> office. In 1829 locomotive steam-carriages were
employed on railways at Liverpool. In the early years of the century
the electric telegraph was being developed. Machinery began to take
the place of hand labour in numberless branches of trade and industry.
Nobler than these material blessings, however, was the awakening of
the English people to a new and higher humanity. It seemed that
as Science began to shower her gifts on our nation, it yearned to
become the almoner of mankind, and in its turn to bless the world with
the precious gifts of freedom, education, improved sanitation, and the
means of developing the dormant higher powers of the species. The
slave trade of England was abolished by Parliament in 1807. In 1834
the English government began to make annual grants in aid of
education. Sanitary commissions were appointed in 1838 and 1844,
which were of incalculable benefit, not only to our own national
health, but in suggesting to other countries the means of improving
the health and combating the ravages of preventable diseases. In
the early years of the century Dr. Birkbeck founded Mechanics’
Institutions, thus commencing the era of enlightenment for the
working classes, which has resulted in raising the mental condition
of our labouring and lower middle classes to a higher level than<span class="pagenum" id="Page_444">444</span>
that of any other nation of the old world. Everywhere schools sprung
up, books and newspapers were multiplied, until everybody who could
read had mental provender provided at a merely nominal rate.</p>

<p>In relation to the history of medicine, the science of the century
has perhaps on the whole done greater service to the healing art by
that which it has taught doctors to leave undone than by what it has
taught them to do. It has arrested the murderous lancet of the blood-letter;
it has stayed the hand of the purger, who merely bled in another
manner; it has rescued the unhappy victims of mental disorders from
their dungeons, their beds of straw, and the cruel lash of their keepers;
it has liberated the invalid from the tyranny of the medicine-monger;
it is no longer possible to force down any patient’s throat such a mass
of filthy concoctions as the following items of medicine enumerated in
an apothecary’s bill for attending one Mr. Dalby, of Ludgate Hill, which
in five days amounted to £17 2<i>s.</i> 10<i>d.</i></p>

<p>The items for <i>one day</i> (August 12) are:—</p>



<div class="center">
<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
<tr>
  <td align="left"></td>
  <td align="left"><i>s.</i></td>
  <td align="left"><i>d.</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td align="left">An emulsion</td>
  <td align="left">4</td>
  <td align="left">6</td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td align="left">A mucilage</td>
  <td align="left">3</td>
  <td align="left">4</td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td align="left">Jelly of hawthorn</td>
  <td align="left">4</td>
  <td align="left">0</td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td align="left">Plaster to dress blister</td>
  <td align="left">1</td>
  <td align="left">0</td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td align="left">A clyster</td>
  <td align="left">2</td>
  <td align="left">6</td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td align="left">An ivory pipe</td>
  <td align="left">1</td>
  <td align="left">0</td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td align="left">A cordial bolus</td>
  <td align="left">2</td>
  <td align="left">6</td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td align="left">The same again</td>
  <td align="left">2</td>
  <td align="left">6</td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td align="left">A cordial draught</td>
  <td align="left">2</td>
  <td align="left">4</td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td align="left">The same again</td>
  <td align="left">2</td>
  <td align="left">4</td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td align="left">Another bolus</td>
  <td align="left">2</td>
  <td align="left">6</td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td align="left">Another draught</td>
  <td align="left">2</td>
  <td align="left">4</td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td align="left">A glass of cordial spirits</td>
  <td align="left">3</td>
  <td align="left">6</td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td align="left">Blister to the arm</td>
  <td align="left">5</td>
  <td align="left">0</td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td align="left">The same to the wrists</td>
  <td align="left">5</td>
  <td align="left">0</td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td align="left">Two boluses again</td>
  <td align="left">5</td>
  <td align="left">0</td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td align="left">Two draughts again</td>
  <td align="left">4</td>
  <td align="left">8</td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td align="left">Another emulsion</td>
  <td align="left">4</td>
  <td align="left">6</td>
</tr>
<tr>
  <td align="left">Another pearl julep</td>
  <td align="left">4</td>
  <td align="left">6</td>
</tr>
</table></div>

<p>This is quoted in the <i>Historical Sketch of the Progress of Pharmacy in
Great Britain</i>,<a id="FNanchor_1022_1022" href="#Footnote_1022_1022" class="fnanchor">1022</a> p. 17, not as an isolated case, but as an illustration of
the practice of apothecaries when attending patients of the higher
classes.</p>

<p>Homœopathy did much to remedy this state of affairs, and by
deluding people into believing that the billionth of a grain of a certain
drug skilfully manipulated was more effectual than the bolus and
decoction of the medicine-monger, tended gradually to destroy the
popular faith in the dosing system.</p>

<p>The student of medical history is often reminded forcibly of
Tennyson’s lines:—</p>

<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"><div class="stanza">
  <div class="verse">“Our little systems have their day;</div>
  <div class="verse">They have their day, and cease to be.”</div>
</div></div></div>

<p>As he reflects on the many schools, sects, and systems which have<span class="pagenum" id="Page_445">445</span>
dominated the practice of physic, he will often, as he passes them in
review one by one, ask mournfully with Hans Breitmann:—</p>

<p>
“Vhere ish dot barty now?”<br />
</p>

<p>Where now is the Iatro-mathematical School, the party of the Iatro-chemists,
the Brunonian sect? One and all vanished into the Ewigkeit!</p>

<p>To have maintained, in the zenith of their fame, that either of the
great medical schools could ever have so completely perished would
have been the rankest heresy; to believe now that the germ theory of
disease can ever be superseded is to be subjected to the charge, not of
medical heresy alone, but of the completest ignorance of science. Yet
there are some bold spirits who have dared even this. The history of
the past forbids the cautious historian of medicine to make too sure of
the permanence of any theory of disease or system of cure, but the
germ theory has claims to our acceptance which far outweigh those of
any other theories which we have reviewed. From the length of time
it has been under construction, from the marvellous care and minute
caution exercised by the profound scientists who have devoted their
lives and utmost energies to the innumerable experiments which their
researches have embraced, from the fact that not medical theorists
merely, but sober-minded scientists as well as practical surgeons and
physicians, have everywhere given their adherence to the germ theory
of disease, we have good reason to believe that it will hold its ground
as a theory of the cause—if not of much value as a system of cure—of
a great number of the most serious maladies which afflict the races
of men and animals.</p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Medical Systems.</span></h4>

<p><span class="smcap">Giovanni Rasori</span> (1762-1837), of Milan, introduced a theory which
was a revival of Methodism combined with that of Brunonianism. The
Methodists held a status strictus and a status laxus, Brown a sthenic
diathesis and an asthenic diathesis.</p>

<p>Rasori taught a combination of these theories modified by his own.
His doctrines were accepted by a multitude of learned and eminent
medical men, yet his teaching was simply atrocious, and a study of it
almost makes one despair of any real advance for the healing art. His
system of therapeutics consisted in the endeavour to make a diagnosis
of the disease by watching the effects of the remedies which make it
better or worse! Bleeding was held to be the best diagnostic means:
if it did the patient good, the sthenic diathesis was assumed; if it made
him worse, the asthenic was demonstrated.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_446">446</span></p>

<p>He administered enormous doses of powerful drugs, such as would
be considered nothing less than simply poisonous now. Baas says he
gave 1 to 4 grammes of gamboge for diarrhœa, and 60 to 90 grammes
of saltpetre a day<a id="FNanchor_1023_1023" href="#Footnote_1023_1023" class="fnanchor">1023</a>—doses which would be large for a horse.</p>

<p>The wonder is that anybody survived the treatment.</p>

<p>Homœopathy, faith-healing, peculiar-people treatment, anything, however
heterodox, is better than this licensed system of murder, which
actually received the adhesion of famous professors at Italian universities,
where the art of medicine was supposed to be taught sixty years ago.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Johann A. Roeschlaub</span> (1768-1835), a highly cultivated German
physician, was the founder of a medical system on the “Theory of
Excitement.” Life depends upon irritability which belongs to the
natural disposition. To be healthy, the body must be in a state of
moderate irritation and moderate excitability. Disease disturbs the
happy medium upwards as hypersthenia, or downwards as asthenia;
in other words, by inducing too much strength or actual debility.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Johann Stieglitz</span> (1767-1840) was an eminent physician who
opposed the theory of excitement, saying, “There is no such thing as
one only saving system.” He was the founder of Etiological diagnosis
(or diagnosis dependent on a knowledge of the causes of disease).</p>

<p><span class="smcap">C. W. von Hufeland</span> (1762-1836), professor at Jena, and afterwards
in Berlin, opposed the theory of excitement. He used to say,
“Successful treatment requires only one-third science and two-thirds
<i>savoir faire</i>,” and, “To him who fails to make a religion of the healing
art, it is the most cheerless, wearisome, and thankless art upon earth;
indeed, in him it must become the greatest frivolity and a sin.”</p>

<p><span class="smcap">F. J. W. Broussais</span> (1772-1838), a physician of the vitalist school,
was a devoted follower of Bichat, who made it his chief aim to find an
anatomical basis for all diseases. He is particularly known for his
theory that all fevers arise from irritation or inflammation of the intestinal
canal. His long-exploded theory led to an enormous misuse of
bleeding. He christened his system “Physiological Medicine,” which
by directing attention to the morbid changes in the organs, led to the
rise of the pathological school of Corvisart, Laënnec, and Bayle. The
systems of Brown and Broussais must have destroyed, says Dr. De Noé
Walker, more human beings than the whole revolutionary wars from
1793 to 1815.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Samuel C. F. Hahnemann</span> (1755-1843), the founder of Homœopathy,
was born at Meissen, near Dresden. He studied medicine at
Leipsic, and afterwards at Vienna, graduating at Erlangen in 1779.
In his first medical treatise he takes a despondent view of medical<span class="pagenum" id="Page_447">447</span>
practice in general, and of his own in particular, as he is candid enough
to own that most of his patients would have done better had they been
let alone.</p>

<p>In a letter to Hufeland upon the necessity of a regeneration in
medicine (1808), he declares that after eight years’ practice he had so
learned the delusive nature of the ordinary methods of treatment as to
be compelled to relinquish practice. He devoted much attention to
the science of chemistry.</p>

<p>Berzelius said of him, “That man would have been a great chemist
had he not been a great quack.” He translated Cullen’s <i>Materia
Medica</i> in 1790, and the necessary study of medicinal agents which this
involved set him thinking of a new theory of disease and cure which
should replace that which he had found so unsatisfactory; he came to
the conclusion, as the result of his researches, that “medicines must
only have the power of curing diseases similar to those which they produce
in the healthy body, and only manifest such morbid actions as
they are capable of curing in diseases.”<a id="FNanchor_1024_1024" href="#Footnote_1024_1024" class="fnanchor">1024</a></p>

<p>He thus proceeded to lay down the homœopathic law that the power
of medicines to alter the health must be <i>proved</i> on the healthy body.
He endeavoured to discover a rule by which the effect of remedies
might be ascertained, and which should supersede the old method of
working in the dark.</p>

<p>Considering the endless powers which medicines possess, and feeling
sure that the Creator intended them to have some purpose, and that to
lighten the afflictions of the race, he felt that there must be a better
way of employing them than that which he considered had so grievously
failed in the past He was therefore henceforth the enemy of all empiricism.
Antipathy, or the method by which contraries are cured by
contraries, so that the diseased part is acted upon by something that
opposes it, he considered a fatal error in medical practice. Contrary
medicine he held could at best be palliative and temporary, not
curative. He designated as Allopathy the method by which it is
attempted to remove natural disease from one part by exciting artificial
disease in another, or the principle of counter irritation.</p>

<p>The sciences of anatomy and physiology are quite superfluous to the
homœopathist; the remedies being merely addressed to symptoms, the
knowledge of their causes can have little or no concern to those who
follow Hahnemann’s doctrines. The application of a remedy for facial
neuralgia, as Dr. Mapother points out,<a id="FNanchor_1025_1025" href="#Footnote_1025_1025" class="fnanchor">1025</a> has been applied over the motor
nerve of the face, the inventor being ignorant that it has no connection
with sensibility.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_448">448</span></p>

<p>Hahnemann taught that all chronic maladies proceed from the itch.</p>

<p>Amongst other remedies for the itch, or psora, the swallowing of
lice or a decoction of them was seriously recommended, because these
parasites tickle the skin, and on the like-cures-like principle, would be
beneficial for itch!<a id="FNanchor_1026_1026" href="#Footnote_1026_1026" class="fnanchor">1026</a></p>


<h4><span class="smcap">The Natural Sciences.</span></h4>

<p>The Natural Sciences in the closing years of the eighteenth century
began to render the most important services to the art of medicine, and
from that time onwards it has marked its progress step by step with the
advances of botany, chemistry, and physics. Linnæus invented a
system of the classification of plants which Adanson, Jussieu, De Candolle,
and others did much to improve; the anatomy and physiology,
and even the pathology of plants were closely studied, with results of
the greatest value to scientific medicine. Buffon excited the interest
of men of science by his declaration that there is no essential difference
between animals and plants, and that all organic life follows the same
plan. He explained the geographical distribution of the animal kingdom.
Hunter, Blumenbach, St. Hilaire, Cuvier, and others advanced
the sciences of comparative anatomy and physiology, and Lamarck
divided bony animals into <i>vertebrata</i> and <i>invertebrata</i>. Cuvier, by
founding the doctrine of types, explained the general plan on which
animals are modelled. Pander and Baer rendered the greatest services
to the study of development—the former by his researches on the development
of the chick, the latter by his observations on the cleavage in
the ovum. To Hunter, Kielmeyer, and Owen in a later period we owe
the most important discovery—that the higher animals, even man himself,
in the embryo pass through the stages of development of the lower
animals.</p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Chemists.</span></h4>

<p><span class="smcap">Joseph Priestly</span> discovered oxygen in 1772, and thus introduced a
new chemical era. <span class="smcap">Lavoisier</span>, however, was the first to observe the
vast importance of the discovery, and <span class="smcap">Cavendish</span> established his
theories by his researches on the composition of the air, water, and
acids. It is to Lavoisier’s discoveries in relation to oxygen that physiology
is indebted for the knowledge of the influence of that element
on respiration and the blood. Doctors looked upon it as the “air of
life,” and in its excess or deficiency saw the causes of certain diseases.
<span class="smcap">Fourcroy</span> applied himself to the study of medical chemistry.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Berthollet</span> discovered the composition of ammonia, and the bleach<span class="pagenum" id="Page_449">449</span>ing
properties of chlorine. He discovered chlorate of potash, and
founded the doctrine of chemical affinity.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Dalton</span> (1776-1844) by his atomic theory and his discovery of the
law of multiple proportions still further advanced the science; in 1794
he first described colour-blindness.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Berzelius</span> (1779-1848) developed the atomic theory and improved
our knowledge of animal chemistry.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Gay-Lussac</span> in 1805, with <span class="smcap">Alexander von Humboldt</span>, discovered
that water is composed of one volume of oxygen and two volumes of
hydrogen.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Sir Humphry Davy</span> (1788-1829) discovered the anæsthetic effect
of nitrous oxide gas, invented the safety-lamp for miners, and greatly
advanced the study of agricultural chemistry.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Dumas</span> (1800-1884) investigated the alkaloids.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Pelletier</span> in 1820 discovered quinine.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Orfila</span> (1787-1853), one of the most eminent men of the French
school of medicine, founded modern toxicology, the science of poisons.
His fame chiefly rests on his <i>Treatise of General Toxicology</i> (1814),
which is a vast mine of experimental research on the symptoms of every
kind of poisoning.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Sir William Hyde Woolaston</span>, M.D. (1766-1828), was a distinguished
philosopher and chemist. One of his great discoveries was
the malleability of platinum, which is said to have produced him no less
than thirty thousand pounds. He was even more famous as a student
of ophthalmology than as a chemist.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Michael Faraday</span> (1791-1867) was the great chemist, whose glory
in chemical science was overshadowed by his electrical discoveries.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Justus von Liebig</span> (1803-1873) influenced the history of chemistry
by his successful efforts to spread the knowledge of the science by
improving the methods of investigation, and above all by the application
of chemistry to physiology, agriculture, and the arts.</p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Electricians.</span></h4>

<p>The history of electricity has an important bearing on that of medicine.
It will be necessary at least to indicate the chief points in its
progress. <span class="smcap">Gilbert</span> published a treatise on the magnet in 1600. He
speaks of magnetic phenomena, and the extravagant stories circulated
about the attraction of magnets and amber by persons who gave no
reason from experiment. He distinguished magnetic from electric
forces,<a id="FNanchor_1027_1027" href="#Footnote_1027_1027" class="fnanchor">1027</a> and it is to him that we owe the term “electric” itself.<a id="FNanchor_1028_1028" href="#Footnote_1028_1028" class="fnanchor">1028</a></p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_450">450</span></p>

<p>Boyle repeated the experiments of <span class="smcap">Gilbert</span>, but seems to have made
no discoveries. <span class="smcap">Otto Guericke</span>, of Magdeburg, next discovered that
there is electric force of repulsion as well as of attraction. <span class="smcap">Hawksbee</span>,
in his <i>Physico-Mechanical Experiments</i>, 1709, observed the effects of
attraction and repulsion on threads hanging loosely. <span class="smcap">Dufay</span>, in 1733,
1734, and 1737, observed that electric bodies attract all those that are not
so, and repel them as soon as they are become electric by the vicinity
or contact of the electric body. In 1729, <span class="smcap">Grey</span> discovered the properties
of <i>conductors</i>.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Franklin</span> distinguished between positive and negative electricity in
1747, and demonstrated the identity of the electric spark and lightning
in 1752. <span class="smcap">Galvani</span> in 1791 laid the foundation of the Galvanic Battery.
<span class="smcap">Volta</span> discovered the “Voltaic pile” in 1800. Henceforward year by
year the science progressed by leaps and bounds. The use of the
magnet in medicine was known to Aetius, who lived <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 500. He says:
“We are assured that those who are troubled with the gout in their
hands or their feet, or with convulsions, find relief when they hold a
magnet in their hand.” Beckmann says<a id="FNanchor_1029_1029" href="#Footnote_1029_1029" class="fnanchor">1029</a> this is the oldest account of
this virtue of the magnet. The more ancient writers refer only to its
internal uses. Lessing ascribes the external use of the magnet as a cure
for toothache and other disorders to Paracelsus. Marcellus in the
fifteenth century assures us that the magnet cures toothache, as also
does Leonard Camillus in the sixteenth century. Wecker about the
same period says it cures headache. Porta (1591) confirms this, and
Kircher (1643) states that it was worn about the neck to prevent convulsions
and nervous disorders. Magnetic toothpicks and ear-pickers
were extolled as cures for disorders of the teeth, ears, and eyes about
the end of the seventeenth century.<a id="FNanchor_1030_1030" href="#Footnote_1030_1030" class="fnanchor">1030</a></p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Anthropology.</span></h4>

<p><span class="smcap">Joh. F. Blumenbach</span> (1752-1840), professor in Göttingen, was the
founder of Anthropology. He collected a great museum of skulls, and
was famous as a comparative anatomist. He wrote on physiology,
anatomy, and natural history.</p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Philosophers.</span></h4>

<p><span class="smcap">Von Schelling</span> (1775-1854) taught that “God is the indifference of
the ideal and real, soul and body, and the identity of subjectivity and
objectivity. In a word, the All.” He held that health is the harmony
of reproduction, irritability, and sensibility; disease, the alteration<span class="pagenum" id="Page_451">451</span>
of dimensions of the organism, by which it ceases to be a pure, untroubled
reflex of the All.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">G. W. F. Hegel</span> (1770-1831) was the philosopher whose supreme
principle was absolute reason, and to whom in a great measure is due
what is known as Modern Materialism. He was opposed by <span class="smcap">R. H.
Lotze</span> (1817-1884), a medical philosopher of Göttingen, the author of
the <i>Mikrokosmos</i> and works on pathology, physiology, and psychology.
He laid it down that the significance of the phenomena of life and mind
would only unfold itself when by an exhausted survey of the entire life
of man, individually, socially, and historically, we gain the necessary
data for explaining the microcosm by the macrocosm of the universe.
The world of facts and the laws of nature are only to be understood by
the idea of a personal deity.</p>

<hr class="tb" />

<p><span class="smcap">Charles Darwin</span> (1809-1882), grandson of Erasmus Darwin, startled
and shocked the whole Christian world by his theory that man has possibly
descended at a highly remote period from “a group of marine
animals resembling the larvæ of existing Ascidians.” He traced our
ancestry through the fish, amphibian, marsupial, and ape species; a
theory which, despite the original opposition it excited, is now generally
accepted. He is best known in connection with medical science by his
famous work, <i>On the Origin of Species by means of Natural Selection</i>,
1859, his <i>Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex</i>, 1871, and
<i>The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals</i>, 1872. At first
his theory of the Descent of Man was held to teach that</p>

<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"><div class="stanza">
  <div class="verse">“A very tall pig with a very long nose</div>
  <div class="verse">Puts forth a proboscis quite down to his toes,</div>
  <div class="verse">And then by the name of an elephant goes.”</div>
</div></div></div>

<p>Darwin recognised not merely a God but a Creator.</p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Anatomists and Biologists.</span></h4>

<p><span class="smcap">Sir Richard Owen</span>, M.D., F.R.S., etc. (1804-1892), the celebrated
comparative anatomist and palæontologist, made it possible for us to
see what the extinct monsters were when he enabled us to construct
scientifically the models of the megatherium, plesiosaurus, and other
animals of remote ages. It has been well said of him that “the most
characteristic of his faculties was a powerful scientific imagination.
Fragments of bone which might be meaningless to less alert observers
enabled him to divine the structure and to present the images of whole
groups of extinct animal forms.”</p>

<p>At the suggestion of Dr. Abernethy (whose pupil he had been) he<span class="pagenum" id="Page_452">452</span>
was invited in 1828 to prepare the catalogue of the Hunterian collection
in the museum of the Royal College of Surgeons, of which Mr.
Clift (whom he eventually succeeded and whose daughter he married)
was conservator. This great work largely occupied some of the best
years of Owen’s life, the three quarto volumes on the Fossil Vertebrates
and Cephalopods of the collection not appearing till 1855. Meanwhile
he had given to the world his <i>Odontography</i>, his <i>Lectures on Comparative
Anatomy and Physiology</i> (which won a continental reputation), and his
famous work on the <i>Archetype and Homologies of the Vertebrate Skeleton</i>.
In 1849 he issued an important memoir <i>On Parthenogenesis</i>.</p>

<p>In 1856 Owen was appointed Superintendent of the Department of
Natural History in the British Museum, which, through his untiring
exertions, was at last to be suitably housed at South Kensington. In
1861 he published his manual of <i>Paleontology</i>; from 1865 to 1877 a
succession of works on British Fossil Reptiles and the Fossil Reptiles of
South Africa.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">F. G. Henle</span> (1809-1885) so early as 1840 advocated the germ
theory of disease. It was first suggested, however, by Latour’s discovery
of the yeast plant in 1836.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">St. George Mivart</span>, M.D., F.R.S. (born 1827), the distinguished
anatomist and zoologist, is to a certain extent the opponent of Darwin,
as he denies that the doctrine of Evolution is applicable to the human
intellect. He is the author of many works on anatomy, biology, and
zoology.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Thomas Huxley</span>, F.R.S., M.D. (born 1825), the famous physiologist
and comparative anatomist and biologist, is a well-known writer on
natural science, and the most prominent of the scientific opponents of
revealed religion.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Dr. Alfred Russel Wallace</span> (born 1822), the eminent naturalist,
published his <i>Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection</i> in 1870,
and in 1878, in his volume <i>Tropical Nature</i>, still further contributes to
our knowledge of sexual selection, etc.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Ernst Haeckel</span> (born 1834), a celebrated German naturalist and
writer on science, is the chief supporter in Germany of Darwin’s theories.
It may be remembered in this connection that these were anticipated
to some extent by Lamarck (1744-1829) and Goethe (1749-1832).</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Herbert Spencer</span> (born 1820) has devoted his life mainly to the
working out of his “System of Synthetic Philosophy,” which proposed
“to carry out in its application to all orders of phenomena the general
law of evolution.”</p>

<p><span class="smcap">George J. Romanes</span>, F.R.S. (born 1848), an ardent member of the
Darwinian school, is a distinguished physiologist and biologist.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_453">453</span></p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Physicians and Pathologists.</span></h4>

<p><span class="smcap">Leopold Auenbrugger</span> (1722-1809), a physician of Vienna, was
the inventor of the method of detecting diseases of the chest by percussion.
By striking the chest <i>directly</i> with the tips of the fingers (not as
we do now by interposing a finger of our left hand while we percuss the
chest mediately with the fingers of the other hand) he diagnosed by the
sound evoked the condition of the organs of the thorax. His system
was at first received with contempt and ridicule by his profession; but in
1808, Corvisart translated Auenbrugger’s great work, the <i>Inventum Novum</i>,
into French, and the method quickly achieved an European reputation.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">René T. H. Laënnec</span> (1781-1826), the celebrated French pathologist,
was the inventor of the stethoscope. His great discovery was
purely accidental—a fact which he declares in his famous work.</p>

<p>“In 1816 I was consulted by a young woman labouring under
general symptoms of diseased heart, and in whose case percussion and
the application of the hand were of little avail on account of the great
degree of fatness. I happened to recollect a simple and well-known
fact in acoustics, and fancied it might be turned to some use on the
present occasion. The fact I allude to is the great distinctness with
which we hear the scratch of a pin at one end of a piece of wood, on
applying our ear to the other. Immediately, on this suggestion, I
rolled a quire of paper into a kind of cylinder, and applied one end of it
to the region of the heart and the other to my ear, and was not a little
surprised and pleased to find that I could thereby perceive the action
of the heart in a manner much more clear and distinct than I had ever
been able to do by the immediate application of the ear.”<a id="FNanchor_1031_1031" href="#Footnote_1031_1031" class="fnanchor">1031</a></p>

<p><span class="smcap">Jean N. Corvisart</span> (1755-1821) introduced into France Auenbrugger’s
method of percussion, one of the most important aids to
<i>physical diagnosis</i>.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Gaspard L. Bayle</span> (1774-1816) made those important researches on
tubercle and the changes in the lungs and other organs in consumption
which form the basis of our present knowledge of the subject. From
this time French physicians introduced great precision in their study of
symptoms, so as to invest them with a really scientific character. Combined
with the perfected methods of anatomical observation, a new era
in clinical medicine dates from this period.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Louis</span> (1787-1872) made important researches on pulmonary consumption
and typhoid fever, and introduced the numerical or statistical
method in medical science, which was an important step towards
making it an exact science.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_454">454</span></p>

<p><span class="smcap">Sir Robert Christison</span> (1797-1882) discovered the effects and
properties of Calabar bean, and was the most famous of all English
investigators of poisons and poisoning.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">John Cheyne</span> (1777-1836), in conjunction with <span class="smcap">William Stokes</span>
(1804-1878), a great clinical teacher and author of works on diseases
of the chest and heart, discovered the form of breathing in certain
disordered conditions which is called “Cheyne-Stokes’ respiration.”</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Robert J. Graves</span> (1797-1853), a great observer and clinical
teacher, gave his name to a disease.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Sir William Jenner</span>, M.D. (born 1815), was the first to establish
beyond dispute the difference between typhus and typhoid fevers.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">John Hughes Bennett</span>, M.D. (1812-1875), was the first to introduce
the use of cod-liver oil in consumption into English practice
(1841). He claimed also to have discovered leucocythemia before
Virchow.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Alfred Swayne Taylor</span>, M.D. (1806-1880), was the founder of
forensic medicine in England, and his great work on Medical Jurisprudence
(published 1836) has long been the standard authority in
medico-legal cases.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Thomas Hodgkin</span> (1797-1866) discovered the disease which goes
by his name.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Charles Murchison</span>, M.D. (1830-1879), is celebrated for his researches
in epidemic diseases.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Sir Thomas Watson</span> (1792-1882) was the author of the ever-popular
lectures, <i>The Practice of Physic</i>, a work whose graces of style
and elegance of phraseology entitle it to be considered a medical classic.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Matthew Baillie</span> (1761-1823) was a famous pathologist. He
devoted special attention to the pathology of the brain, heart, lungs,
stomach, and intestines. It was he who first described the grey miliary
tubercle of consumption. In all his profound researches he never
failed to remember their practical end in the cure of disease.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">John Abercrombie</span> (1780-1844) is celebrated for his researches
on diseases of the brain and spinal cord.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Richard Bright</span> (1789-1858), the reformer of renal pathology, was
the discoverer of the disease which bears his name.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Thomas Addison</span> (1793-1860) discovered the disease of the suprarenal
bodies which is called after him.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Karl v. Rokitansky</span> (1804-1878), one of the most famous of the
founders of the New Vienna School, was so indefatigable a pathologist
that he is said to have celebrated his thirty-thousandth post-mortem in
1866. His great work, <i>The Handbook of Pathological Anatomy</i>, was
published in 1841.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_455">455</span></p>

<p><span class="smcap">Joseph Skoda</span> (1805-1881), a physician of the New Vienna School,
improved physical diagnosis by his application of the laws of sound.
He rendered percussion more perfect by correctly explaining the
import of the various sounds heard on striking the chest. He threw
great light upon our knowledge of the phenomena of heart diseases.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Hebra</span> (1816-1880) created a revolution in the science of skin
diseases by basing it upon pathological anatomy.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Wunderlich</span> (1815-1877) introduced the use of the clinical
thermometer as an important aid to diagnosis, and claimed that
“pathology is the physiology of sick men.”</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Rudolph Virchow</span> (born 1821), the constructor of the cellular
pathology, is a celebrated German pathologist and anthropologist. On
the basis of the cellular theory, which teaches that the cells live
their own independent life, have their own active properties, proliferations
and degenerations, Virchow built up his cellular pathology into
a comprehensive system, attaching greater importance to the cell
changes than to an altered condition of the circulation or quality of
the blood, as was previously held to account for pathological changes.
The theory explains many facts which were previously obscure, but is
not wholly satisfactory. Virchow’s system led to the foundation of
pathological histology.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Sir Andrew Clark</span>, M.D., F.R.S., President of the College of
Physicians, London (born 1826), is a physician distinguished alike for
his profound scientific knowledge and his admirable skill in its
application to the relief and cure of disease. As a physiologist,
anatomist, and pathologist, especially in connection with the organs of
respiration, the kidneys, and digestive functions, Sir Andrew Clark
occupies the foremost place in English medical practice of the time.
He has written extensively on diseases of the chest, is one of the
most brilliant clinical lecturers of the day, and for many years has
been a chief attraction in the teaching power of the London Hospital.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Sir Edward H. Sieveking</span>, M.D., etc. (born 1816), was with Dr.
H. Jones joint-author of the well-known <i>Manual of Pathological Anatomy</i>
(1854).</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Samuel Wilks</span>, M.D., F.R.S., etc. (born 1824), is an eminent
pathologist and neurologist. He published his excellent <i>Lectures on
Pathological Anatomy</i> in 1859.<a id="FNanchor_1032_1032" href="#Footnote_1032_1032" class="fnanchor">1032</a></p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_456">456</span></p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Brain and Nerve Specialists.</span></h4>

<p><span class="smcap">Philippe Pinel</span> (1745-1826), a French physician, published a
translation of Cullen’s <i>Nosology</i> (1785) in the language of his country.
His claim to our gratitude rests on the fact that he was among the
first to introduce the humane treatment of the insane. With his own
hands he, when physician to the Bicêtre and Salpêtrière, removed the
bonds of insane patients who had been chained to the wall for years.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Sir Charles Bell</span> (1774-1842) made the greatest discoveries in
physiology since those of Harvey. We owe to him the knowledge that
in the nervous trunks are special sensory filaments whose office is to
convey impressions from the periphery to the sensorium, and special
motor filaments which convey motor impressions from the brain or
other nerve centre to the muscles. This great discovery of the functions
of the nerves, concerning which there previously existed much
confusion amongst physiologists, was published in 1807, and entitles
England to claim that in Bell and Harvey she has given to science the
two most distinguished physiologists of the world.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Franz J. Gall</span> (1757-1828) was a skilful Viennese anatomist, who,
by his researches upon the anatomy of the brain, came to the conclusion
that the talents and dispositions of men may be inferred with
exactitude from the external appearance of the skull, and thus founded
phrenology.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Caspar Spurzheim</span> (1776-1832), an anatomist, was a pupil of Gall,
and assisted in the development of phrenology.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Jean M. Charcot</span> (born 1825) is a Paris physician greatly distinguished
by his important investigations in diseases of the nervous
system, upon which he has written many works.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Pierre Flourens</span> (1794-1867), a distinguished French physiologist,
sought to assign their special functions to the brain, corpora quadrigemina,
and lesser brain by experiments. In 1847 he directed the
attention of the Academy of Sciences to the anæsthetic effect of
chloroform upon animals. Chloric ether in the same year was used
at St. Bartholomew’s Hospital as an anæsthetic in operations by Dr.
Furnell.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Armand Trousseau</span> (1801-1866) was an eloquent and popular
clinical lecturer on medicine. He introduced tracheotomy in croup,
and largely contributed to our knowledge of laryngeal phthisis, etc.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Claude Bernard</span> (1813-1878), the celebrated experimental physiologist
and pathologist, made numerous researches on the digestion
of fat by the pancreatic juice, the formation of sugar in the liver,
and the artificial production of diabetes by puncturing the fourth<span class="pagenum" id="Page_457">457</span>
ventricle of the brain, etc. He wrote <i>Physiologie et Pathologie du
Systeme nerveux</i>, 1858.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Brown-Sequard</span> (born 1817), the experimental physiologist, discovered
the vaso-motor nerves. He has investigated the functions
of the spinal cord, its normal and pathological states, the brain and
sympathetic nerves and ganglions, the inhibitory and other nerves.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Paul Bert</span> (1833-1886) was a physiologist and neuro-pathologist.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">G. B. Duchenne</span> (1806-1875) introduced electro-therapeutics by
means of the induced current in diseases of the nervous system.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Robert Remak</span> (1815-1865) still further pursued the treatment of
nervous diseases by means of the constant current. He investigated
the subject of the parasitic origin of certain diseases of the skin, and
produced favus experimentally.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Elie von Cyon</span> (born 1843) continued the investigation of electro-therapeutics.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Marshall Hall</span> (1790-1857) discovered reflex action, which fact
he communicated to the Royal Society in 1833.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">James Braid</span>, a Manchester surgeon, in 1841 investigated mesmerism,
and discovered what is now called hypnotism. He found that he
could artificially produce “a peculiar condition of the nervous system,
induced by a fixed and abstracted attention of the mental and visual
eye on one object, not of an exciting nature.” Thus Braid was the
first to investigate the subject scientifically, and to trace the phenomena
of mesmerism to their true physiological cause. Dr. Rudolf
Heidenhain, of Breslau, has recently traced these phenomena to inhibitory
nervous action.<a id="FNanchor_1033_1033" href="#Footnote_1033_1033" class="fnanchor">1033</a></p>

<p><span class="smcap">Henry Maudsley</span>, M.D. (born 1835), is the author of several
important works on mental diseases: <i>The Physiology of Mind</i>, <i>The
Pathology of Mind</i>, <i>Body and Mind</i>, and <i>Responsibility in Mental
Disease</i>.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">John Conolly</span> (1796-1866) was physician to Hanwell Asylum. To
him is due the honour of having first in England pressed upon the
notice of his profession the advantages of the “No Restraint” system
in mental diseases.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Dr. Forbes Winslow</span> was a popular and humane “mad doctor.”</p>

<p><span class="smcap">John C. Bucknill</span>, M.D., F.R.S., etc. (born 1817), is a distinguished
student of mental diseases, and the author of several treatises
on Unsoundness of Mind in relation to Crime and Drunkenness. He
is one of the original editors of <i>Brain</i>, and for nine years he has edited
the <i>Journal of Mental Science</i>.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">David Ferrier</span>, M.D., F.R.S., etc. (born 1843), a specialist in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_458">458</span>
brain surgery, is well known for his researches in cerebral physiology
and pathology, and has acquired great celebrity throughout the English-speaking
world for his investigations connected with the localisation of
the functions of the brain.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Paul Broca</span> (1824-1880), the surgeon and anatomist, discovered
that the faculty of speech lies in the third left frontal convolution of the
brain, which in his honour is called Broca’s convolution.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Jules Beclard</span> (1818-1887) was a distinguished French physiologist.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Henry C. Bastian</span>, M.D., F.R.S. (b. 1837), is a pathological anatomist
and cerebral physiologist. His <i>Brain as an Organ of Mind</i>, 1880, is
one of his best known works, and his articles in Quain’s <i>Dictionary of
Medicine</i>, on Diseases of the Spinal Cord and Nervous System generally,
are equally valuable contributions to this department of medical
science.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">John Hughlings Jackson</span>, M.D., F.R.S., although distinguished as
an ophthalmologist, is more famous for his researches and discoveries
in connection with the nervous system and the localisation of cerebral
functions.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Dr. Julius Althaus</span> has made many valuable contributions to our
knowledge of the nervous system.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Victor A. H. Horsley</span>, F.R.S., etc., pathologist and brain surgeon,
is the author of many papers on the functions of the brain and spinal
cord, and has made important contributions to our knowledge of the
functions of the thyroid gland, hitherto little understood, by which the
treatment of myxœdema will, it is hoped, be greatly improved.</p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Surgeons.</span></h4>

<p>The founding of museums of anatomy and surgical pathology by the
<span class="smcap">Hunters</span>, <span class="smcap">Dupuytren</span>, <span class="smcap">Cloquet</span>, <span class="smcap">Blumenbach</span>, <span class="smcap">Barclay</span>, and a great
number of other anatomists and surgeons, has greatly assisted to advance
the practical surgery of this century. Some of the more important
improvements in the art as practised at the present time are the following,
which are given in the article on Surgery in the <i>Encyclopædia
Britannica</i>:—The thin thread ligature for arteries, introduced by <span class="smcap">Jones</span>,
of Jersey (1805); the revival of the twisting of arteries to arrest bleeding
by <span class="smcap">Amussat</span> (1829); the practice of drainage in large wounds and
after operations by <span class="smcap">Chassaignac</span> (1859); aspiration or the application
of the principle of the air-pump for removing pus and fluid from
tumours, etc., by <span class="smcap">Pelletan</span> and others; the plaster-of-Paris bandage
and other similar immovable applications for fractures, etc. (an old
Eastern practice recommended in Europe about 1814 by the English
consul at Bassorah); the re-breaking of badly set fractures; galvano<span class="pagenum" id="Page_459">459</span>caustics
and écraseurs; the general introduction of resection of joints
(<span class="smcap">Fergusson</span>, <span class="smcap">Syme</span>, and others); tenotomy by <span class="smcap">Delpech</span> and <span class="smcap">Stromeyer</span>
(1831); operation for squint by <span class="smcap">Dieffenbach</span> (1842); successful
ligature of great arteries by <span class="smcap">Abernethy</span> and <span class="smcap">Astley Cooper</span> (1806);
crushing of stone in the bladder by <span class="smcap">Gruithuisen</span> of Munich (1819),
and <span class="smcap">Civiale</span> of Paris (1826); cure of ovarian dropsy by the removal
of the cyst, discovery of the ophthalmoscope, and great improvements
in ophthalmic surgery by <span class="smcap">Von Gräfe</span> and others; application of the
laryngoscope in operations on the larynx by <span class="smcap">Czermak</span> (1860) and
others, together with additions to the resources of aural surgery and
dentistry.</p>

<p>In the treatment of fractures English surgery was inferior to that of
continental practice, especially French, in the early part of the present
century. <span class="smcap">M. Roux</span> in 1814 pointed out our shortcomings in this
respect, contrasting English with French methods much to our disadvantage.<a id="FNanchor_1034_1034" href="#Footnote_1034_1034" class="fnanchor">1034</a></p>

<p><span class="smcap">Sir Wm. Blizzard</span> (1743-1835) was the first surgeon who tied the
superior thyroid artery for goitre. He founded in conjunction with
Maclaurin the medical school of the London Hospital.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Benjamin Bell</span> (1763-1820), of Edinburgh, was the elder brother
of Sir Charles Bell. He was professor of anatomy, surgery, and
obstetrics, a man of letters and a famous operator. He published a
<i>System of the Anatomy of the Human Body</i> and <i>The Principles of
Surgery</i>.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">John Abernethy</span> (1764-1831), the celebrated surgeon and lecturer
on anatomy, became the founder of the distinguished school of surgery
and anatomy at St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, London.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Sir Astley Cooper</span> (1768-1841) was the first surgeon to tie the
abdominal aorta.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Sir Benjamin Brodie</span> (1783-1862) was an anatomist and physiologist,
as well as a distinguished surgeon.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Abraham Colles</span>, M.D. (1773-1843), was an eminent Dublin
surgeon, the author of a work on <i>Surgical Anatomy</i>, who has given
his name to the fracture of the radius at the wrist.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">John Burns</span>, M.D. (1775-1850), was a teacher of surgery and
midwifery at Glasgow. His world-wide reputation was gained for
him by his <i>Principles of Midwifery</i>.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">James Wardrop</span> (1782-1869) was the author of a well-known
treatise on the pathology of the human eye.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Benjamin Travers</span> (1783-1858) was celebrated for his theory of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_460">460</span>
“Constitutional Irritation.”</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Liston</span> (1794-1847) was famous for his resections of the elbow
and other joints.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Sir Wm. Laurence</span> (1783-1867) was one of the greatest clinical
teachers the British school of surgery has produced.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">George Guthrie</span> (1785-1856) accompanied Wellington in his
campaigns, and was in his time the great English authority on military
surgery.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">James Syme</span> (1799-1870) was a distinguished teacher of clinical
surgery. He improved the operation of exarticulation at the knee-joint,
and recommended the operation for amputating at the ankle
which goes by his name.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Sir James Paget</span>, F.R.S. (born 1814), the distinguished surgeon, is
the author of the <i>Pathological Catalogue of the Museum of the College
of Surgeons</i>, <i>Lectures on Surgical Pathology</i>, etc.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">John Eric Erichsen</span>, F.R.S. (born 1818), is the author of <i>The
Science and Art of Surgery</i>, which has not only gone through nine large
editions in this country, but has passed through many editions in
America, and has been translated into German, Spanish, Italian, and
Chinese (partly). Probably no treatise on English surgery has exercised
so much influence on the progress of this branch of the healing art as
Mr. Erichsen’s noble work.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Jonathan Hutchinson</span>, F.R.S. (born 1828), one of the most distinguished
surgeons of the Victorian age, is famous throughout the
empire as a clinical teacher, especially in connection with specific and
skin diseases.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Sir Henry Thompson</span> (born 1820), the distinguished surgeon and
pathologist, is famous for his researches in the pathology of the urethra
and prostate gland, and for his clinical teaching in lithotomy and lithotrity.
He has taken an active part in the cremation propaganda.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Sir W. J. Erasmus Wilson</span> (1809-1884) was the famous specialist
in skin diseases, whose munificent benefactions to the Royal College
of Surgeons have enormously extended the resources of its museum
and library.</p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Gynæcologists.</span></h4>

<p><span class="smcap">Sir T. Spencer Wells</span>, M.D. (born 1818), the celebrated ovariotomist,
and <span class="smcap">Mr. Lawson Tait</span>, well described by Dr. Baas as “the
magical operator and despiser of antiseptics,” in abdominal diseases,
especially those of women, are without rivals in the world as benefactors
to humanity by their life-saving discoveries.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_461">461</span></p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Anatomy in England.</span></h4>

<p>Until 1832 the bodies of executed murderers were ordered for dissection,
by 32 Hen. VIII. c. 42, 1540. Surgeons were granted four
bodies of executed malefactors for “<i>anathomyes</i>” which privilege was
extended in the following reigns; but in consequence of the crimes
committed by “resurrection men” in order to supply the medical
schools, a new statute was passed in 1832, which prohibited the dissection
of murderers, and provided for the necessities of the dissecting
room by permitting, under certain regulations, the dissection of the
bodies of unclaimed persons dying in workhouses, etc.</p>

<p>Inspectors of anatomy were appointed, and various regulations were
made for the decent and reverent disposal of the remains. The
Anatomy Act was passed in consequence of the scandals connected
with the great Anatomy School at Edinburgh, at which Dr. Knox was
a celebrated teacher. It was discovered that a murderer named Burke
provided bodies for surgeons by killing his victims by suffocation,
leaving no marks of violence. The crime was known as Burking, and
to remove the temptation to such scandals as the robbery of graveyards,
and the murder of persons for the sake of the prices paid for
their bodies, the wants of the surgeons were provided for in a legal
manner.</p>


<h4><span class="smcap">French Surgeons.</span></h4>

<p><span class="smcap">Alexis Boyer</span> (1757-1833), one of the most eminent French
teachers of surgery, wrote a great work on surgical diseases and
operations, in eleven volumes.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Jean D. Larry</span> (1766-1842) was a famous military surgeon under
Napoleon. His opportunities for studying his profession must have
been unique, as he participated in sixty great battles and four hundred
engagements. He wrote several treatises on military medicine and
invented field ambulances.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Philibert J. Roux</span> (1780-1854), surgeon to the Hôtel Dieu at
Paris, practised resections of joints, by which the articular diseased
extremity of the bone is removed and a false joint formed.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Jacques Lisfranc</span> (1790-1847) was a famous amputator, whose
operation for the partial removal of the foot is known by his name.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Armand Velpeau</span> (1795-1867) was a celebrated teacher of clinical
surgery.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Joseph Malgaigne</span> (1806-1865) was a very distinguished writer on
surgical anatomy and operative surgery.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Auguste Nelaton</span> (1807-1874) was called<span class="pagenum" id="Page_462">462</span> “the Napoleon of
Surgery.” He invented the probe by which he detected the bullet in
the wound of Garibaldi.</p>


<h4><span class="smcap">German Surgeons.</span></h4>

<p>Plastic operations were revived by <span class="smcap">C. F. von Graefe</span>, of Warsaw
(1787-1840), <span class="smcap">Delpech</span>, <span class="smcap">Dieffenbach</span>, <span class="smcap">B. Langenbeck</span>, and others.
After severe burns there is frequently great loss of skin; it was found
that this could be repaired by the transplantation of very minute portions
of skin from healthy surfaces; periosteum and bones were also
successfully transplanted.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Von Kern</span> (1769-1829), the great Viennese surgeon, emphatically
insisted that surgery could not be divorced from medicine. He
adopted the very opposite treatment of wounds to that followed now
by Lister; instead of excluding the air for fear of the germs contained
in it, he insisted that operative wounds should be freely exposed to the
atmosphere. He applied the simplest dressings of wet lint.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">F. Schuh</span> (1804-1865) greatly advanced scientific surgery by advocating
the use of the microscope in pathological anatomy.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Von Walther</span> (1782-1849) was a great and scrupulously careful
surgical operator, who, like Kern, declared that surgery and medicine
are indivisible.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Von Chelius</span> (1794-1876), a famous teacher of clinical surgery at
Heidelberg, was a well-known writer on surgery.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Conrad J. M. Langenbeck</span> (1776-1851) and <span class="smcap">Bernhard Langenbeck</span>
(1810-1887) greatly contributed to found military surgery in
Germany.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">G. F. L. Stromeyer</span> (1804-1876), a famous military surgeon of
Germany, obtained great success in that department of operative
surgery known as subcutaneous division of tendons for the relief and
cure of deformities such as club foot.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Friedrich Esmarch</span> (born 1823) is famous for his invention of the
method of bloodless amputations of limbs by the use of the bandage
of india-rubber which goes by his name.</p>


<h4><span class="smcap">American Surgeons.</span></h4>

<p><span class="smcap">Valentine Mott</span> (1785-1865), the celebrated New York surgeon,
is said to have tied more arteries for the relief or cure of surgical
diseases than any other surgeon.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Samuel Gross</span> (1805-1884), a great American teacher of surgery,
was the author of the well-known <i>System of Surgery</i>.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_463">463</span></p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Ophthalmic Surgeons.</span></h4>

<p><span class="smcap">J. A. H. Reimarus</span> (1729-1814), of Hamburg, first employed
belladonna in ophthalmic surgery.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Joseph Barth</span> (1745-1818), of Malta, founded an ophthalmic
hospital, and first lectured on eye diseases and their treatment.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Jung-Stilling</span> (1740-1817) was a celebrated coucher of cataracts.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Dr. Thomas Young</span> (1773-1829) rendered great services to optical
science, and was the first to describe astigmatism, or the want of symmetry
in the anterior refracting surfaces of the eyeball—a disorder of
vision which has considerable influence in causing headache.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">J. A. Schmidt</span> (1759-1809) first described syphilitic iritis; he called
eye disease with great justice “the elegant diminishing mirror of diseases
of the body.”</p>

<p><span class="smcap">C. Himly</span> (1772-1837) used mydriatics (dilators of the pupil, such
as hyoscyamus and belladonna) in operations on the eye. Atropine
afterwards superseded these.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">G. J. Beer</span> (1763-1821), a professor of Vienna, founded the famous
teaching of the Vienna school of ophthalmology, and greatly improved
the practice of the art and the instruments employed in it.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">H. L. Helmholtz</span> (born 1821) invented that powerful aid to the
ophthalmic surgeon—the ophthalmoscope—in 1851. It is said that
the observation of the reddening of the pupil in a drowning cat first
suggested the invention to Méry in 1704. Helmholtz’s invention made
scientific ophthalmology possible. This branch of surgery may be said
to date from this great discovery.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Hermann Snellen</span> (born 1834), an oculist of Utrecht, introduced
test types for ascertaining the distinctness of vision.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">R. Brudenell Carter</span>, the eminent ophthalmologist, is a well-known
and graceful writer on medical and scientific subjects.</p>

<hr class="chap" />
<div class="chapter"></div>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_464">464</span></p>




<h3 id="CHAPTERVI_II">CHAPTER II.<br />

<small>MEDICAL REFORMS.</small></h3>

<blockquote>
<p>Discovery of Anæsthetics.—Medical Literature.—Nursing Reform.—History of the
Treatment of the Insane.</p></blockquote>


<h4><span class="smcap">Conservative Surgery.</span></h4>

<p>What is known as “conservative surgery” is the distinguishing feature
of the art as practised at the present day. Whatever Lord Tennyson
may have had in his mind in his lines on the children’s hospital, the
highest surgical practice now is to save diseased and injured parts as
much as possible, instead of removing them. Antiseptic surgery and
the discovery of anæsthetics have alone made this possible.</p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Discovery of Anæsthetics.</span></h4>

<p>The Chinese have a drug named Mago, by which they have been
able, so they maintain, to destroy pain for thousands of years past.
The vapour of hemp seed and the drug mandragora have for ages been
employed for anæsthetic purposes previous to surgical operations. In
Homer’s time the properties of opium were well understood, and other
narcotic drugs were used for the same purpose. Patients were also
sometimes stupefied by strong drink, and among some savage tribes
banana wine was copiously administered so as to intoxicate the patient.
It was not, however, until the discovery of the true anæsthesia produced
by sulphuric ether and chloroform that grave surgical operations
could be performed without causing pain to the patient. Nitrous oxide
gas, discovered by Priestley in 1776, was recommended as an anæsthetic
by Davy in 1800, and its use was begun in America by Wells,
the dentist, in 1844. The discovery that by inhaling ether the patient
is rendered unconscious of pain is due to Dr. C. T. Jackson, of Boston,
U.S. Mr. T. Morton, of the same city, first introduced it into surgical
practice in 1846. Chloroform was discovered by Souberain in 1831,
and independently by Liebig in 1832. Dumas determined its composition
in 1834. <span class="smcap">Jacob Bell</span> in London, and Dr. <span class="smcap">Simpson</span> in Edinburgh,
first applied chloroform experimentally. The late Professor<span class="pagenum" id="Page_465">465</span>
James Miller thus describes the discovery of the anæsthetic effects of
chloroform:<a id="FNanchor_1035_1035" href="#Footnote_1035_1035" class="fnanchor">1035</a> “The trial proceeded, and the safety as well as suitableness
of anæsthesia, by ether, became more and more established. But a new
phase was at hand. My friend, Dr. Simpson, had long felt convinced
that some anæsthetic agent existed superior to ether, and, in the end of
October, 1847, being then engaged in writing a paper on ‘Etherization
in Surgery,’ he began to make experiments on himself and friends in
regard to the effects of other respirable matters—other ethers, essential
oils, and various gases; chloride of hydrocarbon, acetone, nitrate of
oxide of ethyl, benzine, the vapour of iodoform, etc. The ordinary
method of experimenting was as follows: Each ‘operator’ having been
provided with a tumbler, finger glass, saucer, or some such vessel,
about a teaspoonful of the respirable substance was put in the bottom
of it, and this again was placed in hot water, if the substance
happened to be not very volatile. Holding the mouth and nostrils
over the vessel’s orifice, inhalation was proceeded with, slowly and
deliberately, all inhaling at the same time, and each noting the effects
as they advanced. Late one evening—it was the 4th November, 1847—Dr.
Simpson, with his two friends and assistants, Drs. Keith and
Matthews Duncan, sat down to their somewhat hazardous work in Dr.
Simpson’s dining-room. Having inhaled several substances, but without
much effect, it occurred to Dr. Simpson to try a ponderous material,
which he had formerly set aside on a lumber-table, and which, on
account of its great weight, he had hitherto regarded as of no likelihood
whatever. That happened to be a small bottle of chloroform. It was
searched for, and recovered from beneath a heap of waste paper. And,
with each tumbler newly charged, the inhalers resumed their vocation.
Immediately an unwonted hilarity seized the party; they became
bright-eyed, very happy, and very loquacious—expatiating on the delicious
aroma of the new fluid. The conversation was of unusual
intelligence, and quite charmed the listeners—some ladies of the family,
and a naval officer, brother-in-law of Dr. Simpson. But suddenly there
was a talk of sounds being heard like those of a cotton-mill, louder and
louder; a moment more, then all was quiet, and then a crash. On
awaking, Dr. Simpson’s first perception was mental. ‘This is far
stronger and better than ether,’ said he to himself. His second was to
note that he was prostrate on the floor, and that among the friends
about him there was both confusion and alarm.” Each of the investigators
related his experience of the new drug, and the experiments
were repeated, always, however, on this first occasion, stopping short
of unconsciousness. They were all convinced that the new agent had<span class="pagenum" id="Page_466">466</span>
full anæsthetic power when pushed. Thus was it satisfactorily proved
that chloroform was something much better than ether. Dr. Simpson
continued to pursue his experiments upon himself until he had perfected
the method he had so happily discovered.</p>

<p>A curious incident connected with anæsthesia is mentioned by Dr.
Paris in his well-known work <i>Pharmacologia</i>.<a id="FNanchor_1036_1036" href="#Footnote_1036_1036" class="fnanchor">1036</a> He relates an anecdote
which he heard from the poet Coleridge, which illustrates the curative
influence of the imagination.</p>

<p>“As soon as the powers of nitrous oxide were discovered, Dr.
Beddoes at once concluded that it must necessarily be a specific for
paralysis; a patient was selected for the trial, and the management of it
was intrusted to Sir Humphry Davy. Previous to the administration
of the gas, he inserted a small pocket thermometer under the tongue of
the patient, as he was accustomed to do upon such occasions, to ascertain
the degree of animal temperature, with a view to future comparison.
The paralytic man, wholly ignorant of the nature of the process to
which he was to submit, but deeply impressed, from the representation
of Dr. Beddoes, with the certainty of its success, no sooner felt the
thermometer under his tongue than he concluded the <i>talisman</i> was in
full operation, and in a burst of enthusiasm declared that he already
experienced the effect of its benign influence throughout his whole
body. The opportunity was too tempting to be lost; Davy cast an
intelligent glance at Coleridge, and desired his patient to renew his visit
on the following day, when the same ceremony was performed, and
repeated every succeeding day for a fortnight, the patient gradually
improving during that period, when he was dismissed as cured, no other
application having been used.”</p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Medical Literature.</span></h4>

<p>The greatest historians of medicine are the Germans. Especially
valuable are the works of—</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Kurt P. J. Sprengel</span> (1766-1833), of Pomerania, professor of
medicine at Halle. He was a great botanist, but his immortal work
on the History of Medicine eclipsed all his other labours for medical
science.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Heinrich Haeser</span> (1811-1885), the author of the learned <i>Lehrbuch
der Geschichte der Medicin und der Epidemischen Krankheiten</i>, which is
one of the most popular works of this class.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Dr. Joh. Hermann Baas</span>, who is the author of the valuable and encyclopædic
<i>Grundriss der Geschichte der Medicin</i>, excellently translated
into English by Dr. H. E. Handerson, of Cleveland, Ohio (1889).</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_467">467</span></p>

<p><span class="smcap">Dr. Theo. Puschmann’s</span> <i>History of Medical Education</i> has recently
been translated into English by Mr. E. H. Hare (1891).</p>

<p>Amongst those of our own countrymen who have rendered great
services to medical literature are—</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Sir Charles Hastings</span> (1794-1866), the founder of the British
Medical Association.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Sir Charles Scudamore</span> (1779-1849), one of the greatest authorities
on gout, who popularised Hydro-therapeutics by his writings.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Sir John Forbes</span> (1787-1861), founder of the Sydenham Society.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Sir Richard Quain</span>, M.D., editor of the Dictionary of Medicine
which bears his name.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Mr. Ernest Hart</span> (born 1836), editor (since 1866) of the <i>British
Medical Journal</i>, which, by his great literary ability and scientific knowledge,
has become the chief agent in the advancement of the British
Medical Association to its present proud position amongst the scientific
societies of the empire. Mr. Hart has rendered great public services
in improving the condition of the sick poor in workhouses, and the
creation of the metropolitan asylums. Mr. Hart’s labours in connection
with many questions of social and sanitary progress have been
pre-eminently crowned with success.</p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Nursing Reform.</span></h4>

<p>When the nineteenth century had run half its course, <span class="smcap">Florence
Nightingale</span> (born 1820) was providentially raised up to reform the
working of hospitals, schools, and reformatory institutions, after the
mismanagement of our military hospitals in the Crimea had led to
terrible suffering amongst our wounded soldiers. Her noble devotion
and self-sacrifice amongst the troops earned her the blessing of the
nation, and her name will for ever be gratefully remembered in all
questions connected with hospital reform and the improvement of
nursing.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Mrs. Wardroper</span> (died 1892), the exterminator of Mrs. Gamp and
her sisterhood, made her mark in the Crimean War, and put her finger
on some of the most flagrant abuses of the nursing system of the day.
She was the first superintendent of the Nightingale School of Nursing,
and the original trainer of technically educated nurses for hospitals and
infirmaries.</p>


<h4><span class="smcap">The Treatment of Insanity.</span></h4>

<p>It is customary to divide the treatment of the insane into three
periods—the barbaric, humane, and remedial. We must not, however,
suppose that in ancient times the treatment was everywhere barbaric,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_468">468</span>
and that only in recent times has it become humane and remedial;
nothing could be further from the truth. The treatment of persons
mentally afflicted in ancient Egypt and in Greece was not only humane,
but was probably remedial. In the temples of Saturn in Egypt, and in
the Asclepia of Greece, which were resorted to by lunatics, Dr. J. B.
Tuke thinks<a id="FNanchor_1037_1037" href="#Footnote_1037_1037" class="fnanchor">1037</a> the treatment was identical in principle with that of the
present day. He praises the sound principles on which Hippocrates
and Galen treated insane patients, and there is no doubt that it was
directed towards a cure. With these exceptions little is known as to
the treatment of the insane before the advent of Christianity. The
earliest recorded case of the administration of medicine to an insane
patient is that in which Melampus was the physician, and the neglect
of the worship of Bacchus the cause of the malady. As Mr. Burdett
well remarks,<a id="FNanchor_1038_1038" href="#Footnote_1038_1038" class="fnanchor">1038</a> nowadays the worship of Bacchus is responsible for much
of the insanity which exists. From several accounts in the Greek
poets we may assume that insanity prevailed in classic times in the
forms with which we are now familiar. Hippocrates adopted a peculiar
treatment in cases of suicidal mania. “Give the patient a draught
made from the root of mandrake, in a smaller dose than will induce
mania.” He remarks that although the general rule of treatment be
“contraria contrariis curantur,” the opposite rule also holds good in
some cases, namely, “similia similibus curantur.” It is evident therefore
that in some degree the Father of Medicine was in accord with
Homœopathy.<a id="FNanchor_1039_1039" href="#Footnote_1039_1039" class="fnanchor">1039</a></p>

<p>Whatever may have been the practice of the ancients, it is certain
that in the Middle Ages the treatment of lunatics, up to the middle of
the last century, was simply disgraceful. Little or no effort was made
to cure or even to take proper care of the mentally afflicted. Some
few were lodged in monastic houses, many in the common jails. In
1537 a house in Bishopsgate Street came into the possession of the
Corporation of London, and was used to confine fifty lunatics. This
was the first Bethlehem Hospital; it was removed in 1675 to Moorfields,
and in 1814 the present hospital was built in St. George’s Fields. St.
Luke’s was instituted in 1751.<a id="FNanchor_1040_1040" href="#Footnote_1040_1040" class="fnanchor">1040</a> Many lunatics were executed as
criminals or witches. It was not till the efforts of Pinel, Tuke, and
Conolly were directed to the proper care and treatment of the insane
that the barbarous period of European practice in regard to lunacy was
happily ended.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_469">469</span></p>

<p>Mr. Bennett says:<a id="FNanchor_1041_1041" href="#Footnote_1041_1041" class="fnanchor">1041</a> “The Germans seem to have excelled all other
nations in the ingenuity of the torture which they sought to inflict upon
their patients. Some of them advocated the use of machinery, by
which a patient, on first entering an asylum, was to be first drawn with
frightful clangour over a metal bridge across a moat, and then to be
suddenly raised to the top of a tower, and as suddenly lowered into a
dark and subterraneous cavern. These practitioners avowed, according
to Conolly, that if a patient could be lowered so as to alight among
snakes and serpents, it would be better still.” “One humane doctor
invented an excruciating form of torture in the shape of a pump,
worked by four men, which projected a stream of water with great
force down the spine of the patient, who was firmly fixed in a bath
made for this apparatus.” Patients were taken to a bath in the ordinary
way and allowed to bathe, but the bath had a bottom which gave way
under their weight and plunged them into “the bath of surprise”
underneath. Dr. Darwin is credited with having invented “the circulating
swing” for lunatics; it was worked by a windlass, and was
capable of being revolved a hundred times a minute. Esquirol approves
this horrible instrument of torture, and speaks of it as having passed
from the arts into medicine. Terror, cold water, shower baths, horrible
noises, smells, darkness, were employed by the faculty in the treatment
of insanity up to the beginning of the nineteenth century. The leaders
of the French Revolution added starvation to the treatment. In England,
in 1846, the diet in some of the licensed houses was starvation
fare. Cruelty was identical in form in all the countries of Europe.
Esquirol, in 1818, said the insane were either naked or in rags, no
bedding was allowed but a little straw, the stone cells were dark and
damp, and the wretched patients were chained in caves not good
enough for wild beasts. They wore iron collars and belts, and had
no medical treatment but baths of surprise and occasional floggings.
Even up to 1850 this state of things still existed in England.</p>

<p>In England, in 1820, one of the great sights of London was Bedlam.
The keepers were allowed to add to their income by exhibiting the
patients at one penny or twopence per head.</p>

<p>Doubtless the chief reason of the neglect and cruelty to which lunatics
were thus subjected in Christian Europe, so long fruitful in all other
works of mercy, was the theory of possession by an evil spirit; conjurations
and exorcisms were considered the only safe and efficacious methods
of expelling the demons. This grievous blunder is one of many illustrations
which might be given of the necessity of making an accurate<span class="pagenum" id="Page_470">470</span>
diagnosis before attempting to treat disease. Dr. Baas says<a id="FNanchor_1042_1042" href="#Footnote_1042_1042" class="fnanchor">1042</a> that
lunatic asylums were established first at Feltre in Italy. The next were
those of Seville, established in 1409; Padua, 1410; Saragossa, 1425;
Toledo, 1483; Fez, 1492.</p>

<p>Burton, in his <i>Anatomy of Melancholy</i>, thus describes Lycanthropy,
“which Avicenna calls <i>cucubuth</i>, others <i>lupinam insaniam</i>, or wolf-madness,
when men run howling about graves and fields in the night,
and will not be persuaded but that they are wolves or some such beasts.
<i>Ætius</i> (lib. 6, cap. 11) and <i>Paulus</i> (lib. 3, cap. 16) call it a kind of
<i>melancholy</i>; but I should rather refer it to <i>madness</i>, as most do. Some
make a doubt of it, whether there be any such disease. <i>Donat. ab
Altomari</i> (cap. 9, Art. Med.) saith, that he saw two of them in his time.
<i>Wierus</i> (De Præstiv. Demonum, l. 3, cap. 21) tells a story of such a
one at Padua, 1541, that would not believe to the contrary but that he
was a wolf. He hath another instance of a Spaniard who thought
himself a bear. <i>Forestus</i> (Observat. lib. 10, de Morbis Cerebri, c. 15)
confirms as much by many examples; one among the rest, of which he
was an eye-witness, at Alcmaer, in Holland. A poor husbandman that
still hunted about graves, and kept in churchyards, of a pale, black,
ugly, and fearful look. Such belike, or little better, were King Prœtus’
daughters (<i>Hippocrates</i>, lib. de insaniâ), that thought themselves kine; and
Nebuchadnezzar, in Daniel, as some interpreters hold, was only troubled
with this kind of madness. This disease, perhaps, gave occasion to that
bold assertion of Pliny (lib. 8, cap. 22, homines interdum lupos fieri;
et contra), <i>some men were turned into wolves in his time, and from wolves
to men again</i>: and to that fable of Pausanias, of a man that was ten
years a wolf, and afterwards turned to his former shape; to Ovid’s
(Met. lib. 1) tale of Lycaon, etc. He that is desirous to hear of this
disease, or more examples, let him read <i>Austin</i> in his eighteenth book,
<i>de Civitate Dei</i>, cap. 5,” etc., etc.</p>

<hr class="chap" />
<div class="chapter"></div>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_471">471</span></p>




<h3 id="CHAPTERVI_III">CHAPTER III.<br />

<small>THE GERM THEORY OF DISEASE.</small></h3>

<blockquote>

<p>The Disease-Demon reappears as a Germ.—Phagocytes.—Ptomaines.—Lister’s Antiseptic
Surgery.—Sanitary Science or Hygiene.—Bacteriologists.—Faith Cures.—Experimental
Physiology and the Latest System of Medicine.</p></blockquote>


<p>Soon after the discovery of the microscope, men began to seek for the
causes of diseases in the infinitely little. <span class="smcap">Athanasius Kircher</span> (1598-1680),
a Jesuit priest of Fulda, seems to have been gifted with the
ability to foresee three of our greatest modern scientific discoveries. He
anticipated Darwin’s dictum that life is maintained by struggle and
counter-struggle. He described hypnotism in certain animals, and
detected, as he thought, micro-organisms with the microscope, then in
its infancy, in the blood and pus of patients suffering with the plague
and other infectious diseases, which “worms,” as he termed the corpuscles,
he considered to be the cause of the disease. His instrument had
enabled him to discover that all decomposing substances swarmed with
low forms of life. His theory, however, gained little credence at the
time.<a id="FNanchor_1043_1043" href="#Footnote_1043_1043" class="fnanchor">1043</a> Next <span class="smcap">Antony van Leeuwenhoek</span>, “the father of microscopy,”
in 1675 published his researches in a series of letters to the Royal
Society, in which he described minute organisms in waters, vegetable
infusions, saliva, and in scrapings from the teeth, and he was able to
differentiate these special forms of life. Some of his descriptions are
so graphic that microscopists can almost recognise these forms as
bacteria with which we are now familiar. Physicians still designating
these as “worms” began to attribute to their influence various diseases.</p>

<p>In 1701 <span class="smcap">Nicholas Andry</span> wrote on this subject a treatise entitled
<i>De la Génération des Vers dans le Corps de l’Homme</i>. The germ theory
of putrefaction and fermentation originated with Andry; he maintained
that air, water, vinegar, fermenting wine, old beer, and sour milk contained
myriads of germs; he detected these in the blood and pustules
of small-pox, and believed that they could be found in other maladies.
His views met with general acceptance, and curiously enough it was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_472">472</span>
believed—and has since been verified by our own observation—that
mercurial preparations were fatal to such disease germs.<a id="FNanchor_1044_1044" href="#Footnote_1044_1044" class="fnanchor">1044</a> <span class="smcap">Lancisi</span> in
1718 attributed the unhealthy effects of malarial air to animalcules, and
“inconceivable worms” met with as much ridicule in Paris in 1726 as
the “microbe” has been received with to-day. Linnæus out of all this
chaos thought order might possibly be evolved; he believed that the
actual contagion of certain eruptive diseases might be discovered in
these small living beings.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Marcus Antonius Plenciz</span> in 1762 discussed the relation of animalcules
to putrefaction and disease in his works.<a id="FNanchor_1045_1045" href="#Footnote_1045_1045" class="fnanchor">1045</a></p>

<p>Notwithstanding all these clear indications, which, if followed up,
would have been fertile in result, the germ theory of disease fell almost
into oblivion. <span class="smcap">Otto Müller</span> in 1786 began a more systematic study
of the life history of various micro-organisms, and thus advanced the
science of minute forms of life. The question arose, How do these
forms originate? Dr. Needham was the first to suggest the theory of
their spontaneous generation. Bonnet, of Geneva, disputed the results
of Dr. Needham’s experiments, and Spallanzani demonstrated by experiment
the correctness of Bonnet’s criticism.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Francis Schulze</span> in 1836, by a carefully devised experiment, struck
another blow at Needham’s theory of spontaneous generation. In 1837
<span class="smcap">Schwann</span> convinced himself that the cause of decomposition must
exist in the air. <span class="smcap">Schroeder</span> and <span class="smcap">Van Dusch</span> in 1854 proved that
filtration of the air through cotton-wool was effectual in excluding
germs. Then <span class="smcap">Hoffman</span> in 1860, and <span class="smcap">Chevreuil</span> and <span class="smcap">Pasteur</span>
working independently in 1861, showed that a sterile solution could be
kept sterile if the neck of the vessel were bent in the form of an S, so
that the micro-organisms in the air entering the neck of the flask, would
be deposited by gravitation in the curve.</p>

<p>But the advocates of the theory of spontaneous generation were
not yet satisfied. They objected that by the boiling of the infusions,
etc., under examination they lost the ability to become decomposed;
but it was shown that the admission of unfiltered air set up decomposition.
<span class="smcap">Pasteur</span>, <span class="smcap">Burdon Sanderson</span>, and <span class="smcap">Lister</span> next showed that
blood, urine, and milk would not decompose if proper precautions
were taken to avoid contamination. In 1872 <span class="smcap">Charlton Bastian</span>
endeavoured to rehabilitate the spontaneous generation theory, but
<span class="smcap">Tyndall</span> effectually disposed of his contentions. It is settled that
bacteria, or microbes, as these germs are now called, when once de<span class="pagenum" id="Page_473">473</span>stroyed
by heat and by certain chemical agents in any medium, cannot
be resuscitated, and that Harvey’s axiom, <i>omne vivum ex ovo</i>, applies to
all forms of organisms. As <span class="smcap">Dr. Sims Woodhead</span> has said<a id="FNanchor_1046_1046" href="#Footnote_1046_1046" class="fnanchor">1046</a> concerning
the battle between the advocates and opponents of the spontaneous
generation theory:—</p>

<p>“The triumphs of surgery, of preventive inoculation of hygiene in
relation to specific infective diseases, of preservation of food, have had
their origin in the knowledge gained during the battle which waged
round the question of spontaneous generation or <i>generatio æquivoca</i>;
and to the disciples of that school every acknowledgment must be made
and due credit assigned for the attitude of scepticism, and free, ingenious,
and honest criticism which they passed concerning half-formed
and inadequately-supported theories and imperfectly-conducted experiments,
for to their efforts is certainly due the fact that the experiments
of their opponents became more and more perfect, and if to-day we
have perfect methods of sterilization and of making pure cultivations, it
is because nothing was taken for granted, and because able men on both
sides of the controversy were ranged against one another to fight the
matter to the death.”</p>

<p>Another question which had to be determined was whether these
organisms were of the animal or vegetable kingdom. <span class="smcap">Ehrenberg</span>
came to the conclusion that in consequence of snake-like and rotary
movements of certain micro-organisms they were animals; and this
opinion held its ground till <span class="smcap">Davaine</span> decided that bacteria must be
considered as belonging to the vegetable kingdom. Up to 1852 the
animal theory was unshaken; in 1854 <span class="smcap">Cohn</span> demonstrated the plant
nature of bacteria.</p>

<p>In 1857 <span class="smcap">Naegeli</span> made a group of all the forms of lesser minute
organisms, and termed it Schizomycetes, or fission fungi. The connection
between micro-organisms and disease was the subject of research
also in another direction. The discovery by <span class="smcap">Latum</span> and <span class="smcap">Schwann</span> in
1837, that the yeast plant is a living organism, and the true cause of
fermentation, threw great light on the whole inquiry. Many observers
had long recognised the likeness of certain diseases to fermentation
processes, and it gradually became the opinion that such diseases were
similarly produced. In 1837 <span class="smcap">Bassi</span> discovered that the silk-worm disease
was due to microscopic spores on the bodies of sick worms, and
that healthy worms became diseased when these spores were conveyed
to them. <span class="smcap">Henle</span> in 1840 declared that all contagious diseases must
be caused by the growth of something of a living nature, although he
had searched in vain for the living contagion of small-pox and scarlet<span class="pagenum" id="Page_474">474</span>
fever. When fungi were found to be the cause of favus, herpes tonsurans,
and pityriasis versicolor, the theory received a still greater impetus.
<span class="smcap">Swaine</span>, <span class="smcap">Brittan</span>, and <span class="smcap">Budd</span> found micro-organisms in connection
with cholera. In 1857 <span class="smcap">Pasteur</span> demonstrated that lactic, acetic, and
butyric fermentations were produced by micro-organisms.<a id="FNanchor_1047_1047" href="#Footnote_1047_1047" class="fnanchor">1047</a> In 1863
<span class="smcap">Davaine</span> came to the conclusion that the disease known as splenic
fever is caused by an organised being which kills the animal by multiplying
in its blood, and so changing its nature, after the manner of a
fermentation process. <span class="smcap">Pasteur</span> next took up the investigation of silk-worm
disease, and was ultimately able to confirm the opinion that the
disease was due to micro-organisms, and to devise a remedy for it.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Robert Koch</span> in 1877 described the life-history of the bacillus of
anthrax or splenic fever. <span class="smcap">Pasteur</span> also devoted much attention to the
same subject, and confirmed the observations of Koch. <span class="smcap">Paul Bert</span>,
on the other hand, argued that the bacilli were of no importance.
Ultimately he was convinced of his error by Pasteur; it was, however,
says <span class="smcap">Professor Cruikshank</span>,<a id="FNanchor_1048_1048" href="#Footnote_1048_1048" class="fnanchor">1048</a> “principally the researches of Koch
which placed the doctrine of contagium vivum on a scientific basis.
Koch elevated the theory of contagium vivum to a demonstrated and
established fact.”</p>

<p>The whole matter is beset with fallacies. Because certain bacteria
have been discovered in the blood of animals suffering from a particular
disease, it must not be rashly concluded that these bacteria are always
its cause, they may be in some cases only its effects. At the present
time the nature of the contagion in many diseases, such as hydrophobia,
variola, vaccinia, scarlet fever, and measles, has not been
discovered. The comma-bacillus is associated with cholera in some
mysterious manner, yet experimenters have swallowed myriads of
comma-bacilli, and have remained never the worse. Although Pasteur’s
prophylactic treatment against hydrophobia is based upon the theory
that a micro-organism is the cause of the disease, Pasteur has never
yet discovered the bacterium of hydrophobia, yet there would seem
to be one. <span class="smcap">Dr. Sims Woodhead</span> says:<a id="FNanchor_1049_1049" href="#Footnote_1049_1049" class="fnanchor">1049</a> “It is a most remarkable
fact that although no micro-organisms can be found in the virus, filtration
through the Pasteur filter keeps back the effective part of the
virus, whilst heating to 100°C. destroys the activity of the virus.”</p>

<p>The disease-demon has now reappeared in the form of a germ.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_475">475</span></p>


<h4><span class="smcap">The Phagocyte Theory.</span></h4>

<p>Some thirty-six diseases, many of which are amongst the most terrible
which afflict men and animals, are attributed by bacteriologists to
micro-organisms.<a id="FNanchor_1050_1050" href="#Footnote_1050_1050" class="fnanchor">1050</a> It is sufficiently alarming to reflect that enemies
which can only be detected by a specialist armed with a powerful microscope
are everywhere around us, waiting to attack us in a favourable spot,
and slay us without hope of escape.</p>

<p>Yet the germ-theorists have not left us entirely without hope. One
of Pasteur’s most distinguished pupils, <span class="smcap">M. Metschnikoff</span>, offers us
salvation through faith in his phagocytes. The white blood corpuscles
are for ever on the watch for the incursions of disease germs. These
they instantly arrest and imprison by taking them into their own
substance, digesting and converting them to their own uses. Whenever
there is an extra demand for the services of these admirable blood-police,
a large number are attracted to the point where the burglarious
and murderous enemy has entrenched himself; and if the system is in a
position to maintain a sufficient force of these guardians of health, the
enemy is rapidly digested, and the effete products are expelled by the
regular physiological channels.</p>

<p>It has been found that men and animals may be insusceptible to an
infective disease by natural immunity. Not all persons subjected to
exposure to epidemic diseases contract them. Ordinary sheep readily
succumb to anthrax, but Algerian sheep resist any but large doses of
the virus.<a id="FNanchor_1051_1051" href="#Footnote_1051_1051" class="fnanchor">1051</a> Acquired immunity is that by which one attack, say of
measles or of small-pox, protects against a second. Acclimatization also
affords immunity. Pasteur, in his researches on fowl cholera, noticed
that in non-fatal cases the disease did not recur. This set him to
work out a theory of attenuated inoculations which should afford protection
by giving the disease in a mild form in cultivations of the micro-organism.
Pasteur next endeavoured to protect animals against
anthrax by inoculating them with a mitigated virus. His results were
criticised and his researches opposed by Koch, who came to the conclusion
that the process did not admit of practical application, chiefly
because the immunity would only last a year, and on account of the
danger of disseminating a vaccine of the necessary strength.<a id="FNanchor_1052_1052" href="#Footnote_1052_1052" class="fnanchor">1052</a> The
theory of protective inoculation in hydrophobia has been much discussed.
Pasteur’s explanation does not entirely satisfy some experts.
Dr. Sims Woodhead gives the following:<span class="pagenum" id="Page_476">476</span> “I am inclined to think that
the explanation advanced by Wood and myself, that the treatment consists
essentially in causing the tissues to acquire a tolerance before the
microbe has had time to develop, is more in accordance with the facts.
The tissue cells are acted upon by increasingly active virus, each step
of which acclimatizes the cells for the next stronger virus, until at
length, when the virus formed by the micro-organisms introduced at the
time of the bite comes to exert its action, the tissues have been so far
altered or acclimatized that they can continue their work undisturbed in
its presence; and treating the micro-organisms themselves as foreign
bodies, destroy them. When the cells are <i>suddenly</i> attacked by a
<i>strong dose</i> of the poison of this virus, they are so paralysed that the
micro-organisms can continue to carry on their poison-manufacturing
process without let or hindrance; but when the cells are gradually,
though rapidly, accustomed to the presence of the poison by the exhibition
of constantly increasing doses, they can carry on their scavenging
work even in its presence, and the micro-organisms are destroyed,
possibly even before they can exert their full poison-manufacturing
powers.”<a id="FNanchor_1053_1053" href="#Footnote_1053_1053" class="fnanchor">1053</a></p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Ptomaines.</span></h4>

<p>The germ theory has thrown great light upon the subject of certain
mysterious organic poisoning processes, which long puzzled analysts
and physicians. Diseased meat, fish, cheese, and other articles of food
frequently cause symptoms of poisoning in those who have partaken of
them. The analyst failed to detect the precise agent which caused the
mischief, and it was not till the bacteriologists investigated the subject
that it was satisfactorily explained. In 1814, <span class="smcap">Burrows</span> described a
poisonous substance in decaying fish. In 1820, <span class="smcap">Kerner</span> described
a poisonous alkaloid which he discovered in sausages. In 1856,
<span class="smcap">Panum</span> isolated a poison from some decomposing animal matter.
<span class="smcap">Zuelza</span> and <span class="smcap">Sonnenschein</span> from the same substance obtained a poison
which closely resembled atropine in its physiological action. <span class="smcap">Selmi</span>
between 1871 and 1880 described substances which he called cadaveric
alkaloids or ptomaines. Pasteur and others, working in the same
direction, have greatly advanced our knowledge of these deadly agents.
Bacteria are now known to have the power to build up deadly substances
as they grow in dead or living animal tissues, just as plants
build up poisons in their own tissues; these substances exert a deadly
influence on the nerve centres, and hence a cheese bacillus may be as
dangerous to human life as a dose of aconite.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_477">477</span></p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Lister’s Antiseptic Surgery.</span></h4>

<p>What is commonly known as “Listerism” is a development of the
germ theory of disease, which has revolutionised the art of surgery by
its direct and indirect influence. Pus formation, the result of destructive
processes which prevent the healing of wounds, was discovered to
be due to the action of germs falling from the atmosphere on the injured
flesh. <span class="smcap">Lister</span> sought to destroy these germs by powerful disinfectants.
This was the first step in the antiseptic treatment. When carbolic-acid
lotions were applied for this purpose, <span class="smcap">Lister</span> discovered that the
wound healed rapidly. He believed that he had destroyed the micro-organisms
by the carbolic-acid lotions. But <span class="smcap">Lister</span> improved on this
process, and seeing how difficult it is to destroy the germs when they
have once entered the tissues, he invented a method whereby they
were prevented from gaining admission at all. He fought the micro-organisms
in the atmosphere of the operating room, in the dressings,
instruments, and hands of the operator, and thus gradually built up his
system of absolute surgical cleanliness called antiseptic surgery. Even
those surgeons who rejected his method in its entirety, and declined to
adopt his complicated system of dressings, devoted so much attention
to the minutest cleanliness, that they achieved results not less successful
than those of the inventor of the antiseptic system itself.</p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Sanitary Science.</span></h4>

<p>Hygiene, the art of preserving health, has always been recognised as
a branch of medical science, not less important than that which concerns
itself with the cure of disease. <span class="smcap">Moses</span> (<span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 1490) enjoined the
strictest cleanliness, and anticipated our modern sanitary laws. <span class="smcap">Hippocrates</span>
embodied in his works treatises on hygiene, which existed in
Greece probably long anterior to his time. The value of attention to
rules of diet and exercise was recognised by <span class="smcap">Herodicus</span>, one of his
preceptors, who introduced a system of medicinal gymnastics for the
improvement of the health and the cure of disease. Such rules must to
a greater or less extent have always been in force in any well-constituted
army. Gymnasts, athletes, and others must have been fully aware of
the necessity for attending to such rules. Hippocrates, in his treatise
<i>Airs, Waters, and Places</i>, has insisted on the duty of the physician to
study the effects of the seasons, the winds, the position of cities, and
the diseases which are endemic and epidemic in them, the qualities of
waters, and their effects on public health, and so forth. Had men taken
up the study of Hygiene where Hippocrates left off, we should not
have heard of the plagues, pestilences, and epidemics which up to
modern times periodically devastated the civilized world.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_478">478</span></p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Hygiene.</span></h4>

<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Parkes</span>, in the introduction to his <i>Manual of Practical Hygiene</i>,
defines hygiene in its largest sense to signify “rules for perfect culture
of mind and body.” The two are not to be dissociated. Every mental
and moral action influences the body; the physical conditions equally
re-act upon the mind. He admirably says: “For a perfect system
of hygiene we must combine the knowledge of the physician, the
schoolmaster, and the priest, and must train the body, the intellect,
and the moral soul in a perfect and balanced order. Then, if our
knowledge were exact, and our means of application adequate, we
should see the human being in his perfect beauty, as Providence,
perhaps, intended him to be; in the harmonious proportion and
complete balance of all parts in which he came out of his Maker’s
hands, in whose divine image, we are told, he was in the beginning
made.” Mr. Parkes asks if such a system is possible? He replies
that we can even now literally choose between health and disease.
There are certain hereditary conditions which we may not be able to
avoid, and men may hinder our acquisition of the boon; but as a race
man holds his own destiny in his hands, and can choose the good and
reject the evil. Exit the disease-demon! Fevers and other epidemic
diseases are no longer attributed to the anger of the Supreme Being;
they may be prevented. If we use the words scourge, plague, visitation,
and the like, it is merely because we recognise that Nature can take
offence at our violation of her laws, and visit us with the penalty.</p>

<p>One of the most important events of our time was the establishment
of the Registrar-General’s office in 1838. To <span class="smcap">Dr. William Farr</span> we
owe a nation’s gratitude for the admirable manner in which he performed
the duties of his office. The Government Inquiry into the Health of
Towns and of the Country generally, undertaken by <span class="smcap">Edwin Chadwick</span>,
<span class="smcap">Southwood Smith</span>, <span class="smcap">Neil Arnott</span>, <span class="smcap">Sutherland</span>, <span class="smcap">Guy</span>, <span class="smcap">Toynbee</span>, and
others, was of immense importance to the national health. The medical
officer to the Privy Council, <span class="smcap">Simon</span>, carried on the work thus ably
commenced with the greatest vigour; and the consequence of the important
departure was that medical officers of health were appointed to
the different towns and parishes.</p>

<p>Various public health acts have followed from time to time, and it
has been found, in the words of Mr. Parkes, that “nothing is so costly
in all ways as disease, and that nothing is so remunerative as the outlay
which augments health, and in doing so, augments the amount and
value of the work done.”</p>

<p>It is a reproach frequently brought against medicine that it makes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_479">479</span>
little advance. Some have even said that in some respects we are no
better off than if we lived in the days of Hippocrates. However this
may be, we may be justly proud of the splendid work which hygienic
medicine has performed, and we have every reason to look hopefully
forward to the benefits this branch of medical science will confer upon
us in the near future. Hygiene is the outcome of physiology. Until
we knew the laws of life, it was impossible that hygiene should have a
scientific basis; and henceforth physiology and hygiene will go hand in
hand.<a id="FNanchor_1054_1054" href="#Footnote_1054_1054" class="fnanchor">1054</a></p>

<p><span class="smcap">John Simon</span>, C.B., F.R.S. (born 1816), the eminent physiologist,
pathologist, and surgeon, became the first appointed officer of health
to the City of London. He was for some time medical adviser to the
Privy Council. He rendered the greatest services to the health of the
nation by his reports and official papers on sanitary matters.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Edmund A. Parkes</span> (1819-1876) was the great sanitary reformer
whose name is gratefully enshrined in the “Parkes Museum of Hygiene,”
instituted in 1876, of University College, London.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Ludwig J. P. Semmelweis</span> (1818-1865), “the Father of Antiseptic
Midwifery,” was professor in Pesth, and has earned the gratitude of his
profession and of the whole world by demonstrating that puerperal
fever was due to inoculation, that the poison which caused it was introduced
by organic matter below the nails and epidermis of the students
and doctors who had been engaged in anatomical or pathological work
and had not taken sufficient pains to disinfect and purify their hands.
He recommended careful washing with chlorine water before each
examination; the consequence of which was, that the mortality among
lying-in women fell in two months from twelve to three per cent. He
anticipated the methods of Lister, and died in a lunatic asylum, galled
by the attacks which his doctrines experienced.<a id="FNanchor_1055_1055" href="#Footnote_1055_1055" class="fnanchor">1055</a> Sir Andrew Clark
said:<a id="FNanchor_1056_1056" href="#Footnote_1056_1056" class="fnanchor">1056</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_480">480</span> “There are few such parallels in the history of science, in regard
to his tremendous moral heroism; in spite of every conceivable difficulty,
in positions of misrepresentation, in spite of persecution, he
continued his labours, until crowned with a full clearing up of the
difficulties. As to his martyrdom, there is not such a history. The
persecution to which he was exposed in the later years of his stay in
Vienna, his being hounded out of Vienna and settling in Budapest, and
his premature end in loss of reason, form indeed a sad story, and one
of the highest examples that can be presented.”</p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Bacteriologists and other Scientists.</span></h4>

<p><span class="smcap">Benjamin W. Richardson</span>, M.D., F.R.S., etc. (born 1828). In
1865 he made important researches on the nature of the poisons of
contagious diseases and discovered <i>septine</i>. In 1866 he discovered the
use of the ether spray for locally abolishing pain in surgical operations.
He introduced bichloride of methylene as an anæsthetic, and discovered
the influence of nitrite of amyl over tetanus, angina pectoris,
etc. He invented the <i>lethal chamber</i> for killing animals without pain,
and has made many most important researches on the action of alcohol
on man. In 1875 he gave a sketch of a “Model City of Health,” to
be called Hygeia, which awakened much interest and discussion.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">John Burdon Sanderson</span>, M.D. (born 1828), Professor of Physiology
at Oxford, made investigations respecting the cattle plague,
1865-66. In 1883 he sat on the Royal Commission on Hospitals for
infectious diseases, and has made elaborate researches on animal and
plant electricity, and on the nature of contagion.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Robert Koch</span> (born 1843), the eminent bacteriologist, the discoverer
of the “comma” bacillus, and the tubercle bacillus, is Professor
of the Institute of Hygiene in Berlin.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">John Tyndall</span>, F.R.S. (born 1820), is one of the foremost of the
scientific explorers of the century. Besides his researches in relation
to magnetism, radiant heat, heat as a mode of motion, light, etc., Professor
Tyndall has rendered very important services to medicine by his
studies on <i>The Floating Matter of the Air in Relation to Putrification
and Infection</i>, 1881.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Louis Pasteur</span> (born 1822), chemist, is celebrated for his researches
relative to the polarization of light, and for his investigations on fermentation,
the preservation of wines, and the propagation of zymotic
diseases in silkworms and domestic animals. Pasteur’s most important
work for medicine was the demonstration of the existence of the
germs which cause putrefaction.</p>

<p>The Minister of Public Instruction, addressing M. Pasteur on the
occasion of his seventieth birthday, summed up what is known as
Pasteurism in the following words: “Henceforward the formula is
definitive and complete. Your disciples give it in two words—ferments
and virus are living beings; vaccine is an attenuated virus, the basis of
medicine is the artificial attenuation of virus, and thus the microbic
treatment is founded.”</p>

<p>Pasteur’s later work has been chiefly in connection with the attempt
to discover a prophylactic for hydrophobia.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Lionel S. Beale</span>, F.R.S. (born 1828), physiologist and pathological<span class="pagenum" id="Page_481">481</span>
anatomist, is a celebrated microscopist, author of <i>The Microscope in its
Application to Practical Medicine</i>; <i>Disease Germs, their Supposed and
Real Nature, and on the Treatment of Diseases caused by their Presence</i>;
and many other works of equal importance to medical science.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">William B. Carpenter</span> (1812-1885) was a celebrated physiologist,
whose great work has done more to popularise the study of physiology
amongst non-professional, as well as medical readers, than any other,
except that of Professor Huxley, which followed it.</p>

<p>Amongst other scientific workers of the century may be mentioned
<span class="smcap">Purkinje</span>, who rediscovered and described the bone corpuscles, contributed
greatly to the study of microscopical anatomy and ophthalmology
by his experiments with the ophthalmoscope.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">R. Wagner</span> (1805-1864) in 1861 called an anthropological congress,
which was attended by several distinguished anatomists, and
thus originated the “Anthropological Congress.”</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Pander</span> (1794-1865) and <span class="smcap">Baer</span> (1792-1876) made important researches
in the history of development. To Baer is due the splendid
discovery of the mammalian ovum.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">François Magendie</span> (1782-1855) was the first to introduce the
experimental method into pathology and pharmacology. His investigations
in what are called pharmaco-dynamics, chiefly connected with
the alkaloids, introduced many of these powerful remedies into medical
practice. He admitted a vital principle in nervous activity, but for the
rest endeavoured to reduce medicine to mere physiological and chemical
laws.</p>


<p><span class="smcap">Miracles of Healing, Faith Cures, Mind Cures, Christian
Science Healing, etc., etc.</span></p>

<p>There are many things connected with the healing art on which the
public mind is better informed than the recognised authorities on
medicine. Mesmerism is now accepted by the faculty under the name
of hypnotism, and the miracles of healing wrought at the shrines of
saints, long the objects of scorn and contempt at the hands of the
medical profession, are now declared to be well within the domain of
scientific fact. The miracles of Lourdes, the faith cures at Bethshan,
and similar phenomena, having been subjected to the strictest investigation
by the most competent medical authorities, are proved to be not
impostures and delusions, but simple matters of fact. Science having
reluctantly accepted the faith-cure, now declares it to be “an ideal
method, since it often attains its end when all other means have
failed.”<a id="FNanchor_1057_1057" href="#Footnote_1057_1057" class="fnanchor">1057</a></p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_482">482</span></p>

<p>Professor Charcot, while declaring that the faith-cure is entirely of a
scientific order, insists that its domain is limited; “to produce its effects
it must be applied to those cases which demand for their cure no intervention
beyond the power which the mind has over the body.” That
is to say, faith will cure paralysis and other disorders of motion and
sensation dependent on idea, but does not avail to restore a lost organ
or an amputated limb.</p>

<p>Professor Charcot believes also that the faith-cure may cause ulcers
and tumours to disappear, if such lesions be of the same nature as the
paralysis cured by the same means. In all this there is no miracle.
The diseases are all of hysterical origin, according to this eminent
authority, and being purely dynamic, and not organic, the mind has
power to influence and cure them. The mind of the invalid becomes
possessed of the overpowering idea that a cure is to be effected, and it
is so.</p>

<p>M. Littré has explained for us how this happens.<a id="FNanchor_1058_1058" href="#Footnote_1058_1058" class="fnanchor">1058</a> The mind, which
is most eminently receptive of suggestion, will be the most likely to be
influential in curing the body in which it is enshrined, by the powerful
force of auto-suggestion.<a id="FNanchor_1059_1059" href="#Footnote_1059_1059" class="fnanchor">1059</a></p>

<p>In expressing this opinion, no question need arise of the efficacy of
prayer or of the intervention of the Divine power. The aim of the
physician is to understand the medical side of the subject, and science
is daily becoming more capable of offering an explanation of such
phenomena from a purely medical point of view. A curious instance of
faith-cure was recently given in a Catholic magazine.</p>

<p>The <i>Month</i> for June, 1892, published an account, by the late Earl
of Denbigh, of a cure worked by a member of a family named Cancelli
on Lady Denbigh in 1850. She was suffering severely from rheumatism,
and the Pope (Pius IX.) mentioned to the Earl that near Foligno there
was a family of peasants who were credited with a miraculous power of
curing rheumatic disorders. Lord Denbigh succeeded in getting one
of the family, an old man, to come, and learned from him the legend of
the cure. The belief was that in the reign of Nero, the Apostles Peter
and Paul took refuge in the hut of an old couple named Cancelli, near
Foligno, and as a proof of gratitude, gave to the male descendants of
the family living near the spot the power of curing rheumatic disorders
to the end of time. Lord Denbigh described how the old man made
a solemn invocation, using the sign of the cross, and, in fact, Lady
Denbigh did recover at once. In a few days the pains returned, but
she made an act of resignation, and they then left her, and never
returned with any acuteness.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_483">483</span></p>


<h4><span class="smcap">Experimental Physiology.</span></h4>

<p>The question of vivisection, or experimental physiology, pathology,
and pharmacology, has become a burning one in England and America
of recent years. In a history of medicine so prominent a question cannot
be entirely ignored, although it would be out of place to discuss it
here at length. It has been claimed that almost all our real knowledge
of the healing art, and the most important steps of medical progress,
have been gained by experiments upon living animals. On the other
hand, it has been maintained by practical physicians and surgeons that
the method in question is not less misleading than cruel; that “the
only correct path is that of thoughtful experience.”<a id="FNanchor_1060_1060" href="#Footnote_1060_1060" class="fnanchor">1060</a> On behalf of the
advocates of the experimental method, <span class="smcap">Professor Michael Foster</span>
shall state the case; that of the other side shall be given in the words
of <span class="smcap">Sir Andrew Clark</span>, “the prince of physicians, and one of the
noblest of men,” under whom it was my happiness and privilege to
study medicine in the wards of the London Hospital.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Professor Michael Foster</span> says: “It would not be a hard task to
give chapter and verse for the assertion that the experimental method
has, especially in these later times, supplied the chief means of progress
in physiology; but it would be a long task, and we may content ourselves
with calling attention to what is in many respects a typical case.
We referred a short time back to the phenomena of ‘inhibition.’ It is
not too much to say that the discovery of the inhibitory function of certain
nerves marks one of the most important steps in the progress of
physiology during the past half-century. The mere attainment of the
fact that the stimulation of a nerve might stop action instead of inducing
action constituted in itself almost a revolution; and the value of
that fact in helping us on the one hand to unravel the tangled puzzles
of physiological action and reaction, and on the other hand to push our
inquiries into the still more difficult problems of molecular changes, has
proved immense. One cannot at the present time take up a physiological
memoir covering any large extent of ground without finding
some use made of inhibitory processes for the purpose of explaining
physiological phenomena. Now, however skilfully we may read older
statements between the lines, no scientific—that is, no exact—knowledge
of inhibition was possessed by any physiologist, until Weber, by a
direct experiment on a living animal, discovered the inhibitory influence
of the pneumogastric nerve over the beating of the heart. It was, of
course, previously known that under certain circumstances the beating
of the heart might be stopped; but all ideas as to how the stoppage<span class="pagenum" id="Page_484">484</span>
was, or might be, brought about, were vague and uncertain before
Weber made his experiment. That experiment gave the clue to an
exact knowledge, and it is difficult, if not impossible, to see how the
clue could have been gained otherwise than by experiment; other
experiments have enabled us to follow up the clue, so that it may with
justice be said that all that part of the recent progress of physiology
which is due to the introduction of a knowledge of inhibitory processes
is the direct result of the experimental method. But the story
of our knowledge of inhibition is only one of the innumerable instances
of the value of this method. In almost every department of physiology,
an experiment, or a series of experiments, has proved a turning-point at
which vague, nebulous fancies were exchanged for clear, decided knowledge,
or a starting-point for the introduction of wholly new and startling
ideas.</p>

<p>“And we may venture to repeat, that not only must the experimental
method be continued, but the progress of physiology will chiefly
depend on the increased application of that method. The more
involved and abstruse the problems become, the more necessary does it
also become that the inquirer should be able to choose his own conditions
for the observations he desires to make. Happily, the experimental
method itself brings with it in the course of its own development
the power of removing the only valid objection to physiological experiments,
viz., that in certain cases they involve pain and suffering. For
in nearly all experiments pain and suffering are disturbing elements.
These disturbing elements the present imperfect methods are often unable
to overcome; but their removal will become a more and more
pressing necessity in the interests of the experiments themselves, as the
science becomes more exact and exacting, and will also become a more
and more easy task as the progress of the science makes the investigator
more and more master of the organism. In the physiology of the
future, pain and suffering will be admissible in an experiment only when
pain and suffering are themselves the object of inquiry. And such an
inquiry will of necessity take a subjective rather than an objective
form.”<a id="FNanchor_1061_1061" href="#Footnote_1061_1061" class="fnanchor">1061</a></p>

<p>Let the President of the Royal College of Physicians give his views
of the utility of vivisection from the point of view of a practical
physician:—</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Sir Andrew Clark</span> before the “Clinical Society of London”
(<i>British Medical Journal</i>, Feb. 3, 1883) said: “For whatever purpose
they may be employed; however carefully they may be designed and
executed; however successful may be the precautions taken to exclude
<span class="pagenum" id="Page_485">485</span>
error, experiments have their subtle difficulties and dangers which are
perilous to truth, and cannot be wholly averted. By the prestige of
precision, which often undeservedly they profess, undue weight is
attached to their results; and by the assumption that in like conditions
the results would be the same in man as in the lower animals, flagrant
errors are committed, and currency is given to false or inadequate
generalisations. The experimenter interprets the results of his experiments
by the light of their structural results; he forgets or he ignores
the life-history of the processes by which they have been evolved, and
he takes no account of the fact, beyond controversy, that different
clinical states find occasionally the same structural expression. In such
circumstances doubt is inevitable, and it is only to clinical medicine
that any just appeal for its solution can be made. To her, at last, all
such experiments must be brought for trial; she must be their examiner,
critic, interpreter, user, and judge. And no results of experiments can
be made of any avail to medicine, or be used with safety in her service,
until they have been filtered through the checks and counter-checks of
clinical experience, and have responded to the tests and counter-tests
of clinical trial. Had these principles exerted their just influence in
the recent debates concerning questions of this kind, we should not
have had a seton in the neck of a man taken as the parallel of a seton
in the neck of a guinea-pig; we should not have had the artificial
tuberculosis of the rodent pronounced to be identical with the natural
tuberculosis of the child; we should not have had grey tubercles and
caseous pneumonias pronounced on the grounds of mere likeness of
structure to be of one and the same nature; and we should have been
spared the sight of science, drunken with success and drivelling with
prophecies, soliciting the public on the common highway.”</p>



<hr class="chap" />
<div class="chapter"></div>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_486">486</span></p>
<h2 id="APPENDIX">APPENDIX.<br />

<small><i>ON SOME OF THE MORE IMPORTANT MINERALS USED IN
MEDICINE.</i></small></h2>

<p class="center">(Compiled chiefly from Royle’s <i>Materia Medica</i>.)</p>


<p><span class="smcap">Carbonate of Soda</span> is the <i>neter</i> of the Hebrews. It was known to the early
Hindus, and is by them called <i>Sajji noon</i> (<i>i.e.</i> Sajji or Soda Salt); it is the Sagimen
vitri of Geber. The Natron lakes of Egypt were known to the ancients, and it was
early employed in glass making, etc. (Royle). On the shores of the Indian Ocean,
the Red Sea, and the Mediterranean, plants of the order <i>Chenopodeæ</i> are burned to
form the ash called Barilla, and from this ash soda is obtained. Carbonate of soda
was also formerly prepared on the coasts of Scotland, Ireland, Wales, and Normandy,
by burning algæ or sea-weeds, and the ash so obtained was called <i>kelp</i>. There is no
doubt that the process is extremely ancient, and the discovery of the properties of
these ashes accidental.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Chloride of Sodium</span>, or common salt, is so universally distributed that it must
have been known and used in food from the earliest ages.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Borax</span> is thought to have been the Chrysocolla of Pliny. It is the <i>Sohaga</i> of the
Hindus (Sanscrit, <i>Tincana</i>), and is called <i>Booruk</i> by the Arabs. It is abundant on
the shores of some of the lakes in Thibet, and was brought into India across the Himalayas
(Royle).</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Sulphate of Soda</span>, or Glauber’s Salt, is found on the soil in India and other
countries, and exists in the ashes of many plants, in mineral springs, and in sea-water.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Lime</span> was known to the Egyptians and Hindus.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Magnesia</span> seems to have been known to the alchemists. Its name occurs in Geber
and other writers of the period. The <span class="smcap">Carbonate of Magnesia</span> was probably first
used as a medicine by the Count de Palma at Rome. Hoffmann introduced it into
the list of Materia Medica.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Epsom Salts</span> (<span class="smcap">Sulphate of Magnesia</span>) was first discovered by Dr. Grew in
1675 in a spring at Epsom. It is found in many countries.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Alum</span> is mentioned in <i>Pliny</i>, xxxv. chap. 15, and probably is referred to by <i>Dioscorides</i>
(v. chap. 122). <i>Shib</i> was the generic term of alum of various kinds in Arab
writings. Egyptians and Hindus must have known of its properties from the earliest
ages of their civilization. It was introduced into Europe from Syria by the Genoese.</p>

<p><i>Green Vitriol</i> or <i>Sulphate of Iron</i> was known to the ancients. It is mentioned,
says Dr. Royle, in the <i>Amera Cosha</i> of the Hindus (<i>Hind. Med.</i>, p. 44), and
it is used by them as by the Romans in the time of Pliny in making ink.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Zinc</span> seems to have been first made known as a metal in Europe by Paracelsus.
The Hindus have imported it from China from remote times. The Oxide of Zinc
was anciently called tutty, probably from the Tamil Tutanagum. In the East, says
Royle, <span class="smcap">Sulphate of Zinc</span> is called <i>suffed tutia</i>, or white tutia, the Sulphates of
Iron and Copper being called <i>green</i> and <i>blue tutia</i> (<i>Hindu Med.</i>, p. 100).</p>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_487">487</span></p>

<p><span class="smcap">Copper</span> was one of the metals most anciently known. It was employed in medicine
by the Hindus and Arabs in the form of the Sulphate or Blue-stone. <span class="smcap">Verdigris</span>,
the <span class="smcap">Diacetate of Copper</span>, must have been known wherever copper vessels
were used. It was employed by the Greeks as a medicine, by the Arabs, and probably
also by the Egyptians.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Lead</span> was equally well known of old; the carbonate of the metal was one of the
most anciently known of the metallic salts. The Middle Ages introduced the acetate
of lead commonly known as <span class="smcap">Sugar of Lead</span>. <span class="smcap">Extract of Lead</span>, or <span class="smcap">Extract
of Saturn</span>, or <i>Goulard’s Extract</i>, have been known since the time of B. Valentine.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Bismuth</span> was first mentioned by Agricola in 1520.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Sulphur</span> was employed in medicine by the Greeks, Hindus, and Arabs. Geber
knew of its solubility in an alkaline solution, and Albertus Magnus taught the method
of procuring Sulphuret of Potassium by fusion.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Phosphorus</span> was discovered in 1669, when it was found in the Phosphate of Soda
and Ammonia of Urine by Brandt, an alchemist of Hamburgh. Knuckel in Germany
and Boyle in England had also the credit of discovering it (Royle, <i>Mat. Med.</i>).</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Nitric Acid</span> was known to Geber, and probably also to the Hindus (Royle,
<i>Mat. Med.</i>).</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Iodine</span> was obtained by M. Courtois in 1812 in the residual liquor of the process
for obtaining soda from sea-weed.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Iodide of Potassium</span> was first employed in medicine by Coindet.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Bromine</span> was discovered in 1826 by M. Balard, in <i>bittern</i>, the uncrystallisable
residue of sea-water. Bromide of Potassium was first introduced into the London
Pharmacopœia in 1836.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Sal Ammoniac</span> was known to Geber. Avicenna and Serapion mention it by the
name <i>Noshadur</i>. Persian writers give <i>Armeena</i> as its Greek synonym. The Sanskrit
name is <i>Nuosadur</i>. In Egypt it is made from camel’s dung. It must have been
known to the Romans, as Pliny says that one of the kinds of <i>Nitrum</i> gives out a
strong smell when mixed with quicklime (Royle, <i>Mat. Med.</i>).</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Carbonate of Potash</span> is obtained by the burning of vegetables. It must therefore
have been known to primitive nations. “Dioscorides describes it by the name
τεφρα κληματινης, or <i>Cinis sarmentorum</i>, ashes of vine twigs (‘cineris lixivium,’ <i>Pliny</i>,
xxxviii. chap. 51). The Arabs are usually supposed to have been the first to make
known this alkali (al-<i>kali</i>); but the Hindus, in works from which the Arabs copied,
made use of the ashes of plants” (Royle, <i>Mat. Med.</i>).</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Tin</span> was the Bedel of Moses. It was used by the Egyptians, who probably procured
it from India. The Greeks and Romans obtained it from the Phœnicians.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Antimony</span> was probably discovered by the Alchemists. The sulphuret of the
metal, however, is the στιμμι and stibium of the ancients. In Asia it has been used
from time immemorial for painting the eyebrows and eyelids. Several of the Sulphurets
of Antimony have long been used in medicine. The Tartarate (<span class="smcap">Tartar Emetic</span>)
is supposed to have been discovered by Mynsicht (Thesaurus, etc., Hamburgh, 1631).</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Mercury</span> or <span class="smcap">Quicksilver</span> was known to the ancients. It was probably first prescribed
internally by the Hindus. The Romans and Arabs used it externally. Pliny
says that mercury is poisonous, “unless, indeed, it is to be administered in the form of
an unction on the belly, when it will stay bloody fluxes.” The Arabs appear to have
re-introduced it into the European practice (Royle). The red oxide was known to
Geber. <span class="smcap">Calomel</span> is the subchloride of mercury. It occurs native in Carniola and
in Spain. The Hindus from very early times prepared it artificially and prescribed
it internally. It was introduced into European practice in 1608. <span class="smcap">Bichloride
of Mercury</span>, or <span class="smcap">Corrosive Sublimate</span>, is the <i>ruskapoor</i> of the Hindus, to whom,
says Royle, it has long been known. It was known also by the Chinese, and was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_488">488</span>
prepared by Geber in the eighth century. The, <span class="smcap">Ammonio-Chloride</span> of mercury,
or <span class="smcap">White Precipitate</span>, was discovered by Raymond Lully in the thirteenth century.
<span class="smcap">Cinnabar</span> or <span class="smcap">Vermilion</span>, the <span class="smcap">Red Sulphuret of Mercury</span>, was known to the
Greeks, and was one of the pigments employed by the Egyptians. It has been used
by the Chinese and Hindus in medicine from very early times. The ointment of
mercury killed with oil or fat was used by the Saracens for killing lice, just as it is
used at the present time for the same purpose.</p>

<p>Preparations of <span class="smcap">Arsenic</span> have long been used in medicine. Dioscorides applies
the name Arsenikon (αρσενικον) to the yellow Sulphuret of Arsenic.</p>

<p>The Arabs call it <i>zurneekh</i>, which is supposed by Sprengel to be a corruption of
Arsenikon. They were familiar with the white oxide which they called <i>sum-al-far</i>,
<i>mouse poison</i> or <i>rat’s-bane</i>. The Hindus are well acquainted with the form of arsenic
known as orpiment, which they call <i>hurtal</i>; realgar, which is their <i>mansil</i>; and white
arsenic, which they name <i>sanchya</i>. Royle thinks it was first prescribed internally by
the Hindus, who used it for leprosy and intermittent fevers. It is a remedy of great
value in many kinds of skin diseases, and is of great use in agues and in all periodic
disorders, for which it is only inferior to quinine.</p>

<p><span class="smcap">Silver</span> is supposed to have first been employed in medicine by the Arabs. <span class="smcap">Gold</span>
was employed by the Greeks and Arabs in medicine, but it is not known which were
the first to so use it. The Hindus used it long before the alchemists investigated its
properties.</p>

<hr class="chap" />
<div class="chapter"></div>

<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_489">489</span></p>




<h2 id="INDEX">INDEX.</h2>



<ul class="index">

<li class="ifrst">A.</li>

<li class="indx">Abaris cured diseases by incantation, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Abdominal surgery, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>, <a href='#Page_197'>197</a>, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>, <a href='#Page_296'>296</a>, <a href='#Page_316'>316</a>, <a href='#Page_361'>361</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— surgery of Hindus, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Abella (about 1059), <a href='#Page_313'>313</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Abercrombie, John (1780-1844), <a href='#Page_454'>454</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Abernethy, J. (1764-1831), <a href='#Page_459'>459</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Abipones, birth customs of, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Aborigines of Australia, their knowledge of medicine, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— of South America, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Abortion in Greece and Rome, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Abracadabra, <a href='#Page_263'>263</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Abraxas, <a href='#Page_263'>263</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Abyssinians, the, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Acacias, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Accad, priests of, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Accadian mythology, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Accadians, the, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Achillini, A. (1463-1512), <a href='#Page_337'>337</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Aconite eaten by horses, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Actual cautery, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a>, <a href='#Page_246'>246</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Actuarius, John (c. 1283), <a href='#Page_323'>323</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Acupuncture invented by Chinese, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Acute and chronic diseases first distinguished, <a href='#Page_212'>212</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Adamantius of Alexandria, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Addenbrooke, J. (died 1719), <a href='#Page_431'>431</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Addison, T. (1793-1860), <a href='#Page_454'>454</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Ægidius Corbolensis, <a href='#Page_314'>314</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Ælfred, King, his services to medicine, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a>, <a href='#Page_275'>275</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Æneas Sylvius, <a href='#Page_336'>336</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Æschryon (pharmacist), <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Æsculapius, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Ætiology, <a href='#Page_350'>350</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Ætius (6th cent.), <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Affinity, doctrine of, <a href='#Page_423'>423</a>, <a href='#Page_449'>449</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Afflacius, <a href='#Page_311'>311</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">African disease theories, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Agamede, a lady doctor, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Agate, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Agathinus of Sparta (1st cent. <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span>), <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Agni, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Agricola, George (1494-1555), <a href='#Page_351'>351</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Agrippa, Cornelius (1486-1536), <a href='#Page_337'>337</a>, <a href='#Page_347'>347</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Ague, <a href='#Page_252'>252</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Ahriman, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Alaska, treatment of headache by natives of, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Albertus Magnus (1193-1280), <a href='#Page_321'>321</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Albucasis (d. 1106), <a href='#Page_243'>243</a>, <a href='#Page_296'>296</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Alchemy, <a href='#Page_301'>301</a>, <a href='#Page_350'>350</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— of the Egyptians, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Alcohol used everywhere, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Alcuin, <a href='#Page_300'>300</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Aldabaran, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Aldrovandi, <a href='#Page_346'>346</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Alexander of Tralles, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Alexander Severus first established medical lectureships in Rome, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Alexandria, her famous school, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— Jews in, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Alexandrian library, <a href='#Page_287'>287</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— philosophy, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Alexis</i>, diviners of North America, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Algonquins, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Ali Abbas, <a href='#Page_296'>296</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Aliptæ, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Alkinani, <a href='#Page_289'>289</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Alkins, Henry (born 1558), <a href='#Page_363'>363</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">All, the, <a href='#Page_450'>450</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Allopathy, <a href='#Page_447'>447</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Almamon, <a href='#Page_289'>289</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Aloes, <a href='#Page_275'>275</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Alphanus Secundus (c. 1050), <a href='#Page_310'>310</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Althaus, J., <a href='#Page_458'>458</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Alum, <a href='#Page_486'>486</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Amaurosis, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Amazon, aborigines of the, their medicine men, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— — their intoxicating drink, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Ambre</i> or <i>Embre</i>, an Egyptian medical book, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">America, discovery of, <a href='#Page_345'>345</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">American medical education, <a href='#Page_435'>435</a>, <a href='#Page_436'>436</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Ammon, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Ammonia, <a href='#Page_487'>487</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Ammoniacum, <a href='#Page_275'>275</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Ammonius of Alexandria (<span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 283-247), <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Amputations, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— in Egyptian surgery, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Amulets, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a>-265, <a href='#Page_327'>327</a>, <a href='#Page_398'>398</a>, <a href='#Page_404'>404</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— of the Jews, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_490">490</span></li>

<li class="indx">Amussat, <a href='#Page_458'>458</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Anæsthesia, how anciently produced, <a href='#Page_310'>310</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Anæsthetics, <a href='#Page_449'>449</a>, <a href='#Page_464'>464</a>-466, <a href='#Page_480'>480</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Anathemata, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Anatomy, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a>, <a href='#Page_231'>231</a>, <a href='#Page_326'>326</a>, <a href='#Page_336'>336</a>, <a href='#Page_364'>364</a>, <a href='#Page_365'>365</a>, <a href='#Page_381'>381</a>, <a href='#Page_390'>390</a>, <a href='#Page_391'>391</a>, <a href='#Page_436'>436</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— of ancient Egyptians, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— at Alexandria, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— in England, <a href='#Page_461'>461</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— at Oxford, <a href='#Page_381'>381</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— in Rome, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>, <a href='#Page_215'>215</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— at Salerno, <a href='#Page_313'>313</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— well understood by Hippocrates, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— human, its revival in Europe, <a href='#Page_325'>325</a>, <a href='#Page_326'>326</a>, <a href='#Page_351'>351</a>, <a href='#Page_365'>365</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— comparative, <a href='#Page_375'>375</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— and physiology have made no progress in China, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Anaxagoras (born about 499 <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>), <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Anaximander (born 610 <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>), <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Anaximenes, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Ancestor-worship in connection with disease, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Ancient Medicine</i>, treatise by Hippocrates, <a href='#Page_175'>175</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Andreæ, J. V. (1586-1654), <a href='#Page_370'>370</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Andromachus, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Andry, N. (c. 1701), <a href='#Page_471'>471</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Anel (1741-1801), <a href='#Page_433'>433</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Anel, D. (1679-1730), <a href='#Page_432'>432</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Aneurism, <a href='#Page_235'>235</a>, <a href='#Page_389'>389</a>, <a href='#Page_432'>432</a>, <a href='#Page_434'>434</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Angakoks</i>, priest-physicians of the Inoits, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Angelic presidents of medicine, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Anger of gods as the cause of disease, <a href='#Page_270'>270</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— of demons a cause of disease, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Anglicanus, Gilbertus, <a href='#Page_337'>337</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Anglo-Saxon medicine, <a href='#Page_273'>273</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Animals and toxicology, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— experiments on, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a>, <a href='#Page_217'>217</a>, <a href='#Page_378'>378</a>, <a href='#Page_379'>379</a>, <a href='#Page_436'>436</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— their medicine and surgery, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Animism, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Anthropology, <a href='#Page_450'>450</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Antidotes, <a href='#Page_416'>416</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— for poisons, experiments with, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Antidotarium</i>, <a href='#Page_313'>313</a>, <a href='#Page_363'>363</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Anti-fat, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Antilles Indians, their exorcism of diseases, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Antimony, <a href='#Page_487'>487</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Antioquia, Indians of, poisoners of wells, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Antiseptic surgery, <a href='#Page_477'>477</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— treatment, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Antonius Musa, <a href='#Page_213'>213</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Antyllus (c. <a href='#Page_300'>300</a> <i>A.D.</i>), 235.</li>

<li class="indx">Anubis, Egyptian god, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Apaches consider drunkenness a religious duty, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Apis, Egyptian god, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Apollo the healer, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Apollonius of Tyana, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Apoplexy, Hippocrates on, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— exorcised by rice, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Apothecaries, laws relating to, <a href='#Page_317'>317</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Aquinas, Thomas (1225-1274), <a href='#Page_321'>321</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Arabian medicine, <a href='#Page_288'>288</a>, <a href='#Page_291'>291</a>, <a href='#Page_311'>311</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Aranzi, J. C. (1530-1589), <a href='#Page_367'>367</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Arawaks of Surinam, their birth customs, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Arbuthnot, J. (1658-1735), <a href='#Page_451'>451</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Archagathus (<span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 219), first regular practitioner in Rome, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Archeus, <a href='#Page_380'>380</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Archiatri, the, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Archigenes of Apamœa (circ. <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>-117), <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Archimatthæus, <a href='#Page_311'>311</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Aretæus of Cappadocia (1st cent.), <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Aristotle (born <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 334), <a href='#Page_192'>192</a>, <a href='#Page_384'>384</a>, <a href='#Page_421'>421</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Armstrong, G., <a href='#Page_439'>439</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Arneman, J. (1763-1807), <a href='#Page_435'>435</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Arnica, <a href='#Page_350'>350</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Arnold of Villa Nova (1235-1312), <a href='#Page_326'>326</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Arnot, N., <a href='#Page_478'>478</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Arrack, “the Christian deity,” <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">“Arrows” as warrants to disease-spirits in China, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Arrow-poison of Indians, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Arsenic, <a href='#Page_488'>488</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Artemis, goddess of health, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Arteries, ligation of, <a href='#Page_217'>217</a>, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a>, <a href='#Page_245'>245</a>, <a href='#Page_368'>368</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— twisting of bleeding, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>, <a href='#Page_368'>368</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Aryans, the, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Asclepiades of Prusa (1st cent. <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>), <a href='#Page_212'>212</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— schools of the, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Asclepiadists, <a href='#Page_213'>213</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Asclepiads, the, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Ashwins</i>, physicians of the Hindu gods, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Asoka established hospitals in India, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— royal patron of medicine, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Assellius, C. (1581-1626), <a href='#Page_390'>390</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Assyrians, their medicine, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Asthma, remedies for, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Astigmatism, <a href='#Page_463'>463</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Astringents, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Astrology in medicine, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>, <a href='#Page_319'>319</a>, <a href='#Page_334'>334</a>, <a href='#Page_335'>335</a>, <a href='#Page_351'>351</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Astruc, J. (1684-1766), <a href='#Page_429'>429</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Athenæus of Cilicia (c. <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 69), <a href='#Page_227'>227</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Athens, plague of, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Athletes rubbed with oil, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Atomic philosophy, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— theory, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>, <a href='#Page_449'>449</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Atoms, doctrine of the, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Auenbrugger, L. (1722-1809), <a href='#Page_453'>453</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Auscultation, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>, <a href='#Page_453'>453</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Australia, aborigines of, their superstitions, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Australian tribes, their medical practice, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>.

<span class="pagenum" id="Page_491">491</span></li>

<li class="indx">Australian-Tasmanian district, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Autmoins</i>, diviners of North America, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Automatism, <a href='#Page_379'>379</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Ava, drink made from, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Avenzoar (12th cent.), <a href='#Page_297'>297</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Averroes (born <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 1126), <a href='#Page_297'>297</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Avicenna (born <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 980), <a href='#Page_296'>296</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Ayur Veda</i>, the, Hindu medical classic, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Aztecs, hospitals of the, <a href='#Page_239'>239</a>.</li>


<li class="ifrst">B.</li>

<li class="indx">Baas, J. H., <a href='#Page_466'>466</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Babhata on Hindu medicine, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Babylon, captivity of Jews in, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Babylonian religion, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Babylonians, their medicine, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Bacchic orgies, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Bacchus, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Backtischwah, <a href='#Page_290'>290</a>, <a href='#Page_291'>291</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Bacon, Francis (1561-1626), <a href='#Page_377'>377</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Bacon, Roger (1214-1298), <a href='#Page_322'>322</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Bacteria, <a href='#Page_472'>472</a>, <a href='#Page_473'>473</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Bacteriologists, <a href='#Page_480'>480</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Bacteriology anticipated by Empedocles, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Badaga folk, their treatment of pregnant women, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— their insurance against disease, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Baer, <a href='#Page_481'>481</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Bafiotes of South Guinea, their surgery, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Baghdad, medical schools of, <a href='#Page_291'>291</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Baillie, M. (1761-1823), <a href='#Page_454'>454</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Baillou, G. (1536-1614), <a href='#Page_363'>363</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Bandages, waxed, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Bandaging of mummies, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Banishing disease-demons, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Bannister, John, <a href='#Page_363'>363</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Barbers and surgery, <a href='#Page_317'>317</a>, <a href='#Page_434'>434</a>, <a href='#Page_435'>435</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— and surgeons, their fellowship, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a>, <a href='#Page_354'>354</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Barth, J. (1745-1818), <a href='#Page_463'>463</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Bartholin, T. (1619-1680), <a href='#Page_376'>376</a>, <a href='#Page_390'>390</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Bartholomæus, <a href='#Page_314'>314</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Bartholomew’s Hospital, London, <a href='#Page_359'>359</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— Hospital medical school, <a href='#Page_459'>459</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Baschkirs expel devils of disease, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Bassi, <a href='#Page_473'>473</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Bastian, H. C. (b. 1837), <a href='#Page_458'>458</a>, <a href='#Page_472'>472</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Basutos, their theory of diseases, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Baths, <a href='#Page_400'>400</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Bayle, G. L. (1774-1816), <a href='#Page_453'>453</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Bayle, P. (1647-1706), <a href='#Page_380'>380</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Beale, L. S. (b. 1828), <a href='#Page_480'>480</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Beans sacred to Pythagoreans, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Beclard, J. (1818-1887), <a href='#Page_458'>458</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Beelzebub, god of medicine, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— cast out by Beelzebub, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Beer of the Himalayas, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Beer, G. J. (1663-1821), <a href='#Page_463'>463</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Beetle, an emblem, <a href='#Page_250'>250</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Behaviour of doctors, <a href='#Page_312'>312</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Bell, B. (1763-1820), <a href='#Page_459'>459</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Belladonna eaten by birds and herbivora, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Bellini, <a href='#Page_420'>420</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Bells, church, medicine drunk out of, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Benares, a seat of Buddhist medicine, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Benedict, St., <a href='#Page_300'>300</a>, <a href='#Page_308'>308</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Benivieni, A. (c. 1500), <a href='#Page_352'>352</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Bennett, J. H. (1812-1875), <a href='#Page_454'>454</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Bentley, Prof., on new American remedies, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Berberine, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Berenger of Carpi (died 1527), <a href='#Page_361'>361</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Bernard, C. (1813-1878), <a href='#Page_456'>456</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Bernard the Provincial, <a href='#Page_315'>315</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Bernouelli, J. and D., <a href='#Page_420'>420</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Bert, P. (1833-1886), <a href='#Page_457'>457</a>, <a href='#Page_474'>474</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Bertharius (about 856), <a href='#Page_310'>310</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Berthollet, <a href='#Page_448'>448</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Bertrandi (1723-1797), <a href='#Page_433'>433</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Berzelius (1779-1848), <a href='#Page_449'>449</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Bethesda, pool of, <a href='#Page_400'>400</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Bezoar stone, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Bible and demoniacal theory of epilepsy, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— diseases of, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>, <a href='#Page_432'>432</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— its superiority to other sacred books, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Bichat, M. F. X. de (1771-1802), <a href='#Page_429'>429</a>, <a href='#Page_446'>446</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Bile as the cause of sickness first suggested, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Bint-resh, the princess, cured by the god Khonsu, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Bird-surgery, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Birds as evil spirits, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— fond of toddy, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Birth customs of the Caribs, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— Arawaks, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— Land Dyaks, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— Abipones, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— Basques, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— Corsicans, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— Chinese, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— Iroquois, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— Badaga folk, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— Romans, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Bismuth, <a href='#Page_487'>487</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Black death, the, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— magic, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_410'>410</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Blackmore, R. (1650-1729), <a href='#Page_425'>425</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Blaes, G. (died 1662), <a href='#Page_390'>390</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Blane, G. (b. 1747), <a href='#Page_426'>426</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Bleeding, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a>, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a>, <a href='#Page_217'>217</a>, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a>, <a href='#Page_280'>280</a>, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— practised by savages, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— arrest of, by savages, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Blizzard, W. (1743-1835), <a href='#Page_459'>459</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">“Blood-bread” in consumption, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>.
<span class="pagenum" id="Page_492">492</span></li>

<li class="indx">Blood as food for invalids, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#Page_396'>396</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— circulation of the, <a href='#Page_385'>385</a>, <a href='#Page_389'>389</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— in medicine, <a href='#Page_396'>396</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— pressure, <a href='#Page_420'>420</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— purifiers used by negroes, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Bloodless amputations invented by Chrysippus, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Blue cohosh plant, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Blumenbach, J. F. (1752-1840), <a href='#Page_450'>450</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Bodo folk of India, their disease-demons, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Boerhaave (1668-1738), <a href='#Page_422'>422</a>, <a href='#Page_423'>423</a>, <a href='#Page_426'>426</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Bonnet, <a href='#Page_472'>472</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Book of the Dead</i>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Bora initiations of Australia, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Borax, <a href='#Page_486'>486</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Borde, Andrew (c. 1532), <a href='#Page_358'>358</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Borden, T. de (1722-1776), <a href='#Page_430'>430</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Borelli, G. A. (1608-1679), <a href='#Page_381'>381</a>, <a href='#Page_420'>420</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Borneo, birth customs in, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Botanic gardens established, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Botany, <a href='#Page_297'>297</a>, <a href='#Page_336'>336</a>, <a href='#Page_351'>351</a>, <a href='#Page_363'>363</a>, <a href='#Page_426'>426</a>, <a href='#Page_427'>427</a>, <a href='#Page_438'>438</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Boulimia, a species of hunger, <a href='#Page_197'>197</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Bowls for medicine, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Box-bark poultices, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Boyer, A. (1757-1833), <a href='#Page_461'>461</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Boyl-Ya</i>, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Boyle, Robert (1626-1691), <a href='#Page_378'>378</a>, <a href='#Page_379'>379</a>, <a href='#Page_381'>381</a>, <a href='#Page_419'>419</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Brahmanism, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Brahmans forbidden by Menu to become doctors, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— their knowledge of medicine, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Braid, J., <a href='#Page_457'>457</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Brain, anatomy of, <a href='#Page_365'>365</a>, <a href='#Page_391'>391</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— diseases, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— surgery, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>, <a href='#Page_456'>456</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— — of the Society Islanders, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Branca, <a href='#Page_368'>368</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Brandy in medicine, <a href='#Page_326'>326</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Briggs, W. (died 1704), <a href='#Page_438'>438</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Bright, R. (1789-1858), <a href='#Page_454'>454</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>British Medical Journal</i>, <a href='#Page_467'>467</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Britomartis, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Brittan, <a href='#Page_474'>474</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Broca, P. (1824-1880), <a href='#Page_458'>458</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Brodie, B. (1783-1862), <a href='#Page_459'>459</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Bromfield, W. (1717-1792), <a href='#Page_435'>435</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Bromine, <a href='#Page_487'>487</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Bronchitis, remedies for, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Bronchocele, <a href='#Page_316'>316</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Bronchotomy, <a href='#Page_364'>364</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— invented by Asclepiades, <a href='#Page_213'>213</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Broth of human flesh, a Chinese remedy, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Broussais, F. J. W. (1772-1838), <a href='#Page_446'>446</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Brown, J. (1735-1788), <a href='#Page_427'>427</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Browne, Sir Thomas (1605-1682), <a href='#Page_391'>391</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Brown-Sequard (b. 1817), <a href='#Page_456'>456</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Browning’s Poem, “Saul,” <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Bruner, J. C. (1653-1727), <a href='#Page_437'>437</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Brunhilda, a doctress, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Bruno, Giordano (1548-1600), <a href='#Page_346'>346</a>, <a href='#Page_351'>351</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Brunonian theory, <a href='#Page_427'>427</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Bucknill, J. C. (b. 1817), <a href='#Page_457'>457</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Budd, <a href='#Page_474'>474</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Buddhism, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— had a gospel for all creatures, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Buffon (1707-1788), <a href='#Page_439'>439</a>, <a href='#Page_448'>448</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Buhitos</i> of Hispaniola, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Bulleyn, William (died 1576), <a href='#Page_363'>363</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Burial customs of Lower Congo, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— of disease-demons, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Burking, <a href='#Page_461'>461</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Burma, disease-demons of, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Burns, J. (1775-1850), <a href='#Page_459'>459</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Burrows, <a href='#Page_476'>476</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Butts, William (died 1545), <a href='#Page_359'>359</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Byzantine medicine, <a href='#Page_243'>243</a>.</li>


<li class="ifrst">C.</li>

<li class="indx">Cabalism, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>, <a href='#Page_337'>337</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Cabbage, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Cactus juice an intoxicant, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Cæsalpinus, A. (1519-1603), <a href='#Page_351'>351</a>, <a href='#Page_385'>385</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Cæsarean operation in Central Africa, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— in Europe, <a href='#Page_361'>361</a>, <a href='#Page_362'>362</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Caius, John (1510-1573), <a href='#Page_360'>360</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Cajeput tree, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Calculi, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Calenda, <a href='#Page_313'>313</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Caliphs, their services to science, <a href='#Page_288'>288</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Callisen (1740-1824), <a href='#Page_433'>433</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Calumba root, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Cambodians, their exorcism of small-pox, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Cambridge University, <a href='#Page_340'>340</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Camomile, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Camper (1722-1789), <a href='#Page_435'>435</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Cancer, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a>, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Canopic jars of Egypt, <a href='#Page_63'>63</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Capillary vessels, discovery of, <a href='#Page_386'>386</a>, <a href='#Page_389'>389</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Carbonic acid, <a href='#Page_380'>380</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Cardan (1501-1576), <a href='#Page_351'>351</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Carib races, their use of cascarilla, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Carmina (magic songs), <a href='#Page_207'>207</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Carpenter, W. B., <a href='#Page_481'>481</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Carter, R. B., <a href='#Page_463'>463</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Cascarilla, its introduction into medicine, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Casdim</i> and <i>Mecasphim</i>, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Cases, collections of interesting, <a href='#Page_327'>327</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Cassava bread, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Casserius (1561-1616), <a href='#Page_364'>364</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Cassius Felix (1st cent.), <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Cassorius, <a href='#Page_390'>390</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Castor oil, its action on savages, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Castration, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Cat, Le (1700-1768), <a href='#Page_432'>432</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Catalepsy, <a href='#Page_390'>390</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Catamenial women possessed by demons, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— superstitions concerning, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>.
<span class="pagenum" id="Page_493">493</span></li>

<li class="indx">Cataract, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>, <a href='#Page_235'>235</a>, <a href='#Page_297'>297</a>, <a href='#Page_314'>314</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Catheter invented, <a href='#Page_197'>197</a>, <a href='#Page_245'>245</a>, <a href='#Page_297'>297</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Cato as a family doctor, <a href='#Page_207'>207</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Cato’s hatred of doctors, <a href='#Page_207'>207</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Cats, their use of medicines, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Caul of a child, <a href='#Page_273'>273</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— fat, superstitions concerning, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Caulophyllin, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Cauterising instruments, <a href='#Page_245'>245</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Cavendish, <a href='#Page_448'>448</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Caxiri</i>, a drink of the Brazilian Indians, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Celery, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Cellular pathology, <a href='#Page_455'>455</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Celsus, A. C. (<span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>-<span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 7), <a href='#Page_215'>215</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Ceylon, medicine in, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Chadwick, E., <a href='#Page_478'>478</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Chaldæan doctors of three classes, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Chaldæans, their medicine, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Chamberlen, H. (1664-1728), <a href='#Page_435'>435</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Chambre, Dr., <a href='#Page_358'>358</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Characts as amulets, <a href='#Page_262'>262</a>, <a href='#Page_263'>263</a>, <a href='#Page_327'>327</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Charaka, the Hindu Hippocrates, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>, <a href='#Page_289'>289</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Charas, M. (1618-1698), <a href='#Page_394'>394</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Charcot, J. M. (b. 1825), <a href='#Page_456'>456</a>, <a href='#Page_482'>482</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Charlemagne, patron of medical education, <a href='#Page_310'>310</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Charles the First, his miraculous blood, <a href='#Page_373'>373</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Charlton, W. (1619-1707), <a href='#Page_438'>438</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Charms, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a>-265, <a href='#Page_327'>327</a>, <a href='#Page_334'>334</a>, <a href='#Page_398'>398</a>, <a href='#Page_404'>404</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— largely used in Chinese practice, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— swallowed as medicine, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Chassaignac, <a href='#Page_458'>458</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Chaucer on domestic medicine, <a href='#Page_328'>328</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Cheiron, the centaur who instructed Æsculapius, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Chelius, Von (1794-1876), <a href='#Page_462'>462</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Chemistry, <a href='#Page_301'>301</a>, <a href='#Page_302'>302</a>, <a href='#Page_336'>336</a>, <a href='#Page_350'>350</a>, <a href='#Page_368'>368</a>, <a href='#Page_419'>419</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— of Egyptians, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— originated at Baghdad, <a href='#Page_291'>291</a>, <a href='#Page_293'>293</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Cheselden, W. (1688-1752), <a href='#Page_433'>433</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Chevreuil, <a href='#Page_472'>472</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Cheyne, <a href='#Page_420'>420</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">“Cheyne-Stokes respiration,” <a href='#Page_454'>454</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Child-bed described by St. Augustine, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Children’s hospitals, <a href='#Page_439'>439</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Chinese medicine, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Chloroform, <a href='#Page_464'>464</a>-466</li>

<li class="indx">Christianity, influence of, on medicine, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">“Christian science healing,” <a href='#Page_406'>406</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Christison, Robert (1797-1882), <a href='#Page_454'>454</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Chronos, Egyptian god, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Chrysippus (lived <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>th cent. <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>), <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Chthonic orgies, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Chyliferous vessels, <a href='#Page_390'>390</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Cicuta (the poison), <a href='#Page_220'>220</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Cinchona bark, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_342'>342</a>, <a href='#Page_382'>382</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Circulation of the blood, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a>, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a>, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>, <a href='#Page_325'>325</a>, <a href='#Page_351'>351</a>, <a href='#Page_361'>361</a>, <a href='#Page_364'>364</a>, <a href='#Page_365'>365</a>, <a href='#Page_378'>378</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Circumcision, its origin, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— practised by many races, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>, <a href='#Page_342'>342</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Clark, Andrew (b. 1826), <a href='#Page_455'>455</a>, <a href='#Page_484'>484</a>, <a href='#Page_485'>485</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Cleopatra, a specialist in women’s diseases, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Climacteric years, a Chaldæan doctrine, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Clinical instruction in ancient Rome, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>, <a href='#Page_368'>368</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— medicine, <a href='#Page_312'>312</a>, <a href='#Page_384'>384</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— thermometry, <a href='#Page_431'>431</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Clive and vaccination, <a href='#Page_440'>440</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Cloacina, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Club-foot, treatment of, by Hippocrates, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— tenotomy in, <a href='#Page_462'>462</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Clysters in Egyptian medicine, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Cnidian sentences, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Cnidos, school of, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Coan prognostics, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Cod-liver oil, <a href='#Page_454'>454</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Cœlius Aurelianus, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Cohn, <a href='#Page_473'>473</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Coiter, V. (1534-1600), <a href='#Page_364'>364</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Colchicum used for gout, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Cold-water dressings, <a href='#Page_433'>433</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— treatment of fever, <a href='#Page_439'>439</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Cole, <a href='#Page_420'>420</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Colic, curious remedy for, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a>, <a href='#Page_254'>254</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">College of Health in Rome (154 <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>), <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Collége de Saint Côme, <a href='#Page_323'>323</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Colles, A. (1773-1843), <a href='#Page_459'>459</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Collins, S. (d. 1710), <a href='#Page_393'>393</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Colour-blindness, <a href='#Page_449'>449</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Colours in diseases, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a>, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>, <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>, <a href='#Page_327'>327</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Columbus (d. 1559), <a href='#Page_367'>367</a>, <a href='#Page_385'>385</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Comma-bacillus, <a href='#Page_474'>474</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Comparative anatomy, <a href='#Page_192'>192</a>, <a href='#Page_391'>391</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Compass, <a href='#Page_294'>294</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Condensed milk invented, <a href='#Page_220'>220</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Confucianism the chief religion of the Chinese, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Congo tribes, their theories of disease, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Conjuring amongst savages, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Conolly, J. (1796-1866), <a href='#Page_457'>457</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Conrad, Cardinal, <a href='#Page_305'>305</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Conservative surgery, <a href='#Page_434'>434</a>, <a href='#Page_464'>464</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Constantine the Carthaginian, <a href='#Page_310'>310</a>, <a href='#Page_311'>311</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">“Constitutional irritation,” theory of, <a href='#Page_459'>459</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Consultations in ancient Rome, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Consumption, contagiousness of, <a href='#Page_363'>363</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— treated with blood-bread, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Contagion, living, <a href='#Page_473'>473</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Convalescent homes of ancient Rome, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Convulsions, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Coomboorah</i>, good spirit of Australians, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Cooper, Astley (1768-1841), <a href='#Page_459'>459</a>.
<span class="pagenum" id="Page_494">494</span></li>

<li class="indx">Copaiba, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Copho (12th cent.), <a href='#Page_313'>313</a>, <a href='#Page_314'>314</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Copland, Robert (c. 1547), <a href='#Page_359'>359</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Copper, <a href='#Page_487'>487</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Coral as a charm, <a href='#Page_410'>410</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— islanders, sorcery of, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Cordova famous for learning, <a href='#Page_292'>292</a>, <a href='#Page_293'>293</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Cordus, E. (1486-1535), <a href='#Page_352'>352</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Cordus, V. (1515-1544), <a href='#Page_352'>352</a>, <a href='#Page_363'>363</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Corpuscles of the blind discovered, <a href='#Page_389'>389</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Corsicans and the couvade, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Corumba wizards, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Corvisart, J. N. (1755-1821), <a href='#Page_453'>453</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Corybantes, the, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Cos, school of, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Cosmas and Damian, SS., <a href='#Page_234'>234</a>, <a href='#Page_323'>323</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Cosmo de Medici, <a href='#Page_373'>373</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">“Couching” for cataract, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Council of Tours (<span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 1163) degraded surgery, <a href='#Page_305'>305</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Couvade, the, described, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Cow-dung as a remedy, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— -pox, <a href='#Page_439'>439</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— -religion of the Toda tribe, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Cowper, W. (1666-1709), <a href='#Page_437'>437</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Cramp-rings, <a href='#Page_371'>371</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">“Critical days,” <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Crocodile’s dung used in medicine, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a>, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— incantation against, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Croome, W. (d. 1684), <a href='#Page_393'>393</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Croonian lectures, <a href='#Page_393'>393</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Crotona, school of, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Croup, remedies for, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#Page_363'>363</a>, <a href='#Page_369'>369</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Cruikshank, W. (1745-1800), <a href='#Page_436'>436</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Crystals, healing by, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Ctesias of Cnidus, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Cullen, W. (1710-1790), <a href='#Page_426'>426</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Culpeper (c. 1653), <a href='#Page_396'>396</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Cupping, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a>, <a href='#Page_246'>246</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Currie, J. (1756-1805), <a href='#Page_439'>439</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Cuvier, <a href='#Page_421'>421</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Cyclamen, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Cyon, E. (b. 1843), <a href='#Page_457'>457</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Cyrene, school of, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Czermak, <a href='#Page_459'>459</a>.</li>


<li class="ifrst">D.</li>

<li class="indx">Dacotas, their theories of disease-demons, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Daêvas</i>, the causes of disease amongst Parsees, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Dalton (1776-1844), <a href='#Page_449'>449</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Dancing mania, <a href='#Page_331'>331</a>, <a href='#Page_339'>339</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Danish witchcraft, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Darling river, medicine on the, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Darwin, Charles (1809-1882), <a href='#Page_451'>451</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Darwin, Erasmus (1701-1802), <a href='#Page_428'>428</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Darwinism in Hindu philosophy, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Dasyus</i>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Davaine, <a href='#Page_473'>473</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">David exorcised Saul by incantations, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Da Vinci, Leonardo (1452-1519), <a href='#Page_336'>336</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Davy (1788-1829), <a href='#Page_449'>449</a>, <a href='#Page_464'>464</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Dead, the genii of, in Egypt, <a href='#Page_63'>63</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— offence to the, as cause of disease, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Death, superstitions connected with, <a href='#Page_413'>413</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— fiends, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Decussation of optic nerves discovered, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">De Dondis, Jacob (1298-1359), <a href='#Page_326'>326</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Deities of Chinese medicine and surgery, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Demetrius of Apamœa (<span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 276), <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Democedes (6th cent. <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>), <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Democritus of Abdera (5th cent. <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>), <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Demoniacal possession in Western Africa, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Demoniacs and lunatics, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Demonology precedes theology, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Demon-theory of disease in China, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Demons of disease, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a>, <a href='#Page_327'>327</a>, <a href='#Page_332'>332</a>, <a href='#Page_346'>346</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Demonstrations of anatomy, <a href='#Page_326'>326</a>, <a href='#Page_390'>390</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Demosthenes Philalethes (c. <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 50), the oculist, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Dengen</i>, the gout demon, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Dental operations, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>, <a href='#Page_217'>217</a>, <a href='#Page_390'>390</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Dentistry, <a href='#Page_299'>299</a>, <a href='#Page_390'>390</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— of ancient Egyptians, <a href='#Page_63'>63</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Derivation and revulsion, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Desault, P. J. (1744-1795). <a href='#Page_433'>433</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Descartes (1596-1650), <a href='#Page_377'>377</a>, <a href='#Page_420'>420</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Desiderius (c. 1685), <a href='#Page_310'>310</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Development from egg, <a href='#Page_377'>377</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— understood by Pythagoras, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Devil brought up by emetics, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Dhanwantari, the Hindu Æsculapius, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Dhimal people of India, their theories of disease, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Diabetes first named and described, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Diagnosis, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— Egyptian, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Diana, goddess of health, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Diarrhœa, remedies for, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Dictionary, medical, <a href='#Page_327'>327</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Dietetics, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a>, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Dieting the sick in Homer, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Digby, Sir Kenelm, <a href='#Page_397'>397</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Digestion, <a href='#Page_419'>419</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Diktynna, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Dill, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Dimsdale, J. (1711-1800), <a href='#Page_439'>439</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Diocles Carystius, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Diogenes of Apollonia (460 <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>), <a href='#Page_160'>160</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Dionis, P. (died 1718), <a href='#Page_390'>390</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Dionysus, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— festivals of, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— mysteries of, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Dioscorides, his materia medica, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>.
<span class="pagenum" id="Page_495">495</span></li>

<li class="indx">Diotima, the Athenian prophetess, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Discovery of causes, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Disease, a punishment for sin, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— -demons, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— — of Egypt, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— dispelled by drumming, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— goddesses of the Romans, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— -making in the New Hebrides, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— personification of, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— -spirits, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_327'>327</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— theory of, in Bible, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— theories of the Greeks, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— -winds, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Diseases as personages, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— blown away, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— caused by offended dead, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— — ghosts, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— the consequences of sin in previous states of existence, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— of the Bible, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— treated by magic, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_351'>351</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Disgusting remedies, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a>, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>, <a href='#Page_394'>394</a>-397.</li>

<li class="indx">Dislocations well treated by Hippocrates, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Dissection, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a>, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>, <a href='#Page_325'>325</a>, <a href='#Page_326'>326</a>, <a href='#Page_379'>379</a>, <a href='#Page_390'>390</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— of the human body, <a href='#Page_326'>326</a>, <a href='#Page_361'>361</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— — practised in time of Hippocrates, <a href='#Page_174'>174</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— — in India, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Dittany eaten by wounded goats, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Diuretic medicines, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Divination and physic, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_269'>269</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— by teraphim, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Dobbo, evil spirits of the Watje, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Doctor, title of, <a href='#Page_307'>307</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Dodart, <a href='#Page_420'>420</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Dogmatic school, the, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Dog-rose, why so called, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Dogs, their use of natural medicines, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Domestic medicine of middle ages, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Donzellini, <a href='#Page_420'>420</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Douglas, J. (1675-1742), <a href='#Page_426'>426</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Drake, J. (1667-1707), <a href='#Page_431'>431</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Dran, Le (1685-1770), <a href='#Page_432'>432</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Dreams, the origin of belief in the soul and future life, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Druggists of ancient Rome, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Druids, medicine of the, <a href='#Page_269'>269</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Drum of the ear first described, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Drums, use of, in scaring disease-demons, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Drunkenness as a religious duty, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Dualism in Accadian philosophy, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Dubois, Jacques (1478-1555), <a href='#Page_364'>364</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Duchenne, G. B., <a href='#Page_457'>457</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Dumas (1800-1884), <a href='#Page_449'>449</a>, <a href='#Page_464'>464</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Duncan, M., <a href='#Page_465'>465</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Dung in medicine, <a href='#Page_396'>396</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Dusch, Van, <a href='#Page_472'>472</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Dyaks of Borneo, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Dyonisia, the, drunkenness at, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Dysentery, remedies for, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Dyspepsia, remedies for, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>.</li>


<li class="ifrst">E.</li>

<li class="indx">Eagle stone, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Ear, anatomy of, <a href='#Page_361'>361</a>, <a href='#Page_367'>367</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— bones of, <a href='#Page_337'>337</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— diseases, <a href='#Page_217'>217</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Earth, edible, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Eastern Inoits, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Ebers papyrus, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Ebn Albiathar (died about 1197), <a href='#Page_297'>297</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Ecclesiasticus probably written by a physician, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Eclectics, sect of the, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Edinburgh College of Physicians, <a href='#Page_373'>373</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— Medical School, <a href='#Page_425'>425</a>, <a href='#Page_436'>436</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Education of physicians, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>, <a href='#Page_305'>305</a>, <a href='#Page_317'>317</a>, <a href='#Page_426'>426</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Edward the Confessor, St., <a href='#Page_372'>372</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Egypt, its great antiquity, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Egyptian medicine, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Ehrenberg, <a href='#Page_473'>473</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Eir, goddess of physicians, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Elder, the, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Electricity, <a href='#Page_427'>427</a>, <a href='#Page_449'>449</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— first used in medicine, <a href='#Page_215'>215</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Electro-therapeutics, <a href='#Page_457'>457</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Elementary bodies, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Elements as causes of disease, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— in Ovid’s metamorphoses, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Elephantiasis, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— first described, <a href='#Page_213'>213</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Elixir of life, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>, <a href='#Page_396'>396</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Elliotson, J., <a href='#Page_430'>430</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Embalmers of Egypt, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>, <a href='#Page_63'>63</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Embryotomy, <a href='#Page_294'>294</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Emetics, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Empedocles (born about 490 <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>), physiologist and philosopher, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Empirics, school of the, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Empiric tripod, the, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a>, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Empyema, how treated by Hippocrates, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Enchanters, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Enemas used by Mongols, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Engineering and physiology, <a href='#Page_421'>421</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Epidaurus, temple of Æsculapius at, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Epidemics, theory of, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— of middle ages, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a>-332.</li>

<li class="indx">Epilepsy, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— and demoniacal possession, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— in the New Testament, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Epimenedes, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Epione (the Soother), <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Episynthetics, sect of the, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Epsom salts, <a href='#Page_438'>438</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Erasistratus of Iulis (about <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> <a href='#Page_340'>340</a>-280), <a href='#Page_196'>196</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Erasmus, <a href='#Page_357'>357</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Erichsen, J. E. (b. 1818), <a href='#Page_460'>460</a>.
<span class="pagenum" id="Page_496">496</span></li>

<li class="indx">Erysipelas, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Esmarch, F. (b. 1823), <a href='#Page_462'>462</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Esmun, Phœnician god, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Esquimaux, an intermediate type between past and present, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Essenes, Jewish sect of, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Esthonians, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Ether, <a href='#Page_352'>352</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— as an anæsthetic, <a href='#Page_464'>464</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Ethics, medical, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Etienne, Charles (1503-1564), <a href='#Page_364'>364</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Etiology, <a href='#Page_446'>446</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Etiquette of physicians, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>, <a href='#Page_298'>298</a>, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Etruscans, their science, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Eucalyptus, a popular remedy of Australian tribes, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Eudemus (<span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 15), <a href='#Page_214'>214</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Euphorbius, <a href='#Page_213'>213</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Euryphon of Cnidos, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Eustachian tube, <a href='#Page_367'>367</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Eustachius, <a href='#Page_367'>367</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Evil eye, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_410'>410</a>, <a href='#Page_411'>411</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Examinations instituted at Montpellier, <a href='#Page_305'>305</a>, <a href='#Page_384'>384</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Excitability, doctrine of, <a href='#Page_427'>427</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Excitement, theory of, <a href='#Page_446'>446</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Exorcising disease-demons, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>, <a href='#Page_327'>327</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Exorcisms, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>, <a href='#Page_327'>327</a>, <a href='#Page_411'>411</a>, <a href='#Page_412'>412</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Expectant treatment, <a href='#Page_382'>382</a>, <a href='#Page_424'>424</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Experimental medicine, <a href='#Page_369'>369</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— physiology, <a href='#Page_212'>212</a>, <a href='#Page_378'>378</a>, <a href='#Page_379'>379</a>, <a href='#Page_436'>436</a>, <a href='#Page_456'>456</a>, <a href='#Page_457'>457</a>, <a href='#Page_483'>483</a>-485.</li>

<li class="indx">Experiments, surgical, how practised by Hindus, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— their prerogatives, <a href='#Page_322'>322</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Extension, surgical, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Eye, construction of the, <a href='#Page_337'>337</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— diseases treated in Egypt with human brains, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— doctors satirised by Martial, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>.</li>


<li class="ifrst">F.</li>

<li class="indx">Fabricius (1557-1619), <a href='#Page_364'>364</a>, <a href='#Page_385'>385</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Facies Hippocratica</i>, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Faith healing, its rationale, <a href='#Page_320'>320</a>, <a href='#Page_333'>333</a>, <a href='#Page_481'>481</a>, <a href='#Page_482'>482</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Fallopian tubes, <a href='#Page_366'>366</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Fallopius, Gabriel (1523-1562), <a href='#Page_366'>366</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Faraday, M. (1791-1867), <a href='#Page_449'>449</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Farr, W., <a href='#Page_478'>478</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Faye, Le, <a href='#Page_433'>433</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Fees, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>, <a href='#Page_323'>323</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— of Chinese doctors, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— the largest on record, <a href='#Page_196'>196</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— of Welsh court physicians, <a href='#Page_282'>282</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— — surgeons, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— of Parsee doctors, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Females, their marvellous influence, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Fennel, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Fermentation, <a href='#Page_471'>471</a>, <a href='#Page_473'>473</a>, <a href='#Page_474'>474</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Fermented liquors, how discovered, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Fern (male), remedy for tape-worm, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Ferrier, D. (b. 1843), <a href='#Page_457'>457</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Fetish worship, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Fetishism of the Malagasy, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Fever and stench goddesses, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— -demons, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— -puppets, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— spirit, the, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Fevers, treatment of, <a href='#Page_383'>383</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— and ague, remedies for, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a>, <a href='#Page_342'>342</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Feverfew (the herb), <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Fiends as the cause of insanity, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Fiend-sickness, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Final causes believed in by Galen, <a href='#Page_230'>230</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Finnish mythology, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— theories of disease, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Finno-Tartarian magic, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Fire, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— -worship, <a href='#Page_273'>273</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Fish capturing by poisons, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Fistula treated by the ligature, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>, <a href='#Page_297'>297</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Flap operation, <a href='#Page_229'>229</a>, <a href='#Page_389'>389</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Flint instruments in surgery, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Flogging as a remedy, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Flourens, P. (1794-1867), <a href='#Page_456'>456</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Fludd, Robert (b. 1574), <a href='#Page_368'>368</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Fœtus, anatomy of, <a href='#Page_364'>364</a>, <a href='#Page_367'>367</a>, <a href='#Page_425'>425</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Fomentations, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Food remains in sorcery, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Forbes, J. (1787-1861), <a href='#Page_467'>467</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Forceps, <a href='#Page_244'>244</a>, <a href='#Page_245'>245</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— in obstetric surgery, <a href='#Page_435'>435</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Forensic medicine, <a href='#Page_376'>376</a>, <a href='#Page_454'>454</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Foster, M., <a href='#Page_483'>483</a>, <a href='#Page_484'>484</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Fothergill, J. (1712-1780), <a href='#Page_436'>436</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Fourcroy, <a href='#Page_448'>448</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Four doctors, the, <a href='#Page_314'>314</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— masters, the, <a href='#Page_314'>314</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Fractures, ancient treatment of, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a>, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">France, anatomy in, <a href='#Page_364'>364</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Franco, Pierre (c. 1560), <a href='#Page_362'>362</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Frank, J. P., <a href='#Page_429'>429</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Franklin, <a href='#Page_450'>450</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Frascatorius (1483-1553), <a href='#Page_363'>363</a>, <a href='#Page_388'>388</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Frederic II., his services to medical education, <a href='#Page_316'>316</a>, <a href='#Page_317'>317</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Freemasonry, <a href='#Page_370'>370</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Freind, J. (1675-1728), <a href='#Page_432'>432</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Fuh-Hi</i>, the deity of Chinese doctors, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Fuller, T. (d. 1734), <a href='#Page_438'>438</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Fumitory and exorcism, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Funeral ceremonies, physicians not to be present at, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— offerings of the Egyptian fellahs, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— superstitions, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Furnivall, Dr., on the medicine of the Tudor reigns, <a href='#Page_359'>359</a>.
<span class="pagenum" id="Page_497">497</span></li>


<li class="ifrst">G.</li>

<li class="indx">Gaddesden, John of, <a href='#Page_327'>327</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Galbanum, <a href='#Page_275'>275</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Gale, Thomas (1507-1586), <a href='#Page_354'>354</a>, <a href='#Page_355'>355</a>, <a href='#Page_363'>363</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Galen (b. <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 170), <a href='#Page_229'>229</a>, <a href='#Page_385'>385</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Gall, F. J. (1757-1828), <a href='#Page_456'>456</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Gall-stones, <a href='#Page_363'>363</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Galvani, <a href='#Page_450'>450</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Ganglion, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Gariopontus (about 1056), <a href='#Page_310'>310</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Gastroraphy in the time of the Vikings, <a href='#Page_372'>372</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Gaunab</i>, the Hottentot disease-demon, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Gay-Lussac, <a href='#Page_449'>449</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Germ theory of disease, <a href='#Page_432'>432</a>, <a href='#Page_452'>452</a>, <a href='#Page_471'>471</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Gesner, Conrad (1516-1565), <a href='#Page_346'>346</a>, <a href='#Page_351'>351</a>, <a href='#Page_359'>359</a>, <a href='#Page_362'>362</a>, <a href='#Page_363'>363</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Geynes, Dr. (died 1563), <a href='#Page_360'>360</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Ghosts as causing diseases, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Gilbert, William (died 1540), <a href='#Page_361'>361</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Giliani, Alassandra, a lady anatomist, <a href='#Page_326'>326</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Ginseng, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Gippsland, natives of, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Girdles, magic, <a href='#Page_259'>259</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Glacial period of the Inoits, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Gladstone, Mr., on the origin of surgery, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Glands, anatomy of the, <a href='#Page_390'>390</a>, <a href='#Page_437'>437</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— of intestines discovered, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Glisson, Francis, <a href='#Page_389'>389</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Gnosticism and amulets, <a href='#Page_252'>252</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Goddard, J. (died 1674), <a href='#Page_389'>389</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Gods, plants sacred to the, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Goethe, <a href='#Page_452'>452</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Goitre, <a href='#Page_459'>459</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Gold, <a href='#Page_488'>488</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Gold Coast negroes trace diseases to ghosts, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Gooch, B., <a href='#Page_433'>433</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Gordonius, <a href='#Page_327'>327</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Goulston, Thomas (d. 1632), <a href='#Page_380'>380</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Gout, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a>, <a href='#Page_280'>280</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Graaf, De, <a href='#Page_339'>339</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Gräfe, Von, <a href='#Page_459'>459</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Gradibus, M., de, <a href='#Page_337'>337</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Graves, superstitions connected with, <a href='#Page_413'>413</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Graves, R. J. (1797-1853), <a href='#Page_454'>454</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Greatrakes, Valentine, <a href='#Page_399'>399</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Gredring, J. E. (1718-1775), <a href='#Page_439'>439</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Greek medicine, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Greeks indebted to Egypt for philosophy, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Gregory, J. (1758-1822), <a href='#Page_426'>426</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Grew, N. (b. 1641), <a href='#Page_438'>438</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Gross, S. (1805-1884), <a href='#Page_462'>462</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Guaiacum, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_342'>342</a>, <a href='#Page_375'>375</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Guanches of the stone and bone epoch, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Guglielmini, <a href='#Page_420'>420</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Guinea, people of, attribute disease to enchantment, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Gunpowder, <a href='#Page_294'>294</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Guthrie, G. (1785-1856), <a href='#Page_460'>460</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Guy, <a href='#Page_478'>478</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Guy de Chauliac (b. 1300), <a href='#Page_330'>330</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Gwyddoniaid, the, Welsh men of knowledge, <a href='#Page_280'>280</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Gymnasia, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Gynæcology, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>, <a href='#Page_242'>242</a>, <a href='#Page_243'>243</a>, <a href='#Page_294'>294</a>, <a href='#Page_313'>313</a>, <a href='#Page_361'>361</a>, <a href='#Page_429'>429</a>.</li>


<li class="ifrst">H.</li>

<li class="indx">Haeckel, Ernst (b. 1834), <a href='#Page_452'>452</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Hæmorrhoids operated on by Hippocrates, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Haen, De (1704-1776), <a href='#Page_431'>431</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Haeser, H. (1811-1885), <a href='#Page_466'>466</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Hahnemann (1755-1843), <a href='#Page_446'>446</a>-448.</li>

<li class="indx">Hair, cuttings of, superstitions concerning, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— dye of Egyptians, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— superstitions concerning, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page_408'>408</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Hales, S. (1677-1761), <a href='#Page_436'>436</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Hall, M. (1790-1857), <a href='#Page_457'>457</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Haller (1708-1777), <a href='#Page_437'>437</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Hallucinations of vision first distinguished by Celsus, <a href='#Page_217'>217</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Hamey, B., <a href='#Page_389'>389</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Hantu</i> disease-spirits, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Haoma</i>, the king of healing-plants, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Hare-lip, ancient treatment of, <a href='#Page_277'>277</a>, <a href='#Page_297'>297</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Hart, Ernest (b. 1836), <a href='#Page_467'>467</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Harvey, William (1578-1657), <a href='#Page_377'>377</a>, <a href='#Page_385'>385</a>-388.</li>

<li class="indx">Hastings, C. (1794-1866), <a href='#Page_467'>467</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Havers, C. (d. 1702), <a href='#Page_425'>425</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Hayti, poisoning in, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Hea, an Accadian deity, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Head, injuries to the, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Headache, remedies for, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— cured by drum-beating, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Healing art a religion, <a href='#Page_446'>446</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— craft of Australian tribes, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Heberden, W. (1710-1801), <a href='#Page_439'>439</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Hebra (1816-1880), <a href='#Page_455'>455</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Hebrews had no magic of their own, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Hecquet, <a href='#Page_419'>419</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Hegel, G. W. F. (1770-1831), <a href='#Page_451'>451</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Hegeton, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Heidenhain, R., <a href='#Page_457'>457</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Heliodorus (c. <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 100), <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Hellebore, <a href='#Page_220'>220</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— first used by Melampus, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— its uses discovered by the goat, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Hells for Chinese physicians, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Helmholtz, H. L. (b. 1821), <a href='#Page_463'>463</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Helmont, Van, <a href='#Page_380'>380</a>, <a href='#Page_419'>419</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Hemlock, <a href='#Page_220'>220</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— eaten by goats, sheep, and horses, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Hemp intoxication, <a href='#Page_310'>310</a>.
<span class="pagenum" id="Page_498">498</span></li>

<li class="indx">Henbane eaten by sheep, cows, and pigs, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Henle, F. G. (1809-1815), <a href='#Page_452'>452</a>, <a href='#Page_473'>473</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Heracleitus of Ephesus (born about 556 <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>), <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Herbalists, <a href='#Page_359'>359</a>, <a href='#Page_369'>369</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Herb baths, <a href='#Page_401'>401</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Hermes, god of medicine, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Hermes Trismegistus, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Hermetic books, the, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a>, <a href='#Page_337'>337</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Hernia, <a href='#Page_192'>192</a>, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>, <a href='#Page_316'>316</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Herniotomy, <a href='#Page_362'>362</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Herodicus, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>, <a href='#Page_477'>477</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Herodotus on Egyptian medicine, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— found no doctors in Babylon and Assyria, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— (Roman physician), <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Herophilus of Chalcedon (about <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> <a href='#Page_335'>335</a>-280), <a href='#Page_195'>195</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Hesiod, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Highmore, N. (1613-1685), <a href='#Page_390'>390</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Hildegard, St., famous physician, <a href='#Page_307'>307</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Himly, C. (1772-1837), <a href='#Page_463'>463</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Hinduism as a creed, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Hindus, antiquity of, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Hip-joint disease, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Hippocrates (b. 460 <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>), <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— first described trepanning, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— works of, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Hippopotamus fabled to have discovered the art of bleeding, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Hispaniola, divination and physic in, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Histories of Medicine, <a href='#Page_432'>432</a>, <a href='#Page_466'>466</a>, <a href='#Page_467'>467</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Hobbes (1588-1679), <a href='#Page_379'>379</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Hodgkin, T. (1797-1866), <a href='#Page_454'>454</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Hoffmann, F. (1660-1742), <a href='#Page_421'>421</a>, <a href='#Page_422'>422</a>, <a href='#Page_424'>424</a>, <a href='#Page_472'>472</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Holy water, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— — in Babylonian sorcery, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— wells, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>, <a href='#Page_401'>401</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Home, Sir E., <a href='#Page_434'>434</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Homer, medicine of, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— on Egyptian medicines, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Homœopathy, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a>, <a href='#Page_446'>446</a>-448.</li>

<li class="indx">Honain (9th cent.), <a href='#Page_295'>295</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Hooping-cough, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Horne, Van (1621-1670), <a href='#Page_391'>391</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Horsley, V., <a href='#Page_458'>458</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Horus, Egyptian divinity, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Hospitals, their origin, <a href='#Page_239'>239</a>, <a href='#Page_240'>240</a>, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a>, <a href='#Page_294'>294</a>, <a href='#Page_341'>341</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— in India, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— and medical schools of ancient Hindus, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— at Damascus, <a href='#Page_294'>294</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Hottentots, disease-demon of the, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— practise inoculations, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Houel, N. (1520-1585), <a href='#Page_375'>375</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Howard, John (1726-1790), <a href='#Page_429'>429</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Howell, Dda (<span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 930), his medical laws, <a href='#Page_282'>282</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Huang-ti</i>, an ancient Chinese writer on medicine, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Hudibras on the couvade, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Hufeland, C. W. von (1762-1836), <a href='#Page_446'>446</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Hukeems, native doctors of India, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Human flesh in Chinese medicine, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— sacrifices and anatomy, <a href='#Page_271'>271</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— — commuted in circumcision, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Humanism, <a href='#Page_337'>337</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Humboldt, <a href='#Page_449'>449</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Humoral pathology, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a>, <a href='#Page_426'>426</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Hunter, J. (1728-1793), <a href='#Page_433'>433</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Hunter, W. (1718-1783), <a href='#Page_438'>438</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Husbands, treatment of, by Carib wives, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Hutchinson, J. (b. 1828), <a href='#Page_460'>460</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Huxley, Thomas (b. 1825), <a href='#Page_452'>452</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Hydatids of liver understood by Hippocrates, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Hydrocephalus, trephining for, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Hydrodynamics, <a href='#Page_379'>379</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Hydrogen, <a href='#Page_350'>350</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Hydrophobia, remedies for, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— superstitions, remedy for, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">“Hydrostatic test,” <a href='#Page_376'>376</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Hydro-therapeutics, <a href='#Page_467'>467</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Hygeia, goddess of health, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Hygiene, <a href='#Page_478'>478</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Hymns to cure disease, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Hypnotism, <a href='#Page_457'>457</a>.</li>


<li class="ifrst">I.</li>

<li class="indx">Iatro-chemical school, <a href='#Page_419'>419</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— -mathematical school, <a href='#Page_419'>419</a>, <a href='#Page_420'>420</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Iatrosophists, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Iberians, their birth customs, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Ibis believed to have invented clysters, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Ibn Ezra, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Iccus of Tarentum, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Ideas, the origin of, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Idiots divinely inspired, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Ignorant doctors of China have a special hell, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>I Kuang Tāi Wông</i>, the god of Chinese surgery, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Iliac passion, the, how treated, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Images of demons as talismans, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— of gods used to ward off disease-demons, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">—, wax, etc., their use in sorcery, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_405'>405</a>, <a href='#Page_406'>406</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Imhotep, the Egyptian Æsculapius, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Immortality of the soul taught by Pythagoras, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Immunity, <a href='#Page_457'>457</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Incantations against diseases, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Income of Greek physicians, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— of Roman physicians, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>, <a href='#Page_212'>212</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Incubatory sleep, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Indian Archipelago, disease spirits of, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— medicine and the Mahometans, <a href='#Page_298'>298</a>.
<span class="pagenum" id="Page_499">499</span></li>

<li class="indx">— tribes, their medicine and surgery, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Indra taught mankind the healing art, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Inductive method in science, <a href='#Page_322'>322</a>, <a href='#Page_377'>377</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Inferior laryngeal nerve discovered, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Influenza, <a href='#Page_352'>352</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Inhibitory nerves, <a href='#Page_457'>457</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Injection of drugs into veins, <a href='#Page_391'>391</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Inoculation for small-pox, <a href='#Page_425'>425</a>, <a href='#Page_439'>439</a>, <a href='#Page_440'>440</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— — practised by Chinese and other nations from the earliest times, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Inoits, their magicians, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Insane persons worshipped as divine, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Insanity considered as divine, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— diagnosis of, <a href='#Page_439'>439</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— treatment of, <a href='#Page_363'>363</a>, <a href='#Page_456'>456</a>, <a href='#Page_467'>467</a>-470.</li>

<li class="indx">Insects, immortality of, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Inspection of drug-shops, <a href='#Page_317'>317</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Instruments, surgical, <a href='#Page_244'>244</a>, <a href='#Page_433'>433</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— of Hindu surgery, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Intoxicants, universal, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Intoxication and the godhead, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— rationale of, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Inunction used by ancient Greeks, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Iodide of potassium, <a href='#Page_487'>487</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Iodine, <a href='#Page_487'>487</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Ionicus of Sardis, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Ipecacuanha, <a href='#Page_342'>342</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Iris, contractility of the, <a href='#Page_390'>390</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Iritis, <a href='#Page_463'>463</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Iron, its first use in medicine, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a>, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>, <a href='#Page_486'>486</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Iroquois, child-bearing amongst the, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Irrigation of wounds, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Irritability, doctrine of, <a href='#Page_422'>422</a>, <a href='#Page_426'>426</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Ishak Ben Soleiman (830-940), <a href='#Page_296'>296</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Isis and Osiris, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Italy, anatomy in, <a href='#Page_365'>365</a>, <a href='#Page_366'>366</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Itch-goddess, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— -mite, <a href='#Page_429'>429</a>.</li>


<li class="ifrst">J.</li>

<li class="indx">Jackson, J. H., <a href='#Page_458'>458</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Jacobus Psychristus, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Jacques, Frère (c. 1697), <a href='#Page_393'>393</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Jains, the, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Jalap, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">James, R. (1703-1776), <a href='#Page_428'>428</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Japanese medicine, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Javanese believers in animism, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Jaw, fracture of, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Jenner, E. (1749-1823), <a href='#Page_439'>439</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Jenner, William (b. 1815), <a href='#Page_454'>454</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Jewish physicians at Salerno, <a href='#Page_309'>309</a>, <a href='#Page_310'>310</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— religion, its comparative purity, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Jews, the medicine of the, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— the magic-mongers of Rome, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— their “golden age,” <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Jíwaka, Buddha’s physician, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">John of Salisbury on doctors, <a href='#Page_306'>306</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Jones, <a href='#Page_458'>458</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Joyliffe, George (died 1658), <a href='#Page_381'>381</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Julian (<span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 140), <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Jung-Stilling (1740-1817), <a href='#Page_463'>463</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Jurin, <a href='#Page_420'>420</a>.</li>


<li class="ifrst">K.</li>

<li class="indx">Kabeiri gods, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Kaffirs, theories of disease amongst, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Kalevala of the Finns, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— the, <a href='#Page_408'>408</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Kalmucks, their exorcism of disease, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Karens of Burmah trace diseases to the rainbow, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Karma</i>, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Kava intoxication, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Keill, <a href='#Page_420'>420</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Keith, <a href='#Page_465'>465</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Kern, Von (1769-1829), <a href='#Page_462'>462</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Kerner, <a href='#Page_476'>476</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Khonds of Orissa and the small-pox, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— all get royally drunk, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Kidney, the, <a href='#Page_389'>389</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— fat of a bewitched man, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">King’s evil, <a href='#Page_371'>371</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Kircher, A. (1598-1680), <a href='#Page_471'>471</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Kirghis cure disease by sorcery, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Knots (magic) as cures for disease, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— as charms, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— in magic, <a href='#Page_408'>408</a>, <a href='#Page_409'>409</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Knox, <a href='#Page_461'>461</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Koch, R. (b. 1843), <a href='#Page_474'>474</a>, <a href='#Page_480'>480</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Kolarians of Bengal, their cure for diseases, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Kombinegherry tribe of Australia, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Komil</i>, an intoxicating drink, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Koran, <a href='#Page_293'>293</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Kousso, remedy for tape-worm, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>.</li>


<li class="ifrst">L.</li>

<li class="indx">Lacteals, the, <a href='#Page_390'>390</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Laënnec, R. T. H. (1781-1826), <a href='#Page_453'>453</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Lama doctors, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Lamarck, <a href='#Page_428'>428</a>, <a href='#Page_452'>452</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Lancets, <a href='#Page_245'>245</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Lancisi (c. 1718), <a href='#Page_472'>472</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Langenbeck, <a href='#Page_462'>462</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Langrish, B., <a href='#Page_436'>436</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Larry, J. D. (1766-1842), <a href='#Page_461'>461</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Latum, <a href='#Page_473'>473</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Laudanum, <a href='#Page_348'>348</a>, <a href='#Page_382'>382</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Lavoisier, <a href='#Page_448'>448</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Law, the, of Hippocrates, <a href='#Page_178'>178</a>, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Lawrence, W. (1783-1867), <a href='#Page_460'>460</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Lead, <a href='#Page_487'>487</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Learning, the revival of, <a href='#Page_336'>336</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Lectisternes at Rome, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Lectures on medicine, <a href='#Page_305'>305</a>, <a href='#Page_426'>426</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Leech Book</i>, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Leeches first used in Europe, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— in Sanskrit works on surgery, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Leek juice, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a>.
<span class="pagenum" id="Page_500">500</span></li>

<li class="indx">Leeuwenhoeck (1632-1723), <a href='#Page_389'>389</a>, <a href='#Page_471'>471</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Legal medicine, <a href='#Page_376'>376</a>, <a href='#Page_454'>454</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— recognition of doctors in England, <a href='#Page_353'>353</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Lemery, <a href='#Page_419'>419</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Lemon juice in scurvy, <a href='#Page_374'>374</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Lenormant, Professor, on disease-demons, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Leonidas of Alexandria, <a href='#Page_229'>229</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Leprosy, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a>, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>, <a href='#Page_432'>432</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— Egyptian, cures for, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— treated with human blood, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Lettsom, J. C. (1744-1815), <a href='#Page_428'>428</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Levasseur (c. 1540), <a href='#Page_367'>367</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Lex Cornelia</i> punished negligent doctors, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Libavius, A. (1546-1616), <a href='#Page_362'>362</a>, <a href='#Page_419'>419</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Libraries, public, of Moors in Spain, <a href='#Page_292'>292</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Licking as a fomentation, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Liebig, J. (1803-1873), <a href='#Page_449'>449</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Life, indestructibility of, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Ligature of arteries, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a>, <a href='#Page_235'>235</a>, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>, <a href='#Page_296'>296</a>, <a href='#Page_368'>368</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Light and heat, undulatory theory of, <a href='#Page_337'>337</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Lime, <a href='#Page_486'>486</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Linacre, Thomas (b. 1460), <a href='#Page_346'>346</a>, <a href='#Page_358'>358</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Linnæus, <a href='#Page_472'>472</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Lisfranc, J. (1790-1847), <a href='#Page_461'>461</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Lister, <a href='#Page_472'>472</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Lister’s antiseptic surgery, <a href='#Page_477'>477</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Liston (1794-1847), <a href='#Page_460'>460</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Litany to fever, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— to disease-demons, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Literature, Greek medical, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Lithotomy, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>, <a href='#Page_215'>215</a>, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a>, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>, <a href='#Page_294'>294</a>, <a href='#Page_316'>316</a>, <a href='#Page_393'>393</a>, <a href='#Page_426'>426</a>, <a href='#Page_432'>432</a>, <a href='#Page_433'>433</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Lithotrity, <a href='#Page_459'>459</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— first practised, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>, <a href='#Page_244'>244</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Littré, M., on miracles of healing, <a href='#Page_320'>320</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Liver, <a href='#Page_364'>364</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— eaten by demons, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Lock Hospital, <a href='#Page_435'>435</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Locke, John (1632-1704), <a href='#Page_388'>388</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Logwood, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_342'>342</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">London Hospital medical school, <a href='#Page_459'>459</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Lotze, R. H. (1817-1884), <a href='#Page_451'>451</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Louhiatar</i>, the Finnish disease-demon, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Louis (1723-1792), <a href='#Page_433'>433</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Louis (1787-1872), <a href='#Page_453'>453</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Lower, R. (1631-1691), <a href='#Page_393'>393</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Lubbock, Sir John, on savages, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— on the surgery of the Society Islanders, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Lucius, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Lucky and unlucky days in medicine, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Ludford, Simon (c. 1563), <a href='#Page_360'>360</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Ludwig, D. (c. 1671), <a href='#Page_394'>394</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Lulli, Raymond (1235-1315), <a href='#Page_322'>322</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Lunatics and demoniacs, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— treated by flogging, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">“Luz,” nucleus of the resurrection of the body, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Lycanthropy, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a>, <a href='#Page_470'>470</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Lycus (anatomist), <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Lymphatics, the, <a href='#Page_381'>381</a>, <a href='#Page_390'>390</a>.</li>


<li class="ifrst">M.</li>

<li class="indx">Machaon, son of Æsculapius, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Maclaurin, <a href='#Page_459'>459</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Madagascar, theories of disease in, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Magendie, F. (1782-1855), <a href='#Page_481'>481</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Magical <i>yarŭk</i>, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Magic in the treatment of diseases, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>, <a href='#Page_271'>271</a>, <a href='#Page_327'>327</a>, <a href='#Page_351'>351</a>, <a href='#Page_375'>375</a>, <a href='#Page_376'>376</a>, <a href='#Page_405'>405</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— Chaldæan, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— Egyptian, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— of the Finns medicinal, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— in the Talmud, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Magnesia, <a href='#Page_486'>486</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Magnus of Alexandria, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Maharncourt, Peter de, <a href='#Page_323'>323</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Mahomet’s skill in medicine, <a href='#Page_293'>293</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Maimonides (died 1198), <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>, <a href='#Page_298'>298</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Malagasy and the future life, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Malays have a special demon for each disease, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— sorcery of, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Malebranche (1638-1715), <a href='#Page_379'>379</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Malgaigne, J. (1806-1865), <a href='#Page_461'>461</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Malpighi, M. (1628-1694), <a href='#Page_386'>386</a>, <a href='#Page_389'>389</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Mandingoes, their idea of intoxication, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Mandiocca, fermentation of, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Mandrake, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Manioc plant, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Manna, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Manners and tone of good physicians, <a href='#Page_312'>312</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Manteas (<span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 250) first made a book of recipes, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Mantira people, their theory of disease, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Mantras, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Māra</i>, a demon, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Marasmus, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Marcellus, Empiricus, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>, <a href='#Page_395'>395</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Marghi people, their intoxicating drink, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Marinus (Roman anatomist), <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Marro</i>, a charm, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Martialis (<span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 150), <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Maruts</i> or Smashers, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Masks to frighten small-pox deity, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Massage, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>, <a href='#Page_212'>212</a>, <a href='#Page_399'>399</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— practised by savages, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Mata</i>, small-pox goddess of India, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Materialism, <a href='#Page_451'>451</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Materia Medica, <a href='#Page_220'>220</a>, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a>, <a href='#Page_307'>307</a>, <a href='#Page_315'>315</a>, <a href='#Page_323'>323</a>. <a href='#Page_391'>391</a>, <a href='#Page_392'>392</a>, <a href='#Page_394'>394</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— of Egyptians, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— of India, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>.
<span class="pagenum" id="Page_501">501</span></li>

<li class="indx">Mathematical school of medicine, <a href='#Page_381'>381</a>, <a href='#Page_419'>419</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Matico, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Matter, eternity of, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Maudsley, H. (b. 1835), <a href='#Page_457'>457</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Maxims of Welsh physicians, <a href='#Page_283'>283</a>-285.</li>

<li class="indx">Max Müller on the Esthonians, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Maykeeka</i>, doctor of New South Wales, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Mayow, <a href='#Page_423'>423</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">“Me,” “the essential part of,” <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Mead, R. (1673-1754), <a href='#Page_431'>431</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Measles, goddesses of, in China, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Mecasphim</i> and <i>Casdim</i>, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Mechanical school of medicine, <a href='#Page_420'>420</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Meckel, J. F. (1724-1774), <a href='#Page_437'>437</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Medical education in Egypt, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— in India, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— in Rome, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— guild in Rome, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— literature as studied in Chaucer’s time, <a href='#Page_329'>329</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— police, <a href='#Page_429'>429</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Medicinal plants tenanted by good spirits, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Medicine and civilization, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— its origin, mysterious, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— and philosophy of Pythagoras, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— as the propitiation of evil spirits, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— as a totem, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— “the great,” <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— dance, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— men, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#Page_248'>248</a>, <a href='#Page_404'>404</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— — their secret language, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Medicines, who discovered them? <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Medico-Chemical sect, the, <a href='#Page_380'>380</a>, <a href='#Page_419'>419</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Mediums, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— as Chinese doctors, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Meges (<span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 20), <a href='#Page_214'>214</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Megrims, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Meibom, H. (1638-1700), <a href='#Page_438'>438</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Melampus, the first physician, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a>, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Melancholia, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Meletius (4th cent.), <a href='#Page_236'>236</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Menders of souls, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Mental diseases, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Mentik</i>, the cause of rice disease, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Menu, code of, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Mercury, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>, <a href='#Page_350'>350</a>, <a href='#Page_487'>487</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— in syphilis, <a href='#Page_431'>431</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">“Merry Andrew,” <a href='#Page_358'>358</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Mesmer, F. A. (1733-1815), <a href='#Page_430'>430</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Mesmerism, <a href='#Page_235'>235</a>, <a href='#Page_430'>430</a>, <a href='#Page_457'>457</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Mesue the younger (about 1015), <a href='#Page_296'>296</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Metallurgy, <a href='#Page_323'>323</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Metempsychosis, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Methodists, school of the, <a href='#Page_212'>212</a>, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Metschnikoff, <a href='#Page_475'>475</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Mexicans, their beer, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Mexico, <a href='#Page_341'>341</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Mezûza</i> wards off demons, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Microbes, <a href='#Page_472'>472</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Microscope in anatomy, <a href='#Page_389'>389</a>, <a href='#Page_390'>390</a>, <a href='#Page_471'>471</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Midwifery, <a href='#Page_295'>295</a>, <a href='#Page_313'>313</a>, <a href='#Page_361'>361</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Midwives, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>, <a href='#Page_362'>362</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Millet-seed beer, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Millington, T. (c. 1676), <a href='#Page_391'>391</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Mind cures, <a href='#Page_481'>481</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Mineral medicines, <a href='#Page_350'>350</a>, <a href='#Page_486'>486</a>-488.</li>

<li class="indx">— medicines used by Rhazes, <a href='#Page_296'>296</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— waters, <a href='#Page_400'>400</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Mineralogy, <a href='#Page_293'>293</a>, <a href='#Page_351'>351</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Minerva invoked by physicians, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Miracles of healing, <a href='#Page_481'>481</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— at the tomb of St. Louis, <a href='#Page_320'>320</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— of Tartar surgery, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Mistletoe in medicine, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>, <a href='#Page_270'>270</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Mithridates the Great, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">“Mithridaticum,” <a href='#Page_201'>201</a>, <a href='#Page_375'>375</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Mivart, George (b. 1827), <a href='#Page_452'>452</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Mohammedan medicine, <a href='#Page_287'>287</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Molee</i> charms, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Moly, the, of Homer, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Monasteries, rise of the, <a href='#Page_300'>300</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Monastic botany, <a href='#Page_369'>369</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Mondino, the father of modern anatomy (c. 1315), <a href='#Page_325'>325</a>, <a href='#Page_385'>385</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Mongolian peoples, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— Shamanism, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Mongols, their knowledge of anatomy, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Mongoose, its use of antidote to snake-poison, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Monotheism of the Bible, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Monro, A. (1697-1767), <a href='#Page_436'>436</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Montagu, Lady W. (1690-1762), <a href='#Page_439'>439</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Montaigne, Michel de (1533-1592), <a href='#Page_351'>351</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Monte Cassino, <a href='#Page_308'>308</a>, <a href='#Page_309'>309</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Montpellier, its services to education, <a href='#Page_305'>305</a>, <a href='#Page_384'>384</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— school of, <a href='#Page_303'>303</a>, <a href='#Page_304'>304</a>, <a href='#Page_384'>384</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Moonlight, injurious effects of, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Morand (1697-1773), <a href='#Page_432'>432</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Morbus sacer</i>, <a href='#Page_181'>181</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Morgagni, G. B. (1682-1772), <a href='#Page_437'>437</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Morgan, J. (1736-1789), <a href='#Page_427'>427</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Moschion Diorthortes (c. <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>th cent.), <a href='#Page_242'>242</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Moses (<span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 1490), <a href='#Page_477'>477</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Mosques as universities, <a href='#Page_292'>292</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Moss from a dead man’s skull, <a href='#Page_397'>397</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Mott, V. (1785-1865), <a href='#Page_462'>462</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Mountain peaks invoked, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Mouse-dung as a remedy, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a>, <a href='#Page_395'>395</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Muffet, Thomas (died 1604), <a href='#Page_361'>361</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Müller (c. 1786), <a href='#Page_472'>472</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Murchison, C. (1830-1879), <a href='#Page_454'>454</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Mūrŭp</i>, a disembodied spirit, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Musandinus, <a href='#Page_315'>315</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Music in the treatment of disease, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Mussel shells as surgical instruments, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Mustard, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Myddvai, physicians of, <a href='#Page_281'>281</a>, <a href='#Page_283'>283</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Myrepsus, Nicholas (c. 1250), <a href='#Page_323'>323</a>.
<span class="pagenum" id="Page_502">502</span></li>

<li class="indx">Mystical school, <a href='#Page_419'>419</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Mystic sign in Hindu medicine, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Myxoedema, <a href='#Page_458'>458</a>.</li>


<li class="ifrst">N.</li>

<li class="indx">Naboth, M. (1675-1721), <a href='#Page_437'>437</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Naegeli, <a href='#Page_473'>473</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Nail-parings, superstitions concerning, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page_407'>407</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Namtar</i> and <i>Idpa</i>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Nasal polypus, a punishment for sin, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Nasty physic first disguised by St. Hildegard, <a href='#Page_307'>307</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Natural explanations the result of science, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— history, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>, <a href='#Page_351'>351</a>, <a href='#Page_361'>361</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— — studied by Aristotle, <a href='#Page_192'>192</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— philosophy, <a href='#Page_336'>336</a>, <a href='#Page_377'>377</a>, <a href='#Page_378'>378</a>, <a href='#Page_379'>379</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— sciences, <a href='#Page_448'>448</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Nature the physician of diseases, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Neatness of Indian surgery, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Necromancers, <a href='#Page_335'>335</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— and tombs, <a href='#Page_413'>413</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Needfire, <a href='#Page_273'>273</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Needham, W. (died 1691), <a href='#Page_425'>425</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Negro priest-physicians, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— religion is fetishism, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Negroes, their theories of disease, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Nelaton, A. (1807-1874), <a href='#Page_461'>461</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Nemesius (4th cent.), <a href='#Page_236'>236</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Neoplatonism, its influence on medicine, <a href='#Page_235'>235</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Nepenthe, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Nerves, <a href='#Page_231'>231</a>, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a>, <a href='#Page_325'>325</a>, <a href='#Page_364'>364</a>, <a href='#Page_378'>378</a>, <a href='#Page_389'>389</a>, <a href='#Page_391'>391</a>, <a href='#Page_436'>436</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— of sensation and motion recognised, <a href='#Page_196'>196</a>, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Nervous disorders, <a href='#Page_220'>220</a>, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a>, <a href='#Page_391'>391</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— system, structure of, <a href='#Page_364'>364</a>, <a href='#Page_367'>367</a>, <a href='#Page_379'>379</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Nestorians, <a href='#Page_288'>288</a>, <a href='#Page_290'>290</a>, <a href='#Page_291'>291</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Neuralgia, remedies for, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Newman, Cardinal, on the world’s benefactors, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Newton, Isaac (1642-1727), <a href='#Page_378'>378</a>, <a href='#Page_379'>379</a>, <a href='#Page_420'>420</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">New Zealand, theories of disease in, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Nganga</i>, a medicine man of the Congo, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Nicholas of Cusa (1401-1464), <a href='#Page_336'>336</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Nicholas Præpositus (c. 1140), <a href='#Page_313'>313</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Nicholas V. (1389-1455), Pope, <a href='#Page_336'>336</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Nicholls, F. (1699-1778), <a href='#Page_436'>436</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Nightingale, Florence (b. 1820), <a href='#Page_467'>467</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Nigritian character of Egyptian religion, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Nine secrets of the Brahmans, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Nineveh, excavations at, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Nirvana</i>, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Nitrous oxide gas, <a href='#Page_449'>449</a>, <a href='#Page_464'>464</a>, <a href='#Page_466'>466</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Noijat</i>, sorcerers of Finland, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Nonnus (10th cent.), <a href='#Page_302'>302</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">“No Restraint” system, <a href='#Page_457'>457</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Nosology, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Novum Organon</i>, the, <a href='#Page_377'>377</a>, <a href='#Page_378'>378</a>, <a href='#Page_380'>380</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Nuck, A. (1650-1692), <a href='#Page_390'>390</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Nukahivans, their use of kava, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Numa Pompilius, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Numbers, magic in, <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>, <a href='#Page_259'>259</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— the philosophy of, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>-164.</li>

<li class="indx">— Pythagorean doctrine of, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Nursing reform, <a href='#Page_467'>467</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Nux Vomica, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>.</li>


<li class="ifrst">O.</li>

<li class="indx">Oath of the Asclepiades, <a href='#Page_169'>169</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Ob, an ancient Egyptian demon, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Obeah witchcraft of West Indies, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Obi-men, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Obsession, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Obstetricians, <a href='#Page_435'>435</a>, <a href='#Page_479'>479</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Obstetrics, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a>, <a href='#Page_242'>242</a>, <a href='#Page_243'>243</a>, <a href='#Page_294'>294</a>, <a href='#Page_296'>296</a>, <a href='#Page_313'>313</a>, <a href='#Page_361'>361</a>, <a href='#Page_362'>362</a>, <a href='#Page_429'>429</a>, <a href='#Page_435'>435</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Occult philosophy, <a href='#Page_337'>337</a>, <a href='#Page_347'>347</a>, <a href='#Page_368'>368</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Oculists in Rome, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>, <a href='#Page_217'>217</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Odd and even days in diseases, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— days, the, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Odin a doctor, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Odyl, <a href='#Page_430'>430</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Œons, <a href='#Page_252'>252</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Offences against dead a cause of disease, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Ointment for sorcerers, <a href='#Page_413'>413</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Old age described in Ecclesiastes, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— women, experiments on, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Olfactory nerves discovered, <a href='#Page_337'>337</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Operations invented by ancient Hindus, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Ophthalmic surgery, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>, <a href='#Page_217'>217</a>, <a href='#Page_296'>296</a>, <a href='#Page_464'>464</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Ophthalmology, <a href='#Page_463'>463</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Ophthalmoscope, <a href='#Page_463'>463</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Opium-eaters, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Opium known to the ancients, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— used to procure sleep, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Optic nerves, <a href='#Page_364'>364</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— decussation of, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Oracle-spirits, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Orfila (1787-1853), <a href='#Page_449'>449</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Orgies of Dionysus, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Oribasius (<span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> <a href='#Page_326'>326</a>-403), <a href='#Page_235'>235</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">“Original People” of Malay Peninsula, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Ormuzd, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Orphic mysteries, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Osteology, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Oüycou</i>, a Carib liquor, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Ovariotomy of savages, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— of civilized people, <a href='#Page_361'>361</a>, <a href='#Page_460'>460</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Owen, George (died 1558), <a href='#Page_359'>359</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— Richard (1804-1892), <a href='#Page_451'>451</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Oxford University, <a href='#Page_339'>339</a>, <a href='#Page_382'>382</a>, <a href='#Page_383'>383</a>.
<span class="pagenum" id="Page_503">503</span></li>


<li class="ifrst">P.</li>

<li class="indx">Pacchioni, A. (1665-1726), <a href='#Page_437'>437</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Pæon the healer, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Pagés</i>, priests of the Amazon, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Paget, J. (b. 1814), <a href='#Page_460'>460</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Pakht, Egyptian god, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Palal</i>, the supreme pontiff of the cow-religion, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Palfyn, J. (1649-1730), <a href='#Page_435'>435</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Pallas Athene, goddess of health, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Palletta (1747-1823), <a href='#Page_433'>433</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Palmer, Mr. E., on the medicine of Australian tribes, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Pancreas, duct of the, <a href='#Page_391'>391</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Pander, <a href='#Page_481'>481</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Pantheism, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Panum, <a href='#Page_476'>476</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Paper invented by the Arabs, <a href='#Page_294'>294</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Papuan Islanders and arrack, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Papyrus of Ebers, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— Harris, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— Lee and Rollin, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— Berlin, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Parabolani, an order of clerical nurses for sick, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Paracelsus (1493-1541), <a href='#Page_331'>331</a>, <a href='#Page_346'>346</a>, <a href='#Page_347'>347</a>, <a href='#Page_380'>380</a>, <a href='#Page_419'>419</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Paracentesis in ascites, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Paraschistes</i>, Egyptian dissectors, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Parasites of skin diseases, <a href='#Page_457'>457</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Paré, Ambroise (1509-1590), <a href='#Page_368'>368</a>-376.</li>

<li class="indx">Parker, <a href='#Page_478'>478</a>, <a href='#Page_479'>479</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Parsees, medicine of, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Parturition, medicines in, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Pascal (1623-1662), <a href='#Page_379'>379</a>, <a href='#Page_410'>410</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Pasteur, L. (b. 1820), <a href='#Page_472'>472</a>, <a href='#Page_474'>474</a>, <a href='#Page_477'>477</a>, <a href='#Page_480'>480</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Pastophori</i>, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Patagonian wizards, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Pathology, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a>, <a href='#Page_313'>313</a>, <a href='#Page_437'>437</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— amongst Egyptians, <a href='#Page_63'>63</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— of faith-healing, <a href='#Page_320'>320</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Pathological school of medicine, <a href='#Page_446'>446</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Patron saints of the Javanese, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Paulus Ægineta (c. <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>th cent.), <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>, <a href='#Page_242'>242</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Pecquet, J. (1622-1674), <a href='#Page_390'>390</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Peiresc, F. de (1580-1637), <a href='#Page_390'>390</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Pelletier, <a href='#Page_449'>449</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Pelops (anatomist), <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Pemberton, H., <a href='#Page_420'>420</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Penance as a remedy for disease, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Penny, Thomas (c. 1570), <a href='#Page_361'>361</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Percussion of thorax, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>, <a href='#Page_453'>453</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Percy (1754-1825), <a href='#Page_433'>433</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Periapts, <a href='#Page_254'>254</a>, <a href='#Page_255'>255</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Periodeutes, the, <a href='#Page_242'>242</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Perkuna, the thunder-god, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Perrault, <a href='#Page_420'>420</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Persians employed Egyptian physicians, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Peru, <a href='#Page_341'>341</a>, <a href='#Page_383'>383</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Petit, J. L. (1674-1750), <a href='#Page_432'>432</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Petrocellus (about 1035), <a href='#Page_310'>310</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Petroleum, <a href='#Page_275'>275</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Petrus Apono (1250-1315), <a href='#Page_326'>326</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Peyer, J. C. (1653-1712), <a href='#Page_437'>437</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Phagocyte theory, <a href='#Page_475'>475</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Phallic worship, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Pharmacopœias, <a href='#Page_313'>313</a>, <a href='#Page_363'>363</a>, <a href='#Page_364'>364</a>, <a href='#Page_392'>392</a>, <a href='#Page_394'>394</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Pharmacy, <a href='#Page_220'>220</a>, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a>, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>, <a href='#Page_296'>296</a>, <a href='#Page_299'>299</a>, <a href='#Page_315'>315</a>, <a href='#Page_332'>332</a>, <a href='#Page_350'>350</a>, <a href='#Page_375'>375</a>, <a href='#Page_391'>391</a>, <a href='#Page_392'>392</a>, <a href='#Page_419'>419</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— and medicine separated, <a href='#Page_315'>315</a>, <a href='#Page_317'>317</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— elegant, <a href='#Page_307'>307</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— in ancient Egypt, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— in China, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— of Hindus, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Pherecydes (c. 609 <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>), <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Philinus of Cos (<span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 280), <a href='#Page_199'>199</a>, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Philip of Cæsarea, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Philonides, <a href='#Page_213'>213</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Philosophy, modern, <a href='#Page_377'>377</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— of the Greeks, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— of the Hindus, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Philosophical Society of Oxford, <a href='#Page_378'>378</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— transactions, the, <a href='#Page_378'>378</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Philoxenos (about <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 260), <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Philoxenus the oculist, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Philtres, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>, <a href='#Page_413'>413</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Philumenus (c. <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 60), <a href='#Page_218'>218</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Phlebitis, <a href='#Page_434'>434</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Phlogiston, <a href='#Page_423'>423</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Phœnicia, oculists of, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Phœnicians devoted to phallic worship, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Phosphorus, <a href='#Page_487'>487</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Phrenology, <a href='#Page_456'>456</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Phthisis, Hippocrates on, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Phylacteries of the Jews were amulets, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Physical science, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a>, <a href='#Page_322'>322</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Physic-god represented by doctor, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Physicians always originally wizards, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— and surgeons of primitive man, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— behaviour, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>, <a href='#Page_312'>312</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— College of, <a href='#Page_357'>357</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Physics, <a href='#Page_351'>351</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Physiological medicine, <a href='#Page_446'>446</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Physiology, <a href='#Page_212'>212</a>, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>, <a href='#Page_336'>336</a>, <a href='#Page_367'>367</a>, <a href='#Page_381'>381</a>, <a href='#Page_384'>384</a>, <a href='#Page_390'>390</a>, <a href='#Page_420'>420</a>, <a href='#Page_436'>436</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Piayas</i>, diviners of North America, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Pig, anatomy of the, <a href='#Page_313'>313</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Pigeons’ dung in pregnancy, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Pills of precious stones, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— in Egyptian pharmacy, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Pincers, <a href='#Page_244'>244</a>, <a href='#Page_245'>245</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Pinel, P. (1745-1826), <a href='#Page_456'>456</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Pitard, Jean (1228-1315), <a href='#Page_323'>323</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Pitcairn, A. (1652-1713), <a href='#Page_419'>419</a>, <a href='#Page_425'>425</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Pitcairn, W. (1711-1791), <a href='#Page_438'>438</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Pius II., <i>see</i> Æneas Sylvius.</li>

<li class="indx">Plain cooking, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Plants, the food of ghosts, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— the homes of the departed, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— medicinal, well understood by Australian tribes, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Plant-worship, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>, <a href='#Page_269'>269</a>, <a href='#Page_270'>270</a>.
<span class="pagenum" id="Page_504">504</span></li>

<li class="indx">Plastic operations, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a>, <a href='#Page_462'>462</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Platearius, Johannes, <a href='#Page_314'>314</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Platearius, Matthæus, <a href='#Page_314'>314</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Plato (<span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> <a href='#Page_427'>427</a>-347), <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Platter, Felix (1536-1614), <a href='#Page_363'>363</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Plenciz, M. A. (c. 1762), <a href='#Page_472'>472</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Pliny the elder (<span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>-79), his natural history, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Plotinus (<span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>-270), <a href='#Page_235'>235</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Pneumatists, sect of the, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Podalirius, son of Æsculapius, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>, <a href='#Page_153'>153</a>, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Poisons, action of, <a href='#Page_431'>431</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— and poisoning, <a href='#Page_439'>439</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— of a spiritual kind, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— science of, <a href='#Page_449'>449</a>, <a href='#Page_454'>454</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Poisoning, art of, <a href='#Page_323'>323</a>, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a>, <a href='#Page_404'>404</a>, <a href='#Page_439'>439</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— by Obeah-men, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— secret, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>, <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Poisonous plants the homes of demons, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— used as food when boiled, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Polynesian disease spirits, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Polypus of nose, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a>, <a href='#Page_316'>316</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Pomegranate, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Possession, demoniacal, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page_403'>403</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Potash, <a href='#Page_487'>487</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Potassium, <a href='#Page_487'>487</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Pott, P. (1713-1788), <a href='#Page_433'>433</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Poultices, use of, by savages, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">“Powder of sympathy,” <a href='#Page_397'>397</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Prairie Indians trace all diseases to one demon, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Praxagoras of Cos (4th cent. <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>), <a href='#Page_192'>192</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Precious stones as charms, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Pre-existence believed by Empedocles, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Pregnancy, ceremonies in, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— changes induced by, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Prescriptions of Egyptian physicians, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Preventive medicine, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Priest and medicine-man formerly one, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Priest-magicians of Egypt, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— physicians, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>, <a href='#Page_270'>270</a>, <a href='#Page_271'>271</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Priests of the Jews, no monopoly of medicine, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Priestley, J., <a href='#Page_448'>448</a>, <a href='#Page_464'>464</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Primitive man as seen in Australian aborigines, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Primrose, James, <a href='#Page_389'>389</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Principia</i>, <a href='#Page_379'>379</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Probe, the, <a href='#Page_245'>245</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Prognosis, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— in Hippocratic teaching, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Prometheus, <a href='#Page_151'>151</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Prophetical intoxication, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Propitiation of disease-demons, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— of gods for cure of diseases, <a href='#Page_270'>270</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Protestantism in science, <a href='#Page_346'>346</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Proteus signifies matter, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Prussic acid, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>, <a href='#Page_436'>436</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Psychical school, <a href='#Page_419'>419</a>, <a href='#Page_421'>421</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Ptah, Egyptian god, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Ptolemy Soter patron of the arts and sciences, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Ptomaines, <a href='#Page_476'>476</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Public sanitary service of Rome, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Pulque</i>, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Pulse, doctrine of the, <a href='#Page_196'>196</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— the, in Hindu medicine, <a href='#Page_115'>115</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— Galen’s description of, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a>, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Purgatives, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a>, <a href='#Page_314'>314</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Purging discovered by Melampus, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Purkinje, <a href='#Page_481'>481</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Puschmann, T., <a href='#Page_467'>467</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Putrefaction, <a href='#Page_471'>471</a>, <a href='#Page_472'>472</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Puyung of the Malay forest tribes, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Pythagoras (born 582 <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>), <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— learned his doctrine from Oriental philosophers, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Pythagorean school at Crotona, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a>.</li>


<li class="ifrst">Q.</li>

<li class="indx">Quain, R., <a href='#Page_467'>467</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Quarantine, <a href='#Page_339'>339</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Quassia-wood, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">“Quid pro quo,” origin of the expression, <a href='#Page_314'>314</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Quinine, <a href='#Page_342'>342</a>, <a href='#Page_449'>449</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Quintus (Roman anatomist), <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>.</li>


<li class="ifrst">R.</li>

<li class="indx">Rabbits do not vomit with ipecacuanha, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Rabelais, François (c. 1490-1553), <a href='#Page_352'>352</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Radcliffe, John (1650-1714), <a href='#Page_425'>425</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Radishes to prevent hydrophobia, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Rain, prayers to, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Rainy season and the gods, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Ramus (c. 1562), <a href='#Page_368'>368</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Rasori, G. (1762-1837), <a href='#Page_445'>445</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Rats amputate their own legs, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Recipe books, <a href='#Page_313'>313</a>, <a href='#Page_323'>323</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Recurrent nerves, when discovered, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Reflex action, <a href='#Page_457'>457</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Reform of medicine, <a href='#Page_345'>345</a>, <a href='#Page_391'>391</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Reformation, its effect on medicine, <a href='#Page_369'>369</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Reichenbach, Von, <a href='#Page_430'>430</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Reimarus, J. A. H. (1729-1814), <a href='#Page_463'>463</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Re-incarnation believed by Empedocles, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Remak, R. (1815-1865), <a href='#Page_457'>457</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Remedies used by animals, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Repentance as a cure of disease, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Resection of jaw, <a href='#Page_316'>316</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— of joints, <a href='#Page_460'>460</a>, <a href='#Page_461'>461</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Reuchlin, Johann (1455-1522), <a href='#Page_337'>337</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Revival of learning, <a href='#Page_337'>337</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Rhazes (9th cent.), <a href='#Page_295'>295</a>, <a href='#Page_296'>296</a>.
<span class="pagenum" id="Page_505">505</span></li>

<li class="indx">Rheumatism first described, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— remedies in, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— miraculous cures of, <a href='#Page_481'>481</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Rhinoplastic surgery, <a href='#Page_367'>367</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Rhiwallon (Welsh physician, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>th cent.), <a href='#Page_283'>283</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Rhubarb first introduced, <a href='#Page_243'>243</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Richard Fitz-Nigel, <a href='#Page_307'>307</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Richardson, B. W. (b. 1828), <a href='#Page_480'>480</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Richter (1742-1812), <a href='#Page_433'>433</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Rickets, <a href='#Page_389'>389</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Rig Veda</i>, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Rishis or Hindu sages, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Robert of Gloucester on Anglo-Norman surgery, <a href='#Page_306'>306</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Robertson, Dr., on the progress of man, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Roeschlaub, J. A. (1768-1835), <a href='#Page_446'>446</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Roger of Parma (c. 1210), <a href='#Page_316'>316</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Rokitansky, K. von (1804-1878), <a href='#Page_454'>454</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Rolando, <a href='#Page_316'>316</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Romanes, G. F., <a href='#Page_452'>452</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Roman medicine, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Rose water, <a href='#Page_302'>302</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Rosenkreuz, Christian, <a href='#Page_370'>370</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Rosicrucians, <a href='#Page_370'>370</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Rosy Cross, Society of, <a href='#Page_370'>370</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Rousset, François (about 1581), <a href='#Page_362'>362</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Roux, P. J. (1780-1854), <a href='#Page_461'>461</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Royal Society, the, <a href='#Page_380'>380</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Rudbeck, O. (1630-1702), <a href='#Page_390'>390</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Rufus of Ephesus (<span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>-117), <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>, <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Ruini, C. (c. 1598), <a href='#Page_375'>375</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Rune lays, <a href='#Page_252'>252</a>.</li>


<li class="ifrst">S.</li>

<li class="indx">Sabatier (1723-1811), <a href='#Page_433'>433</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Sabbath, origin of, was Accadian, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Sabines, the, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Sacred plants, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Sacrifices of tobacco to the sun, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Sacrificial medicine, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Saffron, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Sage, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Saint Vitus’s dance, <a href='#Page_331'>331</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Saints as healers, <a href='#Page_333'>333</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Sal-ammoniac, <a href='#Page_487'>487</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Sala, <a href='#Page_419'>419</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Salaries of court physicians, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Salerno, school of, <a href='#Page_308'>308</a>, <a href='#Page_349'>349</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— in decay, <a href='#Page_318'>318</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Saliva, magic properties of, <a href='#Page_259'>259</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— superstitions of South Sea Islanders concerning, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Salivary glands first described, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Salt used as medicine by animals, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Salve against goblins and temptations, <a href='#Page_278'>278</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Samoans, their theory of diseases, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Samoyed tribes, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Samulus, <a href='#Page_270'>270</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Sanderson, J. B. (b. 1828), <a href='#Page_480'>480</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Sanitary precautions in the East, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— reform, <a href='#Page_357'>357</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— science, <a href='#Page_477'>477</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Santals of Bengal think good spirits enter fruit trees, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Santorini, G. (1681-1737), <a href='#Page_436'>436</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Saracens, medicine of the, <a href='#Page_291'>291</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— their sympathy with Jews, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Sarpi, P. (1552-1623), <a href='#Page_390'>390</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Sarsaparilla, <a href='#Page_342'>342</a>, <a href='#Page_375'>375</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Sassafras, <a href='#Page_342'>342</a>, <a href='#Page_374'>374</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Sauvages, De (1706-1767), <a href='#Page_422'>422</a>, <a href='#Page_424'>424</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Savages are like primitive man, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— require large doses, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— their theory of evil spirits, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— their voracity, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— weak as compared with civilised man, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Sawan</i>, the cause of convulsions, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Saws, <a href='#Page_244'>244</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Saxon leechdoms, <a href='#Page_252'>252</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Scammony, <a href='#Page_275'>275</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Scapegoat of the Jews, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Scapulars of Catholics, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Scarabs, <a href='#Page_250'>250</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Scarification practised by savages, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Scarpa, A. (1748-1832), <a href='#Page_433'>433</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Schelling (1775-1854), <a href='#Page_450'>450</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Schizomycetes, <a href='#Page_473'>473</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Schmidt, J. A., <a href='#Page_463'>463</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Schmucker (1712-1786), <a href='#Page_433'>433</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Scholasticism, the parent of modern science, <a href='#Page_239'>239</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Schools of medical theory, <a href='#Page_418'>418</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Schroeder, <a href='#Page_472'>472</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Schuk, F. (1804-1865), <a href='#Page_462'>462</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Schulze, F., <a href='#Page_472'>472</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Schwann, <a href='#Page_472'>472</a>, <a href='#Page_473'>473</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Science, age of, <a href='#Page_441'>441</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Scientific medicine, <a href='#Page_393'>393</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Scourges and plagues, incantations against, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Scribonius Largus (<span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 45), <a href='#Page_214'>214</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Scripts as medicine, <a href='#Page_260'>260</a>, <a href='#Page_261'>261</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Scrofula, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a>, <a href='#Page_370'>370</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Scudamore, C. (1779-1849), <a href='#Page_467'>467</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Scurvy, <a href='#Page_374'>374</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— banished the fleets, <a href='#Page_427'>427</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Scythian remedy for hunger, <a href='#Page_197'>197</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Scythians, the, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Seamen, diseases of, <a href='#Page_427'>427</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Seat of the soul, <a href='#Page_196'>196</a>, <a href='#Page_379'>379</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">“Security” offered for sick persons in China, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Seer, the evolution of, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Seidlitz waters, <a href='#Page_424'>424</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Selago, a sacred plant, <a href='#Page_270'>270</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Selmi, <a href='#Page_476'>476</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Semitic and Aryan intellects compared, <a href='#Page_292'>292</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Semmelweis, L. J. P. (1818-1865), <a href='#Page_479'>479</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Seneca on doctors, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Seneka, <a href='#Page_342'>342</a>.
<span class="pagenum" id="Page_506">506</span></li>

<li class="indx">Senna introduced, <a href='#Page_296'>296</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Separation of medicine from surgery, <a href='#Page_305'>305</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Septenary theory, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Septine, <a href='#Page_480'>480</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Serapion of Alexandria (<span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 270), <a href='#Page_199'>199</a>, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Serapion the elder, <a href='#Page_295'>295</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— the younger (about 1070), <a href='#Page_296'>296</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Serapis, Egyptian god, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Serpentaria, <a href='#Page_342'>342</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Serpent on the rod of Æsculapius, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— the cause of diseases, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Servetus (1511-1553), <a href='#Page_367'>367</a>, <a href='#Page_385'>385</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Set, representative of physical evil amongst Egyptians, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Setons, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>, <a href='#Page_316'>316</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Sex of bees, <a href='#Page_391'>391</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Sexual organs of plants, <a href='#Page_391'>391</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Shadows on souls, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Shaitan</i>, the cause of disease, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Shamans of Northern Asia, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Shampooing, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Sharp, S. (1700-1778), <a href='#Page_433'>433</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Shastres</i>, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Siam, its religion and theory of disease, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Siberians, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Sickness, remedies for, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Siebold (1736-1807), <a href='#Page_433'>433</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Sieveking, E. H. (b. 1816), <a href='#Page_455'>455</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Signatures, doctrine of, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>, <a href='#Page_416'>416</a>, <a href='#Page_417'>417</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Silk-worm disease, <a href='#Page_473'>473</a>, <a href='#Page_474'>474</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Silver, <a href='#Page_488'>488</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Similia similibus</i> theory, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Simon, <a href='#Page_478'>478</a>, <a href='#Page_479'>479</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Simpson, J. Y., <a href='#Page_465'>465</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Sioux Indian medicine, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Siva afflicts Hindu children with epilepsy, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Skatological medicine, <a href='#Page_394'>394</a>-397.</li>

<li class="indx">Skeleton made by a Rabbi, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— of ivory, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Skin diseases, <a href='#Page_455'>455</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Skoda, J. (1803-1881), <a href='#Page_455'>455</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Slaves in Roman world, <a href='#Page_239'>239</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Slavonic rustics exorcise spirits with urine, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Sleeping and dreams, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Sloane, Hans (1660-1753), <a href='#Page_425'>425</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Small-pox, <a href='#Page_295'>295</a>, <a href='#Page_297'>297</a>, <a href='#Page_432'>432</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— in Timor-laut, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— caused by demons, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— exorcised by urine, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— goddess, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Smellie, W. (1608-1763), <a href='#Page_435'>435</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Smith, S., <a href='#Page_478'>478</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Snake-bite, treatment of, by savages, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— remedies for, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— wine, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Snellen, H., <a href='#Page_463'>463</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Snipe, the, as a surgeon, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Society Islanders and disease-demons, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— their skill in surgery, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Socrates on invalidism, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Soda, <a href='#Page_486'>486</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Sodium, <a href='#Page_486'>486</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Softening of the brain, <a href='#Page_456'>456</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Solomon composed incantations to cure diseases, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Soma</i> as a drink and a deity, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Sonnenschein, <a href='#Page_476'>476</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Soranus of Ephesus, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Sorcery in Accadia, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— in Australia, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— a cover for ignorance, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— laws against, <a href='#Page_405'>405</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Soul, immortality of, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— origin of, <a href='#Page_339'>339</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— the seat of, <a href='#Page_196'>196</a>, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a>, <a href='#Page_379'>379</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Souls as shadows, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— theory of, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>-23.</li>

<li class="indx">Spallanzani, <a href='#Page_472'>472</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Spears spiritually poisoned, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Specialism of Egyptian medicine, <a href='#Page_63'>63</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Speculum, the, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— anciently used, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>, <a href='#Page_244'>244</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Speech, faculty of, its seat, <a href='#Page_458'>458</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Spells, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Spencer, Herbert (b. 1820), <a href='#Page_452'>452</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— on plant-worship, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Spermatozoa discovered, <a href='#Page_389'>389</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Spiders as amulets, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— as disease-demons, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Spigel (1578-1625), <a href='#Page_364'>364</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Spinoza (1632-1677), <a href='#Page_379'>379</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Spirits, belief in, universal, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— of material objects, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— of weapons, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— their influence in healing, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— distilled, invented, <a href='#Page_326'>326</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Spiritual spears, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Spleen, the, <a href='#Page_389'>389</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— removed by the Rabbis, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Splenic fever, <a href='#Page_474'>474</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Splints, <a href='#Page_244'>244</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— use of, in the surgery of savages, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Spontaneous generation theory, <a href='#Page_472'>472</a>, <a href='#Page_473'>473</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Sprengel, Kurt (1766-1833), <a href='#Page_466'>466</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Springs, medicinal, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Spry, E., <a href='#Page_428'>428</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Spurzheim, C. (1776-1832), <a href='#Page_456'>456</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Squill as a diuretic, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Stahl (1660-1734), <a href='#Page_421'>421</a>, <a href='#Page_423'>423</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Stammering, treatment of, <a href='#Page_235'>235</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Stark, W. (1742-1770), <a href='#Page_429'>429</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">State medical service in Rome, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Steam power, <a href='#Page_337'>337</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Sterility, <a href='#Page_242'>242</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Sternum trepanned, <a href='#Page_316'>316</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Stethoscope, invention of, <a href='#Page_453'>453</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Stieglitz (1767-1840), <a href='#Page_446'>446</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Stolen property as a charm, <a href='#Page_265'>265</a>.
<span class="pagenum" id="Page_507">507</span></li>

<li class="indx">Stone, cutting for the, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>, <a href='#Page_393'>393</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Stones as charms, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>, <a href='#Page_394'>394</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— healing by, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Storm gods of India, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Strictus et laxus</i>, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Stromeyer, G. F. L. (1804-1876), <a href='#Page_462'>462</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Strumous glands, <a href='#Page_229'>229</a>, <a href='#Page_235'>235</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Styptics, discovery of, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Subordination of surgery to medicine, <a href='#Page_305'>305</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Sucking diseases out of patients, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Sulphur, <a href='#Page_273'>273</a>, <a href='#Page_487'>487</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— as a disinfectant in the Odyssey, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— first used for skin diseases, <a href='#Page_201'>201</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Suonetar</i>, the healer, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Supernatural invoked when natural means fail, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Superstition, absence of, from the Psalms of David, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— origin of, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— originally engrafted on medicine, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_351'>351</a>, <a href='#Page_403'>403</a>, <a href='#Page_405'>405</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Superstitions, medical, <a href='#Page_327'>327</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— their universality, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— in Chinese medicine, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Suppositories, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Surgeons to be propitiated, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Surgery, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>, <a href='#Page_235'>235</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— French, <a href='#Page_368'>368</a>, <a href='#Page_433'>433</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— a scientific profession, <a href='#Page_434'>434</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— savage, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— of the Brahmans, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— of the Hindus, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— of Egyptians, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— older than medicine, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— subordinated to medicine, <a href='#Page_305'>305</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Surgical instruments of the Bible, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Susruta, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a>, <a href='#Page_289'>289</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Sutherland, <a href='#Page_478'>478</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Sutras</i>, commentaries on the Vedas, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Sutton, Thomas (d. 1835), <a href='#Page_456'>456</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Svastika</i>, the mystic, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Swaine, <a href='#Page_474'>474</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Swammerdam, J. (1637-1686), <a href='#Page_391'>391</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Sweating Sickness, <a href='#Page_338'>338</a>, <a href='#Page_356'>356</a>, <a href='#Page_357'>357</a>, <a href='#Page_360'>360</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Swieten, Van (1700-1772), <a href='#Page_430'>430</a>, <a href='#Page_437'>437</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Sydenham Society, <a href='#Page_467'>467</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Sydenham, Thomas (1624-1689), <a href='#Page_381'>381</a>, <a href='#Page_383'>383</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Sylvanus, a demon of the lying-in chamber, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Sylvaticus, <a href='#Page_327'>327</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Sylvius (De la Boë) (1614-1672), <a href='#Page_380'>380</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Syme, J. (1799-1870), <a href='#Page_460'>460</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Sympathetical cures, <a href='#Page_397'>397</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Sympathetic nerve, <a href='#Page_389'>389</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Syphilis, <a href='#Page_340'>340</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— less frequent amongst Jews than Christians, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Systems of modern medicine, <a href='#Page_445'>445</a>.</li>


<li class="ifrst">T.</li>

<li class="indx">Tablets on which were recorded cures in temples, <a href='#Page_167'>167</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Tagliacozzi, G. (1546-1599), <a href='#Page_367'>367</a>, <a href='#Page_368'>368</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Tahiti people, their fermented liquor, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Tait, Lawson, <a href='#Page_460'>460</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Taliacotian operation, <a href='#Page_367'>367</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Talismans, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a>, <a href='#Page_260'>260</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Talmud, surgery of, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— pathology of, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Talmudists, medicine of the, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Tamils of Ceylon, sorcery of the, <a href='#Page_408'>408</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Tapeworm, treatment for, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Tapping for dropsy, <a href='#Page_245'>245</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Tarantism, <a href='#Page_339'>339</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Tarawan folk, sorcery of, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Tarsus, bones of, <a href='#Page_337'>337</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Tartars, their theory of fevers, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Tar water, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Tasmanians think diseases caused by devils, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Tauut, Egyptian god same as Thoth, <i>q.v.</i>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Taylor, A. S. (1806-1880), <a href='#Page_454'>454</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Tchutgours</i>, Tartar disease-demons, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Tea intoxication, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Teeth-worms, <a href='#Page_414'>414</a>, <a href='#Page_415'>415</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Telescopes, <a href='#Page_389'>389</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Temples of Æsculapius, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Teraphim</i> of Laban, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Teutons, medicine of the, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Thales of Miletus (circ. 609 <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>), <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Tharragarry</i>, evil spirits of Australians, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Themison of Laodicea (<span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span> 50), <a href='#Page_213'>213</a>, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Theon of Alexandria, <a href='#Page_226'>226</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Theophrastus (born 371 <span class="smcap lowercase">B.C.</span>), the originator of the science of plants, <a href='#Page_193'>193</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Theories of disease, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>, <a href='#Page_270'>270</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Theosophy, <a href='#Page_337'>337</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Theosophists of Chaldæa, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Therapeutics, <a href='#Page_392'>392</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— Galen on, <a href='#Page_232'>232</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Therapeutists, or Healers, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Theriaca (a famous cure all), <a href='#Page_218'>218</a>, <a href='#Page_220'>220</a>, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Thermometry, clinical, <a href='#Page_439'>439</a>, <a href='#Page_455'>455</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Thessalus of Tralles (<span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 60), <a href='#Page_218'>218</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Theurgic healing, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Theurgy of Egypt, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Thibet, physicians of, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Thibetans, their theory of disease, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Thilenius, G. M., <a href='#Page_435'>435</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Thimmool</i>, a magical weapon, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Thompson, H. (b. 1820), <a href='#Page_460'>460</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Thorbern, <a href='#Page_391'>391</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Thor’s hammer, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Thoth, Egyptian god of letters and medicine, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Thrax (<span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> <a href='#Page_457'>457</a>-474), <a href='#Page_236'>236</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Thrita, the first physician of Zoroastrians, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Thunder, prayer to, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Thymus gland, <a href='#Page_361'>361</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Thyroid gland, functions of, <a href='#Page_458'>458</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Tietajat</i>, the learned men of Finland, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Timor-laut, fish poisoning in, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— prophylactic against small-pox in, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Timor tribes, their theories of disease, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Titans, discoverers of medicinal herbs, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Tla-guill-augh</i>, a medicine man, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Toad and the plantain, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Tobacco, <a href='#Page_369'>369</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— the “sacred herb” of Peru, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Toddy of the cocoa-nut palm, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Tomahawk, the spirit of, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Toogi-toogi</i>, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Toothache, charm for, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">“Toothache shrub,” <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Totemism, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Touching for the evil, <a href='#Page_371'>371</a>, <a href='#Page_372'>372</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">“Touching pieces,” <a href='#Page_373'>373</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Tourniquet, the, <a href='#Page_431'>431</a>, <a href='#Page_432'>432</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Toynbee, <a href='#Page_478'>478</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Toxicology, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>, <a href='#Page_449'>449</a>, <a href='#Page_454'>454</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Tracheotomy, <a href='#Page_213'>213</a>, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>, <a href='#Page_235'>235</a>, <a href='#Page_244'>244</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Transference of disease, <a href='#Page_414'>414</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Transfusion of blood, <a href='#Page_350'>350</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Travers, B. (1783-1858), <a href='#Page_459'>459</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Trepan, the, <a href='#Page_244'>244</a>, <a href='#Page_316'>316</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Trepanning the skull, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a>, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Trephine, the, <a href='#Page_244'>244</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Trephining the skull, <a href='#Page_113'>113</a>, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a>, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">“Triacle,” <a href='#Page_275'>275</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Triads, the Welsh, <a href='#Page_280'>280</a>, <a href='#Page_281'>281</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Tribal magic, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Trithemius (c. 1500), <a href='#Page_346'>346</a>, <a href='#Page_347'>347</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Troja (1747-1827), <a href='#Page_433'>433</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Trotula (about 1059), <a href='#Page_313'>313</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Trousseau, A. (1801-1866), <a href='#Page_456'>456</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Tuberculosis, <a href='#Page_429'>429</a>, <a href='#Page_453'>453</a>, <a href='#Page_454'>454</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Tude plant, a sacred shrub, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Tumours, malignant, <a href='#Page_316'>316</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Turanian priests of magic, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Turkish bath, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Turner, D. (1667-1741), <a href='#Page_431'>431</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Turpentine in hæmorrhage, <a href='#Page_431'>431</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Tylor, Dr. E. B., on animism, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— on primitive man, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Tyndall, J. (b. 1820), <a href='#Page_472'>472</a>, <a href='#Page_480'>480</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Typhus fever, <a href='#Page_363'>363</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Tyson, E. (d. 1708), <a href='#Page_438'>438</a>.</li>


<li class="ifrst">U.</li>

<li class="indx">Unburied men as vampires, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Uncleanness of women, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>, <a href='#Page_144'>144</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Universal medicine, the, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Universities, rise of the, <a href='#Page_300'>300</a>, <a href='#Page_303'>303</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Upanishads, the, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Urea, <a href='#Page_436'>436</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Urethra, operations on, by savages, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Urethrotomy, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a>, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Urine, use of, in medicine, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_396'>396</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— its use in exorcism, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Uroscopy, <a href='#Page_294'>294</a>, <a href='#Page_323'>323</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Uterus, dissection of the, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Uvula, amputation of, <a href='#Page_391'>391</a>.</li>


<li class="ifrst">V.</li>

<li class="indx">Vaccination, <a href='#Page_439'>439</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Valingen, F. de (1725-1805), <a href='#Page_428'>428</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Valsalva, A. (1666-1723), <a href='#Page_436'>436</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Valves of the heart, <a href='#Page_361'>361</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— of the veins, <a href='#Page_364'>364</a>, <a href='#Page_386'>386</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Vambery on opium-eating, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Vampires, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Vapour baths in dropsy introduced by Chrysippus, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Varicose veins, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Varolius, C. (1545-1575), <a href='#Page_364'>364</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Vascular system understood by Diogenes of Apollonia, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Vaso-motor nerves, <a href='#Page_436'>436</a>, <a href='#Page_457'>457</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Vazimbas inflict diseases in Madagascar, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Vectius Vallens (circ. <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 37), <a href='#Page_214'>214</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Vedas, the, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Vedic hymns, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Veins, anatomy of, <a href='#Page_160'>160</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Velpeau, A. (1795-1867), <a href='#Page_461'>461</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Vervain, <a href='#Page_270'>270</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Vesalius, Andrew (1514-1564), <a href='#Page_365'>365</a>, <a href='#Page_366'>366</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Veterinary medicine of Hindus, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— of the Mongols, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Vicary, Thomas (c. 1530), <a href='#Page_358'>358</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Vicq d’Azyr, F. (1748-1794), <a href='#Page_391'>391</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Vidus Vidius, <a href='#Page_374'>374</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Vienna school, <a href='#Page_431'>431</a>, <a href='#Page_454'>454</a>, <a href='#Page_455'>455</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Vieussens, R. (c. 1684), <a href='#Page_389'>389</a>, <a href='#Page_419'>419</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Vinario, <a href='#Page_330'>330</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Virchow, R. (b. 1821), <a href='#Page_455'>455</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Virgil, sorcery in, <a href='#Page_405'>405</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Viridet, <a href='#Page_419'>419</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Vision, discovery of the laws of, <a href='#Page_337'>337</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Vis Medicatrix Naturæ</i>, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Vital-fluid school, <a href='#Page_419'>419</a>, <a href='#Page_421'>421</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Vivisection of animals, <a href='#Page_379'>379</a>, <a href='#Page_483'>483</a>, <a href='#Page_485'>485</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— in magic, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a>, <a href='#Page_254'>254</a>, <a href='#Page_279'>279</a>, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— of human beings, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a>, <a href='#Page_197'>197</a>, <a href='#Page_200'>200</a>, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a>, <a href='#Page_373'>373</a>, <a href='#Page_374'>374</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Vocal organs, anatomy of, <a href='#Page_364'>364</a>, <a href='#Page_391'>391</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Volta, <a href='#Page_450'>450</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Vomiting the devil, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Votive tablets in Greek temples, <a href='#Page_157'>157</a>, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>.
<span class="pagenum" id="Page_509">509</span></li>


<li class="ifrst">W.</li>

<li class="indx">Wagner, <a href='#Page_481'>481</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Wäinämöinen, conqueror of disease-demons, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Wallace, Alfred R. (b. 1822), <a href='#Page_452'>452</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Walther, Von (1782-1849), <a href='#Page_462'>462</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Wardrop, J. (1782-1869), <a href='#Page_459'>459</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Wardroper, Mrs. (d. 1892), <a href='#Page_467'>467</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Warts, superstitions concerning, <a href='#Page_415'>415</a>, <a href='#Page_416'>416</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Water of baptism, its magical properties, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Waters, mineral, <a href='#Page_400'>400</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Watje, their theories of disease, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Watson, Thomas (1792-1882), <a href='#Page_454'>454</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Watson, W. (1715-1787), <a href='#Page_427'>427</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Wax-figures in sorcery, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">“Weapon salve,” <a href='#Page_398'>398</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Wells, poisoning of, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Wells, Spencer (b. 1818), <a href='#Page_460'>460</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Welsh medicine, <a href='#Page_280'>280</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">West Indies, sorcery in, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Wharton, J. (died 1673), <a href='#Page_389'>389</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Whewell on medical theories, <a href='#Page_418'>418</a>-420.</li>

<li class="indx">Whistler, D. (died 1684), <a href='#Page_389'>389</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">White, C. (c. 1768), <a href='#Page_434'>434</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">White magic, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_409'>409</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Whooping cough, <a href='#Page_363'>363</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Wichmann, J. E. (1740-1802), <a href='#Page_429'>429</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Wilks, S. (b. 1824), <a href='#Page_455'>455</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Willan, R. (1757-1812), <a href='#Page_427'>427</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Willis, Thomas (1621-1675), <a href='#Page_391'>391</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Wilson, E. (1809-1884), <a href='#Page_460'>460</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Wine, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Wingo</i>, an Australian superstition, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Winslow, Forbes, <a href='#Page_457'>457</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Winston, Thomas (b. 1575), <a href='#Page_381'>381</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Wirsung, G. (died 1643), <a href='#Page_391'>391</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Wiseman, Richard (1625-1686), <a href='#Page_389'>389</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Witchcraft as cause of disease, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_403'>403</a>, <a href='#Page_405'>405</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— and medicine, <a href='#Page_403'>403</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Wizards of Australia, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— of Patagonia, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Wizard-priests, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Woi-worŭng, an Australian tribe, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Women as poisoners, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a>, <a href='#Page_404'>404</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— diseases of, <a href='#Page_219'>219</a>, <a href='#Page_242'>242</a>, <a href='#Page_243'>243</a>, <a href='#Page_294'>294</a>, <a href='#Page_313'>313</a>, <a href='#Page_361'>361</a>, <a href='#Page_429'>429</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— doctors, <a href='#Page_271'>271</a>, <a href='#Page_307'>307</a>, <a href='#Page_313'>313</a>, <a href='#Page_326'>326</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— forbidden by Athenians to practise medicine, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">—, Jewish laws concerning, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Woolaston, W. H. (1766-1828), <a href='#Page_449'>449</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Worm, Olaus, <a href='#Page_394'>394</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Wormian bones, the, <a href='#Page_364'>364</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Worms, remedies for, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>, <a href='#Page_237'>237</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Worm-seed, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Worship of plants arose from their intoxicating influence, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Wotton, Edward, <a href='#Page_360'>360</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Wren, Sir C. (1632-1723), <a href='#Page_391'>391</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Wunderlich (1815-1877), <a href='#Page_455'>455</a>.</li>


<li class="ifrst">X.</li>

<li class="indx">Xenocrates of Aphrodisias (c. 70 <span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span>), <a href='#Page_395'>395</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Xenophon of Cos (<span class="smcap lowercase">A.D.</span> 53), <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Xirac</i>, a fermented liquor of the Rio Negro, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>.</li>


<li class="ifrst">Y.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Yambo</i>, the spirit of man, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Yeast-plant, <a href='#Page_452'>452</a>, <a href='#Page_473'>473</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Yonge, J. (1646-1721), <a href='#Page_431'>431</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Young, Thomas (1773-1829), <a href='#Page_463'>463</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Yountoo</i> charms, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Youths, savage, initiations of, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>.</li>


<li class="ifrst">Z.</li>

<li class="indx">Zacchia, P. (c. 1621), <a href='#Page_376'>376</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Zamolxis, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Zedekiah, a Jewish physician, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>.</li>

<li class="indx"><i>Zend Avesta</i>, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Zenon, <a href='#Page_225'>225</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Zerbis, G., de, <a href='#Page_337'>337</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Zinc, <a href='#Page_350'>350</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Zoology, <a href='#Page_391'>391</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Zoroaster, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— and his teaching emanated from India, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Zuelza, <a href='#Page_476'>476</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Zulus, their theory of diseases, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">— trace diseases to the rainbow and evil spirits, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Zwelfer, J. (c. 1651), <a href='#Page_394'>394</a>.</li>

<li class="indx">Zymotic diseases, <a href='#Page_480'>480</a>.</li>
</ul>



<p class="center">Butler &amp; Tanner. The Selwood Printing Works, Frome, and London.</p>

<h2>FOOTNOTES:</h2>

<div class="footnotes">
<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_1_1" href="#FNanchor_1_1" class="label">1</a>
<i>Provincial Medical Journal</i>, March, 1892.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_2_2" href="#FNanchor_2_2" class="label">2</a>
<i>Histoire de Medicine depuis son Origine, etc.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_3_3" href="#FNanchor_3_3" class="label">3</a>
Pratt’s <i>British Grasses</i>, pp. 69, 125.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_4_4" href="#FNanchor_4_4" class="label">4</a>
Vol. ii. p. 384.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_5_5" href="#FNanchor_5_5" class="label">5</a>
Miss Gordon Cumming.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_6_6" href="#FNanchor_6_6" class="label">6</a>
<i>Science Gossip.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_7_7" href="#FNanchor_7_7" class="label">7</a>
Morley’s <i>Life of Cornelius Agrippa</i>, vol. i. p. 129.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_8_8" href="#FNanchor_8_8" class="label">8</a>
Ringer, <i>Materia Medica</i>, Fifth Edition, p. 454.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_9_9" href="#FNanchor_9_9" class="label">9</a>
Berdoe, <i>The Healing Art</i>, p. 18.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_10_10" href="#FNanchor_10_10" class="label">10</a>
<i>Prehistoric Times</i>, Fifth Edition, p. 430.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_11_11" href="#FNanchor_11_11" class="label">11</a>
<i>Primitive Culture</i>, vol. i. p. 32.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_12_12" href="#FNanchor_12_12" class="label">12</a>
<i>Hist. America</i>, Book IV. chap. ii.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_13_13" href="#FNanchor_13_13" class="label">13</a>
<i>Primitive Folk</i>, p. 10.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_14_14" href="#FNanchor_14_14" class="label">14</a>
Nordenskiöld, <i>Voyage of the Vega</i>.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_15_15" href="#FNanchor_15_15" class="label">15</a>
<i>India’s Teaching</i>, p. 192.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_16_16" href="#FNanchor_16_16" class="label">16</a>
<i>Tr. Eth. Soc.</i>, vol. iii. p. 235. Grey, <i>Australia</i>, vol. ii. p. 337. Boniveh,
<i>Tasmanians</i>, pp. 183, 195.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_17_17" href="#FNanchor_17_17" class="label">17</a>
<i>Journ. Ind. Archip.</i>, vol. i. p. 307.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_18_18" href="#FNanchor_18_18" class="label">18</a>
<i>Journ. Ind. Archip.</i>, vol. iii. p. 110, vol. iv. p. 194.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_19_19" href="#FNanchor_19_19" class="label">19</a>
Taylor, <i>New Zealand</i>, pp. 48, 137.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_20_20" href="#FNanchor_20_20" class="label">20</a>
<i>Folk Medicine</i>, p. 3.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_21_21" href="#FNanchor_21_21" class="label">21</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 7.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_22_22" href="#FNanchor_22_22" class="label">22</a>
Hodgson, <i>Abor. of India</i>, p. 170; cited in <i>Folk Med.</i>, p. 10.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_23_23" href="#FNanchor_23_23" class="label">23</a>
<i>Folk Med.</i>, p. 11.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_24_24" href="#FNanchor_24_24" class="label">24</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 11.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_25_25" href="#FNanchor_25_25" class="label">25</a>
Tylor, <i>Primitive Culture</i>, vol. ii. p. 114.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_26_26" href="#FNanchor_26_26" class="label">26</a>
Hunter, <i>Rural Bengal</i>, p. 210.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_27_27" href="#FNanchor_27_27" class="label">27</a>
Dr. E. B. Tylor, art. “Demonology,” <i>Ency. Brit.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_28_28" href="#FNanchor_28_28" class="label">28</a>
<i>Ency. Brit.</i>, vol. iv. p. 58.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_29_29" href="#FNanchor_29_29" class="label">29</a>
<i>Ibid.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_30_30" href="#FNanchor_30_30" class="label">30</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, vol. xiii. p. 607.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_31_31" href="#FNanchor_31_31" class="label">31</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, vol. xxi. p. 853.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_32_32" href="#FNanchor_32_32" class="label">32</a>
<i>Western Africa</i>, p. 217.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_33_33" href="#FNanchor_33_33" class="label">33</a>
Lenormant, <i>Chaldean Magic and Sorcery</i>, pp. 258-262.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_34_34" href="#FNanchor_34_34" class="label">34</a>
<i>Kalevala</i>, 15th runa.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_35_35" href="#FNanchor_35_35" class="label">35</a>
Sir Joseph Hooker, <i>Himalayan Journals</i>, Ed. 1891, p. 416.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_36_36" href="#FNanchor_36_36" class="label">36</a>
Lang, <i>Custom and Myth</i>, p. 208.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_37_37" href="#FNanchor_37_37" class="label">37</a>
<i>Folk Medicine</i>, pp. 17, 18.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_38_38" href="#FNanchor_38_38" class="label">38</a>
E. Palmer, <i>Notes on Australian Tribes</i>.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_39_39" href="#FNanchor_39_39" class="label">39</a>
<i>The Medical Profession in Ancient Times</i> (New York, 1856).</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_40_40" href="#FNanchor_40_40" class="label">40</a>
<i>Denmark, its Hygiene and Demography</i>, 1891, p. 57.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_41_41" href="#FNanchor_41_41" class="label">41</a>
<i>The Races of Man</i>, p. 292.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_42_42" href="#FNanchor_42_42" class="label">42</a>
<i>Proc. Roy. Soc.</i>, xxvii. 309, 1878.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_43_43" href="#FNanchor_43_43" class="label">43</a>
Tylor’s <i>Anthropology</i>, p. 344.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_44_44" href="#FNanchor_44_44" class="label">44</a>
Tylor’s <i>Anthropology</i>, p. 354.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_45_45" href="#FNanchor_45_45" class="label">45</a>
Reclus, <i>Primitive Folk</i>, p. 103.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_46_46" href="#FNanchor_46_46" class="label">46</a>
Dr. E. B. Tylor, art. “Demonology,” <i>Ency. Brit.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_47_47" href="#FNanchor_47_47" class="label">47</a>
Ellis, <i>Polyn. Res.</i>, vol. i. pp. 363, 395; vol. ii. pp. 193, 274. Schoolcraft, part
iv. p. 49.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_48_48" href="#FNanchor_48_48" class="label">48</a>
Roman Paul, xix., in <i>Life of Colon</i>.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_49_49" href="#FNanchor_49_49" class="label">49</a>
D’Orbigny, <i>L’Homme Américain</i>, vol. ii. pp. 207, 231 (Caribs).</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_50_50" href="#FNanchor_50_50" class="label">50</a>
<i>Primitive Culture</i>, vol. ii. p. 131.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_51_51" href="#FNanchor_51_51" class="label">51</a>
<i>Races of Man</i>, p. 61.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_52_52" href="#FNanchor_52_52" class="label">52</a>
Dr. G. W. Parker, on “The People of Madagascar,” <i>Journ. Anthrop. Inst.</i>,
1883, p. 478.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_53_53" href="#FNanchor_53_53" class="label">53</a>
<i>Journ. Anthrop. Inst.</i>, 1884, p. 187.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_54_54" href="#FNanchor_54_54" class="label">54</a>
A. H. Keane, <i>On the Botocudos</i>.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_55_55" href="#FNanchor_55_55" class="label">55</a>
<i>Journ. Anthrop. Inst.</i>, 1884, p. 293.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_56_56" href="#FNanchor_56_56" class="label">56</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 475.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_57_57" href="#FNanchor_57_57" class="label">57</a>
<i>Principles of Sociology</i>, vol. i. p. 222.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_58_58" href="#FNanchor_58_58" class="label">58</a>
Clem. Alex., <i>Miscellanies</i>, book vi.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_59_59" href="#FNanchor_59_59" class="label">59</a>
<i>Ibid.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_60_60" href="#FNanchor_60_60" class="label">60</a>
<i>History of America</i>, book iv. 7.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_61_61" href="#FNanchor_61_61" class="label">61</a>
Wallace, <i>Travels on the Amazon</i>, chap. xvii.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_62_62" href="#FNanchor_62_62" class="label">62</a>
<i>Journ. Anthrop. Inst.</i>, 1884, p. 10.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_63_63" href="#FNanchor_63_63" class="label">63</a>
Forrest, <i>Journ. Anthrop. Inst.</i>, vol. iii. p. 319.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_64_64" href="#FNanchor_64_64" class="label">64</a>
<i>Origin of Civilization</i>, p. 26.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_65_65" href="#FNanchor_65_65" class="label">65</a>
<i>Nat. His. Man.</i>, p. 535.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_66_66" href="#FNanchor_66_66" class="label">66</a>
Reclus, <i>Primitive Folk</i>, p. 232.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_67_67" href="#FNanchor_67_67" class="label">67</a>
<i>Primitive Folk</i>, p. 237.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_68_68" href="#FNanchor_68_68" class="label">68</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 80.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_69_69" href="#FNanchor_69_69" class="label">69</a>
Th. Halm, <i>Globus</i>, xviii.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_70_70" href="#FNanchor_70_70" class="label">70</a>
Landas, <i>Superstitions Annamites</i>.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_71_71" href="#FNanchor_71_71" class="label">71</a>
<i>Primitive Folk</i>, pp. 83, 84.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_72_72" href="#FNanchor_72_72" class="label">72</a>
<i>Journ. Anthrop. Inst.</i>, 1884, p. 473.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_73_73" href="#FNanchor_73_73" class="label">73</a>
Prof. Monier Williams, and Reclus, <i>Primitive Folk</i>, p. 234.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_74_74" href="#FNanchor_74_74" class="label">74</a>
<i>Journ. Anthrop. Inst.</i>, 1884, p. 427.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_75_75" href="#FNanchor_75_75" class="label">75</a>
Starcke, <i>Primitive Family</i>, p. 32.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_76_76" href="#FNanchor_76_76" class="label">76</a>
<i>Primitive Folk</i>, p. 234.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_77_77" href="#FNanchor_77_77" class="label">77</a>
<i>Journ. Anthrop. Inst.</i>, 1884, p. 299.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_78_78" href="#FNanchor_78_78" class="label">78</a>
<i>Journ. Anthrop. Inst.</i>, 1884, p. 310.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_79_79" href="#FNanchor_79_79" class="label">79</a>
<i>National Dispensatory</i>, p. 986.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_80_80" href="#FNanchor_80_80" class="label">80</a>
<i>Journ. Anthrop. Inst.</i>, 1884, p. 251.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_81_81" href="#FNanchor_81_81" class="label">81</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 251.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_82_82" href="#FNanchor_82_82" class="label">82</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 11.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_83_83" href="#FNanchor_83_83" class="label">83</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 132.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_84_84" href="#FNanchor_84_84" class="label">84</a>
<i>Wh. Jour.</i>, vol. iv., 2nd sec., p. 519.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_85_85" href="#FNanchor_85_85" class="label">85</a>
<i>Journ. Anthrop. Inst.</i>, 1884, p. 132.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_86_86" href="#FNanchor_86_86" class="label">86</a>
Herbert Spencer’s <i>Principles of Sociology</i>, vol. i. p. 50.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_87_87" href="#FNanchor_87_87" class="label">87</a>
Sydenham’s Works, vol. i. Preface to <i>Medical Observations</i>.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_88_88" href="#FNanchor_88_88" class="label">88</a>
See <i>British Medical Journal</i>, July 30th, 1892, p. 238.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_89_89" href="#FNanchor_89_89" class="label">89</a>
<i>Journ. Anthrop. Inst.</i>, 1884, p. 295.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_90_90" href="#FNanchor_90_90" class="label">90</a>
Lubbock, <i>Prehistoric Times</i>, p. 483. Ellis, vol. ii. p. 277.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_91_91" href="#FNanchor_91_91" class="label">91</a>
Massage, by W. E. Green, M.R.C.S. (<i>Prov. Med. Jour.</i>, May 2nd, 1892, p. 242).</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_92_92" href="#FNanchor_92_92" class="label">92</a>
<i>Hist. de la Méd.</i>, vol. vii. p. 1.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_93_93" href="#FNanchor_93_93" class="label">93</a>
See also Surgeon Fletcher’s report in the <i>U.S. Geographical and Geological Survey
of the Rocky Mountain Region</i>, vol. v. 1882.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_94_94" href="#FNanchor_94_94" class="label">94</a>
<i>Hist. de la Méd.</i>, tome vii. p. 208.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_95_95" href="#FNanchor_95_95" class="label">95</a>
Baas, <i>Hist. Med.</i>, p. 70.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_96_96" href="#FNanchor_96_96" class="label">96</a>
<i>Ibid.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_97_97" href="#FNanchor_97_97" class="label">97</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 76.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_98_98" href="#FNanchor_98_98" class="label">98</a>
<i>Lettres édifiantes et curieuses</i>, tom. xxi. p. 5. Hottentots and negroes in Central
Africa, according to Livingstone, have from remote times practised inoculation in a
similar manner.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_99_99" href="#FNanchor_99_99" class="label">99</a>
<i>Hist. de la Méd.</i>, vol. vii. p. 34.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_100_100" href="#FNanchor_100_100" class="label">100</a>
Pettigrew’s <i>Medical Superstition</i>, p. 24.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_101_101" href="#FNanchor_101_101" class="label">101</a>
<i>Principles of Sociology</i>, Herbert Spencer, vol. i. p. 374.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_102_102" href="#FNanchor_102_102" class="label">102</a>
<i>Ibid.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_103_103" href="#FNanchor_103_103" class="label">103</a>
<i>Meliosma simplicifolia</i>, or <i>Millingtonia</i>.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_104_104" href="#FNanchor_104_104" class="label">104</a>
Reclus, <i>Primitive Folk</i>, p. 222.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_105_105" href="#FNanchor_105_105" class="label">105</a>
Wallace, <i>Travels on the Amazon</i>, chap. xvii.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_106_106" href="#FNanchor_106_106" class="label">106</a>
Barth, <i>Travels in Africa</i>, Ed. 1890, p. 416.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_107_107" href="#FNanchor_107_107" class="label">107</a>
Reclus, <i>Primitive Folk</i>, p. 136.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_108_108" href="#FNanchor_108_108" class="label">108</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 251.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_109_109" href="#FNanchor_109_109" class="label">109</a>
Hooker, <i>Himalayan Journals</i>, Ed. 1891, p. 204.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_110_110" href="#FNanchor_110_110" class="label">110</a>
Blavatsky, <i>Caves and Jungles of Hindostan</i>, p. 13.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_111_111" href="#FNanchor_111_111" class="label">111</a>
Quoted in the article on “Drunkenness” in <i>Ency. Brit.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_112_112" href="#FNanchor_112_112" class="label">112</a>
See <i>Third Annual Report of the Massachusetts Board of Health</i>.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_113_113" href="#FNanchor_113_113" class="label">113</a>
<i>Early Hist. Mankind</i>, p. 288.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_114_114" href="#FNanchor_114_114" class="label">114</a>
<i>Hist. Gén. des Antilles habiteés par les Français</i>: Paris, 1667, vol. ii. p. 371, etc.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_115_115" href="#FNanchor_115_115" class="label">115</a>
<i>Early Hist. Mankind</i>, p. 294.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_116_116" href="#FNanchor_116_116" class="label">116</a>
iii. 4, 17.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_117_117" href="#FNanchor_117_117" class="label">117</a>
Pt. iii., Canto i.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_118_118" href="#FNanchor_118_118" class="label">118</a>
Notes to his edition of <i>Hudibras</i>, 1744, <i>loc. cit.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_119_119" href="#FNanchor_119_119" class="label">119</a>
Starcke, <i>The Primitive Family</i>, p. 52.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_120_120" href="#FNanchor_120_120" class="label">120</a>
<i>Ibid.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_121_121" href="#FNanchor_121_121" class="label">121</a>
Vol. ii. p. 275.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_122_122" href="#FNanchor_122_122" class="label">122</a>
Reclus, <i>Primitive Folk</i>, p. 202.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_123_123" href="#FNanchor_123_123" class="label">123</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 192.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_124_124" href="#FNanchor_124_124" class="label">124</a>
<i>Natural History</i>, Book xxviii., ch. 23.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_125_125" href="#FNanchor_125_125" class="label">125</a>
<i>De Civ.</i>, Lib. vi. 9.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_126_126" href="#FNanchor_126_126" class="label">126</a>
<i>Hist. Med.</i>, Eng. Trans., p. 16.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_127_127" href="#FNanchor_127_127" class="label">127</a>
Le Clerc, <i>Hist. de la Médicine</i>.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_128_128" href="#FNanchor_128_128" class="label">128</a>
Lib. de Iside et Osiride.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_129_129" href="#FNanchor_129_129" class="label">129</a>
<i>Official Guide Brit. Mus.</i>, “Egyptian Antiquities,” pp. 107-8.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_130_130" href="#FNanchor_130_130" class="label">130</a>
Clem. Alex., <i>Strom.</i>, lib. vi. p. 196.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_131_131" href="#FNanchor_131_131" class="label">131</a>
vii. 56.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_132_132" href="#FNanchor_132_132" class="label">132</a>
<i>Ancient Egyptians</i>, vol. ii. p. 358.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_133_133" href="#FNanchor_133_133" class="label">133</a>
Ammianus Marcellinus, i. 16, says, for a doctor to recommend his skill, it was
sufficient to say that he had studied at Alexandria.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_134_134" href="#FNanchor_134_134" class="label">134</a>
Clem. Alex., <i>Strom.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_135_135" href="#FNanchor_135_135" class="label">135</a>
<i>Hist. Med. Education</i>, p. 24.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_136_136" href="#FNanchor_136_136" class="label">136</a>
Book ii. 84.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_137_137" href="#FNanchor_137_137" class="label">137</a>
<i>Ancient Egyptians</i>, vol. iii. p. 477.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_138_138" href="#FNanchor_138_138" class="label">138</a>
Plin. xix. 5.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_139_139" href="#FNanchor_139_139" class="label">139</a>
<i>Official Guide</i>, p. 111.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_140_140" href="#FNanchor_140_140" class="label">140</a>
Chabas, <i>Mélanges Égyptologiques</i>, p. 64.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_141_141" href="#FNanchor_141_141" class="label">141</a>
Ebers, <i>Egypt</i>, vol. ii. p. 62.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_142_142" href="#FNanchor_142_142" class="label">142</a>
<i>Contra Celsum</i>, lib. 8.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_143_143" href="#FNanchor_143_143" class="label">143</a>
<i>Chaldæan Magic</i>, p. 96.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_144_144" href="#FNanchor_144_144" class="label">144</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, pp. 96, 97.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_145_145" href="#FNanchor_145_145" class="label">145</a>
Brugsch, <i>Egypt under the Pharaohs</i>, vol. ii. p. 184.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_146_146" href="#FNanchor_146_146" class="label">146</a>
<i>Hist. Egypt</i>, by Brugsch-Bey, vol. ii. p. 163-4.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_147_147" href="#FNanchor_147_147" class="label">147</a>
<i>Odyssey</i>, iv. 229-232.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_148_148" href="#FNanchor_148_148" class="label">148</a>
Chap. xlvi., v. 11.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_149_149" href="#FNanchor_149_149" class="label">149</a>
Pliny, <i>Nat. Hist.</i>, viii. 27.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_150_150" href="#FNanchor_150_150" class="label">150</a>
Chabas, <i>loc. cit.</i>, p. 66.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_151_151" href="#FNanchor_151_151" class="label">151</a>
<i>Pharaohs and Fellahs</i>, Amelia B. Edwards, p. 219.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_152_152" href="#FNanchor_152_152" class="label">152</a>
<i>Uarda</i>, vol. i. p. 32.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_153_153" href="#FNanchor_153_153" class="label">153</a>
<i>Ibid.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_154_154" href="#FNanchor_154_154" class="label">154</a>
Baas’ <i>Hist. Med.</i> (Eng. Trans.), p. 19.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_155_155" href="#FNanchor_155_155" class="label">155</a>
<i>History of Egypt</i>, vol. i. p. 58.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_156_156" href="#FNanchor_156_156" class="label">156</a>
<i>Mélanges Égyptologiques</i>, Paris, 1862, p. 117.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_157_157" href="#FNanchor_157_157" class="label">157</a>
Priests and physicians were educated in high schools, the highest degree in
which was that of the “scribes,” who were maintained at the cost of the king.
Ebers, <i>Uarda</i>, vol. i. p. 20.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_158_158" href="#FNanchor_158_158" class="label">158</a>
Lefébure has treated the subject in <i>Le Mythe Osirien</i>.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_159_159" href="#FNanchor_159_159" class="label">159</a>
See Cooper’s <i>Surgical Dict.</i>, art. “Surgery.”</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_160_160" href="#FNanchor_160_160" class="label">160</a>
<i>Ten Years’ Digging in Egypt</i>, p. 146.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_161_161" href="#FNanchor_161_161" class="label">161</a>
<i>Pharaohs and Fellahs</i>, Amelia B. Edwards, p. 254.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_162_162" href="#FNanchor_162_162" class="label">162</a>
<i>Superstitions of Medicine</i>, etc., p. 7.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_163_163" href="#FNanchor_163_163" class="label">163</a>
<i>Uarda</i>, Ebers.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_164_164" href="#FNanchor_164_164" class="label">164</a>
Brugsch, <i>Hist. Egypt</i>, vol. ii. p. 296.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_165_165" href="#FNanchor_165_165" class="label">165</a>
<i>Ten Years’ Digging in Egypt</i>, p. 153.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_166_166" href="#FNanchor_166_166" class="label">166</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 172.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_167_167" href="#FNanchor_167_167" class="label">167</a>
Ebers, <i>Egypt</i>, vol. ii. p. 61.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_168_168" href="#FNanchor_168_168" class="label">168</a>
Gen. xxxi. 19, 30.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_169_169" href="#FNanchor_169_169" class="label">169</a>
Chap. iii. 4.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_170_170" href="#FNanchor_170_170" class="label">170</a>
<i>Isis Unveiled</i>, vol. i. p. 570.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_171_171" href="#FNanchor_171_171" class="label">171</a>
Judges xvii.-xviii.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_172_172" href="#FNanchor_172_172" class="label">172</a>
Ezekiel xxi. 19-22.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_173_173" href="#FNanchor_173_173" class="label">173</a>
<i>Primitive Culture</i>, vol. i. p. 267. 2 Samuel xxiv. 16; 2 Kings xix. 35.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_174_174" href="#FNanchor_174_174" class="label">174</a>
3tes Heft, p. 25.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_175_175" href="#FNanchor_175_175" class="label">175</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 27.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_176_176" href="#FNanchor_176_176" class="label">176</a>
<i>Races of Man</i>, p. 153.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_177_177" href="#FNanchor_177_177" class="label">177</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 293.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_178_178" href="#FNanchor_178_178" class="label">178</a>
<i>Antiquities of Israel</i>, p. 90.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_179_179" href="#FNanchor_179_179" class="label">179</a>
“Finditur usque ad urethram à parte inferâ penis.”—Eyre, vol. ii. p. 332.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_180_180" href="#FNanchor_180_180" class="label">180</a>
<i>Arabian Nights</i>, vol. ii. p. 160, note 3.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_181_181" href="#FNanchor_181_181" class="label">181</a>
<i>Antiquities of Israel</i>, p. 156.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_182_182" href="#FNanchor_182_182" class="label">182</a>
<i>Wars</i>, vii. 6, 3.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_183_183" href="#FNanchor_183_183" class="label">183</a>
Book VIII. chap. iii. 5.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_184_184" href="#FNanchor_184_184" class="label">184</a>
<i>Antiq.</i>, Book VI. chap. viii. 2.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_185_185" href="#FNanchor_185_185" class="label">185</a>
Note to Whiston’s Josephus, <i>loc. cit.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_186_186" href="#FNanchor_186_186" class="label">186</a>
1 Sam. xvi. 15.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_187_187" href="#FNanchor_187_187" class="label">187</a>
<i>Religious Encyclopædia</i>, vol. ii. p. 1454.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_188_188" href="#FNanchor_188_188" class="label">188</a>
<i>Medica Sacra</i>, p. 40 <i>et seq.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_189_189" href="#FNanchor_189_189" class="label">189</a>
<i>Arabian Nights</i>, vol. ii. p. 4.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_190_190" href="#FNanchor_190_190" class="label">190</a>
<i>Ecclesiasticus</i> xxxviii. 1, 3, 4, 12. From the many references to disease in this book,
it has been supposed by some commentators that the author was a physician. The
writer of the article on “Medicine,” in <i>Smith’s Dictionary of the Bible</i>, remarks that
“if he was so, the power of mind and wide range of observation shown in this work,
would give a favourable impression of the standard of practitioners; if he was not,
the great general popularity of the study and practice may be inferred from its thus
becoming a common topic of general advice offered by a non-professional writer.”</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_191_191" href="#FNanchor_191_191" class="label">191</a>
<i>Wars of the Jews</i>, Book II. chap, viii; <i>Antiq.</i>, xviii. 1, 5.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_192_192" href="#FNanchor_192_192" class="label">192</a>
See Lightfoot on the <i>Colossians</i>.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_193_193" href="#FNanchor_193_193" class="label">193</a>
<i>Works</i>, vol. i. p. 10.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_194_194" href="#FNanchor_194_194" class="label">194</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, vol. vii. p. 7.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_195_195" href="#FNanchor_195_195" class="label">195</a>
<i>History of Medicine</i>, p. 36.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_196_196" href="#FNanchor_196_196" class="label">196</a>
“‘How doth a man revive again in the world to come?’ asked Hadrian; and
Joshua Ben Hananiah made answer, ‘From luz in the backbone.’ He then went on
to demonstrate this to him. He took the bone luz, and put it into water, but the
water had no action on it; he put it in the fire, but the fire consumed it not; he
placed it in a mill, but could not grind it; and laid it on an anvil, but the hammer
crushed it not.”—<i>Lightfoot.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_197_197" href="#FNanchor_197_197" class="label">197</a>
<i>Alexandria and her Schools</i>, p. 74.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_198_198" href="#FNanchor_198_198" class="label">198</a>
Le Clerc, <i>Hist. de la Méd.</i>, Pt. I. 2, 4.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_199_199" href="#FNanchor_199_199" class="label">199</a>
<i>A History of the Jews</i>, Book xxiii.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_200_200" href="#FNanchor_200_200" class="label">200</a>
<i>Ibid.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_201_201" href="#FNanchor_201_201" class="label">201</a>
G. S. Faber, <i>The Cabiri</i>, vol. i.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_202_202" href="#FNanchor_202_202" class="label">202</a>
Art. on “Babylon,” by Rev. A. H. Sayce, in <i>Ency. Brit.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_203_203" href="#FNanchor_203_203" class="label">203</a>
<i>Hist. Babylonia</i>, Geo. Smith, pp. 21, 22.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_204_204" href="#FNanchor_204_204" class="label">204</a>
Lenormant, <i>Chaldæan Magic</i>, pp. 139, 140.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_205_205" href="#FNanchor_205_205" class="label">205</a>
See on this the chapter on “The Religious Systems of the Accadian Magic Books,”
Lenormant, <i>Chaldæan Magic</i>, chap. xi.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_206_206" href="#FNanchor_206_206" class="label">206</a>
Lenormant, <i>Chaldæan Magic</i>, p. 42.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_207_207" href="#FNanchor_207_207" class="label">207</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 179.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_208_208" href="#FNanchor_208_208" class="label">208</a>
Lenormant, <i>Chaldæan Magic</i>, p. 181.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_209_209" href="#FNanchor_209_209" class="label">209</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, pp. 204-209.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_210_210" href="#FNanchor_210_210" class="label">210</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 35.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_211_211" href="#FNanchor_211_211" class="label">211</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 36.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_212_212" href="#FNanchor_212_212" class="label">212</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 36.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_213_213" href="#FNanchor_213_213" class="label">213</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 41.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_214_214" href="#FNanchor_214_214" class="label">214</a>
See E. B. Tylor, art. “Demonology,” <i>Ency. Brit.</i>; <i>Records of the Past</i>, vols. i.,
iii.; Birch’s trans. <i>Book of the Dead</i>; Lenormant, Maspero, and others.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_215_215" href="#FNanchor_215_215" class="label">215</a>
<i>Herodotus</i>, Book I. 197, tr. Rawlinson.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_216_216" href="#FNanchor_216_216" class="label">216</a>
<i>Records of the Past</i>, vol. i. p. 135.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_217_217" href="#FNanchor_217_217" class="label">217</a>
<i>Hist. Babylon</i>, p. 22.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_218_218" href="#FNanchor_218_218" class="label">218</a>
Lenormant, <i>Chaldæan Magic</i>, p. 6.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_219_219" href="#FNanchor_219_219" class="label">219</a>
<i>Nineveh and its Palaces</i>, Joseph Bonomi, p. 164.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_220_220" href="#FNanchor_220_220" class="label">220</a>
<i>Records of the Past</i>, vol. iii. p. 140.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_221_221" href="#FNanchor_221_221" class="label">221</a>
<i>Assyrian Talismans and Exorcisms</i>, trans. by H. F. Talbot. <i>Records of the
Past</i>, vol. iii. p. 143.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_222_222" href="#FNanchor_222_222" class="label">222</a>
<i>Folk Medicine</i>, p. 165.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_223_223" href="#FNanchor_223_223" class="label">223</a>
From Baas’ <i>Hist. Med.</i>, p. 28.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_224_224" href="#FNanchor_224_224" class="label">224</a>
See Taylor, <i>Origin of the Aryans</i>, chap. i.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_225_225" href="#FNanchor_225_225" class="label">225</a>
<i>Indian Wisdom</i>, p. xxvi.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_226_226" href="#FNanchor_226_226" class="label">226</a>
<i>Indian Wisdom</i>, p. 84.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_227_227" href="#FNanchor_227_227" class="label">227</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 89.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_228_228" href="#FNanchor_228_228" class="label">228</a>
<i>Asiatic Quarterly Review</i>, Oct., 1892, p. 287.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_229_229" href="#FNanchor_229_229" class="label">229</a>
<i>Hist. India</i>, 4th ed., p. 48.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_230_230" href="#FNanchor_230_230" class="label">230</a>
<i>Hist. India</i>, 4th ed., p. 123.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_231_231" href="#FNanchor_231_231" class="label">231</a>
<i>Hist. Philos.</i>, vol. i. p. 394.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_232_232" href="#FNanchor_232_232" class="label">232</a>
<i>School of Philos.</i>, p. 547.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_233_233" href="#FNanchor_233_233" class="label">233</a>
Max Müller: <i>Zend-Avesta</i>, 83.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_234_234" href="#FNanchor_234_234" class="label">234</a>
<i>Ordinances of Menu</i>, Trübner’s Oriental Series. Lect. xi. 48-54.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_235_235" href="#FNanchor_235_235" class="label">235</a>
The first fine is the lowest, <i>i.e.</i> two hundred and fifty <i>panas</i>. In the Atharvaveda
also physicians are spoken of in disrespectful terms. “Various are the desires of
men; the wagoner longs for wood, the doctor for diseases.” A Brahman by the code
of Menu was forbidden to follow the profession of a physician, as it was classed
amongst those which were most impure.<a id="FNanchor_236_236" href="#Footnote_236_236" class="fnanchor">236</a> At certain funeral ceremonies the same
Code excluded such persons as “physicians, atheists, thieves, spirit drinkers, men
with diseased nails or teeth, dancers, etc.”<a id="FNanchor_237_237" href="#Footnote_237_237" class="fnanchor">237</a></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_236_236" href="#FNanchor_236_236" class="label">236</a>
Elphinstone, <i>Hist. of India</i>, 4th edition, p. 41.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_237_237" href="#FNanchor_237_237" class="label">237</a>
<i>Ordinances of Menu</i>, iii. 150-168.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_238_238" href="#FNanchor_238_238" class="label">238</a>
Baas, <i>Hist. Med.</i>, p. 41.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_239_239" href="#FNanchor_239_239" class="label">239</a>
Hunter’s <i>Indian Empire</i>, p. 109.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_240_240" href="#FNanchor_240_240" class="label">240</a>
<i>Asiatic Quarterly Rev.</i>, Oct. 1892, p. 290.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_241_241" href="#FNanchor_241_241" class="label">241</a>
<i>Ibid.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_242_242" href="#FNanchor_242_242" class="label">242</a>
Tract vi. p. 125.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_243_243" href="#FNanchor_243_243" class="label">243</a>
Weber, <i>Hist. Ind. Lit.</i>, p. 270.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_244_244" href="#FNanchor_244_244" class="label">244</a>
<i>Ibid.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_245_245" href="#FNanchor_245_245" class="label">245</a>
Wise’s <i>Hindu Medicine</i>, p. 184.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_246_246" href="#FNanchor_246_246" class="label">246</a>
<i>Hindu Medicine</i>, p. 8.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_247_247" href="#FNanchor_247_247" class="label">247</a>
<i>Hist. Ind. Lit.</i>, p. 268.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_248_248" href="#FNanchor_248_248" class="label">248</a>
Wise’s <i>Hindu Medicine</i>, p. 213.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_249_249" href="#FNanchor_249_249" class="label">249</a>
There would seem to be an artful idea under these signs. Most of them have no
relation whatever to the patient’s condition, but are of great importance to the doctor’s
convenience, and are evidently arranged to suit his own purposes.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_250_250" href="#FNanchor_250_250" class="label">250</a>
Ainslie’s <i>Materia Indica</i>, vol. ii. p. 525.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_251_251" href="#FNanchor_251_251" class="label">251</a>
Arrian’s <i>Indian History</i>, vol. ii. p. 232 (ed. 1729).</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_252_252" href="#FNanchor_252_252" class="label">252</a>
Strabo, <i>Geography</i>, Book xv. c. 1.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_253_253" href="#FNanchor_253_253" class="label">253</a>
<i>Indian History</i>, vol. ii. p. 219.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_254_254" href="#FNanchor_254_254" class="label">254</a>
<i>Hibbert Lectures</i>, 1878, p. 150.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_255_255" href="#FNanchor_255_255" class="label">255</a>
Weber, <i>Sanskrit Literature</i>, p. 265.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_256_256" href="#FNanchor_256_256" class="label">256</a>
<i>Tracts on India</i>, p. 139.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_257_257" href="#FNanchor_257_257" class="label">257</a>
<i>Hibbert Lectures</i>, 1878, p. 134.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_258_258" href="#FNanchor_258_258" class="label">258</a>
Monier Williams, <i>Indian Wisdom</i>, p. 56.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_259_259" href="#FNanchor_259_259" class="label">259</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 57.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_260_260" href="#FNanchor_260_260" class="label">260</a>
<i>Indian Wisdom</i>, p. 66.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_261_261" href="#FNanchor_261_261" class="label">261</a>
John ix. 2.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_262_262" href="#FNanchor_262_262" class="label">262</a>
<i>Asiatic Quarterly Review</i>, Oct. 1892, p. 288.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_263_263" href="#FNanchor_263_263" class="label">263</a>
<i>Asiatic Quarterly Review</i>, Oct. 1892, p. 288.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_264_264" href="#FNanchor_264_264" class="label">264</a>
<i>A Manual of Budhism</i>, pp. 238.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_265_265" href="#FNanchor_265_265" class="label">265</a>
Probably the Taxila of the Greeks. See Strabo, Book xv. c. 1, § 61.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_266_266" href="#FNanchor_266_266" class="label">266</a>
A doctrine re-discovered by our bacteriologists.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_267_267" href="#FNanchor_267_267" class="label">267</a>
Haeser.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_268_268" href="#FNanchor_268_268" class="label">268</a>
<i>Materia Indica</i>, vol. ii. p. vii.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_269_269" href="#FNanchor_269_269" class="label">269</a>
<i>Ibid.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_270_270" href="#FNanchor_270_270" class="label">270</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, p. viii.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_271_271" href="#FNanchor_271_271" class="label">271</a>
<i>Oriental Magazine</i>, March, 1823.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_272_272" href="#FNanchor_272_272" class="label">272</a>
Wise, <i>Hist. Hind. Med.</i>, vol. i. pp. 131, 132.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_273_273" href="#FNanchor_273_273" class="label">273</a>
<i>Indian Empire</i>, p. 106.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_274_274" href="#FNanchor_274_274" class="label">274</a>
<i>Oriental Magazine</i>, vol. i. (1823), pp. 349-356.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_275_275" href="#FNanchor_275_275" class="label">275</a>
<i>Indian Empire</i>, p. 108.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_276_276" href="#FNanchor_276_276" class="label">276</a>
<i>Ibid.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_277_277" href="#FNanchor_277_277" class="label">277</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 146.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_278_278" href="#FNanchor_278_278" class="label">278</a>
<i>Medical and Surgical Sciences of the Hindus.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_279_279" href="#FNanchor_279_279" class="label">279</a>
<i>Hibbert Lectures</i>, 1878, p. 153.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_280_280" href="#FNanchor_280_280" class="label">280</a>
Prof. H. H. Wilson’s <i>Medical and Surgical Sciences of the Hindus</i>.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_281_281" href="#FNanchor_281_281" class="label">281</a>
<i>Brit. Med. Journ.</i>, June 25, 1892, p. 1382.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_282_282" href="#FNanchor_282_282" class="label">282</a>
Mocre, <i>History of the Small-pox</i>, p. 33, quoted in Pettigrew’s <i>Medical Superstitions</i>,
p. 81.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_283_283" href="#FNanchor_283_283" class="label">283</a>
Paris’s <i>Pharmacologia</i>, p. 26.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_284_284" href="#FNanchor_284_284" class="label">284</a>
Tylor, <i>Primitive Culture</i>, vol. ii. p. 150.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_285_285" href="#FNanchor_285_285" class="label">285</a>
<i>Asiatic Quarterly Rev.</i>, Oct. 1892, p. 291.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_286_286" href="#FNanchor_286_286" class="label">286</a>
Selections from the Records of the Government of India. Foreign Department.
No. <span class="smcap lowercase">CVIII.</span> Rajputana Dispensary, Vaccination, Jail, and Sanitary Report for 1872-73.
By Surgeon-Major (now Surgeon-General Sir W.) Moore, C.I.E., Honorary
Surgeon to the Viceroy of India.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_287_287" href="#FNanchor_287_287" class="label">287</a>
See an article entitled “A New Light on the Chinese,” in <i>Harper’s Magazine</i>,
December, 1892.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_288_288" href="#FNanchor_288_288" class="label">288</a>
Prof. Teile, in art. “Religions,” <i>Ency. Brit.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_289_289" href="#FNanchor_289_289" class="label">289</a>
Cummings, <i>Wanderings in China</i>, vol. i. p. 188.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_290_290" href="#FNanchor_290_290" class="label">290</a>
Baas, <i>Hist. Med.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_291_291" href="#FNanchor_291_291" class="label">291</a>
“Doctoring in China,” <i>National Review</i>, May, 1889.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_292_292" href="#FNanchor_292_292" class="label">292</a>
Doolittle’s <i>Social Life of the Chinese</i>, vol. i. p. 145.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_293_293" href="#FNanchor_293_293" class="label">293</a>
<i>Folk Medicine</i>, p. 4; Dennys, <i>Folklore of China</i>, p. 96.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_294_294" href="#FNanchor_294_294" class="label">294</a>
Doolittle’s <i>Social Life of the Chinese</i>, vol. i. p. 153.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_295_295" href="#FNanchor_295_295" class="label">295</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, vol. i. p. 275.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_296_296" href="#FNanchor_296_296" class="label">296</a>
Doolittle’s <i>Social Life of the Chinese</i>, vol. i. p. 265.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_297_297" href="#FNanchor_297_297" class="label">297</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, vol. i. p. 275.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_298_298" href="#FNanchor_298_298" class="label">298</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, vol. i. p. 154.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_299_299" href="#FNanchor_299_299" class="label">299</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, vol. ii. p. 116.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_300_300" href="#FNanchor_300_300" class="label">300</a>
<i>Sacred Books of the East</i>, vol. xi. p. 272.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_301_301" href="#FNanchor_301_301" class="label">301</a>
<i>Travels in Tartary</i>, vol. i. chap. vii.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_302_302" href="#FNanchor_302_302" class="label">302</a>
<i>National Dispensatory</i>, p. 754.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_303_303" href="#FNanchor_303_303" class="label">303</a>
Gordon Cumming’s <i>Wanderings in China</i>, vol. i. p. 174.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_304_304" href="#FNanchor_304_304" class="label">304</a>
“Doctoring in China,” <i>National Review</i>, May, 1889.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_305_305" href="#FNanchor_305_305" class="label">305</a>
Doolittle’s <i>Social Life of the Chinese</i>, vol. ii. p. 321.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_306_306" href="#FNanchor_306_306" class="label">306</a>
Southey, <i>Common Place Book</i>, ser. iv. p. 547.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_307_307" href="#FNanchor_307_307" class="label">307</a>
<i>Ency. Brit.</i>, art. “Surgery.”</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_308_308" href="#FNanchor_308_308" class="label">308</a>
<i>Chambers’ Journal</i>, Dec. 29, 1888, p. 831.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_309_309" href="#FNanchor_309_309" class="label">309</a>
<i>Wanderings in China</i>, vol. i. p. 173.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_310_310" href="#FNanchor_310_310" class="label">310</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, vol. i. p. 173.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_311_311" href="#FNanchor_311_311" class="label">311</a>
<i>Folk Lore of China</i>, p. 49.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_312_312" href="#FNanchor_312_312" class="label">312</a>
<i>Ibid.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_313_313" href="#FNanchor_313_313" class="label">313</a>
<i>Travels in Tartary.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_314_314" href="#FNanchor_314_314" class="label">314</a>
<i>Travels in Tartary.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_315_315" href="#FNanchor_315_315" class="label">315</a>
<i>Travels in Tartary</i>, vol. i. chap. ix.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_316_316" href="#FNanchor_316_316" class="label">316</a>
<i>La Magie et l’Astrologie</i>, p. 13.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_317_317" href="#FNanchor_317_317" class="label">317</a>
<i>Vorlesungen über die Finnische Mythologie</i>, p. 173.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_318_318" href="#FNanchor_318_318" class="label">318</a>
<i>La Magie et l’Astrologie</i>, p. 283, and foll.; also Lenormant, <i>Chaldæan Magic</i>,
p. 212.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_319_319" href="#FNanchor_319_319" class="label">319</a>
<i>National Druggist.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_320_320" href="#FNanchor_320_320" class="label">320</a>
Darmesteter, <i>Zend-Avesta</i>.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_321_321" href="#FNanchor_321_321" class="label">321</a>
<i>Zend-Avesta</i>; <i>Vendîdâd.</i> <i>Sacred Books of the East</i>, vol. iv. p. 219.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_322_322" href="#FNanchor_322_322" class="label">322</a>
<i>Ibid.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_323_323" href="#FNanchor_323_323" class="label">323</a>
<i>Rig-Veda</i>, x. 97, 17.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_324_324" href="#FNanchor_324_324" class="label">324</a>
<i>Vendîdâd</i>, Fargard xx. 7.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_325_325" href="#FNanchor_325_325" class="label">325</a>
<i>Sacred Books of the East</i>, vol. iv. p. 83.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_326_326" href="#FNanchor_326_326" class="label">326</a>
<i>Herod.</i>, i. 138.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_327_327" href="#FNanchor_327_327" class="label">327</a>
<i>Zend-Avesta.</i> Translated by J. Darmesteter in <i>Sacred Books of the East</i>, vol. iv.
p. 187. This throws a curious light on a custom which has been observed in operation
all over the world, of taking care not to throw about hair or nail-cuttings, lest the
devil should get hold of them.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_328_328" href="#FNanchor_328_328" class="label">328</a>
<i>Zend-Avesta</i>, Introduction, v. xciii. § 13.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_329_329" href="#FNanchor_329_329" class="label">329</a>
Our word Peony derives its Latin name (Pæonia) from the name of Apollo
the Healer. He cured the gods of their diseases, and healed their wounds by means
of this root.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_330_330" href="#FNanchor_330_330" class="label">330</a>
vii. 23.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_331_331" href="#FNanchor_331_331" class="label">331</a>
Wheelwright’s translation of <i>Pindar</i>. <i>Third Pythian Ode</i>, 80-95.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_332_332" href="#FNanchor_332_332" class="label">332</a>
<i>Sacred Books of the East</i>, vol. iv. p. 219 note.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_333_333" href="#FNanchor_333_333" class="label">333</a>
<i>Il.</i>, V. 447.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_334_334" href="#FNanchor_334_334" class="label">334</a>
Sophoc., <i>Ajax</i>.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_335_335" href="#FNanchor_335_335" class="label">335</a>
Cicero, <i>De Nat. Deor.</i>, iii. 22.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_336_336" href="#FNanchor_336_336" class="label">336</a>
<i>Prometheus.</i> Plays of Æschylus, Morley’s Ed.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_337_337" href="#FNanchor_337_337" class="label">337</a>
Book XIX.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_338_338" href="#FNanchor_338_338" class="label">338</a>
<i>Hist. de la Médicine</i>, Pt. I., liv. i., ch. xiv.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_339_339" href="#FNanchor_339_339" class="label">339</a>
<i>Ibid.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_340_340" href="#FNanchor_340_340" class="label">340</a>
I am indebted to an article on “The Medicine of Homer” in <i>The British
Medical Journal</i> for much of the information in this section.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_341_341" href="#FNanchor_341_341" class="label">341</a>
Le Clerc, <i>Hist. de la Méd.</i>, Pt. I., liv. ii., ch. ix.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_342_342" href="#FNanchor_342_342" class="label">342</a>
Arctinus, <i>Ethiopis</i>. Translated in Puschmann’s <i>Hist. Med. Education</i>, p. 35.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_343_343" href="#FNanchor_343_343" class="label">343</a>
Le Clerc, <i>Hist. de la Méd.</i>, Pt. I., bk. i., ch. xviii.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_344_344" href="#FNanchor_344_344" class="label">344</a>
Lib. VIII., cap. 26.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_345_345" href="#FNanchor_345_345" class="label">345</a>
Cic., <i>Tusc. Dis.</i>, III. 1.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_346_346" href="#FNanchor_346_346" class="label">346</a>
Hippocr., <i>De Prisca Medic.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_347_347" href="#FNanchor_347_347" class="label">347</a>
Le Clerc, <i>Hist. de la Méd.</i>, Pt. I., liv. ii., c. iv.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_348_348" href="#FNanchor_348_348" class="label">348</a>
Laertius, Lib. I., c. 113.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_349_349" href="#FNanchor_349_349" class="label">349</a>
<i>Hist. Med.</i>, p. 88.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_350_350" href="#FNanchor_350_350" class="label">350</a>
Puschmann, <i>Hist. Med. Education</i>, p. 46.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_351_351" href="#FNanchor_351_351" class="label">351</a>
See on this Dr. Greenhill’s remarks in <i>Smith’s Dict. Greek and Roman Biography</i>,
loc. cit.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_352_352" href="#FNanchor_352_352" class="label">352</a>
Aristotle, <i>Hist. Animal.</i>, iii. 2.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_353_353" href="#FNanchor_353_353" class="label">353</a>
<i>Ency. Brit.</i>, Ninth Ed., vol. iii. p. 178.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_354_354" href="#FNanchor_354_354" class="label">354</a>
Baas, <i>Hist. Med.</i>, p. 88.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_355_355" href="#FNanchor_355_355" class="label">355</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 89.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_356_356" href="#FNanchor_356_356" class="label">356</a>
<i>Laertius</i>, c. 77, c. 59.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_357_357" href="#FNanchor_357_357" class="label">357</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, c. 62.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_358_358" href="#FNanchor_358_358" class="label">358</a>
Diodor., i. 69, 98.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_359_359" href="#FNanchor_359_359" class="label">359</a>
Grote, vol. iv. p. 529.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_360_360" href="#FNanchor_360_360" class="label">360</a>
Book xx. 73.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_361_361" href="#FNanchor_361_361" class="label">361</a>
See “Pythagorean Philosophy,” <i>Ency. Brit.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_362_362" href="#FNanchor_362_362" class="label">362</a>
Baas, <i>Hist. Med.</i>, p. 89. Meryon, <i>Hist. Med.</i>, p. 14. Dr. Adams, <i>Introd.
Hippoc.</i>, vol. i. p. 134.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_363_363" href="#FNanchor_363_363" class="label">363</a>
<i>Histoire de la Médicine</i>, Pt. I., liv. i., c. iv.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_364_364" href="#FNanchor_364_364" class="label">364</a>
Lib. 3, cap. 4.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_365_365" href="#FNanchor_365_365" class="label">365</a>
Sprengel, <i>Hist. Méd.</i>, p. 36.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_366_366" href="#FNanchor_366_366" class="label">366</a>
Pratt, <i>Flowering Plants</i>, vol. i. p. 57.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_367_367" href="#FNanchor_367_367" class="label">367</a>
<i>Herod.</i>, iii. 137.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_368_368" href="#FNanchor_368_368" class="label">368</a>
<i>Hist. Nat.</i>, xxviii. c. 29.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_369_369" href="#FNanchor_369_369" class="label">369</a>
<i>De Carnibus.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_370_370" href="#FNanchor_370_370" class="label">370</a>
Vol. i. p. 151.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_371_371" href="#FNanchor_371_371" class="label">371</a>
Ovid’s <i>Metamorph.</i>, Dryden’s translation, Book XV.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_372_372" href="#FNanchor_372_372" class="label">372</a>
The following are translations of some of the tablets suspended in the temples, as
given in Hieron Mercurialis (<i>De Art. Gymnast.</i>, Amstel., 4to, 1672, pp. 2, 3):—
</p>
<p>
“Some days back a certain Caius, who was blind, learned from an oracle that he
should repair to the temple, put up his fervent prayers, cross the sanctuary from right
to left, place his five fingers on the altar, then raise his hand and cover his eyes. He
obeyed, and instantly his sight was restored, amidst the loud acclamations of the
multitude. These signs of the omnipotence of the gods were shown in the reign of
Antoninus.”
</p>
<p>
“A blind soldier, named Valerius Apes, having consulted the oracle, was informed
that he should mix the blood of a white cock with honey, to make up an ointment to
be applied to his eyes for three consecutive days. He received his sight, and returned
public thanks to the gods.”
</p>
<p>
“Julian appeared lost beyond all hope from a spitting of blood. The gods
ordered him to take from the altar some seeds of the pine, and to mix them with
honey, of which mixture he was to eat for three days. He was saved, and came to
thank the gods in presence of the people.”—(Smith’s <i>Dict. Greek and Roman Ant.</i>,
art. “Medicina.”)</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_373_373" href="#FNanchor_373_373" class="label">373</a>
The multitude of “Eau de Cologne” makers calling themselves “Farina” is a
case in point.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_374_374" href="#FNanchor_374_374" class="label">374</a>
Adams, <i>Hippocrates</i>, vol. i. p. 7.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_375_375" href="#FNanchor_375_375" class="label">375</a>
Galen, <i>De Sanitate tuenda</i>.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_376_376" href="#FNanchor_376_376" class="label">376</a>
Meryon, <i>Hist. Med.</i>, p. 11.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_377_377" href="#FNanchor_377_377" class="label">377</a>
Baas, <i>Hist. Med.</i>, p. 91.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_378_378" href="#FNanchor_378_378" class="label">378</a>
All-heal.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_379_379" href="#FNanchor_379_379" class="label">379</a>
Dr. Puschmann, in his <i>History of Medical Education</i>, p. 42, translates this
passage: “Castration will I not carry out even on those who suffer from stone, but
leave this to those people who make a business of it.” The words in the Greek are
οὐ τεμέω δὲ ουδὲ μὴν λιθιῶντας, and much controversy has been excited by them.
Some commentators of great authority think the passage forbids castration, as disgraceful
things are being spoken of, such as giving poisons and procuring abortion. Certainly
there is no reason for supposing that the doctors of the period would object to
perform lithotomy though it is the fact that there was a class of operators who were
a sort of unscientific specialists in the practice.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_380_380" href="#FNanchor_380_380" class="label">380</a>
Baas, <i>Hist. Med.</i>, p. 93.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_381_381" href="#FNanchor_381_381" class="label">381</a>
Plut., <i>Symp.</i>, viii. 4, § 4.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_382_382" href="#FNanchor_382_382" class="label">382</a>
Plato, <i>De Leg.</i>, xi.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_383_383" href="#FNanchor_383_383" class="label">383</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, iv.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_384_384" href="#FNanchor_384_384" class="label">384</a>
Cos gave birth to Ptolemy Philadelphus, the second of the Greek kings of Egypt,
to Ariston the philosopher, and to Apelles the painter.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_385_385" href="#FNanchor_385_385" class="label">385</a>
Vol. ii. p. 569.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_386_386" href="#FNanchor_386_386" class="label">386</a>
Vol. vi. p. 1152.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_387_387" href="#FNanchor_387_387" class="label">387</a>
<i>Works of Hippocrates</i>, Syd. Soc., vol. ii. p. 565.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_388_388" href="#FNanchor_388_388" class="label">388</a>
<i>Œuvres Complètes d’Hippocrate</i>, Tom. I., Introd., ch. i. p. 3.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_389_389" href="#FNanchor_389_389" class="label">389</a>
Adams, <i>Hippocrates</i>, vol. i. p. 18.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_390_390" href="#FNanchor_390_390" class="label">390</a>
<i>Epidem.</i>, vi.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_391_391" href="#FNanchor_391_391" class="label">391</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, i.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_392_392" href="#FNanchor_392_392" class="label">392</a>
Derivation is the drawing of humours from one part of the body to another, as
from the eye by a blister on the neck; revulsion differs from this only by the force of
the medicine and the distance of the disorder from the part to which it is applied. He
treated fevers by preparations which increase the amount of fluid in the blood, as by
water, buttermilk, whey, etc. This was called the diluent system. At the same time
he used mild aperients and sometimes venesection.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_393_393" href="#FNanchor_393_393" class="label">393</a>
Νοὐσων φύσιες ἰητροἰ. <i>Epid.</i>, vi. 5, l.t. iii. p. 606.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_394_394" href="#FNanchor_394_394" class="label">394</a>
See for all this surgical information Ashurst’s <i>International Encyclopædia of
Surgery</i>, vol. vi.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_395_395" href="#FNanchor_395_395" class="label">395</a>
<i>Genuine Works of Hippocrates</i>, vol. i. pp. 20, 21.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_396_396" href="#FNanchor_396_396" class="label">396</a>
Adams, <i>Genuine Works of Hippocrates</i>, vol. i. pp. 129, 130.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_397_397" href="#FNanchor_397_397" class="label">397</a>
Probably masks or inanimate figures (Adams).</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_398_398" href="#FNanchor_398_398" class="label">398</a>
Baas, <i>Hist. Med.</i>, Eng. Trans., pp. 111, 112.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_399_399" href="#FNanchor_399_399" class="label">399</a>
Le Clerc, <i>Hist. de la Méd.</i>, Pt. I., bk. iv.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_400_400" href="#FNanchor_400_400" class="label">400</a>
Celsus, <i>De Medic.</i>, Prælat, in lib. i.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_401_401" href="#FNanchor_401_401" class="label">401</a>
<i>Hist. Nat.</i>, xxvi. 6.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_402_402" href="#FNanchor_402_402" class="label">402</a>
On the question of the authenticity of this epistle see Dr. Adams’ commentary
in his <i>Paulus Ægineta</i>, vol. i. p. 186.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_403_403" href="#FNanchor_403_403" class="label">403</a>
<i>Hist. de la Méd.</i>, vol. i. pp. 422-3.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_404_404" href="#FNanchor_404_404" class="label">404</a>
<i>Œuvres d’Hippocr.</i>, vol. i. p. 202, etc.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_405_405" href="#FNanchor_405_405" class="label">405</a>
Cæl. Aurel., <i>De Morb. Acut.</i>, iii. 17.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_406_406" href="#FNanchor_406_406" class="label">406</a>
Le Clerc, <i>Hist. de la Méd.</i> Meryon, <i>Hist. Med.</i>, p. 35.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_407_407" href="#FNanchor_407_407" class="label">407</a>
<i>Études Biographiques</i> par Paul-Antoine, Cap. p. 26. The <i>Treatise on Stones</i> by
Theophrastus is one of the first works we possess on the study of minerals.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_408_408" href="#FNanchor_408_408" class="label">408</a>
<i>Alexandria and her Schools</i>, p. 6.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_409_409" href="#FNanchor_409_409" class="label">409</a>
Galen, <i>De Uteri Dissect.</i>, c. 5, vol. ii. p. 895.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_410_410" href="#FNanchor_410_410" class="label">410</a>
<i>De Anima</i>, c. 10, p. 757.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_411_411" href="#FNanchor_411_411" class="label">411</a>
<i>De Medic.</i>, i. Præf., p. 6.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_412_412" href="#FNanchor_412_412" class="label">412</a>
Baas, <i>Hist. of Med.</i>, pp. 121-123.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_413_413" href="#FNanchor_413_413" class="label">413</a>
Puschmann, <i>Hist. Med. Educ.</i>, p. 76.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_414_414" href="#FNanchor_414_414" class="label">414</a>
Plutarch’s <i>Life of Demetrius</i>.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_415_415" href="#FNanchor_415_415" class="label">415</a>
He modified his opinions on the nerves by careful dissections, and greatly improved
his physiology.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_416_416" href="#FNanchor_416_416" class="label">416</a>
Baas, <i>Hist. of Med.</i>, pp. 121-123.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_417_417" href="#FNanchor_417_417" class="label">417</a>
Le Clerc, <i>Hist. de la Méd.</i>, Pt. II. c. iii.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_418_418" href="#FNanchor_418_418" class="label">418</a>
Dr. W. A. Greenhill, art. “Dogmatici,” Smith’s <i>Dict. Class. Ant.</i> Briefly, this
was as much as to say that a man could not be an educated doctor who had not practised,
or at least seen, human vivisection. As these have not been performed since the
fifteenth century, when, as we shall learn, they were practised by Italian anatomists,
it follows, according to the argument, that the Alexandrian physicians were better
educated than our own!</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_419_419" href="#FNanchor_419_419" class="label">419</a>
<i>De Med.</i>, vii. 26. See also Smith’s <i>Dict. Ant.</i>, p. 220.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_420_420" href="#FNanchor_420_420" class="label">420</a>
Plin., <i>Hist. Nat.</i>, xxvi. 6.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_421_421" href="#FNanchor_421_421" class="label">421</a>
<i>De Med.</i>, Præfat.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_422_422" href="#FNanchor_422_422" class="label">422</a>
Celsus, <i>Of Medicine</i>.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_423_423" href="#FNanchor_423_423" class="label">423</a>
<i>Life of Demetrius.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_424_424" href="#FNanchor_424_424" class="label">424</a>
<i>Hist. Med.</i>, p. 129.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_425_425" href="#FNanchor_425_425" class="label">425</a>
<i>Hist. de la Méd.</i>; Pt. II., bk. iii., ch. xiii.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_426_426" href="#FNanchor_426_426" class="label">426</a>
Celsus, <i>Of Medicine</i>, chap. iv. Futvoye’s Trans.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_427_427" href="#FNanchor_427_427" class="label">427</a>
Dr. Francis Adams. Preface to Works of <i>Paulus Ægineta</i>, p. xii.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_428_428" href="#FNanchor_428_428" class="label">428</a>
iii. 131.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_429_429" href="#FNanchor_429_429" class="label">429</a>
Smith’s <i>Dict. Ant.</i>, p. 611.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_430_430" href="#FNanchor_430_430" class="label">430</a>
<i>Herodotus</i>, iv. 68.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_431_431" href="#FNanchor_431_431" class="label">431</a>
<i>Hist. de la Méd.</i>, vol. vi. p. 28.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_432_432" href="#FNanchor_432_432" class="label">432</a>
Smith’s <i>Dict. Ant.</i>, art. “Therapeutica.”</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_433_433" href="#FNanchor_433_433" class="label">433</a>
<i>Titus Livius</i>, lib. i., cap. xxxi. Pliny, <i>Hist. Nat.</i>, lib. xxviii., c. ii.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_434_434" href="#FNanchor_434_434" class="label">434</a>
<i>De Civ. Dei.</i>, lib. iv. cap. xxi.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_435_435" href="#FNanchor_435_435" class="label">435</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, cap. xxiii.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_436_436" href="#FNanchor_436_436" class="label">436</a>
Baas, <i>Hist. Med.</i>, p. 131.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_437_437" href="#FNanchor_437_437" class="label">437</a>
Puschmann, <i>Hist. of Med. Educ.</i>, p. 86.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_438_438" href="#FNanchor_438_438" class="label">438</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 97. Baas, <i>Hist. Med.</i>, p. 152.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_439_439" href="#FNanchor_439_439" class="label">439</a>
<i>Hist. Nat.</i>, xxix. 8.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_440_440" href="#FNanchor_440_440" class="label">440</a>
<i>Life of Cato the Censor.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_441_441" href="#FNanchor_441_441" class="label">441</a>
<i>Hist. Nat.</i>, xxix. cap. 8.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_442_442" href="#FNanchor_442_442" class="label">442</a>
<i>Epist.</i> 93.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_443_443" href="#FNanchor_443_443" class="label">443</a>
See Baas, <i>Hist. of Med.</i>, and Dr. Habershon’s note on this subject, p. 133.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_444_444" href="#FNanchor_444_444" class="label">444</a>
Bostock, <i>Hist. of Med.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_445_445" href="#FNanchor_445_445" class="label">445</a>
Puschmann, <i>Hist. Med. Educ.</i>, p. 98.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_446_446" href="#FNanchor_446_446" class="label">446</a>
<i>Epigrams</i>, x. 56.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_447_447" href="#FNanchor_447_447" class="label">447</a>
<i>Hist. Med. Educ.</i>, p. 131.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_448_448" href="#FNanchor_448_448" class="label">448</a>
Cels., lib. vii. p. 337, ed. Targ. Sprengel, <i>Hist. de la Méd.</i>, tom. vii. p. 38.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_449_449" href="#FNanchor_449_449" class="label">449</a>
<i>Hist. of Med. Educ.</i>, p. 117.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_450_450" href="#FNanchor_450_450" class="label">450</a>
Galen, x. 987. Plin., <i>Nat. Hist.</i>, xxix. 8.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_451_451" href="#FNanchor_451_451" class="label">451</a>
<i>Nat. Hist.</i>, xxix. 5.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_452_452" href="#FNanchor_452_452" class="label">452</a>
Smith’s <i>Dict. Ant.</i>, p. 611.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_453_453" href="#FNanchor_453_453" class="label">453</a>
Puschmann’s <i>Med. Educ.</i>, 126.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_454_454" href="#FNanchor_454_454" class="label">454</a>
Cæl. Aurel., <i>De Morb. Chron.</i>, iii. 8.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_455_455" href="#FNanchor_455_455" class="label">455</a>
Sprengel, <i>Hist. de la Méd.</i>, vol. vi. p. 138.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_456_456" href="#FNanchor_456_456" class="label">456</a>
Baas, <i>Hist. of Med.</i>, p. 137.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_457_457" href="#FNanchor_457_457" class="label">457</a>
Sprengel, <i>Hist. de la Méd.</i>, vol. ii. p. 24.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_458_458" href="#FNanchor_458_458" class="label">458</a>
Baas, <i>Hist. of Med.</i>, p. 140.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_459_459" href="#FNanchor_459_459" class="label">459</a>
Cæl. Aurel., <i>De Morb. Chron.</i>, i. l. p. 286.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_460_460" href="#FNanchor_460_460" class="label">460</a>
<i>Sat.</i>, x. 221.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_461_461" href="#FNanchor_461_461" class="label">461</a>
Galen, <i>Introd.</i>, c. l., tom. xiv., pp. 663, 684. Ed. Kühn.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_462_462" href="#FNanchor_462_462" class="label">462</a>
<i>De Medic.</i>, lib. i., Præf.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_463_463" href="#FNanchor_463_463" class="label">463</a>
Le Clerc, <i>Hist. Méd.</i>, Part II., liv. iv., sec. i., ch. 1.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_464_464" href="#FNanchor_464_464" class="label">464</a>
Baas, <i>Hist. of Med.</i>, p. 143.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_465_465" href="#FNanchor_465_465" class="label">465</a>
Prof. W. Turner, art. “Anatomy,” <i>Ency. Brit.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_466_466" href="#FNanchor_466_466" class="label">466</a>
Dr. Ch. Creighton, art. “Surgery,” <i>Ency. Brit.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_467_467" href="#FNanchor_467_467" class="label">467</a>
<i>Grundriss der Geschichte der Medicin.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_468_468" href="#FNanchor_468_468" class="label">468</a>
<i>A. C. Celsi Med. Præf.</i>, ad lib. 7.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_469_469" href="#FNanchor_469_469" class="label">469</a>
<i>De re Med.</i>, lib. 1.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_470_470" href="#FNanchor_470_470" class="label">470</a>
<i>Hist. de la Méd.</i>, vol. ii. p. 50.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_471_471" href="#FNanchor_471_471" class="label">471</a>
Sprengel, <i>Hist. Méd.</i>, vol. ii. p. 37.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_472_472" href="#FNanchor_472_472" class="label">472</a>
Baas, <i>Grund. der Ges. der Med.</i>, p. 144.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_473_473" href="#FNanchor_473_473" class="label">473</a>
<i>Mechanical Account of Poisons.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_474_474" href="#FNanchor_474_474" class="label">474</a>
Theophrastus, <i>Hist. Plant.</i>, ix. 17.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_475_475" href="#FNanchor_475_475" class="label">475</a>
<i>National Dispensatory</i>, p. 1515.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_476_476" href="#FNanchor_476_476" class="label">476</a>
Conf. Gal. Comment. in <i>Hippocr.</i>, lib. vi.; <i>De Morb. Vulgar.</i>, vi., § 5, tom.
xvii. p. ii. p. 337.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_477_477" href="#FNanchor_477_477" class="label">477</a>
<i>History of Inventions</i>, art. “Apothecaries.”</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_478_478" href="#FNanchor_478_478" class="label">478</a>
<i>Plin.</i>, lib. xxxiv. cap. 11.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_479_479" href="#FNanchor_479_479" class="label">479</a>
<i>C. Steph.</i>, 1133.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_480_480" href="#FNanchor_480_480" class="label">480</a>
<i>Peloponnesian War</i>, ii. 48.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_481_481" href="#FNanchor_481_481" class="label">481</a>
<i>Annal.</i>, xiii. c. 15, 16.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_482_482" href="#FNanchor_482_482" class="label">482</a>
<i>Nero</i>, 33.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_483_483" href="#FNanchor_483_483" class="label">483</a>
<i>The Instructor</i>, Book II.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_484_484" href="#FNanchor_484_484" class="label">484</a>
Seneca, <i>De Benefic.</i>, vi. 15, 16, 17.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_485_485" href="#FNanchor_485_485" class="label">485</a>
John Henry Newman’s <i>Life of Apollonius Tyanæus</i>.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_486_486" href="#FNanchor_486_486" class="label">486</a>
By Lord Herbert and Mr. Blount.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_487_487" href="#FNanchor_487_487" class="label">487</a>
Newman’s <i>Life of Apollonius</i>.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_488_488" href="#FNanchor_488_488" class="label">488</a>
Galen, <i>De Temperamentis</i>.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_489_489" href="#FNanchor_489_489" class="label">489</a>
Smith’s <i>Dict. Greek and Roman Ant.</i>, art. “Pneumatici.” See also Sprengel
and Le Clerc.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_490_490" href="#FNanchor_490_490" class="label">490</a>
Smith’s <i>Dict. Ant.</i>, art. “Eclectici.”</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_491_491" href="#FNanchor_491_491" class="label">491</a>
<i>Nat. Hist.</i>, xx. 40; xxiv. 120.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_492_492" href="#FNanchor_492_492" class="label">492</a>
vi. 236; xiii. 98; xiv. 252.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_493_493" href="#FNanchor_493_493" class="label">493</a>
See Baas, <i>Hist. Med.</i>, p. 167.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_494_494" href="#FNanchor_494_494" class="label">494</a>
<i>De Causis Diuturnorum Morborum</i>, etc., lib. ii. cap. xiii.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_495_495" href="#FNanchor_495_495" class="label">495</a>
Baas, <i>Hist. Med.</i>, p. 167.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_496_496" href="#FNanchor_496_496" class="label">496</a>
Sprengel, <i>Hist. de la Méd.</i>, Introd. vol. i. p. 15.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_497_497" href="#FNanchor_497_497" class="label">497</a>
Bostock, <i>Hist. of Med.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_498_498" href="#FNanchor_498_498" class="label">498</a>
<i>Hist. Induct. Sciences</i>, vol. iii. p. 389.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_499_499" href="#FNanchor_499_499" class="label">499</a>
<i>De Usu</i>, Part iii. 10.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_500_500" href="#FNanchor_500_500" class="label">500</a>
Whewell, <i>Hist. Induct. Sciences</i>, vol. iii. p. 386. Sprengel, ii. p. 150.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_501_501" href="#FNanchor_501_501" class="label">501</a>
<i>De Motu Musc.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_502_502" href="#FNanchor_502_502" class="label">502</a>
Whewell, <i>Hist. Induct. Sciences</i>, vol. iii. p. 388.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_503_503" href="#FNanchor_503_503" class="label">503</a>
See for a full account of Galen’s doctrine of the pulse, Dr. Adams’ <i>Commentary on
Paulus Ægineta</i>, vol. ii. p. 12.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_504_504" href="#FNanchor_504_504" class="label">504</a>
<i>De Dignosc. Puls.</i>, iii. 3, vol. viii. p. 902.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_505_505" href="#FNanchor_505_505" class="label">505</a>
Dr. Greenhill in Smith’s <i>Dict. Greek and Roman Biog.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_506_506" href="#FNanchor_506_506" class="label">506</a>
Galen’s <i>Art of Physic</i>.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_507_507" href="#FNanchor_507_507" class="label">507</a>
<i>Ency. Brit.</i>, art. “Surgery.”</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_508_508" href="#FNanchor_508_508" class="label">508</a>
Smith’s <i>Dict. Greek and Roman Biog.</i>, art. “Galen.”</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_509_509" href="#FNanchor_509_509" class="label">509</a>
Cardan, <i>De Subtil.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_510_510" href="#FNanchor_510_510" class="label">510</a>
<i>Hist. of Med.</i>, vol. i. p. 115.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_511_511" href="#FNanchor_511_511" class="label">511</a>
Smith’s <i>Dict. Greek and Roman Biog.</i>, vol. i. p. 126.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_512_512" href="#FNanchor_512_512" class="label">512</a>
<i>Alexandria and her Schools</i>, p. 113.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_513_513" href="#FNanchor_513_513" class="label">513</a>
Freind, <i>Historia Medicinæ</i>, p. 383.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_514_514" href="#FNanchor_514_514" class="label">514</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 380.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_515_515" href="#FNanchor_515_515" class="label">515</a>
Smith’s <i>Dict. Ant.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_516_516" href="#FNanchor_516_516" class="label">516</a>
<i>Hist. Med.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_517_517" href="#FNanchor_517_517" class="label">517</a>
Freind, <i>Hist. Med.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_518_518" href="#FNanchor_518_518" class="label">518</a>
<i>Ibid.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_519_519" href="#FNanchor_519_519" class="label">519</a>
Baas, <i>Hist. Med.</i>, p. 201.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_520_520" href="#FNanchor_520_520" class="label">520</a>
<i>Ibid.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_521_521" href="#FNanchor_521_521" class="label">521</a>
<i>North Brit. Rev.</i>, vol. 47.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_522_522" href="#FNanchor_522_522" class="label">522</a>
Browning’s <i>Parleyings</i>, p. 44.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_523_523" href="#FNanchor_523_523" class="label">523</a>
Cato, <i>De re Rustica</i>, c. 2.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_524_524" href="#FNanchor_524_524" class="label">524</a>
Sat. vi.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_525_525" href="#FNanchor_525_525" class="label">525</a>
Prescott says, <i>Conquest of Mexico</i>, chap, ii., that among the Aztecs, “Hospitals
were established in the principal cities for the cure of the sick, and the permanent
refuge of the disabled soldier; and the surgeons were placed over them, ‘who were
so far better than those in Europe,’ says an old chronicler, ‘that they did not protract
the cure, in order to increase the pay.’”</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_526_526" href="#FNanchor_526_526" class="label">526</a>
<i>Ecclesiastical History</i>, lib. vi. ch. xlii.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_527_527" href="#FNanchor_527_527" class="label">527</a>
Butler’s <i>Lives of the Saints</i>. St. Basil the Great.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_528_528" href="#FNanchor_528_528" class="label">528</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, loc. cit.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_529_529" href="#FNanchor_529_529" class="label">529</a>
p. 153.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_530_530" href="#FNanchor_530_530" class="label">530</a>
<i>Eccl. Hist.</i>, lib. vii. c. xxi.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_531_531" href="#FNanchor_531_531" class="label">531</a>
See Balmez, <i>European Civilization</i>, p. 436.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_532_532" href="#FNanchor_532_532" class="label">532</a>
Can. 10. Concil. iv. (Mans. vii.).</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_533_533" href="#FNanchor_533_533" class="label">533</a>
Fleury’s <i>Eccl. Hist.</i>, Book xxi. 3, note <i>e</i>.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_534_534" href="#FNanchor_534_534" class="label">534</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, xxiii. 24.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_535_535" href="#FNanchor_535_535" class="label">535</a>
Sprengel, <i>Hist. de la Méd.</i>, p. 56.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_536_536" href="#FNanchor_536_536" class="label">536</a>
<i>Ency. Brit.</i>, vol. i. p. 181.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_537_537" href="#FNanchor_537_537" class="label">537</a>
Puschmann’s <i>Hist. Med. Educ.</i>, p. 189.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_538_538" href="#FNanchor_538_538" class="label">538</a>
<i>Pharaohs</i>, <i>Fellahs</i>, etc., Amelia B. Edwards, p. 243.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_539_539" href="#FNanchor_539_539" class="label">539</a>
Preface to <i>Saxon Leechdoms</i>, vol. i. p. xxi.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_540_540" href="#FNanchor_540_540" class="label">540</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, vol. i. p. xxiii.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_541_541" href="#FNanchor_541_541" class="label">541</a>
Vulpes, <i>Illustrazione di tutti gli Strumenti chirurgici scavati in Ercolano e in
Pompei</i>, Napoli, 1847.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_542_542" href="#FNanchor_542_542" class="label">542</a>
<i>Ibid.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_543_543" href="#FNanchor_543_543" class="label">543</a>
Vulpes, <i>ut supra</i>.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_544_544" href="#FNanchor_544_544" class="label">544</a>
<i>Medical Superstitions</i>, p. 56</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_545_545" href="#FNanchor_545_545" class="label">545</a>
Marsden, <i>Hist. Sumatra</i>, p. 189.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_546_546" href="#FNanchor_546_546" class="label">546</a>
Pettigrew, <i>Medical Superstitions</i>, p. 61.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_547_547" href="#FNanchor_547_547" class="label">547</a>
<i>Custom and Myth</i>, p. 148.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_548_548" href="#FNanchor_548_548" class="label">548</a>
<i>Custom and Myth.</i>, p. 150.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_549_549" href="#FNanchor_549_549" class="label">549</a>
<i>Rivers of Life</i>, J. G. R. Forlong.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_550_550" href="#FNanchor_550_550" class="label">550</a>
<i>Anthropological Journal</i>, vol. xii. p. 572.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_551_551" href="#FNanchor_551_551" class="label">551</a>
Baas, <i>Hist. Med.</i>, p. 68.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_552_552" href="#FNanchor_552_552" class="label">552</a>
Hooker, <i>Himalayan Journ.</i>, Ed. 1891, p. 141.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_553_553" href="#FNanchor_553_553" class="label">553</a>
<i>Travels in Africa</i>, Ed. 1890, p. 488.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_554_554" href="#FNanchor_554_554" class="label">554</a>
Plin., xxi. 104.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_555_555" href="#FNanchor_555_555" class="label">555</a>
Plin., xxii. 24.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_556_556" href="#FNanchor_556_556" class="label">556</a>
Plin., xxx. 30.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_557_557" href="#FNanchor_557_557" class="label">557</a>
<i>Official Guide, Brit. Museum Galleries</i>, 1892, pp. 122-3.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_558_558" href="#FNanchor_558_558" class="label">558</a>
From <i>Ritual of the Dead</i>. Lenormant, <i>Chaldæan Magic</i>, p. 90.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_559_559" href="#FNanchor_559_559" class="label">559</a>
<i>Ten Years’ Digging in Egypt</i>, p. 94.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_560_560" href="#FNanchor_560_560" class="label">560</a>
Pratt’s <i>Flowering Plants</i>, vol. i. p. 50.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_561_561" href="#FNanchor_561_561" class="label">561</a>
<i>Nat. Hist.</i>, Book xxx. chap. 20.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_562_562" href="#FNanchor_562_562" class="label">562</a>
<i>Ibid</i>., Book. xxx. chap. 24.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_563_563" href="#FNanchor_563_563" class="label">563</a>
<i>Dict. Greek and Roman Ant.</i>, Smith’s art. “Amulets.”</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_564_564" href="#FNanchor_564_564" class="label">564</a>
H. N. xxv. 9.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_565_565" href="#FNanchor_565_565" class="label">565</a>
Smith’s <i>Dict. Greek and Roman Ant.</i>, art. “Therapeutica.” See also
“Amulets,” p. 45.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_566_566" href="#FNanchor_566_566" class="label">566</a>
<i>Hist. Med.</i>, p. 772.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_567_567" href="#FNanchor_567_567" class="label">567</a>
Vol. ii. p. 139.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_568_568" href="#FNanchor_568_568" class="label">568</a>
Heathen charm.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_569_569" href="#FNanchor_569_569" class="label">569</a>
A blackberry.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_570_570" href="#FNanchor_570_570" class="label">570</a>
Nightmare was considered to be the work of an evil spirit.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_571_571" href="#FNanchor_571_571" class="label">571</a>
Plin., xxx. 30.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_572_572" href="#FNanchor_572_572" class="label">572</a>
See the twenty-second and twenty-fourth books of <i>Pliny’s Natural History</i>.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_573_573" href="#FNanchor_573_573" class="label">573</a>
Lib. ix. cap. 4, p. 538, Ed. 1556.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_574_574" href="#FNanchor_574_574" class="label">574</a>
<i>Galen de Facult. Simpl.</i>, lib. vi. p. 792, Ed. Kühn.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_575_575" href="#FNanchor_575_575" class="label">575</a>
“A Gnostic device. See Montfauçon, plates 159, 161, 163.”</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_576_576" href="#FNanchor_576_576" class="label">576</a>
This also is Gnostic.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_577_577" href="#FNanchor_577_577" class="label">577</a>
Mr. Cockayne considers this to be probably Gnostic; some of the words are pure
nonsense.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_578_578" href="#FNanchor_578_578" class="label">578</a>
Quoted by Mr. Cockayne in his <i>Saxon Leechdoms</i>, vol. i., Preface, pp. xviii., xix.,
xx.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_579_579" href="#FNanchor_579_579" class="label">579</a>
<i>Anatomy of Melancholy</i>, Part 2, sec. 5.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_580_580" href="#FNanchor_580_580" class="label">580</a>
Rev. C. A. John’s <i>Flowers of the Field</i>.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_581_581" href="#FNanchor_581_581" class="label">581</a>
Brand’s <i>Observations</i>, vol. ii. p. 67.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_582_582" href="#FNanchor_582_582" class="label">582</a>
<i>Hist. Nat.</i>, xxxvii. 10.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_583_583" href="#FNanchor_583_583" class="label">583</a>
Brand’s <i>Observations</i>, etc., vol. ii. p. 63.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_584_584" href="#FNanchor_584_584" class="label">584</a>
Burton’s <i>Anatomy</i>, p. 454.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_585_585" href="#FNanchor_585_585" class="label">585</a>
<i>Saxon Leech Book</i>, II. ch. lxvi.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_586_586" href="#FNanchor_586_586" class="label">586</a>
See <i>Curious Myths of Middle Ages</i>, S. B. Gould, Appendix C, p. 273.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_587_587" href="#FNanchor_587_587" class="label">587</a>
Morley’s <i>Life of Corn. Agrippa</i>, vol. i. p. 165.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_588_588" href="#FNanchor_588_588" class="label">588</a>
<i>History of Medicine</i>, p. 107.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_589_589" href="#FNanchor_589_589" class="label">589</a>
<i>Secret Miracles of Nature</i>, Eng. trans. fol., Lond. 1658, p. 164.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_590_590" href="#FNanchor_590_590" class="label">590</a>
<i>Vulgar Errors.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_591_591" href="#FNanchor_591_591" class="label">591</a>
<i>Saxon Leechdoms</i>, vol. i., Pref., p. xxxii.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_592_592" href="#FNanchor_592_592" class="label">592</a>
Brand’s <i>Popular Antiquities</i>, vol. iii. p. 139.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_593_593" href="#FNanchor_593_593" class="label">593</a>
<i>Encylopædia of Antiquities</i>, vol. i. p. 336.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_594_594" href="#FNanchor_594_594" class="label">594</a>
<i>Medical Superstitions</i>, p. 45.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_595_595" href="#FNanchor_595_595" class="label">595</a>
Lubbock, <i>Origin of Civilization</i>, 5th Ed., p. 23.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_596_596" href="#FNanchor_596_596" class="label">596</a>
<i>Park’s Travels</i>, vol. i. p. 357.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_597_597" href="#FNanchor_597_597" class="label">597</a>
<i>Astley’s Voyages</i>, vol. ii. p. 35.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_598_598" href="#FNanchor_598_598" class="label">598</a>
<i>Siberia</i>, p. 310.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_599_599" href="#FNanchor_599_599" class="label">599</a>
Vambery’s <i>Travels in Central Asia</i>, p. 50.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_600_600" href="#FNanchor_600_600" class="label">600</a>
Masson’s <i>Travels in Belochistan</i>, etc., vol. i. pp. 74, 90, 312, vol. ii. pp. 127,
302.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_601_601" href="#FNanchor_601_601" class="label">601</a>
<i>The Thoughts of Blaise Pascal</i>, Bell’s Ed. 1890, p. 2.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_602_602" href="#FNanchor_602_602" class="label">602</a>
<i>L’Amulette de Pascal. Médecine et Médecins.</i> Par E. Littré. Paris, 1872.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_603_603" href="#FNanchor_603_603" class="label">603</a>
Arnot’s <i>Hist. Edin.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_604_604" href="#FNanchor_604_604" class="label">604</a>
Vol. i. p. 192.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_605_605" href="#FNanchor_605_605" class="label">605</a>
<i>Præcepta de Medicina</i> of Serenus Samonicus.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_606_606" href="#FNanchor_606_606" class="label">606</a>
Lardner, <i>Works</i>, vol. ix. pp. 290-364.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_607_607" href="#FNanchor_607_607" class="label">607</a>
Pettigrew, <i>Medical Superstitions</i>, p. 52.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_608_608" href="#FNanchor_608_608" class="label">608</a>
Vol. iii. p. 29.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_609_609" href="#FNanchor_609_609" class="label">609</a>
Morley’s <i>Life of Cornelius Agrippa</i>, vol. i. p. 80.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_610_610" href="#FNanchor_610_610" class="label">610</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 81.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_611_611" href="#FNanchor_611_611" class="label">611</a>
Henry’s <i>Hist. of Great Britain</i>, vol. i. p. 147.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_612_612" href="#FNanchor_612_612" class="label">612</a>
Meryon, <i>Hist. Med.</i>, pp. 113, 114; Strutt’s <i>Chronicles of England</i>, vol. i. p.
279.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_613_613" href="#FNanchor_613_613" class="label">613</a>
<i>Chronicles of England</i>, vol. i. p. 279.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_614_614" href="#FNanchor_614_614" class="label">614</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 281.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_615_615" href="#FNanchor_615_615" class="label">615</a>
Plin., <i>Hist. Nat.</i>, lib. xxx. c. i.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_616_616" href="#FNanchor_616_616" class="label">616</a>
Diod. Sicul., lib. v. cap. 35.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_617_617" href="#FNanchor_617_617" class="label">617</a>
<i>The Chronicles of England</i>, vol. i. pp. 278, 279.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_618_618" href="#FNanchor_618_618" class="label">618</a>
<i>The Chronicles of England</i>, vol. i. p. 278.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_619_619" href="#FNanchor_619_619" class="label">619</a>
<i>Nat. Hist.</i>, Book xxx. chap. iv.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_620_620" href="#FNanchor_620_620" class="label">620</a>
See note on Pliny’s passage, “Ut dedisse Persis videri possit,” in Bohn’s Pliny’s
<i>Nat. Hist.</i>, vol. v. p. 426.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_621_621" href="#FNanchor_621_621" class="label">621</a>
Holinshed, <i>Chronicles of England</i>, vol. i. p. 506.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_622_622" href="#FNanchor_622_622" class="label">622</a>
<i>Hist. Med.</i>, p. 249.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_623_623" href="#FNanchor_623_623" class="label">623</a>
<i>Hist. Med. Education</i>, p. 187.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_624_624" href="#FNanchor_624_624" class="label">624</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 186.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_625_625" href="#FNanchor_625_625" class="label">625</a>
Grimm’s <i>Teutonic Mythology</i>, translated by Stallybrass, vol. i. p. 133.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_626_626" href="#FNanchor_626_626" class="label">626</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, vol. i. p. 42.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_627_627" href="#FNanchor_627_627" class="label">627</a>
See Tennyson’s poem, <i>The Victim</i>.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_628_628" href="#FNanchor_628_628" class="label">628</a>
Grimm.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_629_629" href="#FNanchor_629_629" class="label">629</a>
<i>Ibid.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_630_630" href="#FNanchor_630_630" class="label">630</a>
Grimm, <i>Teutonic Mythology</i>, vol. ii. p. 586.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_631_631" href="#FNanchor_631_631" class="label">631</a>
Grimm’s <i>Teutonic Mythology</i>, p. 588.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_632_632" href="#FNanchor_632_632" class="label">632</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 602.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_633_633" href="#FNanchor_633_633" class="label">633</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 604.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_634_634" href="#FNanchor_634_634" class="label">634</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, vol. ii. p. 874.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_635_635" href="#FNanchor_635_635" class="label">635</a>
<i>Eccl. Hist.</i>, lib. iii. cap. 18.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_636_636" href="#FNanchor_636_636" class="label">636</a>
Strutt’s <i>Chronicles of England</i>, vol. i. p. 345.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_637_637" href="#FNanchor_637_637" class="label">637</a>
<i>Chronicles of England</i>, vol. ii. p. 248.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_638_638" href="#FNanchor_638_638" class="label">638</a>
Bede, <i>Eccles. Hist.</i>, lib. v. cap. 3.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_639_639" href="#FNanchor_639_639" class="label">639</a>
<i>Chronicles of England</i>, vol. ii. p. 248.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_640_640" href="#FNanchor_640_640" class="label">640</a>
Strutt’s <i>Horda Angel Cynnan</i>, vol. i. p. 70.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_641_641" href="#FNanchor_641_641" class="label">641</a>
Strutt, <i>The Chronicles of England</i>, vol. i. p. 344. Bede, <i>Eccl. Hist.</i>, iii. 18.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_642_642" href="#FNanchor_642_642" class="label">642</a>
<i>Leech Book</i>, ii. p. 289.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_643_643" href="#FNanchor_643_643" class="label">643</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, p. xxv.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_644_644" href="#FNanchor_644_644" class="label">644</a>
A valuable expectorant which is largely used at the present time.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_645_645" href="#FNanchor_645_645" class="label">645</a>
Recherches critiques sur l’âge et origine des traductions Latines d’Aristote. Paris,
1819.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_646_646" href="#FNanchor_646_646" class="label">646</a>
<i>Saxon Leechdoms</i>, vol. ii., Preface, p. xxix.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_647_647" href="#FNanchor_647_647" class="label">647</a>
<i>Leechdoms, Wortcunning, and Starcraft of Early England</i>, vol. ii. Edited by
Rev. O. Cockayne. (Rolls Series.)</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_648_648" href="#FNanchor_648_648" class="label">648</a>
<i>MS. Reg.</i>, 12. D. xvii.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_649_649" href="#FNanchor_649_649" class="label">649</a>
<i>Leech Book</i>, I. xiii. p. 57.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_650_650" href="#FNanchor_650_650" class="label">650</a>
<i>Saxon Leechdoms</i>, vol. ii. p. 117.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_651_651" href="#FNanchor_651_651" class="label">651</a>
The doctor and the patient.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_652_652" href="#FNanchor_652_652" class="label">652</a>
<i>Saxon Leechdoms</i>, vol. ii. p. 137.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_653_653" href="#FNanchor_653_653" class="label">653</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, vol. ii. pp. 137-8.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_654_654" href="#FNanchor_654_654" class="label">654</a>
Church bells were anciently used more to frighten the fiends away than for
calling together the worshippers.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_655_655" href="#FNanchor_655_655" class="label">655</a>
Psalms cxix., lxviii., and lxix.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_656_656" href="#FNanchor_656_656" class="label">656</a>
A formula of Benediction.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_657_657" href="#FNanchor_657_657" class="label">657</a>
<i>Polypodium vulgare.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_658_658" href="#FNanchor_658_658" class="label">658</a>
<i>Saxon Leechdoms</i>, vol. ii. pp. 138-9.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_659_659" href="#FNanchor_659_659" class="label">659</a>
<i>Leech Book</i>, III. vol. ii. p. 343.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_660_660" href="#FNanchor_660_660" class="label">660</a>
<i>Saxon Leechdoms</i>, vol. ii. p. 335.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_661_661" href="#FNanchor_661_661" class="label">661</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 335.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_662_662" href="#FNanchor_662_662" class="label">662</a>
<i>Saxon Leechdoms</i>, vol. ii. p. 307.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_663_663" href="#FNanchor_663_663" class="label">663</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, vol. i. Preface, p. xxvii.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_664_664" href="#FNanchor_664_664" class="label">664</a>
<i>Saxon Leechdoms</i>, vol. i. Preface, pp. xxvi., xxvii.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_665_665" href="#FNanchor_665_665" class="label">665</a>
<i>Leech Book</i>, iii. p. 307.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_666_666" href="#FNanchor_666_666" class="label">666</a>
<i>Myv. Arch.</i>, iii. p. 129.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_667_667" href="#FNanchor_667_667" class="label">667</a>
<i>Meddygon Myddfai</i>, Preface, p. ix.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_668_668" href="#FNanchor_668_668" class="label">668</a>
Llanover MS.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_669_669" href="#FNanchor_669_669" class="label">669</a>
<i>Ancient Laws and Institutions of Wales</i>, vol. ii. p. 515.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_670_670" href="#FNanchor_670_670" class="label">670</a>
<i>Meddygon Myddfai</i>, p. xi.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_671_671" href="#FNanchor_671_671" class="label">671</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, p. xiii.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_672_672" href="#FNanchor_672_672" class="label">672</a>
<i>Ancient Laws and Institutes of Wales</i>, vol. i. p. 41 etc.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_673_673" href="#FNanchor_673_673" class="label">673</a>
<i>Ancient Laws and Institutes of Wales</i>, vol. i. p. 315.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_674_674" href="#FNanchor_674_674" class="label">674</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 507.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_675_675" href="#FNanchor_675_675" class="label">675</a>
<i>The Physicians of Myddvai</i>, Llandovery, 1861.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_676_676" href="#FNanchor_676_676" class="label">676</a>
Leges Wallica, l. 4. Henry’s <i>Hist. of Eng.</i>, vol. i. p. 320.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_677_677" href="#FNanchor_677_677" class="label">677</a>
<i>Ancient Laws, etc., of Wales</i>, v. i. p. 313.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_678_678" href="#FNanchor_678_678" class="label">678</a>
See on this Balmez, <i>European Civilization</i>, p. 214.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_679_679" href="#FNanchor_679_679" class="label">679</a>
Pococke, <i>Hist. Dynast.</i>, p. 128; Freind, <i>Hist. Med.</i>, Lat. Ed., p. 472.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_680_680" href="#FNanchor_680_680" class="label">680</a>
Puschmann, <i>Hist. of Med. Educ.</i>, p. 156.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_681_681" href="#FNanchor_681_681" class="label">681</a>
L. Leclerc, <i>Hist. de la Méd. Arabe</i>, i. p. 38.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_682_682" href="#FNanchor_682_682" class="label">682</a>
Freind, <i>Hist. Med.</i>, p. 473, Ed. 1733.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_683_683" href="#FNanchor_683_683" class="label">683</a>
<i>Decline and Fall</i>, etc., ch. lii.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_684_684" href="#FNanchor_684_684" class="label">684</a>
Weber, <i>Hist. Ind. Lit.</i>, p. 266.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_685_685" href="#FNanchor_685_685" class="label">685</a>
Royle, <i>Antiquity of Hindu Medicine</i>.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_686_686" href="#FNanchor_686_686" class="label">686</a>
Weber, p. 266.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_687_687" href="#FNanchor_687_687" class="label">687</a>
Puschmann, p. 160.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_688_688" href="#FNanchor_688_688" class="label">688</a>
Leo Afric., <i>De viris Illust. ap. Arab. Bib.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_689_689" href="#FNanchor_689_689" class="label">689</a>
<i>The Saracens</i>, p. 191.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_690_690" href="#FNanchor_690_690" class="label">690</a>
<i>Ibid.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_691_691" href="#FNanchor_691_691" class="label">691</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, pp. 191, 192.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_692_692" href="#FNanchor_692_692" class="label">692</a>
<i>Decline and Fall</i>, etc., ch. lii.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_693_693" href="#FNanchor_693_693" class="label">693</a>
Puschmann, <i>Hist. Med. Educ.</i>, p. 158.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_694_694" href="#FNanchor_694_694" class="label">694</a>
Freeman’s <i>Saracens</i>, p. 54.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_695_695" href="#FNanchor_695_695" class="label">695</a>
Kingsley’s <i>Alexandria</i>, p. 148.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_696_696" href="#FNanchor_696_696" class="label">696</a>
Sismondi, <i>Literature of Europe</i>, vol. i. p. 51.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_697_697" href="#FNanchor_697_697" class="label">697</a>
<i>Hist. Med.</i>, p. 123.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_698_698" href="#FNanchor_698_698" class="label">698</a>
See Thompson’s <i>Hist. Chem.</i>, vol. i. p. 112.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_699_699" href="#FNanchor_699_699" class="label">699</a>
Berington’s <i>Lit. Hist. Middle Ages</i>, p. 415.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_700_700" href="#FNanchor_700_700" class="label">700</a>
Gibbon, <i>Decline and Fall</i>, etc., ch. lii.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_701_701" href="#FNanchor_701_701" class="label">701</a>
<i>Imp. Dict. Biog.</i>, art. “Averrhoès.”</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_702_702" href="#FNanchor_702_702" class="label">702</a>
Puschmann, p. 162.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_703_703" href="#FNanchor_703_703" class="label">703</a>
Baas, <i>Hist. Med.</i>, p. 220.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_704_704" href="#FNanchor_704_704" class="label">704</a>
<i>Literature of Europe</i>, vol. i. p. 66.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_705_705" href="#FNanchor_705_705" class="label">705</a>
<i>Ibid.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_706_706" href="#FNanchor_706_706" class="label">706</a>
<i>Decline and Fall</i>, etc., chap. lii.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_707_707" href="#FNanchor_707_707" class="label">707</a>
<i>Dictionary of Islam</i>, art. “Da’wah.”</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_708_708" href="#FNanchor_708_708" class="label">708</a>
Baas, <i>History of Medicine</i>, p. 224.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_709_709" href="#FNanchor_709_709" class="label">709</a>
Sismondi, <i>Literature of Europe</i>, vol. i. p. 68.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_710_710" href="#FNanchor_710_710" class="label">710</a>
<i>Ibid.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_711_711" href="#FNanchor_711_711" class="label">711</a>
Dr. W. A. Greenhill, in Smith’s <i>Dict. Classical Biog.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_712_712" href="#FNanchor_712_712" class="label">712</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, in life of Rhazes, in <i>Imp. Dict. Biog.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_713_713" href="#FNanchor_713_713" class="label">713</a>
Baas, <i>Hist. Med.</i>, p. 231.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_714_714" href="#FNanchor_714_714" class="label">714</a>
Berington, <i>Lit. Hist. Middle Ages</i>, p. 428.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_715_715" href="#FNanchor_715_715" class="label">715</a>
<i>Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society</i>, vol. vi. pp. 105-119.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_716_716" href="#FNanchor_716_716" class="label">716</a>
<i>Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society</i>, vol. vi. p. 119.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_717_717" href="#FNanchor_717_717" class="label">717</a>
Baas, <i>Hist. Med.</i>, p. 233.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_718_718" href="#FNanchor_718_718" class="label">718</a>
Arabic writer, quoted by Baas, <i>Hist. Med.</i>, p. 221.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_719_719" href="#FNanchor_719_719" class="label">719</a>
Freeman’s <i>Saracens</i>, p. 4.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_720_720" href="#FNanchor_720_720" class="label">720</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 6.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_721_721" href="#FNanchor_721_721" class="label">721</a>
<i>Philosophy of History</i>, p. 342.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_722_722" href="#FNanchor_722_722" class="label">722</a>
Chateaubriand, <i>Analyse de l’Histoire de France, Seconde Race</i>.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_723_723" href="#FNanchor_723_723" class="label">723</a>
Goodwin, <i>Lives of the Necromancers</i>, pp. 29, 30.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_724_724" href="#FNanchor_724_724" class="label">724</a>
Cap, <i>Études Biographiques</i>, Ser. ii. p. 326.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_725_725" href="#FNanchor_725_725" class="label">725</a>
See Whewell’s <i>Hist. Induct. Sciences</i>, vol. i. p. 305.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_726_726" href="#FNanchor_726_726" class="label">726</a>
<i>Decline and Fall.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_727_727" href="#FNanchor_727_727" class="label">727</a>
Mullinger’s <i>University of Cambridge</i>, p. 334.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_728_728" href="#FNanchor_728_728" class="label">728</a>
As Haydn gives them.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_729_729" href="#FNanchor_729_729" class="label">729</a>
<i>Ency. Brit.</i>, art. “Anatomy.”</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_730_730" href="#FNanchor_730_730" class="label">730</a>
<i>Rise and Constitution of Universities</i>, p. 157.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_731_731" href="#FNanchor_731_731" class="label">731</a>
Puschmann’s <i>Hist. Med. Educ.</i>, p. 214.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_732_732" href="#FNanchor_732_732" class="label">732</a>
Puschmann’s <i>Hist. Med. Educ.</i>, p. 216.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_733_733" href="#FNanchor_733_733" class="label">733</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 217.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_734_734" href="#FNanchor_734_734" class="label">734</a>
<i>Ibid.</i> See also Dubouchet, “Documents pour servir à l’histoire de l’université
de médicine de Montpellier,” in the <i>Gaz. hebd. des sciences med. de Montpellier</i>, 1887,
No. 4.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_735_735" href="#FNanchor_735_735" class="label">735</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 218.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_736_736" href="#FNanchor_736_736" class="label">736</a>
<i>Surgical Dict.</i>, art. “Surgery.”</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_737_737" href="#FNanchor_737_737" class="label">737</a>
Cooper’s <i>Surgical Dictionary</i>, art. “Surgery.”</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_738_738" href="#FNanchor_738_738" class="label">738</a>
<i>In vit. Ric. pri.</i>, p. 490.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_739_739" href="#FNanchor_739_739" class="label">739</a>
Strutt’s <i>Horda Angel-Cynnan</i>, vol. ii. p. 26.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_740_740" href="#FNanchor_740_740" class="label">740</a>
Wood, <i>Hist. Univ. of Oxford</i>, vol. i. p. 62.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_741_741" href="#FNanchor_741_741" class="label">741</a>
Henry, <i>Hist. Great Britain</i>, vol. vi. p. 114.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_742_742" href="#FNanchor_742_742" class="label">742</a>
Jessen.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_743_743" href="#FNanchor_743_743" class="label">743</a>
<i>L’École de Salerne.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_744_744" href="#FNanchor_744_744" class="label">744</a>
Laurie, <i>Rise, etc., of Universities</i>, p. 112.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_745_745" href="#FNanchor_745_745" class="label">745</a>
<i>European Civilization</i>, p. 216.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_746_746" href="#FNanchor_746_746" class="label">746</a>
<i>Storia docum. della scuola med. di Salerno</i>, p. 157, <i>et seq.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_747_747" href="#FNanchor_747_747" class="label">747</a>
S. de Renzi, <i>Collectio Salernitana</i>, iii. 325.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_748_748" href="#FNanchor_748_748" class="label">748</a>
Laurie’s <i>Rise, etc., of Universities</i>, p. 112.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_749_749" href="#FNanchor_749_749" class="label">749</a>
See Puschmann’s <i>Hist. Med.</i>, p. 199.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_750_750" href="#FNanchor_750_750" class="label">750</a>
<i>Ibid.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_751_751" href="#FNanchor_751_751" class="label">751</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 113.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_752_752" href="#FNanchor_752_752" class="label">752</a>
Daremberg, <i>L’École de Salerne</i>.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_753_753" href="#FNanchor_753_753" class="label">753</a>
<i>Hist. Med.</i>, p. 262.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_754_754" href="#FNanchor_754_754" class="label">754</a>
IV. 75.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_755_755" href="#FNanchor_755_755" class="label">755</a>
Laurie, <i>Rise, etc., of Universities</i>, p. 113.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_756_756" href="#FNanchor_756_756" class="label">756</a>
Laurie’s <i>Rise, etc., of the Universities</i>, pp. 113, 114.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_757_757" href="#FNanchor_757_757" class="label">757</a>
Daremberg, <i>L’École de Salerne</i>, p. 146.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_758_758" href="#FNanchor_758_758" class="label">758</a>
<i>Collect. Salern.</i>, t. ii. pp. 737-768.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_759_759" href="#FNanchor_759_759" class="label">759</a>
<i>Anomymi Salernitani de adventu medici ad ægrotum.</i> Ed. A. G. E. Th.
Henschel, Vratisl., 1850. De Renzi, <i>Collect. Salern.</i>, ii. 74-81, v. 333-349.
Puschmann, <i>Hist. Med.</i>, p. 203. Daremberg, <i>L’École de Salerne</i>, p. 148.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_760_760" href="#FNanchor_760_760" class="label">760</a>
The whole coast between Salerno and Amalfi and the surrounding parts are
some of the loveliest places in Italy.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_761_761" href="#FNanchor_761_761" class="label">761</a>
Puschmann, <i>Hist. Med. Education</i>, p. 201.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_762_762" href="#FNanchor_762_762" class="label">762</a>
Daremberg, <i>L’École de Salerne</i>.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_763_763" href="#FNanchor_763_763" class="label">763</a>
See Dr. Haeser’s <i>Lehrbuch der Geschichte der Medicin</i>, p. 290.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_764_764" href="#FNanchor_764_764" class="label">764</a>
Puschmann, <i>Hist. Med. Education</i>, p. 203.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_765_765" href="#FNanchor_765_765" class="label">765</a>
Meryon, <i>History of Medicine</i>, p. 162. See also Beckmann’s <i>Hist. of Inventions</i>,
art. “Apothecaries.”</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_766_766" href="#FNanchor_766_766" class="label">766</a>
Baas, <i>Hist. Med.</i>, p. 263.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_767_767" href="#FNanchor_767_767" class="label">767</a>
Note in Baas’ <i>Hist. Med.</i>, p. 263.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_768_768" href="#FNanchor_768_768" class="label">768</a>
Daremberg, <i>L’École de Salerne</i>.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_769_769" href="#FNanchor_769_769" class="label">769</a>
To be precise, “M. Baudry de Balzac computes from 1474 to 1846, 240 editions
of <i>The School of Salerno</i>. It was translated into French, German, English, Breton,
Italian, Spanish, Polish, Provençal, Bohemian, Hebrew, and Persian. The number
of manuscripts which contain this poem is more than 150.” (Daremberg, <i>L’École de
Salerne</i>.)</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_770_770" href="#FNanchor_770_770" class="label">770</a>
Iodine was not known at this time; and the virtue of the sponge, if any, was
doubtless due to the iodine it contained.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_771_771" href="#FNanchor_771_771" class="label">771</a>
Baas, <i>Hist. Med.</i>, p. 299.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_772_772" href="#FNanchor_772_772" class="label">772</a>
Puschmann, <i>Hist. Med. Educ.</i>, p. 206. De Renzi, <i>Collect. Salernit.</i>, ii. 445, 513,
628, 650, etc.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_773_773" href="#FNanchor_773_773" class="label">773</a>
<i>Hist. diplom. Frid. II. imperat.</i> Paris, 1854. T. iv., pars. 1, p. 149, tit. 44,
quoted in Puschmann’s <i>Hist. Med. Education</i>, p. 207.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_774_774" href="#FNanchor_774_774" class="label">774</a>
<i>Hist. diplom. Frid. II.</i>, op. cit. p. 235, lib. 3, tit. 46, etc., quoted in Puschmann’s
<i>Hist. Med. Educ.</i>, p. 208.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_775_775" href="#FNanchor_775_775" class="label">775</a>
A gold tarenus weighed twenty grains.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_776_776" href="#FNanchor_776_776" class="label">776</a>
Puschmann’s <i>Hist. Med. Educ.</i>, p. 210.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_777_777" href="#FNanchor_777_777" class="label">777</a>
Aubrey, <i>Hist. England</i>, vol. i. p. 487.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_778_778" href="#FNanchor_778_778" class="label">778</a>
Art. “Astrology,” <i>Ency. Brit.</i>, vol. ii. p. 741.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_779_779" href="#FNanchor_779_779" class="label">779</a>
<i>Médecine et Médecins</i>, p. 125.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_780_780" href="#FNanchor_780_780" class="label">780</a>
Tom. iii. p. 9.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_781_781" href="#FNanchor_781_781" class="label">781</a>
<i>Principles of Sociology</i>, vol. i. p. 53.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_782_782" href="#FNanchor_782_782" class="label">782</a>
<i>Ency. Brit.</i>, art. “Bacon, Roger.”</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_783_783" href="#FNanchor_783_783" class="label">783</a>
<i>History of Inductive Sciences</i>, vol. i. p. 341.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_784_784" href="#FNanchor_784_784" class="label">784</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 342.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_785_785" href="#FNanchor_785_785" class="label">785</a>
Mullinger’s <i>Hist. Cambridge Univ.</i>, p. 170 note.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_786_786" href="#FNanchor_786_786" class="label">786</a>
<i>Hist. Univ. Oxford.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_787_787" href="#FNanchor_787_787" class="label">787</a>
Or College of SS. Cosmas and Damian. See p. 234 of this work.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_788_788" href="#FNanchor_788_788" class="label">788</a>
Wood’s <i>University of Oxford</i>, vol. i. p. 293.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_789_789" href="#FNanchor_789_789" class="label">789</a>
Aubrey, <i>Hist. England</i>, vol. i. p. 426.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_790_790" href="#FNanchor_790_790" class="label">790</a>
Aubrey, <i>Hist. England</i>, vol. i. p. 682.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_791_791" href="#FNanchor_791_791" class="label">791</a>
Baas, <i>Hist. Med.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_792_792" href="#FNanchor_792_792" class="label">792</a>
<i>Ency. Brit.</i>, art. “Anatomy.”</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_793_793" href="#FNanchor_793_793" class="label">793</a>
<i>Ibid.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_794_794" href="#FNanchor_794_794" class="label">794</a>
Puschmann, <i>Hist. Med. Educ.</i>, p. 246.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_795_795" href="#FNanchor_795_795" class="label">795</a>
<i>Ency. Brit.</i>, art. “Medicine.”</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_796_796" href="#FNanchor_796_796" class="label">796</a>
Hist. of <i>Univ. of Oxford</i>, vol. i. p. 444.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_797_797" href="#FNanchor_797_797" class="label">797</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 446.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_798_798" href="#FNanchor_798_798" class="label">798</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 447.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_799_799" href="#FNanchor_799_799" class="label">799</a>
<i>Epidemics of the Middle Ages</i>, p. 13.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_800_800" href="#FNanchor_800_800" class="label">800</a>
Hecker’s <i>Epidemics</i>, p. 96.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_801_801" href="#FNanchor_801_801" class="label">801</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 100.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_802_802" href="#FNanchor_802_802" class="label">802</a>
<i>History of Inventions</i>, loc. cit.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_803_803" href="#FNanchor_803_803" class="label">803</a>
<i>Hist. Med. Superstit.</i>, pp. 37, 38.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_804_804" href="#FNanchor_804_804" class="label">804</a>
<i>Loseley MSS.</i>, p. 263.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_805_805" href="#FNanchor_805_805" class="label">805</a>
<i>The Loseley MSS.</i>, p. 264.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_806_806" href="#FNanchor_806_806" class="label">806</a>
Bede’s <i>Ecclesiastical History</i>, B. v. c. 3.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_807_807" href="#FNanchor_807_807" class="label">807</a>
<i>English Chronicle</i>, p. 1,038.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_808_808" href="#FNanchor_808_808" class="label">808</a>
Stow’s <i>Chron.</i>, p 381.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_809_809" href="#FNanchor_809_809" class="label">809</a>
<i>Horda Angel-Cynnan</i>, vol. ii. p. 71.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_810_810" href="#FNanchor_810_810" class="label">810</a>
<i>Ibid.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_811_811" href="#FNanchor_811_811" class="label">811</a>
Pastor, <i>History of the Popes</i>, vol. ii. p. 23.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_812_812" href="#FNanchor_812_812" class="label">812</a>
<i>History of the Papacy</i>, etc., vol. ii.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_813_813" href="#FNanchor_813_813" class="label">813</a>
<i>Ency. Brit.</i>, art. “Leonardo.”</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_814_814" href="#FNanchor_814_814" class="label">814</a>
<i>Hist. Epidemics</i>, p. 181.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_815_815" href="#FNanchor_815_815" class="label">815</a>
<i>Chronicles</i>, vol. iii. p. 482.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_816_816" href="#FNanchor_816_816" class="label">816</a>
Hecker’s <i>Epidemics</i>, p. 186.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_817_817" href="#FNanchor_817_817" class="label">817</a>
<i>Ibid.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_818_818" href="#FNanchor_818_818" class="label">818</a>
Hecker’s <i>Epidemics</i>, p. 118.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_819_819" href="#FNanchor_819_819" class="label">819</a>
See Beckmann’s <i>Hist. Inv.</i>, art. “Quarantine.”</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_820_820" href="#FNanchor_820_820" class="label">820</a>
Meryon, <i>Hist. Med.</i>, vol. i. p. 339.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_821_821" href="#FNanchor_821_821" class="label">821</a>
<i>University of Oxford</i>, vol. i. pp. 564, 565.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_822_822" href="#FNanchor_822_822" class="label">822</a>
<i>Chronicles of England, etc.</i>, vol. i. p. 273.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_823_823" href="#FNanchor_823_823" class="label">823</a>
Mullinger’s <i>Univ. Cambridge</i>, p. 168.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_824_824" href="#FNanchor_824_824" class="label">824</a>
Art. “Pathology,” <i>Ency. Brit.</i>, xviii. p. 404.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_825_825" href="#FNanchor_825_825" class="label">825</a>
Vickers’ <i>Martyrdoms of Literature</i>, p. 169.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_826_826" href="#FNanchor_826_826" class="label">826</a>
Aglio’s <i>Antiquities of Mexico</i>, vol. viii. p. 234.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_827_827" href="#FNanchor_827_827" class="label">827</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, vol. vi. p. 526.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_828_828" href="#FNanchor_828_828" class="label">828</a>
Aglio’s <i>Antiquities of Mexico</i>, vol. vi. p. 272.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_829_829" href="#FNanchor_829_829" class="label">829</a>
Morley, <i>Life of Cornelius Agrippa</i>, vol. i. p. 213.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_830_830" href="#FNanchor_830_830" class="label">830</a>
<i>H. C. Agripp.</i>, ep. 23, lib. i. p. 702. Prefixed also to all editions of the <i>De
Occ. Phil.</i> (Note by Mr. Morley.)</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_831_831" href="#FNanchor_831_831" class="label">831</a>
Whewell, <i>Hist. of Scientific Ideas</i>, vol. ii. p. 177.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_832_832" href="#FNanchor_832_832" class="label">832</a>
Baas, <i>Hist. Med.</i>, p. 386.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_833_833" href="#FNanchor_833_833" class="label">833</a>
<i>De abditis rerum causis</i>, Florent., 1507.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_834_834" href="#FNanchor_834_834" class="label">834</a>
<i>Epidemics</i>, p. 218.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_835_835" href="#FNanchor_835_835" class="label">835</a>
3 Henry VIII., c. 9.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_836_836" href="#FNanchor_836_836" class="label">836</a>
Dr. Goodall’s <i>History of the College of Physicians</i>.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_837_837" href="#FNanchor_837_837" class="label">837</a>
Aubrey, <i>Hist. Eng.</i>, vol. ii. p. 535.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_838_838" href="#FNanchor_838_838" class="label">838</a>
<i>Ibid.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_839_839" href="#FNanchor_839_839" class="label">839</a>
<i>Hist. Eng.</i>, vol. ii. p. 296.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_840_840" href="#FNanchor_840_840" class="label">840</a>
Munk, <i>Roll of the Royal College of Physicians of London</i>, p. 1.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_841_841" href="#FNanchor_841_841" class="label">841</a>
Wood, <i>Hist. Oxford</i>, vol. ii. p. 862.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_842_842" href="#FNanchor_842_842" class="label">842</a>
I am indebted for the above facts to Dr. Furnivall’s edition of Vicary’s <i>Anatomie</i>,
published for the Early English Text Society.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_843_843" href="#FNanchor_843_843" class="label">843</a>
<i>Captain Cox, his Ballads and Books.</i> Dr. Furnivall’s edition, published for the
Ballad Society, p. ci.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_844_844" href="#FNanchor_844_844" class="label">844</a>
Pratt, <i>Flowering Plants</i>, vol. i. p. 91.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_845_845" href="#FNanchor_845_845" class="label">845</a>
Munk’s <i>Roll of the Royal College</i>, etc., p. 62.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_846_846" href="#FNanchor_846_846" class="label">846</a>
<i>Times</i>, May 20, 1876, p. 6. Hallam, <i>Literary History</i>, etc., vol. ii. p. 233.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_847_847" href="#FNanchor_847_847" class="label">847</a>
<i>Hist. Oxford</i>, vol. ii. p. 62.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_848_848" href="#FNanchor_848_848" class="label">848</a>
<i>De morbis contagiosis</i>, lib. ii. cap. ix.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_849_849" href="#FNanchor_849_849" class="label">849</a>
<i>Ency. Brit.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_850_850" href="#FNanchor_850_850" class="label">850</a>
<i>Literature of Europe</i>, chap. ix. sect. 2, 13.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_851_851" href="#FNanchor_851_851" class="label">851</a>
Portal, <i>Tiraboschi</i>, ix. 34.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_852_852" href="#FNanchor_852_852" class="label">852</a>
<i>Hist. Med.</i>, p. 427.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_853_853" href="#FNanchor_853_853" class="label">853</a>
<i>Lit. of Europe</i>, chap. ix. sect. 2.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_854_854" href="#FNanchor_854_854" class="label">854</a>
Puschmann’s <i>Hist. Med. Education</i>, p. 305.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_855_855" href="#FNanchor_855_855" class="label">855</a>
Laënnec, <i>Diseases of the Chest, etc.</i>, p 112.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_856_856" href="#FNanchor_856_856" class="label">856</a>
Meryon, <i>Hist. Med.</i>, vol. i. p. 467.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_857_857" href="#FNanchor_857_857" class="label">857</a>
<i>Works</i>, vol. xiii. p. 394.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_858_858" href="#FNanchor_858_858" class="label">858</a>
p. 436, ed. 1827.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_859_859" href="#FNanchor_859_859" class="label">859</a>
Brand’s <i>Popular Antiquities</i>, vol. iii. p. 160.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_860_860" href="#FNanchor_860_860" class="label">860</a>
Furnivall’s ed. <i>Boorde</i>, Early English Text Society, 1870, p. 121.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_861_861" href="#FNanchor_861_861" class="label">861</a>
<i>Breviary of Health</i>, fol. 80 b.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_862_862" href="#FNanchor_862_862" class="label">862</a>
In Dr. Furnivall’s <i>Captain Cox</i>, published for the Ballad Society, 1891, p. 35.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_863_863" href="#FNanchor_863_863" class="label">863</a>
Evelyn’s <i>Diary</i>, vol. ii. p. 151.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_864_864" href="#FNanchor_864_864" class="label">864</a>
Notes to <i>Pepys’ Diary</i>, vol. i. p. 90.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_865_865" href="#FNanchor_865_865" class="label">865</a>
<i>William of Malmesbury’s Chronicle</i>, Book II. chap. 13.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_866_866" href="#FNanchor_866_866" class="label">866</a>
<i>Ecclesiastical History of Great Britain</i>, vol. i. p. 225.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_867_867" href="#FNanchor_867_867" class="label">867</a>
See for a complete history of the royal gift of healing Pettigrew’s <i>Medical
Superstitions</i>, p. 117.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_868_868" href="#FNanchor_868_868" class="label">868</a>
Meryon, <i>Hist. Med.</i>, vol. i. p. 423.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_869_869" href="#FNanchor_869_869" class="label">869</a>
Hakluyt’s <i>Voyages</i>, vol. iii. p. 280.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_870_870" href="#FNanchor_870_870" class="label">870</a>
<i>Description of England</i>, chap. xix.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_871_871" href="#FNanchor_871_871" class="label">871</a>
See Gamgee, “Third Historical Fragment,” in <i>Lancet</i>, 1876.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_872_872" href="#FNanchor_872_872" class="label">872</a>
Cap. <i>Études Biographiques</i>, sec. i. pp. 84-89.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_873_873" href="#FNanchor_873_873" class="label">873</a>
<i>Cornelius Agrippa</i>, vol. i. p. 62.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_874_874" href="#FNanchor_874_874" class="label">874</a>
<i>Ency. Brit.</i>, vol. xv. p. 782.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_875_875" href="#FNanchor_875_875" class="label">875</a>
See the article on Bacon in <i>Ency. Brit.</i>, vol. iii. p. 217.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_876_876" href="#FNanchor_876_876" class="label">876</a>
Œuvres, iii. 24.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_877_877" href="#FNanchor_877_877" class="label">877</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, vi. 234.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_878_878" href="#FNanchor_878_878" class="label">878</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, vi. 89.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_879_879" href="#FNanchor_879_879" class="label">879</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, ix. 426.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_880_880" href="#FNanchor_880_880" class="label">880</a>
Œuvres, x. 204.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_881_881" href="#FNanchor_881_881" class="label">881</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, iv. 452 and 454.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_882_882" href="#FNanchor_882_882" class="label">882</a>
<i>Ency. Brit.</i>, art. “Descartes.”</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_883_883" href="#FNanchor_883_883" class="label">883</a>
Wood, <i>Hist. Oxford</i>, vol. ii. p. 883.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_884_884" href="#FNanchor_884_884" class="label">884</a>
<i>Ibid.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_885_885" href="#FNanchor_885_885" class="label">885</a>
See Thomson’s <i>Life of Cullen</i>, vol. i. p. 212.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_886_886" href="#FNanchor_886_886" class="label">886</a>
Munk, <i>Roll of the R.C.P., etc.</i>, p. 281.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_887_887" href="#FNanchor_887_887" class="label">887</a>
<i>Philosophical Transactions</i>, May 7th, 1666.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_888_888" href="#FNanchor_888_888" class="label">888</a>
Dr. Latham’s <i>Life of Sydenham</i>.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_889_889" href="#FNanchor_889_889" class="label">889</a>
<i>Ibid.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_890_890" href="#FNanchor_890_890" class="label">890</a>
<i>De Spiritu</i>, v. 1078. There is some doubt as to the genuineness of this work.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_891_891" href="#FNanchor_891_891" class="label">891</a>
Whewell, <i>Hist. Induct. Sciences</i>, vol. iii. p. 394.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_892_892" href="#FNanchor_892_892" class="label">892</a>
<i>Ibid.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_893_893" href="#FNanchor_893_893" class="label">893</a>
<i>Christianismi Restitutio</i> (1553).</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_894_894" href="#FNanchor_894_894" class="label">894</a>
<i>Ency. Brit.</i>, art. “Harvey.”</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_895_895" href="#FNanchor_895_895" class="label">895</a>
<i>De Re Anatomica</i> (1559).</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_896_896" href="#FNanchor_896_896" class="label">896</a>
Whewell, <i>loc. cit.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_897_897" href="#FNanchor_897_897" class="label">897</a>
Sylvius discovered their existence; but Fabricius remarked that they were all
turned towards the heart.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_898_898" href="#FNanchor_898_898" class="label">898</a>
<i>Ency. Brit.</i>, art. “Harvey.”</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_899_899" href="#FNanchor_899_899" class="label">899</a>
<i>Generation of Animals.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_900_900" href="#FNanchor_900_900" class="label">900</a>
Harvey, <i>On the Circulation</i>. Dr. Bowie’s edit.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_901_901" href="#FNanchor_901_901" class="label">901</a>
Harvey, <i>On the Circulation of the Blood</i>. Bohn’s edit., revised by Dr. Bowie,
1889.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_902_902" href="#FNanchor_902_902" class="label">902</a>
Thomson’s <i>Life of Cullen</i>, vol. i. p. 206. Willis, <i>Anatomy of the Brain</i>, chaps.
xv.-xvii.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_903_903" href="#FNanchor_903_903" class="label">903</a>
<i>Pharmaceutike Rationalis</i>, London, 1675. Præfatio.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_904_904" href="#FNanchor_904_904" class="label">904</a>
Thomson’s <i>Life of Cullen</i>, vol. ii. p. 546.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_905_905" href="#FNanchor_905_905" class="label">905</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 547.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_906_906" href="#FNanchor_906_906" class="label">906</a>
<i>Life of Cullen</i>, vol. ii. p. 536.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_907_907" href="#FNanchor_907_907" class="label">907</a>
Cooper’s <i>Surgical Dictionary</i>, p. 773.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_908_908" href="#FNanchor_908_908" class="label">908</a>
Cap. <i>Études Biographiques</i>, Ser. i. p. 120.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_909_909" href="#FNanchor_909_909" class="label">909</a>
See <i>British Medical Journal</i>, June 11, 1892, p. 1263.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_910_910" href="#FNanchor_910_910" class="label">910</a>
Baas’ <i>Hist. Med.</i>, p. 159.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_911_911" href="#FNanchor_911_911" class="label">911</a>
<i>Ibid.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_912_912" href="#FNanchor_912_912" class="label">912</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 184.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_913_913" href="#FNanchor_913_913" class="label">913</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 187.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_914_914" href="#FNanchor_914_914" class="label">914</a>
<i>The Doctor</i>, p. 39.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_915_915" href="#FNanchor_915_915" class="label">915</a>
<i>Denmark, Hygiene and Demography</i>, p. 57.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_916_916" href="#FNanchor_916_916" class="label">916</a>
<i>Hist. Med.</i>, p. 517.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_917_917" href="#FNanchor_917_917" class="label">917</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 545.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_918_918" href="#FNanchor_918_918" class="label">918</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 547.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_919_919" href="#FNanchor_919_919" class="label">919</a>
Gomme, <i>Ethnology in Folklore</i>, p. 114.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_920_920" href="#FNanchor_920_920" class="label">920</a>
Dyer, <i>English Folklore</i>, p. 150.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_921_921" href="#FNanchor_921_921" class="label">921</a>
Rogers, <i>Social Life in Scotland</i>, iii. 226.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_922_922" href="#FNanchor_922_922" class="label">922</a>
Gomme, <i>Ethnology in Folklore</i>, pp. 114, 115. Dyer, <i>English Folklore</i>, p. 147.
Rogers, <i>Social Life in Scotland</i>, iii. 225.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_923_923" href="#FNanchor_923_923" class="label">923</a>
Boyle, <i>Porousness of Animal Bodies</i>. Works, vol. iv. p. 767. Floyer, <i>Touchstone
of Medicines</i>, vol. i. p. 154.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_924_924" href="#FNanchor_924_924" class="label">924</a>
<i>Medical Superstitions</i>, p. 161.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_925_925" href="#FNanchor_925_925" class="label">925</a>
Sir K. Digby, <i>Powder of Sympathy</i>, p. 97.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_926_926" href="#FNanchor_926_926" class="label">926</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 76.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_927_927" href="#FNanchor_927_927" class="label">927</a>
Pettigrew’s <i>Medical Superstitions</i>, p. 155.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_928_928" href="#FNanchor_928_928" class="label">928</a>
<i>Pers. Narr.</i>, iv. 195.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_929_929" href="#FNanchor_929_929" class="label">929</a>
<i>Himalayan Journals</i>, ed. 1891, p. 371.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_930_930" href="#FNanchor_930_930" class="label">930</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 214.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_931_931" href="#FNanchor_931_931" class="label">931</a>
<i>Medica Sacra</i>, p. 62.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_932_932" href="#FNanchor_932_932" class="label">932</a>
Pliny, <i>Nat. Hist.</i>, bk. xxxi. c. 32.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_933_933" href="#FNanchor_933_933" class="label">933</a>
<i>Pharmaceutical Journal.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_934_934" href="#FNanchor_934_934" class="label">934</a>
John Russell’s <i>Boke of Nurture</i>, 991-1000.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_935_935" href="#FNanchor_935_935" class="label">935</a>
Pellitory of the wall, which abounds in nitrate of potass.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_936_936" href="#FNanchor_936_936" class="label">936</a>
Probably <i>Peucedanum officinale</i>.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_937_937" href="#FNanchor_937_937" class="label">937</a>
Danewort.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_938_938" href="#FNanchor_938_938" class="label">938</a>
St. John’s wort.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_939_939" href="#FNanchor_939_939" class="label">939</a>
Centaury.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_940_940" href="#FNanchor_940_940" class="label">940</a>
Plantain.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_941_941" href="#FNanchor_941_941" class="label">941</a>
<i>Glechoma hederacea.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_942_942" href="#FNanchor_942_942" class="label">942</a>
<i>Galium Aparine</i>, prescribed in <i>Leechdoms</i>, v. 2, p. 345, for a “salve against
the elfin race and nocturnal [goblin] visitors, and for the woman with whom the
devil hath carnal commerce.”</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_943_943" href="#FNanchor_943_943" class="label">943</a>
Avens.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_944_944" href="#FNanchor_944_944" class="label">944</a>
Bruise wort, pimpernel, or perhaps for Hembriswort, daisy.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_945_945" href="#FNanchor_945_945" class="label">945</a>
Smallage, or wild-water parsley.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_946_946" href="#FNanchor_946_946" class="label">946</a>
Brooklime.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_947_947" href="#FNanchor_947_947" class="label">947</a>
Scabious.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_948_948" href="#FNanchor_948_948" class="label">948</a>
John Russell’s <i>Boke of Nurture</i>, Harl. MS. 4011, Fol. 171. The notes are
from Dr. Furnivall’s edition.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_949_949" href="#FNanchor_949_949" class="label">949</a>
<i>State Trials</i>, 951.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_950_950" href="#FNanchor_950_950" class="label">950</a>
Dr. E. B. Tylor, art. “Magic,” <i>Ency. Brit.</i> See Ellis, <i>Polynesian Researches</i>;
Turner, <i>Nineteen Years in Polynesia</i>; Polack, <i>Manners and Customs of New
Zealanders</i>; Waitz, vols. v., vi.; all works mentioned by Dr. Tylor.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_951_951" href="#FNanchor_951_951" class="label">951</a>
Saxon <i>Leechdoms</i>, vol. i. Pref., xxxii.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_952_952" href="#FNanchor_952_952" class="label">952</a>
<i>Nat. Hist.</i>, Book xxx. chap. i.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_953_953" href="#FNanchor_953_953" class="label">953</a>
Goodwin, <i>Lives of the Necromancers</i>, pp. 127-132.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_954_954" href="#FNanchor_954_954" class="label">954</a>
<i>Heroid.</i>, vi. 91.
</p>
<p>
<span style="margin-left: 2em;">“Simulacraque cerea fingit,</span><br />
Et miserum tenuis in jecur urget acus.”
</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_955_955" href="#FNanchor_955_955" class="label">955</a>
Gordon Cumming’s <i>Wanderings in China</i>, vol. i. p. 336.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_956_956" href="#FNanchor_956_956" class="label">956</a>
Vol. i. p. 336. See also <i>In the Hebrides</i>, pp. 263-265. C. F. Gordon-Cumming.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_957_957" href="#FNanchor_957_957" class="label">957</a>
<i>Ethnology in Folklore</i>, p. 51.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_958_958" href="#FNanchor_958_958" class="label">958</a>
Plato, <i>Laws</i>, lib. xi.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_959_959" href="#FNanchor_959_959" class="label">959</a>
<i>Nat. Hist.</i>, Book xxviii. ch. 24.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_960_960" href="#FNanchor_960_960" class="label">960</a>
<i>Ethnology in Folklore</i>, p. 87.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_961_961" href="#FNanchor_961_961" class="label">961</a>
Idyl ii.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_962_962" href="#FNanchor_962_962" class="label">962</a>
Hecker’s <i>Epidemics</i>, p. 102.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_963_963" href="#FNanchor_963_963" class="label">963</a>
Book xxi. 92.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_964_964" href="#FNanchor_964_964" class="label">964</a>
Book xxiv. 42.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_965_965" href="#FNanchor_965_965" class="label">965</a>
Sir James Emerson Tennent’s <i>Ceylon</i>, vol. ii. p. 545.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_966_966" href="#FNanchor_966_966" class="label">966</a>
<i>Custom and Myth</i>, p. 200.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_967_967" href="#FNanchor_967_967" class="label">967</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 169.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_968_968" href="#FNanchor_968_968" class="label">968</a>
<i>Records of the Past</i>, vol. iii. p. 141.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_969_969" href="#FNanchor_969_969" class="label">969</a>
<i>Saxon Leechdoms.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_970_970" href="#FNanchor_970_970" class="label">970</a>
Eynatten, <i>Manualis Exorcismorum</i>, 1619, p. 220, quoted in <i>Saxon Leechdoms</i>,
vol. i. Preface, p. xliv.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_971_971" href="#FNanchor_971_971" class="label">971</a>
<i>Short Discoverie</i>, etc., 4to, London, 1612, p. 71.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_972_972" href="#FNanchor_972_972" class="label">972</a>
Brand’s <i>Popular Antiquities</i>, 1842, vol. iii. p. 6.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_973_973" href="#FNanchor_973_973" class="label">973</a>
London, 1886, p. 167.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_974_974" href="#FNanchor_974_974" class="label">974</a>
<i>Dogme et Rituel de la Haute Magie.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_975_975" href="#FNanchor_975_975" class="label">975</a>
<i>Mysteries of Magic</i>, Waite, pp. 167, 168.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_976_976" href="#FNanchor_976_976" class="label">976</a>
<i>Daily Chronicle</i>, June 11th, 1892.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_977_977" href="#FNanchor_977_977" class="label">977</a>
Simpson, “Ancient Buddhist Remains in Afghanistan,” <i>Fraser’s Mag.</i>, New
Ser., No. cxxii., Feb. 1880, pp. 197, 198.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_978_978" href="#FNanchor_978_978" class="label">978</a>
<i>Mysteries of Magic</i>, A. E. Waite (London, 1886), p. 135.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_979_979" href="#FNanchor_979_979" class="label">979</a>
<i>Mysteries of Magic</i>, p. 157.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_980_980" href="#FNanchor_980_980" class="label">980</a>
Dyer, <i>English Folklore</i>, p. 154.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_981_981" href="#FNanchor_981_981" class="label">981</a>
Denny’s <i>Folklore of China</i>, p. 51; <i>Irish Popular and Medical Superstitions</i>, p. 3.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_982_982" href="#FNanchor_982_982" class="label">982</a>
<i>Folk Medicine</i>, p. 99.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_983_983" href="#FNanchor_983_983" class="label">983</a>
<i>Notes and Queries</i>, 5th S., vol. vi. p. 97.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_984_984" href="#FNanchor_984_984" class="label">984</a>
<i>Folk Medicine</i>, p. 33.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_985_985" href="#FNanchor_985_985" class="label">985</a>
Pliny.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_986_986" href="#FNanchor_986_986" class="label">986</a>
<i>Primitive Culture</i>, vol. ii. p. 137.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_987_987" href="#FNanchor_987_987" class="label">987</a>
<i>Folk Medicine</i>, p. 41.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_988_988" href="#FNanchor_988_988" class="label">988</a>
Paris’s <i>Pharmacologia</i>, p. 51.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_989_989" href="#FNanchor_989_989" class="label">989</a>
<i>The Doctor</i>, p. 59.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_990_990" href="#FNanchor_990_990" class="label">990</a>
Vol. ii. pp. 175, <i>et seq.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_991_991" href="#FNanchor_991_991" class="label">991</a>
Whewell, <i>Hist. of Scientific Ideas</i>, vol. ii. p. 184.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_992_992" href="#FNanchor_992_992" class="label">992</a>
Whewell, <i>Hist. of Scientific Ideas</i>, vol. ii. p. 185.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_993_993" href="#FNanchor_993_993" class="label">993</a>
Περὶ ψυχῆς, ii. 2.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_994_994" href="#FNanchor_994_994" class="label">994</a>
<i>Life of Dr. Cullen</i>, vol. i. p. 102.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_995_995" href="#FNanchor_995_995" class="label">995</a>
Whewell’s <i>History of Scientific Ideas</i>, vol. ii. pp. 16, 17.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_996_996" href="#FNanchor_996_996" class="label">996</a>
Cap. xiv. p. 233.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_997_997" href="#FNanchor_997_997" class="label">997</a>
Thomson’s <i>Life of Cullen</i>, vol. i. pp. 177, 178.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_998_998" href="#FNanchor_998_998" class="label">998</a>
Thomson’s <i>Life of Cullen</i>, vol. i. pp. 177, 178.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_999_999" href="#FNanchor_999_999" class="label">999</a>
Cullen’s Works, vol. i. pp. 405, 406.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_1000_1000" href="#FNanchor_1000_1000" class="label">1000</a>
Thomson’s <i>Life of Dr. Cullen</i>, vol. i. p. 185.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_1001_1001" href="#FNanchor_1001_1001" class="label">1001</a>
Baas, <i>Hist. Med.</i>, p. 750.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_1002_1002" href="#FNanchor_1002_1002" class="label">1002</a>
Works, vol. i. p. 442.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_1003_1003" href="#FNanchor_1003_1003" class="label">1003</a>
Thomson’s <i>Life of Cullen</i>, vol. ii. p. 134.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_1004_1004" href="#FNanchor_1004_1004" class="label">1004</a>
Munk’s <i>Roll of the R. Coll. Phys.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_1005_1005" href="#FNanchor_1005_1005" class="label">1005</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, vol. ii. p. 262. He published in 1765, <i>A Discourse on the Institution of
Medical Schools in America</i>.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_1006_1006" href="#FNanchor_1006_1006" class="label">1006</a>
<i>Philosophical Transactions</i>, vol. xlix. p. 477, and Munk’s <i>Roll of the R. Coll.
Phys.</i>, vol. ii. p. 282. This was one of the cases in which experiments on the lower
animals have been of service to mankind. Mr. Spry’s character for veracity seems to
have been re-established by them.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_1007_1007" href="#FNanchor_1007_1007" class="label">1007</a>
Baas, <i>Hist. Med.</i>, p. 648.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_1008_1008" href="#FNanchor_1008_1008" class="label">1008</a>
<i>The Gold-headed Cane.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_1009_1009" href="#FNanchor_1009_1009" class="label">1009</a>
<i>Medica Sacra</i> (1755), pp. 21, 22.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_1010_1010" href="#FNanchor_1010_1010" class="label">1010</a>
<i>Surgical Dictionary</i>, art. “Surgery.”</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_1011_1011" href="#FNanchor_1011_1011" class="label">1011</a>
Resection is the removal of the articular extremity of a bone, or the ends of the
bones in a false articulation.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_1012_1012" href="#FNanchor_1012_1012" class="label">1012</a>
Puschmann, <i>Hist. Med. Education</i>, p. 422.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_1013_1013" href="#FNanchor_1013_1013" class="label">1013</a>
<i>Hist. Med. Education</i>, p. 427.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_1014_1014" href="#FNanchor_1014_1014" class="label">1014</a>
Baas, <i>Hist. Med.</i>, p. 677.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_1015_1015" href="#FNanchor_1015_1015" class="label">1015</a>
Munk’s <i>Roll of the Royal Coll. Phys.</i>, vol. ii. p. 125.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_1016_1016" href="#FNanchor_1016_1016" class="label">1016</a>
<i>Ibid.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_1017_1017" href="#FNanchor_1017_1017" class="label">1017</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 130.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_1018_1018" href="#FNanchor_1018_1018" class="label">1018</a>
<i>Literature of Europe</i>, vol. iv. p. 354.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_1019_1019" href="#FNanchor_1019_1019" class="label">1019</a>
Munk’s <i>Roll of the R. Coll. Phys.</i>, vol. ii. p. 408.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_1020_1020" href="#FNanchor_1020_1020" class="label">1020</a>
<i>Roll of the R. Coll. of Phys.</i>, vol. ii. p. 160.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_1021_1021" href="#FNanchor_1021_1021" class="label">1021</a>
Baas, <i>Hist. Med.</i>, p. 713.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_1022_1022" href="#FNanchor_1022_1022" class="label">1022</a>
Published by the Pharmaceutical Society, 1880.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_1023_1023" href="#FNanchor_1023_1023" class="label">1023</a>
<i>Hist. Med.</i>, p. 868.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_1024_1024" href="#FNanchor_1024_1024" class="label">1024</a>
<i>Letter to Hufeland.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_1025_1025" href="#FNanchor_1025_1025" class="label">1025</a>
<i>Medical Profession</i>, p. 93.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_1026_1026" href="#FNanchor_1026_1026" class="label">1026</a>
<i>Medical Profession</i>, p. 93.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_1027_1027" href="#FNanchor_1027_1027" class="label">1027</a>
<i>De Magnete</i>, p. 48.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_1028_1028" href="#FNanchor_1028_1028" class="label">1028</a>
Whewell, <i>Hist. Induct. Sciences</i>, vol. iii. p. 7.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_1029_1029" href="#FNanchor_1029_1029" class="label">1029</a>
<i>History of Inventions</i>, vol. i. p. 72.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_1030_1030" href="#FNanchor_1030_1030" class="label">1030</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 74.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_1031_1031" href="#FNanchor_1031_1031" class="label">1031</a>
Laënnec, <i>Treatise on Diseases of the Chest</i>, p. 5.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_1032_1032" href="#FNanchor_1032_1032" class="label">1032</a>
A few only of the more prominent physicians, surgeons, and scientists are
mentioned here; to do more would interfere with the plan of this work.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_1033_1033" href="#FNanchor_1033_1033" class="label">1033</a>
<i>Ency. Brit.</i>, art. “Animal Magnetism,” vol. xv. p. 279.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_1034_1034" href="#FNanchor_1034_1034" class="label">1034</a>
<i>Voyage fait à Londres en 1814.</i> See also Cooper’s <i>Surgical Dict.</i>, art. “Fractures.”</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_1035_1035" href="#FNanchor_1035_1035" class="label">1035</a>
“Discovery of Chloroform,” in Miller’s <i>Surgery</i>, pp. 756-758, 2nd Ed.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_1036_1036" href="#FNanchor_1036_1036" class="label">1036</a>
p. 28.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_1037_1037" href="#FNanchor_1037_1037" class="label">1037</a>
<i>Ency. Brit.</i>, art. “Insanity.”</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_1038_1038" href="#FNanchor_1038_1038" class="label">1038</a>
<i>Hospitals and Asylums of the World.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_1039_1039" href="#FNanchor_1039_1039" class="label">1039</a>
Adams’ <i>Hippocrates</i>, vol. i. p. 77.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_1040_1040" href="#FNanchor_1040_1040" class="label">1040</a>
<i>Ency. Brit.</i>, art. “Insanity.”</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_1041_1041" href="#FNanchor_1041_1041" class="label">1041</a>
<i>Hospitals and Asylums</i>, vol. i. p. 62.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_1042_1042" href="#FNanchor_1042_1042" class="label">1042</a>
<i>Hist. Med.</i>, p. 347.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_1043_1043" href="#FNanchor_1043_1043" class="label">1043</a>
Cruikshank, <i>Bacteriology</i>, p. 2.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_1044_1044" href="#FNanchor_1044_1044" class="label">1044</a>
Woodhead, <i>Bacteria and their Products</i>, p. 52.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_1045_1045" href="#FNanchor_1045_1045" class="label">1045</a>
<i>Opera Medico-Physica, Tractatio de Contagio, le Lue Bovina, de Variolis; de
Scarlatina.</i></p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_1046_1046" href="#FNanchor_1046_1046" class="label">1046</a>
<i>Bacteria and their Products</i>, p. 59.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_1047_1047" href="#FNanchor_1047_1047" class="label">1047</a>
Schwann (1810-1882) discovered the influence of the lower fungi in causing
fermentation and putrefaction, so that he may be called the father of the germ theory
of disease.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_1048_1048" href="#FNanchor_1048_1048" class="label">1048</a>
<i>Manual of Bacteriology</i>, p. 16.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_1049_1049" href="#FNanchor_1049_1049" class="label">1049</a>
<i>Bacteria and their Products</i>, p. 328.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_1050_1050" href="#FNanchor_1050_1050" class="label">1050</a>
See Appendix E, <i>Cruikshank’s Bacteriology</i>, p. 414.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_1051_1051" href="#FNanchor_1051_1051" class="label">1051</a>
Cruikshank, <i>Bacteriology</i>, p. 192.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_1052_1052" href="#FNanchor_1052_1052" class="label">1052</a>
<i>Ibid.</i>, p. 196.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_1053_1053" href="#FNanchor_1053_1053" class="label">1053</a>
Woodhead, <i>Bacteria, etc.</i>, p. 327.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_1054_1054" href="#FNanchor_1054_1054" class="label">1054</a>
Parkes’ <i>Hygiene</i>, Introduction.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_1055_1055" href="#FNanchor_1055_1055" class="label">1055</a>
Baas, <i>Hist. of Med.</i>, p. 1083.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_1056_1056" href="#FNanchor_1056_1056" class="label">1056</a>
<i>Lancet</i>, Oct. 29th, 1892, p. 1013.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_1057_1057" href="#FNanchor_1057_1057" class="label">1057</a>
Professor Charcot in the <i>New Review</i>, Jan., 1893.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_1058_1058" href="#FNanchor_1058_1058" class="label">1058</a>
See p. 320 of this work.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_1059_1059" href="#FNanchor_1059_1059" class="label">1059</a>
Charcot, <i>The Faith Cure</i>.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_1060_1060" href="#FNanchor_1060_1060" class="label">1060</a>
Baas, <i>Hist. Med.</i>, p. 1100.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a id="Footnote_1061_1061" href="#FNanchor_1061_1061" class="label">1061</a>
<i>Ency. Brit.</i>, art. “Physiology,” vol. xix. p. 23.</p></div>
</div>

<p>&nbsp;</p>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
<hr class="chap" />
<p>&nbsp;</p>
<p>&nbsp;</p>

<div class="transnote">
<h4>Transcriber’s Note</h4>

<p>Obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected. Where
necessary to ensure consistency between text, references and the index,
hyphenation, spelling and accents have been standardised, but all other
spelling and punctuation remains unchanged.</p>

<p>The precise reference of footnote 662 is not known so the link has
been placed at the earliest possible place on the page.</p>

<p>The cover was created by the transcriber and is placed in the public
domain.</p>

</div>

<p>&nbsp;</p>
<hr class="full" />
</div>
</div>
<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 59331 ***</div>
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